Ecoscenarios Combined - FOSSweb

Ecoscenario: Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 

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Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 

INTRODUCTION 

Courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Looking south to the Brooks Range. 

file:///Ecoscenario/arctic/content.html 

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The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in the northeast corner of Alaska is one of the most pristine, undisturbed places 

on Earth. It covers 7,700,000 hectares (19 million acres). To the south is the rugged Brooks Range and to the north, 

the icy Arctic Ocean. The 600,000-hectare (1.5 million-acre) coastal plain is the most productive part of the refuge 

and the area used most by wildlife. This area is dominated by an ecosystem known as middle arctic tundra. The 

treeless landscape is flat and covered with low-growing plants. 

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is sometimes called America's Serengeti because of the number of animals that 

live here. Huge herds of caribou, as well as polar bears and musk ox, roam this vast plain. The Gwich'in 

Athabascan Indians have depended on these animal resources for over 12,000 years. 

Courtesy of Jon Nickles, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service 

A caribou makes its way 

across the marshy arctic 

tundra. 


The coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife 

Refuge is pitted with ponds during the short 

summer. 

Two conservationists, National Park Service planner George Collins and biologist Lowell Sumner, recognized the 

unique nature of this ecosystem and began efforts to protect it in 1952. Federal protection started in 1960 with the 

establishment of the Arctic National Wildlife Range. In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed the Alaska Lands Act, 

renamed the area the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and doubled the size of the protected area. The refuge is the 

largest designated wilderness in the National Wildlife Refuge System. It is administered by the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service in the Department of the Interior. 

Congress created the refuge to protect the wildlife and habitats of this ecosystem for the benefit of people now and 

in the future. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and two parks in neighboring Canada have been proposed to form 

an international park. Many of the refuge's wildlife species are protected by international treaties. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

Frost, snowfall, and freezing conditions shape the tundra landscape in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The 

extreme cold creates a layer of permanently frozen soil called permafrost. In May when the snow melts, the surface 

soil becomes waterlogged because water can't drain through the permafrost. The region becomes saturated with 

standing water and flowing streams. 


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Because the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is so far north, entirely above the Arctic Circle, the growing season is 

short, only 50–60 days. During summer the Sun never dips below the horizon, but its long, slanting rays do little to 

heat up the air. Temperatures range from 2 to12°C (36 to 54°F). During winter the Sun never rises above the 

horizon. The noon sky looks like predawn. In winter, the temperature averages –34°C (–30°F). 

There is little precipitation in winter or summer. Yearly precipitation, including snow, is only 15–25 centimeters (6– 

10 inches). Wind is a major factor in this area and can blow up to 160 kilometers per hour (100 miles per hour). 


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Courtesy of ConocoPhillips Alaska, Inc. 

Snow still covers the windswept tundra in spring. 

Snow can benefit plants and animals because of its insulating qualities. Snow shelters plants and animals from the 

strong winds and protects the ground from disturbance. Small mammals, such as lemmings, make tunnels beneath 

the snow and avoid detection by predators. 

Courtesy of Environment Canada, Yukon 

Snow that falls in the winter often melts during May. 

The ground has two layers, an active layer and a permafrost layer. The top active layer is made of dead and partially 

decayed plant material. It is very wet because the water cannot drain through the permafrost below. The active layer 

is not considered true soil, because the plant material decomposes too slowly. The depth of the active layer 

changes through the season from 0 to 45.5 centimeters (0 to 18 inches). Below the active layer is permafrost, made 


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up of gravel, frozen groundwater, and finer material. Permafrost never thaws. 

BIOTIC DATA 

Biotic diversity in arctic tundra is generally low, food webs are simple, and populations usually have large 

fluctuations in size due to changing abiotic conditions. Plants and animals reproduce quickly in the short summer 

season. 

Because of the permafrost, plants in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge do not have deep roots. Only hardy plants 

that grow close to the ground can endure the effects of wind and cold temperatures. Grasses and sedges form in 

protective clumps called tussocks, and shrubs like willow and Labrador tea tend to be small species, under 1 meter 

(3 feet) tall. Because of the short growing season, many plants rely on asexual reproduction, such as cloning or 

budding, instead of flowering and forming seeds. 

Courtesy of ConocoPhillips Alaska, Inc. 

Sedges form tussocks on the tundra. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is low. High metabolic 

rates of some herbivores burn most of the calories that are provided by the producers. Because there is a limited 

amount of energy to go around, food webs are relatively simple. 

Important producers in the tundra are moss, reindeer lichen, cotton grass, sedges, and willows. Tundra plants are 

adapted to grow in this harsh environment. Plants are low and tough, and leaves are small with a thick epidermis to 


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slow transpiration. Vegetation is dark green to red. This allows plants to absorb more of the limited solar radiation. 


Caribou give birth on the coastal plain during summer, most within Area 1002. 

Reindeer lichen is two different organisms living together in a symbiotic relationship. A photosynthetic alga lives 

inside a protective, structural fungus. This lichen has a treelike form and forms hummocks on the soil. Lichen 

serves as the major food of the caribou, especially during the winter. Caribou use a front antler tine and hooves to 

scrape snow cover away from lichen. 

Musk ox, polar bears, and caribou roam the coastal plain. They breed there in the summer where there is abundant, 

nutritious food and few predators. Standing water on the summer tundra is an excellent breeding ground for 

mosquitoes and black flies. Swarms of these insects are attracted to caribou herds and are such a nuisance that 

the caribou find it difficult to feed. Coastal breezes provide the caribou with some relief from mosquitoes and black 

flies. 

Courtesy of Environment Canada, Yukon 

How does temperature affect mosquitoes that bother the 

caribou? 


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Other animals found on the tundra include arctic foxes, snowshoe hares, lemmings, snow geese, and snowy owls. 

Many species of migratory birds nest on the marshy tundra during the short summer, leaving in fall to spend winter 

in warmer areas. 

Animals living on the tundra have adaptations to keep them warm. Weasels, rabbits, hares, and musk ox have two 

layers of hair, a soft, short layer close to the skin and a coarser, longer layer of guard hairs. Both layers work to 

keep warm air near the body and cold air and snow away. Some animals also have small ears, short legs, and 

short tails, which help reduce heat loss. 

Caribou have long, dense winter coats with hollow hairs for effective insulation. Both males and females have 

antlers, which are covered with velvet and fed by many blood vessels as they grow. Large concave hooves help 

caribou paw through the snow to reach buried lichens. Their broad hooves act like snowshoes and help them cross 

snow in winter and walk through soft, boggy pools in summer. 


The huge Porcupine Herd migrating across the tundra of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. 

Caribou migrate in huge herds from their wintering grounds in the Brooks Range taiga to calving grounds on the 

coastal plain over 640 kilometers (400 miles) away. They return yearly to the same calving grounds because there 

are few predators and high-quality food is abundant. Calving occurs during a 10 days in late May to early June. At 

this time, cows and calves are most vulnerable to predators and sensitive to any disturbances. 

Musk ox have roamed in the arctic since the Ice Age. They are well adapted for living on the tundra. To keep warm, 

they have a long, shaggy coat of guard hairs with shorter underfur that is extremely soft and fine. It can protect the 

musk ox in temperatures as low as –73ºC (–100ºF). The underfur, or wool (called qiviut), is shed in summer and 

collected by Alaskan natives to make woolen clothing. 

Musk ox travel in herds of 20–30 animals. When attacked by wolves, the larger adults form a circle with their horns 

facing outward. Young musk ox are protected in the middle of this circle. Extremely efficient at processing food, 

they need only one-sixth the food a similar-sized cow would use. In seasons when food is especially poor, they 

may wander into the wolves' range in search of food. 


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Musk ox huddle together for protection from 

predators and cold weather. 


Snow geese and other migratory birds nest in the 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge during the short 

summer. 

Small rodents, like snowshoe hares and lemmings, are common on the tundra. Their populations are closely linked 

to their food supply and predator population. During summers when food is abundant, litters are larger and the 

populations grow. Larger populations of rodents support larger populations of predators, such as lynx and snowy 

owls. 

Many animals on the tundra have two color phases, one for summer and one for winter. Snowshoe hares and arctic 

foxes have heavier winter fur that is white and helps to camouflage them in snow. This fur is shed in summer to 

reveal darker fur. Some birds that remain in the arctic year-round, such as the willow ptarmigan, have white plumage 

in winter and darker plumage in summer. 

Wolves, foxes, and weasels are predators found on the tundra. A wolf pack will kill 11–14 caribou annually, usually 

during migration or in winter. Wolves will also attack musk ox, but they live out of the wolves' range most of the 

year. Arctic foxes are well adapted to live in the cold and do not need to hibernate in winter. They hunt small 

rodents and feed on abandoned kills of other predators. 

Polar bears are found in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, but spend most of their life on the ice flows in the Arctic 

Ocean. They feed primarily on seals, but will also eat fish, seaweed, grass, birds, and occasionally caribou. They 

return to the coastal plain in winter to hibernate. They spend so much of their life in the water and on the ice that 

they are considered to be marine mammals, like sea otters. They have thick, white fur that protects them from the 

icy water and camouflages them on snow and in the water. Wide paws and coarse fur on the soles of their feet give 

them traction on ice. 

ISSUES 

A long-standing issue in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is whether the coastal plain should be developed for oil 

drilling. Other areas in Alaska, such as Prudhoe Bay, have already experienced oil drilling. Petroleum scientists 

have examined part of the refuge, called Area 1002, and predict that oil is there. When the U.S. Congress 

established the Arctic National Wildlife Range in 1960, they made provisions to authorize future oil development in 

the northern part. People have been debating the issue of oil and gas drilling in Area 1002 for almost 40 years. 


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A developed oil field might look like this one in 

Prudhoe Bay, Alaska. 

The process of drilling for oil 

Oil, like other fossil fuels, comes from decayed and pressurized plant material that has been buried and partially 

fossilized. Deep beneath the surface and permafrost, oil moves through rocks with microscopic holes (porous rock) 

until it comes in contact with nonporous rock. It collects at the contact of these two types of rock. The first step in 

drilling for oil is determining if a location has the kinds of rocks that are associated with oil deposits. Scientists can 

tell about buried rock by drilling cores of the rock or by tracing sound waves as they travel through different rock 

types (seismic surveying). Next, oil wells are built, tapping into the deposit. The high pressures underground force 

the oil up the well, where it can be collected. A pipeline transports this crude oil to a refinery. Here the crude oil is 

refined to oil that can be used to generate electricity or lubricate machines. In the arctic, oil development in isolated 

areas involves building roads, drilling platforms, pipelines, refineries, and housing facilities for workers. 


During seismic exploration activities in 

March 1985, vehicles compacted the snow 

and damaged underlying plants. 


Fifteen years later, scars from the 

seismic exploration activities can 

still be seen. 


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THE DEBATE 

Before making decisions that affect an ecosystem, it is important to gather information from a variety of sources. 

Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of the Arctic National Wildlife 

Refuge. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more 

information. 

Use the information provided to decide where you stand on this debate. 

DEBATE: Should oil drilling be allowed in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge? 

People who support drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 

Benjamin P. Nageak of the Inupiat people and former mayor of North Slope Borough, Alaska, on Arctic National 

Wildlife Refuge development 

"I fully understand the fears of many people that the presence of the oil industry on the coastal plains will disrupt 

the wildlife. They fear that industry activity will destroy a part of this earth that should be preserved. 

In 1969, when oil was first discovered on our lands, those fears were foremost in our minds as we fought for selfdetermination 

in order to be able to protect our resources. Since then, we have had over twenty years of working 

with the oil industry here. We enacted strict regulations to protect our land and the oil companies have consistently 

met the standards we imposed. 

"ANWR holds resources that can be extracted safely with care and concern for the entire ecosystem it 

encompasses. The Inupiat people, working through the North Slope Borough, will act in the same careful, caring 

and cautious manner we always have when dealing with our lands and the seas." 

http://www.anwr.org/people/nageak.html 

R. Dobie Langenkamp, National Energy-Environment Law and Policy Institute (NELPI), University of Tulsa, 

Oklahoma 

"30 years of experience in the existing North Slope oil fields, 80 miles west of ANWR, show no detrimental effects 

on caribou. In fact the Central Arctic caribou herd, which uses that area, has tripled in size since oil development 

began in the early 1970's." 

http://www.anwr.org/anwrtest/FP98/caribou.htm 

Mortimer B. Zuckerman, editor in chief, U.S. News & World Report 

"Here are some of the new developments: Directional or slant drilling makes it possible to drill numerous wells from 

a single small production pad, resulting in a footprint so small as to have virtually no impact on wildlife. Even if 

enormous reserves were discovered, only a fraction of the 1.5 million acres would be affected. There's more. During 

winter, when no caribou are present, ice roads, ice airstrips, and ice platforms would replace gravel, so that in 

spring, when the ice melts, the drilling during the harsh winter would have left virtually no footprint." 

http://www.anwr.org/features/conundrum.htm 

Lon Sonsalla, mayor, City of Kaktovik, Alaska, the only community located within the coastal plain of the Arctic 

National Wildlife Refuge 

"The most important thing is the future for the people out here. Declining revenues in the North Slope Borough have 

affected everybody who lives here. We're looking forward to the future and we are not sure what the future would be 

like without ANWR." 

http://www.anwr.org/features/whotocall.htm 

Survey results of residents of Kaktovik, Alaska 

78% of residents surveyed thought the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge should be open to oil and 

gas exploration. 

75% were satisfied with the environmental practices of the oil industry on the North Slope. 

71% felt the quality of life in Kaktovik will diminish if oil development ceases. 

http://www.kaktovik.com/anwr_survey.htm 


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This is one way the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Area 1002 could be developed. 

People who oppose drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge 

Roger Kaye (wilderness specialist/pilot) and Jim Kurth (Arctic National Wildlife Refuge manager, 1995 to 2000), 6th 

World Wilderness Congress, Bangalore, India, October 1998 

"Lowell Sumner compared the Refuge to a national monument most Americans will never see. But by just knowing 

it is there, they have a tangible entity to which they can attach national values they hold dear and believe should be 

enduring. The Arctic Refuge serves a similar function for natural values...So we stand committed to the 

promise— the promise made by the past generation to all future generations—that this remnant landscape will be 

passed on undiminished, that its values will endure." 

http://alaska.fws.gov/nwr/arctic/indiacon.html 

Faith Gemmill of the Gwich'in Indian Nation 

" The birthplace of the Porcupine River Caribou Herd is considered Sacred. In 1988, when we heard of the proposed 

oil development, we gathered for the first time in over a hundred years in Arctic Village. Everyone spoke resolutely 

about how important the caribou are to our culture. At the end of the gathering, we spoke with one voice, one mind 

and one heart with a renewed commitment to protect our way of life for future generations." 

http://www.alaska.net/~gwichin/background.html 

Member of the Gwich'in community 

"The oil companies say there is over 27 billion barrels of oil under Area 1002, but only a small portion of that can 

actually be recovered." 

USGS report, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1002 Area, Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic 

Analysis 

"Recoverable oil within the ANWR 1002 area is estimated to be between 4.3 and 11.8 billion barrels, with a mean 

value of 7.7 billion barrels." 


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http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/pub/fact-sheets/fs-0028-01/fs-0028-01.htm 

Norma Kassi, Gwich'in activist and Caribou Commons Project speaker 

"The relationship between the Gwich'in and the caribou is not one of convenience; it is one of necessity. A healthy 

Porcupine Caribou Herd is necessary for the continued survival of Gwich'in culture." 

http://www.cariboucommons.com/issue/issue.html 

Tanana Chiefs Conference, Inc., board of directors, Resolution No. 90-2, March 1990 

" Protect Porcupine Herd—Its Ecosystem and the Gwitch'in Way of Life 

"NOW THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED: That the Tanana Chiefs Conference Board of Directors urges the U.S. 

Congress and President to recognize the rights of our Gwitch'in people to continue to live their way of life by 

prohibiting development in the calving and post-calving grounds of the Porcupine Caribou Herd; and 

"BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED: That the 1002 area of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge be made Wilderness to 

achieve this end." 

http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/ANWR/tanana.html 

What has happened in this debate? 

In 1980 President Jimmy Carter signed the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act. This act expanded the 

refuge to its present size of 7,700,000 hectares (19 million acres). The Alaska Lands Acts left Area 1002 open for 

possible oil development upon the approval of Congress. 

The United States and Canada agreed in 1987 that they both have the responsibility of overseeing Porcupine 

Caribou Herd habitat within the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. 

A 1996 congressional study was conducted to assess the oil and gas potential of Area 1002. At that time it was 

concluded that the low price for oil did not make it profitable to open up the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge for 

drilling. The debate was reopened in 2001 after oil prices had risen and drilling in the refuge would be profitable. 

Government officials disagree about oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. They could decide either to 

make it a permanent reserve or to open it for drilling. 

The debate continues as Congress prepares to act on this issue. As the time draws near for Congress to act, 

supporters for both sides of the issue work to sway public opinion. 

Questions 

Which side of this debate do you support? 

What scientific evidence supports your position? 

After looking at the evidence, did you change your position? Please explain why. 

WEB LINKS 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Official Arctic National Wildlife Refuge - http://www.r7.fws.gov/nwr/arctic/arctic.html 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge - http://www.anwr.org/ 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: A Special Report - http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/ANWR/ 

Benjamin P. Nageak of the Inupiat people and former mayor of North Slope Borough, Alaska, on Arctic National 

Wildlife development - http://www.anwr.org/people/nageak.html 

City of Kaktovik, Alaska, ANWR Survey - http://www.kaktovik.com/anwr_survey.htm 


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Congressional Research Service, CRS Issue Brief for Congress: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, September 

1996 - http://cnie.org/NLE/CRSreports/Biodiversity/biodv-14.cfm 

Congressional Research Service, CRS Issue Brief for Congress: The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: The Next 

Chapter, August 2001 - http://cnie.org/NLE/CRSreports/Natural/nrgen-23.cfm 

Faith Gemmill of the Gwich'in Indian Nation - http://www.alaska.net/~gwichin/background.html 

George N. Ahamaogk, North Slope Borough mayor - http://www.anwr.org/features/ahmaogak-speech.htm 

Gwich'in Steering Committee - http://www.alaska.net/~gwichin/index.html 

Lon Sonsalla, mayor, City of Kaktovik, Alaska - http://www.anwr.org/features/whotocall.htm 

Michael Grunwald, Washington Post staff writer, Some Facts Clear in the War of Spin over Arctic Refuge, 

Wednesday, March 6, 2002 - http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A44300-2002Mar5?language=printer 

Mortimer B. Zuckerman, editor in chief, U.S. News & World Report - 

http://www.anwr.org/features/conundrum.htm 

Norma Kassi, Gwich'in activist and Caribou Commons Project speaker - http://www.cariboucommons.com/issue/ 

issue.html 

Northern Alaska Environmental Center, Alaska's Arctic - 

http://northern.org/artman/publish/arctic.shtml 

R. Dobie Langenkamp, National Energy-Environment Law and Policy Institute (NELPI), University of Tulsa, 

Oklahoma - http://www.anwr.org/anwrtest/FP98/caribou.htm 

Roger Kaye and Jim Kurth, The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: The Evolving Meaning of a Symbolic Landscape - 

http://alaska.fws.gov/nwr/arctic/indiacon.html 

Taiga Net, Porcupine Caribou Herd - http://www.taiga.net/caribou/pch/ 

Tanana Chiefs Conference, Inc., board of directors, Resolution No. 90-2, March 1990 - http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/ 

ANWR/tanana.html 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, news release, Secretary Babbitt on USGS Assessment of Oil Reserves under 

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, May 1998 - http://darwin.eeb.uconn.edu/Documents/fws-980517.html 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, news release, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt on New Legislation by Senator 

Frank Murkowski to Permit Oil Exploration in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, March 2000 - http://news.fws.gov/ 

NewsReleases/R9/A11C3D39-AC20-11D4-A179009027B6B5D3.html 

USGS report, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1002 Area, Petroleum Assessment, 1998, Including Economic 

Analysis - http://geology.cr.usgs.gov/pub/fact-sheets/fs-0028-01/fs-0028-01.htm 


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Ecoscenario: Cimarron National Grasslands 

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Cimarron National Grassland 

INTRODUCTION 

Cimarron National Grassland is located in the southwest corner of Kansas. This grassland covers 44,500 hectacres 

(110,000 acres) in Morton and Stevens counties. The Cimarron River runs through the middle of Cimarron National 

Grassland. The Santa Fe Trail, an 1800s route from Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico, passes through the 

Cimarron National Grassland. 

Courtesy of U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 

The Santa Fe Trail was an important 

trade route between Missouri and New 

Mexico. 

The southwestern portion of the vast grassland of the central United States and Canada is classified as a 

shortgrass prairie. It was home to huge herds of grazing bison. Native Americans of the Great Plains depended on 

the bison for survival. They were nomadic and followed and hunted the great herds. Pronghorn antelope and elk also 

grazed across the prairie. The shortgrass prairie also provides excellent habitat for black-tailed prairie dogs, 

lesser 

prairie chickens, and black-footed ferrets. 

file:///Ecoscenario/cimarron/content.html 

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As settlers began moving west, the grassland was converted to grazing lands for cattle. Over 100 years ago, the 

land of Cimarron National Grassland was a cattle ranch known as Point of Rocks Ranch, operated by the Beaty 

brothers. This was the first permanent settlement in the area. Around 1885, homesteaders began to settle in this 

area as well. The rolling grassland was turned into a sea of wheat and other grains. 

Years of cattle grazing and farming, followed by a drought, degraded the soils and made them unproductive. By the 

1930s many acres were barren. The strong winds that blow across the prairie swept up the loose soil, creating huge 

dust and sand storms. This area was part of the Dust Bowl, an area that covered parts of Kansas, Oklahoma, and 

Texas, named for the great dust storms. Morton County, where part of Cimarron National Grassland is, was one of 

the most devastated areas. 


Green area northwest of Elkhart, Kansas, is land in the Cimarron 

National Grassland. 

The U.S. government wanted to stabilize the soil so the land could be used again for agriculture. Healthy 

grasslands reduce soil erosion and water runoff and provide a dependable supply of summer forage for livestock and 

wildlife. The U.S. Congress approved the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act in 1937, allowing the government to buy 

some of this unproductive land with loose soil. The land was first administered by the U.S. Soil Conservation 

Service and in 1954 was turned over to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service. The former Point of 

Rocks Ranch became Cimarron National Grassland in 1960. It is the largest tract of public land in Kansas. 

Cimarron National Grassland is now a mixed-grass and shortgrass prairie. Riparian plant communities occur along 

the Cimarron River. Pronghorn antelope, bison, white-tailed deer, and cattle graze the land. This section of Kansas 

is at the heart of a major bird migration route. The surrounding land is primiarly agricultural, so Cimarron National 

Grassland serves as an important wintering island for birds. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

The climate of Cimarron National Grassland is semiarid, with warm summers and cold, dry winters. Winds blow 

across the grasslands, which makes the soil even drier. The growing and grazing season in this ecosystem is 

between April and September. 


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Cimarron National Grassland receives only around 25 centimeters (10 inches) of precipitation annually. Winds blow 

across the prairie at speeds up to 24 kilometers per hour (15 miles per hour). Moving air increases the rate of 

evaporation, causing plants to use water more quickly. 

About one-third of the annual rainfall occurs in the summer months of July and August. 

More precipitation falls during the summer than winter. Summer temperatures average 25°C (77°F); winter 

temperatures average 3°C (37°F). Precipitation can fall as rain or snow. 


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Hot summers and cold winters are typical for Cimarron National Grassland. 

Grass fires are an essential part of grassland ecosystems. Fire quickly breaks down organic material and returns 

minerals to the soil. Fires start naturally from lightning strikes. They quickly burn through dead grass and forbs and 

are spread by high prairie winds. Native Americans understood the importance of grass fires and often set them. 

They used them to clear lands and drive bison herds to areas where they were easier to kill. Until homesteaders 

actively fought the fires to protect buildings and crops, grass fires annually swept across the prairie. 

BIOTIC DATA 

Cimarron National Grassland is a shortgrass prairie grassland. The landscape is dominated by wide expanses of 

grass-covered prairie. Some of the dominant grasses are blue grama, side-oats grama, and buffalo grass. Side-oats 

grama is the tallest, growing 0.3–1 meters (1–3.5 feet) tall. It makes excellent nesting material for birds and small 

rodents and the seeds and leaves are good forage. Blue grama is a little bit shorter, growing 0.3–0.6 meters (1–2 

feet) tall. It is also good forage and nesting material. Buffalo grass is shortest, only 10–30 centimeters (4–12 

inches) tall. It spreads across the ground with creeping runners called stolons. While buffalo grass is a poor forage 

and nesting material for birds and small mammals, it is important food for pronghorn antelope, bison, cattle, and 

other grazing animals. The root systems of prairie grasses grow deeply into the soil. The deep roots survive fires 

that destroy the exposed top. 

Other range plants found growing among the grass at Cimarron are western ragweed, common sunflower, 

prickly 

pear cactus, sagebrush, and western buckwheat. A few trees dot the landscape, such as the cottonwood tree, 

Osage orange, and eastern red cedar. Trees are usually found growing along stream banks, near water wells, or 

near ponds. Most sapling trees in the open grassland burn before they can grow large enough to withstand a grass 

fire. 


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Some of the birds found at Cimarron are western meadowlark, horned lark, ferruginous hawk, golden eagle, and the 

lesser prairie chicken. The larks and lesser prairie chickens depend on the seeds produced by the grasses and 

other range plants. Prairie chickens were once extremely abundant in Cimarron, but their numbers have declined 

since the 1800s. Their decline is primarily the result of habitat loss, as land was cleared for agriculture. The use of 

herbicides and increased periods of drought have further reduced their habitat. 

Prairie dog towns were once common on the shortgrass prairie. Black-tailed prairie dogs live in a network of 

underground tunnels and chambers. Multiple entrances help ventilate the town and provide escape routes from 

predators and grass fires. A large prairie dog town may cover thousands of acres. In the late 1800s it is estimated 

that 280 million hectares (700 million acres) of the Great Plains was covered by prairie dog towns. Today 90–95% 

have been lost to agriculture or human development. There are only about 610,000 hectares (1.5 million acres) of 

prairie dog towns today. Their burrows are also home to black-footed ferrets, whose primary food source is prairie 

dogs. As the prairie dog towns declined, so did the populations of ferrets. 

Ranchers see prairie dogs as pests. Prairie dog towns make rangeland unusable by cattle. Few plants grow in 

prairie dog towns, and the ground is filled with holes that cattle may step in and injure themselves. Ranchers and 

recreational hunters often kill prairie dogs. When traps or baits are used, these also kill the black-footed ferrets. The 

reduced numbers of prairie dogs in a town means that there is less food for the ferrets. 

Courtesy of Nebraska Game and Wildlife Commission 

Black-footed ferrets once lived 

throughout the Great Plains. 

Black-footed ferrets are a rare sight. 

Courtesy of LuRay Parker, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

The black-footed ferret is the rarest mammal in North America. The Endangered Species Act protects endangered 


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animals like the black-footed ferret by outlawing hunting of the animals and conserving important habitat. 

Black-footed ferrets are making a slow comeback through captive breeding programs. 

The black-footed ferret was thought to be extinct in the wild until a population was discovered in Wyoming in 1981. 

Today, captive breeding programs at zoos around the United States are helping the ferret make a comeback. In 

1991, some black-footed ferrets were released into the wild in Wyoming, Montana, and South Dakota. Small 

populations of ferrets, about 220 animals, can be found in these states. 

The shortgrass praire is also home to plains pocket gophers. They live underground, but not in elaborate tunnels 

like prairie dogs. Pocket gophers have fur-lined cheek pouches where they carry grass seeds they collect. Prairie 

rattlesnakes, active year round, may search all these burrows and tunnels for food. 

The swift fox and black-tailed jackrabbit are small mammals found in Cimarron National Grassland. The swift fox, 

sometimes called a kit fox, is an omnivore. It can run 40 kilometers per hour (25 miles per hour) over small 

distances. The black-tailed jackrabbit is actually a hare. It lives in social groups of 25–30 and is active at night. 

Jackrabbits do not live in burrows. Both the swift fox and jackrabbit rely on speed and quick direction changes to 

escape predators. 


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Courtesy of Doug Canfield, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Courtesy of Jack Dykinga, U.S. Department of Agriculture 

Art Explosion 

Black-tailed prairie dog Pronghorn antelope American bison 

The American bison, the largest land animal in North America, has roamed the prairie since prehistoric times.It has 

been estimated that 30–200 million bison roamed the Great Plains in the 1700s and 1800s. With the westward 

expansion, bison were slaughtered for meat and hides. By 1885 there were only 500 bison left. They were at the 

brink of extinction, but in protected areas like Cimarron National Grassland they have recovered. There are now 

more than 65,000 bison. 

The grassland is also home to elk and pronghorn antelope. Pronghorns are extremely fast runners, able to maintain 

speeds of 110 kilometers per hour (70 miles per hour) for up to 4 minutes. A more usual cruising speed for them is 

50 kilometers per hour (30 miles per hour). 

ISSUES 

One issue in Cimarron National Grassland is how to deal with rangeland fires. Some people view fire as beneficial to 

the ecosystem, and believe it is a tool for management. Others feel fire is dangerous, and should be put out 

quickly. 

Fire ecosystems like Cimarron National Grassland 

Many ecosystems are adapted to fire. Natural fires caused by lightning help shape the grassland landscape. Fires 

move across the prairie quickly, burning dead grass, but not getting hot enough to damage the root system. Sapling 

trees trying to get a foothold in the grassland are destroyed in grass fires. Few animals are lost, as most can flee 

the fires. Grass quickly grows back, and animals return to a renewed, lush grassland. 

Fires affect animals in various ways. Most are able to outrun the fires, but a few slower animals may have trouble 

escaping a fast-moving fire. Fire also destroys the cover small mammals use to hide from predators. Animals that 

can fly or run from the immediate danger of the fire may benefit. Once the animals disperse from the burned area, 

their numbers are less concentrated. Disease cannot spread as easily, so there are fewer deaths due to illness. 

Burrowing animals, like prairie dogs and pocket gophers, or species that live near water, like amphibians, may be 

unaffected by fire. 

Many species of birds, such as the bobolink, western meadowlark, and grasshopper sparrow, thrive in the open 

grassland meadows with no woody vegetation. They avoid areas that have been recently burned, but return when 

grasses regrow. 


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Courtesy of University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension 

Fires are now set in grasslands as part of 

management practices. 

Courtesy of University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension 

Prescribed grass fires are closely monitored to 

prevent uncontrolled burning. 

Fire policy 

Historically, the western United States was covered with huge areas of grassland. Native Americans used fire to 

stimulate grass growth and to herd bison. Early settlers used fire to clear land for agriculture. But after lands were 

cleared, fires were suppressed to protect crops and structures. Fire destroyed food sources and habitat for animals, 

which the public thought would be bad for the ecosystem. In 1935, the U.S. Forest Service set a goal of making 

sure all fires were out by 10 a.m. the following day. This disruption to the natural recycling of nutrients may have 

been one of the contributors to the depletion of the soil in the 1930s Dust Bowl. 

The suppression of fire also allows dead grasses and debris to build up. Woody trees and shrubs start to invade 

grasslands. This sets the stage for larger and hotter fires. Hot, intense fires destroy root systems and sterilize the 

soil. It may take many years for grasses to regrow and wildlife to return following an intensely hot fire. 

As the importance of fire was better understood, a policy called "back to nature" or "let it burn" was adopted by the 

U.S. Forest Service and the National Park Service. In this policy, forest and grassland fires were permitted to burn 

themselves out. Many Americans criticized this policy after one-third of Yellowstone National Park burned 1988. 

The park was allowed to burn for 4 months. The only firefighting efforts were to protect buildings and structures in 

the park. 

Better understanding of the grassland ecosystem has taught the U.S. Forest Service the importance of fire. 

Prescribed burning, planned and controlled, has increased over the last 40 years. This means that park managers 

set small, controllable fires. These fires reduce the buildup of fire fuel like dead plants. With this fuel gone, larger 

fires cannot spread as easily, and burn out more quickly. Prescribed burns can also help control non-native plant 

species and return vital nutrients to the soil. 

The fires that occur in Cimarron National Grassland are called stand-replacement fires. The fire kills only the aboveground 

parts of the plants. Introduced plant species with shallow root systems, not adapted to grasslands, are 

destroyed. These controlled fires also keep down the growth of woody plants. Without fires, trees and shrubs would 

slowly begin to appear on the prairie, and slowly convert it to woodland. 

In 2000, many wildfires burned out of control across the United States. These fires destroyed over 2.5 million 

hectares (6.3 million acres), mostly in Idaho and Montana. While it may seem that there are more wildfires burning 

in the United States than ever before, there are actually many fewer than in 1850. Overgrazing and fire suppression 

have led to dense thickets of trees and shrubs in some areas, which differ from the open forests and grasslands 

found before 1900. 


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Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

Many ecosystems are adapted to fire. 

Fires move quickly across an open grassland. The fire 

does not get hot enough to destroy roots of native 

grasses. 

One of the keys to restoring an area like Cimarron National Grassland is returning the area to its natural cycle of 

burning. The National Forest Service plans burns well in advance. Prescribed fires in spring 2001 ranged from 2 to 

200 hectares (5 to 500 acres), and covered a total of 884 hectares (2185 acres). The most common size was an 

area of 130 hectares (320 acres). 

All fires in Cimarron National Grassland are regulated. Visitors cannot build open fires. To cook food or to stay 

warm, park visitors must use charcoal fires or gas stoves. 

Courtesy of George Vanover, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service 

A prescribed burn is carefully set to reduce the amount of 

fuel in an ecosystem. 

THE DEBATE 


Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of the Cimarron National 

Grassland. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more 

information. 



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DEBATE: Should fires be permitted to burn in natural areas like Cimarron National Grassland? 

People who support using prescribed fires to improve grassland 

Ross W. Gorte, specialist in natural resources policy, Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division, CRS 

Report for Congress, Forest Fires and Forest Health 

"Following the Yellowstone fires in 1988, however, the use of prescribed natural fire was halted. While one can 

question whether the prescriptions were sufficiently responsive to burning conditions (fuel moisture, precipitation, 

dry lightning, winds, etc.), the termination of prescribed natural fire policies may have been an overreaction to the 

public sentiment." 

http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/forests/for-23.cfm 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management 

"Fire has helped shape North America's wild areas for thousands of years—its presence is essential for the survival 

of many plants and animals. We've learned that the lack of periodic fire in many wild areas increases risks to 

society and the environment. Much of the danger of destructive fire can be reduced through the increased 

application of prescribed fire and the planned use of wildland fire." 

http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fireuse/rxfire/ecology/index.html 

George Wuerthner, Smokey the Bear's Legacy on the West 

"No single human modification of the environment has had more pervasive and widespread negative consequences 

for the ecological integrity of North America than the suppression of fire. Fire suppression has destroyed the natural 

balance of the land more than overgrazing, logging, or the elimination of predators." 

http://www.fire-ecology.org/research/smokey_bear_legacy.htm 

U.S. Geological Survey Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Effects of Fire in the Northern Great Plains: 

Effects of Fire on Upland Grasses and Forbs 

"One of the simplest and least expensive practices to improve poor quality grassland is prescribed burning." 

http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/2000/FIRE/GRASFORB.HTM 

Douglas H. Johnson, U.S. Geological Survey Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center: Effects of Fire on Bird 

Populations in Mixed-Grass Prairie: A Proposed Conservation Strategy 

"Results presented here suggest a conservation strategy for the northern Great Plains involving prescribed burning. 

On large areas, such as wildlife refuges, only portions should be burned in any particular year, and these on a 

rotational basis. The same prescription would apply to smaller areas that can be considered as components in a 

landscape, such as waterfowl production areas. They should be burned periodically, but not all in the same year. 

That strategy will assure that in any given year habitats in a variety of successional stages will be available for a 

variety of breeding bird species. 

"Although true grassland birds suffer short-term habitat losses from a burn, they do require grassland, which in turn 

requires periodic fire for maintenance. Several of these species have suffered long-term population declines. 

Moreover, they typically do not attain high densities or reproduce successfully in habitats other than grassland, as 

do birds in the other two categories. Furthermore, these species generally have breeding distributions centered in 

the grasslands of the midcontinent." 

http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/1999/firebird/conserve.htm 

U.S. Forest Service ranger 

"Many plants are adapted to fire. Some plants have seeds that can only germinate after a fire, either because they 

need to be heated or because there is something in the smoke the triggers that response. Fires also kill shrubs and 

small trees that start to appear in grasslands in the absence of fire." 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Historic Fire Regimes 

http://www.fs.fed.us/r4/curlew/Caribou_main/Caribou/forest_plan/Deis/Chapter3/fire_management/ 

chapter_3_fire_historic_fire_regimes.htm 

People who are opposed to using prescribed fires in grasslands 

Resident near a proposed burn area 

"Look at what happened near Lewiston, California, on July 2, 1999. Even when fire personnel are there to watch the 


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fire, it can get out of control. I can't afford to lose my wheat fields or my home to an out-of-control fire." 

Bureau of Land Management report, Procedures Not Followed in Escaped Prescribed Fire, BLM Investigative Team 

Concludes, July 26, 1999 

"The Lowden Ranch prescribed fire jumped over control lines and burned about 2,000 acres before being controlled 

five days after it started. It destroyed 23 residences, as well as other structures." 

http://www.fire.blm.gov/News/press.htm 

Christina Ward, staff writer, DisasterRelief.org 

"New Mexico's 'Cerro Grande' fire, as it was called, may have been one of the most controversial, sparking 

widespread debate about U.S. fire management policy. 

"The Cerro Grande fire began as a prescribed burn in Bandelier National Monument, set by the National Park 

Service on May 4, 2000. It was intended to clear away dry underbrush that might ignite a more dangerous blaze 

later in the season. The plan backfired. 

"More than 43,000 acres burned, and 25,000 people were forced to evacuate. The fire destroyed or damaged 115 

buildings at the Los Alamos National Laboratory, birthplace of the atomic bomb, and came very close to a building 

that contained radioactive tritium." 

http://www.disasterrelief.org/Disasters/010509losalamosyear/ 

National Jewish Medical and Research Center, Acrid Smoke from Raging Wildfires Hazardous to Those with Lung, 

Heart Diseases 

"The winds that fan the flames of summertime wildfires also can distribute large plumes of thick smoke miles from 

the actual fire, causing lung and heart problems for those with chronic health problems. 

'People closest to the fires are most at risk. That's why individuals living and working in communities near wildfires 

are often evacuated,' explains Lisa Maier, M.D., a physician in the Division of Environmental and Occupational 

Health Sciences at National Jewish Medical and Research Center." 

http://www.nationaljewish.org/news/healthtips/wildfires.html 

Homeowner near Cimarron National Grassland 

"We moved to the prairie to get away from city pollution. When the prairie is on fire, it is as bad as a smog alert day 

in the city." 

NASA Earth Observatory, First global carbon monoxide (air pollution) measurements, April 30, 2000 

"Carbon monoxide is a gaseous by-product from the burning of fossil fuels, in industry and automobiles, as well as 

burning of forests and grasslands." 

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images_topic.php3?topic=atmosphere&img_id=4894 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cimarron National Grassland - http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/psicc/cim/ 

Bureau of Land Management report, Procedures Not Followed In Escaped Prescribed Fire, BLM Investigative Team 

Concludes, July 26, 1999 - http://www.fire.blm.gov/News/press.htm 

Christina Ward, staff writer, DisasterRelief.org - http://www.disasterrelief.org/Disasters/010509losalamosyear/ 

Congressional Research Service, CRS Report for Congress, Forest Fire Protection - 

www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/ 


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forests/for-34.pdf (PDF format) 

Douglas H. Johnson, U.S. Geological Survey Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Effects of Fire on Bird 

Populations in Mixed-Grass Prairie: A Proposed Conservation Strategy - http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/1999/ 

firebird/conserve.htm 

Flora and Fauna of the Great Plains - http://www.gpnc.org/floraof.htm 

George Wuerthner, Smokey the Bear's Legacy on the West - http://www.fire-ecology.org/research/ 

smokey_bear_legacy.htm 

Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks - http://www.kdwp.state.ks.us/ 

NASA Earth Observatory, first global carbon monoxide (air pollution) measurements, April 30, 2000 -http:// 

earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images_topic.php3?topic=atmosphere&img_id=4894 

National Interagency Fire Center - http://www.nifc.gov/index.html 

National Jewish Medical and Research Center, Acrid Smoke from Raging Wildfires Hazardous to Those with Lung, 

Heart Diseases - http://www.nationaljewish.org/news/healthtips/wildfires.html 

Nebraska Cooperative Extension EC 98-148-A, Grassland Management with Prescribed Fire - http:// 

www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/range/ec148.htm 

Prairie Parcel Restoration - http://www-ed.fnal.gov/help/prairie/Prairie_Res/care_main.html 

Ross W. Gorte, CRS Report for Congress, Forest Fires and Forest Health - http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/ 

forests/for-23.cfm 

Santa Fe National Historic Trails - http://www.nps.gov/safe/fnl-sft/webvc/vchome2.htm 

Santa Fe National Historic Trails, Point of Rocks, Cimarron National Grassland, Kansas - http://www.nps.gov/safe/ 

fnl-sft/photos/kspages/ptroxks.htm 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management - http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/fireuse/ 

rxfire/ecology/index.html 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Fire and Aviation Management, News and Information - http:// 

www.fs.fed.us/fire/news_info/ 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Historic Fire Regimes - http://www.fs.fed.us/r4/curlew/ 

Caribou_main/Caribou/forest_plan/Deis/Chapter3/fire_management/ 

chapter_3_fire_historic_fire_regimes.htm 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Mountain-Prairie Region, Black-Footed Ferret Recovery: At the Crossroads, April 

1995 - http://mountain-prairie.fws.gov/feature/ferrets.html 

U.S. Geological Survey Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Effects of Fire in the Northern Great Plains; 

Effects of Fire on Upland Grasses and Forbs - http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/2000/FIRE/GRASFORB.HTM 


Page 12 of 12

Ecoscenario: Delaware Water Gap National Recrational Area 

4/16/03 3:11 PM 

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area 

INTRODUCTION 

The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area is a 64.3-kilometer (40-mile) stretch of the middle Delaware 

River, bordering the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Delaware River is the largest free-flowing river in 

the eastern United States, one of the few remaining in North America. There are no dams to block this river as it 

winds between mountain ridges and down river valleys to the ocean. The Delaware River is in the center of a 

watershed that covers 21,789 square kilometers (13,539 square miles) of Delaware, New York, New Jersey, and 

Pennsylvania. The Delaware River originates in the Catskill Mountains of New York and flows into Delaware Bay 

between Delaware and New Jersey. 

file:///Ecoscenario/delgap/content.html 

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4/16/03 3:11 PM 

Courtesy of National Park Service 

The Delaware Water Gap is known for the steep slopes and cliffs on either 

side of the river. 

The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area has always attracted people with its beauty and natural 

resources. The earliest known inhabitants in this region, the Lenni-Lenape Indians, made their home here before the 

arrival of European settlers. 

In early colonial times Dutch settlers mined the mountains for copper. The mountain ridges were sites for forts 

during the French-Indian War, and remnants of Revolutionary and Civil War cemetaries can still be found. Forty 

kilometers (25 miles) of the 3476-kilometer (2160-mile) Appalachian Trail runs along the ridge tops in the Delaware 

Water Gap National Recreation Area. In the late 19th century, the area was a popular resort and vacation area for 

tourists from Philadelphia and New York City. Later, the area was used in silent movies, and became the home of 

numerous family and youth summer camps. 

The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area borders 64 kilometers (40 miles) of the Delaware River, and 

covers 28,000 hectares (69,000 acres) in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. This park was established on September 

1, 1965, for public recreational activities, to preserve scenic and scientific resources, and to protect the area around 

the proposed Tocks Island Dam and Reservoir. In 1978, part of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area 

was designated a National Wild and Scenic River. After years of planning and public opposition, plans for the 

controversial dam and reservoir were abandoned in 1992. The recreation area focuses on outdoor activities such as 

boating, fishing, canoeing, and swimming. 


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The Delaware Water Gap National 

Recreational Area is a popular spot for 

water sports, such as fishing. 

The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area is within a day's drive of 60 million people. In 1994, there were 

4.37 million visitors to the Delaware Water Gap, compared to 3.4 million in Yellowstone National Park that same 

year. 


Trails through riparian forest line the riverbanks. 


Small streams throughout the watershed feed into 

the Delaware River. 

The Delaware River is one of the cleanest rivers in the United States. The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation 

Area is an example of a freshwater ecosystem. This aquatic ecosystem is bordered by a riparian (river) forest buffer. 

A riparian forest buffer is a band of trees, shrubs, and native vegetation that borders a stream or river. The buffer 

zone protects the waterway by trapping and filtering pollutants as the groundwater flows through the subsurface. 

Together, the river and the buffer zone make up the freshwater ecosystem. 


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ABIOTIC DATA 

Summers at Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area are warm and humid, and winters are cold. Average 

summer air temperatures range between 17 and 23°C (62 and 73°F). Water temperatures are similar, but drop a few 

degrees as the water tumbles through ravines. Thunderstorms and dense fog are common in the summer. 

Sometimes large volumes of cold water flow down the river when excess water is released from Cannonsville 

Reservoir on the West Fork of the Delaware River in New York. This causes the water temperature in the Delaware 

River to drop. 

The Delaware Water Gap has cold winters. Air temperatures range between -2°C and 2.5°C (28 and 36.5°F). Water 

temperature drops to freezing, and most of the river is covered in ice each winter. Snow and ice storms are 

common. 


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Mountain elevations in the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area range between 150 and 430 meters (500 

and 1500 feet). Delaware River water depth is measured in Montague, New Jersey. Normally, the water is 1.5–2 

meters (5–6 feet) deep, but during floods the water can reach 7.5 meters (25 feet) deep. Floods occur because of 

stormy weather or because water has been released from an upstream reservoir, like the Cannonsville Reservoir in 

New York. 

The water in the Delaware Water Gap is generally smooth and quick-flowing. There are a few small rapids, but most 

of the river is a series of shallow riffles and quiet pools. The river substrate is pebbles and cobbles deposited by 

ancient glaciers. 

BIOTIC DATA 

The river, streams, and ponds of the Delaware Water Gap are bordered by a riparian forest dominated by eastern 

hemlock. The hemlock forest is intermingled with other species of tress, such as white pine, sugar maple, birch, 

and oak. This thick canopy of trees shades the water and helps produce the cool water temperatures and low light 

levels preferred by brook trout. The hemlock trees are also important bird breeding habitat, especially for the 

Blackburnian warbler, winter wren, and other songbirds. In June, flame azaleas burst into bloom and cover sunny 

hillsides. In summer, berry vines supplement the diet of black bears and raccoons. 

Along the banks of streams and calm pools, narrow-leaf cattails grow. They provide shelter and protection for many 

small animals. Near the water you might find amphibians like slimy salamanders and American toads. Amphibians 

breathe through their skin, which must stay moist for this gas exchange to occur. In the pond shallows, great blue 

herons hunt, and mallard ducks dabble. Northern water shrews dive from the stream's edge into the water to look for 

insects and small fish. 

Beavers haul logs from the surrounding forest to the water to build their lodges and dams. Common map turtles 

bask on the partially submerged logs of beaver dams and lodges. Some abandoned beaver lodges may be occupied 

by minks that forage along the riverbank. 


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Courtesy of the National Park Service 

Tree diversity in the hemlock forests at the Delaware 

Water Gap National Recreation Area. 

Courtesy of the National Park Service 

Plant diversity in the hemlock forests at the 

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. 

The surface of a summer pond might be covered in small insects, mayflies, each only 2.5 centimeters (1.0 inches) 

or less in length. Mayflies spend most of their lives as nymphs, clinging to underwater plants and eating algae and 

detritus. When they molt and emerge as adults, they live only a few hours or days. The mayflies floating on the 

water are the adults that have already mated and laid their eggs. 

A closer look at the water and at the rocks in it reveals a film of blue-green algae. These cyanobacteria are 

important producers in a freshwater ecosystem. Blue-green algae are very sensitive to changes in water nutrient 

levels. For instance, an increase in nitrogen can cause algae to grow rapidly. This is called an algal bloom. When 

the massive population of algae dies, the decomposition process can consume all the oxygen in the water. Such 

blooms decrease the amount of oxygen available to other organisms in the water. 

Howard Evans, Gillette Entomology Club at 

Colorado State University 

An adult mayfly rests on a plant stem. 

The rocks, vegetation, and mud of the stream bottom are covered with organisms. Tiny crustaceans called scuds, 

only 5–20 mm (0.2–0.8 inches) long, swim through the vegetation. Aquatic snails scrape algae off submerged plant 

stems and rocks. Freshwater mussels live in the muddy stream bottom, and get their food by siphoning water and 


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mud and filtering out plankton, algae, and detritus. In the early summer, tiny black tadpoles, larvae of the American 

toad, and other amphibians feed on plankton and algae. Wolf spiders lurk in the vegetation, waiting to capture 

another meal. 


A bald eagle on the lookout for a fish dinner. 

Gerard Lacz, Animals Animals 

Brook trout are prey to bald eagles, bears, and 

humans. 

Farther out in the water, where it is deeper and cooler, brook trout lurk in the shade of the hemlock tree. They live in 

the gravely riverbeds where the water is clear and cool. The brook trout is a major predator of bottom-dwelling 

invertebrates and land-dwelling insects that fall into the water. Channel catfish live and feed along the muddy 

bottoms of ponds and rivers. Smallmouth bass swim in deeper water, and catch larger prey like frogs and smaller 

fish. These fish are eaten by still larger animals, like bald eagles and black bears. 

Freshwater ecosystems, like that at the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, have intermediate 

levels of primary productivity, as compared to other ecosystems. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is intermediate, about 

2400 kilocalories/square meter/year of blue-green algae and plant material. The productivity in this ecosystem 

changes with abiotic conditions such as temperature, depth, and water quality. 


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ISSUES 

Although today the Delaware River is one of the cleanest rivers in the United States, pollution from industry and 

urbanization has taken its toll on this river since the 1700s. Early settlements along the river dumped raw sewage 

directly into the water, and thousands of people died every year from waterborne diseases. As industrialization 

increased in the watershed, it became a polluted disaster area. By the 1940s,chemical factory wastes and 

untreated human sewage had fouled the river so badly that no fish could survive in its oxygen-depleted waters. 

Many efforts were undertaken to clean up the Delaware River, with little impact. In 1962, the Delaware River Basin 

Comission was created and combined the efforts of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. In 1972, 

the Commission received $1 billion in federal grants under the Water Pollution Control Act, and the river began its 

dramatic comeback. 

While the efforts and results of the Delaware River cleanup are a victory for clean waterways, the issue has not 

gone away. New and unforeseen threats are arising for the Delaware River and many other rivers in North America. 


Invertebrates are indicators of stream health because they are the first organisms to 

be affected by pollutants. Data on the number of invertebrate species, such as those 

shown above, can be used to locate problem spots early. 

While the water in the Delaware River is clean, the years of industrial pollution have left a legacy in the river bottom. 

Pollutants such as PCBs, mercury, lead, DDT, and other pesticides remain in river-bottom detritus. Invertebrates, 

such as scuds and zooplankton, feed on detritus and ingest the pollutants. These pollutants work up the food chain 

and are concentrated in fish and the fishes predators: bald eagles, black bears, and humans. 

Other threats to the river are ongoing. During storms, pollution from the land in the watershed is washed into the 

river. This includes herbicides and pesticides, fertilizers, and mine tailings. The most damaging is what is called 

point-source pollution. These direct discharges come from sewage treatment plants, factories, chemical and power 

plants, paper mills, and refineries. Increased regulations for industry and agriculture increase the cost for those 

goods and services to consumers. 


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The Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area is in a part of Pennsylvania that experiences acid precipitation. 

This "acid rain" affects all the watersheds in this part of Pennsylvania. 

Acid rain 

In the 1960s, people began to notice changes in normally productive lakes. Populations of fish and other aquatic 

organisms were declining. Trees that bordered lakes and streams were dying. This was happening not only in the 

United States and Canada, but also in Europe, Asia, and Australia. All of the affected areas were downwind from 

industrial centers. 

Courtesy of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

Rainwater, naturally acidic, has a pH between 5 and 

5.6. Acid rain, pH 4, is ten times more acidic than 

rainwater. 

Scientists suggested that pollution from factories and automobiles is poisoning the water in lakes and streams. 

Factory and automobile pollution frequently contains sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases. These gases rise into 

the air, where they dissolve in droplets of atmospheric water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When this acid 

falls with rain, snow, sleet, hail, or fog, it is called acid precipitation. 


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Why is acid rain such a problem? 

An acid is a chemical that in a water solution tastes sour and reacts easily with many other substances. Lemon 

juice, vinegar, and hydrochloric acid are acids. Lemon juice and vinegar are dilute acids, and hydrochloric acid is 

strong. Acidity is a measurement of how many charged hydrogen ions are in a solution. This is called pH, and it is 

measured on a scale of 1 to 14. Solutions with a pH between 1 and 6.9 are acidic, and those between 7.1 and 14 

are basic. Liquids with a pH of 7, like pure water, are neutral. There is a tenfold difference between each number on 

the scale. So a solution with a pH close to 2, like lemon juice, is ten times more acidic than a solution with a pH 3. 

Rainwater is naturally a little bit acidic, pH 5–5.6. Normally, rainwater picks up some minerals as it flows through 

the ground to lakes and streams. The pH of a lake or stream depends in part on what rocks and minerals are in the 

watershed and the river bottom. Some rocks, like limestone, are basic and neutralize acids. Most healthy lakes and 

streams have a pH between 7 and 9.2. 

Courtesy of National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

This map shows the pH of rain that fell in the United States in 1994. 

Acid precipitation, or acid rain, officially has a pH less than 5.6. However, the pH of acid rain can be as low as that 

of lemon juice or vinegar. Acid rain may fall directly into a lake or stream, or flow there as runoff from the watershed. 

If the lake contains limestone bedrock, the acid is neutralized for a while. However, eventually all the neutralizing 

capacity, or buffer, in the bedrock is used up, and the pH of the lake or stream begins to drop. When it receives 

acid precipitation, the pH of a lake can drop from 9.2 to below 4.5 in less than 10 years. 


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4/16/03 3:11 PM 

Courtesy of National Atmospheric Deposition Program 

This map shows the pH of rain that fell in the United States in 2001. While areas of the 

northeastern United States are seeing less acid rain, it has increased in the southeastern 

United States. 

Plants and animals can live only within a certain pH range. Aquatic plants grow best between pH 7 and 9.2. As the 

pH drops to 6.0, crustaceans, insects, and some plankton are negatively affected. When the pH of a lake drops 

below 5.5, mussels and aquatic snails are affected. Acidic water will even begin dissolving their shells. When the 

pH drops to 5.0, some frogs and fish have died, and plants that prefer acidic conditions, such as mosses, invade 

the area. When the pH falls below 4.5, all fish die and the water contains few animals or microorganisms. Acid rain 

decreases habitat quality, because the ponds are no longer habitable by aquatic animals, and no longer provide 

food to forest animals that go there to feed. 

Acid rain dissolves nutrients and minerals out of the soil and washes them away. Without the proper nutrients, 

plants cannot grow as vigorously and may become weak. Acid rain also dissolves toxic minerals from the soil. 

These toxic minerals may accumulate in groundwater or in ponds, further stressing organisms. They may also 

block a plant's access to important minerals or clog stomata, making gas exchange and photosynthesis difficult. 

Such conditions also encourage the growth of pests and fungi on plants. 

What has happened in this issue? 

In 1990, laws were passed and other programs were started to help reduce acid rain. Due to these measures, sulfur 

dioxide emissions have dropped. However, the nitrogen oxide levels have not changed. In order to see real recovery, 

the amount of nitrogen oxide would need to drop, too. 

Efforts to keep the Delaware River clean continue. A current project to dredge the lower Delaware to make it deeper 

has met resistance from the public. They fear that the dredging will stir up more of the old pollutants buried under 

the mud. 

New power plants 


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Reliant Power wants to build a power plant just south of Portland, Pennsylvania. This is only a few miles from the 

Delaware Water Gap. The company already owns two other power plants in this area. The power generated at the 

new plant would not be used in Pennsylvania, but would be sold to New York and New Jersey. These states have 

stricter environmental protection measures than Pennsylvania does. Reliant Power's plants in Pennsylvania are 

currently the worst sources of pollution in the area. Power plants increase the amount of particulate matter in the air 

and produce nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide. They also reduce water levels, create noise pollution, and produce 

steam that makes foggy and hazy conditions. 

THE DEBATE 


Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of the Delaware Water Gap 

National Recreation Area. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these 

sites for more information. 


DEBATE: Should there be stricter control of pollution and acid rain sources? 

People who believe regulations are strict enough 

Housing developer 

"If my company plans to build a new housing development we have to pay extra to support a bigger waste treatment 

plant and nonpoint source pollution. Nonpoint source pollution is pollution they can't determine where it comes from. 

It's not even pollution because of our development. This is going to make the price of the new homes go even 

higher." 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Nonpoint Source News-Notes, Notes on Watershed Management, Urban 

Watershed Bill Introduced, May/June 1994 Issue #36 

"The first prong requires that an applicant for Commission project approval submit and implement nonpoint source 

pollution control plans for new or increased nonpoint source loads generated in a project's new or expanded service 

area. For example, if a wastewater treatment plant project of 10,000 gallons per day or greater is proposed to serve 

a new housing development, a nonpoint source control plan for the housing development serviced by that plant must 

be implemented. Water supply projects greater than 100,000 gallons per day and selected other types of projects in 

the drainage area to Special Protection Waters are similarly affected." 

http://www.epa.gov/owow/info/NewsNotes/issue36/nps36wat.html 

Homeowner in Delaware River watershed 

"Our town was built a hundred years ago with an old-fashioned sewage system. They would have to tear up the 

whole town to replace it with a new one. We're just a small community, we couldn't be adding that much pollution 

anyway. All the new regulations for factories and new construction should take care of the problem without making 

us have to pay." 

Delaware Riverkeeper Network, fact sheet, Delaware River 

"Another hazard to the health of the river comes from point-source pollution—direct discharges from municipal and 

industrial sewage treatment plants, power plants, chemical plants, paper mills, refineries, and refracteries. Most 

point-source dischargers have permits issued under the Clean Water Act and the National Pollution Discharge 

Elimination System. These permits limit the quantities and types of pollutants permitted to be contained in the 

wastewater. There are 1600 permitted discharge points in the Delaware Watershed. " 

http://www.delawareriverkeeper.org/factsheets/delaware.html 

Visitor to Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area 

"I bring my family here so we can have fun. Now they are telling us we can't use our jet skis because they pollute 

the water. This is a recreation area and this is what we do for recreation." 

Cat Lazaroff, Jet Skis Banned in Most U.S. Parks 

"The National Park Service announced new rules today intended to reduce the impact of personal watercraft use in 

the National Park system. Still, some environmentalists say the regulations do not go far enough to protect 

waterways from pollution and damage caused by jet skis and other watercraft." 

http://ens-news.com/ens/mar2000/2000-03-21-06.asp 


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People who believe regulations should be stricter: 

Division of Research and Resource Planning, 1998 Natural Resources News, Delaware Water Gap National 

Recreation Area 

"Besides the obvious environmental justification for these extremely stringent regulations, economic benefits are 

protected as well. Direct economic benefits derived from river recreation in this reach of the Delaware are estimated 

to exceed $70 million per year and growing. Benefits include the employment of hundreds of persons in the canoe 

livery and fishing guide business sectors and thousands in the service/tourism sector." 

http://www.nps.gov/dewa/InDepth/NRnews/natnews1.html 

President Bill Clinton to U.S. Representative Rush Holt (D-NJ) 

"As you know, the future of the Delaware River, the longest free-flowing river in the eastern United States, is vital to 

the economy of the regions surrounding this important waterway. Wild and Scenic River designation will encourage 

natural and historic resource preservation and protect precious open space. By allowing local municipalities to 

sustain and protect the Delaware River as one of our nation's national treasures, this law will help to ensure the 

vitality of these communities and the quality of life of their citizens." 

http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/wild_scenic.htm 

Sport fisherman on the Delaware River 

"The river water looks very clean, but they tell us we shouldn't eat the fish because they have mercury and PCBs in 

them. They need to do more to clean up the sediments in the river." 

Study funded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Regions II & III, and the Delaware River Basin 

Commission 

"The report indicates that the current fish contamination problem cannot be attributed solely or predominantly to 

'historic' sediment contamination already in the estuary, as many resource managers have believed. Indeed, the 

active loading entering the estuary from sewage treatment plants, combined sewage outflows (CSOs), and 

tributaries is sufficient, independent of the PCBs already in estuary sediments, to cause water quality criteria 

exceedances and associated fish contamination." 

http://www.newhopepa.com/DelawareRiver/currentissues_2.htm 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

National Park Service, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area - http://www.nps.gov/dewa/ 

Cat Lazaroff, Jet Skis Banned in Most U.S. Parks - http://ens-news.com/ens/mar2000/2000-03-21-06.asp 

Courier-Post, A River's Rebirth - http://www.southjerseynews.com/river/ 

Delaware River Basin Commission, Home Page - http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/drbc.htm 

Delaware River Basin Commission, The Delaware River Basin - 

http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/thedrb.htm 

Delaware Riverkeeper Network, fact sheet, Carrying Capacity in Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area - 

http://www.delawareriverkeeper.org/factsheets/carrying_capacity.html 

Delaware Riverkeeper Network, fact sheet, Delaware River - 

http://www.delawareriverkeeper.org/factsheets/ 


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4/16/03 3:11 PM 

delaware.html 

Delaware River, New Hope, Pennsylvania - http://www.newhopepa.com/DelawareRiver/currentissues_2.htm 

Division of Research and Resource Planning, 1998 Natural Resources News, Delaware Water Gap National 

Recreation Area, - http://www.nps.gov/dewa/InDepth/NRnews/natnews1.html 

Kathleen Kodish Reeder, National Park Service, Restoring a Watershed: Applying New Technology to Migrate Acid 

Mine Drainage in the Northeast - http://www2.nature.nps.gov/pubs/yir/yir2000/pages/07_new_horizons/ 

07_02_reeder.html 

National Atmospheric Deposition Program, isopleth maps - http://nadp.sws.uiuc.edu/isopleths/ 

National Park Service, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, History - http://www.nps.gov/dewa/InDepth/ 

CRindex.html 

National Park Service, Executive Summary: Lower Delaware River Management Plan - http://www.nps.gov/chal/sp/ 

p07new1.htm 

National Park Service, New Projects at Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area - http://www.nps.gov/phso/ 

science/newprojDEWA.htm 

New Jersey's Great Northwestern Skylands, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area - http:// 

www.njskylands.com/pkdwgnra.htm 

President Bill Clinton to U.S. Representative Rush Holt (D-N.J.) - http://www.state.nj.us/drbc/wild_scenic.htm 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Nonpoint Source News-Notes, Notes on Watershed Management, Urban 

Watershed Bill Introduced, May/June 1994 Issue 36 - http://www.epa.gov/owow/info/NewsNotes/issue36/ 

nps36wat.html 


Page 14 of 14

Ecoscenario: El Yunque Caribbean National Forest 

4/16/03 3:14 PM 

El Yunque Caribbean National Forest 

INTRODUCTION 

file:///Ecoscenario/elyunque/content.html 

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4/16/03 3:14 PM 

Courtesy ofFather Alejandro Sánchez 

The canopy of trees in El Yunque forms a green carpet that covers the mountains, Sierra de 

Luquillo. 

The island of Puerto Rico is a self-governing commonwealth under the jurisdiction of the United States. It is in the 

Caribbean Sea, 1,600 km (1,000 miles) southeast of Florida. On the eastern tip of Puerto Rico, 40 kilometers (24.8 

miles) from the capital of San Juan, is the Caribbean National Forest, commonly called El Yunque 

(el•YOONG•kay). It is the only tropical rain forest in the U.S. National Forest System. El Yunque Peak rises 1065 

meters (3494 feet) among the rugged, isolated mountians of Sierra de Luquillo. El Yunque gets its name from the 

cloud-shrouded mountain tops. The native Tiano people called these mountain tops "yuke," meaning "white lands." 

Courtesyof NASA 

The island of Puerto Rico is in the Caribbean Sea, 

southeast of Florida. Cloud cover marks the location of El 

Yunque. 

Courtesyof Father Alejandro Sánchez 

Dense forests were cut for shipbuilding in the 

19th century. 

El Yunque covers approximately 11,300 hectares (28,000 acres) of diverse vegetation. The forest was originally 

established in 1876 when Puerto Rico was still under Spanish rule. King Alfonso XII of Spain proclaimed El Yunque 

a forest reserve. It became one of the first reserves in the Western Hemisphere. He declared this reserve, not to 


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preserve the diversity and beauty of El Yunque, but because the forests were filled with trees that were used to build 

ships. By declaring it a reserve, the lumber was protected from enemies that might make ships to fight the Spanish. 

This land passed to the United States in 1898, and was renamed the Luquillo Forest Reserve in 1903. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

Because Puerto Rico is south of the Tropic of Cancer, it has a tropical climate. There is no distinct wet or dry 

season at El Yunque; it rains year-round. The temperature and length of daylight remain fairly constant throughout 

the year. All these factors provide a year-round growing season. 

The elevations at El Yunque vary from about 100 to 1000 meters (300 to 3500 feet). The highest point is Pico del 

Toro, 1080 meters (3542 feet). Mountain slopes are very steep, often angling up at more than 45°. Temperatures do 

not vary much through the year. The temperature is warm, and ranges from 25.5 to 28°C (78 to 82°F) at lower 

elevations to highs of only 17.5°C (63.5°F) in the mountains. 

It rains daily at El Yunque, with slightly more rain in the winter. Average precipitation is 510 centimeters (200 

inches) per year. The amount of rainfall in Puerto Rico varies in relationship to El Yunque Peak. The peak creates a 

rain shadow. Trade winds bring heavy rainfall to El Yunque Peak and the rain forest, while San Juan, to the east, 

receives only 150 centimeters (60 inches) per year. On the south coast, Ponce receives only 91 centimeters (36 

inches) per year. 


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Rainfall remains constant throughout most of the year. 

Day length does not vary much in the tropics. There are 11 to 13.25 hours of light each day throughout the year. 

The soil at El Yunque contains a lot of clay (45–75%). As in most tropical forests, most soil nutrients are in the top 

10 centimeters (4 inches). Nutrients are quickly washed away from soil by heavy rains. 

Tropical storms and hurricanes frequently pass over Puerto Rico and El Yunque. Both Hurricane Hugo in 1990 and 

Hurricane Georges in 1998 damaged the forest. Hurricane Georges was especially damaging, with winds over 185 

kilometers per hour (115 miles per hour), which knocked down trees and ruined buildings. This hurricane caused 

over $5 million in damage to El Yunque. Hurricane season in the Caribbean lasts from June to November. 


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This opening in the canopy is the result of Hurricane Georges in 1998. In a few 

years the surrounding palms will close the gap. 

BIOTIC DATA 

El Yunque has four kinds of tropical forest: subtropical rain forest above 600 meters (1968 feet), cloud forest high in 

the mountains, high wet forest between these two, and lowland wet forest at the lower elevations. The subtropical 

rain forest is dominated by sierran palms and pumpwood trees; the cloud forest is dominated by dwarf trees. 


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Pumpwood trees have a characteristic 

umbrella shape. 


Sierran palms form the forest canopy. 

In a tropical forest are four distinct layers, the forest floor, the understory, the canopy, and the emergent layer. 

The forest floor is covered with leaf litter, detritus, mushrooms, isopods, and insects. Leaves that fall on the forest 

floor may decompose in a few weeks rather than years. Nutrients are quickly absorbed by nearby plants or washed 

away by frequent rains. 


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Damp leaf litter decomposes quickly. 


Damp conditions encourage algal growth on 

everything, including this Caracolus snail. Two 

smaller Nenia snails are grazing on the algae. 

Next is the understory, a mass of vines, dwarf trees, and plants that can survive in low light with very little air 

circulation. Plants rely on insects for pollination and produce large, sweet-smelling, and colorful flowers to attract 

pollinators. Many of the animals that pollinate these plants live their entire lives in the understory. Ants, 

twig dwarf 

anoles, geckos, walkingsticks, and giant crab spiders live in the understory. 

The larger trees make up the rain-forest canopy. These trees typically have large, deep-green leaves near the tops, 

like sierran palms and pumpwood trees. The dark leaves absorb most of the sunlight; only about 5% filters through 

to the understory. Rain and moisture that falls on the leaves drop to the forest floor. Epiphytes, like orchids and 

bromeliads, are plants that grow on other plants without ever touching the ground. They grow high in canopy trees 

to capture sunlight and obtain water and minerals from rainfall. Red-tailed hawks make their nests in the tall canopy 

trees, but feed on the abundant life of the understory. Endangered Puerto Rican parrots live in cavities of larger trees. 

The familiar "koooooooo-keee" call of the coqui frog can be heard throughout the canopy, understory, and forest 

floor. The coqui frog is a favorite among Puerto Ricans and is their unofficial national mascot. The populations of the 

Puerto Rican parrot and coqui frog have drastically decreased in Puerto Rico since the 1500s. 


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Coqui frogs climb up into trees at night, looking 

for food and mates. They jump back to the forest 

floor rather than climb down. 

Centipedes forage for prey on the forest floor. 


The tallest trees make up the emergent layer, which rises above the dense canopy of shorter trees. These trees 

take advantage of increased air circulation and rely on wind pollination and winged seeds for seed dispersal. Thick, 

waxy leaves reduce the amount of water released through transpiration in the hot tropical sun. 

Each layer of the rain forest is characterized by a community of organisms and distinct food webs. Some animal 

populations do not move beyond the layer they live in. There are more than 200 species of birds found in Puerto 

Rico and many more species of insects and invertebrates. 

Invertebrates are especially diverse and numerous at El Yunque. Ants, beetles, butterflies, termites, spiders, and 

many other types of invertebrates are found in every forest layer. The climate is warm and moist enough for reptiles 

and amphibians such as the coqui frog, anoles, and geckos. Historical records show 22 kinds of mammals in 

Puerto Rico. While many still live in Puerto Rico today, such as the Jamaican fruit bat, many of the native species 

have disappeared, and nonnative mammals, such as rats and mongooses, are there instead. The larger predators 

include red-tailed hawks, tarantulas, and centipedes. 


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4/16/03 3:14 PM 

Courtesy ofGerardo R. Camilo 

Red-tailed hawk and chick in a nest high in the 

canopy 

The densest vegetation grows along streams. 


Plant and animal life at El Yunque is diverse, as you would expect for a tropical forest. However, El Yunque has 

fewer species than a mainland tropical forest, such as those in Central and South America. Islands have a smaller 

land area for organisms to use than mainlands do, and island populations are isolated from populations on the 

mainland. Over time these small populations have adapted to their unique environment. When populations of plants 

or animals are small, there is a greater chance that they will become extinct if too much pressure is placed on the 

population. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is very high, 6750 

kilocalories/square meter/year. Because there is not much variation in day length, temperature, or precipitation, 

there are no seasons here. Plants can grow and flower year-round. Migrating birds visit the undisturbed core of El 

Yunque. These neotropical migrant birds are flying between their wintering grounds in Central and South America 

and their breeding grounds in North America. 

ISSUES 

The primary concern for tropical forests, including El Yunque, is how to deal with habitat loss and destruction in the 

past, present, and future. Worldwide, rain forests cover 6% of Earth's surface, yet contain half of all plant and 


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animal species. That means they contain anywhere from 2 million to 20 million species. The rain forests, and the 

species that live in them, are being lost very rapidly. Each hour, about 3600 hectares (9000 acres) of rain forest are 

cleared. At the same time, six plant or animal species go extinct. 

On Puerto Rico, tropical forest once covered the island. About 85% of the forest was cleared for agriculture and 

urban development. Trees were sold for lumber and burned to make charcoal. Today, foresters use the Caribbean 

National Forest to study which trees would be good to grow and sell. 

The decline of the Puerto Rican parrot and coqui frog indicate that this tropical system might be in trouble. 

Biologists blame habitat loss and hunting for the decline of these animals. The Puerto Rican parrot makes its nest 

in cavities of very large trees. With the removal of most of the rain forest, only small patches of large trees 

remained. El Yunque still has a large enough forest to support the large trees needed by the parrots. 

As the forests become more fragmented into smaller patches, they can support smaller and smaller populations of 

organisms. When populations are small, the effects of hurricanes, parasitic flies, competition, and predation are 

more devastating. 

Eighty percent of the life-forms in tropical rain forests have not been named or scientifically identified. Some live 

only in very small and remote areas and could be important sources of drugs or other medical uses. The fear is that 

species are disappearing with rain forests before they are even discovered and scientifically described. 

In some underdeveloped countries, rain-forest land is cleared to provide land for grazing and agriculture. This may 

be the only way for a family to obtain food. Large trees are cleared and sold to lumber companies. The remaining 

vegetation is often burned to clear the land. The open space is then used to raise cattle or crops that are more 

profitable. 

How tropical forests are cleared 

Tropical logging has similar impacts as logging in temperate deciduous forests. Roads are made, and soil gets 

compacted by heavy vehicles and machinery. The roads become barriers to small organisms in the understory, and 

forests become fragmented. Many tropical logging efforts focus on old-growth forest, the oldest and largest trees. 

The larger trees are more profitable to the lumber companies because they can get larger, more expensive cuts of 

lumber. Old-growth forests are usually clear-cut: every tree, no matter the size, is cut. 

If the land is to be used for cattle grazing or agriculture, it must first be cleared. If there is no large timber, the plants 

are burned where they are felled, because they aren't worth selling to timber companies. This type of forest clearing 

is called slash and burn. Areas cleared for logging, cattle grazing, or other reasons have a difficult time recovering in 

the tropics. Cleared areas are susceptible to erosion, and the shallow, nutrient-poor soil is good cropland for only a 

few years. Then a new area is cleared. 

The small stands of tropical forest that remain are not as healthy as an intact forest. The edges of the forest receive 

more sun. These forest fragments are often too small to support populations of large tropical animals and birds. 


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4/16/03 3:14 PM 

Courtesy of J. M.Meyers, National Biological Service, U.S. GeologicalSurvey 

Puerto Rican parrots 

El Yunque as an example of past forest destruction 

Clearing a tropical forest impacts the plants and animals that live there. The Puerto Rican parrot, which lives in the 

El Yunque Caribbean National Forest, is an excellent example. At the time of Spanish conquest, tropical forest 

covered much of Putero Rico. The parrots lived in all habitats on the island and surrounding islands. The population 

is estimated to have been 100,000–1,000,000 birds. 

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, agriculture and urban development destroyed 90% of the forested land on the 

island. This habitat destruction, along with hunting, contributed to the decline of the Puerto Rican parrot. In 1937 the 

parrot population was estimated to be about 2000 birds. The birds were found only in the forests of the Serria de 

Luquillo. In the late 1940s hunting Puerto Rican parrots was banned. 


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As the human population in Puerto Rico grows, large sections of the forest are 

cut to make way for residential development, such as this one near Caguas. 

The Puerto Rican Parrot Recovery Program started in 1968. This program is run by the U.S. Forest Service, the 

Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the World Wildlife 

Federation. The program is trying to increase the parrot population so it will no longer be in danger of extinction. In 

the 1970s the population reached a low of only 14 parrots. Nest sites of the parrot are guarded, monitored, and 

maintained. By 1989 the population had increased to 47. 

Before Hurricane Georges in 1998, over 140 Puerto Rican parrots existed, two-thirds in captivity. After the hurricane 

only 6 breeding pairs remained. There are currently about 25–26 parrots in the forest and 56 in captivity. On June 

27, 2000, 10 Puerto Rican parrots were released, and on June 2, 2001, another 16 were released into the wild from 

the captive breeding program. 


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While the number of Puerto Rican parrots is slowly increasing, El Yunque is faced with the disappearance of 

another of its unique species. The coqui frog is a small tropical tree frog and a favorite tropical forest animal of 

Puerto Ricans. It is known for its singing chirps of "ko-kee...ko-kee..." Several species are now considered extinct, 

and others are found only in specific sites within the forest. Will further destruction of the forest signal the end of 

this frog? 

Fran Hall, PhotoResearchers, Inc. 

Coqui frogs are becoming rarer in Puerto Rico. 

The issues of habitat loss, rain-forest destruction, and extinction of species is not unique to El Yunque Caribbean 

National Forest. Rain forests throughout the world face the same stresses and pressures. Because of the wide 

diversity of species of organisms found in the rain forest, the plants and animals that are threatened are unique to 

each tropical forest. 

THE DEBATE 


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Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of the El Yunque Caribbean 

National Forest. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more 

information. 


DEBATE: Should rain forests be cleared for logging, cattle grazing, and other development? 

People who support clearing more rain forest for development 

Cattle rancher in Costa Rica 

"It is possible to raise cattle on rain-forest land with more scientific ranching methods. The government is helping 

farmers use their land more efficiently. This will mean that less rain forest will be cut down in the future." 

PBS and Turner Adventure Learning, Science in the Rainforest: Some Costa Rican Ranchers Are Thinking Green 

"By using modern management methods, genetically improved herds, better veterinary care, and feedlots, Costa 

Rican ranchers could produce the same amount of beef on a fraction of the land, Amador says. 'In Costa Rica, the 

days of burning down rainforest to create cattle pasture are over,' he says." 

http://www.pbs.org/tal/costa_rica/treepast.html 

Resident of Hawaii 

"I don't see the need to worry about losing the coqui frogs in Puerto Rico. They have become a pest here in Hawaii. 

And I understand they have been introduced to several other Caribbean islands and are doing just fine." 

Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk, Alien Caribbean Frogs in Hawaii 

"Non-native Caribbean frogs ( Eleutherodactylus spp.; not true 'tree frogs', as some have called them) have become 

established in small areas in Hawaii. They cause both environmental and 'people' problems. These creatures may 

have a special appeal to some people; and, as many people know, frogs and other amphibians are having problems 

on a global scale. However, these frogs do not belong in Hawaii: their existence here causes serious problems to 

Hawaii's special native flora and fauna, and the extremely loud noise they make may cause sleepless nights for 

Hawaii residents and visitors." 

http://www.hear.org/AlienSpeciesInHawaii/species/frogs/index.html 

T. S. Campbell, The Puerto Rican Coqui, Eleutherodactylus coqui; Institute for Biological Invasions Invader of the 

Month 

"This small amphibian affects humans in their pursuit of happiness, and their loud call is the main reason they are 

considered pests. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, the exotic but familiar coqui is just one more in a large suite of 

vociferous anurans." 

http://invasions.bio.utk.edu/invaders/coqui.html 

Kayu International Teak, Forest Management/Environment 

"Logging inevitably affects the environment. But with careful planning and sound operational practices, disturbances 

to the forest can be minimized. [With] continuously improved felling techniques, improved overall forest 

management, innovative harvesting methods, downstream processing coupled with commitment from timber 

producing countries, sustainable logging can be achieved." 

http://www.kayu.com/tropicalrainforests/ 

People who support preserving the world's rain forests 

Medical researcher 

"Many of the medicines we use today were derived from rain forest plants. There is no way to estimate how many 

there are out there that we haven't yet discovered." 

Raintree Nutrition, Rainforest Facts 

"Rainforests currently provide sources providing one-fourth of today's medicines, and 70% of the plants found to 

have anti-cancer properties are found only in the rainforest. The rainforest and its immense undiscovered biodiversity 

holds the key to unlocking tomorrow's cures for devastating diseases. How many cures to devastating disease have 

we already lost?" 

http://rain-tree.com/facts.htm 


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4/16/03 3:14 PM 

Resident near El Yunque 

"We love to hear the sounds of the coqui frogs at night. We used to hear them all over Puerto Rico; now they are 

only at El Yunque." 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Endangered Species, Species Accounts: Golden Coqui 

(Eleutherodactylus jasperi) 

"The coqui's threatened status is based on the past and potential loss of habitat to development for homes, 

agriculture and other purposes; on the potential for overcollecting; and on the fact that the species has a 

specialized, obligate bromeliad-dwelling mode of existence coupled with a low reproductive rate, inability to 

disperse, and a limited range, thus making its existence naturally precarious. Recent studies indicate that acid rain 

may play a role in the decline of this and other species of Eleutherodactylus in Puerto Rico." 

http://endangered.fws.gov/i/d/sad0e.html 

Nick Brokaw, Luquillo Experimental Forest, Long-Term Ecological Research Project, Disturbance and Recovery 

"Disturbance and recovery are major drivers of ecosystem structure and function in the Luquillo Experimental Forest 

(LEF). Two striking features of disturbance in the LEF are the long history of natural hurricane disturbance and the 

recent history of drastic human disturbance. Other natural disturbances include landslides, treefalls, floods, and 

droughts. Human disturbances include clearing for pasture and crops, creation of coffee plantations, logging, road 

construction, and withdrawal of water from streams. The frequency and variety of this disturbance regime creates a 

landscape of patches differing according to how and when they were last disturbed. An important overall finding is 

that the forest recovers fairly quickly after natural disturbance, since local species are adapted to these natural 

events. By contrast, the impacts of human disturbance, which are novel and drastic events in evolutionary history, 

last longer." 

http://luq.lternet.edu/research/projects/disturbance_and_recovery_description.html 

Tropical Rainforests, Saving What Remains 

"There are numerous forest products that can be collected in a renewable fashion on a small scale by local 

peoples. Although peasant farmers must still overcome their ignorance of sustainable forest products and overcome 

the difficulties of distribution, the harvesting of forest products without destroying the forest can be more profitable 

than the other alternative." 

http://www.mongabay.com/1003.htm 

Rainforest Action Network, Rainforests and Global Warming: Rainforest Fact Sheets 

"Clearing and burning rainforests release vast amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, 

ozone, and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. Each year deforestation contributes 23–30 percent of all carbon 

dioxide in the atmosphere...The destruction of the Earth's rainforests not only contributes to global warming, but, as 

noted, also undermines the long-term ability of the Earth's atmosphere to neutralize greenhouse gases...This 

diminishes the Earth's ability to stabilize the atmosphere." 

http://www.ran.org/info_center/factsheets/04a.html 

Questions 

Which side of of this debate do you support? 



WEB LINKS 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Caribbean National Forest - http://www.southernregion.fs.fed.us/ 

caribbean/ 

El Boricua un Poquito de Todo...a monthly bilingual, cultural publication for Puerto Ricans - http:// 

www.elboricua.com/coqui.html 


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4/16/03 3:14 PM 

Exploratorium, Sounds of the Rainforest - http://www.exploratorium.net/frogs/rainforest/index.html 

Father Sánchez's website of West Indian natural history - http://www.kingsnake.com/westindian/ 

Hawaii Ecosystems at Risk, U.S. Geological Survey, Alien Caribbean Frogs in Hawaii - http://www.hear.org/ 

AlienSpeciesInHawaii/species/frogs/index.html 

Hecho en Puerto Rico, El Yunque - 

http://www.hechoenpuertorico.org/yunque/ 

International Institute of Tropical Forestry (IITF), U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service - http:// 

luq.lternet.edu/iitf/index.html 

J. Michael Meyers, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Biological Service, Puerto Rican Parrots - http:// 

biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/b016.htm 

Kayu International Teak, Forest Management/Environment - 

http://www.kayu.com/tropicalrainforests/ 

Luquillo Experimental Forest, Long-term Ecological Research Project - http://luq.lternet.edu/ 

Nick Brokaw, Luquillo Experimental Forest, Long-Term Ecological Research Project, Disturbance and Recovery - 

http://luq.lternet.edu/research/projects/disturbance_and_recovery_description.html 

Pajaro Jai Foundation, Rain Forest Furniture - 

http://www.jabinc.org/PJF/pjf_furnitur.htm 

PBS and Turner Adventure Learning, Science in the Rainforest, Some Costa Rican Ranchers Are Thinking Green - 

http://www.pbs.org/tal/costa_rica/treepast.html 

Rainforest Action Network, fact sheets - 

http://www.ran.org/info_center/factsheets/ 

Rainforest Action Network, Rainforests and Global Warming: Rainforest Fact Sheets - http://www.ran.org/ 

info_center/factsheets/04a.html 

Rainforest Alliance, Rainforest Resources/Facts - 

Rainforest Alliance, Sustainable Agriculture - 

Raintree Nutrition, Rainforest Facts - 

http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/resources/index.html 

http://www.rainforest-alliance.org/programs/cap/ 

http://rain-tree.com/facts.htm 

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Rainforests - 

Tropical Rainforests - http://www.mongabay.com/home.htm 

Tropical Rainforests, Saving What Remains - 

http://www.stri.org/Rainforest/ 

http://www.mongabay.com/1003.htm 

T. S. Campbell, The Puerto Rican Coqui, Eleutherodactylus coqui. Institute for Biological Invasions Invader of the 

Month - http://invasions.bio.utk.edu/invaders/coqui.html#Impacts 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Endangered Species, Species Accounts: Golden Coqui 

(Eleutherodactylus jasperi) - http://endangered.fws.gov/i/d/sad0e.html 

World Rainforest Information Portal, Cattle Ranching - http://www.rainforestweb.org/Rainforest_Destruction/ 

Cattle_Ranching/?state=more 


Page 16 of 16

Ecoscenario: Everglades National Park 

4/16/03 3:15 PM 

Everglades National Park 

INTRODUCTION 

The Everglades are subtropical wetlands on the southern tip of Florida. A shallow sheet of water flows through 

prairies of saw grass. It is commonly referred to as a "river of grass." Early Native American inhabitants called the 

Everglades Pa-hay-okee (grassy water). This river starts at Lake Okeechobee and flows south to Florida and 

Biscayne Bays. It once covered an area of 1,619,000 hectares (4,000,000 acres). Everglades National Park 

currently covers 610,684 hectares (1,509,000 acres) at the southern tip of Florida. 

Courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey 

Panoramic view of a saw-grass prairie and hammock in Everglades National Park 

There is evidence that the Everglades have been inhabited by humans continuously from 10,000 B.C.E. The paleo- 

Indians lived with mammoths and other megafauna in an arid climate. The climate slowly changed. In postglacial 

time, about 5000 years ago, the area was swampy and had a subtropical climate like today's. 

file:///Ecoscenario/everglades/content.html 

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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

When Spaniards arrived in the 1500s, at least five tribes of Native Americans were living in the Everglades, totaling 

about 20,000. By 1763, when the English arrived, most of the natives had migrated to Cuba with the Spaniards, and 

only a few hundred remained. Europeans settled in the northern part of Florida and generally avoided the swampy, 

southern tip. During the Seminole Wars, groups of Florida Native Americans settled in the Everglades to avoid 

removal. 


Early efforts at dredging canals through 

the Everglades 

Courtesy of National Park 

Service 

Ernest F. Coe is 

sometimes 

called "the 

Father of the 

Everglades" 

because of his 

efforts to 

preserve this 

habitat. 

Early settlers considered the Everglades a worthless swamp. During the 1800s the idea of draining the swamps 

became popular. Drainage canals were dug with little regard to the dynamics of this slow-moving river. When they 

became clogged with silt, the project was abandoned. The Everglades were able to recover from the futile attempts 

to drain them. At the end of the 1800s there were only a few settlements in southern Florida, clustered along the 

coastline. The only way to reach these settlements was by boat. 

As a young man, Ernest F. Coe was struck by the unusual beauty of the Everglades landscape. He was upset by 

the efforts to change this ecosystem and the uncontrolled killing of birds and removal of native flowers. In 1928 he 

established the Tropical Everglades National Park Association (later changed to Everglades National Park 

Association). He pushed for the establishment of a national park. As a result of his efforts, President Harry Truman 

dedicated the Everglades National Park in 1947. The original park covered only 186,235 hectares (460,000 acres). 


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President Harry Truman dedicates 

Everglades National Park, 

December 6, 1947. 

Art Explosion 

The Everglades ecosystem contains sloughs, saw-grass 

prairies, and wet marshes. Vast stretches of saw grass hide this 

slow-moving river. 

The desire to drain the swamps persisted, however, and in 1948 Congress authorized the Central and South Florida 

Project. Roads, canals, and levees were built throughout southern Florida, surrounding the park. The water was 

diverted to cities and agricultural fields. This organized effort severely changed the ecosystem. Up to 50% of the 

wetland was drained, and up to 90% of some native populations of plants and animals were lost. 

The Everglades ecosystem contains a variety of plant communities that are mixed together. The three most 

dominant are the saw-grass marshes, wet prairies, and areas of standing or slow-moving water in ponds and 

sloughs. You can find fish, tree frogs, bullfrogs, water snakes, and alligators here. Wading birds forage in these 

habitats and nest on low islands that dot the landscape. 

Courtesy of Phil Stokoe 

Art Explosion 

An alligator suns itself on a log. 

The anhinga spreads its wings 

to dry in the sun. 


Page 3 of 17


4/16/03 3:15 PM 

ABIOTIC DATA 

The weather in the Everglades is warm year-round, with distinct wet and dry seasons. However, even the dry 

seasons have some rainfall. All this precipitation enters a watershed that flows through Everglades National Park. 

The watershed starts with the Kissimmee River, then drains into Lake Okeechobee. When Lake Okeechobee is full, 

water flows south into the Everglades. This usually happens in the wet season between May and October. The 

Everglades receive 100–165 centimeters (40–65 inches) per year of precipitation. Almost 70% of this falls as rain 

during the wet season, which begins with thunderstorms in May and ends in October. 

Illustration by Leigh Anne McConnaughey 

Historical flow of water from Lake 

Okeechobee across southern Florida 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

Precipitation in the Everglades falls mostly during the wet season. Wet and dry 

seasons are distinct. 

The temperature during the wet season averages about 27°C (80°F). Humidity is generally high and can be 90% or 

more during the wet season, which means the air is almost saturated with water vapor. Much of the moisture the 

Everglades receive through the year is lost to evaporation, transpiration, and runoff. During the dry season, between 

November and April, the water levels slowly drop. The temperature in the dry season averages about 21°C (70°F). 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

Temperatures are warm in the Everglades year-round. 

Southern Florida is very flat, with the highest elevation only 2.5 meters (8 feet) above sea level. Because the terrain 

is so flat, the overflowing water from Lake Okeechobee creates a wide, shallow, slow-moving river as it flows down 

the gentle slope to the south. The sheetlike flow through the Everglades is called laminar flow. At places, the river is 

80 kilometers (50 miles) wide, but only 0.3–0.9 meters (1–3 feet) deep. It moves up to 30 meters (100 feet) per day 

during the wet season, with very little, if any, flow during the dry season. 

The flat terrain is interrupted by small hammocks, or islands, in the river. The substrate of the Everglades is 

primarily limestone bedrock, overlaid with marl and peat. Drainage is poor in many areas. 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

Water depth in the Everglades changes through the year. 

Hurricanes are natural events in southern Florida. The intense rains and temporary flooding may actually help keep 

the ecosystem healthy. Since 1916, 96 tropical storms have hit southern Florida, only eight of which were 

hurricanes. In 1992 Hurricane Andrew roared across Everglades National Park, damaging structures and vegetation 

near the main Visitors Center. Most of the damage was to human-made structures. Disruptions to animals and 

nesting grounds had a temporary impact. Trees stripped of leaves by high winds were budding again within a few 

weeks. 

BIOTIC DATA 

The Everglades ecosystem consists of several interspersed and interdependent plant communities. Small changes 

in elevation, water depth, or salinity cause great differences in plant communities. The three most prominent 

communities in the Everglades are saw-grass prairies, freshwater ponds and sloughs, and swamps and marshes. 

There are also mangrove swamps, pine forests, and coastal prairie plant communities. 

Most of the Everglades is covered by saw-grass prairie. Saw grass, the most abundant plant in this ecosystem, is 

not actually a grass, but a sedge. This sedge gets its name from sharp, serrated edges that look like a saw blade. 

Few grazing animals eat saw grass because of the sharp edges. The water flows slowly through the saw grass. A 

saw-grass prairie hides the water, and from a distance it looks like solid ground. Channels, or sloughs, that form in 

the saw grass are a little deeper and allow the water to flow flaster. 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

Courtesy of Gary Stolz, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

A thin sheet of water flows through a saw-grass 

prairie. 

A slough in the saw-grass prairie 


Sloughs are found in the middle of the saw-grass prairie. The deeper water of a slough provides important habitat for 

larger fish and the birds, such as anhinga, that feed on them. Along the edges of sloughs, alligators create ponds 

called gator holes. They deepen the holes and remove vegetation by digging in the muddy bottom with feet and 

snouts. This creates a mud bank around the edges. 

Art Explosion 

Marshes and saw-grass prairies are important 

habitat for wading birds. 

Gator holes provide year-round habitat for a wide 

range of animals. 

Art Explosion 

Gator holes are important habitats for birds, fish, snails, frogs, and turtles. They provide a water source for 

mammals in the dry season. But mammals that seek water at a gator hole may end up as dinner for the alligator. 

The muddy banks provide a foothold for larger shrubs and trees. Eventually the gator hole becomes a pond. Ponds 

quickly become covered with duckweed, floating bladderwort, and water lilies. This is an excellent breeding ground 

for mosquitoes and the mosquito fish that eat them. 

The small tree islands are called hammocks. They rise about 0.3 meters (1 foot) above the surrounding marshes 

and prairies. This slight rise in elevation keeps trees high enough above the water table to allow oxygen to reach the 

roots and prevents flooding. Large trees, such as live oaks, gumbo-limbos, and pines, are found on hammocks. 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

Hammocks provide habitat for mink, snail kites, raccoons, and the Florida panther. 

Hammocks rise above the saw-grass prairie or 

marshland. They are named for the kinds of trees they 

contain. 

Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

A view from inside a hardwood 

hammock 

The several kinds of hammocks are classified by the kind of trees found there. Hardwood hammocks contain trees 

with dense wood, like West Indian mahogany, strangler fig, and gumbo-limbo. Cypress heads are hammocks of 

bald cypress trees. Bald cypress can survive in standing water. Eventually mud, silt, and debris fills in and forms a 

hammock. 

Art Explosion 

Bald cypress are the only conifers that can grow 

in standing water. 

Hammocks provide habitat for 

raccoons and other small 

mammals. 

Art Explosion 

The freshwater swamps and marshes make up 33% of the Everglades. Swamps and marshes become covered with 

algal mats called periphyton. These algal mats are the primary producers in this ecosystem, and provide oxygen, 

soil-building material, and an area for birds and other animals to lay eggs. Plants such as St.-John's-wort and 

bladderwort grow here. Wading birds, such as great blue herons and roseate spoonbills, feed in freshwater 

marshes, but return to hammocks to nest. 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 



Freshwater marsh contains still 

ponds surrounded by trees. 

Periphyton algal mat 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is 6450 kilocalories/ 

square meter/year of plant and algal material. This productivity is very high, almost as high as the most productive 

ecosystem, the rain forest. There are productivity differences between the wet and dry season. Usually, producers 

are more active during the wet season. 

ISSUES 

Fresh water is vital to all living organisms. Water use and quality are the primary issues concerning Everglades 

National Park and the people that live in Florida. Water diversion for agricultural and urban development, especially 

in the last 50 years, has reduced the Everglades ecosystem to less than half its original size. 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 


The spoonbill uses its flattened bill to sift 

through the muddy bottom in search of tiny 

invertebrates. 

Courtesy of George Gentry, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Florida panthers are one of the endangered species that 

live in the Everglades. Panthers need a large area to 

roam for food and mates. Water diversion has changed 

the amount of area suitable for these large cats. 

History of water issues in the Everglades 

Water of the Everglades used to flow uninterrupted from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of Florida and out into 

the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The river flowed continuously, with heavier flow during the wet season. 

As people began to settle in Florida, the desire for land began an effort to drain the "useless swamp" to open up 

more land for agriculture and cities. The draining of the Everglades began in 1906. As the population of Florida grew, 

the demand for water for drinking and agriculture also grew. 

Art Explosion 

Water diversion structures have changed how water 

flows through Florida and the Everglades. 


Canals drain water from wetlands and divert it to 

reservoirs to be used by cities or for irrigation. 

In 1948, a year after the establishment of Everglades National Park, Congress created the Central and South 

Florida Project. The Army Corps of Engineers began building a network of roads, canals, levees, and water-control 

structures across southern Florida. As more dry land was created, areas were opened for agriculture and increased 

urban development. Crops, such as rice and sugar cane, that are suited to the hot and wet climate flourished. 

Congress also set aside the northern section of the Everglades ecosystem for agriculture. This section, planted with 


Page 11 of 17


4/16/03 3:15 PM 

sugar cane and winter vegetables, was called the Everglades Agricultural Area. It covered 27% of the historical 

Everglades ecosystem. 


Water must be diverted into rice fields to periodically 

flood them. 


Sugar cane grows well in hot, well-irrigated fields of 

Florida. 

At the time of this increase in development, a reporter for the Miami Herald, Marjory Stoneman Douglas, fought for 

the preservation of the Everglades. She was against water diversion projects even before biological changes were 

noted by scientists. She worked with Ernest F. Coe for the preservation of the Everglades ecosystem. 

Today, there are 2240 km (1400 miles) of water diversion structures, like levees, canals, and reservoirs, throughout 

the Everglades. They affect the amount and quality of water that reaches the Everglades ecosystem and Everglades 

National Park. 


Marjory Stoneman 

Douglas fought for the 

preservation of the 

Everglades. 

Everglades National Park is not isolated from the Everglades ecosystem. Things that happen outside of the 

boundaries impact the park. Water from the Kissimmee River and Lake Okeechobee historically flows through the 

Everglades. Anything that decreases the amount of water that flows into the Kissimmee or Lake Okeechobee 

decreases the amount of water flowing through the Everglades. Water diversions between Lake Okeechobee and 


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4/16/03 3:15 PM 

the park also affect the system. 

There are some water-control measures in operation now to hold fresh water temporarily and then flood the 

Everglades. Unfortunately, water is released during both the wet and dry seasons. Some animals in the Everglades 

are adapted for particular patterns of wet and dry seasons. Changes in the amount, quality, and timing of water in 

the ecosystem affect the plants and animals that live there. Animals such as apple snails and alligators build their 

nests along the high-water line. When more water is allowed to flow into the Everglades, whether in the wet or dry 

season, these nests are flooded and the eggs destroyed. Water diverted in the dry season causes the water to be 

too low to support apple snail and snail kite populations. When water levels are low, salt water from the ocean can 

seep into the water table and damage the animals and plants that can tolerate only fresh water. 

Fertilizers and other pollutants are being washed into the water from agricultural areas and cities. Runoff from 

agricultural areas flows into the Everglades, destroying algal mats and poisoning fish. 

Water diversions have destroyed 65% of the original extent of the Florida Everglades ecosystem. 

The Everglades ecosystem is home to many threatened or endangered species. The list includes West Indian 

manatee, Florida panther, American alligator, American crocodile, snail kite, Schaus swallowtail butterfly, wood 

stork, several sea turtles, and many other animals. One plant, Garber's spurge, is also on the threatened species 

list. These organisms have very small populations because they no longer have access to appropriate habitat. 

Humans killed some of the animals for sport or because they saw them as a nuisance. Some people think that 

endangered species should not be protected, because they cannot survive in a world modified by humans. However, 

there are laws to help the populations of these organisms. 

For each endangered species a specialized plan considers all the factors it will need to survive. For instance, the 

plan for Florida panther conservation and recovery includes corridors of wetlands that would allow the large cat to 

travel widely when hunting. 

Restoration efforts 

A program called Save Our Everglades was started by the State of Florida in 1983. The goal was to make the 

Everglades ecosystem look more like the Everglades of 1900 by the year 2000. An area of 23,000 square 

kilometers (9000 square miles) was targeted for this program. Plans included trying to make the waters cleaner by 

reducing pollutants and restoring habitat. 

This project resulted in the expansion of Everglades National Park in 1989 to its current size of 566,700 hectares 

(1,400,300 acres) to help stop the decline of some of the seabirds. This boundary change directed the Army Corps 

of Engineers to build water structures that would restore the sheetlike flow of water in the Everglades. In 1996 

Congress approved $200 million to help restore the Everglades. 

Congress accepted a $7.8 billion plan for additional restoration efforts in 2000. Some of this restoration would 

include removing or modifying some of the water-diversion structures to increase the amount of water flowing into 

the Everglades. It would also involve building reservoirs in the Everglades to hold fresh water. Before making such 

changes, agreements had to be negotiated among all those who had interests in preserving the Everglades or using 

the water, such as environmentalists, businesses, agricultural interests, and government officials. 

The plan's design did not please some environmentalists. They felt it gave too much control to the Army Corps of 

Engineers, who would change the water structures. Instead, the environmentalists suggested generating funds for 

Everglades restoration by taxing sugar cane. The sugar industry spent $24 million encouraging Floridians to vote 

against this alternative plan, ultimately defeating it. 

THE DEBATE 


Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of Everglades National Park. 

After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more information. 



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DEBATE: Should water continue to be diverted from the Florida Everglades? 

People who support current water-diversion efforts in southern Florida 

Florida farmer 

"Florida agriculture provides jobs and supplies food to much of the United States. We need to maintain dry land so 

the farms can continue." 

Florida Agricultural Facts, Florida Agriculture Overview 

"In 1998, Florida farmers utilized a little more than 10 million of the state's 35 million acres to produce more than 35 

billion pounds of food, and more than 1.5 million tons of livestock feed. Florida farmers employed an average of 

57,000 farm workers monthly in 1998, and paid them more than $1 billion. They accounted for a $20 billion direct 

impact on the state's economy; and added a direct and indirect impact of $55 billion." 

http://www.fl-ag.com/agfacts/overview99.htm 

South Florida resident 

"The water management system has worked hard to set up a plan to restore the Everglades and still allow us to 

use the water." 

South Florida Water Management District, Mission Statement 

"South Florida Water Management District's mission is to manage and protect water resources of the region by 

balancing and improving water quality, flood control, natural systems, and water supply. Today, the collective goal 

of water managers, is one of sustainable development—an integrated, long-range planning approach which can 

bolster the economy, promote quality communities, secure healthy ecosystems and ensure that today's progress 

does not come at tomorrow's expense. Land-use and water resource decisions must be made with an eye toward 

how future generations will live." 

http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/wrp/ Click "The District's Mission." 

New resident to Florida 

"My family just moved to Florida. We love the climate here. I expect the city to provide us with clean drinking water. 

There should be enough water for everyone." 

National Park Service, Population Growth, Everglades National Park 

"Today, 900 people move to Florida daily; 39 million people vacation here some years; 12 million come in winter's 

dry season as water supplies naturally drop...Florida's daily population increase of 900 residents creates new 

demands to supply 200,000 more gallons of fresh water every day." 

http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/crowds.htm 

Voter in southern Florida 

"They are building a huge desalination plant up in Tampa Bay. It will turn ocean water into drinking water. But its not 

going to provide enough water so they will still have to use the groundwater. If they built something like that down 

here we would still be using groundwater and paying more on our water bill every month." 

Water Technology, Industry Projects 

"Tampa Bay Seawater Desalination Project is a key component of Tampa Bay Water's Master Water Plan. To meet 

the region's water needs, Tampa Bay Water must tap into new sources of water other than groundwater. By 2003, 

the plan calls for the creation of 53 million gallons a day of new water sources and a total of 111 million gallons a 

day by 2008. Tampa Bay Water is a newly created regional water utility. TBSDP's output is anticipated to be 25 

million gallons per day, with a possibility of rising to 35 million gallons per day in the future. The seawater 

desalination project is one piece of the water supply solution and will provide 10% of the region's overall water 

supply by 2008." 

http://www.water-technology.net/projects/tampa/ 

Sugar cane farmer 

"We have been working hard to make sure that the water we use is clean before we return it to the water system. 

We want to preserve Florida's environment and still be able to grow sugar cane." 

Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida, Commitment to the Environment 

"Cooperative members and their families have farmed the lands of the Everglades Agricultural Area for generations. 

It only makes sense that we would care for our most vital asset, our land. We have led the way in technological 

breakthroughs that make farming more environmentally friendly. Through the incorporation of Best Management 

Practices (BMPs), farmers have reduced the use of chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides. The result is cleaner water 


Page 14 of 17


4/16/03 3:15 PM 

and healthier soil." 

http://www.scgc.org/commitment_to_the_environment.htm 

People who support stopping water diversion in southern Flroida 

Shirley Beccue, National Park Service 

"Today it is not enough to merely appreciate nature, we have to actively work to protect it. What we do today toward 

that goal is the legacy we leave our children and their children. The extinction of a species is forever...and the 

decision is ours." 

http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/danger.htm 

Visitor to Everglades National Park 

"I remember seeing a lot more birds and wildlife when my family vacationed here in the 1950s. But not as many 

people lived here then. Cities use up a lot of the water that used to come here." 

Nicole T. Carter, CRS Report to Congress, South Florida Ecosystem Restoration and the Comprehensive 

Everglades Restoration Plan 

"The Everglades are also affected by degraded water quality. Pollutants from urban areas and agricultural runoff, 

including excess nutrients (such as phosphorus and nitrogen), metals, and pesticides, have negatively affected 

plant and animal populations. Nutrients entering the Everglades have caused a decline in native vegetation and an 

overabundance of invasive exotic species. Changes in the quantity, quality, and timing of freshwater flows have also 

disrupted the equilibrium of coastal estuaries and reef systems. Pressure on the South Florida ecosystem is 

anticipated to worsen if South Florida's current population doubles as forecasted to 12 million inhabitants in 2050." 

http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/biodiversity/biodv-38.cfm 

Environmentalist in southern Florida 

"The government has a plan for restoring the Everglades ecosystem, but it does not go far enough. There is still too 

much water being diverted. It takes care of the cities first and the Eveglades gets the water that is leftover." 


Everglades Restoration Plan 

"Some environmental groups question the extent to which CERP contributes to Everglades restoration and whether 

so complicated and costly a plan is necessary. There is also concern that the Plan does not include enough 

measures to improve water quality in the Everglades. Some groups and federal agencies have expressed concern 

that CERP does not explicitly give natural systems precedence in water allocation, and that it is focused first on 

water supply rather than ecological restoration." 

http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/biodiversity/biodv-38.cfm 

Southwest Florida, Water Management District, Seawater Desalination Right Now for the Right Reasons 

"Seawater desalination also has consistently been among the most popular alternative water sources in area public 

opinion surveys. In a 1997 District survey, nearly 50 percent of the respondents chose seawater desalination as 

their preferred alternative water source, higher than all other alternatives. In fact, 87 percent rated seawater 

desalination as either a good or very good alternative water source for their homes. A considerable majority of the 

respondents, 72 percent, said they were willing to pay $3 or more per month on their water bills to ensure a safe 

and sustainable water supply and to protect wetland and lake environments." 

http://www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/about/isspapers/desal.html 

South Florida Wading Bird Report, Dale E. Gawlik, editor, October 2001 

"System-wide patterns this year added to the mountain of evidence that wading birds are extremely sensitive to 

changing hydrologic conditions. Nest success differences in Roseate Spoonbills in Florida Bay and switches in 

nesting effort and foraging locations among regions of the Everglades are reminders that wading bird monitoring is a 

powerful tool for assessing the state of the ecosystem, and therefore the success of restoration 

efforts...Unfortunately, 2001 was noteworthy in that there was some nest failure, particularly in Everglades National 

Park." 

http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/wrp/wrp_evg/projects/wading01/summary.html 

Questions 



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WEB LINKS 

National Park Service, Everglades National Park Official Website - http://www.nps.gov/ever/welcome2.htm 

American Park Network, Everglades National Park - http://www.americanparknetwork.com/parkinfo/ev/index.html 

Duke University Wetlands Center - http://taxodium.env.duke.edu/wetland/ 

Everglades National Park, U.S. National Parks.net, not associated with government national parks websites - http:// 

www.everglades.national-park.com/ 

Everglades Restoration, Rescuing an Endangered Ecosystem: the Journey to Restore America's Everglades - http:// 

www.evergladesplan.org/ 

Florida Agricultural Facts, Florida Agriculture Overview - 

http://www.fl-ag.com/agfacts/overview99.htm 

Florida Coastal Everglades Long-Term Ecological Reserch - http://fcelter.fiu.edu/ 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Everglades Technical Support links - http://www.dep.state.fl.us/ 

water/everglades/links.htm 

Florida Water Services, Water Conservation Links - http://www.florida-water.com/conserve_links.htm 

Friends of the Everglades, founded by Marjory Stoneman Douglas - http://www.everglades.org/ 

Governor's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida, archived reports - http://fcn.state.fl.us/everglades/gcssf/ 

gcssf-reports.html 

Governor's Commission for the Everglades - http://www.everglades.state.fl.us/ 

National Park Service, Endangered Species - 

National Park Service, The Everglades Ecosystem - 

National Park Service, History of Everglades National Park - 

http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/danger.htm 

National Park Service, Population Growth, Everglades National Park - 

http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/index.htm 

http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/history.htm 

http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/crowds.htm 


Everglades Restoration Plan - http://www.cnie.org/nle/crsreports/biodiversity/biodv-38.cfm 

South Florida Wading Bird Report, Dale E. Gawlik, editor, October 2001 - http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/wrp/wrp_evg/ 

projects/wading01/index.html 

South Florida Water Management District, Everglades - http://www.sfwmd.gov/koe_section/2_everglades.html 

South Florida Water Management District, Mission Statement - http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/wrp/ Click "The District's 

Mission." 

South Florida Water Management District, South Florida Watershed Ecosystems - 

http://www.sfwmd.gov/org/wrp/ 


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Southwest Florida, Water Management District, Seawater Desalination Right Now for the Right Reasons - http:// 

www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/about/isspapers/desal.html 

Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida, Commitment to the Environment - http://www.scgc.org/ 

commitment_to_the_environment.htm 

Threatened and Endangered Species of South Florida's National Parks, Everglades Digital Library - http:// 

everglades.fiu.edu/education/threatenedbr.html 

U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources of Florida, Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan - http:// 

fl.water.usgs.gov/CERP/cerp.htm 

Water Technology, Industry Projects - http://www.water-technology.net/projects/tampa/ 

World Heritage Committee, Everglades National Park - http://whc.unesco.org/sites/76.htm 


Page 17 of 17

Ecoscenario: Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

4/16/03 3:17 PM 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

INTRODUCTION 

Courtesy of Mike White, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Coral reefs have been called the rain forest of the oceans because of the 

abundance and diversity of life found there. 

file:///Ecoscenario/flakeys/content.html 

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Off the tip of Florida is an archipelago of 1700 islands called the Florida Keys. This island chain is a coral reef that 

begins at the tip of Florida, just south of Key Biscayne and curves southwest for 202 kilometers (126 miles). It ends 

145 kilometers (90 miles) north of Cuba. 

Many of the islands are too small for people to live on. Surrounding the keys is Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary. This marine sanctuary covers 9600 square kilometers (2800 square nautical miles). It is the closest 

federally protected coral reef to the continental United States. The reefs of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

form the only living coral barrier reef in North America. It is the third largest system of coral reefs in the world. Only 

the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and barrier reefs off Belize are larger. The warm clear water ranges in depth from 

0.6 to 610 meters (2 to 2000 feet) with an average of 15.25 meters (50 feet). 

The ocean currents that pass through the Florida Keys connect with the Gulf Stream and major shipping routes 

along the Atlantic seaboard. The reefs are littered with ships washed onto the shallow reefs by hurricanes, sudden 

tropical storms, or navigation errors. Ships grounded on reefs break apart and are scattered by waves. Since the 

1500s, over 800 wrecks have been recorded. In the early 1900s most of the wrecks were salvaged, and today little 

evidence remains. 

In 1957, a group of scientists and conservationists held a meeting in the Florida Everglades to discuss the state of 

the keys. They were worried that the crowds of visitors often damaged the coral and were destroying the reefs. This 

meeting resulted in the founding of the world's first underwater park, the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, in 

1960. 

Courtesy of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Map of the Florida Keys shows several areas of management, including the Florida Keys 

National Marine Sanctuary, wildlife refuges, two national parks, and state managed areas. 

Problems like pollution and overharvesting of sea life also threatened this ecosystem. The coral reefs could be 

better managed and monitored if they were included within a state or national refuge or park. The creation of the 

National Marine Sanctuary System in 1972 helped protect the special ecological, historical, and recreational 

resources of unique ocean habitats. Two areas of the Florida Keys were designated as sanctuaries, one in 1975 

and another in 1981. These areas, together with the waters surrounding the entire Florida Keys, became Florida 


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Keys National Marine Sanctuary on November 15, 1990. 

The reefs of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary are biologically diverse and productive. Coral reefs are called 

the rain forests of the ocean because of the diversity of organisms found there. The core of a reef is composed of 

the calcareous skeleton of the coral polyp. The area around the the colonial corals provides habitat for calcareous 

algae, fish, worms, and other marine organisms. The coral reefs are the dominant feature here. The Florida Keys 

also have beds of turtle grass and mangrove forests. All these communities provide important habitat for marine fish 

and other animals. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is a tropical ocean with a tropical maritime climate. There are two long 

seasons. May to October is the wet season, with an average of 14 centimeters (5.5 inches) of rain each month. 

Average temperatures during the wet season are hot, around 27°C (80°F), and average relative humidity is 75%. The 

water temperature during the summer months also averages 27°C (80°F). 

The dry season is November to April. While there are occasional cold fronts and rain, only about 5 centimeters (2 

inches) of precipitation falls each month. Cooler temperatures range between 20 and 24°C (68 and 75°F). 


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The Florida Keys receive fairly direct sunlight throughout most of the year. Sunlight penetrates ocean water to about 

80 meters (260 feet). This lighted layer is called the photic zone. Much of the water in the Keys, which has an 

average depth of 15.25 meters (50 feet), is entirely in the photic zone. Sunlight penetrates the water and reflects off 

the the white sands in the shallow seas. Warm water and ample sunlight provide an ideal habitat for photosynthetic 

organisms. Corals live only in the photic zone. 

Farther from shore the water is much deeper, up to 610 meters (2000 feet). The deeper water is the aphotic zone. It 

is dark from about 80 meters (260 feet) to the ocean floor. The ocean floor is littered with debris broken from the 

reef. 


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4/16/03 3:17 PM 

Courtesy of MODIS Rapid Response Project, NASA/GSFC 

Satellite photo of southern Florida, Bahamas, and Cuba. Light 

blue areas show the shallow shelves where coral reefs can 

survive. 

Barrier reefs like those in the Florida Keys are obstacles to ocean waves. Behind the reef is an area of calm, warm, 

shallow water called a lagoon. Lagoons are important habitats for juvenile fish and organisms that cannot tolerate 

the open ocean or turbulent reef. 

Between June 1 and November 30 each year there is a 13–16% probability of a hurricane in the Florida Keys. 

Hurricanes form in zones of low air pressure off the west coast of Africa. Air currents direct them toward the 

Caribbean and the east coast of North America. Hurricane winds and high waves damage reefs by breaking 

branching coral and displacing many organisms. The most serious damage, however, is the result of fine sediment 

stirred up into the water. It reduces the sunlight in the water. Fine sediment that settles on coral polyps can also 

smother them. Recent hurricanes that passed through the Florida Keys include Hurricane Andrew in 1992, 

Hurricane Georges in 1998, and Hurricane Irene in 1999. 


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Courtesy of NOAA, Atlantic and Meteorological Laboratory 

Hurricane Irene passed over the Florida Keys and southern Florida in October 1999. 

Even though the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is so large and productive, it does not have as much coral 

coverage as other coral reefs. Many of the corals here are at the edge of their range of temperature tolerance. They 

would be unable to live even a little farther north. They can live here only because currents from the south bring 

warm water year-round, and the tropical marine climate area keeps the air warm and humid. 

The sanctuary is near the Gulf Stream, which is a strong northward current. The Loop Current of the Gulf of Mexico 

and the Florida Current both merge with the Gulf Stream, bringing with them warm water from the Caribbean, South 

America, and Florida Bay. The convergence of these currents creates large, spinning, counterclockwise eddies in 

the ocean called gyres. 

The water of the Florida Keys has salinity ranging between 3.3 and 3.6%. Average ocean water is 3.5%. Salinity 

increases when there are dry conditions in south Florida. Low amounts of rain and runoff mean less water to dilute 

the concentration of salt in the ocean. Evaporation further concentrates the salt, and the salinity increases. 

In general, water in tropical regions such as Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is nutrient poor. Runoff from 

land, both residential and agricultural, can increase the concentration of nutrients present, and can carry pollutants. 

BIOTIC DATA 

The core of a coral reef is a buildup of skeletal material of the coral polyp. Coral polyps are tiny, soft, sea anemone– 

like animals that build a cup of calcium carbonate around themselves for protection. Thousands of these tiny polyps 

build their skeletons together in a colony. The colony continually builds on old skeletons and can over time become 


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hundreds of meters tall. 

Data from Florida Marine Research Institute 

The greatest diversity of organisms can be found around patch reefs and deep 

offshore reefs. 

There are four main types of coral habitat in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: hardbottom, patch reef, 

shallow offshore reef, and deep offshore reef. The hardbottom area is dominated by soft corals, such as sea fans, 

with a sandy substrate. A patch reef is a tall mound of coral dominated by massive corals, like brain coral. A higher 

diversity of organisms is found here. Shallow offshore reefs are found in zones of high-energy water. These are 

usually the barrier reefs. They are dominated by branching corals, such as staghorn and elkhorn corals. The deep 

offshore reefs are dominated by the massive corals and bottom-dwelling organisms. 


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Courtesy of Mike White, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

A variety of organisms around a coral reef provides sheleter and food. 

Coral provides the habitat for the other organisms that live there. The large coral heads provide a hard substrate for 

soft corals, such as sea fans, sea whips, and sponges, to attach. Christmas tree worms burrow into the coral 

skeleton. These animals are filter feeders, gathering food from the water that passes over or through their bodies. 

Christmas tree worms have special feathery structures they use to capture food. Sea fans, a non–reef-building 

coral, catch food with their tiny tentacles. 

Coral polyps also receive food from photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, that live in its tissues. The corals benefit 

from the food and oxygen the zooxanthellae produce. A mutually beneficial relationship like this is called 

symbiosis. Zooxanthellae also give the corals their bright colors. Living among the corals are other photosynthetic 

algae. Warm, clear water in the photic zone is essential for the survival of these organisms. 

Courtesy of William Fitt, University of Georgia 

Zooxanthellae live within the tissue of coral polyps and 

produce food through photosynthesis for themselves and 

the coral. 

Courtesy of Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary 

Each bump on this 

branch of staghorn coral 

contains a coral polyp. 


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Animals graze on the coral polyps and algae throughout the reef. Flamingo tongue snails have a scraping tongue 

they use to feed on the sea fan polyps. Parrot fish feed by scraping the top of the coral with their strong teeth. They 

digest the polyp and the skeleton that is scraped up passes through the parrot fish's digestive tract unchanged. It is 

excreted and add to the sand surrounding the reef. Angelfish feed exclusively on sponge, and three-spot 

damselfish groom patches of algae that they eat. 


Parrot fish use bony teeth to scrape 

off coral polyps. 


Schoolmasters and striped grunts move in 

large schools for protection. 

Fish of all sizes, shapes, and colors can be found darting around the reef. Some large schools of fish, such as 

sergeant majors and schoolmasters, can be seen searching for food. They swim and turn as if they are one large 

fish. Barracudas hover motionless and wait for prey to come to them. 

During the day, spiny lobsters and long-spined black urchins hide in the reef. At night they come out to feed. The 

urchin dines on turtle grass and algae. The spiny lobster eats detritus, worms, sea urchins, and most anything that 

comes within its reach. 

Fish living around coral reefs come in a wide variety of colors. Some, such as the three-spot damselfish, have 

different color phases from juvenile to adult. Color phases help the fish blend in with its surroundings and hide from 

predators. Nassau groupers can change color quickly to camouflage themselves. 


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A southern stingray swims close to 

the bottom, looking for food. The 

stingray's mouth is on the underside 

of its body. 

Courtesy of Homer Montgomery, University of Texas at Dallas 

Calcareous green algae have rootlike structures called 

holdfasts that anchor them to the sandy lagoon bottom. 

Between the barrier reef and the shoreline are lagoons, with calm water and sandy bottom. The lagoon bottom is 

usually covered with turtle grass and calcareous green algae. Juvenile fish that cannot tolerate the waves of the 

barrier reef live here. Bottom dwellers such as the southern stingray and gulf flounder settle into the sand to feed. 

Stingrays may look vicious, but are dangerous to humans only if you step on them. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is very high—about 6750 

kilocalories/square meter/year primary production from plants and algae. Coral reefs are often compared to tropical 

rain forests, because both support highly diverse life and are susceptible to damage from human activities because 

they are fragile. These systems both have a high economic value if properly conserved. 

ISSUES 

A major issue for Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, and for coral reefs worldwide, is the death and 

destruction of corals. This loss of coral reef habitat is due to disease, overfishing, careless recreational use, and a 


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phenomenon called coral bleaching. 

What is happening to the coral reefs? 

Maintaining the health of coral reefs is important for many reasons. They are some of the most productive and 

diverse ecosystems on Earth. One-quarter of all marine species are found in coral reefs. Reefs are a major source 

of income and food for many of the world's people. For instance, the reefs of Florida Keys National Marine 

Sanctuary support diving and fishing industries, both of which are important to tourists visiting the area. Organisms 

of the coral reefs are being studied as possible sources for new medicines. The reef structures buffer the land from 

destructive storms. The reefs are important in the nutrient and gas cycles. Of all the calcium flowing into the world's 

oceans each year, half is captured by coral-reef organisms. All these factors depend on a healthy and diverse coral 

ecosystem. 


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Courtesy of William Harrigan, Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary 

Careless snorkelers can 

damage and break fragile 

coral by standing on or leaning 

against the reef. 


Signs posted near popular snorkeling 

sites, dive boats, and piers remind divers 

to be careful near coral. 

Courtesy of William Harrigan, Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary 

Even a light touch can destroy 

the soft-bodied coral polyps 

living in their hard skeletons. 

Divers and snorkelers are drawn to the beauty and diversity of coral reefs worldwide. The climate and location is 

perfect for many recreational activities that humans seek. Warm, shallow water is ideal for swimming, snorkeling, 

diving, fishing, and boating. Many casual visitors are not aware of the dangers that these activities pose for the 

ecosystem. 

Courtesy of Harold Hudson, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

A motorboat prop can tear up sea grasses in 

shallow lagoons. 

Courtesy of Paige Gill, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

A diver inspects the damage caused by a 

boat's keel grounded on a reef. 

Coral reef ecosystems have survived changes in sea level, ice ages, and periods of mass extinction on land. 

However, the current rate of damage is a serious global threat to coral reefs. Over one-half of the world's reefs are at 

high or moderate risk from human disturbance. A result of this disturbance is damage or death of the corals. This 

often leads to a syndrome where corals become diseased or bleached. 

In the 1980s, people noticed widespread damage and bleaching of coral reefs. This occurred not only in places with 

lots of human traffic, but in undisturbed areas. Some coral reefs showed extensive damage. In the Indian Ocean 

90% were damaged in a single year. In the Caribbean the reefs have the lowest total cover of living coral. 


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Healthy elkhorn coral, left, next to a bleached coral 

Courtesy of John Halas, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Bleaching across the top of a brain coral 

What is killing the coral reefs? 

Corals live in a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae, photosynthetic algae. The two organisms depend on each 

other for survival. The coral uses energy and oxygen produced by the algae, and the algae have a place to live within 

the coral. Under certain conditions, such as when the water temperature increases or when the water becomes very 

saline, the coral expel the algae that live inside them. As a result, they lose the color the algae give them. Their 

white calcium skeletons show through their transparent bodies. This is coral bleaching. The coral can live only a 

short time without their symbiotic algae. The most severe coral bleaching ever recorded occurred in 1998, which 

corresponds to an El Niño. It is estimated that it takes a coral reef 30–100 years to recover from a single bleaching 

event. Because so many bleaching events have been occurring, it could take up to 500 years before the corals 

return to their normal levels. 

Courtesy of Paige Gill, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Black band disease on coral 

Courtesy of G. P. Schmahl, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Fungal disease on sea fan 

There are several diseases that also weaken the health of corals and may cause them to die. These diseases affect 

the polyps, the living part of the corals. Sometimes the disease is preceded by a bleaching phase. Most of these 

diseases are named for their appearance. For instance, one form is called black band disease, because the stony 

reef coral it infects develops a black band of dying coral polyps. The number of cases of coral disease seems to be 

on the rise. In 1996, 25 research stations reported disease. The following year, 97 research stations reported 

cases. 

One possible source of coral disease is the runoff of water from adjacent agricultural areas. Runoff often contains 

high concentrations of nitrogen, an important nutrient for plants and algae. Increase in nutrients can cause algal 

blooms that deplete oxygen and block sunlight. 


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What is being done to study and restore the reefs of Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Studying why coral becomes bleached or diseased poses many obstacles, the main one being access. 

Conventional diving allows scientists access to the reef for only a few hours a day. Longer dives require a longer 

time for divers to decompress as they rise to the surface. The research laboratory Aquarius has helped solve this 

problem. 

Courtesy of P. Auster, OAR/National Undersea Research Program, NOAA Photo Library 

Courtesy of D. Kesling, OAR/National Undersea Research Program, NOAA Photo 

Library 

Aquarius at Conch Reef, Key Largo, Florida Keys Aquarius aquanauts discuss dive plans during 

National Marine Sanctuary 

coral-feeding study. 

The Aquarius is an underwater laboratory located in 18 meters (60 feet) of water about 5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles) 

offshore in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Scientists live in the Aquarius for up to 10 days at a time, using 

saturation diving. They can spend a longer time in the water without the lengthy decompression process each day. 

The Aquarius is owned by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and operated by the 

National Undersea Research Center at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington. 

Courtesy of John Halas, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary 

Broken elkhorn coral 

Artificial reefs 

Reefs that have been damaged or broken by careless boaters can often be repaired by replacing broken coral heads 

in their natural position. Larger breaches in the reef complex can be repaired by placing concrete blocks to serve as 


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a substrate for coral growth. It takes many years for a repaired coral to be fully restored. 

Scattered among the natural coral reef ecosystem are a few artificial reefs. The base of an artificial reef is often an 

old ship purposely sunk. The USS Spiegel Grove was sunk near Key Largo in spring 2002. Similar to shipwrecks, 

these relics form a substrate for marine organisms. These ships are strategically placed in locations suitable for 

reef growth. Before being scuttled, the ships are prepared by removing all hazardous materials such as wood, oil, 

fuel, and loose equipment. 

After only a few years coral and algae colonies begin growing and fish take up residence in the structure of the ship. 

Artificial reefs are popular dive locations. 

Restoration 

On August 10, 1994, a 47-meter (155-foot) research vessel called the R/V Columbus Iselin ran into a coral reef of 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The reef was damaged in four areas. The ship destroyed 345 square 

meters (3713 square feet) of living coral and 338 square meters (3638 square feet) of older reef. Hurricane Georges 

moved more rubble, making things worse. 

Restoration efforts have begun to repair the damage. Restoration involves rebuilding the reef structure, using 

limestone boulders, a rebar lattice, and special poured cement. Special arrangements of rocks are used so that 

coral polyps are encouraged to settle and grow. Some of the damaged corals could be saved and reattached with 

cement. Healthy corals from other areas were directly transplanted to the site. The University of Miami, which 

owned the boat, had to pay almost $4 million in fines to help offset the restoration costs. 


A lattice of rebar holds boulders in place 

before concrete is poured to stabilize the 

structure. 


Coral is transplanted on top of the newly 

restored reef base. 

Protecting the reefs 

Some areas within Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary have special designations such as "research only" or 

"no-take" (which means no fishing or collecting). These designations help preserve the critical habitats and species 

in the ecosystem by changing how the area is used. The Tortugas Ecological Reserve was recently protected as an 

ecological no-take reserve. 

The Gulf Stream has been used as a shipping route for centuries, and commercial transport ships continue to pass 

through the Florida Keys. Restrictions on international shipping is helping protect the reefs. No-anchoring zones 

provide protection from heavy ship anchors in coral reefs. Shipping lanes have been changed to direct traffic away 

from sensitive areas. 

Florida Keys National Marine Santuary was designated an "area to be avoided" in 1990. Designation as a 

"particularly sensitive sea area" would also change shipping routes. Such designations must be approved by the 

organization that controls international ocean shipping traffic. Today, only two areas are considered "particularly 

sensitive sea areas," and both contain coral reefs. These areas are the Great Barrier Reef of Australia and the 


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Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago in Cuba. 

THE DEBATE 


Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of Florida Keys National 

Marine Sanctuary. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for 

more information. 


DEBATE: Should more restrictions limit activities on and around coral reefs? 

People who oppose restrictions on waters near coral reefs 

Vacation boater at the Florida Keys 

"Boats can be used safely around the reefs if you learn to read the water. Looking at the color of the water can tell 

you when you are too shallow or near a reef. Recreational use does not damage the reef." 

Florida Keys On-line Guide, Boating 

"Many boaters do not realize that coral reefs and seagrass beds in the Florida Keys can be growing within inches of 

the water's surface whether they are located close to shore or several miles from shore." 

http://www.florida-keys.fl.us/boating.htm 

Scuba diver 

"There are buoys out there to tie the dive boat to, so that we don't have to anchor on a reef. But some of the reefs 

don't have buoys. We try to be careful with our anchor at those reefs." 

Florida Keys Mooring Buoy System 

"Reef mooring buoys eliminate the need to drop anchor on fragile coral reefs by providing boaters with a convenient 

means of securing your boat. Anchors, line and chain can break and damage living coral formations." 

http://www.fknms.nos.noaa.gov/mbuoy/welcome.html 

People who support restrictions on water near coral reefs 

Marine Protected Areas of the United States 

"The Florida Keys have been a popular destination for explorers, scientists and tourists for centuries. However, their 

popularity has led to pollution of the marine ecosystem and overuse of resources." 

http://mpa.gov/mpadescriptive/cs_fknms.html 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

"Water quality in most confined waters and some nearshore waters is deteriorating, and this degradation may be 

affecting biota inhabiting nearshore areas." 

http://www.epa.gov/region4/programs/cbep/fl-nms.html 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection 

"Habitat Loss—The Florida Keys are known for the fragile natural systems in this Ecosystem Management area, 

namely, the coral reefs, vast seagrass meadows, mangrove forests, upland hardwood hammock, and rocky 

outcrops. These unique habitats are home to numerous endangered and threatened species such as key deer, 

American crocodile, and tree snails, as well as commercially important species, such as Florida lobster, stone 

crab, grouper, and other fin fish. These habitats are also very sensitive to impacts from development and overfishing. 

There are many efforts toward acquisition and preservation of these habitat types by federal, state, and local 

governments, as well as private conservation groups." 

http://www.dep.state.fl.us/south/watershed/keys/keys.html 

Questions 




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WEB LINKS 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary - http://www.fknms.nos.noaa.gov/ 

Access NOAA, Florida Keys Achieve Historic Protection! - http://www.accessnoaa.noaa.gov/jun0702/ 

floridakeys.html 

Aquarius, the World's Only Underwater Laboratory - 

http://www2.uncwil.edu/nurc/Aquarius/ 

Environmental News Network, Waste Containment Required in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary - http:// 

www.enn.com/news/enn-stories/2001/07/07252001/keys_44397.asp 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection - http://www.dep.state.fl.us/south/watershed/keys/keys.html 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park - http:// 

www.dep.state.fl.us/parks/district5/johnpennekamp/index.asp 

Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Florida Marine Research Institute - http://www.floridamarine.org/ 

features/category_sub.asp?id=1459 

Florida Keys and Key West, The Spiegel Grove Wreck - 

http://www.fla-keys.com/spiegelgrove/spiegelnews.htm 

Florida Keys Mooring Buoy System - http://www.fknms.nos.noaa.gov/mbuoy/welcome.html 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary - http://www.florida-keys.fl.us/ntmarine.htm 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Clickable Map - http://www.fknms.nos.noaa.gov/research_monitoring/ 

map.html 

Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Shipwreck Trail - http://www.fknms.nos.noaa.gov/sanctuary_resources/ 

shipwreck_trail/welcome.html 

Florida Keys On-line Guide, Boating - http://www.florida-keys.fl.us/boating.htm 

Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute, Florida Reef Restoration - http://www.at-sea.org/missions/reseed/ 

preview.html 

Marine Protected Areas of the United States - http://mpa.gov/welcome.html 

Marine Protected Areas of the United States, Florida Keys - http://mpa.gov/mpadescriptive/cs_fknms.html 

Naples Daily News, Black Water: Nitrogen-Rich Agricultural Runoff Possible Black Water Catalyst - http:// 

www.naplesnews.com/02/03/naples/d758431a.htm 

National Coral Reef Institute - http://www.nova.edu/ocean/ncri/ 

National Marine Sanctuaries - http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/welcome.html 

National Marine Santuaries, Columbus Iselin Coral Reef Restoration Project - http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/ 

special/columbus/restoration.html 

United States Coral Reef Task Force - http://coralreef.gov/ 


Page 17 of 18


4/16/03 3:17 PM 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Coastal Watersheds, Coral Reefs and Your Coastal Watershed - http:// 

www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/factsheets/fact4.html 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Coral Reef Protection - 

http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/coral/ 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Water Quality Protection Program - 

http://www.epa.gov/region4/programs/cbep/fl-nms.html 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Treasured Waters: Protecting Our Coastal and Marine Resources - http:// 

www.epa.gov/owowwtr1/oceans/treasure/ 


Page 18 of 18

Ecoscenario: Mono Lake 

4/16/03 3:18 PM 

Mono Lake 

INTRODUCTION 

Courtesy of Teri Dannenberg 

Tufa towers dominate the landscape at Mono Lake. 

If there were lakes on the Moon, what would they look like? Maybe like Mono Lake in eastern California. Mono Lake is desolate. Huge 

expanses of desert stretch out from the lake in three directions, and the mighty Sierra Nevada rise up on the fourth side. It's freezing cold 

in the winter and dry and windy in the summer. Sagebrush and desert grasses come right down to the salt-crusted shore. Mono Lake is 

a salty lake, far saltier than the ocean. 

file:///Ecoscenario/mono/content.html 

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4/16/03 3:18 PM 

Mono Lake is a unique and ancient ecosystem. It is at least 760,000 years old, making it the oldest lake in the United States. The lake 

is a tiny leftover puddle from a huge lake that covered a bit of California and a large part of Nevada and Utah hundreds of thousands of 

years ago. When ancient Lake Lahontan receded, only Great Salt Lake, Mono Lake, and a handful of other small basins retained water. 

The minerals from the lake water concentrated in the small lakes, resulting in the high salt concentrations. Alkaline lakes, such as Mono 

Lake, are found throughout the world. 

The origin of the name Mono, pronounced MOH•noh, is unclear, but may have been a Yokut word for fly eater. The first humans to live 

here were the Kutzadika'a, a small group of Native Americans. Their name roughly translates to fly eaters because of the kutsavi, or 

alkali fly pupae they harvested and ate. The word Mono is not in their vocabulary. 

Art Explosion 

The rising Sun casts an eerie light on tufa towers and lake surface. 

The first Europeans arrived in the Mono Lake basin in 1852. A few years later, gold was discovered in the hills north of Mono, and the 

boom towns of Aurora, Bodie, and Lundy sprang up. A rush to build consumed the nearby piñon pine forests and deprived the 

Kutzadika'a protection and sufficient hunting to sustain the tribe. Most members moved from the Mono Lake basin, and only a few 

remain in the area today. By 1863, the population of Aurora reached over 5000. Most residents were miners, but a few had other reasons 

for being there. One notable resident was Samuel Clemens, better known by his penname of Mark Twain. He spent six months trying his 

luck as a miner before going bust. Stories of his adventures in Aurora appear in his novel, Roughing It. 


The ghost town of Bodie lies in the hills north of 

Mono Lake. 


Once a booming gold rush town, Bodie has been 

preserved, but not restored, as a California State 

Historical Park. 

The gold boom lasted only a few years, and by 1877 the population of Mono County was less than 1000. Mining continued in the area 

until the 1930s and the Depression. Today, only ghost towns remain of the once prosperous mining towns and ranches. Many ranchers 

sold their land and water rights to the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and moved. The city of Los Angeles is the largest 

landowner in the area. 


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4/16/03 3:18 PM 

In 1941 Los Angeles began diverting water from the freshwater streams that feed Mono Lake. Aquaducts carried the water 563 kilometers 

(352 miles) to a rapidly growing city. Changes to the lake were dramatic. Without a freshwater source the salinity of the lake doubled. By 

1995 the water level had dropped over 13.7 meters (45 feet). 

Even though it looks barren and deserted at first glance, Mono Lake is actually one of the most productive ecosystems on the continent. 

Below the water's surface a huge population of algae is the base of a food chain. Massive populations of brine shrimp and brine flies feed 

on the algae. These crustaceans and insects in turn provide nourishment for populations of birds that come to Mono Lake from as far 

away as the Arctic Circle and the equator. Millions of birds visit Mono Basin between midsummer and fall, feasting on the abundant food 

and nesting on the protected islands. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

Mono Lake, the largest lake completely in California, covering 183 square kilometers (70.5 square miles), sits in a broad, shallow basin 

with no outlet. Water flows into the lake from several small freshwater streams, but no water ever flows out. Fresh water picks up minute 

amounts of salt in its journey to the basin, and the only way out for the water is through evaporation. Consequently, over the years salt 

has built up in the lake. Mono Lake basin is an active volcanic area. The two islands, Negit and Paoha, are actually small volcanic cinder 

cones sticking out of the lake. Paoha, larger of the two cinder cones, still spouts steam from vents, and there are several hot springs on 

the island as well. 

Courtesty of Teri Dannenberg 

Negit Island is the exposed top of a volcanic cinder 

cone. 

Courtesy of the Mono Lake Committee 

David Gaines demonstrates that floating in the superalkaline 

water is almost effortless. 

Salt 

The most important abiotic factor in Mono Lake is high salt content. In fact, Mono Lake contains about 280 million tons of dissolved 

salts. These salts are composed of many different salts, one of which is sodium chloride or table salt. This makes the water alkaline. 

Alkaline water is basic (as opposed to acidic). The alkali salts raise the pH to about 10, and the water feels slippery between your 

fingers. If you wanted to make your own Mono Lake water at home, you would stir up this recipe. 

37 ml sodium chloride (table salt) 

67 ml sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) 

10 ml magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt) 

a pinch of sodium borate (borax) 

a pinch of phosphate (detergent) 

1 liter water 

Light and temperature 

Mono Lake is wedged between the Great Basin (a high desert) and the Sierra Nevada at an elevation of about 2000 meters (6560 feet). 

At this elevation winter temperatures are cold, rarely going over 5°C (41°F) during the day and plunging to –8°C (18°F) at night. Days are 

short during the winter, with only 9 hours of light on December 21, the winter solstice. 

During the summer, temperatures are generally pleasant, averaging 28°C (82°F) for highs and falling to 9°C (48°F) at night. The longest 

summer days are 15 hours long. 


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During the summer a layer of warm water forms on top of the lake. When fall weather sets in, that top layer is chilled. As it cools, the 

water contracts and gets denser. In the fall the surface water gets dense enough to plunge to the bottom of the lake. This is a 

phenomenon known as turnover. The force of the turnover brings nutrients to the surface, starting an algal bloom that establishes the 

base of the food web in the Mono Lake ecosystem. 

Precipitation and water 

Rain and snow are critically important to the stability of Mono Lake. Typical total annual precipitation is around 35 centimeters (14 

inches). That isn't a lot. Fresh water coming into the lake is essential to offset the water lost to evaporation. 

If less water comes into the lake than is lost to evaporation, the lake will shrink, but the amount of salt will not. As a result, the lake 

water will get saltier. This is exactly what happened between 1941 and 1981. Water was diverted out of streams that delivered fresh 

water to Mono Lake, and the lake declined steadily for 40 years. By 1981, the volume of the lake was down by half, and the salt 

concentration had doubled. The water level in the lake had dropped 13.7 meters (45 feet), exposing hundreds of tufa towers that had been 

hidden below the lake's surface. 


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4/16/03 3:18 PM 

Courtesy of Mono Lake Committee 

Water level fluctuations since 1850 

Tufa Towers 

Some of the most dramatic features of Mono Lake are the tufa (TOO•fah) towers. These strangely shaped spires rise from the water near 

the shoreline. Tufa towers form underwater over springs. When the carbonate-rich spring water comes in contact with the sodium 

bicarbonate (baking soda) in the water, the carbonate precipitates and forms limestone. The limestone builds up over the spring, and 

after centuries a tufa tower forms. Some are as tall as 9 meters (30 feet). 

Tufa towers became visible above the water when the water level began dropping in 1941. Once exposed, the towers are subjected to 

weather, resulting in rapid erosion. 


Tufa towers formed underwater for 

centuries until a drop in the water level 

exposed them. 


Some tufa towers are completely exposed 

on dry land. Lost in vegetation, they are 

subjected to weathering and erosion. 

Islands 

The two islands in Mono Lake, Negit and Paoha, provide critical shelter for many of the lake's nesting birds, particularly the California 

gull. Isolation on the islands provides protection from predatory animals, such as coyotes. 


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Negit (left) and Paoha (right) islands provide protected nesting grounds for 

migrating birds. 

BIOTIC DATA 

Even though it has none of the organisms you might expect to find in a lake, like fish and frogs, Mono Lake is filled with life. It is one of 

the most productive ecosystems in North America. The base of the food web is microscopic planktonic algae. During the winter and early 

spring, after the lake has turned over, bringing nutrients to the surface layer of water, algae reproduce very quickly. By March the lake is 

"as green as pea soup" with photosynthesizing algae. 

Art Explosion 

Blooms of planktonic and benthic algae 

give the water a green cast. 

Art Explosion 

Migrating birds stop at Mono Lake to eat 

brine shrimp and brine flies that feed on 

the algae. 

At this time countless 

brine shrimp hatch out of their hard-shelled cysts on the bottom of the lake. Microscopic themselves at first, they 


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4/16/03 3:18 PM 

feed eagerly on the algae, and after a few weeks they mature and produce a huge second generation of brine shrimp. In June and July, 4 

or 5 trillion mature brine shrimp, each about 1 centimeter (0.4 inches) long, fill the lake. 

At the same time, the larvae of the brine flies (also known as alkali flies) that have been inactive on the lake bottom wake up and start 

eating the benthic algae that grow on the lake bottom. By midsummer, millions of brine flies are skittering across the surface of the lake. 


California gulls feeding on brine flies at the 

shoreline. The darker area at the water's edge is 

adult brine flies. 


Brine fly larvae and adults cover the lake bottom and 

the shoreline. 

The bounty of shrimp and flies is eaten by huge numbers of birds. Nesting birds include 50,000 California gulls (85% of California's 

breeding population and second largest colony in the world) and 400 snowy plovers (11% of the state's breeding population). Migratory 

birds include 1–2 million eared grebes (30% of the North American population), 80,000 Wilson's phalaropes (10% of the world 

population), 60,000 red-necked phalaropes (3% of the world population), and smaller numbers of 79 other species of water birds. 



A pair of mating brine shrimp 

Millions of birds feed on the trillions of brine shrimp in Mono 

Lake. 

Mono Lake is a critically important feeding stop for birds migrating south from Canada. The phalaropes and grebes arrive at the lake 

completely depleted of energy reserves. They linger there for several weeks, gorging on shrimp and flies until they have doubled their 

body weight with high-energy fats. Refueled and refreshed, they can complete their migration to Central and South America. 

With the departure of the last migrating birds, Mono Lake is briefly quiet. The surface is devoid of life—no flies, no birds. The lake water 

is clear and still. The brine shrimp ate all the algae, and in turn were eaten by the migratory birds. The brine shrimp egg cysts lie waiting 

on the lake bottom with the dormant larvae of the brine flies. The chill of autumn closes in, and Mono Lake gets cold. Then the lake turns 

over for the 760 thousandth time, and the few remaining algae respond. The cycle repeats. 

ISSUES 

There is really only one issue at Mono Lake...fresh water. Life depends on it in Mono Lake as surely as it does in every other ecosystem 


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4/16/03 3:18 PM 

on Earth. Humans have a tremendous thirst for water, and whenever they see an opportunity to gather some up and apply it to human 

use and enterprise, they usually do. 

The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power looked at the streams running out of the Sierra Nevada into what seemed to be a 

salty, useless lake, and contracted to build a system of diversion dams to ship the water south for Angelinos. The project was completed 

in 1941, and virtually all the water destined for Mono Lake was piped to southern California. Without the annual inflow of fresh water, the 

lake began to dry up. The lake level, standing at 1956.5 meters (6417 feet) in 1941, began a steady decline. The water level dropped 30 

centimeters (1 foot) or so each year. Twenty years later the lake stood at 1950 meters (6396 feet), a drop of 6.5 meters (21 feet) since 

the onset of diversion. 

Courtesy of Mono Lake Committee Courtesy of Mono Lake Committee Courtesy of Mono Lake Committee 

Photo taken in 1962 when the water level was 

already 7.5 meters (25 feet) below the 

original level. 

The same tufa towers in a photo taken in 

1968. 

The tufa towers are completely exposed in 

this photo taken in 1995. 

By the mid-1970s the lake level was down 12 meters (40 feet). The lake held half the amount of water it had before diversions started. 

The effects were starting to show in the ecosystem. The salt was twice as concentrated, and this stressed the populations of primary 

consumers, the brine flies and brine shrimp. The shrimp were not growing as large as usual, and their numbers were declining. This 

became clear in 1981 when the brine shrimp production was so reduced that the 50,000 breeding California gulls were not able to catch 

enough shrimp to feed their offspring, and 25,000 half-grown chicks starved to death. A generation of California gulls was lost. 

Furthermore, the water was so low at this time that a land bridge developed, connecting Negit Island to the mainland. This allowed 

predators like coyotes to walk to the nesting area, where they ate the gull eggs and chicks and drove the adults away. 

In addition to the changes to the lake populations, the lower water level caused other problems. As water evaporated, the lake shrank 

exposing a layer of alkaline salts. High winds stir up these salts and create toxic dust storms. These dust storms are a health hazard for 

everyone living in the Mono Lake basin. 


A rim of salts appeared as the water level dropped. 


High winds stir up an alkaline dust storm that 

decreases visibility. 

In 1978 a young man named David Gaines recognized the plight of Mono Lake and founded an action group called the Mono Lake 

Committee. He started to work on ways to reverse the damage done by the water diversions. He worked tirelessly with the National 

Audubon Society, California Trout, the California Department of Fish and Game, the U.S. Forest Service, and the Los Angeles 

Department of Water and Power (LADWP) to find solutions to the problem. Often the issues ended up in court. 

In 1984 the first of several lawsuits was decided in favor of Mono Lake. The LADWP was ordered to release 0.57 cubic meters (19 cubic 

feet) of water per second into the lake. In 1986 another suit resulted in the release of another 0.3 cubic meter (10 cubic feet) per second. 


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The lake was now maintaining, but not regaining its level. (Note: 1 cubic foot per second is about 450 gallons of water per minute!) 

David Gaines was killed in an automobile accident in 1988, but the work that he started continued. The California Supreme Court issued 

a landmark decision on September 28, 1994. It ruled that the LADWP had to renegotiate its license. It was required to release enough 

water to restore the lake to a level of 1948 meters (6391 feet), and enough water after that to stabilize Mono Lake at that level. This is 

expected to take 10–20 years. By October 1998, the water elevation was 1946 meters (6384 feet) and still rising. While 1948 meters 

(6391 feet) is below the pre-diversion level, it represents a compromise between the needs of natural systems and the needs of people. 


Brush and shrubs that grew around exposed tufa towers die as the alkaline water inches 

back. 

This water level should guarantee the vitality of the ecosystem, prevent a land bridge from reaching Negit Island, allow trout to spawn in 

the freshwater creeks feeding Mono Lake, and ensure excellent scenic views for Mono Lake visitors. On September 28, 1994, the day of 

the decision, Marc Del Piero of the State Water Resources Control Board proclaimed, "Let this be known as the day we saved Mono 

Lake." 

Is Mono Lake saved? What demand will be placed on the precious fresh water flowing into the briny lake when California's human 

population, which is 35 million, reaches 50 million or more in a generation or two? Will we still have the will to protect the lake for the 

benefit of the shrimp, flies, and migratory birds? They do have a valid claim...they were here 760,000 years before us. 

THE DEBATE 

Before making decisions that affect an ecosystem, it is important to gather information from a variety of sources. Below are the views of 

several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of Mono Lake. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of 

the quote. Refer to these sites for more information. 


DEBATE: Should water be diverted from Mono Lake to southern California? 

People who support water-diversion level outlined by the 1998 court decision 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power official 

"Our conservation efforts and contol of the lands in the Mono Lake basin has made the area a desirable vacation spot." 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Recreational Uses of City of Los Angeles, Eastern Sierra Land 

"The Eastern Sierra is truly a recreation paradise, from the tall mountain peaks laced with lakes and streams to the valley floors. Visitors 

to, and residents of, this beautiful area will find much to enjoy. Most of the land is owned and administered by the United States Forest 

Service and the Bureau of Land Management." 

http://web.ladwp.com/~wsoweb/Aqueduct/recuses/recreationindex.htm 

Birdwatcher 

"In 1987 only 10,594 birds were counted in our annual fall shorebird count. In 2001 there were 40,606 and that doesn't even include the 

California gulls or eared grebes. There were over 28,000 red-necked phalaropes. Mono Lake is returning to its pre-diversion numbers of 

birds." 

Mono Basin Clearinghouse, Raw Data and Field Notes from Mono Lake - http://www.monobasinresearch.org/data/index.html 

People who support returning Mono Lake to its prediversion level 


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4/16/03 3:18 PM 

Ornithologist studying birds at Mono Lake 

"Even though the water has risen, the habitat used by the waterfowl is still in danger." 

David Carle, park ranger, Mono Lake Tufa State Reserve, The Mono Lake Water Issue: An Update as of October 1998 

"The Water Board decision recognizes that some of Mono Lake's pre-diversion qualities will not be restored at the 6392 level. A waterfowl 

habitat restoration plan is also required, to help mitigate lost shoreline qualities that once attracted close to a million ducks and geese." 

http://www.thesierraweb.com/sightseeing/monolake/update.html 

Conservationist 

"People in cities need to work more on conservation methods to use less water. Then they won't have to divert as much water from areas 

like Mono Lake." 

Living Lakes, Water Diversion for Urban Use 

"Solutions involve finding ways for the urban area to use less water. The most cost effective way to do this is to implement water 

conservation measures. Low-flow plumbing fixtures (showerheads, toilets, and faucets) are the most permanent method, although 

changing behavioral practices can be extremely effective. The City of Los Angeles reduced its water use by 30% during a drought in 1991 

by requiring residents to conserve water, and it has maintained a 1970s level of water use despite a population increase of 1 million 

people." 

http://www.livinglakes.org/issues/diversions.htm 

Mono Lake Committee, Restoration 

"On Lee Vining Creek, several historic channels have been reopened and rewatered downstream from Highway 395, providing fish habitat 

and recharging the groundwater table so that riparian vegetation can become reestablished across portions of the former floodplain. 

Willow, cottonwood, and Jeffrey pine seedlings have been planted generally in areas too removed from the stream channels to be 

regenerated naturally. Livestock grazing was excluded from the riparian corridor to promote vegetative recovery. Mechanical work such as 

digging pools and laying gravel bars was tried when flows were lower, but now the emphasis of restoration is on mimicking natural flows." 

http://www.monolake.org/politicalhistory/restore.htm 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

Mono Lake Committee - http://www.monolake.org/index.html 

American University, Trade Environment Database, TED Case Studies, The Los Angeles Aqueduct and the Owens and Mono Lakes 

(MONO Case) - http://www.american.edu/TED/MONO.HTM 

Center for the Study of the Environment, Mono Lake: A Lesson in Environmental Problem Solving - http://www.naturestudy.org/projects/ 

mono.htm 

David Carle, park ranger, Mono Lake Tufa State Reserve, The Mono Lake Water Issue: An Update as of October 1998 - http:// 

www.thesierraweb.com/sightseeing/monolake/update.html 

Eastern Sierra Webpage, Lee Vining & Mono Lake - http://www.thesierraweb.com/sightseeing/monolake.html 

Institute for Computational Earth System Science, Biogeographical Processes Group, Mono Lake map - http://www.icess.ucsb.edu/ 

biogeo/mono1/mono.html 

Living Lakes, Mono Lake - http://www.livinglakes.org/mono/ 

Living Lakes, Water Diversion for Urban Use - 

http://www.livinglakes.org/issues/diversions.htm 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Mono Basin Watershed: Mono Lake Level Restoration - http://web.ladwp.com/~wsoweb/ 

Aqueduct/WatershedMgmtWeb/monobasin.htm 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Recreational Uses of City of Los Angeles, Eastern Sierra Land - http://web.ladwp.com/ 

~wsoweb/Aqueduct/recuses/recreationindex.htm 

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Welcome to the Los Angeles Aqueduct - 

Mono Basin Clearinghouse, Mono Basin Reports and Studies Online - 

http://web.ladwp.com/~wsoweb/Aqueduct/ 

http://www.monobasinresearch.org/onlinereports/index.html 


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Mono Basin Clearinghouse, Raw Data and Field Notes from Mono Lake - http://www.monobasinresearch.org/data/index.html 

Mono Basin Clearinghouse, Summary of Mono Lake Litigation and Legislation - 

Mono Lake Committee, Restoration - http://www.monolake.org/politicalhistory/restore.htm 

Mono Lake Tufa State Reserve - http://www.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page_id=514 

http://www.monobasinresearch.org/timelines/polchr.htm 

Mono Lake, Water Resources Control Board Decision 1631 - http://www.appliedhydrogeology.com/Mono%20Lake%20- 

%20Water%20Resources%20Control%20Board%20Decision%201631.htm 

Sierra Gateway Maps, Mono Lake map - http://www.sierragatewaymap.com/mono-map.html 


Page 11 of 11

Ecoscenario: Monongahela National Forest 

4/16/03 3:20 PM 

Monongahela National Forest 

INTRODUCTION 

file:///Ecoscenario/mononga/content.html 

Page 1 of 11


4/16/03 3:20 PM 

Carr Clifton, Minden Pictures 

Fall colors of deciduous trees in Monongahela National Forest. 

Monongahela National Forest is located in the Allegheny Mountains of West Virginia. This national forest covers over 

364,000 hectares (909,000 acres) in the eastern part of the state, spread across ten West Virginia counties, and is the 

fourth largest national forest in the northeaste United States. The landscape is rugged with spectacular views of exposed 

rocks, spring floral displays, and the changing fall leaves of the deciduous forest. 


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4/16/03 3:20 PM 


Monongahela National Forest covers a large area in eastern 

West Virginia. 

In the 1880s forests in the Allegheny Mountains and throughout the Northeast were extensively logged for timber. Clearcut 

logging removed all vegetation in many areas. This increased the erosion of soil, which washed into streams and 

polluted water with mud and silt. In the Monongahela region, two major forest fires, one starting near a Civil War camp and 

another by lumbering activity, further increased the amount of silt washed into streams. 

President Theodore Roosevelt created the National Forest Service to protect forests and watersheds and to prevent further 

damage. In 1908 the U.S. Congress allocated money to determine which watersheds should be protected. In 1911 the 

Weeks Act passed, allowing the Forest Service to acquire forested land that would help protect these watersheds. Among 

the first lands bought was 2900 hectares (7200 acres) near the Monongahela river. This land became Monongahela 

National Forest on April 28, 1920. 

Courtesy of John Warner 

The Monongahela River is one of six rivers 

with headwaters in Monongahela National 

Forest. 


Page 3 of 11


4/16/03 3:20 PM 

The U.S. Forest Service's mission was to promote the most beneficial use of the forest rescources without damaging the 

native environment. Prior to the creation of the National Forest Service, most forests were harvested for the large trees that 

yield the most lumber. Smaller, immature trees were cut to make removal of the larger trees easier and were left to decay 

where they fell. Most logging operations began at the mouth of a river and worked upward, toward the headwaters. It was 

believed that, by the time the operation reached the headwaters the forest at the mouth would have regenerated. But as 

logging operations became bigger and more efficient at removing trees, many watersheds were completely logged before 

any regrowth had occured. 

The Monongahela area was covered with virgin spruce forest, mixed with hemlock, white oak, and poplar prior to logging. 

Today, the forest is primarily a second-growth forest of more than 75 species of trees, such as black cherry, oak, 

hemlock, and poplar, with some spruce. 

Monongahela National Forest is a popular vacation area. It is within a day's drive of one-third of the population in the 

United States and is a popular destination for camping, hiking, fishing, and hunting. Elevations in the rugged terrain range 

from 274 to 1482 meters (899 to 4861 feet). The headwaters for the Monongahela, Potomac, Greenbrier, Elk, Tygart, and 

Gauley Rivers lie within the forest. 

The forest also provides jobs and income to the local economy through the lumber industry, as well as coal mining and 

natural gas wells. Management of these natural resources is monitored by the U.S. Forest Service. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

The climate at Monongahela National Forest is characterized by warm summers and cold winters. In the summer, the 

temperature averages 19.7°C (67.5°F). In the winter, it drops to 1°C (33.8°F). Sometimes there is snow, but most of the 

precipitation falls as rain. The peak growing season is about 6 months long, slowing in the fall and winter due to cold 

temperatures and snowfall. 

There are no distinct wet and dry seasons. A rain shadow affects the amount of rain received on the west and east sides 

of the forest. Storms usually come from the west, dropping most of their moisture as they rise over the Allegheny 

Mountains. As the storm passes over the eastern half of the forest, two-thirds of the moisture has already fallen as rain. In 

some years, the western half of Monongahela National Forest may receive as much as 150 centimeters (60 inches) of 

precipitation, while the eastern half receives only 75 centimeters (30 inches). 


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Elevation varies considerably in Monongahela National Forest. The lowest elevation is 275 meters (902 feet) at 

Petersburg. The highest peak is Spruce Knob, with an elevation of 1482 meters (4861 ft.). 

The soil and substrate in Monongahela National Forest is a deep layer of organic material formed from decaying leaves 

and wood. 

BIOTIC DATA 

Forests, including the deciduous forest at Monongahela, have layers. The canopy layer, includes the tops of the tallest 

trees. Below that is a layer of saplings and small trees. The shrub and herb layer is closer to the ground and is 

sometimes called the understory. On the forest floor is the ground layer, covered in the shortest plants and leaf litter. 

Art Explosion 

The understory of the deciduous forest contains 

mosses, ferns, lichens, and herbaceous plants. 


Springs and small streams throughout the 

forest keep the forest floor moist. 

In Monongahela National Forest there are 75 species of trees, including the sugar maple. This canopy tree stands 21–30 

meters (70–100 feet) tall. In the trees live many species of birds. Over 230 species, including robins, woodcocks, and wild 

turkeys, are known to live in the forest, either year-round or during migrations. The trees with birds also harbor squirrels, 


Page 5 of 11


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bats, and insects. In the tallest trees, flying squirrels can be seen gliding from tree to tree. 

Saplings of sugar maple trees are mixed with adult American beech and black cherry trees. These trees prefer welldrained 

soils, so might grow in areas a little too dry for sugar maples. Beech trees provide very dense shade in summer 

under which very few plants can grow. 

Charles Palek, Earth Scenes 

Flame azaleas in the shrub layer of the forest burst 

into bloom in the spring. 

John Sohlden, Visuals Unlimited 

Young beech trees grow so densely that sunshine 

is almost completely blocked from the forest floor. 

Where the shade from the canopy and sapling layers is not too dense, there is a shrub layer. In open woodlands areas 

catawba rhododendrons, red elderberry, and flame azaleas grow and bloom. The flowers of these woody shrubs brighten 

the forest in late May and early June. Fruit from the cherry trees and elderberries attract birds, raccoons, opossums, 

white-tailed deer, black bears, and humans. 

In open areas in or near the forest live other animals like the red fox and the woodchuck. Black bears, skunks, and whitetailed 

deer wander across the forest, looking for food and shelter. Raccoons, bobcats, and opossums also climb in the 

trees. 


Virginia opossum 

Near streams, where elderberries grow, is a good place to look for spotted salamanders. They spend most of their time in 

the moist forest soil and leaf litter. Tree trunks near streams often bear the toothmarks of American beavers, which use 

logs to build dams and lodges. The fisher, a weasel, is often found near water, but generally avoids open spaces. 

Round-leaved sundews grow in wetter areas of the open woodlands. Insects attracted to the sundew get caught on its 

sticky leaves. Chemicals in this sticky sap slowly break down the dead insects, and the sundew absorbs the nutrients. 


Page 6 of 11


4/16/03 3:20 PM 

The ground layer contains a mixture of lichens, clubmosses, and moss. These organisms, along with the roots of the 

taller plants, help keep the soil in place. Moss covers the ground in damp shady places, and may grow at the base of tree 

trunks or on decaying stumps. Mushrooms, earthworms, and bacteria are also important in this layer, as they break down 

detritus and return nutrients to the soil. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is high, about 4650 kilocalories/ 

square meter/year of plant material. 

Except for 52 hectares (130 acres) the deciduous forest of Monongahela today is a secondary forest. Secondary forests 

are seldom as diverse as the primary, or original old-growth, forest. The trees tend to be smaller, both because older trees 

have been removed and because growth is stunted. More than a century ago, in Monongahela National Forest, the 

primary trees were spruce and white pine with interspersed hardwood, or deciduous, trees. There were some very large 

trees. Hemlocks, white oaks, and poplars had diameters of almost 2 meters (6.5 feet). The understory was predominantly 

laurels. A remnant of this virgin forest, the Gaudineer Knob Scenic Area, was spared from logging. 

ISSUES 

The mission of the U.S. Forest Service is to manage the resources of forest and grasslands for the public. It was originally 

established in 1905 to provide quality water and timber to the country. Congress directed the Forest Service to manage 

the renewable resources as well as public recreational use. 

Its mission also includes active research in the fields of forestry, rangeland management, and forest resource utilization. 

At issue in Monongahela National Forest is how logging activities should be conducted within the forest boundaries. 

How are natural and logged forests different? 

Before logging, forests experienced gaps and thinning only when trees fell naturally due to age, disease, or animal action 

like beaver gnawing. A forest had tipped-up roots, dead snags, and downed trees. These created habitat for birds and 

other animals. 

Forestry techniques vary, from the cutting of single trees, to cutting small plots at different times, to clear cutting large 

areas. Anything except cutting of single trees leads to areas where all the trees are the same age and height, and the 

understory is very simple. Trees are harvested for commercial purposes before they die a natural death. 


Page 7 of 11


4/16/03 3:20 PM 

Courtesy of John Warner 

Blackwater Canyon is privately owned land 

that borders Monongahela National Forest. It 

has recently been opened to logging. 

Courtesy of Steve Holmer, American Lands Alliance 

Temporary road cut through 

Monongahela National Forest to remove 

felled trees. 

In most logging operations, roads are built to get equipment and trucks into the area. Logs are hauled offsite to a mill, cut 

into boards, and sold by the lumber companies. 

Logging in West Virginia 

In the early 1800s, the forests of West Virginia were filled with large spruce, hemlock, white oak, and poplar trees. These 

trees were attractive to logging interests, which began clearing the trees for lumber. Spruce and pine trees were the first 

trees cut, because their trunks float in water, making transportation to sawmills easier. When the spruce trees had mostly 

been cut, logging efforts focused on other species. Black cherry and white oak were the most valuable timber hardwoods. 

At first, lumbering progress was slow because it used inefficient techniques like simple cross-cutting and water-powered 

mills. In 1880 circular saws and steam engines arrived, and large-scale "production" milling began. A few years later, 

logging techniques advanced with the addition of band saws, which could cut logs into boards very quickly. It would take 7 

hectares (17 acres) of trees a day to keep a band-saw mill running. A new type of locomotive engine, called the Shay 

locomotive, further increased logging activity. Because it could climb hills and make sharper turns, this engine allowed 

trains to be used to remove logs. 

Between 1880 and 1920 most of the forests in West Virginia had been logged. When large trees are cleared from a forest, 

there are fewer living plants to help keep the soil intact. Silt and soil ran into streams, polluting streams and the 

downstream watersheds. The ash and soot from forest fires in the area, started by Civil War activity or logging operations, 

further damaged waterways. Because people need fresh water for drinking, bathing, agriculture, and industry, this pollution 

was not desirable. 


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4/16/03 3:20 PM 

In 1905 the U.S. Congress gave the Forest Service money to determine which watersheds should be protected. The 

Forest Service needed to acquire the rights to forested land near these watershed to keep them from being damaged. The 

Weeks Act in 1911 allowed it to do this. The land that became Monongahela National Forest was among the first areas 

the Forest Service purchased. 

Most of the forested areas in Monongahela National Forest today are secondary forests. The old-growth trees were clearcut 

between 1880 and 1920, because bigger trees mean better boards with fewer knots. Logging practices continue in 

Monongahela National Forest, such as removing single trees or clear-cutting 10-hectare (25-acres) blocks. 

Current logging laws 

Some government officials, such as Georgia representative Cynthia McKinney, are sponsoring an act that would end the 

sale of timber from federal lands, and would help restore 100 years of damage to national forests. 

Before leaving office, President Bill Clinton signed a plan that would make 24 million hectares (60 million acres) off limits 

to new roads and most logging. This plan includes 31% of all U.S. Forest Service lands. Under this plan, some current 

logging operations could continue, but new projects would not be allowed. As of spring 2002, this plan was still under 

review. 

THE DEBATE 

Before making decisions that affect an ecosystem, it is important to gather information from a variety of sources. Below 

are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of the Monongahela National Forest. After 

each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more information. 


DEBATE: How should logging be conducted in national forests? 

People who support increased logging in national forests 

Steven J. Milauskas, forest operations specialist, West Virginia University Appalachian Hardwood Center, What Is Low- 

Impact Logging? 

"Generally, gentle logging systems incorporate several practices that most foresters, landowners, and conscientious 

loggers could agree on regardless of the type of equipment used...having a good understanding among landowner, logger, 

and forester of how the site will be harvested, what will be removed, how it will be removed, and measures taken to protect 

and enhance the remaining stand of trees." 

http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/logging.htm 

Logging company operator 

"There are new laws in place that regulate how logging operators conduct the logging so that we protect the environment 

and don't pollute the rivers. If we increase our production, we still have to follow those guidelines. If we don't, we get hit 

with some pretty big fines." 

West Virginia Logging Sediment Control Act 

"The law, and accompanying regulations, empowers the Division of Forestry to issue compliance orders to correct 

problems and, when necessary, to suspend a logging operation until specified corrections are made to bring the operation 

into compliance with the law. The operation may be immediately suspended when human life is endangered, 

uncorrectable damage to the environment is imminent, an operator is not licensed, uncorrectable water pollution may 

result, or a certified logger is not supervising the operation." 

http://www.wvu.edu/~exten/depts/af/ahc/wvlsca.pdf (pdf file) 

People who discourage increased logging in national forests 

Woodworker 

"A lot of products come from the forest without having to cut all of the trees down. If the forest is clear-cut, all of those 

industries will be affected." 

William N. Grafton, wildlife specialist, West Virginia University Extension Service, Forest Provides Income from Crafts, 

Edibles, and More 

"A typical logging operation removes only the best wood and leaves the rest behind. This 'rest' includes the stumps, 

knots, burls, and tree forks that craftsmen prefer for bowls, carvings, tabletops, etc. These tree sections contain the 

fancy, wavy, swirling grain patterns valued by craftsmen." 


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4/16/03 3:20 PM 

http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/frestinc.htm 

Lumber company owner 

"We have always cut timber on federal lands. They are the forestry experts and manage it so my company will have 

timber to cut into the future." 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Mission Statement 

"Mission: The mission of the USDA Forest Service is to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of the Nation’s 

forests and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations." 

http://www.fs.fed.us/aboutus/mission.shtml 

Homes, paper, furniture, and other products are made 

from wood. 

Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

Much of the wood logged 

in Monongahela National 

Forest has been used to 

build furniture, like 

rocking chairs. 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Monongahela National Forest - http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/mnf/index.shtml 

Appalachian Focus Logging News, Man Imprisoned for Selling Stolen Monongahela Trees - http:// 

www.appalachianfocus.org/_logging1/00000038.htm 

Charleston Gazette Online, The Forest for the Trees - 

http://www.wvgazette.com/static/series/timber/ 

Environmental News Service, National Forest Logging Costs Outweigh Benefits - http://ens-news.com/ens/mar2000/2000- 

03-13-06.asp 

Environmental News Service, Judge Blocks National Forest Roadless Rule - http://ens-news.com/ens/may2001/2001-05- 

11-06.asp 

Gerald Williams, Forest History Society, Controversy over Clearcutting, - 

http://www.lib.duke.edu/forest/usfscoll/policy/ 


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4/16/03 3:20 PM 

Forest_Management/Clearcutting/index.html 

Steven J. Milauskas, forest operations specialist, West Virginia University Appalachian Hardwood Center, What Is Low- 

Impact Logging? - http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/logging.htm 

Tom Cain, Fisheries Biologist, Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia Watershed Network, Lessons from Seneca 

Creek - http://www.nrac.wvu.edu/wvwn/newsletters/summer98/seneca.htm 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, The Fernow Experimental Forest - http://www.fs.fed.us/ne/parsons/ 

fefhome.htm 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Mission Statement - 

http://www.fs.fed.us/aboutus/mission.shtml 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Monongahela National Forest, Forest Planning - http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/ 

mnf/environmental/environmental_index.htm 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Monongahela National Forest, Wilderness Areas - http://www.fs.fed.us/ 

r9/mnf/sp/wilderness_areas.htm 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Glady Fork Environmental Impact Statement, Monongahela National Forest, 

Randolph and Tucker Counties, West Virginia - http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-IMPACT/2002/July/Day-05/i16816.htm 

Water Quality and Best Management Plans for Loggers - http://www.usabmp.net/launch.html?state=wv 

Watershed Atlas, Explore the Monongahela Watershed - 

Westvaco Natural Resources Center, West Virginia Forestry Facts - 

http://www.watershedatlas.org/fs_explrmon.html 

http://www.caf.wvu.edu/westvaco/facts.htm 

West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Black Bear Research in Southern West Virginia - http://www.dnr.state.wv.us/ 

wvhunting/bbrp.htm 

West Virginia Division of Natural Resources, Research Updates - http://www.dnr.state.wv.us/wvhunting/research.htm 

West Virginia Logging Sediment Control Act - http://www.wvu.edu/~exten/depts/af/ahc/wvlsca.pdf (pdf file) 

West Virginia University Extension Service, Center for Agriculture, Natural Resouces, and Community Development, 

Forestry and Wood Products - http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/forestry.htm 

West Virginia Watershed Network - http://www.nrac.wvu.edu/wvwn/ 

William N. Grafton, wildlife specialist, West Virginia University Extension Service, Forest Provides Income from Crafts, 

Edibles, and More - http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/forestry/frestinc.htm 


Page 11 of 11

Ecoscenario: Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

INTRODUCTION 

file:///Ecoscenario/monterey/content.html 

Page 1 of 14


4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Kenneth W. Fink, Photo Researchers 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary starts at the shoreline and extends up to 50 km (31 

miles) into the ocean. 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary is one of 13 national marine sanctuaries. A marine sanctuary is like a national 

park in the ocean. Monterey Bay is the largest of all the marine sanctuaries, covering 13,730 square kilometers (5360 

square miles). The sanctuary is in the Pacific temperate ocean. It stretches from San Francisco to Santa Barbara, and 

extends from the shore into the ocean an average of 50 kilometers (31 miles). 


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4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Courtesy of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

This relief map of Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary shows 

the extent of the continental shelf and the location of ocean 

canyons. 

In the 1800s Americans recognized the need to protect certain areas of the United States from development and to 

preserve them in their natural state. This led to the establishment of Yellowstone National Park in 1872, the National 

Forest Service in 1905, and the National Park Service in 1916. The oceans and coastal waters were not included in either 

of these systems. It was not until 1969, when a huge oil spill devastated the coastline of southern California, that the need 

to protect North America's coastal waters came to public attention. 

The national marine sanctuary system was established in 1972. A sanctuary protects ocean waters, the habitats in them, 

and the local cultural history. Activities like dumping waste and drilling for oil are not allowed. Activities like fishing and 

recreation are permitted but regulated. In 1977 Monterey Bay was included in a study to designate it as a sanctuary. 

People fought to include the central coast of California to protect it from oil drilling. Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary was designated by congress on September 18, 1992, as the 11th and largest sanctuary in the system. As of 

2000, with the designation of Thunder Bay in the Great Lakes, there are 13 national marine sanctuaries in the United 

States. 

The central coast of California supports a unique ecosystem known as the kelp forest. Several varieties of kelp (algae) 

grow from the rocky seabed to the ocean surface. These "forests" of kelp are home to fish, sea otters, snails, sea urchins, 

crabs, and many other living things. The kelp forest is one of the natural features people were hoping to protect by 

founding the sanctuary. 


Page 3 of 14


4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Courtesy of John Schexnayder 

Patches of kelp forest often occur close to shore. 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary also has other coastal and near-coastal marine habitats. These include sandy 

beaches, coastal dunes, rocky intertidal, and deep ocean. In the spring, water from deep underwater canyons moves up 

to the surface. The water is cold and contains lots of nutrients that help phytoplankton grow. This movement of water to 

the ocean surface is called upwelling. Upwelling brings nutrients up to the layer of water that has sunlight, resulting in high 

productivity by phytoplankton in Monterey Bay. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

The ocean is influenced by abiotic factors in the air and water, and along the ocean bottom. Monterey Bay National 

Marine Sanctuary is affected by ocean currents, nutrient upwelling, and El Niño events. The shape of the seabed and the 

strength of waves are also important. 

A typical day during summer and early fall at Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary is cool, with air temperatures of 

16–18°C (61–64°F). At this time of year, winds blow from the northwest at about 4–4.5 meters/second (8–9 knots). The 

skies may be somewhat cloudy, but rain rarely falls. This is the dry season at Monterey Bay. 


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The wet season is between November and early April. Different amounts of rain fall at different places in Monterey Bay 

National Marine Sanctuary. For instance, at Monterey Bay 48 centimeters (19 inches) of rain falls, while Santa Cruz, just 

40 kilometers (25 miles) north, gets 150 centimeters (60 inches). During the wet season, temperatures are cooler but not 

extremely cold, usually about 10–13°C (50–55°F). A gentler wind blows from the west in the wet season, 2–3 meters/ 

second (4–6 knots). 

Two ocean currents come into Monterey Bay: the California Current and the California Undercurrent. The California Current 

is moving water from the subarctic ocean near Alaska. This water is cool and not very salty. The California Undercurrent 

moves water up from the tropical ocean. This water is warm and salty. The strength of these currents compared to one 

another changes during the year. In the fall and winter, the undercurrent is stronger, so the overall current in Monterey Bay 

National Marine Sanctuary is northward. In the spring and summer, the California Current is stronger. The overall current in 

this season moves water south. 

This mix of subarctic and tropical waters affects the water temperature and salinity at Monterey Bay. Usually the water 

there has a salinity of 0.033%. Average ocean water has a salinity of 0.035%. Streams flowing into the ocean can also 

affect salinity. The water is warmest in the early fall, 15°C (59°F), and coolest in the late winter, 11°C (52°F). Deep water 

is cooler. 


Page 5 of 14


4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Courtesy of NOAA Photo Library 

Light levels are low on the ocean bottom in a kelp forest. 

Light does not penetrate water easily. For this reason, the amount of light on the ocean's surface is not the same amount 

that hits the ocean floor. The top few meters has a lot of light and is called the photic zone. The amount of light decreases 

with depth. In some areas, light can penetrate as deep as 900 meters (3000 feet). In a kelp forest, the light cannot go as 

deep because the kelp is so dense. The area that does not have light is called the aphotic zone. 

When northwest winds blow on the surface of the ocean, they cause deep water upwelling. Upwelling brings cold, nutrientrich 

water to the surface from 25–300 meters (80–1000 feet) below. The surface temperature may drop as much as 5°C 

(9°F) with upwelling. Nutrients, like nitrates, phosphates, and silicates, are brought up to the photic zone. Here they are 

available to organisms that photosynthesize. Upwelling is strongest in the spring. 


In January 1998, during the El Niño event, warm equatorial waters did not contain nutrients needed by 

phytoplankton to grow and produce chlorophyll. 

Every 3 to 7 years, El Niño disrupts the ocean-atmosphere system in the Pacific Ocean. El Niño, which usually occurs in 

the winter, is caused by a change of current patterns near the equator. Weaker equatorial winds cannot draw up the 

colder, nutrient-rich water from deep in the ocean. This allows the warmer, nutrient-poor surface water to flow in the 

currents that feed Monterey Bay. 


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4/16/03 3:22 PM 


By July 1998, at the end of the El Niño event, colder equatorial water appeared. A bloom of photosynthetic 

phytoplankton and chlorophyll indicated increased nutrients. 

During an El Niño year, the water at Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary and along the entire west coast of the 

United States is unusually warm, which results in higher rainfall and more storms. Some years with very strong El Niño 

events were 1982–1983 and 1997–1998. The year following an El Niño usually is a La Niña year. During La Niña, the water 

is cooler than normal. 

Courtesy of Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary 

Rockfish populations are affected by El Niño and La Niña 

conditions. El Niño is not bad for all of the fishes. 

The ocean floor in Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary is mostly hard granite. Some sandy ocean floor is found in 

coves closer to shore. Within the sanctuary, the ocean floor drops gradually at first. This shallow area is the continental 

shelf. As you move farther from land, the ocean floor drops steeply onto the abyssal plain. The sanctuary also has 

underwater canyons up to 4000 meters (13,000 feet) deep. Monterey Canyon is the deepest, and it runs right out from 

Monterey Bay. Because these deep canyons are so close to shore, deep-ocean creatures can be observed near the 

coast, making Monterey Bay a unique area. 


Page 7 of 14


4/16/03 3:22 PM 

BIOTIC DATA 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary is dominated by the ecosystem called a kelp forest. The trees in this forest are 

actually species of algae commonly known as kelp. In Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary there are two dominant 

kinds of kelp. The more common species is giant kelp. It prefers sites with calm water where each individual kelp can live 

for up to 10 years. Giant kelp can grow as much as 0.6 meter (2 feet) a day when it gets enough light. The other species 

is bull kelp. 

It grows mostly in exposed areas with plenty of water motion. It has an annual life cycle. Because these kelp 

prefer different amounts of water motion, giant kelp might be more abundant in calm years, while bull kelp would dominate 

in years with rough surf. 

Like forests on land, kelp forests need sunlight. They grow in the photic zone. Kelp forests usually are found in water 

between 2 and 30 meters (6 and 100 feet) deep. Also, like terrestrial forests, kelp forests have patterns of seasonal 

growth. In the spring, juvenile kelp grow quickly. By summer, there is a lush canopy of kelp. In the fall, growth slows, and 

the kelp fronds become ragged and torn, partly because of the invertebrates that feed on them. In the winter, when the surf 

is higher, kelps tear loose from the ocean floor. Giant kelp grows very slowly in the winter, and bull kelp dies. 

Kelp requires cold temperatures to reproduce sexually, which starts the cycle over each year. During El Niño years, 

however, the temperatures are higher than normal, so the kelp may not be able to reproduce. For giant kelp, this results in 

older, more fragile kelp throughout the kelp forest during the following year. Bull kelp would die back completely if it could 

not reproduce. 


Kelp continues to grow up to 0.6 meter (2 feet) per day after 

reaching the water surface. The fronds form a dense mat along 

the surface. 

The kelp forest can be divided into layers that support different communities of organisms—substrate, midwater, and 

canopy. The substrate layer is at the bottom, where the kelps are attached to rocks with rootlike structures called 

holdfasts. Abalones, bat stars, brittle stars, and sea urchins are a few of the animals found in the substrate layer. 

Lobsters and hermit crabs hide in the rocks and scavenge for bits of detritus. 

The midwater layer is where the leaflike fronds of kelp are suspended in the water. Turban snails and purple-ringed top 

snails cruise up and down the fronds in search of food. Fish, such as garibaldi, sheepheads, and giant kelpfish, swim 

among the fronds. The señorita fish's slender body is easily camouflaged by the kelp fronds. Kelp crabs climb up and 

down the kelp stipe, adding bits of kelp to their carapace for camouflage. 


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4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Art Explosion 

Nudibranchs, related to octopuses and snails, 

graze on kelps. 

Art Explosion 

Hermit crabs scavenge for detritus for food and 

abandoned shells for shelter on the rocky 

substrate. 

The canopy layer is closest to the surface. Here, the kelp blades bob on the surface waves. Colorful nudibranchs 

(NEW•duh•braynks) slide across the kelp blades. Nudibranchs can be found in the substrate layer as well. Some kelp 

fronds are covered with small encrusting bryozoans. Zooplankton and phytoplankton float in the water near the surface, 

moving with the current. 

The sea otter makes its home in the canopy. The sea otter is a marine mammal up to 1.2 meters (4 feet) long and related 

to weasels. It is very rarely seen out of the water. To keep warm in the cold Pacific waters, otters have extremely dense 

fur, which traps air between individual hairs. This keeps the otter's skin dry as it dives to the ocean floor for food. Sea 

otters have a broad diet of shellfish, sea urchins, crab, fish, and snails. Otters use rocks, shells, and even discarded 

glass soda bottles as tools to help break open urchins and shellfish. They may eat up to one-quarter of their weight each 

day. 


Sea otters float atop the kelp forest at Cannery Row. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, changes with the amount of 

upwelling. Kelp forests are one of the most productive ecosystems. During upwelling the productivity is off the chart. The 

average throughout the year is over 7000 kilocalories/square meter/year. 


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4/16/03 3:22 PM 

ISSUES 

A primary concern for the kelp forest is the impact of fishing, kelp harvesting, and ocean farming or mariculture. People 

have used the oceans as a source for food for centuries, fishing and hunting for fish, invertebrates, whales, and other sea 

animals. Historically, fishing and hunting have had a significant impact on the kelp forest ecosystem. 

Fishing 

European traders reported the vast riches of the West Coast oceans in the 1700s. Many countries sent explorers and 

traders to reap the wealth of the kelp forest. The Chinese began harvesting kelp, abalone, squid, and shark in 1850. Italian 

immigrants fished and supplied the markets in San Francisco. By 1900, abalone was so scarce that commercial harvest 

was banned. Offshore fleets of fishing ships came from Japan, Russia, and Vietnam. 

Monterey Bay is the location of Cannery Row, made famous in a book by John Steinbeck. The seemingly inexhaustible 

supply of sardines supported the local canning industry. In the 1940s and 1950s the sardine populations crashed, 

because of overharvesting and pollution. 

The sardine population has not fully recovered from this crash. While over 3 million tons of sardines were harvested 


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4/16/03 3:22 PM 

annually in the 1930s, only 5000 tons were caught each year in the 1970s. Regulations on sardine fishing have helped the 

population increase slowly since the mid-1980s. 

Limited fishing and hunting still occur in Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Several organisms, including kelp and 

abalone, are raised and harvested within the sanctuary. This method for farming the ocean is called mariculture. 

Sea otters 

Another concern was how the hunting of sea otters affected the kelp forest. Sea otters were hunted by Native Americans 

for thousands of years. In the mid-1700s Russia began hunting sea otters. Within 50 years the northern populations in 

Alaska were nearly eliminated. At about this time the Hudson Bay Company began hunting otters down the Pacific coast. 

By the 1920s only one colony existed south of Alaska, at Point Sur, California. The colony's location was kept secret by 

a small group of researchers. All the current California sea otters are descended from this colony. 

As the otters disappeared from some areas, the kelp forests also disappeared. Researchers wondered if the hunting of 

sea otters was related to the disappearance of kelp forests. Sea otters eat sea urchins, which in turn eat kelp. With their 

predator gone, sea urchin populations grew. Large numbers of urchins grazed on kelp stipes and holdfasts, clearing large 

areas of kelp forest. New kelp was quickly eaten by sea urchins. These kelp-free areas patrolled by sea urchins are 

known as urchin barrens. When sea otters returned to these areas, the kelp forest thrived again. 

This graph shows the number of sea otters in Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary from 1900 to 2000. Before sea otter hunting began in 1741, there were 

about 20,000 animals here. 

While the sea otter population along the California coast had grown to almost 2400 in 1995, in the last few years it has 

been declining. Sea otters are having just as many pups, but pups and adults aren't surviving as well. There are several 

possible causes for this decrease. About 40% of the dead sea otters found appear to have died from disease, which could 

be caused by increased pollution. Tissue from some dead otters had high levels of pesticides and agricultural chemicals 

like DDT. Oil from spills penetrates the fur, making it impossible for the underfur to stay dry. Oil and other pollution affects 

the populations of sea otter prey, which could impact sea otter survival as well. 

Accidents, such as being hit by a boat, are responsible for up to 20% of sea otter deaths. A few otters also die each year 

after becoming tangled in gill nets used by commercial fishers. Natural predators such as sharks also play a role. In 

Alaska, orca (killer whales) have recently been preying on sea otters. 

Researchers don't fully understand why the number of sea otters is continuing to drop. 

Giant kelp 


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4/16/03 3:22 PM 

Several species of kelp are harvested from Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Chinese immigrants harvested 

intertidal kelp in the 1850s, sending it back to China to be sold. The first large-scale harvest of kelp began during World 

War I. The kelp was burned and reduced to potash, a key ingredient in gunpowder. 

Early methods of harvesting used cables to encircle large areas of kelp and pull it up. This pulled up everything on the 

ocean bottom and all the organisms living along the stipe. Today, kelp is harvested by cutting the stipes about 1.2 meters 

(4 feet) below the water's surface. The holdfast and most of the stipe remains intact. The kelp regrows quickly and can be 

cut again later. 

Kelp is the source of algin. Algin is an additive that gives foods a smooth and creamy feel. It is found in pudding, salad 

dressing, tomato sauce, bakery icing, gravy, sauces, dietetic salad dressing, and milkshake powder. 

Because the kelp forest ecosystem is so complex, it is hard to say how fishing, hunting, and mariculture may affect 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Giant kelp harvesting is of concern right now because it involves the dominant 

plant of kelp forests. 

What has happened? 

In October 2000 a scientific committee from Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary issued a report on kelp harvesting 

in the sanctuary. This report, which combines the findings of many scientists, makes recommendations about kelp 

harvesting. It suggests that some areas should have no mechanical harvesting, which would separate recreational and 

commercial uses of the kelp forests. It suggests that only giant kelp be harvested and that kelp harvesting should happen 

only in winter, since kelp have already finished annual reproduction by then. It also suggests reducing the amount of kelp 

cover removed. This would mean that a particular bed of kelp would not all be cut at the same time. Another suggested 

strategy is to allow more time for kelp forests to recover from cutting. Some of these suggestions could lead to a cycle of 

kelp abundance in specific beds. There would be "good kelp years" and "bad kelp years" as a result. Such a pattern 

would be difficult for abalone farmers, who need consistent access to kelp in order to keep their farms going. 

THE DEBATE 

Before making decisions that affect an ecosystem, it is important to gather information from a variety of sources. Below 

are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of Monterey Bay National Marine 

Sanctuary. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more 

information. 


DEBATE: Should fishing and giant kelp harvesting be allowed in Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary? 

People who support continuing fishing and kelp harvesting 

Commercial fishing boat operator 

"It's not the fishing industry that is causing a problem in the sanctuary. It's from all the pollution that runs off the 

agricultural areas. That is why the populations of some of the animals here are going down." 

Water Quality Protection Program for Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Action Plan IV: Agriculture and Rural 

Lands 

"The Sanctuary's watersheds receive rainfall, runoff from urban and rural lands, and return flows from irrigation which travel 

downhill to streams, rivers, wetlands, harbors and ultimately out to the Sanctuary. This runoff can pick up a variety of 

potential pollutants such as sediments, oils and grease, nutrients, pesticides, and pathogens, which can then be carried 

to the surrounding rivers and wetland areas that sustain many Sanctuary species." 

http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/resourcepro/reports/AgactionIV_99/ag99_issues.html 

Kelp harvester 

"The sanctuary and NOAA issued a report that says kelp harvesting doesn't affect the kelp forest." 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Kelp Management Report, October 2000 

"The MBNMS Kelp Management Report discusses what is known about kelp harvesting in the MBNMS, as well as the 

known environmental impacts from the activity. This review concludes: 

• When kelp harvesting is done on a limited scale, there is generally little detectable effect on the MBNMS kelp forest 

resources within the Sanctuary, and 

• Few long-term studies exist that can determine the point at which intensive repetitious harvesting, especially in a 


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confined space, will begin to cause significant ecological impacts." 

http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/research/techreports/Kelpreportfinal/execsummary.html 

People who support further limitations on fishing and kelp harvesting 

Pacific Grove resident 

"It is important for us to preserve as much of the coastal environment as possible. Our town just erected signs to help 

people understand the importance of not disturbing the environment. Fishing disturbs the enviroment and should be 

limited." 

Sandy Koffman, mayor of Pacific Grove 

"The City of Pacific Grove is committed to protection and preservation of our shoreline and tidepools. We are grateful to 

the organizations and individuals who have contributed to the development of the new interpretative signs and research 

project, and we look forward to continued collaboration to improve public awareness and understanding of these 

magnificent and fragile resources." 

http://www.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov/intro/press_releases/010208.html 

Marine biologist 

"Just because current kelp harvesting hasn't damaged the kelp forest, it doesn't mean that eventually it won't harm it." 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Kelp Management Report, October 2000 

"The MBNMS Kelp Management Report discusses what is known about kelp harvesting in the MBNMS, as well as the 

known environmental impacts from the activity. This review concludes: 

• When kelp harvesting is done on a limited scale, there is generally little detectable effect on the MBNMS kelp forest 

resources within the Sanctuary, and 

• Few long-term studies exist that can determine the point at which intensive repetitious harvesting, especially in a 

confined space, will begin to cause significant ecological impacts." 

http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/research/techreports/Kelpreportfinal/execsummary.html 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary - http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/ 

Anne Canright, Ocean 98, Ocean Upwelling: So Cold, So Rich with Life - 

http://www.ocean98.org/cacoast2.htm 

California's Nearshore Waters and Open Ocean - http://ceres.ca.gov/ceres/calweb/coastal/waters.html 

Kelp Watch - http://www.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au/index.html 

Kelp Watch, Commercial Giant Kelp Harvesting - http://www.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au/h_c.html 

Monterey Bay Aquarium - http://www.mbayaq.org/ 

Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute - http://www.mbari.org/default.htm 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Kelp Management Report, October 2000 - http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/ 

research/techreports/Kelpreportfinal/welcome.html 

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Site Characterization - http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/sitechar/welcome.html 

Monterey Bay Sanctuary Foundation - http://www.mbnmsf.org/ 


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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Sanctuaries - http://www.sanctuaries.nos.noaa.gov/ 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, What Is an El Niño? - http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-ninostory.html 

Sandy Koffman, mayor of Pacific Grove - http://www.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov/intro/press_releases/010208.html 

Trade and Environmental Database, Sea Urchin Trade - 

http://www.american.edu/TED/urchin.htm 

Water Quality Protection Program for Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, Action Plan IV: Agriculture and Rural 

Lands, Water Quality Issues - http://montereybay.nos.noaa.gov/resourcepro/reports/AgactionIV_99/ag99_issues.html 


Page 14 of 14

Ecoscenario: Saguaro National Park 

4/16/03 3:23 PM 

Saguaro National Park 

INTRODUCTION 

Art Explosion 

Saguaro cactus dominates the landscape at Saguaro National Park. 

file:///Ecoscenario/saguaro/content.html 

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4/16/03 3:23 PM 

Saguaro National Park is in southern Arizona, near Tucson. It is part of the Sonoran Desert of southern California, 

Arizona, and northwestern Mexico. This is one of the most diverse and, by desert standards, the lushest of North 

American deserts. The desert is named for the huge saguaro (suh•WHAH•roh) cactus that dominates the 

landscape. 

The Sonoran Desert was first inhabited by the Tohono O'Odham Indians. They were drawn to the area by the sweet 

fruit of the saguaro cactus. In 1933 the extensive forest of saguaros east of Tucson was made a national monument 

by President Herbert Hoover, to preserve the desert icon. The winter of 1937 was very cold, and some of the 

saguaros were damaged by frost. The skin of the cacti blistered, and some died. People thought that the freeze 

damage was a disease, and they worried that all saguaros were at risk. This led to the preservation of the saguaro 

forest to the west of Tucson. Most of the saguaros in the western section of Saguaro National Monument were 

younger than those in the eastern section. 

Cattle grazing was still allowed in the area, and the cattle trampled young saguaros. In the late 1950s all cattle 

were removed, and the saguaros were allowed to regrow. Because of their slow growth rate, they are still recovering. 

Today the saguaros are either very young or very old, with few middle-age cacti. 

In November 1961, President Kennedy signed a bill and expanded the monument to include Tucson Mountain Park. 

In 1975, 28,900 hectares (71,400 acres) of the Saguaro Wilderness Area was added. On October 14, 1994, 

Saguaro National Park was established from the Saguaro National Monument and Saguaro Wilderness Area for a 

total of 37,000 hectares (91,400 acres). 

In addition to the saguaro desert flora and fauna, the park includes ancient Tohono O'Odham campsites and 

petroglyphs and remnants of ranching, mining, and homesteading. 

Art Explosion 

A dramatic sunset silhouettes saguaro cacti. 

Tucson, Arizona, is surrounded by Saguaro National Park. Many people say that the desert is especially beautiful 

after it rains. After a storm, you can smell the creosote bushes, which some people say "smell like the desert." 

Saguaro National Park had 3.4 million visitors in 1999. Because of its proximity to Tucson, some of the roads in the 

park are used as shortcuts by commuters traveling to homes on the borders of the park. 


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4/16/03 3:23 PM 

ABIOTIC DATA 

The Sonoran Desert is hot. Summer temperatures can range from 38 to 46°C (100 to 115°F) with extremes to 49°C 

(120°F). Evenings quickly cool to lows around 27°C (80°F). Winters are mild, with daytime temperatures of 16–21°C 

(60–70°F) and evening lows of 4°C (39°F). Upper elevations occasionally see freezing temperatures. Southern 

Arizona is a favorite winter vacation destination for people escaping from a harsh northern winter. 

July begins the rainy season and peaks in September. Powerful thunderstorms are fed by moist winds from the Gulf 

of Mexico. Despite the dramatic monsoon rainy season, the Sonoran Desert receives only 2.5–36 centimeters (1– 

14 inches) of rain each year. Saguaro National Park usually receives about 25 centimeters (10 inches) per year. 

Mountains that surround the park create a rain shadow, and the air loses most of its moisture before reaching the 

park. 

Courtesy of Brian Mayeux, NOAA Photo Gallery 

Lightning strikes before a summer thunderstorm. 

The soil in Saguaro National Park is shallow, reddish, sandy soil. Rainfall quickly evaporates or is absorbed by 


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desert plants. 

BIOTIC DATA 

All ecosystems depend on the Sun for energy, but organisms in the Sonoran Desert survive in spite of the Sun and 

its intense heat. Plant and animal life is abundant in Saguaro National Park and throughout the Sonoran Desert. 

Organisms are adapted to this harsh environment. Despite the intense sunlight, the growing season in the desert is 

short because of the lack of water. 

The most dominant organism is the large saguaro cactus. It can grow up to 15 meters (49 feet) tall. Its huge 

humanlike shape dwarfs everything else, including humans. The time needed by the cactus to reach those amazing 

heights can exceed 100 years. A saguaro cactus may grow only 0.6 centimeter (0.25 inch) during its first year and 

may need as many as 30 years to reach 1 meter (3 feet). It begins to flower after about 55 years. The distinctive 

arms do not appear until the cactus is between 50 and 100 years old. 


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Art Explosion 

Humans are dwarfed by giant saguaro 

cactus. 

Courtesy of Anne Marie Gearhart 

Thorns grow along the pleats of a 

saguaro cactus. 

During the rainy season, saguaros absorb huge amounts of water. Their accordian shape expands to hold more 

water, and a thick, waxy epidermis slows transpiration. 

Mixed with the saguaros are mesquite trees, ocotillo, creosote bushes, barrel cactus, prickly pear, and grama 

grass. Each has its own adaptation for collecting and storing water. Cacti photosynthesize with the epidermis layer 

of their stems. Thorns are leaves that have shrunk over time. The thorns also protect cacti by discouraging animals 

from browsing on their water-rich tissues. 

Some long-lived plants, such as mesquite trees and creosote bushes, have exceptionally long roots to reach water 

deep in the earth. Other plants, including prickly pear and saguaro cactus, have shallow, netlike roots to help 

capture water from the brief rains. 

Soils in the desert are generally poor. In many places the ground is covered with a thin rocky layer called desert 

pavement. It is a layer of pebbles and small rocks. All the surrounding sand has been blown or washed away, 

leaving a surface that looks as if it was placed there on purpose. Desert pavement may take thousands of years to 

form. Directly beneath the layer of pebbles is a thin layer of soil that contains organic material. This layer is rich in 

cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), and may support substantial growths of algae, lichens, and mosses. 


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4/16/03 3:23 PM 

Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

Thorns protect cacti by preventing animal browsing. 

Flowers bloom from modified 

stems of a prickly pear. 

Many young plants, such as the saguaro, cannot tolerate the intense desert sun. They grow only under nurse 

plants, which shade them in early life. The seedlings grow in the shade of a mesquite tree or creosote bush. It may 

take a saguaro 50 years to grow taller than its nurse plant. Some plants live their whole lives in the shade of a nurse 

plant. 

Courtesy of Bureau of Land Management 

The desert tortoise spends the hottest part of the 

day in its burrow and emerges in the early 

morning or late afternoon to feed on grasses and 

seeds. 


A saguaro grows near 

creosote and mesquite 

trees that may have served 

as nurse trees for the 

young cactus. 

During the day, the desert seems quiet, except for the occasional bird or the deafening buzz of cicadas. A closer 

look might reveal black-tailed jackrabbits or a collared peccary resting in the shade of a saguaro. Few animals 


Page 6 of 12


4/16/03 3:23 PM 

venture out duing the heat of the day. Reptiles, such as the western diamondback rattlesnake, can be found 

sunning in the morning, but they will retreat to shade during the heat of the day. Red-tailed hawks glide on hot 

thermal wind currents, and roadrunners dart across open spaces, each searching for food. 

As night approaches and temperatures cool, the desert becomes alive. At dusk or dawn you might see a coyote. 

Cactus flowers open. Mexican long-tongued bats and white-lined sphinx moths emerge, seeking nectar and fruit. 

Even the desert floor appears alive as scorpions and other insects come out of their hiding places in search of water 

and food. After a summer rain, thousands of black and green-striped hornwoms (sphinx moth larvae) begin a mass 

migration across the desert floor. 

Desert tortoises escape intense daytime heat by estivating, which is similar to hibernating, in burrows. Estivating 

animals burrow underground and appear to be asleep or dead. Animals may also have adaptations that help them 

cope with the lack of water. Desert tortoises, kangaroo rats, and other desert animals can go a long time without 

drinking water. They get all the water they need from the plant stems or seeds that they eat. 

Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

Summer rains trigger a mass migration of 

hornworms. 

Scorpions seek dark, cool spaces during the day. 

During the late summer, Saguaro National Park gets more rain than can seep quickly into the ground. The water 

creates temporary rivers in the usually dry washes. Diversity of plants and animals along washes is particularly 

high. 

Plants that live for only a few weeks may have seeds that lie dormant for years, waiting for just the right 

environmental conditions. When the rain comes, these seeds sprout and grow quickly into fields of wildflowers, 

such as desert paintbrush, firewheel, and morning glory. They complete their life cycle before the moisture 

disappears and the temperature gets too hot. These flowers are called ephemeral because their blooming season is 

so short. Yellow creosote flowers and flame-orange ocotillo flowers brighten the desert and give it a distinctive smell 

for a few brief weeks following a good soaking. 


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4/16/03 3:23 PM 


Cacti have adaptations to reduce water loss. The spines 

are actually reduced leaves. 


Photosynthesis ocurrs in the stems of prickly 

pear cactus instead of in its leaves. Flowers 

bloom on ends of stems. They will ripen to bright 

red fruit. 

Even though Saguaro National Park is lush compared to other deserts, the annual productivity, or the amount of 

energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is very low, only 390 kilocalories/square meter/year of plant 

material. The harsh environmental conditions make it difficult for plants to grow. 

ISSUES 

Saguaro National Park is a small section of the larger Sonoran Desert ecosystem. A national park is a protected 

area, and rangers have the authority to prevent off-road vehicle use within its boundaries. But the ecosystem does 

not stop at the boundaries, and animals are not contained in fences like a zoo. 

Off-roading in the desert 

Off-road vehicles (ORV) are any type of motor-driven vehicle designed for use where there aren't roads. These 

vehicles include sport utility vehicles, all-track trucks, all-terrain vehicles, and motorcycles. In snowy areas, ORVs 


Page 8 of 12


4/16/03 3:23 PM 

include snowmobiles. On the water, jet skis are considered ORVs. 

Off-road driving has become a favorite past time for people living near the desert. In 1997 there were 48,900 ORVs 

registered in Arizona. People like to drive ORVs in the desert because it is dry and the terrain is fun. 

Art Explosion 

Some national parks and wilderness areas have 

roads that are specifically designated for four-wheel 

drive and off-road use. 

Courtesy of Bureau of Land Management 

Off-road vehicles travel along a well-worn dirt road. 

The desert floor may look flat, but it actually has parallel ridges. Rainwater from seasonal storms moves sand as it 

drains off the desert floor. This creates ridges. Driving across the desert floor can feel like you are driving across a 

giant rippled potato chip. Spaces between cacti and other plants are often not big enough for ORVs to pass easily. 

Some people enjoy the challenge of figuring out how to drive across the ridged ground through all the plants. Other 

people enjoy racing on hillsides or dunes. Some people are out to explore, and like to drive up washes. Washes are 

good places to look for animal life, because sometimes there are ponds of water left from rains. 

The continued ORV use has long-term effects on the desert. Vegetation is torn up, desert pavement is destroyed, 

and soil is compacted. Rainwater cannot be absorbed in the compacted soil, and with no vegetation to hold it, water 

quickly flows away. This increases erosion and sediment flowing into rivers. 

Animals that burrow cannot dig into compacted soil. Animals, such as desert tortoises and horned lizards, are 

camouflaged by sandy soil. They are often overlooked or mistaken for rocks. Desert tortoises move too slowly to 

escape speeding vehicles, and many are killed. 

What has happened 

ORV advocates and conservationists came to a compromise over off-roading in some popular desert areas. At 

Imperial Dunes, near San Diego, California, an off-roading organization was able to keep the dunes from being 

included in the Desert Protection Act. This act closed 2.8 million hectares (7 million acres) to off-roading in 

southern California. 

The amount of land available to off-roading may be changing. In 2000, just before leaving office, President Clinton 

signed the Roadless Initiative, declaring 24 million hectares (60 million acres) as roadless areas. This restricts 

access to about 31% of the wilderness areas controlled by the U.S. Forest Service for ORVs. New roads cannot be 

built in these wilderness areas. The Roadless Initiative changes the mission of the U.S. Forest Service. While it 

used to be involved in multiple uses of the forest lands, like logging, grazing, and recreation, the Forest Service will 

now focus on preserving wilderness areas. Implementation of the Roadless Initiative is still being reviewed by 

President Bush's administration in 2003. 

THE DEBATE 


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4/16/03 3:23 PM 


Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of Saguaro National Park and 

deserts of the southwest United States. After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. 

Refer to these sites for more information. 


DEBATE: Should off-roading be allowed in deserts like Saguaro National Park? 

People who think off-road use should not be restricted 

Sport hunter in the Sonoran Desert 

"The BLM sets up rules for off-roaders to follow and if everyone is careful there isn't any damage to the land." 

Santa Catalina Ranger District, Tucson, Arizona, Off-Highway Vehicles 

"The Forest Service roads in Santa Catalina Ranger District offer some of the best off-highway outdoor recreation 

opportunities available in Tucson. These roads provide an opportunity to visit the broad natural diversity ranging 

from the saguaro cactus–studded Sonoran desert floor to the Sky Island mountain range...If you choose to drive 

these low-standard roads, be prepared to encounter rocks and boulders, road washouts, downed trees, brush 

encroaching on the roadway. Always be prepared to stop for wildlife or cattle in the roadway. When you open a 

closed gate, always close that gate behind you." 

http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/coronado/scrd/rec/ohv/ohv.htm 

John Brabyn, The Image Problem of Off-Road Travel 

"The popular image of 4WD vehicle users as yahoos who tear up the landscape by irresponsible trail blazing and 

vehicular acrobatics is, happily, now largely a myth. In my many thousands of miles of desert travel on dirt roads 

and trails, I have yet to witness such behavior. (No doubt there are still a few who are irresponsible— just as there 

are irresponsible backpackers.) The reality is that people nowadays use their 4WD vehicles as a means to access, 

explore and appreciate the great, remote natural areas of the back country. The vehicle users I have met in these 

areas are responsible appreciators of nature who adhere to the Tread Lightly principles—a set of common-sense 

rules for low-impact travel by vehicle." 

http://home.earthlink.net/~cyberkiwi/environment/ 

Tread Lightly on Public and Private Lands, TreadLightly! Information 

"Tread Lightly! is dedicated to protecting public and private lands through education. Emphasis is placed on 

responsible use of off-highway vehicles, other forms of backcountry travel and low impact principles applicable to all 

recreation activities. Through educational materials, editorial coverage, and manufacturer-generated advertising and 

promotions, Tread Lightly! has been able to urge outdoorsmen to be responsible toward the environment and to help 

preserve future opportunities for outdoor recreation." 

http://www.4x44u.com/pub/k2/treadlightly!/tlinfo.htm 

Officer with the Arizona Game and Fish Department 

"We want to help people learn to be responsible with off-highway use. This will help keep lands open for recreation." 

Arizona Game and Fish Department, Off-Highway Vehicle Program 

"The purpose of the Arizona Game and Fish Department's Off-Highway Vehicle Safety and Habitat Protection 

Program is to promote safe, responsible, and ethical off-highway vehicle use while emphasizing protection of 

environmental resources." 

http://159.87.132.194/outdoor_recreation/off_highway.html 

People who think off-road use should be stopped in the desert 

Resident near Saguaro National Park 

"I've seen how off-road use has changed the Mojave Desert in California and I don't want it to look like that around 

here." 

Fault Line, case study, Near Red Rock Canyon State Park 

"In some areas, intense use has stripped all but the largest shrubs from the hillsides and carved deep ruts into the 

landscape. Unmanaged riding has caused the fragile desert soil to run downhill in huge quantities during rainstorms, 

burying what vegetation remains at the bottom of slopes." 


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4/16/03 3:23 PM 

http://www.faultline.org/news/2001/07/shoreoffroad2.html 

Jennifer Haley and David Bainbridge, National Park Service, Desert Restoration: Do Something or Wait a Thousand 

Years 

"While historical photos, written descriptions and air photos can provide a good first look at above-ground 

disturbance patterns, some of the most important impacts of human activities are the often unseen effects at and 

below ground level. There are physical, hydrologic, chemical and biological changes after disturbance which make 

conditions much less favorable for soil microbes and plants. These changes include reduced infiltration and fertility, 

increased compaction and soil strength, increased erosion and reduced biological activity." 

http://www.werc.usgs.gov/mojave-symposium/abstracts.html#9 

Kristin H. Berry and Philip Medica, National Biological Service, Desert Tortoises in the Mojave and Colorado Deserts 

"Within the United States, desert tortoises live in the Mojave, Colorado, and Sonoran deserts of southeastern 

California, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah, and western Arizona...The U.S. government treats the desert 

tortoise as an indicator or umbrella species to measure the health and well-being of the ecosystems it inhabits. The 

tortoise functions well as an indicator because it is long-lived, takes 12–20 years to reach reproductive maturity, 

and is sensitive to changes in the environment...Higher than normal losses or mortality rates were attributed to 

many causes, such as illegal collecting, vandalism, upper respiratory tract disease or shell disease, predation by 

common ravens, crushing by vehicles both on and off roads, and trampling by livestock." 

http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/d284.htm 

American Lands, Off-Road Vehicles: A Growing Threat to Public Lands and Waters: Environmental Impacts: Soil 

and Vegetation 

"When ORV users leave established roads and trails, the machines create new paths through forests. Some riders 

drive their vehicles straight up ravines and hillsides, through the desert, and across streams and grasslands. This 

contributes to soil compaction, destruction of vegetation, and the spread of noxious weeds." 

http://www.americanlands.org/forestweb/offroad.htm 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

National Park Service, Saguaro National Park - http://www.nps.gov/sagu/ 

ABCnews.com, Off the Beaten Track - 

http://abcnews.go.com/sections/us/DailyNews/suvs990907.html 

American Lands, Off-Road Vehicles: A Growing Threat to Public Lands and Waters: Environmental Impacts: Soil 

and Vegetation - http://www.americanlands.org/forestweb/offroad.htm 

Arizona Game and Fish Department, Off-Highway Vehicle Program -http://159.87.132.194/outdoor_recreation/ 

off_highway.html 

Bureau of Land Management in California, Imperial Dunes Draft Management Plan Available for Comment - http:// 

www.ca.blm.gov/news/2002/03/nr/CDDnews33_Imperial_dunes_draft_management_plan.html 

Desert Tortoise Council - http://www.deserttortoise.org/ 

Desert Tortoise Preserve Committee - http://www.tortoise-tracks.org/gopherus.html 


Page 11 of 12


4/16/03 3:23 PM 

Fault Line, case study, Near Red Rock Canyon State Park - http://www.faultline.org/news/2001/07/ 

shoreoffroad2.html 

Friends of Saguaro National Park - http://www.friendsofsaguaro.org/welcome.html 

Jennifer Haley and David Bainbridge, National Park Service, Desert Restoration: Do Something or Wait a Thousand 

Years - http://www.werc.usgs.gov/mojave-symposium/abstracts.html#9 

John Brabyn, The Image Problem of Off-Road Travel - http://home.earthlink.net/~cyberkiwi/environment/ 

Kristin H. Berry and Philip Medica, National Biological Service, Desert Tortoises in the Mojave and Colorado 

Deserts - http://biology.usgs.gov/s+t/noframe/d284.htm 

National Park Service, Saguaro National Park, Bicycle Trail Closed at Saguaro National Park - http://www.nps.gov/ 

sagu/press/press_release.htm 

Natural Trails and Waters Coalition - http://www.naturaltrails.org/issues/factsheets/fs_usfs.html 

Open Lands/Off Road Vehicles Subcommittee Meeting, Pima County Department of Environmental Quality 

Conference Room, Tucson, Arizona - http://www.deq.co.pima.az.us/air/pcneap/pdf/NEAP1-24.PDF 

Saguaro Juniper Corporation, Information and Images - http://www.saguaro-juniper.com/i_and_i/i_and_i.html 

Saguaro National Park - http://www.saguaro.national-park.com/ 

Santa Catalina Ranger District, Tucson, Arizona, Off Highway Vehicles - http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/coronado/scrd/rec/ 

ohv/ohv.htm 

Side Canyon Travel Southwest, Saguaro National Park - http://www.sidecanyon.com/features/deserts2a.htm 

The Sonoran Desert: 5000 Square Miles of Silence - http://www.oneworldjourneys.com/sonoran/index2.html 

Sonoran Desert Naturalist - http://arizonensis.org/sonoran/index.html 

Tread Lightly On Public and Private Lands, TreadLightly! Information - http://www.4x44u.com/pub/k2/treadlightly!/ 

tlinfo.htm 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Roadless Area Conservation - 

http://www.roadless.fs.fed.us/ 

U.S. Geological Survey, New Study Underscores Fragility of Southern California Deserts - http://biology.usgs.gov/pr/ 

newsrelease/1999/10-22.html 

Worth Allen, National Outdoor Leadership School, The Leader, Issue Room: Roadless Initiative - http:// 

www.nols.edu/alumni/leader/02spring/issueroom.shtml 


Page 12 of 12

Ecoscenario: Yellowstone National Park 

4/16/03 3:25 PM 

Yellowstone National Park 

INTRODUCTION 

file:///Ecoscenario/yellow/content.html 

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4/16/03 3:25 PM 


Lower falls of Yellowstone River. Yellowstone 

National Park got its name from the yellow rhyolite 

seen in the canyon walls. 

Yellowstone National Park may be the best-known national park. It is noted for its many beautiful sights. There are 

mountain slopes covered in taiga (TIE•guh) forest surrounding grassland valleys, raging rivers, and spectacular 

waterfalls. Wildlife, such as, elk, bison, and moose, can be regularly seen. The geothermal pools and geysers that 

dot the landscape make this a remarkable place to visit. Yellowstone National Park is America's first national park. It 

was the first place in the world set aside for people to preserve and enjoy the beauty of the land and the resources it 

offered. 

Volcanism began in Yellowstone about 50 million years ago during the period when the Rocky Mountains formed. 

Yellowstone National Park is above an old hot spot in Earth's mantle. A dome formed 600,000 years ago as the 

magma was forced upward. The rock over the magma body collapsed and formed a huge caldera, a large bowlshaped 

depression. Eruptions of rhyolite, tuff, and ash poured from the fractured rock. As the remaining magma body 

slowly cools, groundwater is heated to create the largest grouping of geothermal features in the world. 


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Geothermal pools bubble and steam with water heated by a 

magma body deep underground. 

Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

Geysers push hot water and steam up 

to 55 meters (180 feet) into the air. 

The first known inhabitants of the Yellowstone area were the Sheepeater Indians, a band of Shoshone. The area was 

used by other bands of Native Americans as they traveled through the valleys, but only the Sheepeaters made 

permanent settlements here. The Minnetaree called the river Mi tsi a da zi or Rock Yellow River, because of the 

yellow canyon walls, and French fur trappers translated it to Yellow Stone. 

John Colter was the first European American to describe Yellowstone. In 1805 Colter was scouting for the Lewis and 

Clark expedition when a Native American guide known as Old Toby led him through the Yellowstone area. His 

descriptions of geysers and other geothermal features were met with wonder and disbelief. The area was nicknamed 

Colter's Hell. 

Mountain men, fur trappers, and gold prospectors visited Yellowstone in the following years. In 1870 an expedition led 

by Ferdinand V. Hayden, the head of the newly established U.S. Geological Survey, entered Yellowstone to explore 

and document the region. Artist Thomas Moran and photographer William H. Jackson accompanied the group. 

Moran's watercolors and Jackson's photographs finally conveyed the beauty and wonder of Yellowstone to the world. 

On March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed the bill that established Yellowstone National Park and set 

aside 899,121 hectares (2,220,829 acres) as the first wilderness area for "the benefit and enjoyment of the people." 

The park became a popular spot for sportsmen and hunters to visit and soon began to show signs of poaching and 

vandalism. In 1894, Congress passed the Lacey Act which gave protection to all wildlife in Yellowstone, except for 

wolves and coyotes. 


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Grand Teton National Park is in the Yellowstone ecosystem. 

Yellowstone National Park is in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem, which also includes Grand Teton National Park 

and several national forests in Wyoming, southern Montana, and eastern Idaho. During its first year as a national 

park 300 visitors explored Yellowstone. In 2001 the number of visitors was a staggering 2,758,710. 

The most distinctive feature of Yellowstone National Park is the geothermal activity. Magma masses close to the 

surface create geothermal pools, ponds, and geysers. Geysers, like Old Faithful, throw super-heated water into the 

air. Old Faithful erupts every 76 to 100 minutes, and can send water over 55 meters (180 feet) into the air. Hot 

springs contain water heated by the same underground magma. Steam rises from these pools, carrying with it vapors 

that have the rotten-egg smell of sulfur. Fumaroles (steam vents) occur when there is not enough water for a hot 

spring. Mudpots form when a hot spring becomes choked with mud. The super-heated mud bubbles and simmers like 

a pot of thick soup. The water in these pools is so hot that few organisms can live in them. However, they are home to 

cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and algae adapted to live in geothermal water. These color the geothermal areas 

yellow and orange. 


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Art Explosion 

Colorful algae and cyanobacteria are among the few 

organisms that can survive in geothermal pools. 

The greater Yellowstone ecosystem includes many different habitats. In addition to the unusual thermal pond 

ecosystems, there are freshwater lakes and streams, sagebrush scrub, grasslands, alpine forests, and alpine 

meadows. The dominant habitat is taiga, or boreal forest. Taiga grows in regions of cold continental or subarctic 

climates, characterized by long, cold winters and short summers. In the taiga, the dominant plants are coniferous 

trees like lodgepole pines and spruce. The conelike shape and needled branches of these trees help them shed the 

snow that covers them each winter. Yellowstone National Park has a reputation as wonderful wildlife habitat. Yearround, 

visitors come to see elk, moose, bison, mule deer, coyotes, and bears. If visitors are especially lucky, they 

may see a wolf or one of the three species of large cats, such as the lynx, that inhabit the park. 

ABIOTIC DATA 

Yellowstone National Park experiences long, cold winters and short summers. Temperature and precipitation are 

unpredictable. With elevations ranging from 1610 meters (5282 feet) to 3462 meters (11,355 feet), visitors can 

experience a wide range of temperatures and weather conditions in one day. 


Snow can fall anytime of year. Snow covering these 

arrowleaf balsamroots fell in June. 

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Bison graze in a meadow covered by deep 

snow. They use their massive heads to sweep 

snow away from vegetation. 


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In autumn, snowstorms become increasingly common. By early November, all but a few roads into the park are 

closed by snow. In the winter, average snowfall is near 380 centimeters (150 inches). Temperatures may drop lower 

than the –20°C (–4°F) average when cold Chinook winds blow from the north. A record low temperature of –54°C (– 

66°F) was recorded at Madison in 1933. The only areas not covered by a thick blanket of snow are the thermal areas. 

Warm waters from hot springs flow into streams and rivers and keep the water flowing year-round. 

Even into the spring, 30 centimeters (12 inches) of snow can fall in 24 hours. The summer is rainy, with afternoon 

thunderstorms in July and August. Unexpected snows can fall at the upper elevations. 


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Mudpots are geothermal pools that have become 

clogged with carbonate mud. 


Fumaroles spew steam from small fissures in the 

ground. 

Yellowstone National Park is considered to be geothermally and seismically active. A magma body beneath Earth's 

surface heats the surrounding rocks. These hot rocks in turn heat groundwater to over 200°C (400°F). At this 

temperature, steam usually forms. But in underground chambers, pressure keeps the water in its liquid state. This 

super-heated water forms the hot springs, geysers, and other geothermal features of Yellowstone. 

If the super-heated water comes to the surface slowly and gradually loses its heat, a hot spring forms. If pressure 

builds up in an underground chamber, however, the water can be forced to the surface quickly through a small 

opening. A geyser results. During the eruption, the pressure is released and the geyser stops. After a time the 

pressure builds to produce another eruption. The time between eruptions is unpredictable for most geysers. Old 

Faithful geyser was named because of its short and predictable cycle. It erupts every 76 to 100 minutes. There are 

over 300 geysers and 10,000 thermal features in the park. 

Yellowstone has more geysers than anywhere else in the world. Over 75% of the geysers on Earth are here. Some 

are rare acid geysers. In addition to being very hot, these geysers, and their surrounding pools have a pH as low as 

3.3 to 3.8. Compare this pH to that of fresh water (near 7) or vinegar (3). 

Art Explosion 

Tourists visiting a geothermal area can see hot 

springs, geysers, fumaroles, and mudpots. 

Art Explosion 

Steam from super-heated water rises from a 

hot-spring pond. Nearby trees cannot survive the 

very acidic water and steam. 

Because of the recent volcanic activity, the entire greater Yellowstone ecosystem is subject to earthquakes. Most 

are minor, and only a few can be felt. The earthquakes cause the water that flows to hot springs and geysers to 


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change periodically. 

As with all forests, fire is an important abiotic factor. Years of fire suppression in Yellowstone resulted in buildup of 

dry underbrush. In 1972 Yellowstone National Park managers decided to let fires burn themselves out. Between 1972 

and 1987 there were over 200 forest fires in Yellowstone National Park. Most of these fires were small and went out 

quickly. In 1988 it was different. A fire burned more than one-third of the park. Many people criticized the National 

Park Service for their "let it burn" policy. These people felt that the forests were destroyed. However, many plants, 

such as the lodgepole pine, respond quite well to fires. The ecosystem in Yellowstone National Park has been able 

to recover. 



Forest fire at Yellowstone in 1988 

Firefighters on the scene 

Forest fires assure a healthy forest by clearing the forest floor of accumulated debris and opening the forest canopy. 

Meadows are quickly covered by grass, wildflowers, and aspen saplings following a fire. Shrubs and rapid-growing 

aspen take over a few years later. The aspen cover protects small lodgepole pines. As the aspens reach maturity and 

begin dying, the pines are tall enough to dominate the forest. Forest fires clear mature lodgepole pine stands to begin 

the cycle again. 


Open paths left on this ridge after the 1988 fire will become 

meadows. 


New growth the year after the 1988 fire. Wildflowers, 

grass, and saplings spring up in a newly opened 

meadow. 


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BIOTIC DATA 

Lodgepole pines dominate the taiga of Yellowstone. Quaking aspen trees add to the forest canopy. In the open forest 

meadows you find arrowleaf balsamroot and wheatgrass. Rodents, such as yellow-bellied marmots and chipmunks, 

live in the meadows and forest. Moose graze on pond lilies in the streams and ponds. Birds, such as dippers, 

trumpeter swans, osprey, and mallard ducks, visit the ponds and streams for their meals. Beavers build dams and 

their lodges in streams and change the landscape. Blocked streams eventually fill with sediments and become 

meadows. 


A beaver dam slows the flow of a stream, and the beavers 

build their lodges in the quiet pool that forms behind it. 


Mallard ducks have used this beaver lodge as a 

nesting site. The female and ducklings are 

camouflaged by vegetation growing on top of the 

lodge. 


A stream with a beaver dam and lodges slowly fills in the valley and over time 

becomes a meadow. 


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The most abundant large mammal in Yellowstone is the elk. Their numbers vary with the seasons. In summer there 

are seven or eight herds, totaling almost 30,000 animals. In the winter, many elk migrate out of the park, many to an 

elk refuge near Jackson, Wyoming. About 15,000–22,000 elk winter in the park. 

Male elk, or bulls, are often solitary. 



Female elk (cows), calves, and yearlings stay in herds that 

are led by a dominant bull elk. 

On the rocky cliffs of Yellowstone's mountains you might spot bighorn sheep. These sheep can walk on the steep 

cliff faces, making it possible to avoid less-nimble predators. In the densely wooded slopes bears search for the 

sweet fruit of wild huckleberries. Down in the flat grasslands, bison and pronghorn antelope graze on grasses and 

sedges. In the northern sections of the park, the snow is not as deep in winter. Here you might see a bobcat, 

because bobcats avoid deep snow. Wildcats, like bobcats and lynx that also occur in the park, are rarely seen. The 

cats are most active at night, and avoid people. 


Two bighorn rams facing off before fighting by crashing into 

each other with their horns. 


Marmots make their homes under rocks and rubble. 

Black bears, brown bears, coyotes, and wolves are difficult to spot, but sightings are more common now that their 

numbers are increasing. Wolves can be heard calling to each other in the night. 

Annual productivity, or the amount of energy provided by the producers in this ecosystem, is high, 3600 kilocalories/ 

square meter/year of plant material. 


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ISSUES 

In the early 1900s in an effort to stablize the herds of elk, bison, and mule deer, predators ( wolves, cougars, and 

coyotes) were removed or eliminated from the park. By the time it was discovered that it was not predators, but 

reduction of winter grazing lands, that had caused the decline, the population of wolves had become dangerously 

small. Wolf sightings became rarer and rarer until 1970, when no wolves were reported in Yellowstone National Park. 

The reintroduction of wolves has been an issue at Yellowstone National Park. National park policy calls for the 

restoration of a species when sufficient habitat exists to support the population, management can prevent threats to 

outside interests, the restored species is almost identical to the lost species, and the loss of the species is the 

result of human activities. 

Wolves were in the Yellowstone ecosystem before the park was founded in 1872. Wolf-removal programs were 

instituted to benefit the elk, deer, and moose. By the 1940s sightings of wolves had become rare. In the 1970s there 

was no evidence that breeding pairs of wolves remained in Yellowstone. 

The wolves were gone, but the population of elks continued to decline. Yellowstone National Park began managing 

the elk population, and their numbers increased from 3100 in 1968 to over 30,000 today. Park managers say that elk 

are returning the Yellowstone ecosystem to a natural balance, in which elk numbers are limited by food supply. 

Others worry that there are now too many elk and that they are changing the landscape of Yellowstone from forest to 

elk grazing land. Elk browse on tender aspen saplings, reducing the number that mature. This disrupts the normal 

forest succession in Yellowstone. 

In 1978 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service proposed the reintroduction of wolves into the Yellowstone ecosystem. It 

was predicted that the populations of elk, bison, mule deer, and moose would be regulated by wolf predation. 

Ranchers and hunters outside the park immediately opposed reintroduction. Ranchers were worried that wolves 

would find cattle and sheep easier prey than elk. Hunters were worried that elk populations would be reduced and 

that fewer hunting permits would be issued. 


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In autumn 1995, amid the protest of ranchers, 14 Canadian gray wolves were released in the Lamar Valley of 

Yellowstone National Park. The next year, 17 more wolves were released at Blacktail Plateau and Firehole Valley. 

The wolves each had a radio collar so their movements could be monitored. 

Art Explosion 

Art Explosion 

A wolf feeds on a deer carcass. 

Female wolf with pups 

Some people tried to stop wolf reintroduction, claiming that it was illegal. They wanted the gray wolf removed from 

areas in which it was released. The wolves that were released had been raised in Canada. Some people were upset 

that the wolves had come from so far away. In January 2000 the wolf reintroduction program was ruled legal. As of 

December 2001 there were about 216 wolves in the park, living in 24 packs. There are 14 breeding pairs. Usually 

there is one breeding pair for each pack of about ten wolves. People are also discussing whether gray wolves should 


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be released in other wild places in North America, such as the southern Rockies of Wyoming, Colorado, and northern 

Utah. 

THE DEBATE 


Below are the views of several individuals or groups that have an interest in the future of the Yellowstone ecosystem. 

After each quote the hyperlink goes to the original source of the quote. Refer to these sites for more information. 


DEBATE: Should wolves be reintroduced to the Yellowstone ecosystem? 

People who support the reintroduction of wolves to the Yellowstone ecosystem 

Wildlife biologist 

"Wolves will not be a threat to humans or livestock. We won't find them hanging around the garbage dumps like 

bears. There are plenty of elk, and wolves are not going to be attracted to areas where people live." 

National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wolf Restoration to Yellowstone 

"Their social structure and pack behavior minimizes their need to scavenge food or garbage available from human 

sources. Compared to bears, whose diet is predominantly vegetarian...The wolves' primary need is for prey, which is 

most likely to be elk, deer, and other ungulates in these recovery areas." 

http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/animals/wolf/wolfrest.html 

Ecologist 

"The wolves have been successful in establishing territories in the park. They have become a part of their ecosystem 

again." 

National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wolf Restoration to Yellowstone 

"An estimated 20,000 park visitors have observed wolves since their return in 1995. The program's visibility has 

resulted in opportunities to educate audiences about predator-prey relationships, endangered species restoration, 

and the importance of maintaining intact ecosystems." 

http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/animals/wolf/wolfrest.html 

Wolf researcher 

"The wolves are meant to be in this ecosystem. Even when we try to help them re-establish packs, they manage to 

do well without us." 

National Wildlife Federation, Rebirth of Yellowstone's Wolves: The Saga of the First Wolf Pups Born in the Region in 

Seven Decades 

"A fierce summer storm swept through the area, knocking down the holding pen's fences. Moments later, the pups 

fled the compound. Phillips and other Park Service staff eventually returned six of the youngsters to their mother. The 

other two eluded capture and soon found an adoptive parent: a year-old male from another pack called Number 8." 

http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/1997/wolfas7.html 

People who oppose the reintroduction of wolves to the Yellowstone ecosystem 

Resident of Jackson, Wyoming 

"The wolves are going to get used to people and soon they will be coming into our towns looking for food. We have 

had this problem with coyotes in the past. It will be too dangerous for children to play outdoors." 

Bearman's Yellowstone Wolf Update 

"In the past, coyotes have been fed by visitors, only to then attack cross country skiers and sometime visitors 

standing near the roadway after they become habituated to humans and learn that humans often have food with them. 

Wolves could do the same thing, and they also will lose any fear they have of humans and leave the park, placing 

them in even greater danger." 

http://www.yellowstone-bearman.com/w_update.html 

CNN Interactive, Wolves' Return to Yellowstone Sparks Controversy 

"(Wolf) number 27 killed almost 50 sheep a few weeks ago, and had to be destroyed. The rancher who lost sheep 

was compensated with money from Defenders of Wildlife, a pro-wolf group." 

http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9711/12/yellowstone.wolves/ 


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Rancher in Montana 

"As the wolves are multiplying, they are hunting farther away from their original areas. Livestock and even family pets 

are being killed." 

Timber Wolf Information Network, Status of Gray Wolf Recovery, Week of 6/22 to 6/28, 2002, Gray Wolf Recovery 

Weekly Progress Report 

"An apparently lone wolf-like canid was confirmed to have killed a llama on private property near Big Fork, Montana. 

The area is a patchwork of ranchettes. At first it was suspected to be dogs because the llama was bitten in several 

places (not a clean kill) but then a wolf-sized track was found." 

http://www.timberwolfinformation.org/updates/yellowstone/index.cfm?start=24 Click Next until the report for the week 

of 6/22 - 6/28 2002 is displayed. 

Questions 




WEB LINKS 

National Park Service, Official Website for Yellowstone National Park - http://www.nps.gov/yell/home.htm 

American Park Network, Yellowstone National Park - http://www.americanparknetwork.com/parkinfo/ye/ 

Bearman's Yellowstone Wolf Update - http://www.yellowstone-bearman.com/w_update.html 

CNN Interactive, Wolves' Return to Yellowstone Sparks Controversy - http://www.cnn.com/EARTH/9711/12/ 

yellowstone.wolves/ 

Meg Streepey, University of Michigan, Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems - http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/ 

geysers.html 

National Park Service, Geology Fieldnotes, Yellowstone - http://www.aqd.nps.gov/grd/parks/yell/ 

National Park Service, Official Website for Yellowstone National Park, Wolf Pack Map - http://www.nps.gov/yell/ 

nature/animals/wolf/wolfup.html 

National Park Service, Official Website for Yellowstone National Park, Yellowstone Wildlife Pages - http:// 

www.nps.gov/yell/nature/animals/index.htm 

National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park - http://www.nps.gov/yell/ 

National Park Service, Yellowstone National Park, Wolf Restoration to Yellowstone - http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/ 

animals/wolf/wolfrest.html 

National Wildlife Federation, Rebirth of Yellowstone's Wolves: The Saga of the First Wolf Pups Born in the Region in 

Seven Decades - http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/1997/wolfas7.html 

Thomas D. Brock, University of Wisconsin at Madison, Life at High Temperatures - http://www.bact.wisc.edu/ 

bact303/b27 

Timber Wolf Information Network, Status of Gray Wolf Recovery, Week of 6/22 to 6/28, 2002, Gray Wolf Recovery 

Weekly Progress Report - http://www.timberwolfinformation.org/updates/yellowstone/index.cfm?start=5 


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The Total Yellowstone Page - http://www.yellowstone-natl-park.com/ 

The Total Yellowstone Page, Wolf Report - http://www.yellowstone-natl-park.com/wolf.htm 

University of Utah, Seismology and Active Tectonics Research Group, Yellowstone Hotspot - http:// 

www.mines.utah.edu/~rbsmith/RESEARCH/YellowstoneHotspot.html 

U.S. Geological Survey, Geysers, Fumaroles, and Hot Springs - 

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/geysers.html 

Western Treasures, dedicated to the Nez Perce and Wyoming, Early History of Yellowstone National Park - http:// 

www.nezperce.com/yelpark9.html 

YellowstoneNationalPark.com - http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/index.htm 

Yellowstone.net, Yellowstone National Park History - 

Yellowstone-Park.net - http://www.yellowstone-park.net/Default.htm 

http://www.yellowstone.net/history.htm 


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