Download Biological Diversity - New York State Museum

Biological Diversity: 

T H E O L D E S T H U M A N H E R I T A G E 

By 

Edward O. Wilson 

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM


T H E O L D E S T H U M A N H E R I T A G E

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

R EGENTS OF THE U NIVERSITY 

Carl T. Hayden, Chancellor, A.B., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Elmira 

Diane O’Neill McGivern, Vice Chancellor, B.S.N., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . Staten Island 

J. Edward Meyer, B.A., LL.B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chappaqua 

R. Carlos Carballada, Chancellor Emeritus, B.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rochester 

Adelaide L. Sanford, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hollis 

Saul B. Cohen, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Rochelle 

James C. Dawson, A.A., B.A., M.S., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peru 

Robert M. Bennett, B.A., M.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tonawanda 

Robert M. Johnson, B.A., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lloyd Harbor 

Peter M. Pryor, B.A., LL.B., J.D., LL.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Albany 

Anthony S. Bottar, B.A., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syracuse 

Merryl H. Tisch, B.A., M.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New York 

Harold O. Levy, B.S., M.A. (Oxon.), J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New York 

Ena L. Farley, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brockport 

Geraldine D. Chapey, B.A., M.A., Ed.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Belle Harbor 

Ricardo E. Oquendo, B.A., J.D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New York 

PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY AND COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 

Richard P. Mills 

CHIEF OPERATING OFFICER 

Richard H. Cate 

DEPUTY COMMISSIONER FOR CULTURAL EDUCATION 

Carole F. Huxley 

DIRECTOR FOR THE STATE MUSEUM 

Clifford A. Siegfried 

The State Education Department does not discriminate on the basis of age, color, religion, creed, 

disability, marital status, veteran status, national origin, race, gender, genetic predisposition 

or carrier status, or sexual orientation in its educational programs, services and activities. 

Portions of this publication can be made available in a variety of formats, including Braille, 

large print or audiotape, upon request. Inquiries concerning this policy of nondiscrimination 

should be directed to the Department’s Office for Diversity, Ethics, and Access, Room 152, 

Education Building, Albany, NY 12234.



By 


Pellegrino University Research Professor and 

Honorary Curator in Entomology at Harvard University 

N e w Y o r k S t a t e M u s e u m 

E d u c a t i o n a l L e a f l e t 3 4 

A Publication of The New York State Biodiversity Research Institute 

The University of the State of New York 

The State Education Department 

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Copyright © 1999 by The New York State Biodiversity Research Institute 

Printed in the United States of America 

Published in 1999 by: 

The New York State Biodiversity Research Institute 

New York State Museum 

Cultural Education Center 

Albany, New York 12230 

(518) 486-4845 

http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/bri.html 

Requests for additional copies of this publication may be made by contacting: 

Publication Sales 


Cultural Education Center 

Albany, New York 12230 

(518) 449-1404 

http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/publications.html 

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 99-70195 

ISBN: 1-55557-210-3 

ISSN: 0735-4401

Contents 

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii 

Biological Diversity: The Oldest Human Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 

Appendix I (Glossary) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

Appendix II (Suggested Reading) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 

Appendix III (Discussion Questions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 

Appendix IV (Geologic Time Table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Preface 

This book is based on a manuscript written by Edward Osborne Wilson 

following the first New York Natural History Conference at the New York State 

Museum in Albany on June 20-22, 1990. Wilson, who was the keynote speaker, 

opened the conference with a talk titled “Biodiversity and the Future of the Global 

Environment.” He described how the extinction of species caused by habitat 

destruction has increased to a rate that may be 10,000 or more times greater than 

the rate prior to human intervention. This mass extinction, according to Wilson, is 

the most destructive global environmental change occurring at this time, and it is 

critical that we reverse the process. Following his keynote address at the New York 

State Museum, Wilson put together a manuscript based on the topics covered in 

his talk to be used as the basis of this educational book. Although this manuscript 

was written in 1990, the ideas presented are of great value and will continue to be 

important for many years to come. 

Edward Osborne Wilson is a world-renowned scientist and researcher. He 

currently works at Harvard University as Pellegrino University Research Professor 

and as Honorary Curator in Entomology. Wilson is also a distinguished writer; 

he has written or edited 20 books, including two that have won Pulitzer Prizes in 

general non-fiction, On Human Nature and The Ants (with co-author Bert 

Hölldobler). Over a career of nearly 50 years, Wilson has focused on a wide range 

of topics from population biology to sociobiology and, most recently, biodiversity 

issues. His career has always centered on the study of his lifelong passion—ants— 

and he is recognized as the world’s leading authority on the kingdom of ants. 

His major contributions to the field of myrmecology include the discovery of 

B i o l o g i c a l vii D i v e r s i t y

pheromones that direct specific ant activities and the discovery of many previously 

unknown species of ants from around the world. He has also begun to unravel and 

describe some of the complex social behaviors of these insects. 

Although Wilson’s career continues to involve research on ants, he has also 

recently assumed a new role as a leader in the crusade to save the world’s biodiversity. 

In his book Biodiversity, he states: “… every scrap of biological diversity is priceless, 

to be learned and cherished, and never to be surrendered without a struggle.” In 

the pages that follow, Wilson describes why this is true. He explains how all aspects 

of human well being are dependent on preserving the remaining biological resources 

of our world, and why we can no longer ignore increased extinction rates that are 

the result of anthropogenic activities. In the final pages of this book, Wilson offers 

recommendations and a multi-disciplinary approach for the successful 

conservation and use of biodiversity. 

This book has been printed using funds from the New York State Biodiversity 

Research Institute (BRI). The BRI was created during a time of increasing awareness 

of the urgent need to preserve global and local biodiversity. State Education Law 

(Section 235-a (2, 3)) of 1993 mandated the establishment of the BRI within the 

New York State Museum to meet these demands. The BRI is funded through the 

Environmental Protection Fund and includes a number of collaborators, including 

the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, the New York 

Natural Heritage Program, and the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and 

Historic Preservation. Activities of the BRI are guided by an executive committee, 

which is appointed by the legislature and the governor of New York. The major 

objectives of the BRI include the following: 

• promote and sponsor cooperative scientific and educational efforts to increase 

our knowledge and awareness of biodiversity within New York state; 

• advise the governor and officials of governmental agencies on biodiversity issues 

within New York state; 

• develop a comprehensive and readily accessible database on the status of 

biodiversity within New York state; and 

• identify areas within the state that lack adequate biodiversity information and 

promote research in such areas. 

B i o l o g i c a l viii D i v e r s i t y

Additional information on the activities of the BRI along with databases related 

to New York state’s biodiversity can be found by accessing the BRI’s Web site at 

http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/bri.html. By making this information readily available, 

natural resource managers will be better able to minimize potentially negative 

impacts on local biodiversity. Ultimately, however, the successful conservation of 

biodiversity will also depend greatly upon increasing public concern and awareness—especially 

by future generations—of local and global biological diversity. 

In recognition of this situation, the BRI published this book with the intent of 

educating primarily high school students on the values of biodiversity. However, 

considering the urgency and importance of the issues discussed, this book will, 

we believe, be of value to a much broader audience. 

We wish to acknowledge all the people who have assisted us in the publication 

of this book. Above all, we owe the most thanks to the author, Edward O. Wilson, 

who has graciously offered his writing to us. We are also grateful for all the effort 

Patricia Kernan has put into creating the drawings that illustrate the pages of this 

book and the cover. Finally, we extend our thanks to all those who have worked on 

editing the text, including Erin Davison, Jeanne Finley, Karen Frolich, Patricia 

Kernan, Norton Miller, Shannon Murphy, David Steadman, Gordon Tucker and 

Lisa Wootan. 

Ronald J. Gill 

Biodiversity Research Specialist 

New York State Biodiversity Research Institute 

Clifford A. Siegfried 

Director 


Albany, New York 

February 1999 

B i o l o g i c a l ix D i v e r s i t y

T 

HE ROSY PERIWINKLE (CATHARANTHUS ROSEUS ) 

IS THE SOURCE OF ALKALOID CHEMICALS THAT 

ARE USED TO TREAT TWO OF THE MOST DEADLY 

FORMS OF CANCER: HODGKIN’S DISEASE AND 

ACUTE LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA.



By 


In the northeastern United States, as in most of the remainder of the country, 

about one plant species in five is threatened with significant reduction in numbers 

or even with total extinction. Here are the names of several: New England boneset, 

Furbish’s lousewort, threadleaf sundew, fairy wand and hairy beardtongue. Many 

people still ask the vexing question: Of what possible value, except to a few 

botanists, is a plant with a name like hairy beardtongue? Why should money and 

effort be spent to save this and other bits of floristic esoterica? 

Let me tell the ways. Consider periwinkles of the genus Catharanthus, flowering 

plants that live on Madagascar, a great island off the East Coast of Africa. Inconspicuous 

in appearance, located all the way around the world, the six species of periwinkles 

would seem to be even less worthy of attention than beardtongues and louseworts. 

But one of them, the rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), is the source of alkaloid 

chemicals vinblastine and vincristine, used to cure two of the most deadly forms of 

cancer: Hodgkin’s disease, especially dangerous to young adults, and acute lymphocytic 

leukemia, which, before the periwinkle alkaloids, was a virtual death sentence 

for young children. These anti-cancer substances are now the basis of an industry 

earning more than 100 million dollars a year. Ironically, the other five periwinkle 

species remain largely unexamined for their medical potential. One of them is near 

extinction due to the destruction of its habitat on Madagascar. On a global scale, 

one out of ten plant species has been found to contain anti-cancer substances of 

B i o l o g i c a l 

1 D i v e r s i t y

S 

OME NORTHEASTERN PLANTS HAVE PROVIDED 

PEOPLE WITH FOLK REMEDIES, SUCH AS 

JEWELWEED SAP USED IN TREATING THE RASH 

POISON IVY CAUSES. OTHER SPECIES—FOR 

EXAMPLE, GINSENG AND GOLDEN-SEAL—ARE 

GATHERED COMMERCIALLY AND CULTIVATED 

TO A LIMITED EXTENT IN NEW YORK STATE. 


2 D i v e r s i t y

some degree of potency. A much higher percentage yield pharmaceuticals and other 

natural products of potential use as well as basic scientific information. If we dismiss 

beardtongues and louseworts, we may be doing ourselves a considerable disservice. 

Simple prudence dictates that no species, however humble, should ever be allowed 

to go extinct if it is within the power of humanity to save it. Take another—even 

repugnant—example, the leech. We would certainly be better off without these 

miserable bloodsuckers, right? Wrong. The medicinal leech of Europe has proved to 

be of great value to modern medicine. To prevent the blood of its victims from 

clotting, it secretes a powerful anticoagulant called hirudin. This substance is used to 

treat contusions, thrombosis, hemorrhoids and other conditions in which clotting 

blood can be painful or dangerous. Thousands of lives are saved annually by hirudin. 

The leech uses a second substance, the enzyme hyaluronidase, to disperse cells and 

hasten the penetration of hirudin. Surgeons adapt this material in the same way to 

spread injected drugs and anesthetics. Leeches also contain antibiotics and substances 

that enlarge the diameter of blood vessels, which might someday lead to a cure 

for migraine headaches. Medicinal leeches are now the basis of a $4 million annual 

business. They are so much in demand that the European species is threatened by 

overcollecting in its natural habitat. 

With the aid of other specialists (my own special group is ants), I have estimated 

the total number of kinds of plants, animals, and microorganisms known to science 

to be about 1.4 million. By “known to science” we mean characterized anatomically 

and given a scientific name, such as Canis familiaris for the domestic dog, Hirudo 

medicinalis for the European medicinal leech, and Homo sapiens for humans. But 

the actual number of kinds is estimated to fall somewhere between 10 million and 

80 million, depending on the statistical method used and the degree of conservativeness 

on the part of the scientist making the estimate. The truth is that we don’t 

know even to the nearest order of magnitude the amount of diversity. In other words, 

we cannot say whether the figure is closer to 1 million, 10 million or 100 million. 

When scientists fail to make a measurement to the nearest order of magnitude, 

it is fair to surmise that the subject is still poorly known. The truth is that life on 

planet earth has only begun to be explored. Every time I go to a rainforest site in 

Central or South America, I find new species of ants within several hours of searching. 


3 D i v e r s i t y

S 

OME SPECIES OF LEECHES CONTAIN THE 

CHEMICAL HIRUDIN AND THE ENZYME 

HYALURONIDASE, BOTH OF WHICH ARE USED 

IN MEDICINE. 


4 D i v e r s i t y

Some groups of organisms, such as fungi and mites (small spider-like organisms 

that abound in the leaf litter and soil) are so poorly studied that it is possible to find 

new species within a few miles of almost any locality in the United States, including 

the most densely populated urban areas. In the Chocó region of Colombia, as many 

as half the plant species, including trees and shrubs, still lack a scientific name. 

Even new species of mammals still turn up occasionally. In the past several years, a 

new deer, a kind of muntjac, was found in western China, and a new monkey, the 

sun-tailed guenon, was discovered in Gabon. 

We know less about life on earth than we know about the surface of the moon and 

Mars—in part because far less money has been spent studying it. Taxonomy, the 

study of classification and hence of biological diversity, has been allowed to dwindle, 

while other important fields such as space exploration and biomedical studies have 

flourished. Like glass-blowing and harpsichord manufacture, taxonomy of many 

kinds of organisms has been left in the hands of a small number of unappreciated 

specialists who have had few opportunities to train their successors. To take one of 

hundreds of examples, two of the four most abundant groups of small animals of 

the soil are springtails and oribatid mites. Marvelously varied, having complex life 

cycles, and teeming by the millions in every acre of land, these tiny animals play 

vital ecological roles by consuming dead vegetable matter. Thus they help to drive 

the energy and materials cycles on which all of life depends. Yet there are only four 

specialists in the United States who can identify springtails—one is retired—and 

only one is an expert on oribatid mites. The reason that so little is heard about 

these important organisms in the scientific literature and popular press is that there 

are so few people who know enough to write about them at any level. 

The general neglect of expertise in the face of overwhelming need and 

opportunity rebounds to the weakness of many other enterprises in science and 

education. Museums are understaffed, with too few biologists to develop research 

collections and prepare exhibitions. Systematics, the branch of biology that employs 

taxonomy and the study of similarities among species to work out the evolution of 

groups of organisms, is able to address only a minute fraction of life. Biogeography, 

the analysis of the distribution of organisms, is similarly hobbled. So is ecology, 

the extremely important discipline that explores the relationships of organisms 


5 D i v e r s i t y

“ 

E 

VERY TIME THAT I GO INTO THE RAINFOREST 

IN CENTRAL OR SOUTH AMERICA, I FIND 

NEW SPECIES OF ANTS WITHIN SEVERAL HOURS 

OF SEARCHING.” 

—EDWARD O. WILSON 


6 D i v e r s i t y

to their environment and to one another. A great deal of the future of biology 

depends on the strengthening of taxonomy, for if you can’t tell one kind of plant 

or animal from another, you are in trouble. Some kinds of research may be held 

up indefinitely. As the Chinese say, the beginning of wisdom is getting things by 

their right names. 

The study of classification and expertise on “obscure” groups of organisms 

such as periwinkles, leeches, springtails and mites may receive the needed boost by 

association with what has come to be known as biodiversity studies. Biodiversity 

studies constitute a hybrid discipline that took solid form during the 1980s. They 

can be defined (a bit formally, I admit, but bear with me) as follows: the systematic 

examination of the full array of organisms and the origin of this diversity, together 

with the technology by which diversity can be maintained and utilized for the 

benefit of humanity. Thus biodiversity studies are both scientific in nature, a branch 

of pure evolutionary biology, and applied studies, a branch of biotechnology. 

Two events during the past quarter-century brought biodiversity to center 

stage and encouraged the deliberately hybrid form of its analysis. The first was the 

recognition that human activity threatens the extinction of not only a few “star” 

species such as giant pandas and California condors, but also a large fraction of all 

the species of plants and animals on earth. At least one-quarter of the species on 

earth are likely to vanish due to the cutting and burning of tropical rainforests 

alone if the current rate of destruction continues. The second reason for the new 

prominence of biodiversity studies is the recognition that extinction can be slowed 

and eventually halted without significant cost to humanity. Extinction is not a price 

we are compelled to pay for economic progress. Quite the contrary: As the examples of 

the rosy periwinkle and medicinal leech suggest, conservation can promote human 

welfare. Ultimately conservation might even be necessary for continued progress in 

many realms of endeavor. 

The connection between the biodiversity crisis and economic development 

has been an important element in the reawakening of environmentalism in 1990, 

which reached a peak when Earth Day II was celebrated on April 22—20 years 

after the original event. The new environmentalism continues to endure. It arose 

with auspicious timing at the end of the Cold War, as Eastern Europe abandoned 


7 D i v e r s i t y

M 

ARVELOUSLY VARIED, HAVING COMPLEX 

LIFE CYCLES, AND TEEMING BY THE MILLIONS 

IN EVERY ACRE OF LAND, SPRINGTAILS PLAY 

VITAL ECOLOGICAL ROLES BY CONSUMING 

DEAD VEGETABLE MATTER. 

communism and Russian-U.S. relations entered their most cooperative period 

since the Second World War. The industrialized countries could now, it seemed, 

turn more of their energies to domestic reform, including improvement of the 

environment. 

It appeared to many scientists, the public and political leaders that this opportunity 

was realized not a moment too soon. What were previously viewed as mostly 

local events such as pollution of a harbor here or landfilling of a marsh there, had 

coalesced into secular global trends. Through advances in technology, scientists were 

able to make precise measurements of changes in the atmosphere and of the rates 

of deforestation and other forms of habitat destruction. And when the iron curtain 

lifted, the environment was revealed to be even worse off in socialist countries than 

in the capitalist West. Action to reverse the decline was demanded everywhere. 


8 D i v e r s i t y

N 

EW YORK’S BIODIVERSITY IS THREATENED MAINLY BECAUSE OF 

HUMAN ACTIVITY. HABITAT DESTRUCTION AND/OR PESTICIDES HAVE 

CAUSED SPECIES SUCH AS THE KARNER BLUE BUTTERFLY (PICTURED 

BELOW), LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE AND BLACK TERN TO BECOME ENDANGERED. 

MISMANAGEMENT, SPECIFICALLY OVERHUNTING, HELPED BRING THE 

PASSENGER PIGEON TO EXTINCTION AND EXTIRPATED THE MOUNTAIN 

LION, GRAY WOLF AND ELK FROM THE NORTHEAST. PLANT SPECIES LIKE 

LEATHERFLOWER (CLEMATIS OCHROLEUCA ), SHORTLEAF PINE (PINUS 

ECHINATA ), AND LONG’S BULRUSH (SCIRPUS LONGII ) ONCE OCCURRED 

IN THE NEW YORK METROPOLITAN AREA, BUT DISAPPEARED AS THE CITY 

EXPANDED AND DESTROYED WOODLANDS AND WETLANDS. 


9 D i v e r s i t y

A N e w Y o r k C a s e S t u d y : 

The Decline of an Endangered Species 

By Timothy L. McCabe 

Senior Scientist and Curator of Entomology 


The Karner blue butterfly serves as an indicator of the environmental health 

of the Albany pine barrens. The Karner blue larvae are dependent on a single 

host plant—the blue lupine. Lupine requires a complex mix of fire, low graze 

pressure from herbivores, and disturbance. The butterflies have equally complex 

needs for winter snow cover, nectar sources, ant symbionts and traffic-free areas. 

In preserves, deer and rabbit populations are protected from exploitation, 

enabling them to build large populations. The resulting increased browsing puts 

unnatural pressure on selected plants, particularly the lupine, thus reducing host 

availability. 

The Karner blue butterflies disperse across the landscape, taking advantage 

of unexploited habitat. They may stay in an area for 20 years, then disappear as 

the area becomes more overgrown and shaded. Managing the habitat is important 

for the future of this species. Currently, unused suitable habitat necessary for 

establishing new populations is being destroyed. The delicate balance between 

the butterfly and habitat has been exemplified by its extirpation from four states. 

The Karner blue is found in Albany, Schenectady and Warren counties. 

Originally, the Albany pine barrens comprised 25,000 acres. Now there are 

less than 2,800 acres of undeveloped land. Loss of pine barrens habitat through 

development has resulted in a corresponding decline in butterfly abundance. 

Figure 1 is an example of a site that has experienced a severe decline with the 

population apparently being extirpated. However, at most other sites in the Albany 

pine barrens, the decline has not been as severe as in this example. This decline 

became well known in the late 1970s and early ’80s through a city-sponsored 

Environmental Impact Statement. 


10 D i v e r s i t y

12 

10 

Number of Butterflies Observed 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 

Survey Year 

F i g u r e 1 . 

Data were collected by observing and counting adult butterflies at one site in the Albany 

pine barrens. This visual survey method gives researchers a relative population index 

number, which, although it is not the actual population size, is very useful for monitoring 

some organisms such as butterflies. Each bar on the graph represents the total number of 

butterflies counted on different days. There were no butterflies observed on surveys in 

1997 and 1998. (Data courtesy of the Albany Pine Bush Preserve Commission.) 



I 

SOLATED AREAS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW 

YORK STATE ARE THE HABITAT OF THE EASTERN 

WOODRAT. IT WOULD SEEM THESE AREAS’ 

INACCESSIBILITY WOULD PROTECT THE WOODRAT 

FROM EXTINCTION, AND YET INEXPLICABLY 

IT DECLINED IN NEW YORK STATE IN RECENT 

DECADES, AND FINALLY DISAPPEARED FROM 

THE STATE IN 1989. 



It is possible that the next hundred years will become known as the “Century 

of the Environment.” If in the fullness of time that prophecy comes true, the 

beginning of this era might be marked by historians by environmental disasters, 

such as the 11 million-gallon Exxon Valdez oil spill off the coast of Alaska, the 350 

tons of depleted uranium weapons still lying on Persian Gulf War battlefields, and 

the continued exploitation of precious ecosystems like the Brazilian Amazon, where 

deforestation, mining and over-development continue to flourish. 

I would like to summarize the whole picture by classifying global trends into 

four categories: 

1. Ozone depletion in the stratosphere, allowing increased penetration of 

ultraviolet radiation to reach ground level. 

2. Global warming due to the greenhouse effect, in which increased levels of 

carbon dioxide, methane and a few other gases trap growing quantities of heat. 

3. Toxic pollution, including acid rain. 

4. Mass extinction of species by destruction of habitats, especially tropical rainforests. 

The first three trends are dangerous to health and the economy—but they can 

be reversed. It is a matter of converting to cleaner forms of energy, changing our 

patterns of production and consumption, and above all, reversing population 

growth with an aim toward reaching supportable levels country by country. However, 

extinction cannot be reversed. No species can be called back. Extinction of species, or 

the reduction of biodiversity, is the one process 

that is being perpetrated not only on our children 

and grandchildren but also on our descendants 

10,000 years from now and beyond—as far into 

the future as can be imagined. 

With that somber but essential theme as 

background, let me now review some of the key 

facts about global biodiversity. The world is at 

or close to its highest level of biodiversity in the 

history of life, spanning 3.75 billion years. This 

buildup has been associated with changes in the 

ACIDIFICATION REDUCES THE DIVERSITY 

OF AQUATIC LIFE, BECAUSE FEW SPECIES 

CAN SURVIVE IN WATER WITH A LOW pH. 

THE pH LEVEL CAN BE RESTORED 

THROUGH LIMING; SOME OF THE PLANT 

SPECIES LOST MAY RE-ESTABLISH FROM 

SEED SOURCES IN NEARBY LAKES. 

atmosphere, the most important of which were caused by organisms and their 

innovations as they adapted to the changing atmosphere and other parts of the 



T 

HE DIVERSITY OF THE POWDERY MILDEW IS DEMONSTRATED BY THE 

SHAPES OF THEIR APPENDAGES. THIS ENGRAVING WAS DONE IN 1861 BY 

CHARLES TULASNE. 



environment. For almost 3 billion years, life was limited to the oceans and consisted 

of bacteria, blue-green algae, and other relatively simple one-celled forms. Then 

complex cells evolved, incorporating organelles such as nuclear membranes, chloroplasts, 

and cilia. Soon afterward, these cells evolved into still more complex multicellular 

animals and plants. About 600 million years ago, the concentration of 

oxygen in the atmosphere climbed rather quickly (by geological standards) to near 

its current level, destroying most of the anaerobic life in the oceans and on land 

surfaces. A shield of ozone accumulated in the stratosphere, protecting life from 

harmful ultraviolet irradiation. For the first time, substantial numbers of larger 

animals filled the seas, and the global variety of life climbed sharply. Plants invaded 

the land, then animals, represented first by small arthropods and other invertebrates, 

then jawless fishes. The diversity of life continued to rise. Biodiversity stalled on a 

plateau during most of the Mesozoic Era, then climbed gradually to its current 

high level. It is a supreme irony that mankind, the great destroyer of life, began as 

one of the products of the living world’s maximum proliferation. 

A second major principle of biodiversity is that smaller organisms are generally 

more diverse than larger ones. The reason appears to be simply that they fit into 

smaller spaces, consume less food individually, complete their life cycles more quickly, 

and hence are able to divide the habitats in which they live into smaller and more 

numerous niches. And the more numerous the niches, the more species that can be 

packed into the same location. Take a typical epiphyte-laden tree in the rainforest 

of Peru. It may be the home of several hundred species of beetles, 40 species of ants, 

and as many as 50 species of orchids and other epiphytes. But it can only be the 

partial home for a flock of parrots, which must range over portions of the forest that 

contain many thousands of such trees in order to obtain enough food for survival. 

Among smaller animals, insects dominate diversity. About 750,000 of the 1 million 

animal species described to date are insects, and some estimates have placed the 

actual number as high as 80 million. The reason for this amazing disproportion is 

uncertain. It seems likely due to the metamorphosis experienced by the majority of 

kinds of insects during the individual life cycle: egg to larva to pupa to adult, with 

the egg and pupa as passive transitional stages and the larva and adult as the active 

stage. Larvae and adults are radically different in appearance (recall the caterpillar 

and butterfly), typically feed on different foods, and even live in different sites. As 



T 

HE MARINE TURTLES, SUCH AS THIS GREEN 

SEA TURTLE, ARE MOST OFTEN KILLED 

BECAUSE THEY ARE LARGE AND SLOW AND ARE 

CONSIDERED GOOD EATING. ALL SIX SPECIES 

ARE NOW IN DANGER OF EXTINCTION. 



W 

ITH ITS WISPINESS AND LIGHT-AND-DARK 

COLORATION, THE PHANTOM CRANE FLY 

MIMICS COBWEBS AS IT FLIES THROUGH THE 

AIR. IF CAUGHT, IT CAN EASILY LOSE A LIMB, 

A CHARACTERISTIC KNOWN AS AUTOTOMY. 

a result, still more niches are generated by the combinations of life cycles. Another 

reason for the megadiversity of insects may be pre-emption. Insects were among the 

first small animals to adapt well to the land environment in early Paleozoic times, 

some 400 million years ago, and this advantage allowed them to expand their 

populations and species to an extreme degree while holding their own against rival 

groups among the land invaders. The pre-emption hypothesis gains some support 

from the fact that oribatid mites invaded the land about the same time, and today 

they too are exceptionally diverse and abundant. 



T 

HE MASSASAUGA IS A SMALL SPECIES OF 

RATTLESNAKE THAT IS ENDANGERED. IT IS 

KNOWN IN NEW YORK FROM ONLY TWO 

SWAMPS IN THE CENTRAL AND WESTERN 

PARTS OF THE STATE. 

If insects and other small invertebrate animals are so much more diverse than 

vertebrates and larger invertebrates due to size alone, is it true by extension of the 

same principle that still smaller creatures such as roundworms, fungi, and bacteria 

are even more diverse? The conventional answer is that for some unknown reason, 

they are not. But the conventional answer may prove to be wrong. The truth is 

that we know very little about the smallest of organisms. Because of their microscopic 

size and the difficulty of collecting and preserving them, they tend to be collected 

less frequently. Furthermore, many of the species can be distinguished only by 



sophisticated microscopic and biochemical techniques. Take the roundworms, for 

example. Vast numbers occur throughout the world, with untold varieties of species 

living free in the soil or in the bodies of insects and other animals. Since roundworms 

can specialize in particular species of hosts, which are excessively diverse 

themselves, or even certain parts of the bodies of their hosts, they have the potential 

for spectacular diversification. We simply have no idea how many kinds of roundworms 

live on earth. The same is true for fungi and bacteria. The number of 

recognized bacterial species is about 4,000, but most specialists on the subject agree 

that this is only a tiny fraction of the real number. Bacterial species usually exist in 

numbers too low to detect by direct inspection, and become apparent only when 

given the right nutrients, temperature, and chemical environment to create obvious 

population blooms. Many also flourish in very odd places, such as thermal springs 

or the intestines of termites. In the late 1980s, deep drilling in South Carolina 

uncovered an entire new flora of bacteria living 1,000 feet or more below the soil 

surface on nutrients carried to them by water seepage. The terra incognita of the 

smallest organisms is the reason why students of biodiversity, in giddier moments, 

are sometimes willing to entertain the idea of 100 million or more species of 

organisms on earth. 

Yet another peculiarity of global biodiversity is its inordinate concentration in 

tropical rainforests. This habitat, or biome-type as it is called by ecologists, is defined 

as a forest growing in tropical areas with 80 inches or more of annual rainfall, 

allowing the growth of broad-leaved evergreen trees that form several layers of dense 

canopies. Tropical rainforests today cover only about 6% of the land surface (9 million 

square kilometers), but they are generally thought to contain more than half the 

species of organisms on earth. The diversity of rainforest organisms is legendary, 

the common stuff of gossip among field biologists. For example, as many as 300 

species of trees have been identified in a single hectare (2.5 acres) in the Peruvian 

Amazon; this compares with 700 native species found in all of North America. Each 

tree harbors as many as a thousand species of insects. One tree that I analyzed yielded 

43 kinds of ants, approximately the same number found in the entire British Isles. 



A 

MONG MANY OF THE ENDANGERED FISH 

IN NEW YORK STATE ARE THE SHORT-NOSED 

STURGEON (PICTURED BELOW) AND THE 

EASTERN SAND DARTER. THE NOW-EXTINCT 

BLUE PIKE LOOKS VERY MUCH LIKE THE STILL- 

ABUNDANT WALLEYE, AND AS RECENTLY AS 

THE 1970S IT WAS A MAJOR COMMERCIAL FISH. 

The reason for the concentration of terrestrial diversity in rainforests and their 

marine equivalent in the coral reefs is one of the great unknowns of ecology. The concentration 

is actually the result of a more or less continuous increase in diversity 

encountered while traveling from the poles to the equator, the so-called latitudinal 

gradient of biodiversity. When biologists say “unknown” in this particular case, they 

really mean “not known with certainty.” Several hypotheses have been advanced, 

any one of which—or all of which—could be true to some extent. I am going to 

take a deep breath and try to impart the most likely explanation from a synthesis 

of these hypotheses, with due respect to current evidence: 



The tropical zones generally have a more congenial climate for life, 

providing it with longer growing seasons, an even distribution of solar 

energy, and freedom from freezing and other extreme, unpredictable, shortterm 

changes in temperature. The rainforest, moreover, offers a humidity 

regime and tree structure (that is, prevalence of broad, nearly horizontal 

branches) favorable to epiphytes such as orchids and bromeliads. This 

“elevated swampland” with its little pools of water and moist root masses 

offers vast numbers of additional living sites for animals. The delicate 

life cycles of the epiphytes and their co-evolved animal populations are 

pre-eminently tropical. It is unlikely that the organisms could endure the 

freezes of the Temperate Zone. The stability of the climate and the layering 

of vegetation allows division of the ecosystem into large numbers of niches 

and a corresponding number of plant and animal species, many bound 

together by intricate and finely tuned symbioses. A small shift from one 

part of a tree to another, or from one species of tree to another, or from 

one elevation on a mountainside to another, opens an opportunity for the 

evolution of yet another kind of animal or plant. The entirety of evolution 

has built the equivalent of a house of cards: vast numbers of species propped 

and leaning on one another and dependent on a steady environment to 

avoid collapse. It used to be thought that diversity created stability; in 

other words, the more species were locked together by co-evolution, the 

less likely any one of them could be extirpated. This diversity-stability 

hypothesis has gradually given way to its exact reverse, the stability-diversity 

hypothesis, wherein external, climatic stability is thought to allow the 

buildup of biodiversity. In the Temperate Zones, plant and animal species 

must adapt to a more drastically and unpredictably shifting environment. 

As a consequence, each Temperate Zone species is, on the average, likely to 

occur in a greater range of habitats, elevation and so forth than individual 

tropical species. In short, Temperate Zone species occupy a broader niche. 

Fewer species can be fitted together, resulting in lower biodiversity in 

temperate climates. 

Destructive human activity, including habitat removal, pollution, and excessive 

exploitation, have reduced large numbers of plant and animal species in the Temperate 

Zones even though they are “tougher” in the sense of having wider ranges on the 



F 

RANKLINIA ALATAMAHA, A SHRUB OF THE TEA FAMILY, WAS DISCOVERED 

IN GEORGIA IN 1765 BY JOHN BARTRAM AND HIS SON WILLIAM, WHO 

MADE THIS WATERCOLOR PAINTING. IN SPITE OF MANY ATTEMPTS TO FIND 

IT AGAIN, THE FRANKLINIA HAS NOT BEEN SEEN IN THE WILD SINCE 

1803, ALTHOUGH IT CONTINUES TO THRIVE HORTICULTURALLY IN MANY 

PLACES OTHER THAN ITS ORIGINAL HABITAT, INCLUDING NEW YORK. 

WHY IT DID NOT OCCUR NATURALLY ELSEWHERE REMAINS AN ENIGMA. 



average as well as greater ecological flexibility. In rainforests and other tropical 

environments with their legions of finely adapted species, degradation of this kind 

has deepened into catastrophe. Rainforests occupy about 9 million square kilometers 

currently, down some 45% from the original cover before the coming of man. The 

current area, then, is roughly equal to that of the United States. The forest is being 

cut and burned at the rate of 100,000 square kilometers a year, roughly the area of 

South Carolina—or, to use a more vivid measure, an area equal to a football field every 

second. Employing simple models based on the 

known relation of the area of islands and habitat 

patches to the number of species that can coexist, 

I have conservatively estimated that on a worldwide 

basis the ultimate loss attributable to 

rainforest clearing alone is from 0.2% to 0.3% 

of all species in the forests per year. Taking a very 

conservative figure of 2 million species confined 

to the forests, the global loss that results from 

deforestation is thus at least 4,000 to 6,000 species 

a year. That, in turn, is on the order of 10,000 

times greater than the naturally occurring background 

extinction rate that prevailed before the 

appearance of human beings. 

Although 4,000 species a year extinguished 

or doomed is a shocking figure, it is still almost 

certainly a gross underestimate. When we consider 

that the true number of plant and animal species 

limited to the rainforests may well be in the tens 

of millions, and that many, or even most, species 

in these areas are very limited in distribution, even 

small reductions in forest coverage can make them 

MICRANTHEMUM (MICRANTHEMUM 

MICRANTHEMOIDES ), A TINY RELATIVE OF 

THE GARDEN SNAPDRAGON, ONCE 

FLOURISHED ON THE MUDDY SHORES 

OF ESTUARIES ALONG THE EAST COAST, 

INCLUDING NEW YORK’S HUDSON 

RIVER. IT HAS NOT BEEN SEEN IN SEVERAL 

DECADES, AND IS PRESUMED TO BE 

EXTINCT. ANOTHER RELATIVE OF THE 

SNAPDRAGON, CHAFFSEED (SCHWALBEA 

AMERICANA ), HAS A LIMITED RANGE 

IN THE NORTHEAST AND HAS NOT BEEN 

SEEN IN NEW YORK SINCE THE EARLY 

NINETEENTH CENTURY, WHEN IT WAS 

FOUND IN THE ALBANY PINE BUSH. 

vulnerable to extinction. Add to this the species extinctions occurring in other habitats 

worldwide, and the animal extinction rate could easily be 10 times higher—that is, 

2% or more of all rainforest species, 50,000 or more species worldwide. A common 

estimate among biodiversity specialists, one to which I subscribe, is that one-fourth 

of the species of organisms on earth are likely to be eliminated outright or doomed to 



T 

APIRS ARE HERBIVORES THAT LOOK VAGUELY 

SIMILAR TO THE PIG BUT ARE MOST CLOSELY 

RELATED TO RHINOCEROSES. THEY ARE SHY, 

NOCTURNAL ANIMALS THAT SPEND THE HEAT OF 

THE DAY IN THE SHADOWS AND SHALLOW POOLS 

DEEP IN THE FOREST. ALL FOUR SPECIES OF 

TAPIRS IN THE WORLD ARE NOW SCARCE AND 

EXIST ONLY IN EXTENSIVE AREAS OF REMAINING 

TROPICAL FOREST. 



early extinction within the next 30 years if current 

rates of habitat destruction continue unabated. 

RAINFORESTS OCCUPY ABOUT 9 MILLION 

Habitat destruction is far from the whole 

picture. It represents most of the problem in warm 

climates, but global climatic warming due to the 

greenhouse effect is a potentially major second 

force in cold temperate and Polar Regions. A poleward 

shift of climate at the rate of 100 kilometers 

or more per century, which is considered at least a 

possibility, would leave wildlife reserves and entire 

species ranges behind. Many kinds of plants and 

SQUARE KILOMETERS CURRENTLY, DOWN 

SOME 45% FROM THE ORIGINAL COVER 

BEFORE MAN. THE FOREST IS BEING CUT 

AND BURNED AT THE RATE OF 100,000 

SQUARE KILOMETERS A YEAR … AN AREA 

EQUAL TO A FOOTBALL FIELD EACH SECOND. 

animals simply could not spread fast enough to keep up. The Englemann Spruce, 

for example, has an estimated natural dispersal capacity of from 1 kilometer to 20 

kilometers per century, so that massive new plantings would be required to sustain 

the size of the geographical range it currently occupies. Some kinds of plants and 

less mobile animals occupying narrow ranges might become extinct altogether. 

Entire arctic ecosystems might be endangered, because the warming will be greatest 

nearest the poles, and the organisms composing the ecosystems have no northward 

escape route to follow. 

People often ask, why should man-induced changes be thought apocalyptic or 

even very serious? After all, environmental change is perpetual, and organisms have 

always adjusted to it in past geological times. Isn’t the human impact just one more 

form of environmental change? Certainly over millions of years species adapted to 

alternative climatic warming and cooling, the expansion or shrinkage of continental 

shelves and the invasion of new competitors and parasites. Those that could not 

change became extinct, but at such a relatively slow rate that other better-adapted 

species evolved to replace them. In the midst of endless turnover, the balance of life 

was sustained. But now the velocity of change is too great for life to handle, and 

the equilibrium has been shattered. It has reached precipitous levels within a single 

human life span, merely a tick in geological time. Humanity is creating a radical 

new environment too quickly to allow the species to adjust. Species need thousands 

or millions of years to assemble complex genetic adaptations (see Appendix IV, 

Geologic Time Table). Most of life is consequently at risk. We are at risk. 



S 

MALL POPULATIONS OF MUSK OXEN LIVE IN ARCTIC REGIONS, IN SOME AREAS 

DUE TO REINTRODUCTION. THEY HUDDLE TOGETHER WHEN THREATENED, AN 

EFFECTIVE DEFENSE AGAINST PREDATORS SUCH AS WOLVES, BUT ONE THAT 

ALLOWED EASY SLAUGHTER OF WHOLE HERDS BY HUMANS IN THE 18TH AND 

19TH CENTURIES. 

There have been five previous episodes of mass extinction during the past 

500 million years, the time in which large, complex organisms flourished in the 

seas and on the land. These occurred at intervals of 20 million to 140 million 

years, during brief periods when the equilibrium between species formation and 

species extinction was upset. The most recent occurred at the end of the Mesozoic 

Era, the Age of Dinosaurs, 65 million years ago. Scientists generally agree that 

some major physical event was responsible, most likely a giant meteorite strike or 

abnormally heavy volcanic activity. Life required more than 5 million years to 

restore its original diversity by additional evolution. We are now in the midst of a 

comparable extinction spasm, almost entirely by our own actions. If a remedy is not 

found, we could continue on to approach the greatest crisis of all, the Permian 

crash of 240 million years ago, when 77% to 96% of all marine animal species 



perished. As the paleontologist David Raup put it, at that time “global biology 

(for higher organisms, at least) had an extremely close call.” There is an additional, 

sinister note in the current extinction spasm. For the first time ever, plant species 

are dying in large numbers. The world’s flora survived the end of the Mesozoic Era 

more or less intact, but now it is being eroded swiftly—with eventual consequences 

impossible to predict. 

Let me now shift gears abruptly, by saying that catastrophe can be replaced by 

a bright future if the world’s fauna and flora are saved and put to use for the benefit 

of humanity. This new enterprise, which should command our attention as fully as 

biomedical science and space exploration, will require the revitalization of “classical 

biology” and the unification of the best efforts of scientists, political leaders and 

business entrepreneurs. Much of future biology, I predict, will focus on biodiversity 

studies, carried down to the level of species and genetic strains. The study of biodiversity 

comprises several levels, each of which must be understood to protect and 

make full use of species and genetic strains. These levels correspond roughly to the 

conceptual levels of biological organization employed in basic research, which are 

used to illuminate pattern and process all the way from DNA replication to energy 

flow in ecosystems. The disciplines attending the levels are hierarchical. Starting 

with systematics, each feeds vital information to those up the line. In turn, the most 

comprehensive among them, community ecology and ecosystems studies, offer the 

broad vistas that guide biodiversity studies as a whole. 

T 

HE AMERICAN ALLIGATOR WAS ON THE VERGE 

OF EXTINCTION, BUT THROUGH A MAJOR 

REHABILITATION PROGRAM, ITS POPULATION 

HAS REBOUNDED. 



A N e w Y o r k C a s e S t u d y : 

Why Biological Inventories Are Important 

By Robert A. Daniels 

Chair of Biological Survey and Curator of Ichthyology 


Surveys and inventories of organisms provide the basic data used in research 

projects. Studying such changes as population size, species composition and 

distribution of organisms requires baseline data to which new information can 

be compared. Biological systems are dynamic; organisms living in a specific 

geographic area, often called a community, respond to physical, chemical and 

biological factors. As these factors change on a daily, seasonal, annual or long-term 

basis, the organisms in the community also change. To understand the effects of 

changes on these organisms, the biologist must first understand the various 

components that affect the community. Too often, the baseline data needed for 

this comparison are nonexistent because no early survey of the biological 

resources was conducted. New York has taken a lead in inventorying its natural 

resources with the establishment of the State Geological and Natural History 

Survey in 1836. Modern field surveys, documented by careful notes and voucher 

specimens, can be used to protect rare or unusual species, to define and map 

their habitats and to meet government regulations for building or other permits. 

Because both the environment and communities are dynamic, repeated surveys 

or long-term monitoring of specific sites provides the greatest amount of information 

and allows the researcher to observe and predict the response of the 

community to potential environmental changes. 

For example, biologists examine change in fish communities by comparing 

current information on fish abundance and distribution to information collected 

during past surveys. The simple comparison, as shown in Figure 2 describing 

fish communities in the Wallkill River, indicates that the composition and relative 

abundance of the fish community has changed markedly in this stream in the 

six decades between surveys. The chart shows that there were 22 species of fish 



collected in the stream in 1936 and only 16 species in 1992. Factors contributing 

to the loss of species and change of community composition are unknown. Had 

the stream been surveyed regularly, these mechanisms would be more obvious to 

the modern researcher, and they would be better able to understand the changes 

and to predict the effects of change. 

Tessellated Darter 

Spotfin Shiner 

Spottail Shiner 

Golden Shiner 

Smallmouth Bass 

Largemouth Bass 

White Sucker 

Redbreast Sunfish 

Pumpkinseed 

Common Shiner 

Rock Bass 

Brown Bullhead 

Cutlips Minnow 

Creek Chubsucker 

Fallfish 

Creek Chub 

Redfin Pickerel 

Chain Pickerel 

Bluegill 

Margined Madtom 

Eastern Silvery Minnow 

Black Crappie 

Yellow Bullhead 

Sand Shiner 

Log Perch 

1936 

1992 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Number of Fish Collected 

F i g u r e 2 . 

Community composition of fishes in the riverine section of the lower Wallkill River, New 

York. The comparison is based on fishes collected at four sites during 1936 and 1992 

between Dashville and Montgomery. The 1992 sites were selected to match, as closely 

as possible, the habitats sampled in 1936. This chart shows the decline in the relative 

abundance and diversity of fish that has occurred in the Wallkill River. 



T 

HERE ARE SUCCESS STORIES IN NEW YORK, 

WHERE THE STATE BIRD, THE EASTERN BLUEBIRD, 

HAS MADE QUITE A COMEBACK MOSTLY DUE TO 

CITIZENS PLACING AND MANAGING NEST BOXES 

IN SUITABLE HABITATS. THESE BOXES ALLOW 

BLUEBIRDS TO BETTER COMPETE WITH INTRO- 

DUCED SPECIES LIKE THE HOUSE SPARROW AND 

THE EUROPEAN STARLING. 



Systematics, or taxonomy, is at the base of biodiversity studies for the simple 

reason that if species cannot be identified they cannot be studied or marked for 

preservation. Systematics creates two key products, monographs and inventories. 

Monographs are complete classifications of particular groups of organisms for some 

larger part of the world, such as the ferns of tropical America or the Danaid butterflies 

of the world. The ideal monograph describes the species in the group, presents 

the available information on their distribution and natural history and interprets 

their evolutionary history. When appropriate monographs are available, inventories 

can be conducted of particular sites, including the hot spots of greatest interest 

in conservation. Typical inventories might include lists of the ferns, butterflies, or 

ideally all the species found in a rainforest on Cape York or the Chocó region of 

Colombia. The urgency in the need for systematics research comes from the fact 

that few appropriate monographs actually exist, forestalling inventories of any but 

a small number of relatively well-known groups such as flowering plants and birds 

and other vertebrates. As I noted earlier, the vast majority of species of invertebrates, 

fungi and microorganisms have not even been discovered, let alone described. 

There is a great need to promote monographic work on selected groups that are so 

different from flowering plants and vertebrates in their biology as to occupy unique 

places in the ecosystem and require special techniques in conservation. For adventurous 

scientists, these other groups await exploration in the field in the same way 

that elephants, gorillas and rhododendrons awaited exploration in the last century. 

Organismic biology moves us one level of organization down from systematics, 

rather than up. It comprises the physiology, genetics and life cycle studies of 

individual organisms. Once species have been distinguished taxonomically, those 

of most importance can be determined on the basis of whether they are keystone 

species, or close to extinction, or of potential economic importance, or offer extraordinary 

new biological phenomena for scrutiny. Detailed analysis can assess their 

status and role in the ecosystem. 

The next logical link in the chain is population biology, moving us back to 

the level of the species. Here we study the traits of whole populations, species by 

species, including the detailed distribution of each (selected) population, its fluctuation 

in size through time and hence its susceptibility to local extinction, and its 

internal genetic diversity—also important as a factor in potential extinction. 



A 

T ONE TIME THE PEREGRINE FALCON WAS ON THE VERGE OF EXTINC- 

TION. THROUGH EXTENSIVE REHABILITATION EFFORTS, IT HAS RETURNED 

TO LARGE PARTS OF ITS ORIGINAL RANGE. IT HAS BEEN INTRODUCED INTO 

NEW YORK AND OTHER LARGE CITIES TO HELP CONTROL THE PIGEON 

POPULATION. THIS PAINTING IS BY LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES, A FAMOUS 

BIRD ILLUSTRATOR OF THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY WHO LIVED AND 

WORKED IN ITHACA, NEW YORK. 



Community ecology addresses the manner in which species are linked in local 

environments. One of the most important problems in modern biology, as well as in 

conservation practice, is the tightness and reach of such linkages. We know how small 

sets of species, such as pairs and triplets, closely interact as partners in symbiosis, 

competition, predation and prey. What we do not know to any extent, especially 

in the most species-rich, endangered communities, is the range of linkages for 

individual species. How many species, for example, are keystone species whose 

elimination would bring down, say, 100 or more other species? This kind of scientific 

research is as basic and subtle as any in molecular biology or physics. 

In ecosystems studies, the highest level of organization is the ecosystem, the 

combined biological and physical components of circumscribed domains such as 

islands, patches of forest and lakes. The emphasis at this level is on the properties 

of energy and material flow, and (for our purposes) the relation of these properties 

to species composition. When environments are disturbed, energy and material 

flows are shifted, and humidity and temperature are altered. As a consequence, 

some species flourish while others decline and die out. 

Economic analysis of local ecosystems becomes practical to the extent that 

knowledge of the fauna and flora increases. One very promising approach is biochemical 

prospecting, the screening of natural products of wild species, a relatively 

inexpensive procedure that can follow closely upon systematic inventories and 

other early biological studies. The aim of this approach is to create new pharmaceuticals 

and commercial products from the wildlands and to encourage the 

creation of extractive reserves as an alternative to habitat destruction. 

In conclusion, here is the way these several fields of study can be fit together 

in the service of conservation and use of biodiversity: 

• Promote monographic studies of the poorest known groups, especially those 

likely to display novel population traits and conservation needs. 

• Encourage inventories of “warm areas,” i.e., species-rich areas under considerable 

environmental assault, to identify the true hot spots within them that 

are both species-rich and most threatened, with an aim toward early remedial 

action. The inventories should cover flowering plants and vertebrates, which 

are taxonomically in the best shape, and should be extended as soon as 



possible to selected groups of smaller organisms likely to display different 

population traits and conservation needs. Inventories should be directed 

from some of the best-established field laboratory sites, such as the tropical 

forest stations on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, and La Selva in Costa 

Rica, as well as the many local stations and field laboratories throughout 

North America. 

• Focus on selected groups of species for those physiological and genetic studies 

most likely to identify the causes of population decline and extinction. Such 

studies are also best conducted at well-established field laboratory sites. 

• Select groups of organisms for studies of species linkages, the most basic level 

of community organization, aimed at disclosing the reach of such linkages 

and the nature of keystone species. Again, this kind of study is generally best 

conducted at well-established field laboratory sites. 

• Promote studies of ecosystem changes in natural habitats under assault, as 

these changes affect community cohesion and threaten the safety of keystone 

species. 

Finally, given that this conceptual structure is close to the mark, the best way 

to promote biodiversity studies and conservation would seem to be to strengthen 

our experimental field stations and museums while promoting the very best studies 

ranging from systematics to ecosystems analyses. Our brightest young people should 

consider careers in biodiversity studies; our government and foundations should 

promote their enterprise in the service of national interest. We already know what 

needs to be done and the first important steps to take. 

Now is the time to act. 



Biological field stations 

from four parts of the world: 

1. Sirena Biological Field Station 

Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica 

Latitude: 8° 29´ North 

Longitude: 83° 30´ 30´´ West 

2. Palmer Station 

Antarctic Peninsula 

Latitude: 64° 46´ 30´´ South 

Longitude: 64° 04´ West 

3. Fu-Shan Station 

Northeastern Taiwan 

Latitude: 24° 46´ North 

Longitude: 121° 43´ East 

4. Edmund Niles Huyck Preserve 

& Biological Research Station 

Rensselaerville, New York, USA 

Latitude: 42° 31´ 30´´ North 

Longitude: 74° 9´ 30´´ West 

There are many other biological field stations and preserves in New York state, 

including the Adirondack Ecological Center (Newcomb), Bard College Field Station 

(Annandale), Beaver Lake Nature Center (Baldwinsville), Betty Matthiessen Preserve 

(Fishers Island), Cranberry Lake Biological Station (Cranberry Lake), Mohonk 

Preserve (New Paltz), and Tift Farm Nature Preserve (Buffalo). 



A p p e n d i x I 

Glossary 

Acid rain Precipitation that is acidic due to the chemical reaction of nitrous 

oxides (NO x ) or sulfate (SO 4 ) with water (H 2 O), forming nitric or sulfuric 

acid. These chemicals are picked up by clouds over industrial areas that burn 

fossil fuels. The acids formed can be carried long distances and deposited 

far away from their origin. Acid rain is thought to be killing some of the 

trees and polluting water in New York, Vermont and New Hampshire. 

Anatomy A branch of biology that deals with the physical structure of an 

organism. 

Anesthetic A substance that causes insensitivity and/or loss of consciousness. 

For example, novocaine or ether may be used during medical or dental 

operations, causing the patient to feel no pain. 

Antibiotic A substance, such as penicillin or erythromycin, that inhibits or 

stops the growth of bacteria or other microorganisms. 

Arthropod 1 A member of the Phylum Arthropoda, such as an insect, spider, 

or crustacean, bearing an articulated, external skeleton. 

Bacteria 1 Microscopic organisms (Kingdom Monera) that are prokaryotic, or 

lacking nuclear membranes around the genes. 

Biochemical Involving the chemical reactions of living organisms. 

Biodiversity 1 The variety of organisms considered at all levels, from genetic 

variants belonging to the same species through arrays of species to arrays 

of genera, families, and still higher taxonomic levels; includes the variety 

of ecosystems which comprise both the communities of organisms within 

particular habitats and the physical conditions under which they live. 



Biogeography 1 The scientific study of the past and present geographical 

distribution of organisms. 

Biome 1 A major category of habitat in a particular region of the world, such 

as the tundra of northern Canada or the rainforest of the Amazon Basin. 

Biomedicine Developments in medical science using biological sources. 

Antibiotics and organ transplants are examples. 

Biome type An organism that is a characteristic species of a particular environment 

or biome. 

Biotechnology Developments using knowledge of biology for the benefit 

of humanity. For example, genetic engineering of more productive crop 

plants was developed through biotechnology. 

Blue-green algae Any of a division (Cyanophyceae) of unicellular, prokaryotic, 

aquatic organisms having chlorophyll masked by bluish-green pigments. 

They are more closely related to bacteria than to other algae and many 

scientists refer to them as blue-green bacteria. 

Broad-leaved evergreen trees Woody plants that have broad green leaves, 

not needles, all year. Those with needles are coniferous evergreens. The 

opposite of evergreen, deciduous woody plants grow new leaves and shed 

them each year. 

California Condor Near extinction, this large vulture-like bird is restricted 

in distribution today to small mountainous parts of southern California. 

It inhabited New York state in the Tertiary Period. 

Canopy The high leafy layer formed by the trees in a forest. In the tropics, 

many plants and animals live in the thick canopy where there is more 

water and sun than on the forest floor. 

Cell The basic structural unit of organisms which, alone or interacting with 

others, can perform the fundamental functions of life. Some organisms 

consist of a single cell, while others are multicellular. 

Chloroplast The part of a plant cell that contains chlorophyll, which captures 

light and is involved in photosynthesis. 

Cilia Tiny hair-like structures that enable unicellular creatures to move and that 

help other cells (for example, those in our lungs) to move particles around. 



Classical biology The study of organisms based on comparative morphology 

(physical structure). 

Classification Systematic arrangement into groups or categories according to 

established criteria. 

Coagulant A substance which causes a fluid to thicken to a solid. For example, 

platelets, found in red blood cells, are coagulants that cause a blood clot 

to form. 

Coevolution 1 The evolution of two or more species due to mutual influence. 

For example, many species of flowering plants and their insect pollinators 

have coevolved in a way that makes the relationship more effective. 

Competition Active demand by two or more organisms or kinds of organisms 

for a resource. For example, male white-tailed deer could compete for 

food, territory or mates. 

Conservation 1 To sustain biodiversity in the face of human-caused environmental 

disturbance. 

Continental shelf A shallow underwater plain of various widths that forms 

a border to a continent and that typically ends in a steep slope to the 

oceanic abyss. 

Danaid butterfly A type of butterfly, the best known example of which is the 

Monarch butterfly. 

Deforestation The cutting of a high percentage of trees and the clearing of 

most of the shrubs and brush in a forest. 

Degradation A decline to a low, destitute state with regard to a lower quality 

of resources. 

Dioxide A chemical compound with two molecules of oxygen. An example is 

CO 2 (carbon dioxide). This is vital to plants, which use it to produce energy 

and O 2 (oxygen). The O 2 provided by plants is used by other forms of life, 

including humans. Dioxides can be harmful to the environment. When 

combined with sulfur or nitrogen, these chemical compounds contribute 

to air and water pollution. 



Dispersal In biology, the way a species can spread into the environment. For 

example, dandelion seeds may disperse by wind or be carried on an animal 

that brushes against the plant. 

Diversity 1 See Biodiversity. 

DNA 1 A double helix of deoxyribonucleic acid. The fundamental hereditary 

material of all living organisms, the polymer composing the genes. 

Ecology 1 The scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their 

environment, including the physical environment and the other organisms 

living in it. 

Energy flow The path of energy from the environment that is used and 

returned by an organism. 

Energy and materials cycle The origin, movement, and recycling of energy 

and nutrients through an organism or several organisms through an 

ecological system back to the environment. 

Environment 1 The surroundings of an organism or a species, the ecosystem 

in which it lives, including both the physical environment and the other 

organisms with which it comes in contact. 

Environmentalism An awareness and concern for the natural environment. 

This may lead to actions such as reusing, recycling and composting. 

Enzyme A protein that causes chemical reactions in cells. Some enzymes are 

secreted in the digestive system to aid in the absorption of nutrients. Others 

may be extracted and used in making bread or cheese. 

Epiphyte 1 A plant specialized to grow on other kinds of plants in a neutral or 

beneficial manner, not as a parasite. Examples: most species of orchids, 

bromeliads, and many mosses and lichens. 

Evolution 1 In biology, any change in the genetic material of a population of 

organisms. Evolution can vary in degree from small shifts in the frequency 

of minor genes to the origin of complex genes of new species. Changes of 

lesser magnitude are called microevolution, and changes at or near the upper 

extreme are called macroevolution. Evolution is also a theory or model to 

account for diversity of life on earth through these genetic changes. 



Extinction 1 The termination of any lineage of organisms, from subspecies to 

species and higher taxonomic categories from genera to phyla. Extinction 

can be local, in which one or more populations of a species or another 

unit vanish but others survive elsewhere, or total (global), in which all the 

populations vanish. When biologists speak of extinction without further 

qualifications, they mean total extinction. 

Extirpate A species no longer occurring where it once lived; to entirely 

remove from an area. For example, the mountain lion has been extirpated 

from the Northeast, but is still found in much of the western U.S. 

Extractive reserves 1 A wild habitat from which timber, latex and other natural 

materials are taken on a sustained yield basis with minimal environmental 

damage and, ideally, without the extinction of native species. 

Fern A flowerless, seedless lower vascular plant that reproduces by spores. 

Field laboratory site A temporary or permanent place where scientific research, 

usually having to do with the environment, is prepared and/or carried out. 

Flowering plant A plant that produces flowers, fruit, and seeds and is more 

complex than non-flowering plants, such as conifers (evergreens) or fungi. 

Fungi A group of plants, such as mushrooms, molds, rusts, and mildews, 

which derive nutrients from decomposing organic matter instead of 

through photosynthesis because they lack chlorophyll. 

Genetic adaptation A change in genetic composition that occurs naturally over 

time so that an organism is more efficient and competitive in its environment. 

Genetics A branch of biology that deals with the heredity and variation of 

DNA in organisms. 

Genus 1 A group of similar species of common descent. Examples: Canis, comprising 

the wolf, domestic dog, and similar species; and Quercus, the oaks. 

Geological time Time periods throughout the history of the earth. 

Giant panda A mammal that resembles the bear but is actually related to the 

raccoon. It is found only in isolated parts of China and now in some zoos. 

It eats mainly bamboo and small rodents or fish. 



Global warming An increase in the climatic temperature of the earth over a 

period of time. 

Greenhouse effect A gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere due to an 

increase in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the air coming from industrial smoke, 

car exhaust and the destruction of vegetation that uses carbon dioxide 

to produce oxygen. The excess CO 2 traps the sun’s energy radiating from 

earth, causing the warming. 

Habitat 1 An environment of a particular kind, such as a lake shore or tall-grass 

prairie; also a particular environment in one place, such as the mountain 

forests of Tahiti. 

Habitat island 1 A patch of habitat separated from other patches of the same 

habitat, such as a glade separated by a forest or a lake separated by dry land. 

Habitat islands are subject to much the same ecological and evolutionary 

processes as “real” islands. 

Hodgkin’s disease A cancer that involves the enlargement of the lymph glands, 

spleen and liver. There is no known cure, but there are successful treatments. 

Host An organism providing something (for example, food, transportation, etc.) 

for another. The relationship can harm, benefit or have no discernable 

effect on the host. 

Humidity The concentration of moisture in the air. If it is raining, there is 

100% humidity. 

Hybrid 1 The offspring of parents that are genetically dissimilar, especially of 

parents that belong to different species. 

Invertebrate 1 Any organism lacking a backbone of bony segments that 

enclose the central nerve cord. Most organisms are invertebrates, from sea 

anemones to earthworms, spiders and butterflies. 

Keystone species 1 A species, such as the sea otter, that affects the survival and 

abundance of many other species in the community in which it lives. Its 

removal or addition results in a relatively significant shift in the composition 

and sometimes even the physical structure of the community. 

Latitudinal diversity gradient 1 The trend, widespread but not universal 

among plants and animals, toward greater diversity with closer proximity 

to the equator. 



Lymphocytic leukemia A cancer that causes enlargement of the lymph 

glands. While there is no known cure, there are successful treatments. 

Mesozoic Era 1 The Age of Reptiles or Age of Dinosaurs, extending from 245 

million to 66 million years ago. It is divided into the Triassic, Jurassic and 

Cretaceous Periods. 

Meteorite A meteor that is not completely vaporized by friction with the 

atmosphere and reaches the surface of the earth. 

Methane gas A chemical product (CH 4 ) of the decomposition of organic 

matter (in marshes, mines and garbage dumps) or of the carbonization of 

coal. It has no color or smell and is flammable. 

Muntjac A small deer (of the genus Muntiacus) found in southeastern Asia 

and the East Indies. 

Myrmecology The branch of entomology dealing with the study of ants. 

Niches 1 A vague but useful term in ecology, meaning the place occupied by 

the species in its ecosystem—where it lives, what it eats, its foraging 

route, the seasonal activity and so on. In a more abstract sense, a niche is 

a potential place or role within a given ecosystem into which species may 

or may not have evolved. 

Nucleus 1 In biology, the dense central body of the cell, surrounded by a 

double nuclear membrane and containing the chromosomes and genes. 

Nutrient A substance taken in by an organism that is used to produce energy 

and matter. 

Order of magnitude A range of estimation extending from a given value to 

10 times that value. 

Organelle A specialized cellular structure that is analogous to an organ. For 

example, chloroplasts and mitochondria are organelles. 

Organism A living thing or creature, including plants, animals, invertebrates, 

fungi, etc. 



Ozone A form of oxygen (O 3 ) that is created in the earth’s upper atmosphere 

by a photochemical reaction with solar ultraviolet radiation (UV). This 

ozone layer protects the earth from receiving too much UV. It is also a 

byproduct of industrial reactions and is a major contributor to smog. 

Paleontology 1 The scientific study of fossils and all aspects of extinct life. 

Paleozoic Era A geologic time period starting with the Cambrian Period 620 

million years ago and ending with the Permian Period 245 million years ago. 

Parasite An organism that lives by using another organism, returning no 

benefits to the host. 

Permian Period 1 The last period of the Paleozoic Era, extending from 290 

million to 245 million years ago and closing with the greatest extinction 

event of all time. Somewhere between 77% and 96% of all marine animal 

species perished during this period. 

Pharmaceutical Having to do with the drugs and medications used in 

medical science. 

Physiology A branch of biology that deals with the physical and chemical 

functions of an organism. 

Population 1 In biology, any group of organisms belonging to the same species 

at the same time and place. 

Population biology The study of the population dynamics, or the changes in 

population distribution and density that occur over time, for a particular 

species. 

Pre-emption hypothesis Those species that established themselves in an area 

first and which have a more likely chance of thriving and evolving into 

diverse and abundant species. 

Replication The process of making an exact duplicate. For example, DNA 

uses replication to make more DNA. 

Roundworm A member of the Phylum Nematoda, an organism (can be a 

micro- or macroscopic species) with an unsegmented body that often lives 

in the soil or in host animals. 



Sociobiology The study of the biological bases of social behavior in animals 

and how this behavior is influenced by the processes of natural selection. 

Initially, sociobiology was quite controversial because it was applied to 

explain human behavior. 

Species 1 The basic unit of classification, consisting of a population or series of 

populations of closely related and similar organisms. In sexually reproducing 

organisms, a species is more narrowly defined by the biological species 

concept: a population or series of populations of organisms that freely 

interbreed with one another, but not with members of other species, in 

natural conditions. 

Square kilometers A metric form of measurement of area; one square kilometer 

is equal to .3844 square miles. 

Statistical The collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical data. An 

opinion poll is statistical. 

Strain A group of organisms from a common ancestor with different hereditary 

characteristics. For example, there are many strains of lab mice, some that 

look different and others that are only physiologically different. 

Stratosphere The upper layer of the earth’s atmosphere, approximately seven 

miles from the surface. 

Symbiosis 1 The living together of two or more species in a prolonged and 

intimate ecological relationship with no harmful effect, such as the 

incorporation of algae and cyanobacteria within fungi to form lichens. 

Synthesis A combination of thoughts, concepts, or materials constituting a 

logical process. 

Systematics 1 The scientific study of the diversity of life. Sometimes used 

synonymously with taxonomy to mean the procedures of pure classification 

and reconstruction of phylogeny (relationship among species); on other 

occasions it is used more broadly to cover all aspects of the origins and 

content of biodiversity. 

Taxonomy 1 The science (and art) of the classification of organisms. See also 

Systematics. 

Temperate A moderate climate characterized by distinct seasons. There are 

northern and southern temperate zones. 



Termites A group of insects that is socially structured like bees, with sexual 

forms, sterile workers and sometimes soldiers. There are several species living 

from the tropics to northern regions. Many species live in or feed on wood. 

Terra incognita Latin: incognita: unknown or unexplored; terra: place or territory. 

Terrestrial An organism that lives on or in or grows from the ground, as 

opposed to living in the water or air. 

Thrombosis The formation of a blood clot in a blood vessel. 

Trait An inherited characteristic. 

Tropical rain forest 1 Also known more technically as tropical closed moist forest: 

a forest with 200 cm of annual rainfall spread evenly through the year and 

which supports broad-leaved evergreen trees, typically arranged in several 

irregular canopy layers dense enough to capture more than 90% of the 

sunlight before it reaches the ground. 

Ultraviolet radiation The rays of the sun that are of shorter wavelength than 

the spectrum visible to human eyes. 

Wildlife reserve An area of habitat(s) left undeveloped and supposedly safe 

from other human activities, designed to help wildlife flourish. 

1 From the Glossary in E.O. Wilson’s The Diversity of Life, 1992, Belknap Press of 

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 391-407. 



A p p e n d i x I I 

Suggested Readings 

B o o k s 

Cohen, Joel E. 1995. How Many People Can the Earth Support? W.W. Norton and 

Company, Inc. New York, New York. 

“... the definitive work on the global population problem.” 

—Edward O. Wilson 

The Earthworks Group. 1995. 50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth. 

Andrews and McMeel. Kansas City, Missouri. 

“To commemorate the twenty-fifth anniversary of Earth Day, an updated 

guide to environmental awareness encompasses the latest research into such 

issues as global warming, ozone depletion, and endangered species and 

offers advice on how readers can help the environment.” 

—from Amazon.com 

NOTE: This book is out of print. 

The Earthworks Group. 1991. The Next Step: 50 More Things You Can Do to Save 

the Earth. Andrews and McMeel. Kansas City, Missouri. 

“It goes beyond simple, individual actions, and focuses on ways of expanding 

community participation and awareness, ways of empowering people to 

create an impact beyond their own homes.” —from Amazon.com 

Ehrlich, Paul R., and A. H. Ehrlich. 1998. Betrayal of Science and Reason: How 

Anti-Environment Rhetoric Threatens Our Future. Island Press. Washington, D.C. 

The most recent work by well known authorities on the problems of overpopulation 

and related environmental problems. 



Grifo, Francesca, and J. Rosenthal (eds.). 1996. Biodiversity and Human Health. 

Island Press. Washington, D.C. 

Until recently, the direct effects of declining biodiversity on human health 

have not been greatly discussed. This publication addresses some of these 

concerns while offering strategies for the sustainable use of biodiversity. 

Mackintosh, Gay (ed.). 1989. Preserving Communities and Corridors. Defenders of 

Wildlife. Washington, D.C. 

A thorough report that shows how the preservation of connections between 

natural communities can help to maintain biodiversity. 

Myers, Norman. 1983. A Wealth of Wild Species: Storehouse for Human Welfare. 

Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado. 

This book discusses the “utilitarian benefits” of preserving biodiversity. It is 

a classic text on the economic aspects and the questions continuously asked 

in ecological discussions. 

Myers, Norman. 1992. The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future. 

W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. New York, New York. 

Dr. Myers describes not only the condition of these forests and what needs 

to be done to preserve them, but also how these forests influence the lives of 

all people on earth. 

Office of Technology Assessment. 1987. Technologies to Maintain Biological 

Diversity. Government Printing Office. Washington, D.C. 

This report identifies some potential opportunities and also some constraints 

to maintaining biodiversity. 

Platt, Rutherford H., R.A. Rowntree, and P.C. Muick (eds.). 1994. The Ecological 

City: Preserving and Restoring Urban Biodiversity. University of 

Massachusetts Press. Amherst, Massachusetts. 

“The symposium on ‘Sustainable Cities: Preserving and Restoring Urban 

Biodiversity,’ which led to this volume, was devoted to a reconnaissance of 

(1) the functions of biodiversity within urban areas, (2) the impacts of 

urbanization upon biodiversity, and (3) the ways to design cities compatibly 

with their ecological contexts.” —from the introduction and overview. 



Reid, Walter V., and K.R. Miller. 1989. Keeping Options Alive: The Scientific Basis 

for Conserving Biodiversity. World Resources Institute. Washington, D.C. 

“In a way, Keeping Options Alive is a ‘how-to’ publication. Its timely premise 

is that the biological sciences can help policy makers identify the threats 

to biodiversity, evaluate conservation tools, and come up with successful 

management strategies to the crisis of biotic impoverishment before it is 

full-blown.” —from the foreword. 

Soulé, Michael E. (ed.). 1987. Viable Populations for Conservation. Cambridge 

University Press. Cambridge, England. 

“This book addresses the most recent research in the rapidly developing 

integration of conservation biology with population biology.” —from the 

back cover. 

Thorne-Miller, Boyce, and S.A. Earle. 1998. The Living Ocean: Understanding and 

Protecting Marine Biodiversity—2nd edition. Island Press. Washington, D.C. 

A valuable primer for understanding the threats to marine biodiversity and 

the conservation needs of this important ecosystem. 

Western, David, and M.C. Pearl (eds.). 1989. Conservation for the Twenty-First 

Century. Oxford University Press. New York, New York. 

This collection of writings from a diverse group of authors outlines 

approaches to nature conservation and it also reviews some possible future 

outcomes for habitats and wildlife. 

Wilson, Edward O. (ed.), and Frances M. Peter (photographer). 1989. Biodiversity. 

National Academy Press. Washington, D.C. 

This book is a collection of papers from a major conference that highlights 

the causes of biodiversity loss followed by a systematic analysis of the 

approaches to preserving biodiversity. 

“Anyone concerned with biodiversity should own this book …” 

—from the journal Science. 

Wilson, Edward O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 

New York, New York. 

“In this book a master scientist tells the great story of how life on earth 

evolved. Edward O. Wilson describes how the species of the world became 



diverse and why the threat to that diversity today is beyond the scope of 

anything we have known before.” 

—from the back cover. 

Wyman, Richard L. (ed.). 1991. Global Climate Change and Life on Earth. 

Chapman and Hall. New York, New York. 

“Global Climate Change and Life on Earth focuses on the greenhouse effect 

and its relation to such crucial issues as deforestation, overpopulation and 

hunger, pollution, sea-level changes, and the loss of biodiversity. These 

environmental threats now facing us could have so much momentum that 

unless steps are taken now to reverse them, they may soon overwhelm our 

ability to respond.” —from the back cover. 

P e r i o d i c a l s 

Biological Conservation 

Monthly publication on theoretical and applied science, research and 

commentary on conservation issues; worldwide in scope. 

The Conservationist 

Monthly publication of the New York State Department of Environmental 

Conservation. Lots of artwork; non-technical articles associated with 

wildlife management and outdoor recreation. 

National Geographic 

Monthly magazine. Non-technical; lots of color photographs; good coverage 

of wildlife refuges, national parks, rare species, unusual ecosystems. 

Natural History 

Monthly magazine. Non-technical; lots of photographs; emphasizes natural 

diversity of the landscape and diversity of organisms. 

Nature 

Weekly British scientific journal. Short, highly technical articles reporting 

original research on all scientific subjects. 

Nature Conservancy 

Bimonthly magazine of the Nature Conservancy, an organization dedicated 

to saving unique natural areas primarily by buying and preserving them. 



New Scientist 

Weekly British publication. Brief, non-technical, often “chatty” articles on a 

wide range of recent scientific discoveries, controversies, and public policy 

issues; excellent coverage of biological and conservation issues. 

S e l e c t e d P u b l i c a t i o n s 

P e r t a i n i n g t o N e w Y o r k S t a t e 

Daniels, Robert A. 1996. Guide to the Identification of Scales of Inland Fishes of 

Northeastern North America. New York State Museum. Albany, New York. 

This book presents a comprehensive source of information to assist 

researchers in identifying the scales of inland fishes of the Northeast. 

Mills, Edward L., M.D. Scheuerell, J.T. Carlton, and D.L. Strayer. 1997. 

Biological Invasions in the Hudson River Basin. New York State Museum. 

Albany, New York. 

“The purpose of this study is to present a comprehensive inventory of 

the introduced flora and fauna of the Hudson River drainage basin.” 

—from the introduction. 

Mitchell, Richard S., and C.J. Sheviak. 1981. Rare Plants of New York State. New 

York State Museum. Albany, New York. 

“Through this publication we seek to reach the interested public as well as 

professionals in conservation and biology. The book is not intended to be a 

purely technical botanical document, but a practical guide and introduction 

to the subject of rare plants in the state.” —from the foreword. 

Mitchell, Richard S., and G. Tucker. 1997. Revised Checklist of New York State 

Plants. New York State Museum. Albany, New York. 

Revised compilation of all vascular plant species known to grow, independently 

of cultivation, within the state of New York. 



Mitchell, Richard S., L. Danaher, and G. Steeves. 1998. Northeastern Fern 

Identifier. New York State Museum. Albany, New York. 

This innovative software package allows identification of fern species from 

the northeastern United States by simply pointing and clicking. Each species 

is illustrated with a color photograph. This PC-compatible software is 

available only on CD-ROM. 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 1987. Checklist of 

Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals of New York State, Including their 

Protective Status. NYSDEC, Division of Fish, Wildlife and Marine 

Resources. Albany, New York. 

Available from the NYSDEC Web site: www.dec.state.ny.us 

New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. 1987. Endangered, 

Threatened and Special Concern Fish & Wildlife Species of New York State. 

NYSDEC, Division of Fish, Wildlife and Marine Resources. Albany, New York. 

A checklist. Available from the NYSDEC Web site: www.dec.state.ny.us 

Reschke, Carol. 1990. Ecological Communities of New York State. New York Natural 

Heritage Program. Latham, New York. 

“The primary objective of this report is to classify and describe ecological 

communities representing the full array of biological diversity of New York 

State.” —from the introduction. 

Siegfried, Clifford A. 1986. Understanding New York Lakes. New York State 

Museum. Albany, New York. 

“This pamphlet serves as a starting point for the general reader who is interested 

in lakes. It is intended as an introduction to what lakes are and how 

they function, and to some of the problems that must be faced by resource 

managers in New York State.” —from part I. 

Strayer, David L., and K.J. Jirka. 1997. The Pearly Mussels of New York State. New 

York State Museum. Albany, New York. 

Illustrations, descriptions and keys of the shells of New York’s pearly mussels. 



A p p e n d i x I I I 

Discussion Questions 

1. What is biodiversity? 

2. Why is biodiversity important? 

3. What recent worldwide events have made the importance of biodiversity and 

the health of the environment more widely recognized? 

4. Is there more or less diversity now than 100 million years ago? 

5. How long ago did the diversity start to increase? Why? 

6. Is there more or less diversity among small organisms? Why? 

7. How much do scientists know about all the plants and animals on earth? 

8. What is the science of systematics? Taxonomy? Classification? 



9. Is an ecologist the same as a taxonomist? How are they the same or different? 

Do they work together? 

10. Why is it important to know the name of an organism? 

11. Do scientists have a name for every plant and animal on earth? 

12. How many plants and animals are there on earth? What are scientists’ best 

guesses? 

13. Can you name five plants that are used medicinally? 

14. What can a leech do for humans? 

15. Why are insects useful? Give two examples. 

16. What areas of the world are called tropical? 

17. What is unique about the way plants grow in the tropics? 

18. Why are the tropics particularly rich but fragile environments? 

19. Where is Madagascar? 



20. Why do so many of the plants and animals live in the tropical rainforest? 

Why do many of them live in the canopy of the forest? 

21. What is extinction? 

22. Can extinction be reversed? 

23. When did much of the current environmental destruction and change start 

to occur? 

24. Have there been other times in history of the earth when mass extinction 

occurred? When? Why? 

25. What possible conditions caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs? 

26. What is the major difference between environmental changes now and 

environmental changes 300 years ago? 

27. What is the greenhouse effect? 

28. What are the major causes of rainforest destruction? 

29. Do you see signs of environmental destruction in your home area? 

What are they? 

30. Do you know of a wildlife preserve near your home? 



31. Do you know of a biological research station or institution in your area? 

Have you been to visit it? Is there a scientist on its staff? What does he or 

she study? 

32. Can you list five areas in which biological scientists specialize? 

33. Are there plants and animals threatened with extinction in the northeastern 

United States? Can you name some of them? 

34. Name some animals that are not threatened with extinction in New York. 

Why are they not considered threatened or endangered? 

35. Can you name two environmental groups dedicated to saving biodiversity? 

36. What are some things we each can do to help preserve biodiversity? 



A p p e n d i x I V 

Geologic Time Table 





Credits 

A r t w o r k 

The drawings throughout the book, except for those pieces noted below, are original 

graphite drawings by Patricia Kernan. Patricia has been a scientific illustrator 

at the New York State Museum since 1988. 

Cover artwork and design are also by Patricia Kernan. 

O t h e r A r t i s t s 

Powdery mildew (p. 14), 1861 print from a copper plate engraving of a drawing by 

Charles Tulasne, printed by permission of Farlow Reference Library, Harvard 

University. 

Franklinia alatamaha (p. 22), watercolor (circa 1788) by William Bartram, printed 

by permission of the British Museum, Natural History. 

Peregrine Falcons (p. 32), watercolor by Louis Agassiz Fuertes, originally printed in 

1914 by the New York State Museum. 

F i e l d S t a t i o n P h o t o s 

Sirena Biological Field Station, taken in 1988 by Patricia Kernan, New York State 

Museum. 

Palmer Station, taken in 1998 by Dean S. Klein, Antarctic Support Associates. 

Fu-Shan Station, taken in 1996 by John H. Haines, New York State Museum. 

Edmund Niles Huyck Preserve & Biological Research Station, taken in 1998 by 

Ronald J. Gill, New York State Museum. 

G e o l o g i c T i m e t a b l e 

The geologic time table is a publication of the Geological Survey at the New York 

State Museum. 

B o o k D e s i g n 

Design by: Documentation Strategies, Inc., Rensselaer, New York 

In cooperation with Kristine Fitzgerald, 2k Design, Clifton Park, New York. 



THE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM IS A PROGRAM OF 

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT 

ISBN: 1-55557-210-3 

ISSN: 0735-4401

Download Biological Diversity - New York State Museum

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?