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Contents 

List of Illustrations 

Preface 

Acronyms 

List of Contributors 

ix 

xi 

xiii 

xv 

Introduction After the Violence: Memory 1 

Florence Vatan and Marc Silberman 

One 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Five 

Part I Competing Memories 

The Nuremberg Trials as Cold War Competition: 

The Politics of the Historical Record and 

the International Stage 

Francine Hirsch 

The Cube on Red Square: A Memorial for 

the Victims of Twentieth-century Russia 

Karl Schlögel 

Reactive Memory: The Holocaust and 

the Flight and Expulsion of Germans 

Bill Niven 

Beyond Auschwitz? Europe’s Terrorscapes in 

the Age of Postmemory 

Rob van der Laarse 

Part II Staging Memory 

Narrative Shock and Polish Memory Remaking in 

the Twenty-first Century 

Geneviève Zubrzycki 

15 

31 

51 

71 

95 

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viii / contents 

Six 

Seven 

Eight 

Grievability and the Politics of Visibility: 

The Photography of Francesc Torres and 

the Mass Graves of the Spanish Civil War 

Ofelia Ferrán 

Doing Memory in Public: Postapartheid Memorial 

Space as an Activist Project 

Robyn Autry 

Mnemonic Objects: Forensic and Rhetorical 

Practices in Memorial Culture 

Laurie Beth Clark 

117 

137 

155 

Nine 

Ten 

Part III 

Re-membering Memory 

Toward a Critical Reparative Practice in Post-1989 

German Literature: Christa Wolf’s City of Angels or 

The Overcoat of Dr. Freud (2010) 

Anke Pinkert 

Paradoxes of Remembrance: Dissecting France’s 

“Duty to Memory” 

Richard J. Golsan 

177 

Eleven After-words: Lessons in Memory and Politics 213 

Marc Silberman 

197 

Works Cited 227 

Index 245 



MEMORY AND POSTWAR MEMORIALS 

Copyright © Marc Silberman and Florence Vatan, 2013. 

All rights reserved. 

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First edition: December 2013 

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Introduction 

After the Violence: Memory 

Florence Vatan and Marc Silberman 

These cracked grounds, shattered by history, these grounds that make you want 

to scream. 

—Georges Didi-Huberman 1 

The twentieth century has witnessed genocides, ethnic cleansing, forced 

population expulsions, shifting national borders, and other massive disruptions 

on an unprecedented scale. Cities and landscapes still bear the 

visible or hidden scars of past massacres and destruction, as do groups and 

populations that have been victims of repression. How do societies confront 

a past marked by violence and exclusion? What happens to people 

so steeped in oppression that personal and social traumas pervade their 

community relations even after the violence has ended? Are there models 

of reconciliation that can overcome the asymmetry of perpetrators and victims? 

How can such experiences be conveyed and represented by those who 

suffered the consequences to those who come after? This volume explores 

the work of memory and the ethics of healing in societies that have experienced 

sociopolitical rupture and histories of state violence. Combining 

a global and transnational approach with case-oriented analysis, it seeks 

to highlight the political, ethical, and aesthetic challenges posed by the 

commemoration of traumatic violence. The models and transformations 

of memory work analyzed in this book illustrate how the past is remembered 

or forgotten, confronted or repressed, and how it keeps haunting 

the present in the aftermath of violent historical events: the Second World 

War, the Holocaust and the fall of the Berlin Wall, Stalinism in post- 

Soviet Russia and Eastern Europe, the Civil War and Francoism in Spain, 

the Vichy collaboration in France, and the apartheid regime in South 

Africa. The individual chapters explore a wide array of commemorative 

practices from state-sponsored heritage projects to grassroots collective or 



2 / florence vatan and marc silberman 

individual initiatives: official commemorations, trials for war crimes or 

crimes against humanity, monuments, museums, on-site memorials, literary, 

photographic and cinematic representations, exhibitions, art installations, 

and artistic performances. 

These various case studies demonstrate how memory cultures evolve 

over time and how they handle the competing demands between a nostalgic 

turn toward the past and a utopian impulse geared toward the future. 

They also testify to the forces of globalization and cosmopolitization, 

while pointing to the importance of remaining attuned to the specificity 

of geopolitical and local contexts. 2 If recurrent trends in commemorative 

practices and common tropes in the display and staging of past violence 

create a global “rhetoric” of memorialization, each particular memoryscape 

brings its own specific set of challenges. For the commemoration of 

the past remains a controversial and contested field whose dynamics are 

fueled by competing memory paradigms, different and sometimes mutually 

exclusive groups of victims, shifting present-day stakes, and divergent 

representations of the future. Dissonances and dissident voices as well as 

forms of “reactive” and “multidirectional” memory unsettle the hegemony 

of master narratives and bring to the fore tensions and points of friction. 3 

These dissonances reflect a fractured past and a divided present. They also 

result from the democratization of memory and the pluralization of its 

modes of production and channels of diffusion. 

The commemoration of a difficult past raises challenges related to historical, 

political, and sociocultural contexts. It also raises challenges inherent 

to the process of memory making. Unlike heroic struggles, military 

triumphs, and revolutionary victories—privileged hallmarks of national 

celebrations and grandiose commemorations—traumatic or infamous 

pasts do not lend themselves to smooth or self-aggrandizing narratives. 

Nations are reluctant to exhume a past that is perceived as divisive and detrimental 

to their official self-image or national mythology. In the postwar 

years, France’s myth of the Résistance prevented a critical engagement with 

Vichy France’s collaboration with Nazi Germany. During the Cold War 

memorials in concentration camps located in Eastern Europe celebrated 

the heroic socialist and Soviet struggle against fascism, thus downplaying 

the plight of Holocaust victims. In democratic Spain a seemingly collective 

decision to protect the postfascist transition led to a “model of impunity” 

that prevented direct confrontation with Francoist repression. Similarly 

in the wake of the call for national reconciliation memorials in postapartheid 

Africa have toned down past racial divides in the name of a new, 

projected multicultural and multiethnic country. Acknowledging histories 

of violence and trauma, while also seeking reconciliation and inclusivity, 

remains a daunting task. The desire to forget is not specific to governing 



after the violence: memory / 3 

powers. Victims of traumatic violence often view silence as an important 

survival and coping strategy. They allude to the fact that the horrors that 

they experienced cannot be truly communicated and that the process of 

remembrance is too painful and overwhelming. Silence may operate as 

an effective shield in a hostile sociopolitical environment unwilling to listen 

to the voices of the victims. Furthermore, a melancholic or traumatic 

fixation on the past can jeopardize the ability to live in the present and to 

develop the capacity to project oneself into the future. After the collapse 

of the Soviet Union and apartheid in South Africa, many just wanted to 

move on, embrace consumerism as compensation for former deprivations, 

and forget about the hardship of the past. New opportunities made the 

prospect of a brand new life possible. Amnesia and escapism seemed safe 

paths to happiness. 

Present-day stakes have a direct impact on the process of remembrance. 

Trials in this respect are Janus-faced. In bringing perpetrators to account 

for their crimes, they officially acknowledge the criminal character of past 

regimes. As such, they have immense symbolic significance and they are 

important milestones in a nation’s effort to come to terms with its past. 

But they are also entangled in power struggles and diversion strategies 

that can lead to selective reevaluations of the past. The Nuremberg Trials, 

for instance, were not only about the Nazi crimes. They also served postwar 

goals of planning how to (re)write recent history and showcased the 

growing rivalry between the Western allies and the Soviet Union in the 

emerging Cold War context. In France, the trial of the former civil servant 

and Vichy collaborationist Maurice Papon was almost derailed by 

controversies surrounding his role as Prefect of the Paris Police during the 

massacre of Algerians on the night of October 17, 1961. In Spain, Baltazar 

Garzón’s recent attempt to investigate the crimes of the Franco regime in 

the context of crimes against humanity was unsuccessful and led to his 

forced dismissal as a judge. Intertwined and overlapping histories also 

complicate the commemoration of violence. Many memorials are built on 

previous sites of massacres and destruction. Establishing a commemorative 

space is key to the proper mourning and honoring of victims. The 

problem is that sites of terror often tell multiple and multilayered stories 

of repeated violence, occasionally blurring the distinction between perpetrators 

and victims. In the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Germany, 

Denmark, and South Africa among others, competing groups of victims 

make their voices heard and want to be acknowledged, sometimes at the 

expense of other victims. These antagonisms lead to reactive strategies— 

counter memorials, counter narratives, alternative symbols, and competitive 

numbers wars—whose goal is to downplay the other group’s claim 

for victimhood. 




In the European context the competition among victims can hardly be 

dissociated from the competition of memory paradigms. After the collapse 

of the Soviet Union the memory of the Holocaust—with Auschwitz as its 

iconic site and official symbol—emerged as the dominant model of reference. 

Yet the diffusion, cosmopolitization, and transnationalization of this 

Holocaust paradigm elicited opposition. In Eastern Europe this model of 

reference has been perceived as a Western form of cultural imperialism, 

ignoring victims of communist occupation and failing to do justice to local 

heritage communities. Some memorial sites attempt to reconcile competing 

memories and to accommodate different groups of victims by creating 

supplemental exhibitions or different routings in their space. These topographical 

and makeshift architectural solutions testify to the difficulty of 

addressing diverging or irreconcilable paths of memory. When consensus 

prevails that the past—whatever its painfulness—should be acknowledged 

and confronted, the modes of commemoration still raise vexing questions 

on how to represent violence. 4 One of the well-known paradoxes of memorialization 

resides in the self-defeating visibility of public displays that 

“bury” the past and promote forgetting rather than remembrance. Early 

on Nietzsche’s critique of monumentalization and Robert Musil’s ironic 

observation about the way great men are pushed “into the sea of oblivion 

with, so to speak, a commemorative stone around their necks” have 

pointed to the anesthetizing power of commemorations. 5 To counter the 

conventional memorials’ tendency to “seal memory off from awareness,” 

artists have privileged voids, absence, invisibility, or vanishing monuments 

as a way to suggest loss, challenge the monumental taste of authoritarian 

regimes, and keep the work of memory alive. 6 

The representation of violence remains a challenge from an aesthetic 

and ethical viewpoint. How should one make death and terror visible in a 

meaningful and ethically relevant way? If the duty to remember implies 

an obligation to imagine what defies imagination—as a way to resist 

the perpetrators’ wish for the total erasure of the victims—what are the 

appropriate channels to perform this task? The commodification of violence 

in the media and entertainment industry generates sensory overload 

and emotional numbness. It is easy to look at violent images without seeing 

them or being affected by them. Viewers become passive bystanders 

of a spectacle that does not directly concern them. Alternatively, complacent 

displays of violence nurture voyeurism and sensationalism, preventing 

self-reflection and attention. One might think, as Andreas Huyssen 

suggests, that in a culture dominated by fleeting images and immaterial 

modes of communication, monuments and memorials become salient as 

a result of their materiality and spatial inscription. 7 Yet memorial sites 

are not immune to the dangers of commodification and derealization. 




Victims of their own success, they welcome growing numbers of visitors. 

During a recent visit to Auschwitz-Birkenau, the philosopher and art 

historian Georges Didi-Huberman noticed with unease how former 

camp barracks had been turned into commercial outlets or into “national 

pavilions” like the Venice Biennale: the site itself had been “forgotten” in 

order to give way to a “fictive place” staged for purposes of commemoration. 

8 Only the eerie emptiness of Birkenau brought him closer to the 

desolation and the terror of the Holocaust. 

More generally, Didi-Huberman’s unease points to the ambiguous status 

of visual displays and artifacts in memorial sites: photographs, objects, 

piles of clothes, shoes, and bones have been used to generate empathetic 

identifications with the victims and to suggest metonymically the magnitude 

of the loss. As forensic evidence of past horror and icons of “staged 

authenticity,” they offer cautionary tales, celebrations of lost heroic values, 

and nostalgic recollections of the past before its destruction. The tension 

between the impulse to provide crude, forensic evidence that “speaks for 

itself” and the tendency to rely on more abstract and symbolic evocations 

lies at the heart of many memory projects. Should violence be represented 

in graphic details at the risk of creating further rift and division, or should 

precedence be given to future-oriented and peace-promoting symbols? All 

such considerations encounter the issue of address and audience: for whom 

are these memorials, museums, performances, and myriad mnemonic 

projects meant? 

If, as Richard Terdiman suggests, memory is the “past made present,” 

some artists have given a new urgency to this injunction by actively engaging 

the audience and by using the confrontation with the past as a way to 

reflect about the present through narratives, exhibitions, and happenings. 9 

Their aim is to foster new forms of collective awareness and civic commitment, 

to inherit the past for the sake of a better future and of a more 

nuanced understanding of one’s situation. These projects often stress the 

collective dimension of memory making: artists invade public and everyday 

spaces, hand over authorship, involve the audience, and turn viewers into 

committed participants. The everyday becomes a transformative space in 

which biases, prejudices, and forms of collective amnesia are made visible 

and questioned. At the same time the transformation of media technology 

and access to archival resources through websites open up unprecedented 

possibilities for the technification and automation of memory. As more and 

more knowledge of the past is stored online, especially in the reservoirs of 

historical images and sounds, the question of what to remember becomes 

ever more challenging while the new media themselves are changing the 

landscape of memory cultures. The contributions in this volume reveal 

that the work of commemoration is a dynamic process whose potential 




and boundaries emerge in a dialogic interaction between sites, projects, 

and visitors/participants. They demonstrate the pitfalls of a centralized, 

top-down imposition of memory and suggest that the most fruitful impact 

of mnemonic projects is to be found in an open-ended approach predicated 

upon the audience’s responsiveness. 

The volume is divided in three interrelated parts. Each addresses the 

challenges linked to the commemoration and representation of violent 

and contested pasts. Part I, “Competing Memories,” details the political 

complexities of contentious memories and focuses on the ideological 

and geopolitical stakes underlying the commemoration of the past. In her 

essay “The Nuremberg Trials as Cold War Competition: The Politics of 

the Historical Record and the International Stage,” Francine Hirsch demonstrates 

how the emerging Cold War not only shaped the record of the 

Second World War and the international events that had preceded it, but 

also influenced the way in which the first trials to determine the nature of 

crimes against humanity were staged and remembered in subsequent years. 

Drawing on new archival sources, she highlights how, despite their major 

contribution in the preparation for the trials, the Soviets gradually lost 

control of the historical narrative about the war. The Western allies willfully 

downplayed the Soviet role and took ownership of the Nuremberg 

narrative, turning their former ally, and now rival, into a potential coconspirator 

of the Nazi regime. Karl Schlögel’s chapter “The Cube on Red 

Square: A Memorial for the Victims of Twentieth-century Russia” examines 

how in the Russian context the attempts to come to terms with the 

past are complicated by the magnitude and recurrence of violence caused 

by two world wars, two revolutions, civil wars, forced collectivization, the 

Great Terror of the 1930s, and the slaughter of victims during the German 

occupation of the Soviet Union. Schlögel points to the difficulty of writing 

a histoire raisonnée of a country where chaos, contingency, anarchy, 

and the entanglement of violence and normalcy in the everyday prevail. 

In this constellation of violence there are similarities to the German context 

of physical and moral exhaustion after the Second World War, but 

the German model of Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with its 

past) cannot provide adequate guidance for the Russian experience. The 

Lenin Mausoleum on Red Square—a symbolic center and rallying point 

historically for all sorts of parades and demonstrations—epitomizes for 

Schlögel a logical mnemonic point of reference for Russia’s turbulent history 

and the country’s unresolved contradictions. 

Focusing on Germany’s more elaborated memorial culture, Bill Niven’s 

chapter “Reactive Memory: The Holocaust and the Flight and Expulsion 

of Germans” brings into dialogue the memory of flight and expulsion of 

Germans from the eastern territories—a memory promoting a discourse 




of German suffering—and Holocaust memory, which posits German 

responsibility. Drawing on Bourdieu’s analyses of field dynamics, Niven 

shows how the memory of flight and expulsion defined itself directly 

in reaction to the perceived hegemony of Holocaust memory and how it 

borrows its modes of representation from the latter in an attempt to counterbalance 

a presumed emphasis on German crime. To gain public resonance 

its proponents claim that the topic of flight and expulsion was taboo, 

while Niven demonstrates on the contrary the ongoing reactive dynamics 

between these antagonistic memories. Competing memory paradigms are 

also at the core of Rob van der Laarse’s reflections in “Beyond Auschwitz? 

Europe’s Terrorscapes in the Age of Postmemory.” Since the late 1980s 

the recognition of the Holocaust as a shared collective past of universal 

value has become part of the European Union’s politics of remembrance. 

However, with the expansion of the European Union and the inclusion of 

Eastern European countries the Holocaust paradigm and its universalizing 

claims have been challenged by the “occupation paradigm” according 

to which victims of communist crimes deserve equal recognition. Laarse 

raises questions about the appropriateness of Western mechanisms of “postmemory” 

in Eastern Europe. “Embodied identifications” with past victims 

through photo albums and memorabilia are not particularly successful in 

societies still marred by recent and potential conflicts. Furthermore, since 

Eastern European terrorscapes are sites of recurrent violence, memorial 

sites are faced with the conundrum of acknowledging the different and 

sometimes mutually exclusive demands of the heritage communities. 

Part II, “Staging Memory,” moves from larger narratives to practices of 

presenting memory as a self-reflexive process of construction and definition 

of new collective identities. In “Narrative Shock and Polish Memory 

Remaking in the Twenty-first Century” Geneviève Zubrzycki traces 

recent attempts to come to terms with the “narrative shock” produced by 

revelations about ethnic Poles’ active involvement in the persecution of 

their Jewish neighbors in the small town of Jedwabne. Not only did these 

revelations shatter the national martyrological narrative of Polish victimhood, 

they also generated debates and soul-searching about Polish–Jewish 

relations, the role of Poles in the Second World War, and Polish identity. 

Drawing on three memory-building projects—the postwar creation 

of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum and its post-1989 narrative revision, 

the Jedwabne memorial and counter memorial, and the artist/memory 

activist Rafał Betlejewski’s commemorative projects “I Miss You, Jew” and 

“Burning Barn”—Zubrzycki explores reactive and multidirectional forms 

of memory remaking as they relate to or challenge national mythology, 

suggesting that in the last case some forms become so controversial that 

they undermine the project of constructive engagement with the past. 




Ofelia Ferrán’s chapter “Grievability and the Politics of Visibility: The 

Photography of Francesc Torres and the Mass Graves of the Spanish Civil 

War” focuses on two photographic memory projects by multimedia artist 

Francesc Torres: the 2007 photography exhibit and its accompanying catalogue, 

Oscura es la habitación donde dormimos (Dark Is the Room Where We 

Sleep). These projects document the 2004 exhumation in Villamayor de 

los Montes of a mass grave containing the bodies of 46 Republicans. After 

years of silence about Francoist repression the grassroots “movement for 

the recuperation of historical memory” has started to confront the legacy 

of the Civil War and dictatorship in Spain, leading to the exhumation of 

mass graves throughout the country. Torres’s photographic project commemorates 

the victims, acknowledging their right for a proper burial and 

the value of their life and ideals. The project invites viewers to engage 

with the victims. As such, it performs what Ariella Azoulay calls the “civil 

contract of photography.” 10 This intergenerational transfer initiates a sense 

of community and civic responsibility committed to keeping alive the victims’ 

heritage and to live up to the values they embody. 

Robyn Autry’s chapter on “Doing Memory in Public: Postapartheid 

Memorial Space as an Activist Project” explores how two South African 

memorial projects—Freedom Park, a state-directed national heritage project 

in Pretoria, and the District Six Museum, a community-based effort in 

Cape Town—give voice to dissident histories and memories silenced during 

apartheid. The chapter also examines the difficulties and contradictions 

involved in the attempts to accommodate conflicting memories in a society 

still deeply divided. A counter monument to the infamous apartheid-era 

Voortrekker Monument, Freedom Park with its postcolonial, Afrocentric 

monumentality reworks the understanding of South African national identity. 

Yet its own shortcomings elicited criticism and led to counter initiatives. 

In a different context the District Six Museum collected people’s 

stories and memorabilia in order to create a “memory culture from below” 

and to reclaim a neighborhood from which Coloured people had been 

expelled decades earlier. Yet the project was fraught with ambivalence and 

tensions in its effort to avoid racial language and imagery, in its strategies 

to reclaim the District Six physical space, and in its increased attention to 

the appeal of South Africa’s international tourist industry. Expanding the 

transcultural and transcontinental angle, Laurie Beth Clark’s contribution 

on “Mnemonic Objects: Forensic and Rhetorical Practices in Memorial 

Culture” considers how objects are staged as mnemonic devices and how 

they operate in heterogeneous and contested ways. With examples from 

Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America, she considers the tension 

between a forensic impulse that uses objects as proof of crimes and a 

semiotic function in which objects stand in metonymically for the dead or 




disappeared. As recurrent and familiar “tropes” in memorial sites, objects 

are also ambiguous artifacts. Not legible in themselves, they can elicit a 

nostalgic and sentimental cult of the past prior to the catastrophe, a celebration 

of the heroism of survival, a fetishist glorification of violence, a 

voyeuristic and sensationalist spectacle of past horrors, or the artificiality 

of kitsch. Bones in particular have yielded the most debate, dialogue, and 

controversy. As recalcitrant and elusive “objects,” they lay bare the difficulty 

of representing violence and death. 

Part III, “Re-membering Memory,” hones in on the ethical dimension 

of memory politics as a process of constructing meaningful narratives 

about the past for the present. Literature is a privileged medium to reflect 

upon the longstanding impact of traumatic violence and to explore constructive 

responses and reparative modes of forgiveness and care. In “Toward a 

Critical Reparative Practice in Post-1989 German Literature: Chista Wolf’s 

City of Angels or The Overcoat of Dr. Freud (2010), Anke Pinkert probes how 

after historical rupture sustainable bonds can be imagined in a still divided 

present. She traces the systemic violence that has marked German unification 

since 1989, leading to chronic and ongoing unbalances and asymmetries 

between the two former Germanies. A critic of this aggressive takeover, 

Christa Wolf has been relegated to the margins of the public sphere, ridiculed 

as naive for her ethics-oriented writing, and subjected to a politics of shaming. 

Wolf’s last novel retraces how this symbolic exclusion from post-1989 

society led to a personal crisis that the narrator seeks to resolve through an 

ethics of self-healing. Yet, beyond the individual cure Wolf reasserts a sense 

of collective solidarity and a hope for new collective bonds by reclaiming 

the utopian and elating moment of East German crowds demonstrating 

peacefully in 1989 for a future they were not yet able to imagine. Richard 

Golsan’s chapter “Paradoxes of Remembrance: Dissecting France’s ‘Duty to 

Memory’” takes up France’s often vexed efforts since the 1990s to come to 

terms with the Vichy past. Inspired by the imperative to fulfill a “duty 

to memory” (devoir de mémoire) toward the Holocaust’s victims, these efforts 

resulted in the trials and prosecutions on charges of crimes against humanity 

of former Vichy officials. Focusing on the trial of former collaborator 

Maurice Papon, which lasted from October 1997 to April 1998 and was 

the longest trial in modern French history, Golsan shows how in the name 

of political vigilance the “duty to memory” led to problematic comparisons 

between the Nazi regime and the Yugoslav wars or the massacre of Algerians 

in Paris on October 17, 1961. These comparisons distorted both the Vichy 

and Nazi past. On a more positive note Golsan draws on Tzvetan Todorov’s 

notion of “exemplary memory” to explore constructive ways of performing 

the “duty to memory” through recent literary fiction. In Boualem Sansal’s 

novel The German Mujahid and in Laurent Binet’s novel HHhH about the 




assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich in Prague in May 1942, the 

confrontation with the past becomes a source of inspiration for personal 

and collective action in the present. In the volume’s closing chapter, “Afterwords: 

Lessons in Memory and Politics,” Marc Silberman reflects on the 

ethical and pedagogical challenges raised by the transmission of the past. If 

the multiplication of memorial sites, historical museums, and public spaces 

of mourning demonstrate the growing awareness of the relevance of the past 

for our own present, the remembrance of a difficult past raises significant 

challenges when it comes to decide what and how it should be transmitted 

to younger generations. The chapter highlights some of the stumbling 

blocks one encounters when teaching about memory, for example, the distinction 

between historiography and memory studies, issues of truth, evidence, 

and authenticity, and the status of “invented memory” and media 

spectacle in representations of the past. The essay argues that for teachers 

of memory the specific object of attention should be a transformation of 

values, encouraging students to recognize competing views of the past that 

produce not the stories we want to hear but those we need to hear. 

The evocation of bones haunts this entire volume like a specter of the 

past: Russian children playing in the woods and discovering bones from 

human bodies, bones excavated as vestiges of the Spanish Civil War, bones 

on display in Rwandan, Cambodian, and European memorial sites, women 

searching for the remains of their “disappeared” loved ones in the Chilean 

Atacama desert. These bones are fragments, mutilated remains of violently 

decimated lives. They are also signs of recognition, symbols of connection 

and interconnectedness, and pieces of a puzzle which cannot be fully reconstructed. 

The search and excavation process reinserts them into the community 

of the living as a shared legacy through the intergenerational process of 

transmission. Walking through the ruins of Birkenau, Didi-Huberman was 

reminded of Walter Benjamin’s brief 1932 text “Excavation and Memory”: 

“He who seeks to approach his own buried past must conduct himself like 

a man digging. Above all, he must not be afraid to return again and again 

to the same matter; to scatter it as one scatters earth, to turn it over as one 

turns over soil.” 11 Benjamin’s remarks, Didi-Huberman goes on, reveal two 

things: First, the art of memory cannot be reduced to an inventory of excavated 

visible objects. Second, archeology is “not only a technique to explore 

the past; it is also, and above all, an anamnesis to understand the present” 

(64–65). In many respects the commemorative projects analyzed in this 

volume perform an archeology of violence. Individuals, groups, and institutions 

dig again and again into a collective past in order to retrieve silenced 

truths and forgotten glimmers of hope. Their projects make visible what 

has been erased, buried, or left unnoticed. Some expose divisions and contradictions. 

Others generate new forms of solidarity. Terrorscapes—many 




of them still unmapped—are the archeological sites of the multilayered and 

fractured ground of history. They also symbolize the palimpsest of memory 

with its fading traces and constant rewriting. The exhumation process faces 

many hurdles and is subject to its own shortcomings, biases, and limitations. 

As anamnesis of the present, the archeological inquiry and its modes 

of remembrance remain a process without end, and this volume seeks to 

become part of that process. 

Notes 

1. “Ces sols fêlés, fracassés par l’histoire, ces sols à crier,” Georges Didi- 

Huberman, Écorces (Paris: Minuit, 2011), 27. 

2. On the notion of “cosmopolitization” as a process of “internal globalization” 

in which “global concerns provide a political and moral frame of reference 

for local experiences,” see Daniel Levy and Natan Sznaider, The Holocaust 

and Memory in the Global Age, trans. Assenka Oksiloff (Philadelphia: Temple 

University Press, 2006), 2–3. 

3. Michael Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory. Remembering the Holocaust in 

the Age of Decolonization (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009). 

4. In the context of the Holocaust David Bathrick notices that visual representations 

“have proved to be an absolutely integral but also highly contested 

means by which to understand and remember the Nazi atrocities of the Second 

World War,” in Visualizing the Holocaust: Documents, Aesthetics, Memory, ed. 

David Bathrick, Brad Prager, and Michael D. Richardson (Rochester, NY: 

Camden House, 2008), 1. 

5. Robert Musil, “Monuments,” in Selected Writings, ed. and trans. Burton Pike 

(New York: Continuum, 1985), 323. 

6. See James E. Young, “The Counter-Monument: Memory against Itself in 

Germany Today,” Critical Inquiry 18 (Winter 1992): 272; and idem, The 

Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale 

University Press, 1993). 

7. Andreas Huyssen, “Monument and Memory in a Postmodern Age,” in The 

Art of Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History, ed. James E. Young (New 

York: Prestel, 1994), 12. 

8. “Here more than anywhere else walls lie: once in the block I cannot see any 

longer what a block is. Everything has been ‘reorganized’ into an exhibit 

space.” Didi-Huberman, Écorces, 24 (our translation). “Ici plus qu’ailleurs les 

murs mentent: une fois dans le block je ne peux plus rien voir de ce qu’est un 

block, tout ayant été ‘réaménagé’ en espace d’exposition.” 

9. Richard Terdiman, Present Past: Modernity and the Memory Crisis (Ithaca: 

Cornell University Press, 1993), 7. 

10. Ariella Azoulay, The Civil Contract of Photography, trans. Rela Mazali and 

Ruvik Danieli (New York: Zone Books, 2008). 

11. Didi-Huberman, Écorces, 64. English translation from Walter Benjamin, 

Selected Writings 2: 1927–1934, ed. Michael W. Jennings, Howard Eiland, 

and Gary Smith, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, MA: Harvard 

University Press, 1999), 576. 



Index 

9/11 Memorial, New York City, 

157, 219 

Abuladze, Tengiz 

Pokajanie (Repentance), 38 

Adorno, Theodor W., 181, 192, 

193, 213, 218 

African National Congress (ANC), 137 

Algerian Liberation Movement (Front de 

Libération Nationale, FLN), 203 

Anderson, Benedict, 137–8 

Anwja, Nadja, 151 

Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg, 

158, 161 

Arad, Michael, 219 

“archival revolution” in former Soviet 

Union, 35–6, 38–9 

Arendt, Hannah, 35 

Armenian genocide, French 

recognition of, 206 

Assmann, Aleida, 53–4, 74 

Assmann, Jan, 220 

Association for the Recovery of Historical 

Memory (ARMH), 132 

Auschwitz 

forensic claims, 165 

medial representations of, 72 

mediated interaction and embodied 

identification, 75 

narrative revision of, 7, 98–9 

objects as metonyms, 165 

socialist appropriation of, 97–8 

as symbol of the Holocaust, 4, 72 

Trial, Poland (1947), 72 

Auschwitz State Museum, 72, 75, 

95–8 

antifascist appropriation of 

Holocaust, 97 

“autogenocide,” 32, 33 

Azoulay, Ariella, 8, 122 

See also civil contract of 

photography 

Badiou, Alain, 189, 191–2 

Baillie, Britt, 85 

Baines, Gary, 141, 144 

Balkan War, 72, 87 

See also Yugoslav War 

Barbie, Klaus, 204 

Barthes, Roland, 121, 125, 134 

Camera Lucida, 119–20 

Bauer, Yehuda, 202 

Belgrade Genocide Museum, 81 

Beneš decrees, 216 

Benjamin, Walter, 10, 187, 218 

Bergen-Belsen education center, 223 

Betlejewski, Rafał 

“Burning Barn” performance, 7, 

107–9 

“I Miss You, Jew,” 7, 103–6 

Binet, Laurent 

HHhH, 9, 210 

Bisesero Memorial Site, Rwanda, 169 

Bleiburg, Austria 

Croatian Ustaša commemoration 

site, 81, 85–6 

“Europeanized” museum, 82 

Blokhin, Vasili, 34 



246 / index 

Bloxham, Donald 

Oxford Handbook of Genocide 

Studies, 65 

See also Moses, A. Dirk 

Bogdanović, Bogdan, Stone Flower 

monument (1966), 80, 82, 

83, 84 

See also Jasenovic Memorial 

Börne, Ludwig, 185 

Bourdieu, Pierre, 7, 52 

Bousquet, René, 197–9, 204 

Boym, Svetlana, 159 

Brandt, Willy, 60–1, 215 

Brecht, Bertolt, 191 

Breuer, Lars, 78 

Brezhnev, Leonid 

“re-Stalinization” in mid-1960s, 37 

Bronze Solder of Tallinn, Estonia, 78 

Bruckner, Pascal 

Le Tyrannie de la pénitence, 207 

Brumlik, Micha, 54 

Buchenwald 

concentration camp, 77–8, 83, 

84, 86, 170, 223 

education center, 223 

Bukharin, Nikolai, 17 

Butler, Judith, 121–2 

Cambodia Landmine Museum, 

157, 162 

Cayrol, Jean, 217 

Central Museum for the Great 

Patriotic War, Moscow, 215 

Certeau, Michel de 

The Practice of Everyday Life, 161 

Cheung Ek Memorial, Cambodia 

(Killing Fields), 168 

Chödron, Pema, 187 

Christo, Jeanne-Claude 

Wrapped Reichstag, 214 

Churchill, Winston 

“Iron Curtain” speech, 24 

civil contract of photography, 8, 

121–4, 127, 128, 131–2, 134 

commemoration 

aesthetics and ethics of, 4, 127, 171 

in forming identity, 33 

Germany as model for, 223 

initiatives in former Soviet 

Union, 33 

modes of, 4 

“rhetoric” of, 2 

sites in the GDR and FRG, 56 

Commission for Directing the Work 

of the Soviet Representatives 

in the International 

Tribunal (USSR Nuremberg 

Commission), 17–18, 23, 24, 

28n. 9 

Constitution Hill, Johannesburg, 163 

Coombes, Annie 

History after Apartheid, 147 

Council for the Development of Civil 

Society and Human Rights 

(in Russia), 31 

counter memorials, 3 

Freedom Park, 8 

in Germany, 58–9, 62 

Jedwabne, Poland, 7, 101–2 

Courtois, Stéphane 

The Black Book of Communism, 

205–6 

“crimes against peace,” 16, 26 

See also Trainin, Aron 

“Crimes of the Wehrmacht” exhibition 

(1995), 215 

Cusin, Gaston, 203 

Cyahinda, Rwanda (memorial at), 169 

Dachau, 76–9, 83, 87, 75 

Dahn, Daniela, 182, 183–4, 185 

De Wild, Ruud, 71, 74 

Defonseca, Misha 

Misha: A Mémoire of the Holocaust 

Years, 217 

Demnig, Gunter 

Stolpersteine, 219 

Derrida, Jacques, 131–2 



index / 247 

Dickenson, Emily, 193 

Didi-Huberman, Georges, 1, 5, 10 

“disappeared,” 10, 128, 132–4, 160, 172 

forced disappearance as legal 

category, 132–4 

UN Work Group on Forced 

Disappearances, 132 

District Six Museum, Cape Town, 8, 

137, 145–52, 159 

as community based memory 

project, 145, 152 

Djacenko, Boris 

Herz und Asche (Heart and Ash), 59 

Documentation Center of Cambodia 

(DC-CAM), 168 

Donskoe Cemetery, Moscow, 34 

Dorfman, Ariel, 128, 133 

Dudik Memorial, Vukovar 

(Croatia), 85 

Eckermann, Martin 

Wege übers Land (Paths across the 

Land), 55 

Edensor, Tim, 96 

Eisler, Hanns, 217 

Etkind, Alexander, 87 

“exemplary” memory, 208–10 

See also Todorov, Tzvetan 

Ezhov, Nikolai, 42 

Fårhus (Faarhus), 76–9, 83, 87 

Farmer, Sarah, 77, 84 

Farmington Hills Holocaust Memorial 

Center, 157 

Faulkner, William, 214 

Fechner, Eberhard 

Der Prozess, 217 

Ferrándiz, Francisco, 133 

Festenberg, Niklaus von 

Die Flucht (Flight), 55 

Flucht aus dem Osten (Flight from the 

East), 55 

Flucht und Vertreibung (Flight and 

Expulsion), 54–5, 62 

Frauenkirche, Dresden, 222 

Freedom Front Plus, 144 

Freedom Park (Tshwane), Pretoria, 8, 

137–8, 140–5 

Gallery of Leaders, 141–3 

“Isivivane,” 141, 143 

reworking of South African 

identity, 141 

Wall of Names, 141, 143–4 

Frei, Norbert, 53 

Freud, Sigmund, 187 

Friesen, Astrid von, 54 

Furtwängler, Wilhelm, 214 

Gabčík, Josef, 210 

Garzón, Baltazar, 3, 132–3 

Gauck, Joachim, 177 

Gauss, Friedrich, 24–5 

German League of Expellees, 53, 

57–8, 65 

Gerz, Jochen, 219 

Ghandi, Mahatma, 191 

Ginzburg, Evgenia, 37 

Giscard-d’Estaing, Valéry, 199 

Glaeser, Andreas, 183, 190 

Goering, Hermann, 24 

Goldoskaya, Marina 

Vlast Soloveckaja (Solovky Power), 38 

Gourevitch, Philip, 169, 170–1 

Grass, Günter, 54, 214 

Great Terror (1930s Soviet Union), 6, 

17, 33, 39–43, 205 

Gross, Jan Tomasz 

Neighbors, 99 

Grossman, Vasily, 35, 37 

Life and Fate, 38 

Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’, 141 

Guyer, Sara, 169–72 

Guzmán, Patricio 

Nostalgia for the Light, 172 

Hahn, Eva and Hans Henning, 65 

Hamburg Institute of Social 

Research, 215 



248 / index 

Hands Off District Six (HOD) 

campaign, 145–8 

as community narrative, 148 

as “vernacular” memory, 146 

Havel, Václav, 191 

Heidegger, Martin, 214, 218 

Hermand, Jost, 217 

Heydrich, Reinhard, 10, 201 

Hirsch, Marianne, 7, 74, 84 

Hòa Lò Prison Historic Vestige, 162–3 

Holocaust (1979 West German 

television miniseries), 61–2 

Holocaust 

appropriation and commodification 

of, 76, 87 

Europeanization of, 73, 76, 84, 86 

internationalization of, 4, 7, 73 

limitations of representation, 213 

media representations of (films, 

books), 72 

as paradigm, 4, 7, 65, 74, 77, 87 

Holocaust Centre, Cape Town, 

159–60 

Holocaust Memorial, Berlin, 52, 

65, 84 

Holocaust Memorial Museum, 

Washington DC, 215 

Holocaust Remembrance Day, 72–4 

“Holocaustization,” See Hahn, Eva 

and Hans Henning 

Homeland Societies, 56 

hooks, bell, 182, 185 

Hosking, Geoffrey, 40 

Huyssen, Andreas, 4 

Institute of National Remembrance 

(IPN), 99 

International Military Tribunal 

(IMT), 15–27 

Irwin-Zarecka, Iwona, 97–8 

Jáchym, Topol 

The Devil’s Workshop 

(Chladnou zemi), 88 

Jackson, Robert, 15, 23–4 

Janssen, Karl-Heinz, 54–5 

Jasenovac Memorial Museum 

(“Croatian Auschwitz”), 

79–84, 87 

as contested trauma site, 80–1 

Jovičić, Nataša, museum 

director, 80, 82 

Mataušić, Nataša, museum 

spokesperson, 84 

role in Balkan War, 81 

Jedwabne pogrom, Poland, 98–103 

counter memorial, 101–3 

memorial, 100 

See also Betlejewski, Rafał 

Jenninger, Philipp, 215 

Jewish Museum, Berlin, 158, 215, 219 

Joseph, Helen, 142 

Josipović, Ivo, 85 

Julliard, Jacques, 201 

Jünger, Ernst, 214 

Kaplan, Brett Ashley, 127 

Karadzic, Radovan, 201 

Karaganov, Sergei, 31–3 

Karajan, Herbert, 214 

Katyn Affair, 15–16, 20–1, 23–5, 61 

Russian-Polish joint 

commemoration, 33 

Khrushchev, Nikita 

1956 “secret speech,” 36–7 

Kibeho, Rwanda (memorial at), 

169, 170 

Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 61 

Kigali Memorial Center, Rwanda, 169 

Kirschenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara, 

158–9 

Kittel, Manfred, 54, 60–2 

Klimov, Elem 

Idi i smotri (Come and See), 38 

See also Rasputin, Valentin 

Knabe, Hubertus, 184 

Kohl, Helmut, 215 

Koš, Julija, 82, 84 



index / 249 

Kosor, Jadranka, 85 

Kosovo, NATO bombing of, 201 

Kossert, Andreas, 54, 60 

Krakow Jewish Festival, 102–4 

Krauss, Angela, 180 

Kreil, Kallie, 143 

Kristensen, Henric Skov, 79 

Kubiš, Jan, 210 

Kwaśniewski, Aleksander, 100 

Landsmannschaften, 52 

Lanzmann, Claude 

Shoah, 112n. 20, 219 

Law of Historical Memory 

(2007), 133 

Lenin Mausoleum, See Red Cube on 

Red Square 

Levy, Daniel, 55, 65–6, 75 

Lewis, Alison, 182 

Libeskind, Daniel, 219 

MacMillan, Margaret 

Dangerous Games: The Uses and 

Abuses of History, 201 

Maillard, Jean de, 206 

Majdanek, Poland, 72, 162 

concentration camp, 165, 166 

Mandelstam, Nadezhda, 37, 39 

Marcuse, Harold, 75 

Matauschek, Isabella, 78 

Mbeki, Thabo, 140–1, 144 

Medvedev, Dmitri, 31, 33–4 

Medvedev, Roy 

Let History Judge, 37 

Memorial to the Murdered Jews of 

Europe, Berlin, 214 

See also Holocaust Memorial, Berlin 

“memorial mania,” 213 

memorial sites, See under 

individual names 

memory culture 

artifacts of, 155–72 

challenges of teaching, 10, 215–20 

changing nature of, 218 

as “contest” in Germany, 214 

in Europe today, 222–3 

in former Soviet Union, 34–9 

German dichotomy of, 53–4 

“grassroots,” 8, 137, 189, 213 

See also District Six Museum 

working definition of, 214 

memory narratives 

authenticity of, 79, 158, 217–8 

construction of, 157–8, 215 

contested nature of, 2, 79–81, 216 

corruption of, 202 

democratization of, 2, 137, 152 

dissident, 8, 137–8, 152 

Europeanization of, 81, 221–2 

fictional representation of, 218 

medial transfer of, 75 

“multidirectional,” 2, 8, 57, 66, 79 

See also Rothberg, Michael 

as personal healing, 186–8 

relationship to historiography, 10, 

215–17 

memory tourism, 8, 75, 87, 98, 

148–9, 156–8, 168–9 

Merkel, Angela, 177 

Mesić, Stjepan, 85 

Michelangelo 

The Creation of Adam, 124 

Miller, Alice, 187 

Milosevic, Slobodan, 80, 201, 202 

Ministry of Expellees, 60 

Mittelbau-Dora, Nordhausen, forced 

labor site, 223 

Mitterrand, François, 197, 199, 214 

modes of memory-making, 

un-making and remaking, 

7, 95 

Moerdijk, Gerard, 138 

Molotov, Vyacheslav, 16, 18 

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 20, 21–2, 

73 

Morgenthau, Henry, 15 

Moscow Trails, 17 

Moser, Wolfgang, 61 



250 / index 

Moses, A. Dirk 

Oxford Handbook of Genocide 

Studies, 65 

See also Bloxham, Donald 

“movement for the recuperation of 

historical memory,” 117 

Murambi, Rwanda (memorial at), 169 

Museo de la Memoria, Montevideo, 

160 

Museum of Danish Resistance 

(Frihedsmuseet), Copenhagen, 

160, 163 

Museum of Fight for Estonian 

Freedom, Lagedi, Estonia, 78 

Museum of the History of the Polish 

Jews, Warsaw, 159 

Musil, Robert, 4 

Nacht fiel über Gotenhafen (Darkness 

Fell on Gotenhafen), 55 

Nagasaki (Museum), 157, 164 

Naimark, Norman, 67 

“Nationaal Comité 4–5 Mei,” 78 

Neue Wache, Berlin, 222 

New York City International Center of 

Photography, 128, 129 

Ngcelwane, Nomvuyo, See 

“Nomvuyo’s Room” 

Ngoyi, Lillian Masediba, 142 

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 4 

Nikitchenko, Iona, 18, 24 

NKVD (People’s Commissariat of 

Internal Affairs), 19, 40, 46 

“Nomvuyo’s Room,” 146, 150 

Nove, Alex, 39 

Nuremberg Trials (1945–1946), 3, 6, 

15–27, 72 

American and German experiences 

of, 221 

shaping historical narrative, 17, 

20, 26–7 

Soviet role in, 15–27 

Nyamata Church, Rwanda (memorial 

at), 165–6, 167, 169 

Obama, Michelle, 148 

Oklahoma City Memorial and 

Museum, 157 

Olick, Jeff, 55 

Orbán, Viktor, 73–4 

Ostpolitik, 52, 57–8, 60, 61, 63 

Oświęcim (Poland), 75, 86–7 

See also Auschwitz 

Papon, Maurice, 3, 9, 197–200, 202–6 

Paxton, Robert, 197 

Peace Museum, Hiroshima, 157, 

164, 166 

Peres, Simon, 84–5 

Polizei Haftlager FrØslev (Police 

Prison Camp FrØslev), See 

Fårhus (Faarhus) 

Pompidou, Georges, 199 

Pospelov Commission, 37 

Prague Archive, 35 

Prague Declaration on European 

Conscience and Communism 

as alternative to the Stockholm 

Declaration, 73–4 

as double genocide doctrine, 73 

Pushkin, Aleksandr, 41 

Rancière, Jacques, 192 

Rasputin, Valentin 

Farewell to Matyora, 38 

See also Klimov, Elem, 38 

Ravensbruck, education center, 223 

Reagan, Ronald, 215 

Red Cube on Red Square, 5, 6, 34, 45 

characterization and significance 

of, 46 

history of, 45 

as paradigmatic place of 

commemoration, 44 

Renshaw, Layla, 124–30 

Resnais, Alain 

Nuit et Brouillard (Night and 

Fog), 217 

Reyes Mate, Manuel, 132, 134 



index / 251 

Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 19, 23, 25 

See also Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 

Rioux, Jean-Pierre, 207 

Ritchin, Fred, 128 

Rodos, Boris, 34 

Rothberg, Michael, 57, 66, 110 

Rousso, Henry, 207 

Rudenko, Roman, 18–24 

Ruge, Eugen, 180 

Rwandan genocide 

memorials of, 156, 168–72 

Sachsenhausen 

concentration camp, 77, 223 

education center, 223 

Saña, Heleno, 191 

Sansal, Boualem 

The German Mujahid, 9, 209–10 

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 218 

Schieder, Theodor, 59–60 

Schmitt, Katrin, 180 

Schnook, Frieder, 223 

Schorlemmer, Friedrich, 177 

secret police, Soviet, See NKVD 

Sedgwick, Eve, 180, 186–7, 188 

Serote, Wally, 143–4, 152 

šestidesjatniki 

new Soviet intelligentsia in 

1960s, 37 

Shchusev, Aleksey, 45 

Shin’s tricycle, 166 

See also Peace Museum, Hiroshima 

Silva, Emilio, 132 

Šnajder, Slobodan, 84 

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 

The Gulag Archipelago, 35, 37 

The Red Wheel, 38 

Sontag, Susan, 120, 121 

On Photography, 119–20 

Regarding the Pain of Others, 121 

South African Defense Force (SADF), 

143–4 

South African Defense Force Wall of 

Remembrance, 144 

Spielberg, Steven 

Schindler’s List, 98, 111n. 17, 219 

Stalin, Joseph 

burial at Red Square, 46 

“destalinization,” 32 

memorialization of, 33–4, 43–4, 

46–9 

role in Nuremberg Trials, 16–20 

Stalinist Terror, 17, 19 

See also Great Terror 

Stasi Museum, Berlin- 

Hohenschönhausen, 184 

Stih, Renate, 223 

Stockholm Declaration of the 

International Forum on the 

Holocaust, 72–3, 77 

Sznaider, Natan, 65–6, 75 

Task Force for International 

Cooperation on Holocaust 

Education, Remembrance, 

and Research (ITF), 72 

Taubira, Christiane, 207 

Terdiman, Richard, 5 

Ther, Philipp, 67 

Todorov, Tzvetan, 9, 209, 210 

Memory as a Remedy for 

Evil, 208 

Topography of Terror, Berlin, 223 

Torres, Francesc, 117–34 

Oscura es la habitación donde 

dormimos (Dark is the 

Room Where We Sleep), 

8, 117–34 

Toul Sleng (Museum), Cambodia, 

163–4, 168 

Touvier, Paul, 197–9, 204 

Trainin, Aron, 16–17, 26 

On the Criminal Responsibility of 

the Hitlerites, 16 

Trotsky, Leon, 17 

Truth and Reconciliation 

Commission (TRC), 137, 

139–40, 153n. 6, 208 



252 / index 

Tuđjman, Franjo, 81, 85, 201 

Turner, Victor, 96 

Ullman, Micha, 219 

United Nations War 

Crimes Commission 

(UNWCC), 17 

Varaut, Jean-Marc, 206 

Vél d’Hiv roundup, France, 198–9 

Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming 

to terms with the past), 6, 79, 

81, 184 

Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, 204 

Vietnam Veterans Memorial, 

Washington DC, 143, 157 

Villamayor de los Montes, 8, 

117, 119–20, 122, 125–6, 

128, 130 

Violi, Patrizia, 77 

Voortrekker Monument, 8, 138–41, 

143–4, 139, 159 

Vyshinsky, Andrei, 17–18, 20–2 

Wajda, Andrzej 

Katyn, 42 

Waldheim, Kurt, 214 

Walser, Martin, 215 

War Memorial, Seoul, 162 

War Remnants Museum, Saigon, 

157, 162 

Warsaw Rising Museum 

(Muzeum Powstania 

Warszawskiego), 160 

Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, 53–4 

Weiss, Peter 

Die Ermittlung (The 

Investigation), 217 

Widman, Arno, 178 

Wieviorka, Olivier 

Divided Memory: French 

Recollections of World War II 

from the Liberation to 

the Present, 207 

Wilhelm Gustloff, 55 

Wilkomirski, Binjamin 

Fragments: Memories of a Wartime 

Childhood, 217 

Wisbar, Frank 

Flucht über die Ostsee (Flight over 

the Baltic), 55 

Nacht fiel über Gotenhafen 

(Darkness Fell on 

Gotenhafen), 55 

Wolf, Christa 

Der geteilte Himmel (Divided 

Heaven), 179 

See also Wolf, Konrad 

Kindheitsmuster (Patterns of 

Childhood), 59, 179, 179, 

181, 188 

Stadt der Engel (City of Angels or the 

Overcoat of Dr. Freud), 177–93 

Was bleibt (What Remains), 189 

Wolf, Konrad 

See Wolf, Christa, Der geteilte 

Himmel (Divided Heaven), 179 

Yekaterinburg, Russia 

site of 2011 memorialization and 

reconciliation conference, 31–3 

Yugoslav War, 9, 72, 79, 80, 200–2 

Yushukan Military and War Museum, 

Tokyo, 162 

Zayas, Alfred de, 61 

žižek, Slavoj, 189

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