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Contents<br />
List of Illustrations<br />
Preface<br />
Acronyms<br />
List of Contributors<br />
ix<br />
xi<br />
xiii<br />
xv<br />
Introduction After the Violence: Memory 1<br />
Florence Vatan and Marc Silberman<br />
One<br />
Two<br />
Three<br />
Four<br />
Five<br />
Part I Competing Memories<br />
The Nuremberg Trials as Cold War Competition:<br />
The Politics of the Historical Record and<br />
the International Stage<br />
Francine Hirsch<br />
The Cube on Red Square: A Memorial for<br />
the Victims of Twentieth-century Russia<br />
Karl Schlögel<br />
Reactive Memory: The Holocaust and<br />
the Flight and Expulsion of Germans<br />
Bill Niven<br />
Beyond Auschwitz? Europe’s Terrorscapes in<br />
the Age of Postmemory<br />
Rob van der Laarse<br />
Part II Staging Memory<br />
Narrative Shock and Polish Memory Remaking in<br />
the Twenty-first Century<br />
Geneviève Zubrzycki<br />
15<br />
31<br />
51<br />
71<br />
95<br />
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viii / contents<br />
Six<br />
Seven<br />
Eight<br />
Grievability and the Politics of Visibility:<br />
The Photography of Francesc Torres and<br />
the Mass Graves of the Spanish Civil War<br />
Ofelia Ferrán<br />
Doing Memory in Public: Postapartheid Memorial<br />
Space as an Activist Project<br />
Robyn Autry<br />
Mnemonic Objects: Forensic and Rhetorical<br />
Practices in Memorial Culture<br />
Laurie Beth Clark<br />
117<br />
137<br />
155<br />
Nine<br />
Ten<br />
Part III<br />
Re-membering Memory<br />
Toward a Critical Reparative Practice in Post-1989<br />
German Literature: Christa Wolf’s City of Angels or<br />
The Overcoat of Dr. Freud (2010)<br />
Anke Pinkert<br />
Paradoxes of Remembrance: Dissecting France’s<br />
“Duty to Memory”<br />
Richard J. Golsan<br />
177<br />
Eleven After-words: Lessons in Memory and Politics 213<br />
Marc Silberman<br />
197<br />
Works Cited 227<br />
Index 245<br />
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MEMORY AND POSTWAR MEMORIALS<br />
Copyright © Marc Silberman and Florence Vatan, 2013.<br />
All rights reserved.<br />
First published in 2013 by<br />
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN®<br />
in the United States— a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC,<br />
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.<br />
Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world,<br />
this is by <strong>Palgrave</strong> Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited,<br />
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills,<br />
Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS.<br />
<strong>Palgrave</strong> Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies<br />
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.<br />
<strong>Palgrave</strong>® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,<br />
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.<br />
ISBN: 978–1–137–34351–2<br />
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the<br />
Library of Congress.<br />
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.<br />
Design by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.<br />
First edition: December 2013<br />
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1<br />
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Introduction<br />
After the Violence: Memory<br />
Florence Vatan and Marc Silberman<br />
These cracked grounds, shattered by history, these grounds that make you want<br />
to scream.<br />
—Georges Didi-Huberman 1<br />
The twentieth century has witnessed genocides, ethnic cleansing, forced<br />
population expulsions, shifting national borders, and other massive disruptions<br />
on an unprecedented scale. Cities and landscapes still bear the<br />
visible or hidden scars of past massacres and destruction, as do groups and<br />
populations that have been victims of repression. How do societies confront<br />
a past marked by violence and exclusion? What happens to people<br />
so steeped in oppression that personal and social traumas pervade their<br />
community relations even after the violence has ended? Are there models<br />
of reconciliation that can overcome the asymmetry of perpetrators and victims?<br />
How can such experiences be conveyed and represented by those who<br />
suffered the consequences to those who come after? This volume explores<br />
the work of memory and the ethics of healing in societies that have experienced<br />
sociopolitical rupture and histories of state violence. Combining<br />
a global and transnational approach with case-oriented analysis, it seeks<br />
to highlight the political, ethical, and aesthetic challenges posed by the<br />
commemoration of traumatic violence. The models and transformations<br />
of memory work analyzed in this book illustrate how the past is remembered<br />
or forgotten, confronted or repressed, and how it keeps haunting<br />
the present in the aftermath of violent historical events: the Second World<br />
War, the Holocaust and the fall of the Berlin Wall, Stalinism in post-<br />
Soviet Russia and Eastern Europe, the Civil War and Francoism in Spain,<br />
the Vichy collaboration in France, and the apartheid regime in South<br />
Africa. The individual <strong>chapter</strong>s explore a wide array of commemorative<br />
practices from state-sponsored heritage projects to grassroots collective or<br />
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2 / florence vatan and marc silberman<br />
individual initiatives: official commemorations, trials for war crimes or<br />
crimes against humanity, monuments, museums, on-site memorials, literary,<br />
photographic and cinematic representations, exhibitions, art installations,<br />
and artistic performances.<br />
These various case studies demonstrate how memory cultures evolve<br />
over time and how they handle the competing demands between a nostalgic<br />
turn toward the past and a utopian impulse geared toward the future.<br />
They also testify to the forces of globalization and cosmopolitization,<br />
while pointing to the importance of remaining attuned to the specificity<br />
of geopolitical and local contexts. 2 If recurrent trends in commemorative<br />
practices and common tropes in the display and staging of past violence<br />
create a global “rhetoric” of memorialization, each particular memoryscape<br />
brings its own specific set of challenges. For the commemoration of<br />
the past remains a controversial and contested field whose dynamics are<br />
fueled by competing memory paradigms, different and sometimes mutually<br />
exclusive groups of victims, shifting present-day stakes, and divergent<br />
representations of the future. Dissonances and dissident voices as well as<br />
forms of “reactive” and “multidirectional” memory unsettle the hegemony<br />
of master narratives and bring to the fore tensions and points of friction. 3<br />
These dissonances reflect a fractured past and a divided present. They also<br />
result from the democratization of memory and the pluralization of its<br />
modes of production and channels of diffusion.<br />
The commemoration of a difficult past raises challenges related to historical,<br />
political, and sociocultural contexts. It also raises challenges inherent<br />
to the process of memory making. Unlike heroic struggles, military<br />
triumphs, and revolutionary victories—privileged hallmarks of national<br />
celebrations and grandiose commemorations—traumatic or infamous<br />
pasts do not lend themselves to smooth or self-aggrandizing narratives.<br />
Nations are reluctant to exhume a past that is perceived as divisive and detrimental<br />
to their official self-image or national mythology. In the postwar<br />
years, France’s myth of the Résistance prevented a critical engagement with<br />
Vichy France’s collaboration with Nazi Germany. During the Cold War<br />
memorials in concentration camps located in Eastern Europe celebrated<br />
the heroic socialist and Soviet struggle against fascism, thus downplaying<br />
the plight of Holocaust victims. In democratic Spain a seemingly collective<br />
decision to protect the postfascist transition led to a “model of impunity”<br />
that prevented direct confrontation with Francoist repression. Similarly<br />
in the wake of the call for national reconciliation memorials in postapartheid<br />
Africa have toned down past racial divides in the name of a new,<br />
projected multicultural and multiethnic country. Acknowledging histories<br />
of violence and trauma, while also seeking reconciliation and inclusivity,<br />
remains a daunting task. The desire to forget is not specific to governing<br />
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after the violence: memory / 3<br />
powers. Victims of traumatic violence often view silence as an important<br />
survival and coping strategy. They allude to the fact that the horrors that<br />
they experienced cannot be truly communicated and that the process of<br />
remembrance is too painful and overwhelming. Silence may operate as<br />
an effective shield in a hostile sociopolitical environment unwilling to listen<br />
to the voices of the victims. Furthermore, a melancholic or traumatic<br />
fixation on the past can jeopardize the ability to live in the present and to<br />
develop the capacity to project oneself into the future. After the collapse<br />
of the Soviet Union and apartheid in South Africa, many just wanted to<br />
move on, embrace consumerism as compensation for former deprivations,<br />
and forget about the hardship of the past. New opportunities made the<br />
prospect of a brand new life possible. Amnesia and escapism seemed safe<br />
paths to happiness.<br />
Present-day stakes have a direct impact on the process of remembrance.<br />
Trials in this respect are Janus-faced. In bringing perpetrators to account<br />
for their crimes, they officially acknowledge the criminal character of past<br />
regimes. As such, they have immense symbolic significance and they are<br />
important milestones in a nation’s effort to come to terms with its past.<br />
But they are also entangled in power struggles and diversion strategies<br />
that can lead to selective reevaluations of the past. The Nuremberg Trials,<br />
for instance, were not only about the Nazi crimes. They also served postwar<br />
goals of planning how to (re)write recent history and showcased the<br />
growing rivalry between the Western allies and the Soviet Union in the<br />
emerging Cold War context. In France, the trial of the former civil servant<br />
and Vichy collaborationist Maurice Papon was almost derailed by<br />
controversies surrounding his role as Prefect of the Paris Police during the<br />
massacre of Algerians on the night of October 17, 1961. In Spain, Baltazar<br />
Garzón’s recent attempt to investigate the crimes of the Franco regime in<br />
the context of crimes against humanity was unsuccessful and led to his<br />
forced dismissal as a judge. Intertwined and overlapping histories also<br />
complicate the commemoration of violence. Many memorials are built on<br />
previous sites of massacres and destruction. Establishing a commemorative<br />
space is key to the proper mourning and honoring of victims. The<br />
problem is that sites of terror often tell multiple and multilayered stories<br />
of repeated violence, occasionally blurring the distinction between perpetrators<br />
and victims. In the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Germany,<br />
Denmark, and South Africa among others, competing groups of victims<br />
make their voices heard and want to be acknowledged, sometimes at the<br />
expense of other victims. These antagonisms lead to reactive strategies—<br />
counter memorials, counter narratives, alternative symbols, and competitive<br />
numbers wars—whose goal is to downplay the other group’s claim<br />
for victimhood.<br />
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In the European context the competition among victims can hardly be<br />
dissociated from the competition of memory paradigms. After the collapse<br />
of the Soviet Union the memory of the Holocaust—with Auschwitz as its<br />
iconic site and official symbol—emerged as the dominant model of reference.<br />
Yet the diffusion, cosmopolitization, and transnationalization of this<br />
Holocaust paradigm elicited opposition. In Eastern Europe this model of<br />
reference has been perceived as a Western form of cultural imperialism,<br />
ignoring victims of communist occupation and failing to do justice to local<br />
heritage communities. Some memorial sites attempt to reconcile competing<br />
memories and to accommodate different groups of victims by creating<br />
supplemental exhibitions or different routings in their space. These topographical<br />
and makeshift architectural solutions testify to the difficulty of<br />
addressing diverging or irreconcilable paths of memory. When consensus<br />
prevails that the past—whatever its painfulness—should be acknowledged<br />
and confronted, the modes of commemoration still raise vexing questions<br />
on how to represent violence. 4 One of the well-known paradoxes of memorialization<br />
resides in the self-defeating visibility of public displays that<br />
“bury” the past and promote forgetting rather than remembrance. Early<br />
on Nietzsche’s critique of monumentalization and Robert Musil’s ironic<br />
observation about the way great men are pushed “into the sea of oblivion<br />
with, so to speak, a commemorative stone around their necks” have<br />
pointed to the anesthetizing power of commemorations. 5 To counter the<br />
conventional memorials’ tendency to “seal memory off from awareness,”<br />
artists have privileged voids, absence, invisibility, or vanishing monuments<br />
as a way to suggest loss, challenge the monumental taste of authoritarian<br />
regimes, and keep the work of memory alive. 6<br />
The representation of violence remains a challenge from an aesthetic<br />
and ethical viewpoint. How should one make death and terror visible in a<br />
meaningful and ethically relevant way? If the duty to remember implies<br />
an obligation to imagine what defies imagination—as a way to resist<br />
the perpetrators’ wish for the total erasure of the victims—what are the<br />
appropriate channels to perform this task? The commodification of violence<br />
in the media and entertainment industry generates sensory overload<br />
and emotional numbness. It is easy to look at violent images without seeing<br />
them or being affected by them. Viewers become passive bystanders<br />
of a spectacle that does not directly concern them. Alternatively, complacent<br />
displays of violence nurture voyeurism and sensationalism, preventing<br />
self-reflection and attention. One might think, as Andreas Huyssen<br />
suggests, that in a culture dominated by fleeting images and immaterial<br />
modes of communication, monuments and memorials become salient as<br />
a result of their materiality and spatial inscription. 7 Yet memorial sites<br />
are not immune to the dangers of commodification and derealization.<br />
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Victims of their own success, they welcome growing numbers of visitors.<br />
During a recent visit to Auschwitz-Birkenau, the philosopher and art<br />
historian Georges Didi-Huberman noticed with unease how former<br />
camp barracks had been turned into commercial outlets or into “national<br />
pavilions” like the Venice Biennale: the site itself had been “forgotten” in<br />
order to give way to a “fictive place” staged for purposes of commemoration.<br />
8 Only the eerie emptiness of Birkenau brought him closer to the<br />
desolation and the terror of the Holocaust.<br />
More generally, Didi-Huberman’s unease points to the ambiguous status<br />
of visual displays and artifacts in memorial sites: photographs, objects,<br />
piles of clothes, shoes, and bones have been used to generate empathetic<br />
identifications with the victims and to suggest metonymically the magnitude<br />
of the loss. As forensic evidence of past horror and icons of “staged<br />
authenticity,” they offer cautionary tales, celebrations of lost heroic values,<br />
and nostalgic recollections of the past before its destruction. The tension<br />
between the impulse to provide crude, forensic evidence that “speaks for<br />
itself” and the tendency to rely on more abstract and symbolic evocations<br />
lies at the heart of many memory projects. Should violence be represented<br />
in graphic details at the risk of creating further rift and division, or should<br />
precedence be given to future-oriented and peace-promoting symbols? All<br />
such considerations encounter the issue of address and audience: for whom<br />
are these memorials, museums, performances, and myriad mnemonic<br />
projects meant?<br />
If, as Richard Terdiman suggests, memory is the “past made present,”<br />
some artists have given a new urgency to this injunction by actively engaging<br />
the audience and by using the confrontation with the past as a way to<br />
reflect about the present through narratives, exhibitions, and happenings. 9<br />
Their aim is to foster new forms of collective awareness and civic commitment,<br />
to inherit the past for the sake of a better future and of a more<br />
nuanced understanding of one’s situation. These projects often stress the<br />
collective dimension of memory making: artists invade public and everyday<br />
spaces, hand over authorship, involve the audience, and turn viewers into<br />
committed participants. The everyday becomes a transformative space in<br />
which biases, prejudices, and forms of collective amnesia are made visible<br />
and questioned. At the same time the transformation of media technology<br />
and access to archival resources through websites open up unprecedented<br />
possibilities for the technification and automation of memory. As more and<br />
more knowledge of the past is stored online, especially in the reservoirs of<br />
historical images and sounds, the question of what to remember becomes<br />
ever more challenging while the new media themselves are changing the<br />
landscape of memory cultures. The contributions in this volume reveal<br />
that the work of commemoration is a dynamic process whose potential<br />
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and boundaries emerge in a dialogic interaction between sites, projects,<br />
and visitors/participants. They demonstrate the pitfalls of a centralized,<br />
top-down imposition of memory and suggest that the most fruitful impact<br />
of mnemonic projects is to be found in an open-ended approach predicated<br />
upon the audience’s responsiveness.<br />
The volume is divided in three interrelated parts. Each addresses the<br />
challenges linked to the commemoration and representation of violent<br />
and contested pasts. Part I, “Competing Memories,” details the political<br />
complexities of contentious memories and focuses on the ideological<br />
and geopolitical stakes underlying the commemoration of the past. In her<br />
essay “The Nuremberg Trials as Cold War Competition: The Politics of<br />
the Historical Record and the International Stage,” Francine Hirsch demonstrates<br />
how the emerging Cold War not only shaped the record of the<br />
Second World War and the international events that had preceded it, but<br />
also influenced the way in which the first trials to determine the nature of<br />
crimes against humanity were staged and remembered in subsequent years.<br />
Drawing on new archival sources, she highlights how, despite their major<br />
contribution in the preparation for the trials, the Soviets gradually lost<br />
control of the historical narrative about the war. The Western allies willfully<br />
downplayed the Soviet role and took ownership of the Nuremberg<br />
narrative, turning their former ally, and now rival, into a potential coconspirator<br />
of the Nazi regime. Karl Schlögel’s <strong>chapter</strong> “The Cube on Red<br />
Square: A Memorial for the Victims of Twentieth-century Russia” examines<br />
how in the Russian context the attempts to come to terms with the<br />
past are complicated by the magnitude and recurrence of violence caused<br />
by two world wars, two revolutions, civil wars, forced collectivization, the<br />
Great Terror of the 1930s, and the slaughter of victims during the German<br />
occupation of the Soviet Union. Schlögel points to the difficulty of writing<br />
a histoire raisonnée of a country where chaos, contingency, anarchy,<br />
and the entanglement of violence and normalcy in the everyday prevail.<br />
In this constellation of violence there are similarities to the German context<br />
of physical and moral exhaustion after the Second World War, but<br />
the German model of Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with its<br />
past) cannot provide adequate guidance for the Russian experience. The<br />
Lenin Mausoleum on Red Square—a symbolic center and rallying point<br />
historically for all sorts of parades and demonstrations—epitomizes for<br />
Schlögel a logical mnemonic point of reference for Russia’s turbulent history<br />
and the country’s unresolved contradictions.<br />
Focusing on Germany’s more elaborated memorial culture, Bill Niven’s<br />
<strong>chapter</strong> “Reactive Memory: The Holocaust and the Flight and Expulsion<br />
of Germans” brings into dialogue the memory of flight and expulsion of<br />
Germans from the eastern territories—a memory promoting a discourse<br />
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after the violence: memory / 7<br />
of German suffering—and Holocaust memory, which posits German<br />
responsibility. Drawing on Bourdieu’s analyses of field dynamics, Niven<br />
shows how the memory of flight and expulsion defined itself directly<br />
in reaction to the perceived hegemony of Holocaust memory and how it<br />
borrows its modes of representation from the latter in an attempt to counterbalance<br />
a presumed emphasis on German crime. To gain public resonance<br />
its proponents claim that the topic of flight and expulsion was taboo,<br />
while Niven demonstrates on the contrary the ongoing reactive dynamics<br />
between these antagonistic memories. Competing memory paradigms are<br />
also at the core of Rob van der Laarse’s reflections in “Beyond Auschwitz?<br />
Europe’s Terrorscapes in the Age of Postmemory.” Since the late 1980s<br />
the recognition of the Holocaust as a shared collective past of universal<br />
value has become part of the European Union’s politics of remembrance.<br />
However, with the expansion of the European Union and the inclusion of<br />
Eastern European countries the Holocaust paradigm and its universalizing<br />
claims have been challenged by the “occupation paradigm” according<br />
to which victims of communist crimes deserve equal recognition. Laarse<br />
raises questions about the appropriateness of Western mechanisms of “postmemory”<br />
in Eastern Europe. “Embodied identifications” with past victims<br />
through photo albums and memorabilia are not particularly successful in<br />
societies still marred by recent and potential conflicts. Furthermore, since<br />
Eastern European terrorscapes are sites of recurrent violence, memorial<br />
sites are faced with the conundrum of acknowledging the different and<br />
sometimes mutually exclusive demands of the heritage communities.<br />
Part II, “Staging Memory,” moves from larger narratives to practices of<br />
presenting memory as a self-reflexive process of construction and definition<br />
of new collective identities. In “Narrative Shock and Polish Memory<br />
Remaking in the Twenty-first Century” Geneviève Zubrzycki traces<br />
recent attempts to come to terms with the “narrative shock” produced by<br />
revelations about ethnic Poles’ active involvement in the persecution of<br />
their Jewish neighbors in the small town of Jedwabne. Not only did these<br />
revelations shatter the national martyrological narrative of Polish victimhood,<br />
they also generated debates and soul-searching about Polish–Jewish<br />
relations, the role of Poles in the Second World War, and Polish identity.<br />
Drawing on three memory-building projects—the postwar creation<br />
of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum and its post-1989 narrative revision,<br />
the Jedwabne memorial and counter memorial, and the artist/memory<br />
activist Rafał Betlejewski’s commemorative projects “I Miss You, Jew” and<br />
“Burning Barn”—Zubrzycki explores reactive and multidirectional forms<br />
of memory remaking as they relate to or challenge national mythology,<br />
suggesting that in the last case some forms become so controversial that<br />
they undermine the project of constructive engagement with the past.<br />
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Ofelia Ferrán’s <strong>chapter</strong> “Grievability and the Politics of Visibility: The<br />
Photography of Francesc Torres and the Mass Graves of the Spanish Civil<br />
War” focuses on two photographic memory projects by multimedia artist<br />
Francesc Torres: the 2007 photography exhibit and its accompanying catalogue,<br />
Oscura es la habitación donde dormimos (Dark Is the Room Where We<br />
Sleep). These projects document the 2004 exhumation in Villamayor de<br />
los Montes of a mass grave containing the bodies of 46 Republicans. After<br />
years of silence about Francoist repression the grassroots “movement for<br />
the recuperation of historical memory” has started to confront the legacy<br />
of the Civil War and dictatorship in Spain, leading to the exhumation of<br />
mass graves throughout the country. Torres’s photographic project commemorates<br />
the victims, acknowledging their right for a proper burial and<br />
the value of their life and ideals. The project invites viewers to engage<br />
with the victims. As such, it performs what Ariella Azoulay calls the “civil<br />
contract of photography.” 10 This intergenerational transfer initiates a sense<br />
of community and civic responsibility committed to keeping alive the victims’<br />
heritage and to live up to the values they embody.<br />
Robyn Autry’s <strong>chapter</strong> on “Doing Memory in Public: Postapartheid<br />
Memorial Space as an Activist Project” explores how two South African<br />
memorial projects—Freedom Park, a state-directed national heritage project<br />
in Pretoria, and the District Six Museum, a community-based effort in<br />
Cape Town—give voice to dissident histories and memories silenced during<br />
apartheid. The <strong>chapter</strong> also examines the difficulties and contradictions<br />
involved in the attempts to accommodate conflicting memories in a society<br />
still deeply divided. A counter monument to the infamous apartheid-era<br />
Voortrekker Monument, Freedom Park with its postcolonial, Afrocentric<br />
monumentality reworks the understanding of South African national identity.<br />
Yet its own shortcomings elicited criticism and led to counter initiatives.<br />
In a different context the District Six Museum collected people’s<br />
stories and memorabilia in order to create a “memory culture from below”<br />
and to reclaim a neighborhood from which Coloured people had been<br />
expelled decades earlier. Yet the project was fraught with ambivalence and<br />
tensions in its effort to avoid racial language and imagery, in its strategies<br />
to reclaim the District Six physical space, and in its increased attention to<br />
the appeal of South Africa’s international tourist industry. Expanding the<br />
transcultural and transcontinental angle, Laurie Beth Clark’s contribution<br />
on “Mnemonic Objects: Forensic and Rhetorical Practices in Memorial<br />
Culture” considers how objects are staged as mnemonic devices and how<br />
they operate in heterogeneous and contested ways. With examples from<br />
Europe, Africa, Asia, North and South America, she considers the tension<br />
between a forensic impulse that uses objects as proof of crimes and a<br />
semiotic function in which objects stand in metonymically for the dead or<br />
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disappeared. As recurrent and familiar “tropes” in memorial sites, objects<br />
are also ambiguous artifacts. Not legible in themselves, they can elicit a<br />
nostalgic and sentimental cult of the past prior to the catastrophe, a celebration<br />
of the heroism of survival, a fetishist glorification of violence, a<br />
voyeuristic and sensationalist spectacle of past horrors, or the artificiality<br />
of kitsch. Bones in particular have yielded the most debate, dialogue, and<br />
controversy. As recalcitrant and elusive “objects,” they lay bare the difficulty<br />
of representing violence and death.<br />
Part III, “Re-membering Memory,” hones in on the ethical dimension<br />
of memory politics as a process of constructing meaningful narratives<br />
about the past for the present. Literature is a privileged medium to reflect<br />
upon the longstanding impact of traumatic violence and to explore constructive<br />
responses and reparative modes of forgiveness and care. In “Toward a<br />
Critical Reparative Practice in Post-1989 German Literature: Chista Wolf’s<br />
City of Angels or The Overcoat of Dr. Freud (2010), Anke Pinkert probes how<br />
after historical rupture sustainable bonds can be imagined in a still divided<br />
present. She traces the systemic violence that has marked German unification<br />
since 1989, leading to chronic and ongoing unbalances and asymmetries<br />
between the two former Germanies. A critic of this aggressive takeover,<br />
Christa Wolf has been relegated to the margins of the public sphere, ridiculed<br />
as naive for her ethics-oriented writing, and subjected to a politics of shaming.<br />
Wolf’s last novel retraces how this symbolic exclusion from post-1989<br />
society led to a personal crisis that the narrator seeks to resolve through an<br />
ethics of self-healing. Yet, beyond the individual cure Wolf reasserts a sense<br />
of collective solidarity and a hope for new collective bonds by reclaiming<br />
the utopian and elating moment of East German crowds demonstrating<br />
peacefully in 1989 for a future they were not yet able to imagine. Richard<br />
Golsan’s <strong>chapter</strong> “Paradoxes of Remembrance: Dissecting France’s ‘Duty to<br />
Memory’” takes up France’s often vexed efforts since the 1990s to come to<br />
terms with the Vichy past. Inspired by the imperative to fulfill a “duty<br />
to memory” (devoir de mémoire) toward the Holocaust’s victims, these efforts<br />
resulted in the trials and prosecutions on charges of crimes against humanity<br />
of former Vichy officials. Focusing on the trial of former collaborator<br />
Maurice Papon, which lasted from October 1997 to April 1998 and was<br />
the longest trial in modern French history, Golsan shows how in the name<br />
of political vigilance the “duty to memory” led to problematic comparisons<br />
between the Nazi regime and the Yugoslav wars or the massacre of Algerians<br />
in Paris on October 17, 1961. These comparisons distorted both the Vichy<br />
and Nazi past. On a more positive note Golsan draws on Tzvetan Todorov’s<br />
notion of “exemplary memory” to explore constructive ways of performing<br />
the “duty to memory” through recent literary fiction. In Boualem Sansal’s<br />
novel The German Mujahid and in Laurent Binet’s novel HHhH about the<br />
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10 / florence vatan and marc silberman<br />
assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich in Prague in May 1942, the<br />
confrontation with the past becomes a source of inspiration for personal<br />
and collective action in the present. In the volume’s closing <strong>chapter</strong>, “Afterwords:<br />
Lessons in Memory and Politics,” Marc Silberman reflects on the<br />
ethical and pedagogical challenges raised by the transmission of the past. If<br />
the multiplication of memorial sites, historical museums, and public spaces<br />
of mourning demonstrate the growing awareness of the relevance of the past<br />
for our own present, the remembrance of a difficult past raises significant<br />
challenges when it comes to decide what and how it should be transmitted<br />
to younger generations. The <strong>chapter</strong> highlights some of the stumbling<br />
blocks one encounters when teaching about memory, for example, the distinction<br />
between historiography and memory studies, issues of truth, evidence,<br />
and authenticity, and the status of “invented memory” and media<br />
spectacle in representations of the past. The essay argues that for teachers<br />
of memory the specific object of attention should be a transformation of<br />
values, encouraging students to recognize competing views of the past that<br />
produce not the stories we want to hear but those we need to hear.<br />
The evocation of bones haunts this entire volume like a specter of the<br />
past: Russian children playing in the woods and discovering bones from<br />
human bodies, bones excavated as vestiges of the Spanish Civil War, bones<br />
on display in Rwandan, Cambodian, and European memorial sites, women<br />
searching for the remains of their “disappeared” loved ones in the Chilean<br />
Atacama desert. These bones are fragments, mutilated remains of violently<br />
decimated lives. They are also signs of recognition, symbols of connection<br />
and interconnectedness, and pieces of a puzzle which cannot be fully reconstructed.<br />
The search and excavation process reinserts them into the community<br />
of the living as a shared legacy through the intergenerational process of<br />
transmission. Walking through the ruins of Birkenau, Didi-Huberman was<br />
reminded of Walter Benjamin’s brief 1932 text “Excavation and Memory”:<br />
“He who seeks to approach his own buried past must conduct himself like<br />
a man digging. Above all, he must not be afraid to return again and again<br />
to the same matter; to scatter it as one scatters earth, to turn it over as one<br />
turns over soil.” 11 Benjamin’s remarks, Didi-Huberman goes on, reveal two<br />
things: First, the art of memory cannot be reduced to an inventory of excavated<br />
visible objects. Second, archeology is “not only a technique to explore<br />
the past; it is also, and above all, an anamnesis to understand the present”<br />
(64–65). In many respects the commemorative projects analyzed in this<br />
volume perform an archeology of violence. Individuals, groups, and institutions<br />
dig again and again into a collective past in order to retrieve silenced<br />
truths and forgotten glimmers of hope. Their projects make visible what<br />
has been erased, buried, or left unnoticed. Some expose divisions and contradictions.<br />
Others generate new forms of solidarity. Terrorscapes—many<br />
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after the violence: memory / 11<br />
of them still unmapped—are the archeological sites of the multilayered and<br />
fractured ground of history. They also symbolize the palimpsest of memory<br />
with its fading traces and constant rewriting. The exhumation process faces<br />
many hurdles and is subject to its own shortcomings, biases, and limitations.<br />
As anamnesis of the present, the archeological inquiry and its modes<br />
of remembrance remain a process without end, and this volume seeks to<br />
become part of that process.<br />
Notes<br />
1. “Ces sols fêlés, fracassés par l’histoire, ces sols à crier,” Georges Didi-<br />
Huberman, Écorces (Paris: Minuit, 2011), 27.<br />
2. On the notion of “cosmopolitization” as a process of “internal globalization”<br />
in which “global concerns provide a political and moral frame of reference<br />
for local experiences,” see Daniel Levy and Natan Sznaider, The Holocaust<br />
and Memory in the Global Age, trans. Assenka Oksiloff (Philadelphia: Temple<br />
University Press, 2006), 2–3.<br />
3. Michael Rothberg, Multidirectional Memory. Remembering the Holocaust in<br />
the Age of Decolonization (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009).<br />
4. In the context of the Holocaust David Bathrick notices that visual representations<br />
“have proved to be an absolutely integral but also highly contested<br />
means by which to understand and remember the Nazi atrocities of the Second<br />
World War,” in Visualizing the Holocaust: Documents, Aesthetics, Memory, ed.<br />
David Bathrick, Brad Prager, and Michael D. Richardson (Rochester, NY:<br />
Camden House, 2008), 1.<br />
5. Robert Musil, “Monuments,” in Selected Writings, ed. and trans. Burton Pike<br />
(New York: Continuum, 1985), 323.<br />
6. See James E. Young, “The Counter-Monument: Memory against Itself in<br />
Germany Today,” Critical Inquiry 18 (Winter 1992): 272; and idem, The<br />
Texture of Memory: Holocaust Memorials and Meaning (New Haven: Yale<br />
University Press, 1993).<br />
7. Andreas Huyssen, “Monument and Memory in a Postmodern Age,” in The<br />
Art of Memory: Holocaust Memorials in History, ed. James E. Young (New<br />
York: Prestel, 1994), 12.<br />
8. “Here more than anywhere else walls lie: once in the block I cannot see any<br />
longer what a block is. Everything has been ‘reorganized’ into an exhibit<br />
space.” Didi-Huberman, Écorces, 24 (our translation). “Ici plus qu’ailleurs les<br />
murs mentent: une fois dans le block je ne peux plus rien voir de ce qu’est un<br />
block, tout ayant été ‘réaménagé’ en espace d’exposition.”<br />
9. Richard Terdiman, Present Past: Modernity and the Memory Crisis (Ithaca:<br />
Cornell University Press, 1993), 7.<br />
10. Ariella Azoulay, The Civil Contract of Photography, trans. Rela Mazali and<br />
Ruvik Danieli (New York: Zone Books, 2008).<br />
11. Didi-Huberman, Écorces, 64. English translation from Walter Benjamin,<br />
Selected Writings 2: 1927–1934, ed. Michael W. Jennings, Howard Eiland,<br />
and Gary Smith, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, MA: Harvard<br />
University Press, 1999), 576.<br />
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Index<br />
9/11 Memorial, New York City,<br />
157, 219<br />
Abuladze, Tengiz<br />
Pokajanie (Repentance), 38<br />
Adorno, Theodor W., 181, 192,<br />
193, 213, 218<br />
African National Congress (ANC), 137<br />
Algerian Liberation Movement (Front de<br />
Libération Nationale, FLN), 203<br />
Anderson, Benedict, 137–8<br />
Anwja, Nadja, 151<br />
Apartheid Museum, Johannesburg,<br />
158, 161<br />
Arad, Michael, 219<br />
“archival revolution” in former Soviet<br />
Union, 35–6, 38–9<br />
Arendt, Hannah, 35<br />
Armenian genocide, French<br />
recognition of, 206<br />
Assmann, Aleida, 53–4, 74<br />
Assmann, Jan, 220<br />
Association for the Recovery of Historical<br />
Memory (ARMH), 132<br />
Auschwitz<br />
forensic claims, 165<br />
medial representations of, 72<br />
mediated interaction and embodied<br />
identification, 75<br />
narrative revision of, 7, 98–9<br />
objects as metonyms, 165<br />
socialist appropriation of, 97–8<br />
as symbol of the Holocaust, 4, 72<br />
Trial, Poland (1947), 72<br />
Auschwitz State Museum, 72, 75,<br />
95–8<br />
antifascist appropriation of<br />
Holocaust, 97<br />
“autogenocide,” 32, 33<br />
Azoulay, Ariella, 8, 122<br />
See also civil contract of<br />
photography<br />
Badiou, Alain, 189, 191–2<br />
Baillie, Britt, 85<br />
Baines, Gary, 141, 144<br />
Balkan War, 72, 87<br />
See also Yugoslav War<br />
Barbie, Klaus, 204<br />
Barthes, Roland, 121, 125, 134<br />
Camera Lucida, 119–20<br />
Bauer, Yehuda, 202<br />
Belgrade Genocide Museum, 81<br />
Beneš decrees, 216<br />
Benjamin, Walter, 10, 187, 218<br />
Bergen-Belsen education center, 223<br />
Betlejewski, Rafał<br />
“Burning Barn” performance, 7,<br />
107–9<br />
“I Miss You, Jew,” 7, 103–6<br />
Binet, Laurent<br />
HHhH, 9, 210<br />
Bisesero Memorial Site, Rwanda, 169<br />
Bleiburg, Austria<br />
Croatian Ustaša commemoration<br />
site, 81, 85–6<br />
“Europeanized” museum, 82<br />
Blokhin, Vasili, 34<br />
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246 / index<br />
Bloxham, Donald<br />
Oxford Handbook of Genocide<br />
Studies, 65<br />
See also Moses, A. Dirk<br />
Bogdanović, Bogdan, Stone Flower<br />
monument (1966), 80, 82,<br />
83, 84<br />
See also Jasenovic Memorial<br />
Börne, Ludwig, 185<br />
Bourdieu, Pierre, 7, 52<br />
Bousquet, René, 197–9, 204<br />
Boym, Svetlana, 159<br />
Brandt, Willy, 60–1, 215<br />
Brecht, Bertolt, 191<br />
Breuer, Lars, 78<br />
Brezhnev, Leonid<br />
“re-Stalinization” in mid-1960s, 37<br />
Bronze Solder of Tallinn, Estonia, 78<br />
Bruckner, Pascal<br />
Le Tyrannie de la pénitence, 207<br />
Brumlik, Micha, 54<br />
Buchenwald<br />
concentration camp, 77–8, 83,<br />
84, 86, 170, 223<br />
education center, 223<br />
Bukharin, Nikolai, 17<br />
Butler, Judith, 121–2<br />
Cambodia Landmine Museum,<br />
157, 162<br />
Cayrol, Jean, 217<br />
Central Museum for the Great<br />
Patriotic War, Moscow, 215<br />
Certeau, Michel de<br />
The Practice of Everyday Life, 161<br />
Cheung Ek Memorial, Cambodia<br />
(Killing Fields), 168<br />
Chödron, Pema, 187<br />
Christo, Jeanne-Claude<br />
Wrapped Reichstag, 214<br />
Churchill, Winston<br />
“Iron Curtain” speech, 24<br />
civil contract of photography, 8,<br />
121–4, 127, 128, 131–2, 134<br />
commemoration<br />
aesthetics and ethics of, 4, 127, 171<br />
in forming identity, 33<br />
Germany as model for, 223<br />
initiatives in former Soviet<br />
Union, 33<br />
modes of, 4<br />
“rhetoric” of, 2<br />
sites in the GDR and FRG, 56<br />
Commission for Directing the Work<br />
of the Soviet Representatives<br />
in the International<br />
Tribunal (USSR Nuremberg<br />
Commission), 17–18, 23, 24,<br />
28n. 9<br />
Constitution Hill, Johannesburg, 163<br />
Coombes, Annie<br />
History after Apartheid, 147<br />
Council for the Development of Civil<br />
Society and Human Rights<br />
(in Russia), 31<br />
counter memorials, 3<br />
Freedom Park, 8<br />
in Germany, 58–9, 62<br />
Jedwabne, Poland, 7, 101–2<br />
Courtois, Stéphane<br />
The Black Book of Communism,<br />
205–6<br />
“crimes against peace,” 16, 26<br />
See also Trainin, Aron<br />
“Crimes of the Wehrmacht” exhibition<br />
(1995), 215<br />
Cusin, Gaston, 203<br />
Cyahinda, Rwanda (memorial at), 169<br />
Dachau, 76–9, 83, 87, 75<br />
Dahn, Daniela, 182, 183–4, 185<br />
De Wild, Ruud, 71, 74<br />
Defonseca, Misha<br />
Misha: A Mémoire of the Holocaust<br />
Years, 217<br />
Demnig, Gunter<br />
Stolpersteine, 219<br />
Derrida, Jacques, 131–2<br />
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Dickenson, Emily, 193<br />
Didi-Huberman, Georges, 1, 5, 10<br />
“disappeared,” 10, 128, 132–4, 160, 172<br />
forced disappearance as legal<br />
category, 132–4<br />
UN Work Group on Forced<br />
Disappearances, 132<br />
District Six Museum, Cape Town, 8,<br />
137, 145–52, 159<br />
as community based memory<br />
project, 145, 152<br />
Djacenko, Boris<br />
Herz und Asche (Heart and Ash), 59<br />
Documentation Center of Cambodia<br />
(DC-CAM), 168<br />
Donskoe Cemetery, Moscow, 34<br />
Dorfman, Ariel, 128, 133<br />
Dudik Memorial, Vukovar<br />
(Croatia), 85<br />
Eckermann, Martin<br />
Wege übers Land (Paths across the<br />
Land), 55<br />
Edensor, Tim, 96<br />
Eisler, Hanns, 217<br />
Etkind, Alexander, 87<br />
“exemplary” memory, 208–10<br />
See also Todorov, Tzvetan<br />
Ezhov, Nikolai, 42<br />
Fårhus (Faarhus), 76–9, 83, 87<br />
Farmer, Sarah, 77, 84<br />
Farmington Hills Holocaust Memorial<br />
Center, 157<br />
Faulkner, William, 214<br />
Fechner, Eberhard<br />
Der Prozess, 217<br />
Ferrándiz, Francisco, 133<br />
Festenberg, Niklaus von<br />
Die Flucht (Flight), 55<br />
Flucht aus dem Osten (Flight from the<br />
East), 55<br />
Flucht und Vertreibung (Flight and<br />
Expulsion), 54–5, 62<br />
Frauenkirche, Dresden, 222<br />
Freedom Front Plus, 144<br />
Freedom Park (Tshwane), Pretoria, 8,<br />
137–8, 140–5<br />
Gallery of Leaders, 141–3<br />
“Isivivane,” 141, 143<br />
reworking of South African<br />
identity, 141<br />
Wall of Names, 141, 143–4<br />
Frei, Norbert, 53<br />
Freud, Sigmund, 187<br />
Friesen, Astrid von, 54<br />
Furtwängler, Wilhelm, 214<br />
Gabčík, Josef, 210<br />
Garzón, Baltazar, 3, 132–3<br />
Gauck, Joachim, 177<br />
Gauss, Friedrich, 24–5<br />
German League of Expellees, 53,<br />
57–8, 65<br />
Gerz, Jochen, 219<br />
Ghandi, Mahatma, 191<br />
Ginzburg, Evgenia, 37<br />
Giscard-d’Estaing, Valéry, 199<br />
Glaeser, Andreas, 183, 190<br />
Goering, Hermann, 24<br />
Goldoskaya, Marina<br />
Vlast Soloveckaja (Solovky Power), 38<br />
Gourevitch, Philip, 169, 170–1<br />
Grass, Günter, 54, 214<br />
Great Terror (1930s Soviet Union), 6,<br />
17, 33, 39–43, 205<br />
Gross, Jan Tomasz<br />
Neighbors, 99<br />
Grossman, Vasily, 35, 37<br />
Life and Fate, 38<br />
Guevara, Ernesto ‘Che’, 141<br />
Guyer, Sara, 169–72<br />
Guzmán, Patricio<br />
Nostalgia for the Light, 172<br />
Hahn, Eva and Hans Henning, 65<br />
Hamburg Institute of Social<br />
Research, 215<br />
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Hands Off District Six (HOD)<br />
campaign, 145–8<br />
as community narrative, 148<br />
as “vernacular” memory, 146<br />
Havel, Václav, 191<br />
Heidegger, Martin, 214, 218<br />
Hermand, Jost, 217<br />
Heydrich, Reinhard, 10, 201<br />
Hirsch, Marianne, 7, 74, 84<br />
Hòa Lò Prison Historic Vestige, 162–3<br />
Holocaust (1979 West German<br />
television miniseries), 61–2<br />
Holocaust<br />
appropriation and commodification<br />
of, 76, 87<br />
Europeanization of, 73, 76, 84, 86<br />
internationalization of, 4, 7, 73<br />
limitations of representation, 213<br />
media representations of (films,<br />
books), 72<br />
as paradigm, 4, 7, 65, 74, 77, 87<br />
Holocaust Centre, Cape Town,<br />
159–60<br />
Holocaust Memorial, Berlin, 52,<br />
65, 84<br />
Holocaust Memorial Museum,<br />
Washington DC, 215<br />
Holocaust Remembrance Day, 72–4<br />
“Holocaustization,” See Hahn, Eva<br />
and Hans Henning<br />
Homeland Societies, 56<br />
hooks, bell, 182, 185<br />
Hosking, Geoffrey, 40<br />
Huyssen, Andreas, 4<br />
Institute of National Remembrance<br />
(IPN), 99<br />
International Military Tribunal<br />
(IMT), 15–27<br />
Irwin-Zarecka, Iwona, 97–8<br />
Jáchym, Topol<br />
The Devil’s Workshop<br />
(Chladnou zemi), 88<br />
Jackson, Robert, 15, 23–4<br />
Janssen, Karl-Heinz, 54–5<br />
Jasenovac Memorial Museum<br />
(“Croatian Auschwitz”),<br />
79–84, 87<br />
as contested trauma site, 80–1<br />
Jovičić, Nataša, museum<br />
director, 80, 82<br />
Mataušić, Nataša, museum<br />
spokesperson, 84<br />
role in Balkan War, 81<br />
Jedwabne pogrom, Poland, 98–103<br />
counter memorial, 101–3<br />
memorial, 100<br />
See also Betlejewski, Rafał<br />
Jenninger, Philipp, 215<br />
Jewish Museum, Berlin, 158, 215, 219<br />
Joseph, Helen, 142<br />
Josipović, Ivo, 85<br />
Julliard, Jacques, 201<br />
Jünger, Ernst, 214<br />
Kaplan, Brett Ashley, 127<br />
Karadzic, Radovan, 201<br />
Karaganov, Sergei, 31–3<br />
Karajan, Herbert, 214<br />
Katyn Affair, 15–16, 20–1, 23–5, 61<br />
Russian-Polish joint<br />
commemoration, 33<br />
Khrushchev, Nikita<br />
1956 “secret speech,” 36–7<br />
Kibeho, Rwanda (memorial at),<br />
169, 170<br />
Kiesinger, Kurt Georg, 61<br />
Kigali Memorial Center, Rwanda, 169<br />
Kirschenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara,<br />
158–9<br />
Kittel, Manfred, 54, 60–2<br />
Klimov, Elem<br />
Idi i smotri (Come and See), 38<br />
See also Rasputin, Valentin<br />
Knabe, Hubertus, 184<br />
Kohl, Helmut, 215<br />
Koš, Julija, 82, 84<br />
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Kosor, Jadranka, 85<br />
Kosovo, NATO bombing of, 201<br />
Kossert, Andreas, 54, 60<br />
Krakow Jewish Festival, 102–4<br />
Krauss, Angela, 180<br />
Kreil, Kallie, 143<br />
Kristensen, Henric Skov, 79<br />
Kubiš, Jan, 210<br />
Kwaśniewski, Aleksander, 100<br />
Landsmannschaften, 52<br />
Lanzmann, Claude<br />
Shoah, 112n. 20, 219<br />
Law of Historical Memory<br />
(2007), 133<br />
Lenin Mausoleum, See Red Cube on<br />
Red Square<br />
Levy, Daniel, 55, 65–6, 75<br />
Lewis, Alison, 182<br />
Libeskind, Daniel, 219<br />
MacMillan, Margaret<br />
Dangerous Games: The Uses and<br />
Abuses of History, 201<br />
Maillard, Jean de, 206<br />
Majdanek, Poland, 72, 162<br />
concentration camp, 165, 166<br />
Mandelstam, Nadezhda, 37, 39<br />
Marcuse, Harold, 75<br />
Matauschek, Isabella, 78<br />
Mbeki, Thabo, 140–1, 144<br />
Medvedev, Dmitri, 31, 33–4<br />
Medvedev, Roy<br />
Let History Judge, 37<br />
Memorial to the Murdered Jews of<br />
Europe, Berlin, 214<br />
See also Holocaust Memorial, Berlin<br />
“memorial mania,” 213<br />
memorial sites, See under<br />
individual names<br />
memory culture<br />
artifacts of, 155–72<br />
challenges of teaching, 10, 215–20<br />
changing nature of, 218<br />
as “contest” in Germany, 214<br />
in Europe today, 222–3<br />
in former Soviet Union, 34–9<br />
German dichotomy of, 53–4<br />
“grassroots,” 8, 137, 189, 213<br />
See also District Six Museum<br />
working definition of, 214<br />
memory narratives<br />
authenticity of, 79, 158, 217–8<br />
construction of, 157–8, 215<br />
contested nature of, 2, 79–81, 216<br />
corruption of, 202<br />
democratization of, 2, 137, 152<br />
dissident, 8, 137–8, 152<br />
Europeanization of, 81, 221–2<br />
fictional representation of, 218<br />
medial transfer of, 75<br />
“multidirectional,” 2, 8, 57, 66, 79<br />
See also Rothberg, Michael<br />
as personal healing, 186–8<br />
relationship to historiography, 10,<br />
215–17<br />
memory tourism, 8, 75, 87, 98,<br />
148–9, 156–8, 168–9<br />
Merkel, Angela, 177<br />
Mesić, Stjepan, 85<br />
Michelangelo<br />
The Creation of Adam, 124<br />
Miller, Alice, 187<br />
Milosevic, Slobodan, 80, 201, 202<br />
Ministry of Expellees, 60<br />
Mittelbau-Dora, Nordhausen, forced<br />
labor site, 223<br />
Mitterrand, François, 197, 199, 214<br />
modes of memory-making,<br />
un-making and remaking,<br />
7, 95<br />
Moerdijk, Gerard, 138<br />
Molotov, Vyacheslav, 16, 18<br />
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 20, 21–2,<br />
73<br />
Morgenthau, Henry, 15<br />
Moscow Trails, 17<br />
Moser, Wolfgang, 61<br />
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Moses, A. Dirk<br />
Oxford Handbook of Genocide<br />
Studies, 65<br />
See also Bloxham, Donald<br />
“movement for the recuperation of<br />
historical memory,” 117<br />
Murambi, Rwanda (memorial at), 169<br />
Museo de la Memoria, Montevideo,<br />
160<br />
Museum of Danish Resistance<br />
(Frihedsmuseet), Copenhagen,<br />
160, 163<br />
Museum of Fight for Estonian<br />
Freedom, Lagedi, Estonia, 78<br />
Museum of the History of the Polish<br />
Jews, Warsaw, 159<br />
Musil, Robert, 4<br />
Nacht fiel über Gotenhafen (Darkness<br />
Fell on Gotenhafen), 55<br />
Nagasaki (Museum), 157, 164<br />
Naimark, Norman, 67<br />
“Nationaal Comité 4–5 Mei,” 78<br />
Neue Wache, Berlin, 222<br />
New York City International Center of<br />
Photography, 128, 129<br />
Ngcelwane, Nomvuyo, See<br />
“Nomvuyo’s Room”<br />
Ngoyi, Lillian Masediba, 142<br />
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 4<br />
Nikitchenko, Iona, 18, 24<br />
NKVD (People’s Commissariat of<br />
Internal Affairs), 19, 40, 46<br />
“Nomvuyo’s Room,” 146, 150<br />
Nove, Alex, 39<br />
Nuremberg Trials (1945–1946), 3, 6,<br />
15–27, 72<br />
American and German experiences<br />
of, 221<br />
shaping historical narrative, 17,<br />
20, 26–7<br />
Soviet role in, 15–27<br />
Nyamata Church, Rwanda (memorial<br />
at), 165–6, 167, 169<br />
Obama, Michelle, 148<br />
Oklahoma City Memorial and<br />
Museum, 157<br />
Olick, Jeff, 55<br />
Orbán, Viktor, 73–4<br />
Ostpolitik, 52, 57–8, 60, 61, 63<br />
Oświęcim (Poland), 75, 86–7<br />
See also Auschwitz<br />
Papon, Maurice, 3, 9, 197–200, 202–6<br />
Paxton, Robert, 197<br />
Peace Museum, Hiroshima, 157,<br />
164, 166<br />
Peres, Simon, 84–5<br />
Polizei Haftlager FrØslev (Police<br />
Prison Camp FrØslev), See<br />
Fårhus (Faarhus)<br />
Pompidou, Georges, 199<br />
Pospelov Commission, 37<br />
Prague Archive, 35<br />
Prague Declaration on European<br />
Conscience and Communism<br />
as alternative to the Stockholm<br />
Declaration, 73–4<br />
as double genocide doctrine, 73<br />
Pushkin, Aleksandr, 41<br />
Rancière, Jacques, 192<br />
Rasputin, Valentin<br />
Farewell to Matyora, 38<br />
See also Klimov, Elem, 38<br />
Ravensbruck, education center, 223<br />
Reagan, Ronald, 215<br />
Red Cube on Red Square, 5, 6, 34, 45<br />
characterization and significance<br />
of, 46<br />
history of, 45<br />
as paradigmatic place of<br />
commemoration, 44<br />
Renshaw, Layla, 124–30<br />
Resnais, Alain<br />
Nuit et Brouillard (Night and<br />
Fog), 217<br />
Reyes Mate, Manuel, 132, 134<br />
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index / 251<br />
Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 19, 23, 25<br />
See also Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact<br />
Rioux, Jean-Pierre, 207<br />
Ritchin, Fred, 128<br />
Rodos, Boris, 34<br />
Rothberg, Michael, 57, 66, 110<br />
Rousso, Henry, 207<br />
Rudenko, Roman, 18–24<br />
Ruge, Eugen, 180<br />
Rwandan genocide<br />
memorials of, 156, 168–72<br />
Sachsenhausen<br />
concentration camp, 77, 223<br />
education center, 223<br />
Saña, Heleno, 191<br />
Sansal, Boualem<br />
The German Mujahid, 9, 209–10<br />
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 218<br />
Schieder, Theodor, 59–60<br />
Schmitt, Katrin, 180<br />
Schnook, Frieder, 223<br />
Schorlemmer, Friedrich, 177<br />
secret police, Soviet, See NKVD<br />
Sedgwick, Eve, 180, 186–7, 188<br />
Serote, Wally, 143–4, 152<br />
šestidesjatniki<br />
new Soviet intelligentsia in<br />
1960s, 37<br />
Shchusev, Aleksey, 45<br />
Shin’s tricycle, 166<br />
See also Peace Museum, Hiroshima<br />
Silva, Emilio, 132<br />
Šnajder, Slobodan, 84<br />
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr<br />
The Gulag Archipelago, 35, 37<br />
The Red Wheel, 38<br />
Sontag, Susan, 120, 121<br />
On Photography, 119–20<br />
Regarding the Pain of Others, 121<br />
South African Defense Force (SADF),<br />
143–4<br />
South African Defense Force Wall of<br />
Remembrance, 144<br />
Spielberg, Steven<br />
Schindler’s List, 98, 111n. 17, 219<br />
Stalin, Joseph<br />
burial at Red Square, 46<br />
“destalinization,” 32<br />
memorialization of, 33–4, 43–4,<br />
46–9<br />
role in Nuremberg Trials, 16–20<br />
Stalinist Terror, 17, 19<br />
See also Great Terror<br />
Stasi Museum, Berlin-<br />
Hohenschönhausen, 184<br />
Stih, Renate, 223<br />
Stockholm Declaration of the<br />
International Forum on the<br />
Holocaust, 72–3, 77<br />
Sznaider, Natan, 65–6, 75<br />
Task Force for International<br />
Cooperation on Holocaust<br />
Education, Remembrance,<br />
and Research (ITF), 72<br />
Taubira, Christiane, 207<br />
Terdiman, Richard, 5<br />
Ther, Philipp, 67<br />
Todorov, Tzvetan, 9, 209, 210<br />
Memory as a Remedy for<br />
Evil, 208<br />
Topography of Terror, Berlin, 223<br />
Torres, Francesc, 117–34<br />
Oscura es la habitación donde<br />
dormimos (Dark is the<br />
Room Where We Sleep),<br />
8, 117–34<br />
Toul Sleng (Museum), Cambodia,<br />
163–4, 168<br />
Touvier, Paul, 197–9, 204<br />
Trainin, Aron, 16–17, 26<br />
On the Criminal Responsibility of<br />
the Hitlerites, 16<br />
Trotsky, Leon, 17<br />
Truth and Reconciliation<br />
Commission (TRC), 137,<br />
139–40, 153n. 6, 208<br />
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Tuđjman, Franjo, 81, 85, 201<br />
Turner, Victor, 96<br />
Ullman, Micha, 219<br />
United Nations War<br />
Crimes Commission<br />
(UNWCC), 17<br />
Varaut, Jean-Marc, 206<br />
Vél d’Hiv roundup, France, 198–9<br />
Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming<br />
to terms with the past), 6, 79,<br />
81, 184<br />
Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, 204<br />
Vietnam Veterans Memorial,<br />
Washington DC, 143, 157<br />
Villamayor de los Montes, 8,<br />
117, 119–20, 122, 125–6,<br />
128, 130<br />
Violi, Patrizia, 77<br />
Voortrekker Monument, 8, 138–41,<br />
143–4, 139, 159<br />
Vyshinsky, Andrei, 17–18, 20–2<br />
Wajda, Andrzej<br />
Katyn, 42<br />
Waldheim, Kurt, 214<br />
Walser, Martin, 215<br />
War Memorial, Seoul, 162<br />
War Remnants Museum, Saigon,<br />
157, 162<br />
Warsaw Rising Museum<br />
(Muzeum Powstania<br />
Warszawskiego), 160<br />
Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, 53–4<br />
Weiss, Peter<br />
Die Ermittlung (The<br />
Investigation), 217<br />
Widman, Arno, 178<br />
Wieviorka, Olivier<br />
Divided Memory: French<br />
Recollections of World War II<br />
from the Liberation to<br />
the Present, 207<br />
Wilhelm Gustloff, 55<br />
Wilkomirski, Binjamin<br />
Fragments: Memories of a Wartime<br />
Childhood, 217<br />
Wisbar, Frank<br />
Flucht über die Ostsee (Flight over<br />
the Baltic), 55<br />
Nacht fiel über Gotenhafen<br />
(Darkness Fell on<br />
Gotenhafen), 55<br />
Wolf, Christa<br />
Der geteilte Himmel (Divided<br />
Heaven), 179<br />
See also Wolf, Konrad<br />
Kindheitsmuster (Patterns of<br />
Childhood), 59, 179, 179,<br />
181, 188<br />
Stadt der Engel (City of Angels or the<br />
Overcoat of Dr. Freud), 177–93<br />
Was bleibt (What Remains), 189<br />
Wolf, Konrad<br />
See Wolf, Christa, Der geteilte<br />
Himmel (Divided Heaven), 179<br />
Yekaterinburg, Russia<br />
site of 2011 memorialization and<br />
reconciliation conference, 31–3<br />
Yugoslav War, 9, 72, 79, 80, 200–2<br />
Yushukan Military and War Museum,<br />
Tokyo, 162<br />
Zayas, Alfred de, 61<br />
žižek, Slavoj, 189<br />
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