WHo Global report on falls Prevention in older Age - World Health ...
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<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Life Course, Family and Community <strong>Health</strong><br />
WHO <str<strong>on</strong>g>Global</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report<br />
<strong>on</strong> Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Older <strong>Age</strong><br />
PAGE 1
<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Life Course, Family and Community <strong>Health</strong><br />
WHO <str<strong>on</strong>g>Global</str<strong>on</strong>g> Report<br />
<strong>on</strong> Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Older <strong>Age</strong>
WHO Library Catalogu<strong>in</strong>g-<strong>in</strong>-Publicati<strong>on</strong> Data<br />
WHO global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
1.Accidental <strong>falls</strong> - preventi<strong>on</strong> and c<strong>on</strong>trol. 2.Risk factors. 3. Populati<strong>on</strong> dynamics. 4.<strong>Age</strong>d.<br />
I.<strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
ISBN 978 92 4 156353 6 (NLM classificati<strong>on</strong>: WA 288)<br />
© <strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong> 2007<br />
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PAGE ii
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
Chapter I<br />
Magnitude of <strong>falls</strong> – A worldwide overview 1<br />
1. Falls 1<br />
2. Magnitude of <strong>falls</strong> worldwide 1<br />
3. Populati<strong>on</strong> age<strong>in</strong>g 3<br />
4. Ma<strong>in</strong> risk factors for <strong>falls</strong> 4<br />
5. Ma<strong>in</strong> protective factors 6<br />
6. Costs of <strong>falls</strong> 6<br />
7. References 7<br />
Chapter II<br />
Active age<strong>in</strong>g: A Framework for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Global</str<strong>on</strong>g> Strategy for the preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age 10<br />
1. What is 'Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g'? 10<br />
2. References 12<br />
Chapter III<br />
Determ<strong>in</strong>ants of Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g as they relate to <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age 13<br />
1. Cross-cutt<strong>in</strong>g determ<strong>in</strong>ants: Culture and gender 13<br />
2. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to health and social services 14<br />
3. Behavioural determ<strong>in</strong>ants 15<br />
4. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to pers<strong>on</strong>al factors 16<br />
5. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment 18<br />
6. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to the social envir<strong>on</strong>ment 18<br />
7. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic determ<strong>in</strong>ants 19<br />
8. References 19<br />
Chapter IV<br />
Challenges for preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age 20<br />
1. Chang<strong>in</strong>g behaviour to prevent <strong>falls</strong> 20<br />
2. References 25<br />
Chapter V<br />
Examples of effective policies and <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s 26<br />
1 Policy 26<br />
2. Preventi<strong>on</strong> 29<br />
3. Practice – Interventi<strong>on</strong>s 32<br />
4. C<strong>on</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g remarks 33<br />
5. References 33<br />
Chapter VI<br />
WHO <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> model with<strong>in</strong> the Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g framework 35<br />
1. The need 35<br />
2. The foundati<strong>on</strong> 37<br />
3. Three pillars of the WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Model 39<br />
4. The way forward 47<br />
PAGE i
Acknowledgements<br />
This global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the product of the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s reached and recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
made at the WHO Technical Meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> Older <strong>Age</strong> which<br />
took place <strong>in</strong> Victoria, Canada <strong>in</strong> February 2007. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
and regi<strong>on</strong>al perspectives <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> issues and strategies and is based<br />
<strong>on</strong> a series of background papers that were prepared by worldwide recognized experts.<br />
The papers are available at: http://www.who.<strong>in</strong>t/age<strong>in</strong>g/projects/<strong>falls</strong>_preventi<strong>on</strong>_<strong>older</strong>_age/en/<strong>in</strong>dex.html<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> was developed by the Department of <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Life Course (ALC)<br />
under the directi<strong>on</strong> of Dr Alexandre Kalache and the coord<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of Dr D<strong>on</strong>gbo<br />
Fu who was closely assisted by Ms Sachiyo Yoshida. ALC would like to thank three<br />
<strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s for their f<strong>in</strong>ancial and technical support: the Divisi<strong>on</strong> of Ag<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
Seniors, Public <strong>Health</strong> <strong>Age</strong>ncy of Canada; the Department of <strong>Health</strong>y Children,<br />
Women and Seniors, British Columbia M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Health</strong> and the British Columbia<br />
Injury Preventi<strong>on</strong> and Research Unit.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> and <strong>in</strong>put of the follow<strong>in</strong>g experts are gratefully acknowledged:<br />
Dr W. Al-Faisal (Syria), Ms Lynn Beattie (U.S.A), Dr Hua Fu (Ch<strong>in</strong>a), Dr K. James<br />
(Jamaica), Dr S. Kalula (South Africa), Dr B. Krishnaswamy (India), Dr Nabil Kr<strong>on</strong>fol<br />
(Leban<strong>on</strong>), Dr P. Mar<strong>in</strong> (Chile), Dr Ian Pike (Canada), Dr Debra J. Rose (U.S.A.),<br />
Dr Vicky Scott (Canada), Dr Judy Stevens (U.S.A), Prof. Chris Todd (the United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom), Dr G. Usha ( India ) and Dr Wojtek J. Chodzko-Zajko (U.S.A.).<br />
Edit<strong>in</strong>g, layout and pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> was managed by Mrs Carla Salas-Rojas<br />
(ALC).<br />
PAGE ii
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Chapter I. Magnitude of <strong>falls</strong> – A worldwide<br />
overview<br />
1. Falls<br />
Falls are prom<strong>in</strong>ent am<strong>on</strong>g the external<br />
causes of un<strong>in</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>jury. They<br />
are coded as E880-E888 <strong>in</strong> Internati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Classificati<strong>on</strong> of Disease-9 (ICD-9), and as<br />
W00-W19 <strong>in</strong> ICD-10, which <strong>in</strong>clude a wide<br />
range of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those <strong>on</strong> the same<br />
level, upper level, and other unspecified<br />
<strong>falls</strong>. Falls are comm<strong>on</strong>ly def<strong>in</strong>ed as “<strong>in</strong>advertently<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g to rest <strong>on</strong> the ground,<br />
floor or other lower level, exclud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
change <strong>in</strong> positi<strong>on</strong> to rest <strong>in</strong> furniture,<br />
wall or other objects”.<br />
a) Problems <strong>in</strong> def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
The adopti<strong>on</strong> of a def<strong>in</strong>iti<strong>on</strong> is an<br />
important requirement when study<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>falls</strong> as many studies fail to specify an<br />
operati<strong>on</strong>al def<strong>in</strong>iti<strong>on</strong>, leav<strong>in</strong>g room for<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretati<strong>on</strong> to study participants. This<br />
results <strong>in</strong> many different <strong>in</strong>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of <strong>falls</strong>. For example, <strong>older</strong> people tend to<br />
describe a fall as a loss of balance, whereas<br />
health care professi<strong>on</strong>als generally refer to<br />
events lead<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>juries and ill health (1).<br />
Therefore, the operati<strong>on</strong>al def<strong>in</strong>iti<strong>on</strong> of a fall<br />
with explicit <strong>in</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> and exclusi<strong>on</strong> criteria,<br />
is highly important.<br />
2. Magnitude of <strong>falls</strong> worldwide<br />
(5-7). The frequency of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong>creases with<br />
age and frailty level. Older people who are<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> nurs<strong>in</strong>g homes fall more often<br />
than those who are liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> community.<br />
Approximately 30-50% of people liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
l<strong>on</strong>g-term care <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>s fall each year,<br />
and 40% of them experienced recurrent<br />
<strong>falls</strong> (8).<br />
The <strong>in</strong>cidence of <strong>falls</strong> appears to vary<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g countries as well. For <strong>in</strong>stance, a<br />
study <strong>in</strong> the South-East Asia Regi<strong>on</strong> found<br />
that <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, 6-31% (9-13) while another,<br />
found that <strong>in</strong> Japan, 20% (14) of <strong>older</strong> adults<br />
fell each year. A study <strong>in</strong> the Regi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
Americas (Lat<strong>in</strong>/Caribbean regi<strong>on</strong>) found<br />
the proporti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>older</strong> adults who fell each<br />
year rang<strong>in</strong>g from 21.6% <strong>in</strong> Barbados to 34%<br />
<strong>in</strong> Chile (15).<br />
b) Fall <strong>in</strong>jury rates.<br />
The rate of hospital admissi<strong>on</strong> due to <strong>falls</strong><br />
for people at the age of 60 and <strong>older</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Australia, Canada and the United K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
of Great Brita<strong>in</strong> and Northern Ireland (UK)<br />
range from 1.6 to 3.0 per 10 000 populati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Fall <strong>in</strong>jury rates result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> emergency<br />
department visits of the same age group<br />
<strong>in</strong> Western Australia and <strong>in</strong> the United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom are higher: 5.5-8.9 per 10 000<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> total.<br />
a) Frequency of <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Approximately 28-35% of people aged of<br />
65 and over fall each year (2-4) <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to 32-42% for those over 70 years of age<br />
PAGE 1
c) Need of medical attenti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Falls and c<strong>on</strong>sequent <strong>in</strong>juries are major<br />
public health problems that often require<br />
medical attenti<strong>on</strong>. Falls lead to 20-30% of<br />
mild to severe <strong>in</strong>juries, and are underly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cause of 10-15% of all emergency department<br />
visits (18). More than 50% of <strong>in</strong>juryrelated<br />
hospitalizati<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g people<br />
over 65 years and <strong>older</strong> (19). The major<br />
underly<strong>in</strong>g causes for fall-related hospital<br />
admissi<strong>on</strong> are hip fracture, traumatic bra<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>juries and upper limb <strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
The durati<strong>on</strong> of hospital stay due to <strong>falls</strong><br />
varies; however it is much l<strong>on</strong>ger than other<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries. It ranges from four to 15 days <strong>in</strong><br />
Switzerland (20), Sweden (21), USA (22),<br />
Western Australia (23), Prov<strong>in</strong>ce of British<br />
Columbia and Quebec <strong>in</strong> Canada (24). In<br />
the case of hip fractures, hospital stays<br />
extend to 20 days (25). With the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
age and frailty level, <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> are<br />
likely to rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> hospital after susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
a fall-related <strong>in</strong>jury for the rest of their life.<br />
Subsequently to <strong>falls</strong>, 20% die with<strong>in</strong> a year<br />
of the hip fracture (26).<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>falls</strong> may also result <strong>in</strong> a postfall<br />
syndrome that <strong>in</strong>cludes dependence,<br />
loss of aut<strong>on</strong>omy, c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong>, immobilizati<strong>on</strong><br />
and depressi<strong>on</strong>, which will lead to a<br />
further restricti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> daily activities.<br />
d) Fall mortality rates.<br />
Falls account for 40% of all <strong>in</strong>jury deaths<br />
(27). Rates vary depend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> the country<br />
and the studied populati<strong>on</strong>. Fall fatality<br />
rate for people aged 65 and <strong>older</strong> <strong>in</strong> United<br />
States of America (USA) is 36.8 per 100<br />
000 populati<strong>on</strong> (46.2 for men and 31.1 for<br />
women) (28) whereas <strong>in</strong> Canada mortality<br />
rate for the same age group is 9.4 per 10 000<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> (29). Mortality rate for people<br />
age 50 and <strong>older</strong> <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land is 55.4 for men<br />
and 43.1 for women per 100 000 populati<strong>on</strong><br />
(30).<br />
Figure 1 (page 3) shows fatal <strong>falls</strong> by 5-year<br />
age group and sex (31). Fatal <strong>falls</strong> rates<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease exp<strong>on</strong>entially with age for both<br />
sexes, highest at the age of 85 years and<br />
over. Rates of fatal <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g men exceed<br />
that of women for all age groups <strong>in</strong> spite<br />
of the fewer occurrences of <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
them. This is attributed to the fact that men<br />
suffer from more co-morbid c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
than women of the same age (28). A similar<br />
difference <strong>in</strong> mortality between men and<br />
women has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed follow<strong>in</strong>g hip<br />
fracture. The <strong>in</strong>cidence of hip fracture is<br />
greater am<strong>on</strong>g women while hip fracture<br />
mortality is higher am<strong>on</strong>g men (32). One<br />
study found that men <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed poorer<br />
health and a greater number of underly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s than women, which substantially<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased the impact of hip fracture<br />
and c<strong>on</strong>sequently <strong>in</strong>creased the risk of<br />
mortality (33). Or is it not that men who fall<br />
have more co-morbidity than other men <strong>in</strong><br />
general.<br />
PAGE 2
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Figure 1. Fatal <strong>falls</strong> rate by age and sex group<br />
Fatal <strong>falls</strong> rates<br />
200<br />
Men<br />
Women<br />
150<br />
100<br />
5 0<br />
0<br />
153.2<br />
106.4<br />
63.9<br />
34<br />
41.4<br />
5.4 10.6 9.5 16 19<br />
65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85+<br />
<strong>Age</strong> group<br />
In the U.S.A. 2001<br />
Source : Nati<strong>on</strong>al Council <strong>on</strong> <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g, 2005 (31)<br />
3. Populati<strong>on</strong> 30 age<strong>in</strong>g<br />
"Populati<strong>on</strong> age<strong>in</strong>g is a triumph of humanity<br />
but also a 24 challenge to society" (34).<br />
<strong>World</strong>wide, the number of pers<strong>on</strong>s over<br />
60 years is grow<strong>in</strong>g faster than any other<br />
18<br />
age group. The number of this age group<br />
was estimated to be 688 milli<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2006,<br />
projected to grow 12 to almost two billi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
by 2050. By that time, the populati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<strong>older</strong> people will 6 be much larger than that<br />
of children under the age of 14 years for<br />
the first time <strong>in</strong> human history. Moreover,<br />
0<br />
the oldest segment 0-9 of populati<strong>on</strong>, 65-69 aged 80<br />
and over, particularly pr<strong>on</strong>e to <strong>falls</strong> and its<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences is the fastest grow<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> expected to represent 20%<br />
of the <strong>older</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> by 2050 (35).<br />
Figure 2 illustrates the populati<strong>on</strong> pyramid<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2005 and 2025. It highlights the grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
proporti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>older</strong> populati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> parallel<br />
with a decreas<strong>in</strong>g proporti<strong>on</strong> of younger<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>. The triangular populati<strong>on</strong> pyramid<br />
of 2005 will be replaced with a more<br />
cyl<strong>in</strong>der-like structure <strong>in</strong> 2025.<br />
a) Impact of populati<strong>on</strong> age<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Falls preventi<strong>on</strong> is a challenge to populati<strong>on</strong><br />
age<strong>in</strong>g. The numbers of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
magnitude as the numbers of <strong>older</strong> adults<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> many nati<strong>on</strong>s throughout the<br />
world. Falls exp<strong>on</strong>entially <strong>in</strong>crease with<br />
age-related biological change, therefore a<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounced number of pers<strong>on</strong>s over the age<br />
of 80 years will trigger substantial <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> and fall <strong>in</strong>jury at an alarm<strong>in</strong>g rate. In<br />
fact, <strong>in</strong>cidence of some fall <strong>in</strong>juries, such as<br />
fractures and sp<strong>in</strong>al cord <strong>in</strong>jury, have markedly<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased by 131% dur<strong>in</strong>g the last three<br />
decades (36). If preventive measures are not<br />
taken <strong>in</strong> immediate future, the numbers of<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries caused by <strong>falls</strong> is projected to be<br />
100% higher <strong>in</strong> the year 2030 (36).<br />
PAGE 3
This applies to many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries<br />
where currently close to 70% of the elderly<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> lives, and where populati<strong>on</strong><br />
age<strong>in</strong>g is occurr<strong>in</strong>g rapidly. “Unlike the<br />
developed world that became richer before<br />
gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong>, develop<strong>in</strong>g countries are<br />
gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong> before becom<strong>in</strong>g richer” (37).<br />
This is reflected <strong>in</strong> the fact that health <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> age is neglected <strong>in</strong> some develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
countries. Falls preventi<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong>e of the<br />
issues that have not been given a sufficient<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>. For <strong>in</strong>stance, there is a lack of<br />
epidemiological data <strong>in</strong> many regi<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g world.<br />
4. Ma<strong>in</strong> risk factors for <strong>falls</strong><br />
Falls occur as a result of a complex <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong><br />
of risk factors. The ma<strong>in</strong> risk factors<br />
reflect the multitude of health determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
that directly or <strong>in</strong>directly affect<br />
well-be<strong>in</strong>g. Those are categorized <strong>in</strong>to four<br />
dimensi<strong>on</strong>s: biological, behavioural, envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
and socioec<strong>on</strong>omic factors.<br />
Figure 3 encapsulates the risk factors and<br />
the <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong> of them <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> and fallrelated<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries. As the exposure to risk<br />
factors <strong>in</strong>creases, the greater becomes the<br />
risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g and be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>jured.<br />
a) Biological risk factors<br />
Biological factors embrace characteristics<br />
of <strong>in</strong>dividuals that are perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
human body. For <strong>in</strong>stance, age, gender and<br />
race are n<strong>on</strong>-modifiable biological factors.<br />
These are also associated with changes due<br />
to age<strong>in</strong>g such as the decl<strong>in</strong>e of physical,<br />
cognitive and affective capacities, and the<br />
co-morbidity associated with chr<strong>on</strong>ic illnesses.<br />
Figure 2. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Global</str<strong>on</strong>g> populati<strong>on</strong> pyramid <strong>in</strong> 2005 and 2025<br />
<strong>Age</strong> group<br />
80+<br />
70-74<br />
60-64<br />
50-54<br />
40-44<br />
30-34<br />
20-24<br />
10-14<br />
2025<br />
2005<br />
Males<br />
Females<br />
0-4<br />
400000 300000 200000 100000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000<br />
Populati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> thousands<br />
Source : UN, 2004 (35)<br />
PAGE 4
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Figure 3. Risk factor model for <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Behavioural risk factors<br />
-Multiple medicati<strong>on</strong> use<br />
-Excess alcohol <strong>in</strong>take<br />
-Lack of excercise<br />
-Inappropriate footware<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk factors<br />
-Poor build<strong>in</strong>g design<br />
-Slippery floors and stairs<br />
-Looser rugs<br />
-Insufficient light<strong>in</strong>g<br />
-Cracked or uneven sidewalks<br />
Falls and<br />
fall-related<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries<br />
Biological risk factors<br />
-<strong>Age</strong>, gender and race<br />
-Chr<strong>on</strong>ic illnesses (e. g. Park<strong>in</strong>s<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Arthritis, Osteoporosis)<br />
-Physical, cognitive and affective<br />
capacities decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Socioec<strong>on</strong>omic risk factors<br />
-Low <strong>in</strong>come and educati<strong>on</strong> levels<br />
-Inadequate hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
-Lack of social <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
-Limited access to health and social services<br />
-Lack of community resources<br />
The <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong> of biological factors with<br />
behavioural and envir<strong>on</strong>mental risks<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g. For example,<br />
the loss of muscle strength leads to a loss<br />
of functi<strong>on</strong> and to a higher level of frailty,<br />
which <strong>in</strong>tensifies the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g due to<br />
some envir<strong>on</strong>mental hazards (see Chapter 3<br />
for further <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
b) Behavioural risk factors<br />
Behavioural risk factors <strong>in</strong>clude those<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern<strong>in</strong>g human acti<strong>on</strong>s, emoti<strong>on</strong>s or<br />
daily choices. They are potentially modifiable.<br />
For example, risky behaviour such as<br />
the <strong>in</strong>take of multiple medicati<strong>on</strong>s, excess<br />
alcohol use, and sedentary behaviour can<br />
be modified through strategic <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for behavioural change (see Chapter 3 and 4<br />
for further <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
c) Envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk factors<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors encapsulate the<br />
<strong>in</strong>terplay of <strong>in</strong>dividuals' physical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and the surround<strong>in</strong>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
home hazards and hazardous features<br />
<strong>in</strong> public envir<strong>on</strong>ment. These factors are<br />
not by themselves cause of <strong>falls</strong> – rather,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong> between other factors and<br />
their exposure to envir<strong>on</strong>mental <strong>on</strong>es.<br />
Home hazards <strong>in</strong>clude narrow steps, slippery<br />
surfaces of stairs, looser rugs and<br />
<strong>in</strong>sufficient light<strong>in</strong>g (29). Poor build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
design, slippery floor, cracked or uneven<br />
sidewalks, and poor lighten<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> public<br />
places are such hazards to <strong>in</strong>jurious <strong>falls</strong><br />
(see Chapter 3 for further <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
PAGE 5
d) Socioec<strong>on</strong>omic risk factors<br />
Socioec<strong>on</strong>omic risk factors are those<br />
related to <strong>in</strong>fluence social c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic status of <strong>in</strong>dividuals as well as<br />
the capacity of the community to challenge<br />
them. These factors <strong>in</strong>clude: low <strong>in</strong>come,<br />
low educati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g, lack of<br />
social <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong>, limited access to health<br />
and social care especially <strong>in</strong> remote areas,<br />
and lack of community resources (see<br />
Chapter 3 for further <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>)<br />
5. Ma<strong>in</strong> protective factors<br />
Protective factors for <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age are<br />
related to behavioural change and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>. Behavioural change<br />
to healthy lifestyle is a key <strong>in</strong>gredient to<br />
encourage healthy age<strong>in</strong>g and avoid <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
N<strong>on</strong>-smok<strong>in</strong>g, moderate alcohol c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g weight with<strong>in</strong> normal<br />
range <strong>in</strong> mid to <strong>older</strong> age, play<strong>in</strong>g an acceptable<br />
level of sport protect <strong>older</strong> people<br />
from fall<strong>in</strong>g (38). Furthermore, self-health<br />
behaviour (e.g. proper level of simple …<br />
walk<strong>in</strong>g) is <strong>in</strong>tegral to healthy age<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence.<br />
One example of the envir<strong>on</strong>mental modificati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
is home modificati<strong>on</strong>. It prevents<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s from hidden fall hazards <strong>in</strong><br />
daily activities at home. The modificati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>in</strong>stallati<strong>on</strong> of stairway protective<br />
devices such as rail<strong>in</strong>gs, grab bars and<br />
slip-resistant surfac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the bathroom<br />
and provisi<strong>on</strong> of light<strong>in</strong>g and handrails (39).<br />
<strong>Age</strong>-friendly design <strong>in</strong> public envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
is also critical factor to avoid <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> adults. (see Chapter 5 for further<br />
<strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>).<br />
6. Costs of <strong>falls</strong><br />
The ec<strong>on</strong>omic impact of <strong>falls</strong> is critical to<br />
family, community, and society. <strong>Health</strong>care<br />
impacts and costs of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
are significantly <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g all over the<br />
world. Fall-<strong>in</strong>curred costs are categorized<br />
<strong>in</strong>to two aspects:<br />
Direct costs encompass health care costs<br />
such as medicati<strong>on</strong>s and adequate services<br />
e.g. health-care-provider c<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
treatment and rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Indirect costs are societal productivity<br />
losses of activities <strong>in</strong> which <strong>in</strong>dividuals or<br />
family care givers would have <strong>in</strong>volved if<br />
he/she had not susta<strong>in</strong> fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries<br />
e.g. lost <strong>in</strong>come.<br />
This secti<strong>on</strong> briefly shows an overview of<br />
health service impacts and costs of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
some developed countries. This is due to<br />
the lack of data <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries.<br />
a) Direct health system costs<br />
The average health system cost per <strong>on</strong>e fall<br />
<strong>in</strong>jury episode for people 65 year and <strong>older</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land and Australia was US$ 3611 (orig<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
AUS$ 6500 <strong>in</strong> 2001-2002) and US$ 1049<br />
(orig<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong> €944 <strong>in</strong> 1999) respectively (23,<br />
40).<br />
PAGE 6
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Am<strong>on</strong>g different cost items, hospital<br />
<strong>in</strong>patient services cost is the greatest cost,<br />
account<strong>in</strong>g for about 50% of total cost of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> (19, 22, 23). The cost of hospital <strong>in</strong>patient<br />
services <strong>in</strong>cludes the emergency and<br />
general hold<strong>in</strong>g ward cost, of those admitted<br />
to either the general hold<strong>in</strong>g ward or to<br />
hospital. The sec<strong>on</strong>d highest is the l<strong>on</strong>gterm<br />
care costs, c<strong>on</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g to 9.4% to 41%<br />
of all health system costs (23, 25).<br />
The average cost of hospitalizati<strong>on</strong> for fall related<br />
<strong>in</strong>jury for people 65 year and <strong>older</strong> range<br />
from US$ 6646 <strong>in</strong> Ireland to US$ 17 483 <strong>in</strong> the<br />
USA (22, 41). This cost are projected to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
to US$ 240 billi<strong>on</strong> by year 2040 (42).<br />
Where the cost of a visit to an emergency<br />
department varies widely across countries,<br />
rang<strong>in</strong>g from US$ 236 <strong>in</strong> the USA (based<br />
<strong>on</strong> data collected <strong>in</strong> 1998) (22) to US$ 2472<br />
<strong>in</strong> Western Australia (based <strong>on</strong> data collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2001-2002) (23).<br />
b) Indirect costs<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to the substantial direct costs<br />
outl<strong>in</strong>ed above, <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong>cur <strong>in</strong>direct costs that<br />
are critical to family e.g. the loss of productivity<br />
of family caregivers. The average lost<br />
earn<strong>in</strong>gs could approximate US$ 40 000 per<br />
annum <strong>in</strong> the United K<strong>in</strong>gdom (25). Even<br />
when family caregivers are more morally<br />
and culturally accepted, <strong>falls</strong> rema<strong>in</strong> a significant<br />
burden to household ec<strong>on</strong>omy.<br />
7. References<br />
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36. Kannus P et al. (2007). Alarm<strong>in</strong>g rise <strong>in</strong> the<br />
number and <strong>in</strong>cidence of fall-<strong>in</strong>duced cervical<br />
sp<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> adults. Journal of<br />
Ger<strong>on</strong>tology: Biological Sciences and Medical<br />
Sciences, 62(2):180-183.<br />
37. Kalache A, Keller I (2000). The grey<strong>in</strong>g world: a<br />
challenge for the 21st century. Science Progress,<br />
83(1):33-54.<br />
38. Peel NM, McClure RJ, Hendrikz JK (2006).<br />
<strong>Health</strong>-protective behaviours and risk of<br />
fall-related hip fractures: a populati<strong>on</strong>-based<br />
case-c<strong>on</strong>trol study. doi: 10.1093/age<strong>in</strong>g/afl056.<br />
<strong>Age</strong> <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g, 35(5):491-497.<br />
39. American Geriatrics Society, British<br />
Geriatrics Society, and American Academy<br />
of Orthopaedic Surge<strong>on</strong>s Panel <strong>on</strong> Falls<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> (2001). Guidel<strong>in</strong>e for the preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. Journal of the<br />
American Geriatrics Society, 49(5):664-672.<br />
40. Nurmi I., Luthje P (2002). Incidence and<br />
costs of <strong>falls</strong> and fall <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g elderly<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al care. Scand<strong>in</strong>avian Journal of<br />
Primary <strong>Health</strong> Care, 20(2):118-122.<br />
41. Carey D, Laffoy M (2005). Hospitalisati<strong>on</strong>s due<br />
to <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. Irish Medical Journal,<br />
98(6):179-181.<br />
42. Cumm<strong>in</strong>gs SR, Rub<strong>in</strong> SM, Black D (1990).<br />
The future of hip fractures <strong>in</strong> the United<br />
States. Numbers, costs, and potential effects<br />
of postmenopausal estrogen. Cl<strong>in</strong>ical<br />
Orthopaedics and Related Research,<br />
(252):163-166.<br />
PAGE 9
Chapter II. Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g: a framework for the global<br />
strategy for the preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
The WHO's Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g policy offers a<br />
coherent framework <strong>on</strong> which to develop a<br />
strategy for the preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong><br />
age worldwide.<br />
a) What is 'Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g'?<br />
Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g is the process of optimiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
opportunities for health, participati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
security <strong>in</strong> order to enhance quality of life<br />
as people age.<br />
Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g depends <strong>on</strong> a variety of<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluences or determ<strong>in</strong>ants that surround<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals, families and communities as<br />
expressed <strong>in</strong> Figure 1 below. They <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
gender and culture, which are cross-cutt<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and six additi<strong>on</strong>al groups of complementary<br />
and <strong>in</strong>terrelated determ<strong>in</strong>ants:<br />
1. access to health and social services,<br />
2. behavioural,<br />
3. physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment,<br />
4. pers<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
5. social, and<br />
6. ec<strong>on</strong>omic.<br />
Figure 4. The determ<strong>in</strong>ants of Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Gender<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
<strong>Health</strong> and<br />
social services<br />
Social<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
Physical<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Active<br />
<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Culture<br />
Behavioural<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
Source: Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g: A Policy Framework, WHO, 2002 (http://www.who.<strong>in</strong>t/age<strong>in</strong>g/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/active/en/<strong>in</strong>dex.html)<br />
PAGE 10
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Figure 2. Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g functi<strong>on</strong>al capacity over the life course<br />
Early life<br />
Growth and<br />
development<br />
Adult life<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g highest<br />
possible level of functi<strong>on</strong><br />
Older age<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
andprevent<strong>in</strong>g disability<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al capacity<br />
Disability threshold*<br />
Range of functi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
Rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> and ensur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the quality of life<br />
<strong>Age</strong><br />
Source: Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g: A Policy Framework, WHO, 2002<br />
Source: Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g: A Policy Framework, WHO, 2002<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, there are the underly<strong>in</strong>g 'biological'<br />
factors which can play a significant<br />
role as prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividuals from <strong>falls</strong><br />
and c<strong>on</strong>sequent <strong>in</strong>juries or, c<strong>on</strong>versely, can<br />
act as risk factors. All of these determ<strong>in</strong>ants,<br />
and the <strong>in</strong>terplay between them, play<br />
an important role <strong>in</strong> affect<strong>in</strong>g how high or<br />
low is the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g and/or if a fall occurs,<br />
the risk of susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g serious <strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
These determ<strong>in</strong>ants have to be understood<br />
from a life course perspective which recognizes<br />
that <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s are not a homogeneous<br />
group and that <strong>in</strong>dividual diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases with age. This is expressed<br />
<strong>in</strong> Figure 2 (next page), which illustrates<br />
that functi<strong>on</strong>al capacity (such as muscular<br />
strength and cardiovascular output)<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> childhood to peak <strong>in</strong> early<br />
adulthood and eventually decl<strong>in</strong>e. The rate<br />
of decl<strong>in</strong>e is largely determ<strong>in</strong>ed by factors<br />
related to lifestyle behaviours, as well as external<br />
social, envir<strong>on</strong>mental and ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
factors. From an <strong>in</strong>dividual and societal<br />
perspective, it is important to remember<br />
that the speed of decl<strong>in</strong>e can be <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
and may be reversible at any age through<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual and public policy measures, such<br />
as promot<strong>in</strong>g an age-friendly liv<strong>in</strong>g envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
An example of particular importance<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>text of <strong>falls</strong>, relates to<br />
b<strong>on</strong>e mass. Good nutriti<strong>on</strong> and optimum<br />
levels of physical activity throughout childhood<br />
and adolescence are critical for the<br />
development of healthy b<strong>on</strong>es. As <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
age they experience a gradual decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />
b<strong>on</strong>e mass. Once aga<strong>in</strong>, healthy life styles<br />
can slow down the process. For post menopausal<br />
women <strong>in</strong> particular, such life styles<br />
PAGE 11
are crucially important to counterbalance<br />
the horm<strong>on</strong>al factors that can precipitate<br />
the <strong>on</strong>set of osteoporosis. For some sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> through drug-therapy<br />
becomes an <strong>in</strong>dispensable form of <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
for avoid<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>on</strong>e fractures as a c<strong>on</strong>sequence<br />
of even relatively m<strong>in</strong>or traumas.<br />
Active age<strong>in</strong>g is a lifel<strong>on</strong>g process. Thus,<br />
age-friendly envir<strong>on</strong>ments with barrierfree<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs and streets, adequate public<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> and accessible sources of<br />
<strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> and communicati<strong>on</strong> enhance<br />
the mobility and <strong>in</strong>dependence of younger<br />
as well as <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s who present the<br />
risk of develop<strong>in</strong>g disabilities. Secure<br />
neighbourhoods allow children, younger<br />
women and <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s to venture outside<br />
<strong>in</strong> c<strong>on</strong>fidence to participate <strong>in</strong> physically<br />
active leisure and <strong>in</strong> social activities –<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g to prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> at all ages,<br />
particularly at old age. The operative word<br />
<strong>in</strong> a society committed to active age<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
enablement – for <strong>in</strong>stance through <strong>in</strong>itiatives<br />
such as:<br />
• Drop off and pick up bays close to build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and transport stops are provided for<br />
handicapped and <strong>older</strong> people.<br />
2. References<br />
1. <strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong>. Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g –<br />
A Policy Framework. Geneva: <strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong><br />
Organizati<strong>on</strong>, 2002.<br />
• Affordable park<strong>in</strong>g is available.<br />
• Priority park<strong>in</strong>g bays are provided for<br />
<strong>older</strong> people close to build<strong>in</strong>gs and<br />
transport stops.<br />
• Priority park<strong>in</strong>g bays are provided for<br />
people with disabilities close to build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and transport stops, the use of which are<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itored.<br />
PAGE 12
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Chapter III. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants of Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g as they<br />
relate to <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Approach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
framework of the determ<strong>in</strong>ants of Active<br />
<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g help us to develop effective <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and policies. The follow<strong>in</strong>g secti<strong>on</strong><br />
summarizes what is known about how the<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants of Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g affect <strong>falls</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
1. Cross-cutt<strong>in</strong>g determ<strong>in</strong>ants:<br />
culture and gender<br />
a) Culture<br />
Cultural values and traditi<strong>on</strong>s determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
to a large extent how a given society views<br />
<strong>older</strong> people and <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
Culturally driven expectati<strong>on</strong>s affect how<br />
people view <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong><br />
age. In some cultures, social participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age is not seen as a virtue: the<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong> is that old people are meant “to<br />
rest”. In practice, this results <strong>in</strong> some <strong>older</strong><br />
people adopt<strong>in</strong>g sedentary life often <strong>in</strong><br />
isolati<strong>on</strong> due to the resignati<strong>on</strong> from social,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic and cultural participati<strong>on</strong>, with<br />
a result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Furthermore, <strong>in</strong> many societies, <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> age are perceived as "an <strong>in</strong>evitable<br />
natural part of age<strong>in</strong>g" or "unavoidable<br />
accidents". All these c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> not to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a matter<br />
of priority <strong>on</strong> governmental agendas -<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g to a loss of f<strong>in</strong>ancial provisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
required to develop surveillance systems,<br />
appropriate <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s and cl<strong>in</strong>ical<br />
diagnostic techniques, as well as treatment<br />
regimens for <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
Cultural preferences are also reflected <strong>in</strong><br />
the design of public and private spaces<br />
– such as sh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g floors and steps or<br />
staircases without appropriate rail<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Culture also c<strong>on</strong>tributes to the stigma of<br />
request<strong>in</strong>g help where that is needed or<br />
even unavoidable – for <strong>in</strong>stance, where<br />
negotiat<strong>in</strong>g architect<strong>on</strong>ic barriers that<br />
should not be there <strong>in</strong> the first place<br />
but, if they are, ask<strong>in</strong>g for help should<br />
come naturally rather than a reas<strong>on</strong> for<br />
embarrassment.<br />
b) Gender<br />
While <strong>falls</strong> are more comm<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
women than men fall-related mortality<br />
is higher am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> men. Policies and<br />
programmes <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> need to<br />
reflect a gender perspective.<br />
As is outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Chapter 1, women are<br />
more likely than men to fall and susta<strong>in</strong><br />
fracture (1), result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> twice more hospitalizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
and emergency department<br />
visits than men (2). However, fall-related<br />
mortality disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately affects men.<br />
The difference <strong>in</strong> <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age may stem<br />
from the gender-related factors, such as<br />
women be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to make greater use<br />
of multiple medicati<strong>on</strong>s and liv<strong>in</strong>g al<strong>on</strong>e<br />
(3). In additi<strong>on</strong>, biological difference also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributes to greater risk, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
PAGE 13
women's muscle mass decl<strong>in</strong>es faster than<br />
that of men, especially <strong>in</strong> the immediate<br />
few years after menopause. To some extent<br />
this is gender-related as women are less<br />
likely to engage <strong>in</strong>to the practice of muscular<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g physical activity though the life<br />
course e.g. sports.<br />
<strong>Health</strong> seek<strong>in</strong>g behaviour differs accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to gender. Culturally-oriented expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to gender roles affect behaviour when seek<strong>in</strong>g<br />
medical care. Male higher fatality rates<br />
may be due <strong>in</strong> part to the tendency of men<br />
not seek<strong>in</strong>g medical care until a c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
becomes severe, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> substantial<br />
delay to the access to preventi<strong>on</strong> and management<br />
of diseases. Further, men are more<br />
likely to be engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tense and dangerous<br />
physical activity and risky behaviours<br />
– such as climb<strong>in</strong>g high ladders, clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
roofs or ignor<strong>in</strong>g the limits of their physical<br />
capacity.<br />
Various policy opti<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies for men and women based <strong>on</strong><br />
gender differences <strong>in</strong> locati<strong>on</strong>s, circumstances<br />
and events preced<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> and fallrelated<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries are needed.<br />
2. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to health<br />
and social services<br />
<strong>Health</strong> and social services providers are by and<br />
large unprepared to prevent and manage <strong>falls</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
Falls <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age has been a neglected<br />
public health problem <strong>in</strong> many societies,<br />
particularly <strong>in</strong> the develop<strong>in</strong>g world. Many<br />
health and social services providers are<br />
unprepared to prevent and manage <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> age as they lack sufficient knowledge<br />
to treat the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s that predispose their<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences and complicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Falls <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age are often iatrogenic<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s – that is, <strong>in</strong>duced by <strong>in</strong>correct<br />
diagnoses and treatments. Examples <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
over-prescripti<strong>on</strong> of medicati<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
cause side effects and <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the drugs, <strong>in</strong>adequate dosage and lack of<br />
warn<strong>in</strong>g to make <strong>older</strong> people aware about<br />
their effects.<br />
Appropriate tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programmes cover<strong>in</strong>g<br />
knowledge and skills <strong>in</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
and management should be a priority <strong>in</strong><br />
primary heath care (PHC) sett<strong>in</strong>gs, where<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of patients are <strong>older</strong><br />
people. PHC practiti<strong>on</strong>ers should be well<br />
versed <strong>in</strong> the diagnosis and management of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
social services that ensure the accessibility<br />
of <strong>older</strong> people to <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes<br />
are critical.<br />
PAGE 14
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
3. Behavioural determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
a) Physical activity<br />
Regular participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> moderate physical<br />
activity is <strong>in</strong>tegral to good health and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence, c<strong>on</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g to lower<strong>in</strong>g risk<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
Regular participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> moderate physical<br />
activity is <strong>in</strong>tegral to good health and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependence. It prevents<br />
<strong>on</strong>set of multiple pathologies and functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
capacity decl<strong>in</strong>e. Moderate physical<br />
activities and exercise also lowers risk<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong><br />
age through c<strong>on</strong>troll<strong>in</strong>g weight as well as<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribut<strong>in</strong>g to healthy b<strong>on</strong>es, muscles, and<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>ts (4). Exercise can improve balance,<br />
mobility and reacti<strong>on</strong> time. It can <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
b<strong>on</strong>e m<strong>in</strong>eral density of postmenopausal<br />
women and <strong>in</strong>dividuals aged 70 years and<br />
over (5).<br />
Moreover, it should be noticed that participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> vigorous physical activities – for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance <strong>in</strong>tensive runn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
may <strong>in</strong>crease the risk of <strong>falls</strong>. Promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
appropriate physical activities or exercises<br />
to improve strength, balance, and flexibility<br />
is <strong>on</strong>e of the most feasible and cost-effective<br />
strategies to prevent <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
adults <strong>in</strong> the community. Activities such as<br />
outdoor walk<strong>in</strong>g or mall walk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>doors<br />
is the most feasible and accessible way of<br />
exercis<strong>in</strong>g that improves strength, balance<br />
and flexibility lead<strong>in</strong>g to a reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the<br />
risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g. Other k<strong>in</strong>d of effective physical<br />
activities and exercises are menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong> Chapter 5.<br />
b) <strong>Health</strong>y eat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Eat<strong>in</strong>g a balanced diet rich <strong>in</strong> calcium may<br />
decrease the risk <strong>in</strong>juries result<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> people.<br />
Eat<strong>in</strong>g a healthy balanced diet is central to<br />
healthy age<strong>in</strong>g. Adequate <strong>in</strong>take of prote<strong>in</strong>,<br />
calcium, essential vitam<strong>in</strong>s and water are<br />
essential for optimum health. If deficiencies<br />
do exist, it is reas<strong>on</strong>able to expect that<br />
weakness, poor fall recovery and <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
risk of <strong>in</strong>juries will ensure. Grow<strong>in</strong>g evidence<br />
supports dietary calcium and vitam<strong>in</strong><br />
D <strong>in</strong>take improves b<strong>on</strong>e mass am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s with low b<strong>on</strong>e density and that it<br />
reduces the risk of osteoporosis and fall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(6). No dairy and fish c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> were associated<br />
with a higher risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g. Older<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s with low dietary <strong>in</strong>take of calcium<br />
and vitam<strong>in</strong> D may be at risk for <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
therefore fractures result<strong>in</strong>g from them (7).<br />
Use of excessive alcohol has been shown to<br />
be a risk factor of <strong>falls</strong>. C<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of 14<br />
or more dr<strong>in</strong>ks per week is associated with<br />
an <strong>in</strong>creased risk of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> adults (7).<br />
PAGE 15
c) Use of medic<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Older people tend to take more drugs than<br />
younger people. Also as people age, they<br />
develop altered mechanisms for absorb<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and metaboliz<strong>in</strong>g drugs. If <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
d<strong>on</strong>'t take medicati<strong>on</strong>s as directed by health<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als, their risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />
affected <strong>in</strong> several ways. Effects of unc<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
medical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and of medicati<strong>on</strong><br />
because of n<strong>on</strong>-adherence can provoke<br />
or generate alter<strong>in</strong>g alertness, judgement,<br />
and coord<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>; dizz<strong>in</strong>ess; alter<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
balance mechanism and the ability to<br />
recognize and adapt to obstacles; and <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
stiffness or weakness (7).<br />
When prescrib<strong>in</strong>g new drugs to these <strong>older</strong><br />
patients health professi<strong>on</strong>als should fully<br />
ascerta<strong>in</strong> other drugs be<strong>in</strong>g taken, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
self-prescribed medic<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
d) Risk-tak<strong>in</strong>g behaviours<br />
The ord<strong>in</strong>ary choices people make and the<br />
acti<strong>on</strong>s they take may <strong>in</strong>crease their chance of<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Some risk-tak<strong>in</strong>g behaviours <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />
risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age. Those behaviours<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude climb<strong>in</strong>g ladders, stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong><br />
unsteady chairs or bend<strong>in</strong>g while perform<strong>in</strong>g<br />
activities of daily liv<strong>in</strong>g, rush<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
little attenti<strong>on</strong> to the envir<strong>on</strong>ment or not<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g mobility devices prescribed to them<br />
such as a cane or walker (8).<br />
Wear<strong>in</strong>g poor fitt<strong>in</strong>g shoes is also a risk<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g behaviour. Walk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> socks without<br />
shoes or <strong>in</strong> slippers without a sole <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
the risk of slipp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>door. Appropriate<br />
shoes are particularly important – avoid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
high heels, th<strong>in</strong> and hard soles, or slippers<br />
of unsuitable size and that do not stick<br />
closely to the feet.<br />
4. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
factors<br />
a) Attitudes<br />
People's attitudes <strong>in</strong>fluence their behaviours.<br />
Attitudes affect how people <strong>in</strong>terpret and cope<br />
with <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
Older people's attitudes greatly <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
whether they will avoid fall-related risktak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
behaviours when they participate<br />
<strong>in</strong> activities of daily liv<strong>in</strong>g. If <strong>older</strong> people<br />
perceive <strong>falls</strong> as a normal c<strong>on</strong>sequence of<br />
age<strong>in</strong>g expressed as "seniors will always<br />
fall" their attitudes may halt preventive<br />
measures.<br />
Attitudes of policy-makers determ<strong>in</strong>e to<br />
a large extent the amount of resources<br />
allocated to <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and development<br />
and enforcement of related policies.<br />
Awareness and attitudes of health professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
to <strong>falls</strong> are essential to <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong>centive<br />
<strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g appropriate services for<br />
prevent<strong>in</strong>g and manag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
PAGE 16
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Professi<strong>on</strong>als who design public transportati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as buses and subway systems,<br />
often do not make them age-friendly,<br />
neglect<strong>in</strong>g the risk of <strong>falls</strong> for <strong>older</strong> people.<br />
For example, <strong>in</strong> some develop<strong>in</strong>g countries,<br />
buses are designed with not enough<br />
seats and rails and the steps to climb <strong>in</strong>to<br />
them are too high. As a c<strong>on</strong>sequence, <strong>older</strong><br />
people <strong>in</strong>cur the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g because they<br />
have to stand or do not have the strength<br />
to climb <strong>in</strong>to the buses <strong>in</strong> the first place<br />
and cannot properly hold <strong>on</strong> for support.<br />
Moreover, the steps <strong>on</strong> the public buses<br />
are often too high to <strong>older</strong> people and they<br />
might fall when gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the bus.<br />
b) Fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g is frequently <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. Older people are usually under<br />
the fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>, be<strong>in</strong>g hurt or<br />
hospitalized, not be<strong>in</strong>g able to get up after<br />
a fall, social embarrassment, loss of <strong>in</strong>dependence,<br />
and hav<strong>in</strong>g to move from their<br />
homes. Fear can positively motivate some<br />
seniors to take precauti<strong>on</strong>s aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
can lead to gait adaptati<strong>on</strong>s that <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
stability. For others, fear can lead to a decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong> overall quality of life and <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
the risk of <strong>falls</strong> through a reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> the<br />
activities needed to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> self-esteem,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence, strength and balance. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
fear can lead to maladaptive changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> balance c<strong>on</strong>trol that may <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />
risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g. People who are fearful of<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g also tend to lack c<strong>on</strong>fidence <strong>in</strong> their<br />
ability to prevent or manage <strong>falls</strong>, which<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong> (7).<br />
c) Cop<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>falls</strong><br />
The ability of cop<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>falls</strong> of both <strong>older</strong><br />
people and health professi<strong>on</strong>als can lower<br />
the risk and c<strong>on</strong>sequences of fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Falls are particularly difficult to manage <strong>in</strong><br />
PHC sett<strong>in</strong>gs because health professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
lack enough knowledge and skills. Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cop<strong>in</strong>g skills of health professi<strong>on</strong>als to prevent<br />
and manage <strong>falls</strong> needs to be emphasized.<br />
For example, health professi<strong>on</strong>als are<br />
recommended to teach patients at risk of<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g how to get up from the floor; unfortunately<br />
cl<strong>in</strong>ical experience suggests that<br />
this is rarely d<strong>on</strong>e (9).<br />
Physical and mental management of <strong>falls</strong><br />
by <strong>older</strong> people and their family members<br />
is also important. Therefore, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
people at high risk to avoid fall<strong>in</strong>g needs to<br />
be encouraged.<br />
d) Ethnicity and race<br />
Although the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
ethnicity and race rema<strong>in</strong>s widely open for<br />
research, Caucasians liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the USA have<br />
higher risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g. In additi<strong>on</strong>, for both<br />
men and women, the rate of hospitalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
for fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries is some two to<br />
four times higher am<strong>on</strong>g the Whites than<br />
Hispanics and Asians/Pacific Islanders, and<br />
about 20% higher than African-Americans<br />
(10). It is also clear differences observed<br />
between S<strong>in</strong>gaporeans of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, Malay<br />
and Indian ethnic orig<strong>in</strong>s, and between<br />
native Japanese <strong>older</strong> community dwellers<br />
and Japanese-Americans and Caucasians.<br />
Native Japanese people have much lower<br />
rates of <strong>falls</strong> than Japanese-Americans and<br />
Caucasians.<br />
PAGE 17
5. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to the<br />
physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Factors related to the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment are<br />
the most comm<strong>on</strong> cause of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
Physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment plays a significant<br />
role <strong>in</strong> many <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age. Factors<br />
related to the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment are the<br />
most comm<strong>on</strong> cause of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people,<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for between 30 to 50% of them<br />
(11). A number of hazards <strong>in</strong> the home and<br />
public envir<strong>on</strong>ment that <strong>in</strong>teract with other<br />
risk factors, such as poor visi<strong>on</strong> or balance,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
For example, stairs can be problematic –<br />
studies show that unsafe features of stairs<br />
can be frequently identified <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
uneven or excessively high or narrow steps,<br />
slippery surfaces, unmarked edges, disc<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
or poorly-fitted handrails, and<br />
<strong>in</strong>adequate or excessive light<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce approximately half of <strong>falls</strong> occurs<br />
<strong>in</strong>door, the home envir<strong>on</strong>ment is critical<br />
for avoid<strong>in</strong>g them. A high particular risk<br />
to <strong>falls</strong> was found <strong>in</strong> homes with irregular<br />
sidewalks to the residence, loose carpets <strong>on</strong><br />
the kitchen and bathroom floors, loose electrical<br />
wires, and <strong>in</strong>c<strong>on</strong>venient doorsteps.<br />
Poor surround<strong>in</strong>gs around home such as<br />
garden paths and walks that are cracked or<br />
slippery from ra<strong>in</strong>, snow or moss are also<br />
dangerous. Entrance stairs and poor night<br />
light<strong>in</strong>g can also pose risks.<br />
Factors related to the public envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
are also frequent causes of fall <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age.<br />
Even walk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> a familiar route can lead<br />
to <strong>falls</strong> as a c<strong>on</strong>sequence of poor build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
design and <strong>in</strong>adequate c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>. Most<br />
problematic factors are cracked or uneven<br />
sidewalks, unmarked obstacles, slippery<br />
surfaces, poor light<strong>in</strong>g and lengthy distances<br />
to sitt<strong>in</strong>g areas and public restrooms.<br />
6. Determ<strong>in</strong>ants related to the social<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
Social c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> and <strong>in</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> are vital to<br />
health <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age. Social <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong> is <strong>in</strong>versely<br />
related to the risk of <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Isolati<strong>on</strong> and l<strong>on</strong>el<strong>in</strong>ess are comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
experiences by <strong>older</strong> people particularly<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g those who lose their spouse or live<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e. They are much more likely than<br />
other groups to experience disability and<br />
the physical, cognitive, and sensory limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that <strong>in</strong>crease the risk of <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Isolati<strong>on</strong> and depressi<strong>on</strong> triggered by lack<br />
of social participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and vice versa. Fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g can <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
the risk of <strong>falls</strong> through a reducti<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> social participati<strong>on</strong> and loss of pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tact - which <strong>in</strong> turn <strong>in</strong>crease isolati<strong>on</strong><br />
and depressi<strong>on</strong>. Provid<strong>in</strong>g social support<br />
and opportunities for <strong>older</strong> people to participate<br />
<strong>in</strong> social activities to help ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
active <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong> with others may decrease<br />
their risk of <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
PAGE 18
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
7. Ec<strong>on</strong>omic determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
Older people with lower ec<strong>on</strong>omic status,<br />
especially those who are female, live al<strong>on</strong>e or <strong>in</strong><br />
rural areas face an <strong>in</strong>creased risk of <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Studies have shown that there is a relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between socioec<strong>on</strong>omic status<br />
and <strong>falls</strong>. Lower <strong>in</strong>come is associated with<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g (12). Older people,<br />
especially those who are female, live al<strong>on</strong>e<br />
or <strong>in</strong> rural areas with unreliable and <strong>in</strong>sufficient<br />
<strong>in</strong>comes face an <strong>in</strong>creased risk of <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Poor envir<strong>on</strong>ment <strong>in</strong> which they live, their<br />
poor diet and the fact of not be<strong>in</strong>g able to<br />
access health care services even when they<br />
have acute or chr<strong>on</strong>ic illness exacerbates<br />
the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The negative cycle of poverty and <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> age is particularly evident <strong>in</strong> rural<br />
areas and <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries. The fallrelated<br />
burden to health system will keep<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g unless resources and m<strong>on</strong>ey are<br />
allocated <strong>in</strong> order to provide proper PHC<br />
and opportunities to <strong>older</strong> people for social<br />
participati<strong>on</strong>. It is never too late to break<br />
this vicious cycle.<br />
8. References<br />
1. Stevens JA et al. (2006). The costs of fatal<br />
and n<strong>on</strong>-fatal <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> adults. Injury<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong>, 12(5):290-295.<br />
2. Hendrie D et al. (2003). Injury <strong>in</strong> Western<br />
Australia: The <strong>Health</strong> System Cost of Falls<br />
<strong>in</strong> Older Adults <strong>in</strong> Western Australia. Perth,<br />
Western Australia. Western Australian<br />
Government.<br />
3. Ebrahim S, Kalache A (1996). Epidemiology <strong>in</strong><br />
Old <strong>Age</strong>. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>, Blackwell BMJ Books.<br />
4. Gardner MM, Roberts<strong>on</strong> MG, Campbell AJ<br />
(2000). Exercise <strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> and fall<br />
related <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people: A review of<br />
randomised c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials. British Journal of<br />
Sports Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 34:7-17.<br />
5. Day M et al. (2002). Randomised factorial<br />
trial of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> people<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> their own homes. BMJ, doi:10.1136/<br />
bmj.325.7356.128.<br />
6. Tuck SP, Francis RM (2002). Osteoporosis.<br />
Postgraduate Medical Journal, 78:526-532.<br />
7. Divisi<strong>on</strong> of Ag<strong>in</strong>g and Seniors (2005). Report<br />
<strong>on</strong> senior's fall <strong>in</strong> Canada. Ontario. Public<br />
<strong>Health</strong> <strong>Age</strong>ncy of Canada.<br />
8. Gallagher EH, Brunt H (1996). Head over<br />
heels: A cl<strong>in</strong>ical trial to reduce <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
elderly. Canadian Journal <strong>on</strong> Ag<strong>in</strong>g, 15:84-96.<br />
9. Simps<strong>on</strong> JM, Salk<strong>in</strong> S (1993). Are elderly<br />
people at risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g taught how to get up<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>? <strong>Age</strong> <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g, 22: 294-296.<br />
10. Ellis AA, Trent RB (2001). Hospitalized<br />
fall <strong>in</strong>juries and race <strong>in</strong> California. Injury<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong>, 7:316-320.<br />
11. Rubenste<strong>in</strong> LZ (2006). Falls <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people:<br />
epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>. <strong>Age</strong> and <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g, 35-S2:ii37-ii41.<br />
12. Reyes CA et al. (2004). Risk factors for fall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> Mexican Americans. Ethnicity &<br />
Disease, 14:417-422.<br />
PAGE 19
Chapter IV. Challenges for preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> age<br />
1. Chang<strong>in</strong>g behaviour to prevent<br />
<strong>falls</strong><br />
The background papers that underlie this<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> refer to a c<strong>on</strong>siderable body of<br />
evidence <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the effectiveness of a<br />
number of <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These <strong>in</strong>clude strength and balance<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, envir<strong>on</strong>mental modificati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
medical care aimed at remov<strong>in</strong>g or reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
specific risk factors by for example<br />
review of medicati<strong>on</strong>s and reducti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
polypharmacy. The systematic reviews,<br />
evidence syntheses and meta-analyses are<br />
well referenced <strong>in</strong> the brief<strong>in</strong>g papers to be<br />
found at the follow<strong>in</strong>g WHO URL:<br />
http://www.who.<strong>in</strong>t/age<strong>in</strong>g/projects/<strong>falls</strong>_<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>_<strong>older</strong>_age/en/<strong>in</strong>dex.html<br />
Crucial to the success of such <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
is chang<strong>in</strong>g the beliefs, attitudes and behaviour<br />
of <strong>older</strong> people themselves, the health<br />
and social care professi<strong>on</strong>als who provide<br />
services, and the wider communities <strong>in</strong><br />
which <strong>older</strong> people live. For example, a<br />
fifteen-week balance and exercise class will<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly have an effect if the <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> goes<br />
to the sessi<strong>on</strong>s, undertakes the exercises as<br />
prescribed, and c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ues to practice after<br />
completi<strong>on</strong> of the course. People will <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
change their lifestyles if:<br />
• it is with<strong>in</strong> their ability to do so;<br />
• they have the resources to implement<br />
change (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g physical, psychological<br />
and social capital resources);<br />
• the changes are perceived as be<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
benefit to them; and<br />
• the benefit outweighs the cost or effort<br />
<strong>in</strong> overcom<strong>in</strong>g barriers.<br />
For example, the <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> may care for<br />
grandchildren, and thus us<strong>in</strong>g time to do<br />
exercises to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> or improve physical<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> may appear <strong>in</strong> the immediate term<br />
a poor use of time or impossible if it c<strong>on</strong>flicts<br />
with childcare resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities. Thus,<br />
the programme will need to be tailored to<br />
fit with these resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities, or the pers<strong>on</strong><br />
must be persuaded that a l<strong>on</strong>g-term ga<strong>in</strong><br />
(ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependence and see<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the grandchildren grow up) outweighs the<br />
short-term 'pa<strong>in</strong>'. Most importantly, the<br />
society <strong>in</strong> which <strong>older</strong> people live must<br />
value them and be will<strong>in</strong>g to allocate resources<br />
to the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of their health<br />
and well-be<strong>in</strong>g. Expressi<strong>on</strong> of valu<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
people must <strong>in</strong>clude allocati<strong>on</strong> of adequate<br />
resources towards help<strong>in</strong>g people to age<br />
well and take part <strong>in</strong> activities that have the<br />
potential to prevent <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
PAGE 20
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
This chapter is based heavily <strong>on</strong> a series<br />
of recommendati<strong>on</strong>s made by the<br />
Psychological Aspects of Fall<strong>in</strong>g Group<br />
(1, 2), Work Package 4 of the Preventi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Falls Network Europe (ProFaNE) and fuller<br />
evidence for the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s has<br />
been published (1, 2). These recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
should be sufficiently general to be<br />
applicable to populati<strong>on</strong>s other than the<br />
European populati<strong>on</strong> for which they were<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ally developed.<br />
a) Raise awareness <strong>in</strong> the general populati<strong>on</strong><br />
of a number of <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that could<br />
improve balance and prevent <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
To make choices people need to have at<br />
least basic <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> about benefits of<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g part <strong>in</strong> activities aimed at preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
But <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> al<strong>on</strong>e is not enough,<br />
it needs to be framed so that it promotes<br />
realistic positive beliefs about the possibilities<br />
for preventive acti<strong>on</strong> if any change is<br />
likely to follow. Many <strong>older</strong> people seem<br />
to assume that <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sists of<br />
activity restricti<strong>on</strong> or the use of aids and<br />
home modificati<strong>on</strong>s. Research suggests<br />
that many <strong>older</strong> people are ignorant that<br />
fall risks can be reduced because there is<br />
a fatalistic acceptance of fall<strong>in</strong>g that may<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to low uptake of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Campaigns need to raise general awareness<br />
and should not be aimed <strong>on</strong>ly at <strong>older</strong><br />
people. The op<strong>in</strong>i<strong>on</strong>s of others, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
health professi<strong>on</strong>als and family, <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
<strong>older</strong> people’s decisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
At present, advice from family members<br />
and health professi<strong>on</strong>als tends to emphasize<br />
avoid<strong>in</strong>g risk rather than engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
activities to improve strength and balance<br />
(3-5). Inform<strong>in</strong>g the general populati<strong>on</strong><br />
about the benefits of easy-to-provide<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s such as strength and balance<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities should <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>older</strong><br />
people’s views and counteract fatalistic<br />
views that fall<strong>in</strong>g is a c<strong>on</strong>sequence of age<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(6). Exercise may be generally recognized<br />
as important for ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fitness and<br />
strength, but its importance <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
good balance and functi<strong>on</strong> needs to be better<br />
publicized. It is likely that the approach<br />
will prove effective for both high and<br />
lower-risk populati<strong>on</strong>s (7). Although the<br />
effectiveness of less <strong>in</strong>tensive <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at a populati<strong>on</strong> level is currently unknown<br />
it would seem likely that they will provide<br />
benefit. Exercises that improve strength<br />
and balance should be recommended for all<br />
<strong>older</strong> people (7-9).<br />
Emphasis must be <strong>on</strong> the positive advantages<br />
of undertak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s such as<br />
balance and exercise tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, rather than<br />
<strong>on</strong> reducti<strong>on</strong> of risk of <strong>falls</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce the latter<br />
is generally viewed negatively and of little<br />
relevance by many <strong>older</strong> people. Uptake<br />
may be encouraged by promot<strong>in</strong>g greater<br />
awareness am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> people, their<br />
families and health professi<strong>on</strong>als of how<br />
undertak<strong>in</strong>g specific physical activities may<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute to improv<strong>in</strong>g balance and reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>falls</strong> risk.<br />
PAGE 21
) When offer<strong>in</strong>g or publiciz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
promote benefits that fit with a positive selfidentity.<br />
It seems that many <strong>older</strong> people do not<br />
acknowledge <strong>falls</strong>, for example because of<br />
fear of:<br />
• negative stereotyp<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
• beliefs that <strong>falls</strong> are an <strong>in</strong>evitable and<br />
unavoidable c<strong>on</strong>sequence of age<strong>in</strong>g; and<br />
• embarrassment about loss of c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
Falls preventi<strong>on</strong> advice is often perceived as<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g for other ‘disabled or elderly people’.<br />
Programmes that are perceived to impact<br />
negatively <strong>on</strong> self-image are likely to be<br />
unattractive while those, which are viewed<br />
as improv<strong>in</strong>g skills or characteristics valued<br />
by <strong>older</strong> people, are likely to be more<br />
popular. In <strong>in</strong>terviews <strong>older</strong> people say that<br />
they would participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>falls</strong>-preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives to be proactive <strong>in</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
own health needs, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
and improve c<strong>on</strong>fidence (4, 5). Older people<br />
value strength and balance tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities<br />
for their potential to:<br />
• ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> functi<strong>on</strong>al capabilities and<br />
thus avoid disability and dependence;<br />
• enhance general health, mobility and<br />
appearance; and<br />
• be <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g, enjoyable and sociable (4, 5).<br />
These characteristics are all compatible<br />
with a positive identity and should be encouraged.<br />
Uptake of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
may be enhanced by emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
positive benefits that are likely to accord<br />
with desirable self images for <strong>older</strong> people,<br />
<strong>in</strong> additi<strong>on</strong> to those that reduce fall risks.<br />
Examples of such benefits <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence, greater c<strong>on</strong>fidence, ability to<br />
take an active part <strong>in</strong> society and support<br />
younger generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
c) Utilize a variety of forms of social encouragement<br />
to engage <strong>older</strong> people<br />
Uptake may be encouraged by the use of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vitati<strong>on</strong>s to participate (from<br />
a health professi<strong>on</strong>al or other authority<br />
figures) and positive media images and<br />
peer role models to illustrate the social acceptability,<br />
safety and multiple benefits of<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g part. Uptake and adherence may be<br />
encouraged by <strong>on</strong>go<strong>in</strong>g support from family,<br />
peers, professi<strong>on</strong>als and social organizati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
A wide range of social <strong>in</strong>fluences are<br />
known to impact <strong>on</strong> health-related behaviour,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g encouragement, approval<br />
and social support from health professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
and other sources (10). Role models<br />
should provide examples of successful accomplishment<br />
of health-related goals (11).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cern about social disapproval poses a<br />
barrier to undertak<strong>in</strong>g physical activity,<br />
while social support, positive media images<br />
and real-life examples of ord<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>older</strong><br />
people do<strong>in</strong>g exercise can promote greater<br />
physical activity (12-14).<br />
PAGE 22
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Social factors play a key role <strong>in</strong> people’s decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
whether to participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s (15, 16). In European<br />
countries a pers<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>vitati<strong>on</strong> from a<br />
trusted health professi<strong>on</strong>al is an important<br />
motivati<strong>on</strong> for tak<strong>in</strong>g up an <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and approval and encouragement from<br />
family, friends and health professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong>itial and c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued participati<strong>on</strong><br />
(5). Participati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> group activities<br />
is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by anticipated and actual<br />
positive and negative social c<strong>on</strong>tacts with<br />
members and leaders of the group. A major<br />
barrier is the percepti<strong>on</strong> that <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
is <strong>on</strong>ly for very old and frail people and<br />
not relevant to <strong>on</strong>eself (3-5). Inversely, old<br />
and frail people may see health promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
activities as strenuous and <strong>on</strong>ly suitable for<br />
people who are younger and fitter (6). S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
see<strong>in</strong>g preventi<strong>on</strong> activities as appropriate<br />
for some<strong>on</strong>e like <strong>on</strong>eself is the foremost<br />
predictor of <strong>in</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> to undertake these<br />
activities (3, 17) it may be valuable to use<br />
media pictures and peer role models to<br />
promote a positive social image of strength<br />
and balance tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. The latter is as a suitable<br />
activity for those who are still fit and<br />
active, <strong>in</strong> order to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their mobility<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dependence, while emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
it can still be a safe and effective method of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> for those at higher risk of<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
d) Ensure that the <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> is designed to<br />
meet the needs, preferences and capabilities<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>dividual.<br />
Review of evidence generally suggests that<br />
a tailored pers<strong>on</strong>al approach – even for<br />
group c<strong>on</strong>texts – can greatly improve the<br />
chance of <strong>older</strong> people engag<strong>in</strong>g with and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> programme<br />
(1-2). There is a need to c<strong>on</strong>sider the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual’s lifestyle, values, religious and<br />
cultural beliefs, which may be associated<br />
with ethnicity and gender-specific factors.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental determ<strong>in</strong>ants such as the<br />
wealth of the society <strong>in</strong> which the <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong> lives; their place of residence and<br />
availability and access to services should<br />
also be c<strong>on</strong>templated. Interventi<strong>on</strong>s need<br />
to be presented <strong>in</strong> ways that are tailored to<br />
the cultural preferences of <strong>older</strong> people and<br />
be realistic with<strong>in</strong> the resources available.<br />
Group sessi<strong>on</strong>s with tra<strong>in</strong>ed-balance and<br />
strength-exercise <strong>in</strong>structors for example,<br />
are relatively low-tech affordable <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that should be with<strong>in</strong> the means of<br />
many societies. Although more research is<br />
necessary, there is grow<strong>in</strong>g evidence that<br />
many <strong>older</strong> people may prefer exercises<br />
delivered at home with some professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
guidance (4, 12).<br />
PAGE 23
Cost-effective ways of cater<strong>in</strong>g for these<br />
preferences at a public health level should<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>sidered when develop<strong>in</strong>g a policy.<br />
The evidence-based pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of balance<br />
and strength tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g could be presented as<br />
part of a set of activities that are recognizable<br />
and accepted with<strong>in</strong> specific cultures.<br />
For example, while exercises, which promote<br />
physical strength and balance, may<br />
be presented with<strong>in</strong> T'ai Chi Ch'uan based<br />
practice appropriately <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, a more<br />
suitable presentati<strong>on</strong> of exercises, which<br />
promote physical strength and balance <strong>in</strong><br />
India, may be based <strong>on</strong> yogic practices.<br />
Dance may provide a vehicle for adequate<br />
exercises <strong>in</strong> a number of cultures. How<br />
exercises are best presented will need to<br />
be developed locally and should be tested<br />
before large-scale roll out of a programme<br />
<strong>in</strong> a country.<br />
e) Encourage self-management rather than<br />
dependence <strong>on</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>als by giv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
people an active role.<br />
There is str<strong>on</strong>g theoretical rati<strong>on</strong>ale <strong>in</strong> the<br />
psychology literature generally to suggest<br />
that participati<strong>on</strong> and adherence will be<br />
maximized if the <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> can choose<br />
or modify the <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> (1-2). While<br />
some form of supervisi<strong>on</strong> will be necessary<br />
to ensure safety and appropriate comp<strong>on</strong>ents,<br />
the <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> should be enabled,<br />
wherever possible, to select am<strong>on</strong>g:<br />
f) Draw <strong>on</strong> validated methods for promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and assess<strong>in</strong>g the processes that ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><br />
adherence, especially <strong>in</strong> the l<strong>on</strong>ger term.<br />
These could <strong>in</strong>clude encourag<strong>in</strong>g realistic<br />
positive beliefs, assist<strong>in</strong>g with plann<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of new behaviours, build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
self-c<strong>on</strong>fidence, and provid<strong>in</strong>g practical<br />
support. There is substantial evidence for<br />
a range of techniques for chang<strong>in</strong>g healthrelated<br />
behaviour but it is most effective to<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>e a variety of such approaches (10).<br />
Potentially important <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
• creat<strong>in</strong>g a supportive partnership relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
with the therapy provider (see<br />
recommendati<strong>on</strong>s 3 and 5);<br />
• provid<strong>in</strong>g with good practical support<br />
(access and appropriate supervisi<strong>on</strong>);<br />
• promot<strong>in</strong>g the belief that the <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
is necessary and effective;<br />
• build<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>fidence <strong>in</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g able to<br />
carry out the <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• develop<strong>in</strong>g skills for generat<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g new behaviours (e.g. goalsett<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g, self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<strong>in</strong>g, and<br />
self-reward); and<br />
• tailor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
needs (see recommendati<strong>on</strong> 4).<br />
• different <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
• different formats of the same <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
or<br />
• a range of <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> goals.<br />
PAGE 24
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
2. References<br />
1. Yardley L et al. Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g the engagement of <strong>older</strong> people <strong>in</strong><br />
preventive health care. Manchester, ProFaNE,<br />
Workpackage 4 (http://www.profane.eu.org/<br />
directory/display_resource.php?resource_<br />
id=1121, accessed 27 August 2007).<br />
2. Yardley L et al. (2007). Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g the engagement of <strong>older</strong> people <strong>in</strong><br />
activities to prevent <strong>falls</strong>. Quality and Safety <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Health</strong> Care, 16(3):230-234.<br />
3. Yardley L, Todd C. (2005). Encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
positive attitudes to <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> later life. L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Help the <strong>Age</strong>d.<br />
4. Yardley L et al. (2006). Older people's views<br />
of advice about <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>: a qualitative<br />
study. <strong>Health</strong> Educati<strong>on</strong> Research, 21:508-517.<br />
5. Yardley L et al. (2006). Older people's views of<br />
<strong>falls</strong>-preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> six European<br />
countries. The Ger<strong>on</strong>tologist, 46:650-660.<br />
6. Simps<strong>on</strong> JM, Darw<strong>in</strong> C, Marsh N (2003). What<br />
are <strong>older</strong> people prepared to do to avoid fall<strong>in</strong>g?<br />
A qualitative study <strong>in</strong> L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>. British Journal<br />
of Community Nurs<strong>in</strong>g, 8:152-159.<br />
7. Chang JT et al. (2004). Interventi<strong>on</strong>s for the<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> adults: systematic<br />
review and meta-analysis of randomised<br />
cl<strong>in</strong>ical trials. British Medical Journal,<br />
328:680-683.<br />
8. Kannus P et al. (2005). Preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequent <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong> elderly people. Lancet,<br />
366:1885-1893.<br />
9. Skelt<strong>on</strong> D, Todd C (2004). What are the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
risk factors for <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>older</strong> people<br />
and what are the most effective <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to prevent these <strong>falls</strong>? Copenhagen, WHO<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong>al Office for Europe, <strong>Health</strong> Evidence<br />
Network <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>, (http://www.euro.who.<strong>in</strong>t/<br />
document/E82552.pdf, accessed 27 August<br />
2007).<br />
10. <strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong> (2003). Adherence<br />
to l<strong>on</strong>g-term therapies: evidence for acti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Geneva.<br />
11. Bandura A (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol. New York, WH Freeman.<br />
12. K<strong>in</strong>g AC et al. (2000). Pers<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental factors associated with physical<br />
<strong>in</strong>activity am<strong>on</strong>g different racial-ethnic groups<br />
of US middle-aged and <strong>older</strong>-aged women.<br />
<strong>Health</strong> Psychology, 19:354-364.<br />
13. K<strong>in</strong>g AC, Rejeski WJ, Buchner DM (1998).<br />
Physical activity <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s target<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
adults: A critical review and recommendati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
American Journal of Preventive Medic<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
15:316-333.<br />
14. Ory M et al. (2003). Challeng<strong>in</strong>g ag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stereotypes: strategies for creat<strong>in</strong>g a more<br />
active society. American Journal of Preventive<br />
Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 25:164-171.<br />
15. Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth Department of <strong>Health</strong> and<br />
<strong>Age</strong>d Care (2001). Nati<strong>on</strong>al Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
for Older People Initiative "Step out with<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence". Canberra, Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth of<br />
Australia.<br />
16. McInnes E, Askie L (2004). Evidence review<br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>older</strong> people's views and experiences of <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies. <strong>World</strong>views <strong>on</strong> Evidence-<br />
Based Nurs<strong>in</strong>g, 1:20-37.<br />
17. Yardley L et al. (2007). Attitudes and beliefs<br />
that predict <strong>older</strong> people’s <strong>in</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> to<br />
undertake strength and balance tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Journals of Ger<strong>on</strong>tology Series B, Psychological<br />
Sciences and Social Sciences, 62B:119-125.<br />
PAGE 25
Chapter V. Examples of effective policies and<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
As discussed <strong>in</strong> previous secti<strong>on</strong>s, the<br />
effect of a fall <strong>on</strong> an <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> can be<br />
a devastat<strong>in</strong>g event, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> chr<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>, loss of <strong>in</strong>dependence and a reduced<br />
quality of life. Moreover, the cumulative<br />
effect of <strong>falls</strong> and result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> most countries has the potential<br />
to reach epidemic proporti<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
would c<strong>on</strong>sume a disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate amount<br />
of health care resources. <strong>Health</strong>y public<br />
policies and proven preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies<br />
are needed to provide the <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
and support essential for the <strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong><br />
of fall preventi<strong>on</strong> evidence <strong>in</strong>to practice.<br />
The complex and multifactorial nature of<br />
fall risk am<strong>on</strong>g a rapidly age<strong>in</strong>g and grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> demands a proactive and<br />
systematic approach to preventi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrates policy, preventive measures and<br />
practice.<br />
• Policy should provide the <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
and support essential to a comprehensive<br />
and <strong>in</strong>tegrated approach to <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
• Preventi<strong>on</strong> evidence is needed to support<br />
the effective applicati<strong>on</strong> of proven<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• Practice is where evidence is applied accord<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
to the standards and protocols<br />
set by policy.<br />
1. Policy<br />
To effectively address the grow<strong>in</strong>g problem<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> an age<strong>in</strong>g society, healthy public<br />
policies are needed to provide visi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
set priorities and establish <strong>in</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
standards. Such policies should facilitate<br />
capacity build<strong>in</strong>g unique to each sett<strong>in</strong>g by<br />
support<strong>in</strong>g the generati<strong>on</strong> of new research,<br />
encourag<strong>in</strong>g broad collaborati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
maximiz<strong>in</strong>g availability of resources.<br />
Falls and result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s are public health problems <strong>in</strong><br />
all regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world that are fac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the impact of an age<strong>in</strong>g populati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
good news is that evidence exists to<br />
show that most <strong>falls</strong> are both predicable<br />
and preventable. There are also good<br />
examples to show that this evidence<br />
can be applied to susta<strong>in</strong>able changes<br />
<strong>in</strong> practice when supported by healthy<br />
public policies. Examples of such policies<br />
are more comm<strong>on</strong>ly seen <strong>in</strong> developed<br />
countries where healthy public policies<br />
have established capacity for effective<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> through good leadership,<br />
<strong>in</strong>tersectoral collaborati<strong>on</strong> and educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Moreover, these are the countries that have<br />
first experienced populati<strong>on</strong> age<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
have had the necessary f<strong>in</strong>ancial resources<br />
to implement such policies.<br />
PAGE 26
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
a) Leadership<br />
Government agencies resp<strong>on</strong>sible for health<br />
and social services for <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
well placed to provide leadership by establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a policy-mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frastructure,<br />
collaborat<strong>in</strong>g to set priorities and targets,<br />
and oversee<strong>in</strong>g and support<strong>in</strong>g nati<strong>on</strong>al and<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>al efforts to reduce <strong>falls</strong> and related<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
community-service providers, researchers,<br />
community planners, policy-makers and<br />
many other potential partners for creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> activities.<br />
Strategies for develop<strong>in</strong>g and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
collaborati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude the formati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
focused fall-preventi<strong>on</strong> coaliti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Many recommendati<strong>on</strong>s from the Falls Free<br />
Coaliti<strong>on</strong> Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan are now<br />
Leadership<br />
An example of such leadership is seen <strong>in</strong> Canada, where a turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> policy<br />
development for <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> occurred <strong>in</strong> 1999 when a policy-maker <strong>in</strong> the Prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
of British Columbia (B.C.) M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Health</strong>, set <strong>in</strong> place a collaborative process for<br />
priority sett<strong>in</strong>g to reduce <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>jury rates for the prov<strong>in</strong>ce. The<br />
process <strong>in</strong>volved an analysis of regi<strong>on</strong>al data <strong>on</strong> the scope and nature of the problem<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ed with meet<strong>in</strong>gs of regi<strong>on</strong>al stakeh<strong>older</strong>s to identify priority areas for change.<br />
The f<strong>in</strong>al product was a comprehensive <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> of fall-related morbidity and mortality,<br />
a review of the literature <strong>on</strong> fall-risk factors and proven preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies, and 31<br />
priority recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for policy and preventi<strong>on</strong> (1, 2). The process of mean<strong>in</strong>gful<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement by the stakeh<strong>older</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the formati<strong>on</strong> of these recommendati<strong>on</strong>s was pivotal<br />
to the success of this leadership model. S<strong>in</strong>ce release of this <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>, there has been<br />
substantial growth <strong>in</strong> the number of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes and a significant<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> fall-related deaths and hospitalizati<strong>on</strong>s am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong> B.C. (3).<br />
b) Collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
A good leader will recognize that the most<br />
important collaborators <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g effective<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> policies are those<br />
most directly impacted by the issue – <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s at risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g, those who care<br />
for them, and those who provide services to<br />
<strong>older</strong> adults. This comprehensive approach<br />
serves to <strong>in</strong>clude health-care providers,<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> a recently passed USA Senate<br />
Committee Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Bill, with US$ 8<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> of authorized spend<strong>in</strong>g for fall-risk<br />
screen<strong>in</strong>g and multifactorial preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies (5). Another example us<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
electr<strong>on</strong>ic network for reach<strong>in</strong>g a broad<br />
audience is found <strong>in</strong> Europe.<br />
PAGE 27
Falls Free Coaliti<strong>on</strong><br />
An example of an effective coaliti<strong>on</strong> is the Falls Free Coaliti<strong>on</strong> coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> the USA;<br />
a collective of representatives of nati<strong>on</strong>al organizati<strong>on</strong>s and state coaliti<strong>on</strong>s work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to reduce the grow<strong>in</strong>g number of <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> adults<br />
(17). With support from the Archst<strong>on</strong>e Foundati<strong>on</strong> and Home Safety Council n<strong>on</strong>-profit<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s, members of the Falls Free Coaliti<strong>on</strong> first c<strong>on</strong>vened <strong>in</strong> 2004 to write the Falls<br />
Free Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan (4). The plan outl<strong>in</strong>es key strategies and acti<strong>on</strong> plans for fall<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> to address the follow<strong>in</strong>g five priority areas:<br />
• physical mobility;<br />
• medicati<strong>on</strong>s management;<br />
• home safety;<br />
• envir<strong>on</strong>mental safety <strong>in</strong> the community; and<br />
• cross-cutt<strong>in</strong>g issues, such as advocacy, policy, l<strong>in</strong>ks to health care systems and<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary activities.<br />
More <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> about the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Acti<strong>on</strong> Plan, and the Coaliti<strong>on</strong> and its bim<strong>on</strong>thly<br />
newsletter may be found at www.healthyag<strong>in</strong>gprograms.org.<br />
c) Educati<strong>on</strong><br />
Al<strong>on</strong>g with good leadership and collaborati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> is an essential strategy for<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g the necessary capacity for effective<br />
fall preventi<strong>on</strong> policy and practice. Such<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> is needed by those who:<br />
• are at risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
• provide health and social services to<br />
those at risk; and<br />
• are resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the design and c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
of hous<strong>in</strong>g and public spaces<br />
used by <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
To be effective, educati<strong>on</strong> must be part of<br />
a larger strategy for <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
reflects current evidence, adult learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and <strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of learn<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
practice. An example of an educati<strong>on</strong> programme<br />
that reflects these pr<strong>in</strong>ciples is the<br />
Canadian Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Curriculum.<br />
ProFaNE<br />
The Preventi<strong>on</strong> of Falls Network Europe (ProFaNE) is a European community-funded<br />
thematic network to promote effective practice <strong>in</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(6). With over 1100 website members from over 30 countries, an active discussi<strong>on</strong> board,<br />
and nearly 900 resources, ProFaNE dissem<strong>in</strong>ates good practice by mak<strong>in</strong>g all its resources<br />
publicly available at www.PROFANE.eu.org.<br />
PAGE 28
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
The Canadian Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Curriculum ©<br />
The Canadian Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Curriculum© (7), funded by the Populati<strong>on</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Fund<br />
of the Public <strong>Health</strong> <strong>Age</strong>ncy of Canada is designed to provide community leaders and<br />
those who provide health and social services to <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s with the necessary skills<br />
to design, implement and evaluate evidence-based <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> programmes. To<br />
ensure relevance to the target audience the process for the development, test<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of the curriculum actively <strong>in</strong>volves partners represent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
policy-makers, educators, researchers and health and social service providers. See www.<br />
<strong>in</strong>juryresearch.bc.ca for further <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
2. Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
There has been a substantial <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the<br />
past decade <strong>in</strong> research <strong>on</strong> the preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. C<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
evidence now exists that most <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s are associated with identifiable<br />
and modifiable risk factors and that<br />
targeted preventi<strong>on</strong> efforts are shown to be<br />
cost-effective (9, 10, 11, 12). Most <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
shown to result from a comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of age<br />
and disease-related c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong> with their social and<br />
physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment (9). It is also known<br />
that risk is greatly <strong>in</strong>creased for those with<br />
multiple risk factors (11). There is good evidence<br />
to show that some <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
more effective than others and those when<br />
tailored to <strong>in</strong>dividual risk profiles <strong>in</strong> community,<br />
residential and acute care sett<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
are most effective.<br />
Fallproof ©<br />
Fallproof© is a comprehensive balance and mobility tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programme designed for<br />
physical activity <strong>in</strong>structors and health professi<strong>on</strong>als to build the necessary skills to<br />
reduce the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g am<strong>on</strong>g community-based <strong>older</strong> adults (8). Based <strong>on</strong> a sound<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g of the physiology of age<strong>in</strong>g, adult learn<strong>in</strong>g theory and <strong>falls</strong>-preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
evidence, this programme provides <strong>in</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> for the practical applicati<strong>on</strong> of mobility<br />
and balance assessment and <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
PAGE 29
a) Community<br />
For <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the community,<br />
evidence shows that health and envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
risk-factor assessment with <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
based <strong>on</strong> assessment results, is<br />
highly effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
community-dwell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s who<br />
are cognitively <strong>in</strong>tact (13, 14). Comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of successful multifactorial approaches<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
• balance and gait tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with appropriate<br />
use of assistive devices;<br />
• envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk assessment and<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• medicati<strong>on</strong> review and modificati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• manag<strong>in</strong>g visual problems;<br />
• provid<strong>in</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong> and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g;<br />
• address<strong>in</strong>g foot and shoe problems; and<br />
• address<strong>in</strong>g orthostatic hypotensi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
other cardiovascular problems (12, 13,<br />
14).<br />
Exercise is shown to be an important<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent of a multifactorial <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
particularly when applied c<strong>on</strong>sistently for<br />
ten weeks or l<strong>on</strong>ger (12). However, little<br />
is known about the cost effectiveness of<br />
exercise programmes for <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
more research is necessary to determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
the optimal type, durati<strong>on</strong>, frequency and<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensity of those programmes (15).<br />
With<strong>in</strong> a multifactorial approach, the<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of successful health <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
focus <strong>on</strong> post-fall cl<strong>in</strong>ical assessment<br />
followed by treatment <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g a multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary-team<br />
approach. The follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
medical c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are most often <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
as target areas for fall reducti<strong>on</strong>:<br />
• cardiac dysrhythmias and orthostatic<br />
hypotensi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• reduc<strong>in</strong>g the number of medicati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
particularly those that c<strong>on</strong>tribute to<br />
postural hypotensi<strong>on</strong> or sedati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• address<strong>in</strong>g gait and balance problems<br />
with appropriate assistive devices;<br />
• rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> for weakness and mobility<br />
problems;<br />
• vitam<strong>in</strong> D and calcium supplementati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
and<br />
• treatment of correctable visi<strong>on</strong>, particularly<br />
early cataract surgery (9, 10).<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental screen<strong>in</strong>g and modificati<strong>on</strong><br />
programmes are shown to be most effective<br />
when they <strong>in</strong>volve a multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary team<br />
and are targeted to those with a history<br />
of fall<strong>in</strong>g or known-risk factors (14). The<br />
precise comp<strong>on</strong>ents of successful home<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong> are not clearly understood.<br />
Most programmes target the removal<br />
hazards such as loose rugs, clutter electrical<br />
cords, unstable furniture and <strong>in</strong>stallati<strong>on</strong><br />
of bathroom grab bars, raised toilet seats,<br />
handrails <strong>on</strong> both sides of stairways and the<br />
use of pers<strong>on</strong>al alarm systems to call for<br />
help when necessary (9).<br />
PAGE 30
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Evidence also exists to show that educati<strong>on</strong><br />
and self-management programmes when<br />
used <strong>on</strong> their own without measures to<br />
implement change are not effective <strong>in</strong> the<br />
community sett<strong>in</strong>g (12).<br />
While less effective that multifactorial<br />
approaches, there are a number of s<strong>in</strong>glefactor<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s shown to have a str<strong>on</strong>g<br />
effect <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g communitydwell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. S<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that are most str<strong>on</strong>gly recommended<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude: exercise, home hazard assessment<br />
and modificati<strong>on</strong>, withdrawal of psychotropic<br />
medicati<strong>on</strong>s, and cardiac pac<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
fallers with carotid s<strong>in</strong>us hypersensitivity<br />
(13, 14).<br />
As a s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategy, the exercise<br />
approach shown to be most effective is<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividually tailored muscle strength and<br />
balance retra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g prescribed by a tra<strong>in</strong>edhealth<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
Group exercise programmes are shown<br />
to be less effective than <strong>in</strong>dividually prescribed<br />
exercises with the excepti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
a group programme us<strong>in</strong>g the Tai Chi<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> – a form of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese martial<br />
arts (16).<br />
b) Residential sett<strong>in</strong>gs 1 :<br />
Comp<strong>on</strong>ents of successful multifactorial<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong>clude: staff tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and<br />
guidance, changes <strong>in</strong> medicati<strong>on</strong>, resident<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, envir<strong>on</strong>mental assessment and<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>, supply and repair of aids, exercise,<br />
and use of hip protectors (12, 17, 10).<br />
A s<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> shown to be effective<br />
<strong>in</strong> residential sett<strong>in</strong>gs is the use of vitam<strong>in</strong><br />
D and calcium supplements. Other s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
strategies that show promise <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
• gait tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g and advice <strong>on</strong> appropriate<br />
use of assistive devices;<br />
• review and modificati<strong>on</strong> of medicati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
particularly psychotropics;<br />
• nutriti<strong>on</strong>al review and supplementati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• staff educati<strong>on</strong> programmes;<br />
• exercise programmes;<br />
• envir<strong>on</strong>mental modificati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
• post-fall problem-solv<strong>in</strong>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s; and<br />
• the use of hip protectors (12, 17).<br />
There is no evidence to support the effectiveness<br />
of <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to reduce <strong>falls</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g residents with cognitive impairments<br />
(17).<br />
As with community sett<strong>in</strong>gs, multifactorial<br />
approaches are shown to be the most effectpreventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategy <strong>in</strong> residential sett<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
1 Residential sett<strong>in</strong>g: refers to nurs<strong>in</strong>g homes, care<br />
homes or l<strong>on</strong>g-term facilities<br />
PAGE 31
c) Acute care sett<strong>in</strong>gs 2 :<br />
No evidence exists to support the effectiveness<br />
of multifactorial <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
acute care sett<strong>in</strong>gs (14). The use of physical<br />
or pharmaceutical restra<strong>in</strong>ts comm<strong>on</strong>ly<br />
used with the <strong>in</strong>tenti<strong>on</strong> of reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong><br />
is shown not to be effective. C<strong>on</strong>versely,<br />
there is moderate evidence to support an<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased risk of <strong>in</strong>jury from a fall with<br />
the use of restra<strong>in</strong>ts (12). Alternatives to<br />
restra<strong>in</strong>s (lower bed, mats <strong>on</strong> floor, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> exercise and safe transfers) have<br />
moderate evidence for their effectiveness<br />
(12). Other <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that have been<br />
tested but lack str<strong>on</strong>g support<strong>in</strong>g evidence<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude: hospital discharge risk assessment<br />
and plann<strong>in</strong>g, exercise programmes, envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s, use of bed alarms<br />
and the use of identificati<strong>on</strong> bracelets<br />
(18, 19). Some evidence exists to support<br />
facilitated home assessments for those at<br />
high risk for fall<strong>in</strong>g when discharged from<br />
hospital (10).<br />
2 Acute care sett<strong>in</strong>g: refers to hospitals or rehabilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
units<br />
3. Practice – Interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Practice sett<strong>in</strong>gs are where <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
evidence is translated <strong>in</strong>to feasible,<br />
affordable and susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers are well placed to l<strong>in</strong>k the<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> of evidence to organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
policies and to identify gaps that need to<br />
be addressed before successful adopti<strong>on</strong> is<br />
possible. An effective tool for enact<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
translati<strong>on</strong> of evidence <strong>in</strong>to practice is the<br />
development of a cl<strong>in</strong>ical practice guidel<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
An example of an effective guidel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
is produced by the Registered Nurs<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong> of Ontario (RNAO), Canada.<br />
In less developed countries the translati<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> evidence to practice is<br />
made difficult by compet<strong>in</strong>g demands for<br />
urgent health-care issues and shortages of<br />
health-care providers. In additi<strong>on</strong>, before<br />
effective adopti<strong>on</strong> of evidence to practice,<br />
more studies are necessary to better<br />
understand the unique c<strong>on</strong>tributors to<br />
<strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> people <strong>in</strong> less developed<br />
countries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>fluence of diet,<br />
hazardous envir<strong>on</strong>ments, the lack of accessible<br />
safety equipment and transportati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and the role of <strong>in</strong>adequate health services.<br />
The RNAO Preventi<strong>on</strong> of Falls and Fall Injuries <strong>in</strong> the Older Adult Best Practice Guidel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
The RNAO Preventi<strong>on</strong> of Falls and Fall Injuries <strong>in</strong> the Older Adult Best Practice Guidel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
was designed for l<strong>on</strong>g-term and acute-care nurses to enhance their skills and abilities for<br />
risk assessment and preventi<strong>on</strong>. The purpose of this guidel<strong>in</strong>e is to <strong>in</strong>crease all nurses’<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence, knowledge, skills and abilities <strong>in</strong> the identificati<strong>on</strong> of adults with<strong>in</strong> healthcare<br />
facilities at risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g and to def<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for the preventi<strong>on</strong> of fall<strong>in</strong>g (20).<br />
PAGE 32
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Injury outcomes am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> less developed versus more developed<br />
countries also need to be explored, particularly<br />
given that hip fractures are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
described as an “orthopedic epidemic” <strong>in</strong><br />
less developed countries [Baker et al;1992:<br />
cited <strong>in</strong> (21)].<br />
4. C<strong>on</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g remarks<br />
Given recent rapid populati<strong>on</strong> age<strong>in</strong>g<br />
worldwide, without c<strong>on</strong>certed acti<strong>on</strong> by<br />
policy-makers, researchers and practiti<strong>on</strong>ers,<br />
the ec<strong>on</strong>omic and societal burden of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> will <strong>in</strong>crease by epidemic proporti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> all parts of the world over the next few<br />
decades. The complex and multifactorial<br />
nature of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age demands a proactive<br />
and systematic approach to preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<strong>Health</strong>y public policies and proven<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies that are tailored to<br />
target populati<strong>on</strong>s are essential for the<br />
successful <strong>in</strong>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of fall-preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
evidence <strong>in</strong>to practice for effective fall-risk<br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> and reducti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
5. References<br />
1. Scott VJ, Peck S, Kendall P (2004). Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>falls</strong> and <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g the elderly: a special<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> from the office of the prov<strong>in</strong>cial health<br />
officer. Victoria, British Colombia, Prov<strong>in</strong>cial<br />
<strong>Health</strong> Office, B.C. M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Health</strong>.<br />
2. British Columbia Injury Research and<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> Unit (BCIRPU) (2006). Vancouver,<br />
British Columbia, (http://www.<strong>in</strong>juryresearch.<br />
bc.ca/, accessed 27 August 2007).<br />
3. Herman M, Gallagher E, Scott VJ (2006). The<br />
evoluti<strong>on</strong> of seniors' <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> British<br />
Columbia. Victoria, British Columbia, B.C.<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Health</strong>, (http://www.health.gov.<br />
bc.ca/library/publicati<strong>on</strong>s/year/2006/<strong>falls</strong>_<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g>.pdf, accessed 27 August 2007).<br />
4. Nati<strong>on</strong>al Council <strong>on</strong> Ag<strong>in</strong>g (NCOA) Center<br />
for healthy ag<strong>in</strong>g model health programs<br />
for communities (2007). Wash<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
DC, Center for <strong>Health</strong> Ag<strong>in</strong>g (http://<br />
healthyag<strong>in</strong>gprograms.org/c<strong>on</strong>tent.<br />
asp?secti<strong>on</strong>id=69, accessed 27 August 2007).<br />
5. Fall Preventi<strong>on</strong> Center of Excellence. Falls Free<br />
(2007). Wash<strong>in</strong>gt<strong>on</strong>, DC, Center for <strong>Health</strong>y<br />
Ag<strong>in</strong>g (http://www.stop<strong>falls</strong>.org/, accessed 27<br />
August 2007).<br />
PAGE 33
6. Preventi<strong>on</strong> of Falls Network Europe, ProFaNE<br />
(2007). Manchester, GB, ProFaNE (http://www.<br />
profane.eu.org/, accessed 27 August 2007).<br />
7. Scott VJ et al. Canadian Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Curriculum©, Vancouver, British Columbia.<br />
B.C. Injury Research and Preventi<strong>on</strong> Unit,<br />
(unpublished data).<br />
8. Rose, DJ (2003). Fallproof! A comprehensive<br />
balance and mobility tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g program.<br />
W<strong>in</strong>dsor, Ontario, Human K<strong>in</strong>etics.<br />
9. Rubenste<strong>in</strong> LZ (2006). Falls <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people:<br />
epidemiology, risk factors and strategies for<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>. <strong>Age</strong> <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g, 35-S2:ii37-ii41.<br />
10. Rubenste<strong>in</strong> LZ et al. (2006). The summary<br />
of the newly updated ABS/BGS guidel<strong>in</strong>e:<br />
Evidence based practice guidel<strong>in</strong>e for the<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. Chicago:<br />
American Geriatrics Society Plenary<br />
Symposium, May 4, 2006.<br />
11. T<strong>in</strong>etti ME, Speechley M, G<strong>in</strong>ter SF (1988).<br />
Risk factors for <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g elderly pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the community. New England Journal<br />
of Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 319(26):1701-1707.<br />
12. Skelt<strong>on</strong> D, Todd C (2004). What are the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
risk factors for <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>gst <strong>older</strong> people<br />
and what are the most effective <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to prevent these <strong>falls</strong>? Copenhagen, WHO<br />
Regi<strong>on</strong>al Office for Europe, <strong>Health</strong> Evidence<br />
Network <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> (http://www.euro.who.<strong>in</strong>t/<br />
document/E82552.pdf, accessed 27 August<br />
2007).<br />
13. Chang JT et al. (2004). Interventi<strong>on</strong>s for the<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> adults: systematic<br />
review and meta-analysis of randomised<br />
cl<strong>in</strong>ical trials. British Medical Journal,<br />
328:680-683.<br />
14. Gillespie LD et al. (2004). Interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> elderly people.<br />
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,<br />
(4):CD000340.<br />
15. Gardner MM, Roberts<strong>on</strong> MC, Campbell AJ.<br />
(2000). Exercise <strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> and fall<br />
related <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people: a review of<br />
randomised c<strong>on</strong>trolled trials. British Journal of<br />
Sports Medic<strong>in</strong>e, 1(34):7-17.<br />
16. Wolf SL et al. (2003). Selected as the best paper<br />
<strong>in</strong> the 1990s: Reduc<strong>in</strong>g frailty and <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s: An <strong>in</strong>vestigati<strong>on</strong> of tai chi and<br />
computerized balance tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Journal of the<br />
American Geriatrics Society, 51(12):1794-1803.<br />
17. Kannus P et al. (2000). Preventi<strong>on</strong> of hip<br />
fracture <strong>in</strong> elderly people with use of a hip<br />
protector. New England Journal of Medic<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
343(21):1506-1513.<br />
18. Hill K et al. (2000). An analysis of research <strong>on</strong><br />
prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> and <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong>jury <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people:<br />
community, residential care and hospital<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>gs (2004 update). Canberra, Australia,<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Research Institute for the<br />
Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth Department of <strong>Health</strong> and<br />
<strong>Age</strong>d Care.<br />
19. Oliver D, Hopper A, Seed P (2000). Do hospital<br />
fall preventi<strong>on</strong> programs work? A systematic<br />
review. Journal of the American Geriatrics<br />
Society, 48(12):1679-1689.<br />
20. Registered Nurses’ Associati<strong>on</strong> of Ontario<br />
(2005). Preventi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>falls</strong> and fall <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>older</strong> adult. Tor<strong>on</strong>to, Ontario, Registered<br />
Nurses’ Associati<strong>on</strong> of Ontario (www.rnao.<br />
org/bestpractices/PDF/BPG_Falls_rev05.pdf,<br />
accessed 27 August 2007).<br />
21. Barss P et al. (1998). Injury preventi<strong>on</strong>: An<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternati<strong>on</strong>al perspective. Epidemiology,<br />
surveillance, and policy. New York, Oxford,<br />
Oxford University Press.<br />
22. <strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong> (2002). Active<br />
age<strong>in</strong>g: A policy framework. Geneva.<br />
PAGE 34
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
Chapter VI. WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Model with<strong>in</strong><br />
the Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework<br />
This chapter provides a summary of the<br />
preced<strong>in</strong>g secti<strong>on</strong> of this document and<br />
presents the WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> model<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework (see<br />
Figure 6 below). This model describes a<br />
cohesive, multisectoral approach to <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> that is built <strong>on</strong> the WHO Active<br />
<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Policy Framework – a proactive<br />
and flexible public health policy grounded<br />
<strong>in</strong> the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of health promoti<strong>on</strong> and<br />
disease preventi<strong>on</strong>. Thus, the model recognizes<br />
the importance of a commitment to<br />
active age<strong>in</strong>g strategies and programmes<br />
that are designed to enhance the health,<br />
participati<strong>on</strong>, and security of <strong>older</strong> people<br />
(see Chapter 2). The WHO visi<strong>on</strong> of active<br />
age<strong>in</strong>g proposes strategies, <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
and programmes that recognize the rights,<br />
needs, preferences and c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
<strong>older</strong> people – and these are reflected <strong>in</strong><br />
this model.<br />
1. The need<br />
Although populati<strong>on</strong> age<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
humanity’s greatest triumphs, it also<br />
presents today's societies with <strong>on</strong>e of their<br />
most significant challenges. <strong>World</strong>wide,<br />
the proporti<strong>on</strong> of people age 60 and over is<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g faster than any other age group. By<br />
2050, the number of pers<strong>on</strong>s over the age of<br />
Figure 6. Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> for Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Older Pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Family/caregivers<br />
Youth<br />
Community<br />
<strong>Health</strong> sector<br />
Government<br />
Media<br />
Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> for Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
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<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
COMMUNITY<br />
Community and<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual risk<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
<strong>Health</strong> and<br />
social services<br />
Behavioural<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Physical<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments<br />
Social<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omics<br />
EDUCATION CAPACITY BUILDING TRAINING<br />
<strong>Health</strong>y Public Policy<br />
Surveillance Resources Research<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Behaviour change<br />
Individual level<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
level<br />
<strong>Health</strong> and social<br />
services level<br />
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<br />
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<br />
PAGE 35
60 years is expect to <strong>in</strong>crease to more than<br />
two billi<strong>on</strong> with 85% of them liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
countries. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Global</str<strong>on</strong>g> age<strong>in</strong>g will place<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social demands<br />
worldwide. However, the age<strong>in</strong>g populati<strong>on</strong><br />
should not be viewed as a threat or a crisis.<br />
On the c<strong>on</strong>trary, the WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Framework recognizes that <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are precious and <strong>in</strong>valuable resources who<br />
make an extraord<strong>in</strong>arily important c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong><br />
to the fabric of all societies.<br />
A major factor beh<strong>in</strong>d the global age<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> life expectancy observed<br />
<strong>in</strong> most countries has been the impressive<br />
development of public health practices and<br />
policies that have greatly reduced premature<br />
deaths through the partial c<strong>on</strong>trol of<br />
many previously fatal-<strong>in</strong>fectious diseases.<br />
The worldwide development and implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of PHC practices and the c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
of communicable diseases are important<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the WHO missi<strong>on</strong>. This unf<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
agenda has now been followed by<br />
a shift <strong>in</strong> the global burden of disease from<br />
the management of acute c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
address<strong>in</strong>g the steady <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> n<strong>on</strong>communicable<br />
diseases (NCDs). As <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
and societies age, NCDs are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
becom<strong>in</strong>g the lead<strong>in</strong>g causes of morbidity,<br />
disability and mortality <strong>in</strong> all regi<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
world.<br />
Fortunately, many NCDs can be prevented<br />
through the applicati<strong>on</strong> of appropriate<br />
health promoti<strong>on</strong> and disease-preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies. The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Framework recognizes that the failure to<br />
prevent or manage the growth of NCDs appropriately<br />
will result <strong>in</strong> enormous human<br />
and social costs. This would result <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>appropriate<br />
use of resources, which are still<br />
needed to address other health and social<br />
challenges. There is a need to shift the public<br />
health paradigm from <strong>on</strong>e that focuses<br />
<strong>on</strong> “f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g and fix<strong>in</strong>g” acute problems to a<br />
more systematic, coord<strong>in</strong>ated, and comprehensive<br />
strategy designed to prevent, treat,<br />
and manage the grow<strong>in</strong>g number of NCDs<br />
worldwide. The WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Model is an example of such a systematic,<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated, and comprehensive strategy<br />
designed to reduce the burden of <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
the most significant causes of age-related<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries and n<strong>on</strong>-communicable c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
associated with old age.<br />
The extensive reviews of the scientific<br />
literature summarized <strong>in</strong> earlier secti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
this <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> underscore the reality that <strong>falls</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> people are a large and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cause of <strong>in</strong>jury, treatment costs and<br />
death <strong>in</strong> virtually all regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world.<br />
The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework<br />
recognizes that the <strong>in</strong>juries susta<strong>in</strong>ed as a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequence of a fall <strong>in</strong> old age are almost<br />
always more severe than when that occurs<br />
earlier <strong>in</strong> life.<br />
For <strong>in</strong>juries of the same severity, <strong>older</strong><br />
people experience more disability, l<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
hospital stays, extended periods of rehabilitati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
a higher risk of subsequent dependency<br />
as well as a higher risk of dy<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
good news is that many fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries<br />
are preventable. There is now compell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
evidence that risk-factors for fall<strong>in</strong>g can<br />
be <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the implementati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
targeted <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies designed to<br />
modify the various <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic and extr<strong>in</strong>sic<br />
PAGE 36
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants known to <strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood<br />
of fall<strong>in</strong>g. The WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Model provides a comprehensive multisectoral<br />
framework for reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The model is designed to identify policies,<br />
practices and procedures that will:<br />
• build awareness of the importance of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and treatment am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
• improve the assessment of <strong>in</strong>dividual,<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental, and societal factors that<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood of <strong>falls</strong>;<br />
• facilitate the design and implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of culturally-appropriated evidencebased<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that will significantly<br />
reduce the number of <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
2. The foundati<strong>on</strong><br />
The WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Model with<strong>in</strong><br />
the Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework cannot succeed<br />
unless it is <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to a healthypublic<br />
policy that embraces a multisectoral<br />
approach to the preventi<strong>on</strong>, treatment, and<br />
management of NCDs. The WHO visi<strong>on</strong><br />
of healthy and active age<strong>in</strong>g requires the<br />
mobilizati<strong>on</strong> and commitment of many<br />
sectors of society <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g health and<br />
social services, educati<strong>on</strong>, employment and<br />
labour, f<strong>in</strong>ance, social security, hous<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong>, and both rural and urban<br />
development. Furthermore, all effective<br />
active-age<strong>in</strong>g policies and programmes<br />
realize the <strong>in</strong>volvement of <strong>older</strong> people and<br />
their caregivers <strong>in</strong> all aspects of the plann<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> and evaluati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
An effective <strong>falls</strong>-preventi<strong>on</strong> strategy will<br />
need to acknowledge the cultural reality<br />
of the society <strong>in</strong> which it is to be implemented.<br />
The culture that surrounds all<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities shapes and<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluences all of the determ<strong>in</strong>ants of active<br />
age<strong>in</strong>g. Cultural values and traditi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e not <strong>on</strong>ly how a given society<br />
views <strong>older</strong> people and the age<strong>in</strong>g process,<br />
but also the types of preventi<strong>on</strong>, detecti<strong>on</strong><br />
and treatment services that are most likely<br />
to be successful <strong>in</strong> a particular country and<br />
culture.<br />
In order to address the diversity of cultural<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants, the WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
Model requires the cross-nati<strong>on</strong>al, transregi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
and global shar<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
and ideas. The Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework<br />
rem<strong>in</strong>ds us that all effective NCD preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
and treatment strategies will need to<br />
be firmly grounded with<strong>in</strong> the local, nati<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
and regi<strong>on</strong>al reality. These realities<br />
must c<strong>on</strong>sider factors such as epidemiological<br />
transiti<strong>on</strong>, rapid changes <strong>in</strong> the health<br />
sector, globalizati<strong>on</strong>, urbanizati<strong>on</strong>, chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
family patterns and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
degradati<strong>on</strong>, as well as persistent <strong>in</strong>equalities<br />
and poverty, particularly <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
countries where the majority of <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s are already liv<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework<br />
recognizes that effective policies and programmes<br />
designed to combat NCDs <strong>in</strong> old<br />
age need to adopt a life course perspective<br />
that acknowledges that most determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
PAGE 37
of chr<strong>on</strong>ic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and disabilities have<br />
their roots <strong>in</strong> childhood as well as <strong>in</strong> young<br />
and middle-aged adult life. If a substantive<br />
decrease <strong>in</strong> the impact of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>on</strong> the health<br />
and quality of life of <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s is to be<br />
achieved, it will be necessary to develop<br />
programmes and policies that create supportive<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments, reduce risk factors<br />
and foster healthy choices at all stages of<br />
the life course.<br />
Any effective <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> strategy<br />
will also need to acknowledge the reality<br />
that globally, women are at greater<br />
risk for <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries than<br />
men. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, gender issues need to be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered <strong>in</strong> the development of all policies,<br />
programmes and practices. The WHO<br />
Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework rem<strong>in</strong>ds us that<br />
<strong>in</strong> many societies, girls and women have<br />
lower social status and less access to food,<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>, mean<strong>in</strong>gful work and health<br />
services. Because the c<strong>on</strong>sequences of <strong>falls</strong><br />
disproporti<strong>on</strong>ately impact <strong>older</strong> women it<br />
is especially important that these factors be<br />
addressed proactively and explicitly with<strong>in</strong><br />
the Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> for Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text. Moreover, it is also important to<br />
observe that mortality rates result<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries caused by <strong>falls</strong> are higher am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
<strong>older</strong> men than women of same age for<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>s that are not yet fully understood.<br />
More research <strong>in</strong> this regard is urgently<br />
needed.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> policies and programmes<br />
cannot be targeted at <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e<br />
level of determ<strong>in</strong>ants or risk-factors.<br />
Effective strategies will need to acknowledge<br />
and balance multiple levels of determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g recogniz<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
importance of <strong>in</strong>dividual-level risk factors<br />
and resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities; the development of<br />
age-friendly and enabl<strong>in</strong>g envir<strong>on</strong>ments;<br />
and the formulati<strong>on</strong> of policies and programmes<br />
that maximize participati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
<strong>in</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong> of <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> Model is built<br />
around three pillars that are highly <strong>in</strong>terrelated<br />
and mutually dependent;<br />
(1) Build<strong>in</strong>g awareness of the importance of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and treatment;<br />
(2) Improv<strong>in</strong>g the assessment of <strong>in</strong>dividual,<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental and societal factors that<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood of <strong>falls</strong>; and<br />
(3) Facilitat<strong>in</strong>g the design and implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of culturally-appropriated evidencebased<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that will significantly<br />
reduce the number of <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Mak<strong>in</strong>g progress <strong>in</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g the strategies<br />
identified <strong>in</strong> each of these pillars will<br />
require an <strong>on</strong>go<strong>in</strong>g commitment to capacity<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g, educati<strong>on</strong>, and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> all<br />
countries and regi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
PAGE 38
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
3. Three pillars of the WHO Falls<br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong> Model:<br />
a) Pillar One - Build<strong>in</strong>g awareness of the<br />
importance of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>:<br />
There is a need to build awareness of the<br />
importance of <strong>falls</strong> with<strong>in</strong> all sectors of<br />
society that are impacted by <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries. Awareness build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is not restricted to educat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
and groups about the significance of <strong>falls</strong><br />
as modifiable risk factors for disabl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s and <strong>in</strong>creased mortality. It also<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves educati<strong>on</strong> about the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic and social costs associated with<br />
the failure to address <strong>falls</strong> and fall-risk<br />
factors <strong>in</strong> a systematic manner. Awareness<br />
will need to be built with<strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stituencies:<br />
Older pers<strong>on</strong>s: Any strategy to build awareness<br />
of the importance of <strong>falls</strong> and fall<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> must beg<strong>in</strong> with <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
themselves. Many of them are unaware<br />
that <strong>falls</strong> are preventable. In many cultures<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g is c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be a normal, unavoidable<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequence of grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong>.<br />
The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework calls<br />
for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g basic-health educati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
health literacy through a commitment to<br />
lifel<strong>on</strong>g learn<strong>in</strong>g about health and disease<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>. By apply<strong>in</strong>g such an approach<br />
to educat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong> adults about <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
fall preventi<strong>on</strong>, not <strong>on</strong>ly would <strong>older</strong> adults<br />
become more aware of the importance of<br />
pay<strong>in</strong>g close attenti<strong>on</strong> to fall-related risk<br />
factors and determ<strong>in</strong>ants but they would<br />
also be more likely to take acti<strong>on</strong> to correct<br />
these challenges to their health and <strong>in</strong>dependence.<br />
Family and caregivers: Both <strong>in</strong>formal and<br />
formal caregivers have a critical role to<br />
play <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g awareness about the<br />
importance of <strong>falls</strong> and <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
It is especially important to provide family<br />
members, peer counsellors and other<br />
<strong>in</strong>formal caregivers with <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> how to identify risk factors for<br />
<strong>falls</strong> and how to take acti<strong>on</strong> to decrease the<br />
likelihood of fall<strong>in</strong>g am<strong>on</strong>g those at greatest<br />
risk. It is also critical to ensure that<br />
formal caregivers are fully familiar with the<br />
latest evidence related to the assessment,<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong>, and treatment of <strong>falls</strong>. This will<br />
comprise the <strong>in</strong>corporati<strong>on</strong> of modules<br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> and fall preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
caregiver curricula at all levels, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong>. With<strong>in</strong> the develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
world, it is important to acknowledge<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of healers who are knowledgeable<br />
about alternative and complementary<br />
medic<strong>in</strong>es. These <strong>in</strong>dividuals should<br />
be encouraged to <strong>in</strong>tegrate their special<br />
skills and knowledge with c<strong>on</strong>temporary<br />
evidence-based practice related to <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
fall preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Youth and young adults: Any active-age<strong>in</strong>g<br />
strategy that strives to be effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the prevalence of chr<strong>on</strong>ic diseases and<br />
disabl<strong>in</strong>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s will need to adopt a<br />
life course perspective. This is especially<br />
important <strong>in</strong> the area of <strong>falls</strong> and <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> because many of the <strong>in</strong>dividuallevel<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants, which predispose a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> to be at risk for <strong>in</strong>jurious <strong>falls</strong>,<br />
beg<strong>in</strong> to manifest themselves early <strong>in</strong> life.<br />
Furthermore, build<strong>in</strong>g awareness of the<br />
importance of <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related issues <strong>in</strong><br />
PAGE 39
children and youth will <strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood<br />
to implement<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tergenerati<strong>on</strong>al approaches<br />
to <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and treatment.<br />
Community: The majority of <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
grow old <strong>in</strong> their own homes and <strong>in</strong> the<br />
communities they have lived <strong>in</strong> for most<br />
of their lives. Accord<strong>in</strong>gly, it is important<br />
to educate all sectors of these communities<br />
about the importance of a proactive,<br />
evidence-based strategy for reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g awareness of risk factors for <strong>falls</strong><br />
at the community level is particularly important<br />
because there is evidence that the<br />
structure of the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment can<br />
impact the likelihood of an <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> to<br />
fall. It can also make the difference between<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence and dependence for <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
who live <strong>in</strong> unsafe envir<strong>on</strong>ments or<br />
areas with multiple physical barriers. These<br />
barriers can render <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s more<br />
susceptible to isolati<strong>on</strong>, depressi<strong>on</strong>, reduced<br />
physical activity, and <strong>in</strong>creased mobility<br />
problems.<br />
<strong>Health</strong> sector:: The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Framework recognizes that build<strong>in</strong>g awareness<br />
and chang<strong>in</strong>g the attitudes of health<br />
and social-service providers is paramount<br />
to ensur<strong>in</strong>g that their practices enable and<br />
empower <strong>in</strong>dividuals to rema<strong>in</strong> as aut<strong>on</strong>omous<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dependent as doable for as<br />
l<strong>on</strong>g as possible. With<strong>in</strong> the area of <strong>falls</strong><br />
and <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>, health professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
have a critical role to play <strong>in</strong> identify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
risk factors and determ<strong>in</strong>ants for <strong>falls</strong>, and<br />
for recommend<strong>in</strong>g culturally-appropriated<br />
evidence base <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for the preventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
treatment and management of <strong>falls</strong><br />
and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries. It is important to<br />
provide <strong>in</strong>centives and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g for health<br />
and social service professi<strong>on</strong>als. This will<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease their awareness and understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>temporary research and practices<br />
so that they are able to counsel healthy<br />
lifestyle practices that reduce <strong>falls</strong> and fallrelated<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g men and women of<br />
all ages.<br />
Government: Rais<strong>in</strong>g awareness of the<br />
importance of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
government officials at all levels is critical if<br />
the resources and other support needed to<br />
implement a comprehensive, multisectoral<br />
fall preventi<strong>on</strong> strategy at any of societal<br />
levels are to be made available. It is important<br />
to underscore that a commitment to<br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> and treatment of <strong>falls</strong> is both<br />
cost-effective and the right th<strong>in</strong>g to do.<br />
Legislators and government officials should<br />
be <strong>in</strong>vited to participate <strong>in</strong> all aspects of the<br />
development and implementati<strong>on</strong> of public<br />
health policies and practices that focus <strong>on</strong><br />
health promoti<strong>on</strong> and disease preventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Media: The media have an important role<br />
to play <strong>in</strong> promot<strong>in</strong>g a positive image of<br />
age<strong>in</strong>g, therefore build<strong>in</strong>g awareness am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
them of the significance of <strong>falls</strong> and <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> is paramount. The media can<br />
help by widely dissem<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g realistic and<br />
positive images of active age<strong>in</strong>g, as well as<br />
by shar<strong>in</strong>g educati<strong>on</strong>al <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong><br />
and <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies. The media<br />
can also help to c<strong>on</strong>fr<strong>on</strong>t negative stereotypes<br />
about grow<strong>in</strong>g old and help to combat<br />
persistent ageism.<br />
PAGE 40
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
b) Pillar Two – Improv<strong>in</strong>g the identificati<strong>on</strong><br />
and assessment of risk factors and determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
of <strong>falls</strong>:<br />
There is a grow<strong>in</strong>g appreciati<strong>on</strong> that a<br />
complex comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>dividual-level,<br />
community-wide, and societal factors <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
the probability of <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. Although the<br />
evidence base regard<strong>in</strong>g how best to identify<br />
and assess the various risk factors and<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants for <strong>falls</strong> is grow<strong>in</strong>g, there are<br />
many areas where <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong> is lack<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and improvements are needed. A systematic<br />
multisectoral strategy for reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong><br />
and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries will require c<strong>on</strong>certed<br />
efforts to improve assessment and<br />
identify critical determ<strong>in</strong>ants <strong>in</strong> each of the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g doma<strong>in</strong>s:<br />
<strong>Health</strong> and social services: C<strong>on</strong>venient and<br />
affordable access to health and social services<br />
can greatly impact an <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s’<br />
likelihood of experienc<strong>in</strong>g a fall or fallrelated<br />
<strong>in</strong>jury. <strong>Health</strong> and social services<br />
should be structured <strong>in</strong> such a way as to<br />
rout<strong>in</strong>ely screen <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s for knownrisk<br />
factors for <strong>falls</strong>. <strong>Health</strong> professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
should be tra<strong>in</strong>ed to use evidence-based<br />
protocols and procedures that help to identify<br />
those <strong>in</strong>dividuals who are at the greatest<br />
risk. Suitable follow-up strategies should<br />
be <strong>in</strong> place to assist cl<strong>in</strong>icians to recommend<br />
culturally-appropriated and affordable<br />
evidence-based treatment programmes<br />
when <strong>in</strong>dicated. The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Framework notes that health and social<br />
services need to be <strong>in</strong>tegrated, coord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
and cost-effective.<br />
Furthermore, there must be neither age nor<br />
gender discrim<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> the provisi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
services and service providers should treat<br />
people of all ages with dignity and respect.<br />
Behavioural: : There is a grow<strong>in</strong>g appreciati<strong>on</strong><br />
that a number of important behavioural<br />
factors impact <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s vulnerability to<br />
<strong>falls</strong> and their likelihood to seek treatment<br />
or care for <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Many <strong>older</strong> adults <strong>in</strong>correctly believe that<br />
it is too late to change their behaviour and<br />
adopt a healthy lifestyle <strong>in</strong> old age. Others<br />
experience a significant fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
greatly limits their activity choices, reduces<br />
their <strong>in</strong>dependence and decreases their<br />
engagement <strong>in</strong> society. It is not sufficient to<br />
simply educate <strong>older</strong> adults about the importance<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> and <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>, it is also<br />
crucial to assess their read<strong>in</strong>ess to change<br />
their lifestyles and adopt preventative and/<br />
or rehabilitative therapies. Any <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
strategy to reduce <strong>falls</strong> at the <strong>in</strong>dividual and/<br />
or community level will need to acknowledge<br />
and assess the critical behavioural determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
known to impact an <strong>in</strong>dividual’s<br />
risk for fall<strong>in</strong>g. Attenti<strong>on</strong> to these factors<br />
can significantly <strong>in</strong>crease the chance that a<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> will engage <strong>in</strong> appropriate preventive<br />
behaviours such as physical activity, healthy<br />
eat<strong>in</strong>g, not smok<strong>in</strong>g and us<strong>in</strong>g alcohol and<br />
medicati<strong>on</strong>s wisely. These behaviours can <strong>in</strong><br />
turn help to prevent disease and functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>e, extend l<strong>on</strong>gevity and enhance quality<br />
of life.<br />
PAGE 41
Pers<strong>on</strong>al: There are many pers<strong>on</strong>al or <strong>in</strong>dividual-level<br />
risk factors and determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
that can <strong>in</strong>fluence an <strong>in</strong>dividual’s likelihood<br />
of experienc<strong>in</strong>g a fall. In any comprehensive<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> programme, effective<br />
evidence-based strategies will need to be<br />
developed to screen for and identify <strong>in</strong>dividual-level<br />
risk factors known to be associated<br />
with an <strong>in</strong>creased risk for fall<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
specific nature of such screen<strong>in</strong>g protocols<br />
will <strong>in</strong>evitably vary as a functi<strong>on</strong> of the resources<br />
and expertise available to perform<br />
these assessments. At the most basic level,<br />
evidence-based questi<strong>on</strong>naires are available<br />
to screen <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s for key risks factors.<br />
Ideally, more comprehensive cl<strong>in</strong>ical<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s can be used to assess for<br />
known risk factors such as physical <strong>in</strong>activity,<br />
decreased muscle strength, impaired<br />
balance, poor visi<strong>on</strong>, c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>adequate<br />
or <strong>in</strong>appropriate medicati<strong>on</strong> and/or polypharmacy.<br />
Accurate identificati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>dividual-level<br />
risk factors and determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
can greatly <strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood of select<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an appropriate preventi<strong>on</strong> or treatment<br />
strategy that is targeted to meet the needs<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Physical envir<strong>on</strong>ments: There is a grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
appreciati<strong>on</strong> that the nature and structure<br />
of the physical envir<strong>on</strong>ment can significantly<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence the likelihood of an <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
to suffer a fall or fall-related <strong>in</strong>jury.<br />
The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework underscores<br />
the need to ensure that the <strong>older</strong>people<br />
physical envir<strong>on</strong>ments are “agefriendly”<br />
because this can make a difference<br />
between <strong>in</strong>dependence and dependence.<br />
There is a grow<strong>in</strong>g base of knowledge suggest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that a systematic assessment of and<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> to envir<strong>on</strong>mental risk factors such<br />
as unsafe sidewalks, poorly lit roadways,<br />
and <strong>in</strong>accessible or unsafe neighborhoods<br />
can significantly <strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s. There are<br />
also many risk factors with<strong>in</strong> the homes,<br />
<strong>in</strong> which <strong>older</strong> people live, that place them<br />
at an <strong>in</strong>creased risk for fall<strong>in</strong>g. In many<br />
countries home-safety visits have proved to<br />
be effective for identify<strong>in</strong>g envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
risks factors that <strong>in</strong>crease the risk of fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The need to address envir<strong>on</strong>mental determ<strong>in</strong>ants<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> may be particularly acute<br />
<strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries where many <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s are forced to live <strong>in</strong> arrangements<br />
that are not of their choice, such as with<br />
relatives <strong>in</strong> already crowded households. In<br />
many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries, the proporti<strong>on</strong><br />
of <strong>older</strong> people liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> slums and shanty<br />
towns is ris<strong>in</strong>g rapidly. Older people liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> these settlements are at an <strong>in</strong>creased risk<br />
for <strong>falls</strong> and fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries.<br />
Social: Older pers<strong>on</strong>s who have suffered<br />
from fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries and others who<br />
experience a fear of fall<strong>in</strong>g can often<br />
become isolated and disengaged from the<br />
community. Any comprehensive <strong>falls</strong><br />
preventi<strong>on</strong> programme will need to recognize<br />
and acknowledge the critical role that<br />
social support plays <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g opportunities<br />
for <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s to fully participate<br />
<strong>in</strong> society. The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
Framework recognizes that opportunities<br />
for educati<strong>on</strong> and lifel<strong>on</strong>g learn<strong>in</strong>g, peace,<br />
and protecti<strong>on</strong> from violence and abuse are<br />
key factors <strong>in</strong> the social envir<strong>on</strong>ment that<br />
enhance health, participati<strong>on</strong> and security<br />
as people age. L<strong>on</strong>el<strong>in</strong>ess, social isolati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
illiteracy and a lack of educati<strong>on</strong>, abuse<br />
PAGE 42
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
and exposure to c<strong>on</strong>flict situati<strong>on</strong>s greatly<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>older</strong> people’s risks for disabilities<br />
and early death. Inadequate social support<br />
is associated not <strong>on</strong>ly with an <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>in</strong> mortality, morbidity and psychological<br />
distress but a decrease <strong>in</strong> overall health<br />
and well-be<strong>in</strong>g. Assessment of and attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
to the adequacy of social support <strong>in</strong> an<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>’s envir<strong>on</strong>ment is an important<br />
element of a comprehensive fall-risk assessment<br />
protocol and can make a difference<br />
between success and failure of an <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategy.<br />
Ec<strong>on</strong>omic: The ec<strong>on</strong>omic envir<strong>on</strong>ment, <strong>in</strong><br />
which an <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong> lives, can play a profound<br />
impact <strong>on</strong> their health and quality of<br />
life. The WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Framework<br />
rem<strong>in</strong>ds us that ec<strong>on</strong>omic factors such as<br />
<strong>in</strong>come, work and social protecti<strong>on</strong> need<br />
to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered when develop<strong>in</strong>g effective<br />
strategies <strong>in</strong> the area of active age<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
All age<strong>in</strong>g policies must acknowledge the<br />
reality of poverty and the impact that a lot<br />
of lack of pers<strong>on</strong>al resources has <strong>on</strong> the<br />
opportunities available to an <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Active-age<strong>in</strong>g policies need to <strong>in</strong>tersect<br />
with broader schemes to reduce poverty<br />
at all ages. While all poor people face an<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased risk of ill-health and disabilities,<br />
<strong>older</strong> people are particularly vulnerable. In<br />
many countries and cultures, <strong>older</strong> people<br />
are, by necessity or choice, c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to work <strong>in</strong> the labour force well <strong>in</strong>to old<br />
age. Others participate <strong>in</strong> unpaid labour<br />
through childcare and work with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
home and <strong>in</strong> the fields. C<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued employment<br />
of <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s can be a “doubleedged<br />
sword”.<br />
On the <strong>on</strong>e hand, it provides opportunities<br />
for <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s to earn m<strong>on</strong>ey and<br />
stay active and engaged <strong>in</strong> the community,<br />
<strong>on</strong> the other it can place <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at <strong>in</strong>creased risk for accident and <strong>in</strong>jury,<br />
particularly <strong>in</strong> cases where the worksite is<br />
hazardous with <strong>in</strong>adequate facilities and<br />
light<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In all countries, families provide the majority<br />
of support for <strong>older</strong> people who require<br />
help. However, as societies develop and<br />
the traditi<strong>on</strong> of generati<strong>on</strong>s liv<strong>in</strong>g together<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>es, mechanisms that provide social<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> for <strong>older</strong> people who are unable<br />
to earn a liv<strong>in</strong>g and are al<strong>on</strong>e and vulnerable<br />
are needed. Nati<strong>on</strong>al, regi<strong>on</strong>al, and<br />
local <strong>falls</strong>-preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies cannot be<br />
developed <strong>in</strong>dependently of these cultural,<br />
political, and ec<strong>on</strong>omic realities?.<br />
c) Pillar Three - Identify<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
implement<strong>in</strong>g realistic and effective<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Falls are complex events that are caused by<br />
a comb<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic impairments and<br />
disabilities which are often compounded<br />
by a variety of envir<strong>on</strong>mental hazards. Due<br />
to the multifactorial nature of <strong>falls</strong> risk<br />
factors and determ<strong>in</strong>ants, numerous studies<br />
have shown that <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s can be<br />
effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> people by<br />
simultaneously target<strong>in</strong>g several <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sic<br />
and extr<strong>in</strong>sic risk factors or determ<strong>in</strong>ants.<br />
Successful multifaceted-<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> programmes<br />
have <strong>in</strong>cluded such comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
as:<br />
PAGE 43
• medical assessment;<br />
• home safety checks and advice;<br />
• m<strong>on</strong>itor<strong>in</strong>g of prescripti<strong>on</strong> medicati<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
• envir<strong>on</strong>mental changes;<br />
• tailored exercise and physical activity;<br />
• tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> transfer skills and gait;<br />
• assessment of read<strong>in</strong>ess to change behaviour;<br />
and<br />
• referral of clients to health-care professi<strong>on</strong>als.<br />
Unfortunately, multifactorial <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s can be labour-<strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
and expensive both for the <strong>in</strong>dividual and<br />
the community. For these reas<strong>on</strong>s, decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g whether to implement a<br />
comprehensive, multifaceted <strong>falls</strong>-preventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>, or targeted <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual risk factors and<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ants will need to be made at the<br />
local or nati<strong>on</strong>al level. These shown-effective<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong>s need to take <strong>in</strong>to account a<br />
variety of ec<strong>on</strong>omic, cultural, and political<br />
factors. In the secti<strong>on</strong> below, <strong>in</strong>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about some of the most promis<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that have been shown to be effective<br />
<strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>cidence of <strong>falls</strong> and<br />
fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> populati<strong>on</strong>s is<br />
summarized.<br />
Behaviour change: In recent years grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong> has focused <strong>on</strong> the study of<br />
behavioural factors that <strong>in</strong>crease the probability<br />
of an <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> designed to<br />
promote health and/or reduce the risk of<br />
chr<strong>on</strong>ic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. There is now good evidence<br />
that <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g a comprehensive<br />
behavioural change strategy <strong>in</strong>to <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
designed to <strong>in</strong>crease health and<br />
well-be<strong>in</strong>g can help to maximize recruitment,<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease motivati<strong>on</strong>, and m<strong>in</strong>imize<br />
attriti<strong>on</strong>. Am<strong>on</strong>g the behavioural strategies<br />
that have been shown to <strong>in</strong>crease the<br />
likelihood that a pers<strong>on</strong> will susta<strong>in</strong> a new<br />
behaviour are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
• Secur<strong>in</strong>g social support from family<br />
and friends.<br />
• Promot<strong>in</strong>g the participant’s self-efficacy<br />
and perceived competence.<br />
• Provid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s with active<br />
choices that are tailored to their pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
needs and preferences.<br />
• Encourag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s to commit<br />
to an <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> by develop<strong>in</strong>g health<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tracts and/or goal statements that<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude realistic and measurable plans<br />
of acti<strong>on</strong> with specified health goals.<br />
• C<strong>on</strong>cerns for safety are identified as a<br />
barrier to chang<strong>in</strong>g behaviour by many<br />
<strong>older</strong> adults. Educat<strong>in</strong>g participants<br />
about actual risks of <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s can<br />
help to alleviate many of these c<strong>on</strong>cerns.<br />
• Provid<strong>in</strong>g regular and accurate performance<br />
feedback can assist <strong>older</strong> adults<br />
<strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g realistic expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about their own progress.<br />
PAGE 44
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
• Positive re<strong>in</strong>forcement strategies <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
the likelihood of ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
of an activity. Examples of effective-re<strong>in</strong>forcement<br />
strategies <strong>in</strong>clude recruitment<br />
<strong>in</strong>centives, rewards for reach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
targeted goal, and public recogniti<strong>on</strong> for<br />
attendance and adherence.<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental modificati<strong>on</strong>: There is now<br />
good evidence that home-hazard assessment<br />
and modificati<strong>on</strong> that is professi<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
prescribed for <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s with a<br />
history of fall<strong>in</strong>g is effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
risk. However, the value of home visits<br />
and home-hazard assessments <strong>in</strong> low-risk<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s is less clear. Am<strong>on</strong>g the factors<br />
addressed <strong>in</strong> a typical-home visit <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
the assessment and improvement of light<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
the identificati<strong>on</strong> and removal of rugs<br />
and other trip hazards, and the <strong>in</strong>stallati<strong>on</strong><br />
of rail<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>on</strong> staircases <strong>in</strong> bathrooms<br />
and toilets. The value of systematic hazard<br />
assessment and <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> has also been<br />
shown to be effective <strong>in</strong> decreas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> retirement homes and seniors centers<br />
where large numbers of <strong>in</strong>dividuals with<br />
elevated risk live or regularly visit.<br />
There is grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
impact of community level <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
designed to identify and correct envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
hazards that reduce physical and<br />
social activity and <strong>in</strong>crease the risk of <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s fall<strong>in</strong>g. Am<strong>on</strong>g the envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
hazards assessed <strong>in</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>mental audits<br />
and “walkability” assessments are: unsafe<br />
sidewalks, poorly lit roadways, and <strong>in</strong>accessible<br />
or unsafe neighborhoods. Although<br />
evidence of the impact of envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
changes <strong>on</strong> the <strong>in</strong>cidence of <strong>falls</strong> and the<br />
number of fall-related <strong>in</strong>juries is <strong>in</strong>sufficient<br />
to draw def<strong>in</strong>itive c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s, these<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s show promise and additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
research is necessary to shed more light <strong>on</strong><br />
the relati<strong>on</strong>ship between envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
changes and both fall risk and actual <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
<strong>Health</strong> management: There is good evidence<br />
that access to appropriate and affordable<br />
medical care can significantly impact<br />
health and quality of life as well as decrease<br />
the likelihood of develop<strong>in</strong>g n<strong>on</strong>communicable<br />
diseases. Because <strong>older</strong> people<br />
are more likely to suffer from a variety of<br />
chr<strong>on</strong>ic c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s, their access to medical<br />
care is especially important and can<br />
make the difference between early detecti<strong>on</strong><br />
and timely <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>, and delayed<br />
and/or n<strong>on</strong>-existent treatment and care. In<br />
the area of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>, the accurate<br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> of <strong>in</strong>dividuals at high risk<br />
for fall<strong>in</strong>g is an important element <strong>in</strong> the<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> of the evidence-based <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
with the greatest chance of a positive<br />
outcome. There is evidence that identify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
patients who attend accident and emergency<br />
departments after <strong>falls</strong>, and referr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them for subsequent therapy significantly<br />
reduces subsequent <strong>falls</strong>.<br />
PAGE 45
Older pers<strong>on</strong>s are more likely than younger<br />
people to need and use medicati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Unfortunately, medicati<strong>on</strong>s are often either<br />
unavailable or over-prescribed <strong>in</strong> this<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>. Averse drug-related reacti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
polypharmacy, and c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong>duced by<br />
psychotropic medicati<strong>on</strong> are all associated<br />
with an <strong>in</strong>creased risk of <strong>falls</strong> and fallrelated<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries. <strong>Health</strong> care strategies that<br />
require regular and systematic review of<br />
prescripti<strong>on</strong> and over-the counter medicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
have been shown to decrease the<br />
number of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> adult populati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Because visual impairments, especially<br />
poor c<strong>on</strong>trast sensitivity and poor depth<br />
percepti<strong>on</strong>, have been shown to be significant<br />
risk factors for fall<strong>in</strong>g and fall-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />
<strong>in</strong>juries, regular visual exam<strong>in</strong>ati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
appropriate follow-up as necessary can be<br />
beneficial <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> adults.<br />
Physical activity: The WHO Heidelberg<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Physical Activity for Older<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>s recommend that virtually all <strong>older</strong><br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s should participate <strong>in</strong> physical<br />
activity <strong>on</strong> a regular basis. There are well<br />
established physiological, psychological,<br />
and social benefits associated with participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> physical activity. Furthermore,<br />
regular physical activity is associated with a<br />
significant decrease <strong>in</strong> risk for most n<strong>on</strong>communicable<br />
diseases. With respect to<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>, regular physical activity<br />
has been shown to prevent and/or lower an<br />
<strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>’s risk for fall<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> community<br />
and home sett<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
For healthy <strong>older</strong> adults at low risk for<br />
<strong>falls</strong>, engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a broad range of physical<br />
activities <strong>on</strong> a regular basis is likely to be<br />
sufficient to substantially reduce the risk of<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>trast, <strong>older</strong> adults at higher risk for<br />
<strong>falls</strong> will benefit from engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> structured<br />
exercise programmes that systematically<br />
target the risk factors amenable to<br />
change and are progressed at a rate that is<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed by the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s capabilities<br />
and previous experience with physical activity.<br />
Older adults identified at the highest<br />
risk for <strong>falls</strong> will benefit from an <strong>in</strong>dividually-tailored<br />
exercise programme that is<br />
embedded with<strong>in</strong> a larger multifactorial<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> approach. In these populati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
regular strength and balance exercises,<br />
such as, Tai Chi programmes have<br />
been shown to be effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
risk of both n<strong>on</strong>-<strong>in</strong>jurious and <strong>in</strong>jurious<br />
<strong>falls</strong>. Additi<strong>on</strong>al research is necessary to<br />
quantify the optimum type, frequency,<br />
durati<strong>on</strong>, and <strong>in</strong>tensity of exercise needed<br />
to produce the maximum benefit. Because<br />
regular physical activity provides substantial<br />
health-related benefits and it is cheap,<br />
safe, and readily available, it is likely that<br />
physical activity programmes will play a<br />
major role <strong>in</strong> the preventi<strong>on</strong>, treatment,<br />
and management of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> most countries<br />
and cultures.<br />
PAGE 46
Who global <str<strong>on</strong>g>report</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>older</strong> age<br />
4. The way forward:<br />
The WHO Falls Preventi<strong>on</strong> for Active<br />
<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g model provides an acti<strong>on</strong> plan for<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g progress <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g the prevalence<br />
of <strong>falls</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>older</strong> adult populati<strong>on</strong>. By<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>on</strong> the three pillars of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the model proposes specific strategies<br />
for:<br />
1. build<strong>in</strong>g awareness of the importance of<br />
<strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and treatment;<br />
2. improv<strong>in</strong>g the assessment of <strong>in</strong>dividual,<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental, and societal factors that<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease the likelihood of <strong>falls</strong>; and<br />
3. for facilitat<strong>in</strong>g the design and implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
of culturally-appropriate,<br />
evidence-based <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that will<br />
significantly reduce the number of <strong>falls</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g <strong>older</strong> pers<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
The model provides strategies and soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that will require the engagement of multiple<br />
sectors of society. It is dependent <strong>on</strong> and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the visi<strong>on</strong> articulated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
WHO Active <strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g Policy Framework.<br />
Although not all of the awareness, assessment,<br />
and <strong>in</strong>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies identified<br />
<strong>in</strong> the model apply equally well <strong>in</strong> all<br />
regi<strong>on</strong>s of the world, there are significant<br />
evidence-based strategies that can be effectively<br />
implemented <strong>in</strong> all regi<strong>on</strong>s and<br />
cultures. The degree to which progress<br />
will be made depends <strong>on</strong> to the success <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> strategies <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the overall health and social care agendas<br />
globally. In order to do this effectively, it is<br />
necessary to identify and implement culturally<br />
appropriate, evidence-based policies<br />
and procedures. This requires multisectoral<br />
collaborati<strong>on</strong>s, str<strong>on</strong>g commitment to public<br />
and professi<strong>on</strong>al educati<strong>on</strong>, <strong>in</strong>teracti<strong>on</strong><br />
based <strong>on</strong> evidence drawn from a variety of<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al, complementary, and alternative<br />
sources. Although the understand<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
the evidence-base is grow<strong>in</strong>g, there is much<br />
that is not yet understood. Thus, there is<br />
an urgent need for c<strong>on</strong>t<strong>in</strong>ued research <strong>in</strong><br />
all areas of <strong>falls</strong> preventi<strong>on</strong> and treatment<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to better understand the scope of<br />
the problem worldwide. In particular, more<br />
evidence of the cost-effectiveness of <strong>in</strong>terc<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
is needed to develop strategies<br />
that are most likely to be effective <strong>in</strong> specific<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g and populati<strong>on</strong> sub-groups.<br />
While this is an ambitious plan, it is atta<strong>in</strong>able.<br />
A tangible difference <strong>in</strong> the health and<br />
quality of life of <strong>older</strong> people around the<br />
world could be achieved by implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a comprehensive global strategy to reduce<br />
<strong>falls</strong>.<br />
PAGE 47
<strong>Age</strong><strong>in</strong>g and Life Course<br />
Family and Community <strong>Health</strong><br />
<strong>World</strong> <strong>Health</strong> Organizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Avenue Appia 20<br />
CH-1211 Geneva 27<br />
Switzerland<br />
E-mail: activeage<strong>in</strong>g@who.<strong>in</strong>t<br />
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