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The Rule <strong>of</strong> Thirty-One: Realizing 1/4-Comma<br />
Meantone Tuning on Fretted Instruments.<br />
MICHAEL KUDIRKA<br />
The question <strong>of</strong> where to position <strong>the</strong> frets on lutes and viols has been a source <strong>of</strong> debate not only<br />
for musicologists and modern performers, but also for musicians <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sixteenth century. This<br />
period witnessed a change in practice spearheaded by Zarlino to include new consonances based on<br />
higher ratios <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> overtone series. The resultant practice <strong>of</strong> consonant 3rds and 6ths required <strong>the</strong><br />
pythagorean tuning system to be updated in order to sweeten its stridently wide major 3rds and<br />
10ths. While <strong>the</strong> new meantone temperament seems to have been widely adopted by keyboardists,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is really no agreement as to how fretted string players handled <strong>the</strong> tuning system. In fact, a<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> approximation <strong>of</strong> equal temperament was developed by Vincenzo Galilei to simplify <strong>the</strong><br />
issue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lute’s tuning. This has led many to conclude that all lute music was intended for 12-tone<br />
equal temperament by <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> century. This idea has <strong>of</strong>ten been confirmed by <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>oretical and technical difficulties in understanding how meantone temperament works on fretted<br />
instruments, an issue that has been fur<strong>the</strong>r obfuscated by <strong>the</strong> countless conceptual and ma<strong>the</strong>matical<br />
errors that exist in meantone fretting instructions from <strong>the</strong> time. To encourage <strong>the</strong> notion that a<br />
great deal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fretted string music functions perfectly well in 1/4 comma meantone, I aim to<br />
discuss <strong>the</strong> tuning system from a <strong>the</strong>oretical standpoint, review <strong>the</strong> extant literature on <strong>the</strong> subject,<br />
and finally to propose a fully functional method <strong>of</strong> achieving true 1/4 comma meantone tuning on<br />
lutes, viols, vihuelas, and <strong>the</strong>orbos.<br />
Overview <strong>of</strong> Meantone Temperament<br />
When speaking <strong>of</strong> meantone temperament, I am referring to what is <strong>of</strong>ten called “1/4 comma<br />
meantone”. This is a tuning system first hinted at by Gafurius in 1496 and Grammateus in 1518,
ut not fully described until <strong>the</strong> publication <strong>of</strong> Pietro Aron’s Toscanello in musica (Venice, 1523) 1 . This<br />
tuning system is a modification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earlier system <strong>of</strong> pythagorean tuning, in which a chain <strong>of</strong><br />
pure fifths is stacked to generate <strong>the</strong> pitches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> diatonic scale. While this tuning was appropriate<br />
for <strong>the</strong> consonant 4ths, 5ths, and octaves <strong>of</strong> 15th century music, <strong>the</strong> resultant “wide” major third<br />
sounds harsh in <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> 16th century polyphony with its pervasive use <strong>of</strong> 3rds and 6ths. The<br />
difference between a pythagorean third (<strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> four ascending perfect 5ths) and an<br />
acoustically pure major third is called <strong>the</strong> syntonic comma, and is equivalent to 21.51 cents 2 . To<br />
generate euphonious thirds (5:4), <strong>the</strong> meantone temperament alters <strong>the</strong> pythagorean system by<br />
“narrowing” <strong>the</strong> fifths, each by 1/4 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> syntonic comma. Dy definition, <strong>the</strong> narrowing <strong>of</strong> each<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se fifths by 1/4 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> syntonic comma causes <strong>the</strong> fifth note <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chain (<strong>the</strong> fourth interval)<br />
to fall exactly on an acoustically pure third.<br />
In Figure 1, this adaptation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pythagorean chain <strong>of</strong> fifths can be seen referenced from a pitch<br />
center <strong>of</strong> “A”, extending outward into sharps on <strong>the</strong> right, and flats on <strong>the</strong> left. For compactness,<br />
<strong>the</strong> chain <strong>of</strong> fifths is here seen as fifths alternating with fourths. Note that an ascending fifth<br />
narrowed from pure by a 1/4 comma is equivalent to a descending fourth widened from pure by a<br />
1/4 comma.<br />
Figure 1. Chain <strong>of</strong> 1/4 comma fifths and fourths.<br />
In this figure one may take any succession <strong>of</strong> four neighboring intervals to find a pure major third<br />
(C-flat to E-flat, A-flat to C, A to C-sharp, F-sharp to A-sharp, etc.). One important property <strong>of</strong><br />
this system is that, unlike 12-tone Equal Temperament, <strong>the</strong> chain does not “close” after 12 pitches.<br />
In fact, because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> flattening <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifth, <strong>the</strong> series flattens as it progresses, and “undershoots”<br />
<strong>the</strong> octave (C-flat to B is less than an octave). This is in contrast to <strong>the</strong> pythagorean chain <strong>of</strong> pure<br />
1 Barbour, J. Murray. Tuning and Temperament: A Historical Survey. East Lansing: Michigan State Press,<br />
1951. p. 25-26.<br />
2 Greated, Clive. “Comma.” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.
fifths which actually “overshoots” <strong>the</strong> octave (C-flat to B is greater than an octave). Of <strong>the</strong> three<br />
most common “regular” temperaments (temperaments in which all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifths are <strong>the</strong> same size),<br />
only Equal Temperament “closes” with 12 and only 12 unique pitches. This is significant for<br />
performers because an “open” chain <strong>of</strong> fifths can (<strong>the</strong>oretically) extend outward into sharps,<br />
double-sharps, triple sharps, etc. in one direction, and flats, double flats, triple flats, etc. in <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
direction ad infinitum.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> physical limitations <strong>of</strong> acoustic instruments make this infinite spiral impossible to realize<br />
in sound, it should not <strong>the</strong>n be assumed that realizing at least some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> so-called “enharmonic<br />
equivalents” is impossible. In fact, our earliest extant fretting document comes from <strong>the</strong> ninthcentury<br />
<strong>the</strong>orist Al-Kindī. His instructions for fretting <strong>the</strong> ‘ud is pythagorean, and generates<br />
sounding pitches beyond a chain <strong>of</strong> twelve fifths 3 . Even seven centuries later, <strong>the</strong> vihuelist Juan<br />
Bermudo called for split frets in his detailed instructions for a pythagorean fretting scheme 4 .<br />
This subtle difference in pitch between between <strong>the</strong> “enharmonic equivalents” generates ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
surprising phenomenon: since <strong>the</strong>re are (at least) two unique pitches between a given whole-tone,<br />
<strong>the</strong> semi-tones must <strong>the</strong>refor be unequal. In a pythagorean chain <strong>of</strong> fifths, <strong>the</strong> “overshooting” <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> octave causes <strong>the</strong> “sharped” notes to sound higher in pitch than <strong>the</strong>ir enharmonics on <strong>the</strong> flatside<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chain. Conversely, in <strong>the</strong> chain <strong>of</strong> meantone fifths, <strong>the</strong> “undershooting” <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> octave<br />
causes <strong>the</strong> “sharped” notes to sound lower in pitch compared to <strong>the</strong>ir flat-keyed neighbors. In <strong>the</strong><br />
meantone system, <strong>the</strong> smaller semitone is called <strong>the</strong> minor semitone (or chromatic semitone), while<br />
<strong>the</strong> larger is called <strong>the</strong> major semitone (or diatonic semitone).<br />
Primary Sources for Fretting Schemes on <strong>the</strong> Lute and Viola da Gamba<br />
While tuning instructions abound for keyboard instruments from <strong>the</strong> 16th century, treatises on<br />
fretting schemes are relatively rare. One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first comprehensive guides comes from <strong>the</strong><br />
aforementioned Juan Bermudo (1555). The musicologist Wolfgang Freis notes that Bermudo’s<br />
Declaración de instrumentos musicales <strong>of</strong> 1555 represents <strong>the</strong> work <strong>of</strong> a <strong>the</strong>oretician more than a that <strong>of</strong><br />
a practical musician 5 . His pythagorean tuning scheme, as well as his invention <strong>of</strong> a completely new<br />
3 Lindley, Mark. Lutes, Viols and Temperaments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 9.<br />
4 ibid. p. 17-18<br />
5 Freis, Wolfgang. “Perfecting <strong>the</strong> Perfect Instrument: Fray Juan Bermudo on <strong>the</strong> Tuning and Temperament<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘vihuela de mano’.” Early Music, Vol. 23, No. 3, Iberian Discoveries III (Aug., 1995). p. 421-435.
7-course vihuela da mano lacking <strong>the</strong> interior Major 3rd, seem utterly unsuited to <strong>the</strong> euphonious<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> contemporary music by his countrymen Luis Milan and Miguel de Fuenllana, and<br />
apparently had no real impact on performers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time 6 .<br />
While Bermudo seems like an isolated <strong>the</strong>oretician, Luis Milan was his exact opposite, a practically<br />
minded player and composer who gave meantone tuning instructions in perfect accord with his own<br />
compositions. A thorough analysis <strong>of</strong> Milan’s El Maestro by Antonio Corona-Alcade in 1991 shows<br />
that Milan’s fret placement was quite specifically connected to <strong>the</strong> mode <strong>of</strong> a given Fantasia 7 .<br />
Specifically, Milan prefaces each Fantasia with information about which mode <strong>the</strong> piece uses, and<br />
also instructions as to how to adjust <strong>the</strong> frets so that <strong>the</strong> major and minor semi-tones are arrayed in<br />
<strong>the</strong> correct sequence on <strong>the</strong> fingerboard. While this is invaluable for determining Milan’s use <strong>of</strong><br />
meantone temperament, unfortunately, <strong>the</strong> instructions use language which is non-ma<strong>the</strong>matical. In<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r words, he specifies when frets should be moved to ei<strong>the</strong>r “mi” or “fa” positions, but fails to<br />
provide a detailed ma<strong>the</strong>matical system by which <strong>the</strong>se placements can be found. The only fret<br />
whose physical placement along <strong>the</strong> plane <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fingerboard is unambiguous is <strong>the</strong> IVth. This fret<br />
generates <strong>the</strong> Major 3rd above <strong>the</strong> open string and must make a unison between <strong>the</strong> fretted fourth<br />
course and <strong>the</strong> open 3rd course. This interval, when tuned pure, forces all <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r open strings to<br />
be tuned as wide fourths (1/4 comma) to cycle back properly to <strong>the</strong> outer strings which are exactly 2<br />
octaves apart (an un-negotiable interval in any temperament).<br />
Figure 2. Open strings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vihuela da mano.<br />
Figure 2 shows that <strong>the</strong>re are exactly four fourths that when stacked can generate a pure major third<br />
if each is widened by a 1/4 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> syntonic comma. In this way, <strong>the</strong> open strings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vihuela, and<br />
for that matter <strong>the</strong> lute (which has <strong>the</strong> same tuning scheme), inherently requires tempering <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
6 ibid. p. 432.<br />
7 Corona-Alcade, Antonio. “‘You Will Raise a Little Your 4th Fret’: An Equivocal Instruction by Luis Milan?.”<br />
The Galpin Society Journal. Vol. 44 (Mar., 1991). p. 2-45.
fourths to avoid a discordantly wide third between <strong>the</strong> open 4th and 3rd courses 8 . Once this pure<br />
third is tuned (by ear), <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> fourth fret can be placed to give a true unison between <strong>the</strong> fretted<br />
4th course and <strong>the</strong> open 3rd course. The net result is a fourth fret that is exactly 4/5ths <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
distance from <strong>the</strong> bridge to <strong>the</strong> nut.<br />
The tuning scheme <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se open strings exactly reflects <strong>the</strong> one encountered when tuning <strong>the</strong> open<br />
strings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> violin family. As Ross Duffin has noted, to create a pure major 3rd between <strong>the</strong> low<br />
“C” <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> viola and <strong>the</strong> high “E” <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> violin, each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fifths must be narrowed a a quarter <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> syntonic comma.<br />
Figure 3. Open Strings <strong>of</strong> viola and violin (adapted from Duffin, 2007) 9 .<br />
Clearly, <strong>the</strong> lute and vihuela tuning is related to <strong>the</strong> violin and viola’s tuning by a process <strong>of</strong> inversion<br />
and octave displacement. Fundamentally, <strong>the</strong> outer thirds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> viola and violin are transferred to<br />
<strong>the</strong> inner pair <strong>of</strong> strings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lute while <strong>the</strong> stack <strong>of</strong> narrow fifths is inverted to a stack <strong>of</strong> wide<br />
4ths.<br />
Two major figures who gave more specific instructions for meantone fretting than Luis Milan were<br />
Hans Gerle (1532) and Silvestro Ganassi (1543). Both make <strong>the</strong> mistake <strong>of</strong> placing <strong>the</strong>ir fifth and<br />
seventh frets at pythagorean ratios (3/4 from <strong>the</strong> bridge and 2/3 from <strong>the</strong> bridge respectively), but<br />
Lindley dismisses this as a mistake common to all but <strong>the</strong> equal semi-tone fretting instructions <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sixteenth century. Lindley states that “<strong>the</strong>se rudimentary steps were so hoary with authority -<br />
and so easy to execute and <strong>the</strong>n modify with a slight adjustment by ear - that <strong>the</strong>y should be<br />
8 Lindley, Mark. “Luis Milan and Meantone Temperament.” Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lute Society <strong>of</strong> America. xi<br />
(1978). p. 45.<br />
9 Duffin, Ross. How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony (and Why You Should Care). New York: W.W.<br />
Norton & Company, 2007).
discounted if o<strong>the</strong>r parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fretting are contrary to pythagorean intonation.” 10 . Gerle’s<br />
instructions seem to imply 1/6 meantone, while Ganassi may have intended true 1/4 comma<br />
meantone based on his injunction to tune <strong>the</strong> 5ths to match those <strong>of</strong> keyboard instruments, which<br />
were likely to have been in 1/4 comma at that time 11 . Despite <strong>the</strong> numerous errors and convoluted<br />
instructions, both Gerle and Ganassi clearly distinguish between <strong>the</strong> major and minor semi-tones in<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir fretting scheme, though <strong>the</strong>y fail to give much <strong>the</strong>oretical information as to why <strong>the</strong>y chose<br />
certain frets to function as “mi” frets and o<strong>the</strong>rs as “fa”. Because <strong>of</strong> this, <strong>the</strong>ir fretting may function<br />
well for <strong>the</strong> pieces contained in <strong>the</strong>ir respective treatises, but don’t give <strong>the</strong> player many tools for<br />
altering <strong>the</strong>ir fretting based on where <strong>the</strong>y might want to terminate <strong>the</strong>ir circle <strong>of</strong> fifths (i.e. toward<br />
<strong>the</strong> flat side or <strong>the</strong> sharp side).<br />
Perhaps <strong>the</strong> most renowned <strong>of</strong> all writers on lute temperament in <strong>the</strong> sixteenth-century was<br />
Vincenzo Galilei. In his lengthy treatise Fronimo (1584), he proposes an early approximation <strong>of</strong> 12-<br />
tone equal temperament. Ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> major and minor semitones that occur in both <strong>the</strong><br />
pythagorean and meantone temperaments, Galilei gives a method for placing <strong>the</strong> frets based on <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>rule</strong> <strong>of</strong> 18:17. This is a method whereby <strong>the</strong> lutenist marks <strong>of</strong>f 1/18th <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> string length to get<br />
<strong>the</strong> next higher semitone. This is repeated again from <strong>the</strong> 1st fret to <strong>the</strong> 2nd fret, <strong>the</strong> 3rd to <strong>the</strong> 4th,<br />
and so on to generate a geometric progression <strong>of</strong> equally sounding semitones. In fact, 18:17 is<br />
ma<strong>the</strong>matically smaller <strong>the</strong> a true “twelfth root <strong>of</strong> 2”, but this difference is neatly compensated for<br />
by <strong>the</strong> increase in pitch as <strong>the</strong> string is depressed down to <strong>the</strong> fingerboard. There is evidence that<br />
Vincenzo’s method was widely adopted and put to use, even to <strong>the</strong> point where it seems that lutes<br />
and keyboards could not play euphoniously toge<strong>the</strong>r. Around 1640 Giovanni Battista Doni claimed<br />
that <strong>the</strong>re were two different temperaments in use: one for fretted instruments, and one for<br />
keyboards 12 . The discrepancy was not simply a seventeenth-century phenomenon. As early as 1555<br />
Vincentino remarked that when lutes and viols played with keyboard instruments that divided <strong>the</strong><br />
whole-tone unequally, <strong>the</strong>y were never quite in tune toge<strong>the</strong>r. Approximately twenty years later<br />
Giovanni de’ Bardi wrote to Caccini: “More than once I have felt like laughing when I saw musicians<br />
struggling to put a lute or viol into proper tune with a keyboard instrument ... Until now this highly<br />
important matter has gone unnoticed or, if noticed, unremedied.” 13 By saying “until now” (“fino a<br />
questo giorno”) Bardi seems to imply that up until <strong>the</strong> time he wrote <strong>the</strong> letter, <strong>the</strong>re was no solution,<br />
10 Lindley, Mark. Lutes, Viols and Temperaments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 58.<br />
11 ibid. p. 61<br />
12 ibid. p. 47<br />
13 ibid. p. 44
implying, perhaps, that someone had recently found one. As to what that might be, we’re not sure.<br />
Perhaps it involved a new, proper meantone tuning method for <strong>the</strong> lute, or perhaps tuning <strong>the</strong><br />
keyboards in accordance with <strong>the</strong> lute (a process derided by Jean Denis in <strong>the</strong> 1640’s), or possibly<br />
using continuo orchestrations that kept <strong>the</strong> lutes and viols always separated from <strong>the</strong> keyboards and<br />
harps.<br />
While Vincenzo Galilei’s 18:17 equal semitone is highly functional and reliable it does create ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
wide Major 3rds and can make simultaneous performance with a keyboard a painful experience. It<br />
seems possible that Galilei, Bardi, and <strong>the</strong> many o<strong>the</strong>r advocates for equal-tempered lutes in <strong>the</strong> 16th<br />
century were ei<strong>the</strong>r unaware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lute’s potential to achieve true meantone tuning, or were unable<br />
to execute <strong>the</strong> more difficult ma<strong>the</strong>matical calculations necessary to find <strong>the</strong> fret locations (though<br />
this seems unlikely in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Galilei). His complaint seems to be that he finds <strong>the</strong> tastini (little<br />
frets), to be a cumbersome annoyance. The (fictional) student Eumatio asks his teacher Fronimo:<br />
“why don’t you use, on your lute, frets spaced to give unequal intervals, and some additional little<br />
frets to take from <strong>the</strong> major 3rds and 10ths some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir acuteness, as I have seen used by some<br />
[players] ...” 14 These “little frets” can effectively split a given fret at one location and raise or lower<br />
<strong>the</strong> intonation to generate a “mi” fret on one course where <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r courses require a “fa” fret.<br />
Even as late as <strong>the</strong> mid-seventeenth century Jean Denis recommended that lutes use little ivory frets<br />
(“touches d’yuoire”) to allow for <strong>the</strong> staggered “mi” “fa” frets in a given position across different<br />
strings 15 .<br />
1/4-Comma Meantone Fretting for <strong>the</strong> Modern Performer<br />
Perhaps <strong>the</strong> most helpful model for achieving 1/4 coma meantone on <strong>the</strong> lute is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-<br />
division octave. This system divides <strong>the</strong> octave into <strong>31</strong> equal steps and corresponds to <strong>the</strong> pitch<br />
ratios <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1/4 meantone temperament 16 . The correspondence is not exact however, though it<br />
does approximate it to within fractions <strong>of</strong> a cent (well within <strong>the</strong> bounds <strong>of</strong> human perception<br />
based on biologically determined psychoacoustic constants). Using <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division method, <strong>the</strong><br />
minor semitone is two steps wide while <strong>the</strong> major semitone is three steps wide. A whole tone is thus<br />
5 steps wide, and <strong>the</strong> difference between enharmonic “equivalents” is 1 step wide, 1/<strong>31</strong>st <strong>of</strong> an<br />
14 ibid. p. 46<br />
15 ibid. p. 47<br />
16 Duffin, Ross. How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony (and Why You Should Care). New York: W.W.<br />
Norton & Company, 2007). p. 55.
octave, or 38.71 cents. Similarly, <strong>the</strong> Major 3rd is 387.1 cents wide, compared to <strong>the</strong> just Major 3rd<br />
which is 386.3 cents 17 . The octave in <strong>31</strong>-division can be visualized as a wheel with <strong>31</strong> spokes. Note<br />
that all pure Major 3rds are 10 steps apart.<br />
Figure 4. Pitch Wheel <strong>of</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division octave with meantone congruities.<br />
This fine-grained equally-divided octave closes <strong>the</strong> infinite loop <strong>of</strong> ascending fifths, albeit ra<strong>the</strong>r late<br />
in <strong>the</strong> cycle (F-double-sharp is at step 25, and F-triple-sharp at step 27 which finally lines up with its<br />
true enharmonic equivalent A-double-flat). These obviously ridiculous extensions into chromatic<br />
deep-space combined with <strong>the</strong> psychoacoustic indistinguishability between <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division Major 3rd<br />
17 ibid. p. 163.
and <strong>the</strong> Just Major 3rd, make this system a perfect candidate to be <strong>the</strong> basis <strong>of</strong> a 1/4 comma fretting<br />
scheme. In a way, it’s not unlike Vincenzo Galilei’s equal tempered system, only that <strong>the</strong> gradations<br />
are much finer, and many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> intervening “steps” are skipped to generate <strong>the</strong> major and minor<br />
semitones.<br />
Step-By-Step Guide for Meantone Fretting<br />
First <strong>the</strong> player must find <strong>the</strong> string length from which to calculate <strong>the</strong> divisions. Treatises from <strong>the</strong><br />
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries instruct one to use <strong>the</strong> complete distance from <strong>the</strong> nut to <strong>the</strong><br />
bridge. There is a serious problem with this method however. As one frets notes onto <strong>the</strong><br />
fingerboard, <strong>the</strong> string is stretched slightly, causing an increase in tension, and thus, an increase in<br />
pitch. The increase is a non-trivial amount and can throw <strong>the</strong> series <strong>of</strong> geometrically calculated<br />
major and minor semi-tones into complete disarray. To compensate for this, I recommend applying<br />
a technique proposed by Eugen Dombois 18 . Dombois’ technique is to find what he calls <strong>the</strong><br />
“playing scale”. This is a length slightly shorter than <strong>the</strong> complete length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> string. Using this<br />
slightly shorter length for <strong>the</strong> calculations will cause <strong>the</strong> fret placement to be shifted minutely in <strong>the</strong><br />
direction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nut (away from <strong>the</strong> bridge). Thus, when fretting a note, <strong>the</strong> increase in pitch from<br />
depressing <strong>the</strong> string will be compensated for by <strong>the</strong> subtly longer sounding length. Unfortunately,<br />
Dombois’ recommendation entails a trial-and-error method which requires one to calculate all <strong>the</strong><br />
fret positions, place <strong>the</strong>m, and <strong>the</strong>n judge <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> temperament by ear. This laborious<br />
process can be simplified by <strong>the</strong> following method: play <strong>the</strong> 3rd partial on <strong>the</strong> 6th course. This<br />
harmonic can be found at 1/3 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> string length from <strong>the</strong> nut and will produce a pitch one octave<br />
and a fifth above <strong>the</strong> open string. Slide your VIIth fret to a position directly under where <strong>the</strong><br />
harmonic is found, but <strong>the</strong>n adjust it so that <strong>the</strong> pitch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fretted note matches <strong>the</strong> pitch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
harmonic (though an octave lower). You will find that <strong>the</strong> position <strong>of</strong> this fret is slightly closer to<br />
<strong>the</strong> nut than <strong>the</strong> position <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> harmonic. Multiply <strong>the</strong> distance from <strong>the</strong> nut to this repositioned<br />
VIIth fret by 3 to get <strong>the</strong> “sounding length”. This distance will be slightly shorter than <strong>the</strong> true<br />
distance from <strong>the</strong> nut to <strong>the</strong> bridge, though how much shorter will vary from one instrument to <strong>the</strong><br />
next.<br />
18 Dombois, Eugen. “Correct and easy fret placement.” Journal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Lute Society <strong>of</strong> America. vi (1973). p.<br />
<strong>31</strong>.
Using <strong>the</strong> adjusted measurement, multiply <strong>the</strong> “sounding length” by each “string length factor” in<br />
Figure 5. The factors are derived by a similar formula as that which finds 12-tone equal tempered<br />
intervals, except instead <strong>of</strong> finding <strong>the</strong> 12th root <strong>of</strong> 2, we find <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>st root <strong>of</strong> 2.<br />
F = (2 1/<strong>31</strong> ) n ÷ 220hz<br />
In this formula, “F” is <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> note, “n” is <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scale you are looking for<br />
(0-<strong>31</strong>), and 220hz is <strong>the</strong> “pitch center” <strong>of</strong> your quarter-comma system (see “Figure 1). This can be<br />
any frequency, but in <strong>the</strong> example, 220hz is used. The resultant frequencies for all <strong>the</strong> degrees <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-note division can <strong>the</strong>n be translated into string length factors by dividing <strong>the</strong> fundamental<br />
frequency by <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pitch above it:<br />
“string length factor” = 220hz ÷ F<br />
Then simply multiply each “string length factor” by <strong>the</strong> total “sounding length” to get <strong>the</strong> distance<br />
from <strong>the</strong> bridge to <strong>the</strong> nut.<br />
“distance from bridge to fret” = “string length factor” × “sounding length”<br />
Here it is important, though, not to place frets based on <strong>the</strong> measurement from <strong>the</strong> bridge, because<br />
we are working from an imaginary bridge (to compensate for pitch sharpening). You must subtract<br />
<strong>the</strong> new sounding length from <strong>the</strong> total sounding length to get <strong>the</strong> distance from <strong>the</strong> nut.<br />
“distance from nut to fret” = “sounding length” − “distance from bridge to fret”<br />
The data from <strong>the</strong>se calculations is summarized in <strong>the</strong> following chart. A lute with a “sounding<br />
length” <strong>of</strong> 650mm was used, though <strong>the</strong> true distance from nut to bridge was in fact 655mm. Also,<br />
<strong>the</strong> open 3rd course (pitch “A” 220hz) was used as a reference, but due to <strong>the</strong> equal-division system,<br />
any pitch may be used with position “0” as <strong>the</strong> root.<br />
Note Name<br />
Step Number<br />
(n)<br />
Frequency (F)<br />
(in Hertz)<br />
String length<br />
factor<br />
Distance from<br />
bridge to nut<br />
Distance from<br />
nut (D)<br />
A 0 220.0 1 650 0<br />
1 225.0 0.9778 635.6 14.4<br />
A# 2 230.1 0.9561 621.5 28.5<br />
Bb 3 235.3 0.9349 607.7 42.3
Note Name<br />
Step Number<br />
(n)<br />
Frequency (F)<br />
(in Hertz)<br />
String length<br />
factor<br />
Distance from<br />
bridge to nut<br />
Distance from<br />
nut (D)<br />
4 240.6 0.9141 594.2 55.8<br />
B 5 246.0 0.8943 581.3 68.7<br />
6 251.6 0.8744 568.4 81.6<br />
7 257.3 0.8550 555.8 94.2<br />
C 8 263.1 0.8362 543.5 106.5<br />
9 269.0 0.8178 5<strong>31</strong>.6 118.4<br />
C# 10 275.1 0.7997 519.8 130.2<br />
Db 11 281.3 0.7821 508.4 141.6<br />
12 287.7 0.7647 497.1 152.9<br />
D 13 294.2 0.7478 486.1 163.9<br />
14 300.9 0.7<strong>31</strong>1 475.2 174.8<br />
D# 15 307.7 0.7150 464.8 185.2<br />
Eb 16 <strong>31</strong>4.6 0.6993 454.5 195.5<br />
17 321.7 0.6839 444.5 205.5<br />
E 18 329.0 0.6687 434.7 215.3<br />
19 336.5 0.6538 425.0 225.0<br />
20 344.1 0.6393 415.5 234.5<br />
F 21 351.8 0.6254 406.5 243.5<br />
22 359.8 0.6115 397.5 252.5<br />
F# 23 367.9 0.5980 388.7 261.3<br />
Gb 24 376.3 0.5846 380.0 270.0<br />
25 384.8 0.5717 371.6 278.4<br />
G 26 393.5 0.5591 363.4 286.6<br />
27 402.4 0.5467 355.4 294.6<br />
G# 28 411.5 0.5346 347.5 302.5<br />
Ab 29 420.8 0.5228 339.8 <strong>31</strong>0.2<br />
30 430.3 0.5113 332.3 <strong>31</strong>7.7<br />
A <strong>31</strong> 440.0 0.5000 325.0 325.0<br />
Figure 5. Chart <strong>of</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division data, based on a 650mm sounding length.
Note <strong>the</strong> relationship between <strong>the</strong> “A” and <strong>the</strong> “C#”. Here we can ma<strong>the</strong>matically observe <strong>the</strong><br />
imperceptible discrepancy with a pure major third. The pure third would have a frequency <strong>of</strong> 275<br />
Hz, but <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division only misses <strong>the</strong> mark by .1 Hz, that is, it would only beat once every ten<br />
seconds (far longer than any lute string would resonate). Similarly, <strong>the</strong> string length for <strong>the</strong> C#<br />
expressed as a simple ratio would be 4/5 (.8), whereas in <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division system it is .7997, a<br />
difference that is vastly within <strong>the</strong> natural margin <strong>of</strong> error both acoustically and physically<br />
considering <strong>the</strong> minute imperfections <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> string and fret material <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
The next step in finding fret locations on <strong>the</strong> lute is to mark <strong>of</strong>f distances from <strong>the</strong> nut for <strong>the</strong><br />
desired pitches, but to do that, one must first decide which pitches to use. Just as one could<br />
<strong>the</strong>oretically have a plethora <strong>of</strong> split keys on <strong>the</strong> keyboard to account for all <strong>31</strong>-divisions, one could<br />
place enough frets on <strong>the</strong> lute to account for every possible spelling <strong>of</strong> a note. There is no evidence<br />
that sixteenth-century players did this however. Ra<strong>the</strong>r, for practicality, <strong>the</strong>y chose a particular range<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> spiral <strong>of</strong> 1/4 comma fifths to situate <strong>the</strong>ir instrument in. This subset <strong>of</strong> pitches is sometimes<br />
called <strong>the</strong> “disposition” and can be defined by where <strong>the</strong> wolf 5th lies 19 . For practical reasons, <strong>the</strong><br />
disposition <strong>of</strong> a lute is largely dependent on <strong>the</strong> tuning <strong>of</strong> its open strings. By this, I am not<br />
referring to any objective pitch reference but ra<strong>the</strong>r to what Wolfgang Freis calls “imagined<br />
tunings” 20 . This is a process familiar to any performer on a transposing instrument where fingerings<br />
are played as though in a particular key or mode. The functionalities <strong>of</strong> various pitches <strong>the</strong>n are<br />
preserved, though <strong>the</strong> objective pitch standard is not. Considering this, lutes, can be “imagined” to<br />
have any pitch as <strong>the</strong>ir basis for <strong>the</strong> open strings, though, in practice, we find that sixteenth-century<br />
composers used only a limited subset <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> possibilities. For simplicity’s sake, I have included<br />
charts for <strong>the</strong> pitches <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two most common “imagined tunings”, that <strong>of</strong> a lute in “A” and a lute<br />
in “G”. In practice, <strong>the</strong> “A” tuning would be appropriate for <strong>the</strong> vihuela, <strong>the</strong> baroque guitar (minus<br />
<strong>the</strong> 6th course), and <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>orbo. The “G” tuning would be appropriate for <strong>the</strong> Renaissance lute, <strong>the</strong><br />
archlute, and <strong>the</strong> so-called “English” <strong>the</strong>orbo.<br />
19 Lindley, Mark. "Mean-tone." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online.<br />
20 Freis, Wolfgang. “Perfecting <strong>the</strong> Perfect Instrument: Fray Juan Bermudo on <strong>the</strong> Tuning and Temperament<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘vihuela de mano’.” Early Music, Vol. 23, No. 3, Iberian Discoveries III (Aug., 1995). p. 425.
Figure 6. Fret positions for “A” tuning.<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se figures one can see <strong>the</strong> functional difference between <strong>the</strong> “mi” frets and <strong>the</strong> “fa” frets.<br />
“Mi” frets function as leading tones and major thirds <strong>of</strong> triads in general and can be found two steps<br />
(minor semi-tone) in <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division scale above <strong>the</strong> natural pitch <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same same. “Fa” frets are<br />
one step <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division above <strong>the</strong>ir “enharmonic equivalents” and can be found three steps<br />
(major semi-tone) above <strong>the</strong>ir lower diatonic neighbors.<br />
Figure 7. Fret positions for “G” tuning.<br />
The mode or key that a piece is written in will not only define what “imagined tuning” to use, but<br />
also what “disposition” to select. Clearly, figures 6 and 7 show that “mi” positions will favor<br />
dispositions toward <strong>the</strong> sharp end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chain <strong>of</strong> fifths, whereas <strong>the</strong> fa positions will favor<br />
dispositions toward <strong>the</strong> flat end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chain <strong>of</strong> fifths (see figure 1). The positions <strong>of</strong> frets II, III,<br />
IV, V, and VII are invariant since <strong>the</strong>y create octaves and unisons with <strong>the</strong> open strings. Though<br />
Antonio Corona-Alcade has done an exhaustive analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> modes, tunings, and implied<br />
dispositions <strong>of</strong> Luis Milan’s El Maestro, choice <strong>of</strong> disposition for o<strong>the</strong>r sixteenth-century repertoire<br />
must currently by done on an ad hoc basis by <strong>the</strong> performer. Fortunately, a common practice for<br />
modal-polyphonic music on <strong>the</strong> lute and vihuela was to use a mode whose final is identical to one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> open strings. Thus for <strong>the</strong> “A” lute tuning one sees tonic triads <strong>of</strong>:<br />
A Major D Major G Major B Major E Major<br />
A minor D minor G minor B minor E Minor
And for <strong>the</strong> “G” lute tuning:<br />
G Major C Major F Major A Major D Major<br />
G minor C minor F minor A minor D minor<br />
The result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se different “imagined” tunings is that <strong>the</strong> “A” lute will tend to favor sharp key<br />
dispositions, while <strong>the</strong> “G” lute will tend to favor flat key dispositions. With <strong>the</strong> appropriate<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> “mi” and “fa” fret positions, one need only add tastini in a few positions to provide<br />
leading tones in certain modes. The most likely candidate would be a little fret glued in for <strong>the</strong> 4th<br />
course in <strong>the</strong> “mi” position when <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first fret is needed for “fa”. This would be<br />
necessary for <strong>the</strong> F# leading tone in “G Aeolian” on <strong>the</strong> G lute, or similarly, <strong>the</strong> G# leading tone<br />
for “A Aeolian” on <strong>the</strong> A lute. While Vincenzo Galilei seemed to deride this practice <strong>of</strong> gluing in<br />
tastini, his comments in Fronimo strongly suggest that it was a common practice at <strong>the</strong> time 21 .<br />
I’ve found that an effective fretting scheme for much sixteenth-century repertoire consists <strong>of</strong> a “fa”<br />
position for <strong>the</strong> first fret (with a little fret glued or taped in for “mi” on <strong>the</strong> fourth course), and a<br />
“fa” position for <strong>the</strong> sixth fret. Ano<strong>the</strong>r helpful addition would be a little fret glued in one <strong>31</strong>-<br />
division step below <strong>the</strong> third fret to provide a leading tone to <strong>the</strong> open 3rd course. This can be<br />
essential in pieces like Francesco da Milano’s “Fantasia 10” from his third book <strong>of</strong> solo lute pieces.<br />
Figure 8. Fantasia 10 (libro terzo) by Francesco da Milano (opening) 22 .<br />
21 Lindley, Mark. Lutes, Viols and Temperaments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 46.<br />
22 da Milano, Francesco. Libro Terzo. Venice: 1547
Notice how <strong>the</strong> marked “fa” and “mi” pitches occur on <strong>the</strong> inner pair <strong>of</strong> strings on <strong>the</strong> 3rd fret.<br />
Without a little fret for <strong>the</strong> G#, <strong>the</strong> sounding result would be a pure major third (A-flat to C). The<br />
lower G# makes all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> E Major triads sound euphonious and is effective throughout <strong>the</strong> work.<br />
To continue with <strong>the</strong> tutorial, we will use a common disposition for <strong>the</strong> “G” lute, that is, from D-flat<br />
to F-sharp. To begin <strong>the</strong> marking process, first move all frets back to <strong>the</strong> nut:<br />
Figure 9. Lute fingerboard with frets removed.<br />
To find <strong>the</strong> proper locations for <strong>the</strong> frets on <strong>the</strong> fingerboard I recommend taking a sheet <strong>of</strong> paper<br />
and marking <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> series <strong>of</strong> <strong>31</strong> divisions based on calculations from your lute’s “sounding length”.<br />
“Mi” and “fa” placements can <strong>the</strong>n be marked based on <strong>the</strong> appropriate number <strong>of</strong> steps up from<br />
<strong>the</strong> open string (see Figure 4):
Figure 10. Lute fretboard template (reduced size).<br />
The left side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> template corresponds to <strong>the</strong> endpoint <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> string at <strong>the</strong> nut as <strong>the</strong> frets ascend<br />
to <strong>the</strong> right. Small pencil marks can <strong>the</strong>n be made directly on <strong>the</strong> fingerboard at <strong>the</strong> appropriate<br />
locations.<br />
Figure 12. Template aligned to 1st course.
Figure 13. Template aligned to 6th course.<br />
Using <strong>the</strong> pitches for a D-flat to F-sharp disposition we mark <strong>the</strong> 1st fret as “fa”, and <strong>the</strong> 6th fret as<br />
“fa”. We may also include a small dash under <strong>the</strong> fourth course for a “mi” position 1st fret tastini<br />
yielding “F-sharp”, a minor semitone above <strong>the</strong> open string F.<br />
(This space has been left blank intentionally.)
Figure 14. Pencil markings for fret placement.<br />
Figure 15. Frets in place with small piece <strong>of</strong> fret-gut taped under 4th course (tastini).
Once <strong>the</strong> frets are placed, one can tune using <strong>the</strong> familiar method <strong>of</strong> tuning unisons between <strong>the</strong> 5th<br />
fret <strong>of</strong> one particular course to <strong>the</strong> next higher open course (except between courses 3 and 4 which<br />
use <strong>the</strong> 4th fret for <strong>the</strong> pure major 3rd). Consonances can be checked with octaves between an open<br />
course and <strong>the</strong> 7th fret <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> next higher course. Also, octaves can be checked between <strong>the</strong> 2nd<br />
fret <strong>of</strong> courses 6, 5, and 4, and <strong>the</strong> open courses 3, 2, and 1 respectively. In fact, this tuning method<br />
is exactly what Ganassi recommends, though his errors regarding <strong>the</strong> placement <strong>of</strong> frets V and VII<br />
(pythagorean ra<strong>the</strong>r than tempered 4ths and 5ths) would have completely fouled up <strong>the</strong> process 23 .<br />
Conclusions<br />
The debate over whe<strong>the</strong>r to tune by geometry or by ear goes back at least as far as Zarlino. For<br />
better or worse, tuning instructions based solely on “hearing” are subject to all kinds <strong>of</strong> inaccuracies<br />
and misunderstanding, as can be seen in <strong>the</strong> deeply flawed, but <strong>of</strong>t cited, method <strong>of</strong> Robert<br />
Dowland (1610) 24 . On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> ear is <strong>the</strong> final judge and <strong>the</strong> geometrical models must<br />
lend <strong>the</strong>mselves to <strong>the</strong> sounding result ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r way around. With careful calculation<br />
and appropriate choice <strong>of</strong> disposition, <strong>the</strong>re is no reason why a true 1/4 meantone fretting scheme<br />
cannot be effectively implemented on lutes, viols, and <strong>the</strong>orbos. Often, performers opt for <strong>the</strong> 1/6<br />
comma temperament to avoid readjustment <strong>of</strong> frets for different modes, but as Milan shows us in<br />
El Maestro, adjustment <strong>of</strong> frets for different pieces was indeed done at <strong>the</strong> time. It seems that <strong>the</strong><br />
choice <strong>of</strong> 1/6 comma is <strong>of</strong>ten made to give one <strong>the</strong> sense that <strong>the</strong> finer distinction between<br />
“enharmonic equivalents” may allow one to freely fret an A-flat when a G-sharp is called for, but I<br />
would assert that whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> difference is 1/5th <strong>of</strong> a semitone, or 1/9th <strong>of</strong> a semitone is irrelevant:<br />
<strong>the</strong>y’re both out <strong>of</strong> tune. If one is playing in F minor for example, one must fret <strong>the</strong> instrument to that<br />
disposition, and not just use a “s<strong>of</strong>ter” version <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meantone temperament in order to rationalize<br />
<strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a 1/6th comma G-sharp as an A-flat.<br />
Unfortunately, most fretting guides from <strong>the</strong> sixteenth-century (as well as modern ones) neglect to<br />
consider <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> disposition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meantone cycle. Even experts such as Mark<br />
Lindley and Eugen Dombois give little or no information on how to adjust <strong>the</strong> fretting scheme to<br />
handle tonalities o<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> so-called “standard” disposition <strong>of</strong> E-flat to G-sharp. While Lindley<br />
23 Lindley, Mark. Lutes, Viols and Temperaments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. p. 95.<br />
24 ibid. p. 83+89.
does give some alternate measurements for “mi” and “fa” frets, he does not give readers a<br />
mechanism for constructing <strong>the</strong>ir own complete fretting scheme based on <strong>the</strong> <strong>31</strong>-division. This is<br />
essential since no writer on <strong>the</strong> subject currently gives an adequate explanation for finding <strong>the</strong><br />
location <strong>of</strong> tastini. Though Vincenzo Galilei may have railed against <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong> little frets are quite<br />
simple to use and can allow <strong>the</strong> lutenist to play accurately in a wide variety <strong>of</strong> meantone dispositions<br />
with confidence that <strong>the</strong> pitch relationships will be as accurate as those that are so readily achieved in<br />
keyboard instruments.<br />
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