Sustainable Transport and the Environment Guide - Unite the Union

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
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www.unitetheunion.com

Acknowledgements
The Transport Sector National Committee; the Civil Air Transport National Trade
Group Committee; the Docks, Inland Waterways and Fisheries National Trade Group
Committee; the Passenger Transport National Trade Group Committee; and the Road
Transport National Trade Group Committee would like to thank Caroline Molloy;
John Neal; Colin Potter; and Roger Sealey from the Unite the Union Research
Department for their contributions to this report.
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Table of Contents
Page
Acknowledgements................................................................................. 1
Contents .............................................................................................. 2
Tables .............................................................................................. 3
Figures .............................................................................................. 3
1 Sustainable Transport and the Transport Worker – An
Introduction.........................................................................5
2 Unite the Union and sustainable transport
2.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 11
2.2 Can we afford sustainable transport?................................... 11
2.3. Impacts................................................................................. 12
2.4 Scientific concerns worsening ............................................. 15
2.5 The impact of the transport sector........................................ 16
2.6 Sustainability and economic impacts – especially in a
downturn .............................................................................. 17
2.7 What Can We Do? ............................................................... 18
2. 8 Conclusion ........................................................................... 28
3 Civil Air Transport, Climate Change and the Economy
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 28
3.2 European Emissions Trading Scheme.................................. 30
3.3 Future Aviation Growth....................................................... 31
3.4 European Emissions Trading Scheme Background............. 35
3.5 Technical Solutions.............................................................. 37
3.6 What can staff do?................................................................ 44
3.7 Conclusions.......................................................................... 46
4 Docks, Inland Waterways, and Fisheries and Sustainable
Transport
4.1: Introduction.......................................................................... 47
4.2 Rising Sea levels .................................................................. 47
4.3: Greenhouse gas emissions ................................................... 49
4.4 Ports ..................................................................................... 50
4.5: What can ports and terminals do to significantly improve
their environmental profile?................................................. 51
4.6: Inland Waterways ................................................................ 55
4.7: Shipping ............................................................................... 58
4.8: What can shipping lines do? ................................................ 64
5 Passenger Services Trade Group: Towards Sustainable
Transport
5.1: Introduction and Overview of the Sector............................. 66
5.2: Climate Change – Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GGE) ........ 67
5.3: Policy Options...................................................................... 75
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6 Road Transport Commercial and Sustainable Transport
6.1 Introduction and Overview of the Road Transport
Commercial Sector............................................................... 78
6.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and freight transport in the
United Kingdom................................................................... 81
6.3 Van Traffic........................................................................... 83
6.4 Some policy options to be considered by the RTC National
Committee............................................................................ 84
7 Conference Report ................................................................. 87
7.1 Passenger Transport Trade Group ......................................... 87
7.2 Road Transport Commercial Trade Group .............................. 88
7.3 Civil Air Transport Trade Group ........................................... 88
7.4 Docks and Inland Waterways Trade Group.............................. 88
7.5 Day 2 of Conference .............................................................. 89
7.6 Yellow Group ........................................................................ 90
7.7 Green Group ......................................................................... 91
7.8 Blue Group................................................................................ 91
7.9 Orange Group ........................................................................... 92
Appendices
Appendix 1...............................................................................................93
Appendix 2.............................................................................................. 94
Appendix 3.............................................................................................. 95
Tables
Table 5.1 Buses and coaches and their contribution to the total
GGE ..................................................................................... 69
Table 5.2 Buses and coaches and their contribution to the
total GGE for the Transport Industry................................... 70
Table 5.3 Taxi operations and their contribution to the total GGE...... 73
Table 5.4 Taxi operations and their contribution to the Transport
Industry total GGE .............................................................. 74
Table 5.1 Percentage of drivers usually working 48 hrs or more ........ 78
Table 5.2 Percentage empty running lorries ........................................ 85
Figures
Figure 2.1 Carbon Emissions by end user in 2006................................ 16
Figure 2.2: Emissions from UK Transport Industry – trends since
1990...................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Transport Sector ............ 17
Figure 3.1 Air Passengers ‘000 and Air Freight tonnage 1987 – 2007 . 32
Figure 3.2 UK transport CO 2 emissions 1970 – 2005 (by source).........32
Figure 3.3 UK domestic greenhouse gas emissions 2007 ..................... 33
Figure 3.4: Composition of emissions from a typical aircraft jet
engine................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.5 Sustainable Aviation’s CO2 Roadmap - projected future
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emissions of CO2 from UK aviation.................................... 35
Figure 3.6 Comparison of the volume to weight parameters of
currently available aviation fuel sources................................37
Figure 3.7 Relative yield per hectare of various sources of biofuel........38
Figure 3.8 Dependence of Ozone radiative forcing on location of
emissions................................................................................42
Figure 3.9 Comparison between ideal vertical flight path and current
practices .................................................................................43
Figure 4.1 Water Transport Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions
1990 – 2006............................................................................50
Figure 4.2 Inland water traffic 1999-2007 billion tonnes kilometres......56
Figure 4.3 Major inland waterway routes – total goods moved 2007
billion tonne kilometres .........................................................57
Figure 4.4 Greenhouse gases from UK-based international shipping
1990-2006 ..............................................................................58
Figure 5.1 Percentage of Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions in UK
1990 - 2006 ......................................................................... 69
Figure 5.2 Total Greenhouse Gases by Buses and Coaches
1990 -2006 ........................................................................... 70
Figure 5.3 Taxi operations and their contribution to total UK
Greenhouse Gas Emissions.................................................. 70
Figure 5.4 Greenhouse Gas Emissions by taxi operations
1990 – 2006.......................................................................... 74
Figure 6.1 Percentage increase in Greenhouse Gas Emissions
1990 -2006 ........................................................................... 81
Figure6.2 Total Greenhouse Gases by Freight by Road 1990 -2006
– thousand tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent............... 82
Figure 6.3 Average length of haul 1990 – 2006.................................... 83
Figure 6.4 Light Duty Vehicles Carbon Dioxide (as carbon)
1990 -2006 ........................................................................... 84
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1 Sustainable Transport and the Transport Worker – An Introduction
The Transport and General Workers’ Section of Unite the Union has some 260,000
members in its main Transport Sectors: Passenger Transport, Road Transport
Commercial, Logistics and Retail Distribution, Civil Air Transport and Docks,
Railways, Ferries and Inland Waterways. The views of our members in these Sectors
have been canvassed through our lay member committees at national and regional
level and have been thoroughly discussed at a national conference of lay
representatives from all transport modes and industries held in March 2009.
The challenges to our society to create a more sustainable balance between people
travelling on public and private forms of transport are immense. Achieving reductions
in road congestion, both in cities and on inter-city and other routes, obtaining
measurable shifts from high carbon modes of transport (road freight, car, plane) to
low carbon (train and bus), and improving affordability of UK public transport in
terms of the price paid per mile travelled, relative to other European countries is vital.
Currently, we languish at the bottom of this league table.
There is a clear need to both maintain and increase the provision of local services
such as post offices, markets, cultural and leisure activities, schools, hospitals, and
doctors’ surgeries, as well as catering for a much needed rise in housing provision. All
of this creates demand for transport and a need to plan for how its needs are mediated
with wider concerns.
The drift towards almost exclusive reliance on just in time (JIT) production and
supply of manufactured goods and food raises the vital question of how to reduce the
economic, social and environmental costs of international freighting of imports.
It is our view that Britain needs to ensure a sustainable transport industry by
improving regulation and procurement practice in such a way as to enable longer term
considerations, such as social and environmental goals, to be more fairly balanced
against short term economic ones.
We have concerns that a fixed adherence over the past quarter of a century to a rigid
view that the free market will act in an invisibly intelligent way has promoted the
concept of a ‘competitive’ transport industry, rather than a ‘sustainable’ transport
industry. This has led to both an under-priced sector and to environmental and societal
damage, not the least to the health and livelihood of transport workers and their
families, let alone the communities that live near transport activities.
One of the underlying problems is that transport is perceived both by manufacturers
and retailers as a cost. Therefore they attempt to reduce the cost to the lowest level.
This has resulted in transport companies not being paid the correct economic price for
their services. This is compounded by the fact most if not all transport modes do not
presently internalise its environmental cost.
We believe that the concept of competition mediated only by an element of quantity
licensing, as distinct from quality licensing, is the wrong way to treat transport
operations in all its guises. Any competitive transport industry will, by definition, see
companies and transport modes in direct competition with one another. While this
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might bring about economic efficiency, or at least drive costs down, it will not bring
about sustainable transport. Economic efficiency of this kind leads to an all-too
evident ‘race to the bottom’, in terms of standards especially vehicle safety and labour
standards.
In its own `Towards a Sustainable Transport System’, the Department for Transport
identified a range of potential challenges relating to better safety and health goals,
including reducing deaths and serious injuries. A sustainable transport industry
concept should include areas such as working time – transport workers work some of
the longest hours of all workers in the UK. The drive to longer hours and increased
use of shift patterns, split shifts, and especially nightshifts, means that many transport
workers, especially professional drivers and warehouse workers, are working against
their circadian rhythms, increasing their risk of an accidents to themselves or others,
and in the longer term damaging their health.
It is well established that the period between 02:00 and 06:00 is particularly
dangerous, especially for large goods vehicle drivers and bus and coach drivers who
are driving on the road at that time. Yet employers push, for example, for a reduction
in night time lorry bans, arguing that that this would result in a reduction of
congestion. The price to be paid for this is yet more drivers out on the road during the
most dangerous period for road accidents.
The trend over the last 30 years or more has been towards ever increasing
globalisation, which has created both growth and jobs in the transport sectors.
Retailers and manufacturers have sought ever cheaper supply chains. Food and
manufactured products travel much further before they reach us. People travel longer
distances to get to work, now on average two hours, as industries in many local areas
are closed down, centralised, or off-shored.
JIT delivery systems may save businesses money but they are not environmentally
sustainable, especially in regards to lorries being part-loaded and returning empty.
With companies reducing their warehousing inventory levels, more and smaller
deliveries have been needed and the lorry has effectively become a mobile warehouse.
If transport is to become sustainable then this process will need to be halted and
reversed. Lean manufacturing and retailing, and non-local sourcing have serious
implications for environmental and social concerns.
Relocalisation means moving away from the obsession with globalisation as the
source of all that is good. A shift back towards local production and consumption has
to be a part of more sustainable transport system. This will require the consumer to
buy more locally-manufactured goods, locally-grown food and services. This would
protect local freight transport and allied services, and increase local employment in
the manufacturing, public transport and services sector more generally.
A classic example is the Young’s prawn plant in Annan in Scotland, next to the
fishing grounds. 120 jobs were lost in the plant, when the decision was taken to air
freight the prawns to Thailand for processing, and then re-import them back to sell in
UK shops. Another example is what has been called the ‘great food swap’ where
Britain imports 240,000 tonnes of pork from the Netherlands each year - and exports
195,000 tonnes back.
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The only way we can be sure of measurable successes in redirecting society towards a
more sustainable transport policy is to see government actually deliver what it is
already supposedly committed to. When we see “quantified reductions in greenhouse
gas emissions” arising from the enactment of such policies are set out here, then the
public can know that progress is under way. When we hear the government say that it
seeks to “enhance social inclusion and regeneration”, we need to know that such
laudable aims are accompanied by clear and measurable means to prove their
accomplishment.
Unite would like to see the creation and expansion of low carbon, coach and train,
transport hubs on the edge of cities. Better and more widespread traffic calming that
favours public transport and better regulation of drivers hours. Creating a sustainable
transport system needs to take into account those issues that affect the people working
within transport, such as roadside facilities.
It has long been an aim for transport trade unions to achieve a genuinely integrated
transport policy for both goods and people. We believe that this is more than ever
essential, if we are to have a sustainable transport system. If we are to encourage a
model shift from the car to public transport then considerations has to be given to both
to the price charged for public transport and the ease of use, especially in regard to
through ticketing.
The Stern Report made clear that the cost of tackling climate change is only one
twentieth of the financial cost of NOT tackling climate change, not to mention the
human costs. These human costs impact most of all on the poorest in society, both at
home and abroad. As with climate change, so other environmental and social costs –
from pollution to exhaustion – impact most heavily on our members, some of whom
live in poorer communities nearest to the major transport routes.
Therefore, tackling climate change and environmental and social damage from the
transport system, is a matter of social justice and of intense concern to our members
The DfT’s own statistics show that 81% of people are ‘very’ or ‘fairly’ concerned
about climate change and these figures are consistent across all social groups.
We are also aware that the transport system itself is vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change and that many of our members have already been affected by
increased flooding and extreme heat waves in recent years. Currently all our transport
systems are vulnerable to dislocation due to the increasing volatility of the weather. In
the future we will have to invest more in our transport infrastructure so that they can
deal with extreme weather events which will now occur every 10 years rather then
every 50 years as used to be the case.
The history of a shift towards privatised, high carbon modes of transport since the
early 80s has been disastrous for both the environment and for social inclusion and
must be reversed. To this end it is also important to ensure that social inclusion is
enhanced for all in the most speedy and sustainable cost effective way possible, and
not just for those labelled as ‘disadvantaged’ or living in ‘deprived or remote areas’.
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There are some sustainable transport initiatives that can be easily promoted at the
workplace level by trade union activists, such as: car-sharing; travel planning; and
training for drivers in fuel efficiency. These are all areas that trade union activists in
any workplace should be encouraged to pursue, to reduce congestion and pollution.
But above all, both central and local government need to take a far more
interventionist approach to tackle climate change which Gordon Brown has referred
to as ‘the greatest market failure in history’. We believe that the government will fail
to meet its environmental and social targets without both stricter environmental
standards and regulations to drive demand in the transport sector, and greater, more
accountable direct state investment in public transport infrastructure and services.
The deregulation of buses since 1986 (along with the later privatisation of the
railways) has been a disaster for public transport and the environment, leading to low
wages, high fares, fewer routes and declining passengers numbers, and increased
congestions and overcrowding.
Improving the quality and quantity of public transport is critical to any serious
sustainable transport strategy. More immediate regulation through quality contracts
in the short term, and re-nationalisation and increased municipal ownership in the
longer term is needed to deliver more services, higher staffing levels, better trained
and rewarded staff, more integration with other modes of transport, and lower fares.
Such measures would contribute to making public transport a genuinely realistic,
comfortable and safe alternative to private car use.
The European Commission’s proposals to force tendering of bus contracts have been
fiercely resisted by the European trade unions. We will continue to fight to protect
the rights of local authorities to provide bus services themselves, and to negotiate
Quality Contracts which specify high standards of labour relations, service provisions
and improve environmental standards.
There is also a need to retrofit and produce newer buses with less polluting engines, as
well as using lower emission fuel. Greater subsidy is needed but ultimately as the
European Transport Workers’ Federation says, ‘the role of the state cannot be limited
to ensuring (fair) competition between companies and probably providing an
infrastructure, where it is too expensive for the market to invest. The market has
severe side effects on social and ecological sustainability and does not provide
sustainable infrastructure and public transport’. Nowhere is this clearer than on the
buses and in the ‘Cinderella sector’ of the national coach network.
It is clear that railways make up only a small amount of the total emissions in the UK
and that has only increased marginally in the last 17 years, and at a slower rate that
the rest of transport which has increased considerably. Railways are an energyefficient
carrier of people and goods and hence produce relatively less CO 2 emissions
per passenger than other modes. Emissions of CO 2 per passenger/Km are, on average,
approximately half that of travel by car.
The UK is a crowded island with a high population density. Rail makes more efficient
use of space. A double track railway can carry up to 10 times the number of people
per hour than a 2-lane road. Railways can’t always get people or freight to the desired
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destination in one go but they can often take them part or the majority of the way in
many instances and in partnership with other modes of transport clearly have a lot to
offer in delivering a sustainable transport plan. Rail fares in Britain are on average 50
per cent higher than the rest of Europe and until this is addressed it is unlikely that
railways will become a sustainable transport option for the majority of UK citizens.
Rail transport is more fuel efficient and more jobs intensive than road transport, both
in terms of day to day operations and the infrastructure required (ie road or track).
Carrying freight by rail results in an 80% cut in CO 2 emissions per Kilogram carried
compared to road haulage. Contrary to the belief of some, policy in the T&G, which
forms the overwhelming bulk of Unite’s transport membership, has historically
favoured rail building over roads and continues to do so.
However, government investment both in the UK and the EU has favoured road
building over rail, with rail employment falling and road freight employment
growing, in recent years due in part to the increase in JIT systems. Although the
majority of our freight in the UK travels by road, there has been a steady increase in
the amount of freight being moved by rail. Switching more of this to rail could result
in a dramatic reduction in CO 2 emissions, as well contributing to a reduction in road
congestion.
A large number of flights from London airports are to destinations that can, or could,
be reached by high speed rail. Switching these journeys to rail would be particularly
beneficial as short haul flights produce a high proportion of more dangerous
emissions and are particularly fuel inefficient, because take off uses up to 25 percent
of the overall fuel. High speed rail produces only a fraction of such emissions. Funds
generated through taxation of fuel and air travel should by hypothecated for the
development of greener travel options, to improve environmental performance
dramatically whilst avoiding a political backlash.
It is the union’s current policy to support the expansion Heathrow provided it meets
the environmental targets set out in the Aviation White Paper. We have noted the
report by the independent House of Commons research department in February 2009
which cast some doubt both on the projected level of economic benefits, arguing it
was nearer to £1.5 billion or less rather than £8.2billion, partly because it their costbenefit
analysis “does not consider” alternative schemes which this union also
supports, such as high speed rail. However, other reports have come to the opposite
conclusions
As the ILO report states: “A shift towards more sustainable transport is feasible, but it
requires careful planning and transition measures.” Central and national government
bodies need to work on the development of solutions for the national network and
international networks. Given that these projects need a long-term strategic focus,
which will not come from the private sector.
Progress on means to ensure how national and international networks are developed
should include those who work in the transport industries, and especially those
working on the front line. All too often managers who have little or no experience of
the realities of the transport networks are the ones who influence policy. This
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contribution from Unite is hopefully a beginning to such a direction of travel on
transport policy.
GRAHAM STEVENSON
National Organiser – Transport - Transport and General Workers’ Union Section
Unite the Union
March 2009
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2 Unite the Union and Sustainable Transport
2.1 Introduction
Sustainable, efficient and affordable transport systems are essential to ensure we all
have decent access to employment and economic opportunity, and to the goods and
services that we need, in a way that doesn’t damage the climate, our planet, and
ourselves.
The T&G section of Unite the Union, as the main transport union, has long recognised
the importance of these issues and this has been more recently re-affirmed, first by the
Civil Air Transport (CAT) trade group and then by the other transport sector trade
groups, each of which have in varying degrees historically tackled their own
challenges and/or opportunities. Representatives from each trade group have taken
part in the European Transport Workers’ Federation (ETF’s) Trust 1 project, which has
addressed in part the impact of transport on climate change. It is hoped that this
report will inform the debate at the Transport Sector’s Sustainable Transport
Conference in February 2009, and can go forward to be incorporated in union policy
and the ETF’s future policy.
2.2 Can we afford sustainable transport?
Employers have always used the argument that better service quality, higher
safety standards, and better wages, would be unaffordable and would lead to job
losses. The T&G section of Unite has always resisted this argument.
The same arguments are now being be made about environmental standards.
Employers are often reluctant to implement greener standards and are fighting
regulation that would impose this, often on the grounds that it is ‘antiliberalisation’
or ‘anti-competitive’. Rather than ask - can we afford to have a
greener, more sustainable transport system – perhaps we should ask - can we
afford not to?
The very point of the concept of ‘sustainable development’ is to match the aim of
long-term growth with a concern to ensure the future well-being of the planet’s
environment. So it is vital the interest of working people and their families are
considered in the wider context. This is particularly the case in a period of acute crisis
in the financial world and the real economy. This current period of recession provides
possibilities for ensuring that future growth takes place in a far more sustainable way
than has been the case. One thing is clear – we can no longer leave everything to the
unguided market, this not only damages the environment, it damages workers’ rights
in a way that impinges negatively on the environment.
This is an issue of increasing concern to all – as the transport sector has grown and
moved towards more private, and less public transport, it has become the fastest
growing consumer of energy and producer of Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 ) and other climate
change causing emissions in Europe, according to the ETF, the transport sector’s fuel
use now produces about a quarter of the world’s CO 2 emissions.
Not taking action to stop dangerous climate change (‘business as usual’) would,
accord to Nicholas Stern, the UK government’s chief economist, cost up to 20 times
more than taking action – about 20% of GDP compared to 1% for taking action. Not
1 Trade Unions for Sustainable Transport
11

taking action, would, he said, lead to a worldwide depression worse than the 1920s
and two world wars put together. These figures don’t even take into account the
human impact of climate change which is already causing food shortages, flooding
and population migrations. The action the UK needs to take, according to the UN’s
IPPCC (their climate scientists) is to cut CO 2 and other greenhouse gas emissions by
about 5 per cent a year, every year, with real cuts starting within the next few years 2 .
Other environmental issues like air and sea pollution are important and affect the
health of humans and wildlife.
The current globalised system is also socially unsustainable. Workers, manufactured
goods, and food, have had to travel ever longer distances, often with damaging
impacts on employment, working hours, wage levels, health and safety, and the
economic viability of communities and regions. At the same time, deregulation and
privatisation has reduced affordable, publicly owned, energy-efficient transport
options such as buses and rail. Lastly, our over-reliance on fossil fuel energy from
unstable regions fuels conflict in those regions, as well as damaging the planet.
For us, as trade unionists within the main transport trade union, there is an opportunity
as well as a risk, if we are willing to engage with the issues seriously. What kind of
society do we want? What will be its transport needs, and how will they be met?
What impact will that have on those currently working in the transport industry, on all
our union’s members, on all working people? This document does not pretend to have
all the answers but it is hoped it will help stimulate debate.
Technological solutions, whilst important, are not the main way that our mounting
social and environmental problems are going to be solved. The scale of the problems
is too large and it is extremely unlikely that scientists will achieve enough huge
breakthroughs in the time available. Social, political and economic change will also
be necessary – indeed, inevitable.
In the future, a sustainable transport system will have to be based on a fairer
distribution of costs, on stronger local economies, and thus on shorter transport
distances. This is not so much a technical as a fundamental systemic change. Gordon
Brown has called climate change “the greatest market failure in history” and it is clear
that solutions to this serious problem cannot be left to the market. Everyone should
have the right to work in a way that provides for their needs without damaging their
environment, the sustainability of the planet, or of future generations.
2.3. Impacts
Sustainability and social impacts – especially working time
As the ETF’s TRUST report says – ‘A fast growing sector that is based on poor
quality jobs is neither socially nor environmentally sustainable’. The report goes on
to say, ‘it might be an illusion that in transport it is possible to put economic
sustainability (competitiveness) at the same footing with environmental and social
2 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report – Climate Change 2007
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sustainability, .reversing liberalisation where it has [worsened] social and
environmental sustainability would be the necessary consequence.’
And it concludes ‘transport is too cheap, from both an environmental and social point
of view.’ Costs are kept down by inadequate labour standards for transport workers,
social dumping, deregulation, and also by artificially low fuel costs. In some sectors
(such as aviation) they are not taxed, in others the fuel costs do not pay fully for the
impact of that fuel use on society and the environment.
To take a not atypical example - think about a driver who has spent the last several
years having to work a 60 hour week with many night shifts, to earn a decent wage,
shifting imported manufactured goods. Is this sustainable? For who? For the
employer? For the worker? For the commuters who are delayed when that driver has
an accident, through exhaustion, or just from sheer congestion? For the people –
probably lower income people – who live, breath the air, and have to cross the city
trunk roads that lorry drives down day and night? For the workers who have been laid
off in the manufacturing plant near where he lives, because cheap transportation of
imports makes their jobs easy to offshore?
Of course it is not just road transport that is impacted upon by the move towards
private and away from public transport, and the move to a ‘just in time’ culture. Long
working hours are a real problem in the whole of the transport sector, despite some
sectors (for example flight crew) being better regulated than most other workers, there
remains inadequate enforcement and insufficient regulation for many. There is some
evidence that transport growth has led not to more jobs, but to longer hours, for
example in Road Transport, through the misuse of periods of availability. There is
also anecdotal evidence from this sector that suggests an increase in bogus selfemployment
to get round the Working Time Directive.
There are other social consequences, too. Ever increasing distances between where
people live and where they work, make union organising and community solidarity
more difficult to achieve, thus undermining worker bargaining strength and wages.
The average worker now commutes for nearly an hour every day – up sharply on 10
years ago. Of course, this also compounds the problem of long hours working
generally.
Sustainability and environmental impacts – especially Climate change
The International Transport Workers’ Federation (ITF) clearly state “there is no
longer any serious debate about whether climate change is taking place or not, or
whether such change is caused by human activity. The scientific evidence is
overwhelming.”
We don’t need to be scientists to talk about climate change but it is important to have
a basic understanding of what it is.
When fossil fuels are burnt (like oil, coal, petrol or gas), it releases Carbon Dioxide
(CO 2 ) and other ‘greenhouse gases’ into the atmosphere. These gases stay in the
atmosphere and trap the suns energy. This causes hotter temperatures, rising sea
levels, and more extreme weather like floods, droughts, hurricanes, and heat waves. In
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2003 30,000 older people across Europe were killed due to a heat wave. (A common
misunderstanding is that climate change is related to the ozone layer – in fact, this is a
separate problem, which has been largely solved through concerted action).
Climate change in the UK can be measured by records extending back over 350 years.
The 1990s was the warmest decade in central England and this warming of climate
over land has been accompanied by warming of UK coastal waters. The growing
season for plants in central England has lengthened by about one month since 1900,
while there are now fewer frosts and cold spell in the winter.
The UN’s climate scientists (the IPCC) all agree that unless we reduce our use of
fossil fuels, global temperatures will rise by more than 2 degrees C – possibly this
century. This may not sound like much, but above this level, climate change will
devastate large areas of the planet, both at home and abroad, causing floods, sea level
rises, droughts, severe shortages of food and drinkable water, and millions of
refugees 3 . Above this level, there is the danger of reaching a ‘tipping point’ of
unstoppable catastrophic climate change. This would arise if the oceans, soils, forests
and ice caps that currently absorb much of our greenhouse gases were irreversibly
damaged by rising temperatures.
The IPCC says that to have a reasonable chance of limiting warming to no more than
2 degrees, greenhouse gas emissions must start falling by 2015, must be cut by 50-
80% globally by 2050. They also say that industrialised countries like the UK, which
currently produce more than their fair share of greenhouse gases, will need to reduce
emissions by more – by 80-95% by 2050, and by 25-40% by 2020.
Countries like China and India will, understandably, only reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions (which are still much lower per head, than ours) if developed countries like
the UK also take action to reduce theirs. Therefore, restricting emissions to keep the
temperature increase to below 2 C, is the policy target of both the UK and the EU.
UK and EU targets have been set to reflect the more ‘conservative’ end of these
scientific projections (so many
environmentalists feel they do not go
far enough).
much shorter term, too.
Many of those who would like to
continue ‘business as usual’
acknowledge the need for cuts in CO2
emissions by 2050, but not that we
need cuts in the near future, if we are
to prevent dangerous climate change.
Long term targets for the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions are pretty
pointless if we don’t deliver in the
3 Avoiding dangerous climate change, Hadley Centre, Met Office, Feb 2005, p6
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The Transport Sector of this union accepts the scientific consensus that we have to
reduce our fossil fuel use to protect life on the planet. The question is, how can
people and products get where they need to go, whilst still taking care of our planet?
What does that mean for our way of life, our jobs? Who has the responsibility for
making these changes? The T&G Section of Unite the Union has already expressed
strong concern 4 that climate change will have devastating impacts, particularly on the
poorest people both at home and abroad, if we do not take action where we can, both
pushing for government action and taking action at the workplaces where we are
organised. This report and this conference will look at some solutions that have been
suggested and begin to weigh up which are the most likely to benefit both the
environment, and the workers that our union represents. There is an opportunity for
trade unions to make a genuine difference, and also for us to organise, as workers
generally say they want their employers to go green and are frustrated that they are
slow to do so.
Finally, in the short term, climate change is already happening with an increase in
extreme weather events, so we need to adapt as well as stopping it getting worse. For
the transport sector there are particular risks. The network can be disrupted by floods
and storms, and summer heat waves lead to dangerously high temperatures affecting
drivers and passengers. Solutions could include better design of vehicles and
infrastructure, as well as different shift patterns (to avoid overcrowding and
congestion) and even small things like relaxed uniform requirements. There should
be a statutory upper limit on workplace temperature which applies to all workplaces
including mobile ones.
2.4 Scientific concerns worsening 5
Recent research suggested that even greater reductions in greenhouse gas emissions
than previously thought are necessary to keep within the crucial 2 degree limit,
because the planet’s ‘carbon sinks’ (oceans, trees, and soil, which absorb climate
change) are already damaged. To have a reasonable chance of staying within two
degrees, we need to stabilise CO 2 in the atmosphere at 400 parts per million (ppm) 6 .
Since the IPPC report in 2007 which fed into the report produced by the T&Gs Civil
Air Transport Group, many of their scientists have expressed concerns that their
conclusions were too conservative and their targets not tough enough. CO 2 is
growing faster than anyone thought it would, and some have become even more
worried about the ‘tipping point’ where we reach ‘unstoppable climate change’ 7 . The
government’s chief economist Nicholas Stern has also publicly said in the last year
that his 2007 report ‘didn’t go far enough’.
Other air pollutants
4 T&G BDC 2005, 2007
5 These figures are all drawn from the IPCC’s fourth assessment reports, available at www.ipcc.ch
6 Sometimes expressed as ‘Carbon Dioxide equivalent ‘ or CO2e, which includes other gases – the
corresponding figure if that measure is used, is 450ppm CO2e.
7 See for example a recent paper published by the Royal Society
http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/journal_papers/fulltext.pdf
15

Greater fuel economy that reduces CO2 emissions, can sometimes reduce other air
pollutants that are damaging to health and the environment in the immediate term.
However this is not always the case (diesel engines being a particular problem) and it
is important to ensure that both vehicle design and fuel type (for example, low sulphur
fuel) are considered. Nitrous Oxide released particularly from diesel vehicles such as
HGVs contributes both to climate change and also reacts with ozone to cause
respiratory problems such as asthma. Sulphur dioxide (released largely from coal
fired power stations but also shipping) causes acid rain. Road and water based
transport fuels also release other airborne particles, both toxic heavy metals (such as
mercury) and soot from uncombusted carbon, which again can cause breathing and
other health problems.
This is a key Health and Safety issue for drivers as many studies have found that those
working behind the wheel, especially taxi drivers, are more affected by vehicular air
pollution, than anyone else, and the problem of air quality within garages is also
severe.
2.5 The impact of the transport sector
The chart below shows that in 2006 transport produced more than a quarter (28 per
cent) of the UK’s domestic carbon dioxide emissions 8 .
Carbon dioxide emissions by end user in 2006
Other
10%
Residential
27%
Business
35%
Transport
28%
Figure 21.1: Carbon Emissions by end user in 2006
However about half (52 per cent) of domestic transport emissions do not come from
the ‘transport sector’ but from car use, according to the AEA Energy and
Environment Sustainable Development Indicators. The transport sector itself makes
up 13 per cent of the UK’s CO 2 emissions (2006 figures). This proportion has
increased from 8% in 1990, as transport emissions have increased and business and
8 Source: AEA Energy and Environment Sustainable Development Indicators: Carbon dioxide
emissions by end user:
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/globatmos/download/xls/gafg07.xls
16

household emissions have decreased (partly due to the off shoring of British industry)
9 .
Emissions from UK Transport Industry - trends since 1990
Thousand tonnes of CO2 equivalent
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
1990
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Air transport
Water transport
Freight transport by road
Buses and coaches
Railways
Taxis operation
Transport via pipeline
Tubes and trams
Figure 2.2: Emissions from UK Transport Industry – trends since 1990
Within the transport sector (ie excluding car use), air transport accounted for just
under half of all greenhouse gas emissions, water transport and road freight about a
fifth each, and public transport (rail, bus, coach, tram and tubes) accounts for about
one tenth:
Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Transport Sector in 2006
Supporting
transport activities
1%
Air transport
46%
Railways
3%
Buses and coaches
6%
Freight transport by
road
20%
Tubes and trams
0%
Taxis operation
3%
Transport via
pipeline
0%
Water transport
21%
Figure 2.3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Transport Sector
9 http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics/globatmos/gakf07.htm
17

2.6 Sustainability and economic impacts – especially in a downturn
Some fear the current global economic downturn means there will be a lessening of
attention on the environment, but there is also an emerging argument that now is the
right time for investment in green jobs – like better public transport and greener
vehicles – which could provide livelihoods without damaging people or the planet as
much as 30 years of untrammelled globalisation have done.
It is clear that the current economic downturn (as well as environmental concerns) are
having an impact on transport demand and that is likely to continue. For example:
In 2007/8 there was a decrease in car mileage (for the first time since the 70s)
and an increase in bus and train usage as drivers opted to save money and
travel by public transport instead.
In 2008 passenger flights out of London airports dropped for the first time
since 2001.
The withdrawal of operators from some air routes, particularly low cost airline
flights to second home destinations in Europe.
Most observers believe the economic downturn will last at least until 2010, with many
pessimistic that the economy will recover fully for several years after this.
There are other trends that have arisen partly as a result of environmental concerns
which are likely to be intensified by the downturn, leaving a different pattern of
transport demand in the future. For example:
The growth of online retailing and home delivery – and a shrinkage of high
street/retail jobs. (Home delivery could be a ‘greener’ option than people
driving to out of town shopping centres – but it would be ‘greener’ still if there
were local drop off points).
The growth of video conferencing as businesses cut back on business travel.
Rising demand for public transport, and shrinking demand for larger, fuel
hungry vehicles.
More people choosing to holiday in the UK or cutting down on frequent short
flights to Europe, due to the weakness of the pound.
A reduction in off shoring – or an increase?
As the last point makes clear, we can’t afford to assume that the economy that
emerges from the recession will be socially and environmentally sustainable. Another
example of an area of concern is that investment in rail has shown signs of being hit
by the damage to the financial markets. A socially and environmentally sustainable
economy, union and transport system will only emerge if progressive forces like trade
unions and the environmental movement, work together.
2.7 What Can We Do?
Collective Bargaining Strategies
Trade unions have a key role to play in getting information so that the impacts of the
sector as a whole, of companies in the sector, and of practices within companies, can
be understood. Trade unionists can negotiate for access to information at both
grassroots / workplace level, and at national and international governmental level.
18

Ideally it would be achieved at both levels but we don’t need to wait for one to
achieve the other. 10 .
In terms of the impact that the transport sector has on climate change, different figures
are used – for example you will often see figures quoted which only take account of
domestic, not international, transport emissions (as international CO2 emissions are
not currently regulated). This can make it look as though transport plays a smaller
role than it actually does, in generating the CO2 emissions that cause climate change.
The government has said that international transport emissions will be regulated in
the future as clearly they also contribute to climate change.
Trade union members can elect union environmental reps to begin to ask the
questions about resource use, impact, and sustainable working practices, and then
collectively bargain around this.
There are examples of collective bargaining around environmental concerns given
elsewhere in this report – for example, the truckers and California dock workers who
have negotiated ‘green contracts’ in the US, and calls for improved public transport,
reduced reliance on overtime/shift work and just in time working, as well as for
greener travel plans for all workers.
For suggestions on practical workplace based actions that trade union reps can take,
Appendix 3 provides a starting point and there are also examples in the Unite booklet
‘Climate change’. What other bargaining materials would help – a model agreement
on the environment, for example?
Union reps may find that negotiating with employers for investment in green
improvements to the fleet and infrastructure, and for low-cost or no-cost moves to
more energy efficient working practices, can also lead to increased job security in two
ways. Firstly, such investment signals long-term commitment by employers to the
service. Secondly, saving fuel will obviously save money in the medium or even
short term, so this can be used to boost job security and/or wages, with any savings
negotiated to be ploughed back into the company or into wage packets. Indeed many
employers will already be considering ways of saving fuel already, so it is crucial that
Unite reps are able to be fully involved in these discussions, to ensure such changes
are implemented in a way that benefits workers, and are never used against them.
Modal shift towards lower carbon travel
Unite has long supported a shift in transportation modes, reducing the reliance on cars
and lorries and increasing the use of buses, trams and light rail and taxis in urban or
sub-urban areas, and railways and coaches between cities.
Such a policy would bring associated shifts in employment. It could ultimately lead
to fewer or different types of, jobs in car and lorry manufacturing, a shift towards
manufacturing of buses, trams and trains and away from private vehicles and planes,
and fewer jobs in fuel refining and in fuel distribution. There would be more jobs in
driving and operating public transport, in the manufacture of low carbon vehicles such
10 For more on the role of Green Reps see the TUC’s publication ‘Go Green At Work’ (2008)
19

as electric and hybrid electric vehicles, public transport vehicles and bikes, in the
repair and maintenance of vehicles, in retro-fitting existing vehicles to be more fuel
efficient, and in building and maintaining the infrastructure needed to support it. The
International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that every job created in public
transport creates between 2 and 4 indirect jobs in the wider economy.
It is important to note that this is not so much the question of car ownership that is the
main challenge. Certainly the quality and standard of the vehicles engaged in private
use must change. Put more clearly, the use of the private car can be restrained without
damaging livelihoods or the quality of life. For example it is often pointed out that
Germany has higher levels of car ownership but lower levels of car use, with people
not needing to use their cars as often because of good public transport. Also,
consumer demand for greener cars has risen sharply and this will continue to rise due
to both financial and environmental concerns, as indeed must public sector demand
for more, and greener, public transport vehicles. We will need to work with our
union’s Vehicle Building section to ensure this growing demand can be met as far as
possible by green, locally manufactured vehicles supplying high quality jobs. This
will require better support from the UK government for domestic R&D and
manufacture, as well as better infrastructure. See the section on ‘technology’ for
more on the options in this area.
None of this can happen without both stricter environmental standards and regulations
to drive demand in the transport sector, and greater, more accountable direct state
investment in public transport infrastructure and services.
Re-orientating the transport sector towards greater sustainability also needs changes in
land use and planning. More compact cities and shorter distances reduce the overall
need for motorised transport. They can also make alternatives like public transport,
cycling, and walking, more feasible.
There are some initiatives that can be promoted at workplace level by trade union
activists such as car-sharing, travel planning, and training for drivers in fuel
efficiency, and these are areas that trade union activists in any workplace should be
encouraged to pursue, to reduce congestion and pollution.
Public transport
The deregulation of buses since 1986 (along with the privatisation of the railways) has
been a disaster for public transport and the environment, leading to low wages, high
fares, fewer routes and passengers, and worse congestion and overcrowding.
Improving public transport is critical to any serious environmental strategy. More
immediate regulation through quality contracts in the immediate term, and renationalisation
/ municipal ownership in the longer term, is badly needed to deliver
more services, higher staffing levels, better trained and rewarded staff, more
integration with other modes of transport, and lower fares. Such measures would
make public transport a genuinely realistic, comfortable and safe alternative to private
car use.
EU proposals to force the tendering of bus contracts have been fiercely resisted by the
European trade unions. We need to continue to fight to protect the rights of local
20

authorities to provide bus services themselves, and to negotiate contracts which
specify high standards of labour relations, service and environmental impact.
There is also a need to retrofit and produce newer buses with less polluting engines, as
well as using lower emission fuel. Greater subsidy is needed but ultimately as the
ETF says, ‘the role of the state cannot be limited to ensuring (fair) competition
between companies and probably providing infrastructure, where it is too expensive
for the market to invest. The market has severe side effects on social and ecological
sustainability and does not provide sustainable infrastructure and public transport’.
Nowhere is this clearer than on the buses and in the ‘Cinderella sector’ of coaches.
Railways
Given the nature of the union’s structures at present, rail has not been taken account
of fully in this report. To some extent the new trade group will deal with this.
Between 1990 and 2006 Greenhouse gas emissions (GGE) from railways increased
from 0.24 per cent of total GGE to 0.35 per cent. During the same period total GGE
from the transport sector increased from 7.75 per cent to 12.8 per cent. So it is clear to
see that railways make up only a small amount of the total GGE in the UK and that
has only increased marginally in the last 17 years, and at a slower rate that the rest of
transport which has increased considerably. 11
Railways are an energy-efficient carrier of people and goods and hence produce
relatively less CO 2 emissions per passenger than other modes. Emissions of CO 2 per
passenger/Km are, on average, approximately half that of travel by car. 12 The UK is a
crowded island with a high population density. Rail makes more efficient use of
space. A double track railway can carry up to 10 times the number of people per hour
than a 2-lane road. 13 Railways can’t always get people or freight to the desired
destination in one go but they can often take them part or the majority of the way in
many instances and in partnership with other modes of transport clearly have a lot to
offer in delivering a sustainable transport plan.
Freight to rail
Rail transport is more fuel efficient and more jobs intensive than road transport, both
in terms of day to day operations and the infrastructure required (ie road or track).
Also there is a need to develop a number of rail freight consolidation centres across
the UK Carrying freight by rail results in an 80% cut in CO 2 emissions per Kilogram
carried compared to road haulage. 14 T&G policy has historically favoured rail
building over roads and continues to do so.
However government investment both in the UK and the EU has favoured road
building over rail, with rail employment falling and road freight employment
growing, in recent years. The majority of our freight in the UK travels by road.
Switching some of this to rail would result in a dramatic reduction in CO 2 emissions.
11 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
12 Railtrack - “Benefits of rail
13
The Railway Forum - “Rail and the Environment”
14 The Railway Forum - “Rail and the Environment”
21

Air to rail
Six out of ten flights from London airports are to destinations that can, or could, be
reached by high speed rail. Switching these journeys to rail would be particularly
beneficial as short haul flights produce a high proportion of more dangerous
emissions and are particularly fuel inefficient, because take off uses up to 25 per cent
of the overall fuel. High speed rail produces only a fraction of such emissions,
according to the ILO/ITUC/UN ‘Green Jobs’ report. 15 The DfT estimates that short
haul air craft emit 0.15kg of CO 2 per passenger kilometre. This, multiplied by 2, (the
T&G’s estimate of the relative impact of radiative forcing) equals 0.3kg. The DfT
estimates that rail on average emits 0.04kg of CO 2 per passenger kilometre, which is
nearly 10 times less than short haul air.
Given that investment, particularly in public transport, is absolutely critical, the big
question is where are these funds to come from?. Some have called for a tax on fuel
and air passengers to be ring fenced for this purpose. Our government has fiercely
resisted this move so far but there is a danger of a political backlash.
The aviation industry argues that unlike other transport modes, it pays for its own
infrastructure. On the other hand it has been pointed out that in 2003 aviation
subsidies (exemptions from fuel duty and VAT) were worth £9 billion a year 16 , or
about £45,000 per job per year (based on ILO estimates of 200,000 employed in
aviation in the UK, broadly defined), and another report argued that this level of
subsidy finances job loss elsewhere in the transport sector that do not have the same
tax benefits 17 . Although the union currently supports Heathrow expansion if
sustainable, a report by the independent House of Commons research department in
February 2009 18 cast some doubt both on the projected level of economic benefits,
and on the likely level of technological breakthroughs. They argued the economic
benefit was nearer to £1.5 billion or less rather than £8.2billion cited in the White
Paper, partly because the government’s cost-benefit analysis “does not consider”
alternative schemes which this union also supports, such as high speed rail. As the
ILO report states: “A shift towards more sustainable transport is feasible, but it
requires careful planning and transition measures.”
Relocalisation 19
Buying locally manufactured goods and locally grown food, protecting local transport
and services, could impact on jobs in logistics distribution but would increase local
employment in the manufacturing, public transport and services sector more
generally.
15 p149
16 The Hidden Cost of Flying, Sewill, AEF 2003, confirmed by BAA consultants Volterra Since then,
inflation and the increased number of passengers increased this figure to £10billion but it was brought
back to £9bn by the rise in air passenger duty on 1/2/07.
17 Predict and Provide, Cairns and Newson, 2006
18 http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2009/rp09-011.pdf
19 Relocalisation means moving away from globalisation and back towards local production and
consumption
22

The trend over the last 30 years or more has been towards ever increasing
globalisation, which has created growth in the transport sectors. Retailers and
manufacturers have sought ever cheaper supply chains. Food and manufactured
products travel much further before they reach us. People travel longer distances to
get to work, as industries in many local areas are closed down, centralised, or off
shored.
A classic example is the Young’s prawn plant in Annan in Scotland, next to the
fishing grounds. 120 jobs were lost in the plant, when the decision was taken to air
freight the prawns to Thailand for processing, and then re-import them back to sell in
UK shops. Another is what has been called the ‘great food swap’ where Britain
imports 240,000 tonnes of
pork from the Netherlands
each year - and exports
195,000 tonnes back 20 .
The current economic crisis
is already causing many to
question the sustainability
of this model, on social and
economic grounds as much
as on environmental ones.
We are hearing calls
stronger than at any time since the 70s to ‘buy British’ to protect jobs, to holiday in
the UK, to rediscover an economy based on manufacturing more of the things we use
close to home rather than relying on imported goods from China and other countries
involving unsustainable lengthy supply chains, an economy that is ‘jobs-intensive’
rather than energy-intensive and based on artificially cheap transport. There are
indications that consumers are heeding these calls, again probably as much for
economic as for environmental reasons.
This issue that will need to be addressed together with all other sectors of the union.
It’s clear that long supply chains don’t serve the wider economy. One of our
members gave the example of the UK Nissan production line, which was stopped for
the want of a supply of 90p door seal shipped in from China - the factory down the
road which made the seals, presumably having closed down!
Many environmentalists argue the ‘external’ costs of transport (e.g. CO 2 emissions,
the effect on health and wildlife, traffic, noise, stress, etc) are not met by the transport
industry but are passed on to society as a whole. Much of the policy focus has been
on who should pay for these external costs. Without regulation, businesses are in fact
legally bound to pass these costs on to society as much as possible. Rather than
arguing whether costs are paid by consumers, passengers, workers, or citizens at
large (for example the higher incidence of childhood asthma near busy trunk routes
and transport hubs), perhaps we should be arguing for regulation to prevent
businesses passing these costs on to any of these groups, and to internalise them. Of
course businesses, would state that this would make them unprofitable but is this
really true?
20 Caroline Lucas MEP, Stopping the Great Food Swap, 2001
23

Technological solutions:
Technology, its development and use, is never non-political. Our members will
already be all too aware of this, from lorry drivers to BA ground staff. So when
faced with proposed technological solutions to environmental and sustainability
problems we need always ask – who controls this and to what ends?
There is a need for improved technology in transport to make it more environmentally
friendly, but political and behavioural solutions are paramount. As Compass said in
“The Environment we Inhabit” (2007), “We do not have to wait for major technical
breakthroughs to make deep cuts in emissions. We know that there is already huge
scope for change...”. As outlined above, there is currently not enough political and
business will to use and roll out existing fuel efficient technologies. The relative
underinvestment in buses, coaches and rail as against cars and lorries, is a case in
point. As the ITF states “We note that concrete policy measures rather tend to favour
technological solutions...while a real political commitment to promote modal shift and
establish an integrated transport system is still missing.”
As stated above, it’s important to work with our colleagues in manufacturing and
vehicle production to ensure that we get evidence based policies to ensure our
transport can be run in the most energy efficient ways, domestically supplied where
possible. Therefore retro-fitting as well as new vehicles is important.
Secondly, given the likely
slowness of transforming our
whole transport system to a
more energy efficient one,
demand for fuel intensive
transport must also be
reduced. If we wait to see
what technologies can do,
before we reduce fuel
intensive transport demand, it
will be too late.
Finally, and most
controversially, some have
accused companies of
‘greenwash’, investing in
technology as a PR exercise
to buy themselves some time,
without it having any real
prospects for solving the
problem 21 .
It is important to be aware of both the technological solutions that are being talked
about, their potential and their limitations. This section will look briefly at general
fuel efficiency (through vehicle design and use), alternative fuels (i.e. biofuels,
21 Technofixes, Corporate Watch 2008
24

sometimes called ‘agrofuels’ when grown on large scale), and finally alternative ways
of storing energy for transport (hydrogen and electricity),
General fuel efficiency
Much can be achieved with existing technologies. For example a US study found that
use of existing technologies could, if properly implemented, raise car and commercial
vehicles fuel efficiency by 40 per cent, saving large sums and also generating 130,000
jobs. 22
However the IPCC has voiced concern that fuel efficient technologies do not
automatically equal a ‘greener’ transport industry. Instead they are often cancelled
out by manufacturers to squeeze more performance (acceleration, a heavier
vehicle/more gadgets) from the same amount of fuel, rather than to get the same
performance from less fuel.
In terms of commercial fleets is it crucial that trade union activists are involved in
vehicle choice, and given clear information to help ensure the best possible balance
between environmental and other workforce concerns.
A general move towards fuel efficiency would also have wider economic benefits.
Even taking into account fuel taxes, if less money is spent on fuel, it frees up money
to be spent in other sectors which are more labour intensive than the energy industry,
thus creating more jobs.
Examples are given elsewhere in this report about the use of back-shifting to reduce
unnecessary empty journeys in road haulage. There is also a need to address speed
issues as, generally, slower travelling is more fuel efficient - but this would require
cultural and regulatory changes.
Agrofuels
Agrofuels (biofuels grown on an industrial scale) have been popular with
governments and large scale agriculture. They have the advantage of being a liquid
fuel that could replace petrol and diesel with little infrastructural changes. They have
been promoted as ‘renewable’ or ‘carbon neutral’. The EU in January 2007 included
a mandatory target of 10% of agrofuel use in transport by 2020. Unite’s agriculture
section has been supportive of biofuels in the past but now has serious concerns that
this could worsen land conflicts, raise
food prices, damage biodiversity and
possibly produce more CO 2 than it
saves.
Growing agrofuels uses much fossil
fuel in the growing (fossil fuel based
pesticides and fertilisers), harvesting
and transporting of fuel. Much is
grown in Brazil and Indonesia,
22 ACEEE 2001, Apollo Alliance 2004
25

contributing to rainforest destruction. This worsens climate change because the trees
absorb and store a huge amount of CO 2 .
As well as potentially creating more of a climate problem than they solve, agrofuels
have also been accused by the UN’s Food and Agriculture Programme of displacing
food production and making it more expensive. Greenpeace has calculated that
replacing a mere 10% of the world’s diesel with biodiesel would use up three quarters
of the world’s soya, rapeseed and palm oil production 23 .
Biomass like wood and waste can also be used to generate energy, and wood can be
grown on land that is not suitable for agriculture. There has been much talk of
converting these to liquids or gas to use as ‘2 nd generation biofuels’. However
burning these substances to generate electricity or digesting them to generate gas, is
far more efficient than turning them into liquid fuels.
Given these concerns government biofuels targets remain under review.
Recycled biofuel is a different matter – the material (for example, recycled chip fat)
would otherwise end up in landfill so it is a genuinely ‘green’ way of fuelling
vehicles. It could power up to 2 per cent of the UK’s freight.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen gas is a way of storing energy, not a source of energy – a bit like a battery.
To produce and compress it, you need electricity (most of which is still produced by
fossil fuel sources in the UK) to extract it from water, and in most methods, an
additional fuel source such as natural gas. Powering the UK’s vehicles with hydrogen
would more than double the country’s current electricity consumption 24 . It is likely
that any big expansion of hydrogen power would have to rely on mostly fossil fuel
power for the foreseeable future. According to some people ‘producing the hydrogen
and compressing or liquefying it to use as a vehicle fuel could have a worse impact on
the climate than using petrol’ 25 .
On the other hand, hydrogen-powered fuel cells produce no pollution on the roads –
the only by-product is water vapour. Therefore it has been seen as a useful option for
cities and also with H&S benefits, and introduced onto some London buses by Ken
Livingstone. Public procurement and significant EU and US funding has sought to
drive this technology.
For a number of years vehicle manufacturers have claimed that hydrogen powered
vehicles are only a few years away from mass production – but they have been saying
this for quite a long time! The technology remains very expensive as it dependent on
precious materials such as platinum and on difficult processes. Safety is a concern, as
hydrogen leaks and ignites easily and invisibly. The market has also been held back
by doubts whether the necessary infrastructure (eg hydrogen filling stations and
distribution networks) is likely to appear. Therefore, in the last couple of years car
manufacturers have appeared to move away from hydrogen and back towards the idea
of electric vehicles.
23 Greenpeace International – Cooking the Climate, November 2007
24 Decarbonising the UK - Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research
25 Techno-fixes – A Critical Guide to Climate Change Technologies, Corporate Watch, 2008
26

On balance it seems likely that hydrogen could be useful for short range larger
vehicles i.e. city based public transport, but is unlikely to be cost effective to power
other forms of transport on a significant scale.
The drawbacks to both hydrogen and agrofuels are particularly acute to the needs of
aviation fuel, such that a recent report by the House of Commons researchers stated
that “for the foreseeable future, kerosene will remain the only viable option [for
fuelling aircraft].” The report went on to observe that “aircraft designs do not at the
moment incorporate many of the features highlighted by the secretary of state...unless
there are some very rapid improvements in technology, it will be some time before
more environmentally friendly commercial aircraft are in widespread operation.” 26
Electric vehicles
Clearly electric vehicles also rely on energy production from existing or new sources,
much like hydrogen. They do need to be plugged in to recharge and therefore are
more suitable for short journeys within cities or for site vehicles, (unless there is
substantial investment in new infrastructure to enable ‘filling up’ on route. Although
these vehicles may produce less greenhouse gas emissions and other pollution in
cities, the same may not be true for the source of the electricity, with most electricity
in the UK currently produced by fossil fuels like coal and gas. For example is the
electricity produced by a polluting coal fired electricity station? Nonetheless electric
vehicles do ‘burn clean’ at the point of use which clearly has huge benefits to health
and safety as well as to the environment by roads and in cities. And there is greater
potential in the long term for genuinely renewable electricity (eg from wind, tidal and
wave) than for genuinely renewable liquid fuels.
Hybrid vehicles
By combining an electric engine and a conventional motor, hybrids are more fuel
efficient than a conventional petrol engine (in cities at least), but because the electric
battery is re-charged while the car is driving, they don’t require the additional
infrastructure that a wholly electric vehicle would require. Their size and relative
complexity also means they provide more jobs.
Plug-in hybrid vehicles
Perhaps the most promising in the short to medium term, these run on an electric
charge alone for the first 50 miles or so (thus meeting the majority of journey needs
with ultra low emissions and fuel use) and after that, run on a hybrid engine ie petrol
or diesel topped up by self-generated electric power, without the need for an extensive
charging infrastructure. Such vehicles are already being manufactured in buses (eg
Wrights in Northern Ireland) and most big car companies are hoping to roll out such
vehicles in the next 2 or 3 years, though cost will still be an issue until they are made
on a large scale.
International action - Market based mechanisms and carbon trading
26 http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp2009/rp09-011.pdf
27

Currently all corporations are legally obliged to put profit above all other
considerations. The only option is to break this short termism through legal regulation
and pressure from both consumers and workers. In the current climate, where the
failings of ‘the market’ have become apparent, greater regulation is once more being
talked about as a serious option.
However the transport sector employers, like most others, has tended to resist
straightforward regulation and prefer ‘market based mechanisms’ (like carbon trading
and tax breaks) where companies are given financial incentives to reduce emissions.
The Kyoto protocol is a mechanism to do this – through monitoring carbon levels and
a cap and trade system. A cap is put on the total amount of carbon emissions (and
other greenhouse gases) and then this amount is divided up amongst countries, largely
on the basis of their current emissions. Trade unions have tended to support these
schemes, as have those employers who wish to be seen as ‘progressive’, on the basis
that they level the playing field and create a more predictable and certain business
environment.
The current Kyoto agreement expires in 2012 and trade unions have been involved for
several years in the negotiations towards a new agreement. This year (2009) is being
seen as the ‘crunch’ year to get a new Kyoto agreement thrashed out. Some of the
main areas that this will consider – including the distribution of permits, the extent to
which transport will be brought into the scheme, and whether money could be ‘ringfenced’
for use in green projects like public transport, are highlighted in the short
appendix at the end of this report.
2.8 Conclusion
There has been long standing union concern that deregulation and privatisation have
led to a reduction in affordable, less fuel intensive public transport options open to
people. This is part of a worldwide trend towards increasing reliance on more fuel
intensive transport such as private cars, trucks and planes.
Business as usual is likely to lead to these trends continuing, and then (it is now being
seen) to economic crisis. New priorities for these new times would entail substantial
job opportunities, though this would require careful planning and transition measures,
with union involvement crucial. Economic crisis may lead to the worst of all worlds,
with jobs lost in the high carbon transportation industries and not created in local
industries and in the lower carbon transportation industries. A response to the
economic crisis that includes proper strategic planning for the whole transport sector,
and a shift in subsidies and other forms of financing, would allow enormous scope for
sustainable mobility and sustainable employment. Such a response, wresting control
back from the hands of the market, is increasingly being seen as essential if we are to
have a socially and environmentally sustainable transport system.
28

3 Civil Air Transport, Climate Change and the Economy
3.1 Introduction
The Stern Report was a major publication about the effects of climate change. For the
first time it put an economic framework around the impact of climate change. It
described the impact of climate change as “the greatest market failure the world has
ever seen”.
The report recognized the key role of transport which is the third largest source of
emissions jointly with agriculture and industry. So it is clear that any strategy toward
tackling climate change will need to prioritised transport.
It also recognised that aviation faces difficult challenges and outlined that currently
the levels of taxation in the aviation sector globally are low relative to road transport
fuel taxes.
Air passengers have more than doubled between 1990 and 2005 (an increase of 122
per cent) and greenhouse gas emissions have increased nearly as much as a result (by
110 per cent). There has however been a tailing off of passenger growth in recent
years. There is currently a debate as to whether this is a long term trend or a
temporary ‘blip’.
Road transport accounts for 64 per cent of all the UK domestic greenhouse gas
emissions, while air and water transport combined accounted for the other 36 per cent.
However these figures do not include international transport.
The uncertainties over the overall impact of aviation on climate change mean that
there is currently no internationally recognised method of converting CO 2 emissions
into the full CO 2 equivalent quantity. Emissions from aviation as a proportion of total
greenhouse gas emissions are currently 1.6 per cent excluding the radiative forcing
effect according to the Stern report. Some forecasts suggest that by 2030, aviation
could account for a quarter of the UK’s contribution to climate change. In a 2006
parliamentary answer Gillian Merron stated that:” In 2005 aviation represented 6.3
per cent. of UK emissions, calculated as a proportion of emissions in the UK
inventory plus emissions from international aviation and shipping departing the
UK…Using a radiative forcing multiplier of two, emissions from flights departing the
UK contributed approximately 13 per cent of total UK emissions in 2005.”
The UN’s climate scientists, the IPPC recommend using a policy of using a multiplier
of between 2 and 4, so the union position is at the lower end of this range. But to be
fair we do not know the contribution of other industries to radiative forcing, so this 13
percent figure is an absolute maximum for current UK aviations emissions, on this
basis.
In recent years aviation emissions have been growing faster than emissions from any
other sector. It has been pointed out that if aviation continues to grow at rates
29

projected by the DfT’s 2003 white paper 27 , the UK would not be able to meet its 2050
climate targets, even if every other sector of the economy (including all other
transport sectors, manufacturing, retail, public services etc) produced no carbon
emissions at all. This is a contentious issue. In response to this, Sustainable Aviation,
an industry body, has suggested that aviation usage could triple and emissions from
aviation could return to 2000 levels due to technological and operational
breakthroughs. There has been considerable scepticism on these figures.
Aircraft manufacturers have since the birth of commercial flight sought new ways of
increasing the distance an aircraft could travel on a kilo of aviation fuel. The latest
incarnations of this line are the Airbus A380 and the Boeing 787 Dream liner which
combine the use of modern, space-age, light materials with fly by wire technology to
keep the level of emissions to an absolute minimum. Technology has resulted in a
70% drop in the fuel burn since the 1960s. The A380 on its own is designed reduce
the total impact per passenger kilometre by 20% - 25%. Sadly these savings are only
slowing the level of total aviation emissions over time due to the growth in demand.
3.2 European Emissions Trading Scheme
The principal idea of an emission trading scheme is to put a price on the emissions
released from an industry in order to reduce to total volume of emissions released into
the atmosphere.
In 2005 the Commission adopted a Communication on ‘Reducing the Climate Change
Impact of Aviation.’ The key conclusion was that, in view of the likely future growth
in air traffic, further policies and measures were needed to address the climate impact
of aviation. The Commission decided to pursue a new market based instrument at the
Community level in preference to other financial measures such as tax and charges.
Within the EU, aviation contributes 3% of emissions according to the Commission,
and it has risen by 87% between 1990 and 2004.
A Commission impact assessment considered the options and policy choices for
including aviation in the Community scheme. It concludes that since every airline on
each route covered by the scheme would be treated equally, airlines can be expected
to pass on, to a large extent or even in full, compliance costs to customers. This would
have only a small effect on forecasted demand growth.
It comes as no surprise that this has been challenged by the main European airlines.
They claim that the EU ETS will increase fares, reduce demand for flying, reduce the
already marginal profits of the airlines and result in a loss of jobs.
The industry has raised some concerns about the speed with which new aircraft can be
manufactured and delivered. Lead times for the manufacturing and supply of
‘greener’ technologies is always an issue. Partly this is an issue that the UK
government needs to address if it is going to secure the maximum number of ‘green
jobs’ for UK manufacturing.
27 For example the DfT’s 2003 Aviation white paper predicted a trebling of passenger numbers by
2030, meaning that even with efficiency savings, emissions from aviation would double.
30

There are also technical problems on new designs, some of which have been resolved
and others of which remain to be resolved.
The union shares the industry’s concern to protect the integrity of the ETS following
the introduction of the EU-US Open Skies agreement. The US airlines (which now
have greater access to European routes) have threatened to challenge any attempt to
impose carbon charges on them through this scheme.
None the less most European operators supported the inclusion of aviation into the
European Trading Scheme from 2012. From 2012 aviation will receive 80 percent of
its carbon credits for free and then will need to purchase any additional allocations.
Over time this level of free allocation will be reduced and the industry forced into
purchasing more modern greener aircraft.
3.3 Future Aviation Growth
There has been a tailing off of global passenger growth in recent years. This has been
manifested, in the light of the current economic situation, in the latest reports which
suggest a downturn in demand in all London airports. There is currently a debate as
to whether this is a long term trend or a temporary ‘blip’.
It had been assumed until recently that the growth in the popularity and importance of
air travel in the UK would continue over the next 30 to 40 years. In 2003 the DfT
predicted that passengers through UK airports would increase from some 200 million
passengers in 2003 to 250 million by 2008 and in fact this prediction looks likely to
be exceeded.
Scheduled traffic on domestic and international flights of airlines worldwide,
measured in terms of passenger-kilometres performed (PKPs), has been predicted to
increase at an average annual rate of 4.4 per cent for the period 2002-2015. By 2050
the demand for passenger travel was predicted to be three times that of 2000. Total
freight traffic, measured in terms of freight tonne-kilometres, was also forecast to
grow at 5.5 per cent rate per annum over the period 2002 to 2015 as well.
International traffic was envisioned to continue growing at a higher rate than total
traffic, namely at 5.1 per cent per annum for passenger-kilometres and 5.8 per cent
per annum for freight tonne-kilometres.
Clearly this is a hotly political issue as projections of growth are used to justify
decisions regarding expansion of capacity, for example the 3rd runway at Heathrow.
Industry sources such as ‘Airline Business’ magazine, predict that airline yields would
decline at an annual rate of 0.5 per cent for the first four years for passenger traffic
and six years for freight traffic and to stabilize for the remaining years of the forecast
horizon.
Given the continued growth in global population and the continued human desire of
individuals to travel, visit and migrate, utilising the swiftest medium available, in the
long term it would models predict that growth in passenger numbers is unavoidable.
31

Between 1987 and 2007 the UK market has continued to climb rapidly dropping back
twice as a result of the two gulf wars from which the Air Freight sector in the UK has
not yet fully recovered. (see Figure 1) Within the UK the majority of air freight and
mail is carried in the cargo hold, making the comparison of like for like passenger km
difficult to calculate.
3,000,000
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
-
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
.
Passengers (x100) tonnes
Source: Civil Aviation Authority
Figure 3.1: Air Passengers ‘000 and Air Freight tonnage 1987 – 2007
Figure 3.2: UK transport CO 2 emissions 1970 – 2005 (by source) 28
Source: Defra, 2007
28 'Other' includes motorcycles and mopeds; LPG emissions; other road vehicles and mobile sources
and machinery. International shipping and aviation have been calculated using fuel in international
bunkers.
32

The task at hand is to achieve this growth while reducing the total footprint of
aviation . In 2008 there was a decline in total passenger numbers which can partly be
put down to an increased environmental awareness by the travelling public and the
global economic downturn. It is not yet known if this was an aberration or the start of
a decline in the popularity of this transport mode. Given the continued global
population growth rates, however, predictions for long term growth are well
supported.
Currently road transport accounts for 64 per cent of all the UK domestic greenhouse
gas emissions, while air and water transport combined accounted for the other 36 per
cent. These figures do not include the industrial use of transport or international
transport, however, and hence do not include the footprint of international shipping,
aviation or long distance haulage by road and rail.
Recent figures from Defra would suggest that if you include industrial transport
aviation is only responsible for just 3 per cent of domestic transport emissions. In
contrast figures supplied by industrial sector which include international aviation and
shipping suggest that aviation is responsible for 6 per cent of total UK emissions (46
percent of industrial transport if you exclude the car from your calculations).
UK Domestic Shipping
3%
UK Domestic Air
2%
Other
Railways
1%
2%
Busses
3%
lorries
22%
cars
54%
vans
13%
Figure 3.3: UK domestic greenhouse gas emissions 2007
Source: Defra, 2007b 29 , 30 .
29 As this is by source, it excludes the emissions from electricity generation in rail.
30 Note the difference between CO2 emissions and total greenhouse gas emissions here. The total
basket of 'Kyoto' greenhouse gas emissions fell by 15.6% between 1990 and 2005 (Defra, 2007d).
However, most recent estimates show carbon emissions rose again during 2006, mainly due to fuel
switching from natural gas to coal, so that the level is currently only around 5% below the base year
(Defra, 2007e).
33

Dependant on the message you wish to use, the figures can therefore be used to vary
the message significantly.
Aircraft release emissions into the atmosphere comprising of several different kinds
of gases and particles, which complicates the issue still further. These gases and
particles also alter the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases, including CO 2 ,
ozone (O3), and methane (CH4). Some of these gases and particles cool the planet,
other warm it. But the overall impact of these emissions, according to the IPCC I
2002, a warming affect of 2.7 times that of the carbon dioxide alone (IPCC 2001 exec
summary).
Figure 3.4: Composition of emissions from a typical aircraft jet engine
Although direct effect of emissions of CO2 from aircraft are relatively well known,
the emissions of other gases and particles are subject to greater uncertainties and the
climate impact is much more difficult to quantify due to a number of direct and
indirect effects. This is primarily because of different times they stay in the
atmosphere and their different radiative properties, how the emissions change the
composition of the atmosphere by chemical reactions, and the way they trigger the
formation of contrails and other clouds. Research for the IPCC by Sausen et al (2005)
implied a Radiative Forcing index multiplier of 1.9, based upon better scientific
understanding, which mostly reduced the effects of contrail radiative forcing.
In a parliamentary answer Gillian Merron stated that: ‘Using a radiative forcing
multiplier of two, emissions from flights departing the UK contributed approximately
13 per cent of total UK emissions in 2005. However, the figures for non-aviation
sources do not include any radiative forcing attributable to them, as conclusive figures
are not available’. So the absolute maximum figure for UK aviations emissions is 13
per cent, but is anywhere between 6 and 13 per cent.
The Air Transport Action Group has estimated that aircraft fuel efficiency has more
than doubled in the past 40 years. Today’s aircraft are 70% more fuel-efficient than
the jets of the 1960s (e.g. 3.5 litres per 100 passenger-kilometres, which is more
efficient than many forms of transport). Current research efforts in Europe aim to
achieve further reductions of 20 per cent in CO 2 and 60 percent in nitrogen oxide
(NOx) emissions, for new aircraft engines in 2008. Longer-term goals include
achieving a 50% cut in CO 2 emissions per passenger-km and an 80% cut in NOx
emissions for equipment entering service in 2020.(see Figure 3.4).
34

Figure 3.5 Sustainable Aviation’s CO2 Roadmap - projected future
emissions of CO 2 from UK aviation.
In essence this graph predicts that aircraft could become 15 per cent more fuel
efficient by 2015 and 40-50 per cent more efficient by 2050.
There is, however, considerable scepticism about these figures, especially from
environmental groups, as to whether these figures are achievable. We must remember
that aircraft are long-lived, so that many of the older and less fuel efficient aircraft
will still be in service beyond 2020. For example the House of Commons
Environmental Audit Committee (3 rd report 2004) accused the government’s White
Paper on The Future of Aviation of being deliberately misleading on this issue, and
pointed out that the Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research has said this
aspirational 50 per cent target requires ‘breakthrough technologies’ which don’t yet
exist, as opposed to the small incremental improvements that are currently being
worked on.
Even if the more optimistic assumptions about technological improvements to
aviation are met, the IPCC cautions that such improvements are insufficient in view of
current projections for aviation’s growth of about 5 percent 31 .
3.4 European Emissions Trading Scheme Background
On 27 September 2005 the Commission adopted a Communication on ‘Reducing the
Climate Change Impact of Aviation.’ The key conclusion drawn in the
Communication was that, in view of the likely future growth in air traffic, further
policies and measures were needed to address the climate impact of aviation. Having
analysed a number of options, the Commission decided to pursue a new market based
instrument at the Community level in preference to other financial measures such as
tax and charges.
31 Green Jobs – Towards Decent Work – ILO/ITUC/UNEP 2008 p149
35

The move reflects a decision by the EU to extend the control of carbon emissions
from the energy sector and heavy industry (the basis of the EU ETS), to other sectors
of the economy. The EU’s strategic aim is to cut CO 2 emissions across the EU by 30
per cent by 2020. This will generate the substantial reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions compared with 1990 levels, which are needed to meet the objectives of the
Kyoto Protocol, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). The UNFCCC seeks to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with
the climate system.
The limitation and reduction targets adopted under the Kyoto Protocol included
emissions from domestic aviation but not emissions from international aviation or
shipping. Instead the Kyoto Protocol places an obligation on the parties to "pursue
limitation or reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases…from aviation…bunker
fuels, working through the International Civil Aviation Organization…".
Within the EU, aviation contributes 3 per cent of emissions according to the
Commission, and it has risen by 87 per cent between 1990 and 2004.
A Commission impact assessment considered the specific design options and policy
choices for including aviation in the Community scheme. It concludes that since every
airline on each route covered by the scheme would be treated equally, airlines can be
expected to pass on, to a large extent or even in full, compliance costs to customers.
This would have only a small effect on forecasted demand growth: from business-asusual
levels of 142 per cent to a minimum of 135 per cent over the period 2005 to
2020 for all departing and arriving flights. Competition between airlines would not be
significantly affected. The main difference between airlines is the length of journey
undertaken, the age of the aircraft used and the payload carried.
Therefore, carriers travelling shorter distances, using older aircraft or carrying fewer
passengers or less freight would be affected to a greater extent than more fuel efficient
aircraft. Competition between airports and tourism would not be significantly
affected. However, any risk to the latter would likely be decreased by including all
departing and arriving flights in the scheme.
Both the T&G Section of Unite the Union and the TUC 32 supported the Government
efforts to fully capture EU aviation emissions within the EU Emissions Trading
Scheme by 2008, but in practice aviation will not be covered by the scheme until
2012. Including aviation emissions into the ETS under current aviation growth and
efficiency trends, is likely to have a major impact on the ETS itself. Unlike the
participation of other sectors of the economy, the aviation industry would enter the
ETS as a long-term net purchaser of carbon credits thus reducing the availability of
credits in the system. Additionally on entry, aviation will only be provided with 80
per cent of its needs for free. As a result the industry will need to purchase any
remaining requirements at the government auctions.
From 2012 all flights arriving and departing European airports will be included in the
scheme and the airlines will receive enough allowances in 2012 to cover 97 per cent
32 A Sustainable Energy Policy: TUC response to the Government's Energy Review, 2006.
36

of average 2004-06 emissions. If additional allowances are required, these will have
to be purchased on an auctioning basis. In 2013 and subsequent years this free
allowance will decrease to a situation where by 202 only 60 per cent of required
allowances will be provided. Consequently airlines will be forced to pay more if they
wish to continue a business as usual model.
3.5 Technical Solutions
Alternative fuels
IATA has called for 10 per cent of aircraft fuel to be from alternative sources by
2017 33 but even leaving aside concerns about biofuels and hydrogen (see p20) the
government has stated “there is no viable alternative currently visible to kerosene as
an aviation fuel.”
These views are concurred with by the IPCC who said ‘there would not appear to be
any practical alternatives to kerosene based fuels for commercial jet aircraft for the
next several decades’. There is consensus that hydrogen based aircraft are also
decades away and might well be more environmentally damaging due to the way in
which the hydrogen is created and stored.
Good
Good
Liquid
hydrogen
Ethanol
Volume
Jet A
Liquid
hydrogen
Jet A
Weight
Ethanol
Figure 3.6: Comparison of the volume to weight parameters of currently
available aviation fuel sources.
When designing an alternative fuel hydrogen is by far and away the best fuel to use if
the only parameter you’re looking at is weight and reduced emissions from
combustion. Due to the space required to store the amounts needed for international
aviation, however, would require a considerable redesign. Such a redesign would turn
the aircraft into little more than a flying tanker with a few seats.
Already on long haul flights the amount of Jet A fuel is responsible for up to 55 per
cent of the total weight of the plane. As outlined in the environmental section there
33 Green Jobs – Towards Decent Work – ILO/ITUC/UNEP 2008
37

are concerns that biofuels actually may use more carbon than they save and have other
social and environmental impacts.
There is currently much excitement about the potential to derive biofuels from algae
because it is potentially more energy efficient (See Figure 3.6) and in principle could
be grown virtually anywhere and even used to help clean contaminated water
supplies. However this technology is in its early stages and it remains to be seen
whether this can be scaled up successfully without substantial negative impacts.
Boeing has been experimenting with Synthetic aviation kerosene derived from Coal
using the Fisher Trope process. This method can be used to extract Hydrogen and CO 2
in a format which is 99.96 per cent pure. Such technology would remove aviations
dependence on oil but is not an answer to environmental problems and in fact would
worsen them.
Oil yield (kg/hectre)
180,000
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
Soybean (US)
Rapeseed (Europe)
Babassu (Brazil)
Palm oil (Malaysia)
Algae (world?)
Figure 3.7: Relative yield per hectare of various sources of biofuel
Aircraft Design
The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
(RCEP) states that ‘The basic gas turbine design
emerged in 1947. It has been the dominant form of
aircraft engine for some 50 years and there is no serious
suggestion that this will change in the foreseeable
future.” Boeing, Airbus and other manufacturers are
looking at unducted turbine blades again in an effort to
maximise fuel burn but are facing considerable
problems over the noise produce by this technology due
to the vibration of the blade tips at speed. Also of
concern, a recent European Commission report
suggested that the new more ‘efficient’ engines form
more condensation trails and hence increase the
radiative forcing effect (discussed later) 34
34 see www.aero-net.org/a2c3/a2c3_summary.pdf.
38

The RCEP also stated that there was potential for reduction in fuel use of up to 30 per
cent by using huge hollow wings in which passengers would sit, but that this is just a
concept and the stability and controllability of such an aircraft is still unknown. The
idea of flying wing technology have yet to overcome the problem of increased travel
sickness levels in such designs occurring due to the in ability of the brain of the
passenger sat in the centre of the plane to associate the movement of the aircraft
relative to the horizon and overcoming passenger claustrophobia.
The Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe (ACARE) has established
a challenging goal of a 50 per cent reduction in CO 2 emissions per passenger km for
new aircraft entering into service in 2020, compared with equivalent new aircraft
entering service in 2000. Our assessment of the nearer term technology and
operational improvements centre around the assumptions underpinning the ACARE
targets for 2020. The ACARE targets would also result in an 80 per cent cut in NO X
and a 50 per cent cut in noise.
But the ACARE targets are relying on developments in technology to bring about the
reduction to the environmental impacts of aircraft. We must, however, ask the
question what happens if these developments do not happen?
Sustainable and Green Engines (SAGE) is one of
the six Integration Technology Demonstrators
(ITDs) that make up the Clean Sky JTI. The €425
million validation programme will involve the
design and build of five engine demonstrators,
including an open rotor engine demonstrator. The
open rotor engine demonstrator is planned to run
around 2011-2012, enabling a product to enter
into service in the latter half of the next decade 35 .
The aviation industry has since its conception, tried to think of new ways in which to
obtain more distance per kilo of fuel. This has often resulted in the rebalancing of the
turbine pressures which resulted in greater fuel burn duration per kilo or a higher
compression ratio with a consequent increase in the levels of NOx and SOx.
The addition of up turned wing tips has been shown to reduce fuel burn by between 3
and 5 per cent. These devices increase the effective aerodynamic efficiency of the
wings preventing the formation of vortices at the wing tips which are formed by the
higher pressure air beneath the wing flowing around the sides of the wings to reach
the lower pressure air created the wing by its forward motion.
Weight is a major contributor to the volume of fuel burnt on each flight. Reducing
weight from the interior of the aircraft - in terms of products, fixtures and fittings –
can make a significant difference to fuel burn. For example, across Virgin Atlantic's
fleet of 38 wide bodied long-haul aircraft, removing just 1 kg of weight per aircraft
can reduce CO 2 emissions by over 16 tonnes per year. 36
35 Further information: http://www.cleansky.eu
36 Source: Virgin Atlantic.
39

Unite is currently campaigning to reduce the maximum permitted single item luggage
weight limit to 23 kg. This policy is primarily aimed at reducing the level of injuries
suffered by handlers at the airports, however, it could have a far wider impact. If
accepted across the industry the weight savings could be enormous as passengers pack
more efficiently and taking only the essential items needed for their trip. Currently
some airlines accept single items up to 32 kgs.
Airbus estimates that for a 1% structural weight saving, approximately 0.5 per cent to
1.5 per cent benefit in fuel consumption will occur. The exact benefit depends on
many factors, particularly configuration and range (with more benefit being available
for medium-range aircraft than long-range), and on whether the whole aircraft design
can be re-optimised following the weight change. Airbus predicts that airframe
aerodynamic improvements like natural or hybrid laminar flow control, low drag
technology and innovative aircraft configurations can together offer a fuel burn
reduction of around 10 per cent 37 .
The development and deployment of composite materials are now being implemented
to reduce this weight and enable the aircraft to fly further on each kilo of fuel.
Additionally the addition of winglets to the tips of existing and future aircraft wings
has already been shown to save between 3 and 5 per cent.
Operational changes
There are practical gains to be made which do not require any additional equipment
but could save considerable amounts of fuel and hence emissions as well as changes
which could reduce the effect of these emissions.
Efforts need to be introduced to minimise taxiing and stacking periods wherever
possible. It has been estimated that reducing stacking and queuing on taxi ways at
Heathrow by introducing mixed mode operations (where the two existing runways are
used for both take offs and landings, at the same time, much like the case at single
runway airports) could save an estimated 330,000 tonnes of C0 2 . Currently 'Every
other flight that come in to the airport, is held in stack for around eight and a half
minutes and could be sitting on the tarmac, with the engine running, waiting to leave
for up to 20 minutes. The principle cause of this race to join a queue is the practice of
counting on time departures from the moment aircraft are pushed back from the stand,
not the time the aircraft leaves the ground.
Currently air routes are chosen to either avoid congestion
or reduce the financial cost of a flight. The associated
changes in routings can, however, extend flight distances
by up to 20 per cent compared to shortest paths. Large
differences in the amount charged by in European nations
for the air traffic management of flights crossing their
area can create situations where flights deliberately fly
for longer distances simply to avoid highly priced zones.
A good example of this is the well publicised flights
operated by Thomas Cook and Monarch who frequently
37 Airbus Holistic Road Map to the Future
40

avoid higher fees on flights to the Canary Islands from Manchester and Birmingham
by utilising Tango routes over the sea. Using such routes adds around 3,000 tonnes of
CO 2 to the atmosphere on each flight. The airlines excuse was that it wanted to avoid
congestion in the Boulogne area of France to guarantee an on time arrival and
departure. It was however also over €800 cheaper to use that route
This is not an isolated incident as it has been discovered by Omega 38 that a number of
airlines route flights based on financial considerations rather than taking what would
be the most environmentally friendly 39 . A simple method to change this practice is to
increase the cost of tango routes so that they are charged in line with a harmonised the
price across Europe. Whilst this would not eliminate the use of tango routes it would
focus the attention of operators more on the amount of fuel burnt and to the volume of
CO 2 produced. Whilst the concept of a single European Sky will help this ideal it will
not resolve the charging issues raised by Tango route operations.
The CAT National Committee therefore calls for international co-operation to
harmonise the costs of air traffic management across Europe and for tango routes
to be charged by the distance travelled in order to eliminate the financial incentives
to fly further. We, in addition, call on governments to cooperate on access to
national airspace so as to avoid unnecessary in-flight distance and to coordinate
their actions to eradicate unnecessary fuel burn and emissions into the
environment.
Unsurprisingly cleaner engines work more efficiently than dirty ones. Therefore the
provision to wash the engines without the need to dismantle them has been explored.
Keeping the compressor, turbine, and fan of a jet engine clean decreases fuel
consumption by 0.5 to 1.5 per cent. Considering the cost of fuel and the level of
emissions produced by a jet turbine, is well worth doing. In the old days, airline
mechanics simply used a fire hose but this created significant delays due to the need
to allow the resultant black sludge (a heavy-metal cocktail of cadmium, lead, and
arsenic) to drain, which usually ended up all over the tarmac. Pratt & Whitney's
EcoPower Engine Wash rig shoots a pressurized spray into the engine, scouring the
blades of the turbine to a shine and captures the run off keeping the tarmac clean.
Although this new process still takes the aircraft out of service for an hour, this is
considerably less time than it would take to dismantle, clean and reassemble the
engines or wait for the engine to dry out after being blasted by a fire hose. The
provision of this facility is currently only available within Europe at Amsterdam
Schipol airport.
Unlike CO 2 , emissions from aviation vary considerably with altitude. Contrails for
example require cold hypa-saturated air to be formed which typically can be found
over Europe at between 30,000 ft and 40,000 ft. Most aircraft currently cruise at
35,000 feet which the ideal altitude for flights to maximise their fuel efficiency at the
speed at which they are designed to travel. Redesigning aircraft to fly lower and
slower or higher and faster could almost eliminate contrail formation. Another option
would be to accurately map where these areas of hypa-saturated air likely to be
located using more accurate weather forecasting and route around them. Currently the
38 Report into Air traffic management costs in Europe by Dr Lucy Budd of Loughborough University
and Dr Tom Reynolds from the University of Cambridge
39 Examples of cost comparisons on three routes in Europe can be found in Appendix 7 below
41

overall effects of contrails and their effect on the creation of increases cloud is still
largely an unknown factor requiring further study. Consequently we do not know at
present if such a diversion to avoid hypa-saturated air would be beneficial.
NOx emissions do not directly affect the climate, but they do readily react with the
atmosphere to produce Ozone (O 3 ) and destroy Methane (CH 4 ). As both O 3 and CH 4
are powerful greenhouse gases and the relative ratio of O 3 creation and CH 4
destruction vary with altitude and ambient temperature (as shown in Figure 7 below),
it is possible for NOx release to reduce the global warming if released at lower
altitudes. The amount of CO 2 produced far out weighs any gains from this NOx
release at these levels, however, as flying lower or higher than the optimum results in
excessive fuel burn and hence more CO 2 . Increasing the altitude also reduces the fuel
burn and the volumes of O 3 produced. (It should be noted that this is a completely
separate issue to ‘the hole in the ozone layer’, which in fact is a problem that has been
largely resolved).
Figure 3.8: Dependence of Ozone radiative forcing on location of
emissions 40
Scientists at Cranford University working in collaboration with others at Cambridge
have suggested that the idea cruise altitude to minimise the effect of aviation
emissions over Europe is around 33,000 ft using current aircraft designs. This is
clearly only a minor adjustment to the current situation and should easily be
achievable.
On approach to airports the standard procedure is to descend then to fly at a low level
path toward the airport before making the final descent and touchdown. This creates
excessive noise, requires more fuel to be burnt and hence higher levels of emissions.
This path enables over flights of the area thus reducing the impact of the airport of the
flight paths in the area.
The alternative continuous decent approach, (as seen below in Figure 3.9) on the other
hand, utilises the aircrafts natural gliding capabilities to maintain a path directly from
altitude to touchdown therefore reducing noise and fuel burn. If holding patterns and
vectoring of aircraft was eliminated almost 1 per cent of the aviations total fuel burn
could be avoided.
40 Keith Shine, Department of Meteorology Reading University
42

40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
As fuel burns off the aircraft gradually continues the climb
Steps in current flight paths caused by actions to avoid other aircraft
and by vectoring and stacking requirements to enable adequate
spacing of aircraft on approach
More gradual climb
path
Continuous Decent
Ideal Path
Current Practice
Source :- CANSO
Figure 3.9: Comparison between ideal vertical flight path and current
practices
Rapid climbs to altitude do reduce the noise footprint of departing aircraft, but this
environmental gain is dwarfed by the impact of the volume of fuel needed to achieve
this manoeuvre. A recent scientific study by Dr Tom Reynolds of Cambridge
concluded that such a continuous climb with no level offs is one aspect that could
reduce total fuel burn significantly. 41 .
Due to its proximity to RAF Northolt, Heathrow has the problem of military airspace
to contend with to the west of the airport. This RAF facility will remain a ‘core
military site’ for the foreseeable future, with fixed and rotary wing flying operations
continuing at around 13,000 movements a year. Its proximity to Heathrow has
resulted in stacking of aircraft over London and a sharp descent path into and out of
the airport, which has resulted in increased greenhouse gas emissions. Illuminating
the need for aircraft to stack and queue for take off and landing slots should also be a
priority.
Therefore the CAT National Committee calls for a review of all military air space
especially that west of Heathrow to see if it can be derestricted and used to decrease
the rate of decent and climb of aircraft and used to avoid lengthy diversions.
Military no fly zones can also add considerably to flight paths as aircraft route around
areas. This is particularly problematic over the English Channel and across parts of
Wales due to naval and air force training requirements.
Clearly the higher the number of passengers on a flight or on any journey the more
efficient that journey will be in terms of emissions per passenger km. Using the most
efficient aircraft for the designated route, therefore, makes a big difference. A 70-seat
41 Source Study by Dr Tom Reynolds of Cambridge for Euro control, Aspire and Omega..
43

turboprop will burn 35% less fuel than a regional jet on a 500 nm sector 42 . On longer
sectors, however, larger aircraft which can carry more passengers gain the advantage.
Although a move towards larger and larger aircraft does have the potential to lower
the overall emission level, and reduce congestion at the airport, the challenge is
therefore to choose the correct aircraft layout to match the demand. This is where a
hub airport comes into its own. By flying passengers into a single location to board
the long haul route, passenger density can be maintained at a high enough level to
justify the use of an airbus A380 or Boeing 747-400.
The aviation industry is not just about the use of the best and most efficient aircraft.
On the ground there are numerous measures that could be implemented to reduce the
carbon footprint of the airports. Ranging from changes in the day to day actions of
staff to generating power on site to investments in new technology, these changes can
culminate in a far more efficient method of operation which will not only reduce
aviations effect on the climate, it will also provide financial savings, in the long term,
for the airport operators.
Local generation therefore not only provides the sites installing electrical generational
capacity with a source of low carbon energy, it also provides the site with the
potential of a guaranteed supply at minimal long term cost. Various methods of
generation are available but some methods cannot be utilised at airports.
The main point is that there are numerous options to generate environmentally
friendly energy on airports but there are limitations. Standard wind turbines can not be
used at airports as they disrupt radar and air navigation services. Turbines which have
a vertical axel might be OK, but the position of these would be critical.
3.6 What can staff do?
There are a wide range of actions staff can do in the workplace which, when
combined with the efforts of colleagues, do make a considerable difference. The
greatest gains will always be made by staff by making the conscious decision to
reduce their carbon footprint and looking into the consequences of their actions. (See
Appendix 4 of the CAT Aviation and the Environment briefing)
Policy Options
Air travel will not develop in a political vacuum: its size, shape and success will be
determined politically by the UK and other European Governments, the EU and the
views of the wider society as a whole in regard to the issues of global warming and
transport.
The problem facing the aviation sector is that it must balance its projected growth in
passengers numbers, freight volumes and employment against its environmental
impact of this growth. It will need to balance the increasing demands for lower travel
costs, better service quality, and very highest safety standards, against increasingly
demanding environmental standards.
42 Source: Bombardier.
44

The aerospace industry cannot produce new aircraft swiftly enough to fully replace
existing fleets before 2020. As a consequence existing fleets will need to continue
operations. These older passenger aircraft tend to end their working lives as freight
only carriers. As a result even if the new technology is implemented on aircraft
entering service, drop in solutions will also be needed to enable the existing fleets to
reduce their impact.
Indeed a more problematic and possibly more difficult questions that may have to be
asked is to what extent is it possible to have a growing and sustainable aviation sector,
and how such a system could seamlessly integrates with other sustainable transport
networks.
A further consideration is of the sustainability of off-shoring the service industry,
manufacturing and agricultural production still further and further from the end
consumer, both in terms of environmental and employment impacts, even if this
would have increased the number of jobs in the transport sector.
Therefore the CAT National Committee supports the introduction of focused
carbon offsetting schemes, but not as an alternative to carbon pricing, with robust
regulation in place to ensure the scheme is making real sustainable reductions in
emissions, without putting UK jobs at risk in the long term.
The CAT National Committee recognises that aviations contribution to CO 2 is
greater than a number of other industries. Its working assumption is the through
radiative forcing its impact is twice that of some other industries. As there have not
been any studies into the radiative forcing levels of other transport modes, this
figure will be kept under review and changed if necessary if and when further
scientific evidence becomes available.
The CAT National Committee reconfirms its support for the ETS and calls for the
introduction of a world wide emissions trading scheme for civil aviation.
Also it should campaign for a scheme to be introduced either in the EU or
worldwide for the decommissioning of more polluting aircraft.
The CAT National Committee want to see the ending of the Air Passenger Duty
when the EU Emissions Trading Scheme starts operation. If Air Passenger Duty is
maintained, then the revenue stream should be hypothecated and used for
environmentally friendly civil aviation projects. i.e. research, development and
implementation of new operational practices and technology.
The Department for Transport (DfT) recognises that transport needs to play a key role
in helping to deliver reductions in emissions of CO 2 . Yet some means of transport are
more sustainable than others.
Paradoxically, road transport emits six times more carbon dioxide per passenger mile
than rail, but motoring costs have fallen in recent years. Meanwhile, rail is far more
carbon efficient, but rail fares have increased steeply. 43
43 Greening the workplace, a report by the TUSDAC unions, 2005.
45

The CAT National Committee calls on the Government to recognise the vital
importance of developing high-speed intercity rail network that will offer
passengers a realistic affordable alternative form of long-distance travel within the
UK.
The CAT National Committee further calls on the Government to support a major
review of fast and efficient public transport access to the UK’s major airports.
However, this review should take into account the problems facing staff travelling
to and from the airport early in the mornings or late in the evenings.
3.7 Conclusions
The future of the civil aviation in the UK, in Europe and globally is difficult if not
impossible to predict. However, there is one thing that will be certain, it will not be
uncontroversial! The divided views of scientists, environmentalists, politicians and
those who work in the industry will make sure of that.
The decisions taken by the Unite will affect this debate to some degree. It will have
balance issues of growth and employment in the industry, against the environmental
costs the industry produces.
The Civil Air Transport Committee briefing, on Aviation and the Environment may
help you in the decision making process, but it does not pretend to have the answers
to these difficult decisions only suggestions.
46

4 Docks, Inland Waterways, and Fisheries and Sustainable Transport
4.1: Introduction
For the 200,000 years of human existence, the seas and oceans have always been rich
in life and a source of abundant food. We have treated them as if they were limitless
resource. But we can do so no longer. The awe-inspiring – and mostly damaging –
changes to the pre-human order started first on land, then on our coasts and now in the
atmosphere by the planet’s billions of human inhabitants are beginning to affect even
the oceans that cover over two-thirds of the globe.
The seas are not boiling hot, but their surface waters are noticeably warmer than they
were even 50 years ago, and this is largely as a result of human-induced climate
change. Even the most restrained scientific reports on the state of the oceans make
alarming reading for anyone who cares about the health of the seas.
“Ocean surface waters are warming, the sea level is rising ever faster, the oceans are
becoming increasingly acidic and marine ecosystems are under threat,” was the
measured conclusion of the German Advisory Council on Global Change in its report
44 on the future of our seas. “Human activities are unleashing processes of change in
the oceans that are without precedent in the past several million years.”
The UK’s economy has historically been based on our position as a trading nation, for
centuries with an empire that made it easy to access to colonial markets and exploit
their raw materials. Whilst some have suggested that Britain could meet much more
of its own food and material needs, and that this might benefit both social
sustainability (jobs) and environmental sustainability, few would want to live in an
economy without any overseas imports at all – particularly those which we could not
produce ourselves, such as coffee, chocolate, citrus fruit, and spices.
The importance of shipping and trade to the economy of the UK, an island nation, has
resulted in the establishment of a large number of ports around the coast, which are
very diverse in terms of size and type of cargo handled.
Therefore our seaports are important transports hubs where ship, road and rail
converge, and our inland waterways should be used as main arteries of our industrial
infrastructure, rather than just a leisure facility.
The importance of shipping and trade to the economy of the UK, an island nation, has
resulted in the establishment of a large number of ports around the coast, which are
very diverse in terms of size and type of cargo handled.
4.2 Rising Sea levels
A rise in sea levels and other changes fuelled by global warming threaten roads, rail
lines, ports, airports and other important infrastructure in the United Kingdom. It was
nearly 200 years ago that Lord Byron foresaw the flooding of Venice. And as an
44 http://www.wbgu.de/wbgu_sn2006_en.html
47

unaccustomed portion of the famously submerged Italian city continues to lie under
water, the words of his 1818 poem Ode To Venice appear more apt than ever.
“Venice! Venice! When thy marble walls are level with the waters, there shall be a
cry of nations o’er thy sunken halls, a loud lament along the sweeping seas,” he wrote.
But it seems his words could just as well apply to parts of Wales after it was
announced a new study is to consider whether Welsh coastal towns may simply have
to be abandoned in the face of rising sea levels 45 .
With scientists predicting sea levels will rise by about a metre by the end of the
century, the Assembly-backed study will consider how viable it will be for people to
go on living along the coast.
The study will focus on Pwllheli, in North Wales, and Barry, in the Vale of
Glamorgan, and assess whether in the long term it is worth improving their sea
defences to avoid scenes like those predicted by Lord Byron.
But experts have warned it may be time to start thinking the unthinkable – that they
simply have to be given up to the sea.
Both Barry and Pwllheli experienced severe flooding in 2000 and the study will also
examine the more immediate question of how this can be prevented in future.
Former head of the Met Office Sir John Houghton said that irrespective of any
progress on emissions targets, sea levels will continue to rise as the polar ice caps
melt at an alarming rate.
Sir John, who was among a group of scientists who shared the Nobel Peace Prize with
former US Vice-President Al Gore for their work on climate change, said: “One metre
is a big rise so it may well be that certain populations or areas by the sea have to be
abandoned as a result, rather than building expensive sea defences.
“Sea levels will continue to rise for hundreds of years, whatever we do about
controlling climate change.”
In the United States the greatest and most immediate potential impact is coastal
flooding, according to one of the reports, by an expert panel convened by the National
Research Council, the research arm of the National Academy of Sciences 46 .
Another study, a multi-agency effort led by the Environmental Protection Agency,
sounds a similar warning on coastal infrastructure but adds that natural features like
beaches, wetlands and fresh-water supplies are also threatened by encroaching salt
water.
45 Rising sea levels threaten coastal towns Dec 3 2008 by Darren Devine, Western Mail
46 U.S. reports say rising sea levels threaten infrastructure By Cornelia Dean Wednesday, March
12, 2008 International Herald Tribune
48

The reports are not the first to point out that rising seas, inevitable in a warming
world, are a major threat. For example, in a report last September, the Miami-Dade
County Climate Change Task Force noted that a rise of two feet, or a little over half a
meter, by the year 2100 as predicted by the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change "would make life in South Florida very difficult for everyone."
But the new reports offer detailed assessments of vulnerability in the relatively near
term. Both note that coastal areas are densely populated, economically important and
gaining people and investment by the day, even as scientific knowledge of the risks
they face increases. Use of this knowledge by policy makers and planners is
"inadequate," the academy panel said.
"It's time for the transportation people to put these things into their thought
processes," Henry Schwartz Jr., the chairman of the research council panel, said in an
interview.
Rising sea levels caused by global warming will threaten the future of ports and portside
communities not only in the UK but worldwide. 3.2billion people currently live
in sea level communities that could be threatened by rising sea levels and more at risk
of tsunami type events, with the UN estimating that over a billion people will be
vulnerable to flooding by 2050 if we don’t dramatically reduce our climate change
impact now.
Scientists at a international conference on climate change in Copenhagen in March
heard that predictions from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the body
of climate experts convened by the UN, had underestimated the extent of sea level
rises.
Sea levels are rising faster than predicted, and are likely to surge by 50cm-1m by the
end of the century owing to climate change. Such levels would cause serious harm to
coastal areas, said researchers, and affect at least 10 per cent of the world's
population 47 .
4.3: Greenhouse Gas Emissions
The total greenhouse gas emissions from Water Transport 48 in 2006 were 19.4 million
tonnes, which was 2.7 per cent of the total greenhouse emission of the 93 economic
sectors in the UK.
Water transport accounts for 21 per cent of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the
transport sector in 2006. This was the second largest emissions for the transport
sector, and was followed by freight transported by road. However, the freight
transported by road does not include the activities of other companies which operate
47 Seas rise faster than expected By Fiona Harvey Financial Times March 11 2009 02:00 | Last
updated: March 11 2009
48 Sea and coastal water transport including; Passenger sea and coastal water transport; Freight sea and
coastal water transport; Inland water transport;
49

lorries but do not operated in the hire and reward sector. Overall greenhouse gas
emissions peaked in 2004 at 27.45 millions tonnes.
Emissions from international aviation and shipping can be estimated from refuelling
from bunkers at ports (whether by UK or non-UK operators).
Emissions from UK shipping bunker fuel use are around the same as they were in
1990, but UK operators purchase most of their fuel outside the UK. So these figures
do not capture any increases in shipping fuels purchased abroad which have most
likely increased substantially over the period.
Under the guidelines agreed for UNFCCC, reporting emission from international
shipping are not included in the UK’s emissions, but these estimates are reported as
memo items in national greenhouse gas inventories. Parties to the UNFCCC are
required to act to limit or reduce emissions from international services working
through the International Maritime Organisation (IMO).
4.4: Ports
In total there are more than 650 ports in the UK for which statutory harbour authority
powers have been granted, of which around 120 are commercially active. They range
from ports such as the Port of London, which extends 95 miles from Teddington to
the North Sea, to small harbour trusts responsible for quays, piers and other facilities
which are only of local significance.
Water Transport Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990- 2006
29000
27000
25000
'000 tonnes
23000
21000
19000
17000
15000
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 4.1: Water Transport Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990 -
2006
The UK ports industry is the largest in Europe in terms of freight tonnage.
It is estimated that around 95 per cent by volume and 75 per cent by value of the UK’s
international trade is transported by sea. In 2007, total UK imports across all transport
50

modes were 581million tones of which inward freight traffic accounted for 62 per
cent and 38 per cent outward freight traffic.
In addition, each year around 50 million international and domestic passenger
journeys are made through UK ports. In 2007, there were 25 million international sea
passenger journeys to and from the UK, and 24 million Ro-ro passengers on short sea
routes, and 20 million on inter-island services such as the Isle of Wight and Scottish
islands.
As for all other transport sectors, ports activities are subjected to several EU and
international rules on environmental protection (such as on birds protection, water or
air quality). The debate within the ETF TRUST discussions covered the future ports
policy also involved environmental questions, and was particularly focused on the
relationship between the growth of port activities and the consequences it has on
environment. The increasing flows of maritime transport and the development of
logistics, require ports in some cases to expand, in other to rethink their role and to
become nodal points within an inter-modal transport chain.
In the past port activities and environmental protection were often mentioned as
irreconcilable the one with the other, the current debate is more oriented at looking for
solutions which satisfy both the need for increased capacity and the need to protect
the environment. One of the points agreed by the ETF Dockers Section during the
TRUST workshop on ports was the possibility of coupling both the above mentioned
objectives: besides developing their activities in ports and thus being directly exposed
to air pollution from ships in the form of NOx, SOx and particulate matter, port
workers are also citizens living in port neighbourhoods and aiming at living in
socially and environmentally sustainable areas. A first step to be considered is that
port expansion should be only considered as long as it is strictly necessary, since there
are some cases where alternative solutions can be found, such as redesigning or
adapting the existing infrastructures. In any case, a clarification of the application of
the current environmental rules to ports should be considered.
Furthermore, the relationship between ports and local communities in the hinterland
has to be considered in order to overcome possible controversies. Although ports
generate employment and economic benefits for the local communities, the industry
does not have a positive or environmentally friendly image amongst the neighbouring
communities. The TRUST debate highlighted that the current EU legislation does not
take into consideration recent positive developments in terms of environmental
performance in the sector, or in parts of it, and that there is no need to start from
scratch. In many EU regions and ports in fact different forms of dialogue are already
in place, which led to shared and balanced solutions, which could certainly be spread
as best practices. Also at EU level dialogue is in place and some valid instruments
have already been developed by certain stakeholders, which could be used as a basis
to develop further measures.
Finally, the TRUST debate highlighted that the coordination between the
environmental policy measures applying to the various transport modes should be
enhanced, especially in the light of the expansion of logistics, which require a closer
connection and coherence between the various transport modes, in order to minimize
the side effects that policies applying to one mode could have on the others. This
51

aspect is crucial for ports, which, being the place where different transport modes
meet, have to comply with legislation applying to different sectors.
4.5: What can ports and terminals do to significantly improve their
environmental profile?
Sources of Air Pollution in Ports’
• Ships movements and alongside, on own power;
• Port activity – cargo handling, etc;
• Port/cargo-related transportation;
• Port/cargo-related process & storage industry;
• Distribution transportation; lorries and trains
• Intra-port traffic, including tugs, patrol/pilot boats
Types of Air Pollution in Ports’
Air Pollution in Ports Areas arises principally from:
Diesel engines and other combustion processes involving fossil fuels:
Carbon Dioxide – CO 2 ;
Particulates PM10, etc.;
Hydrocarbons - HC;
Oxides of Nitrogen - NOx;
Sulphur products – SOx;
but other pollutants may also be present: Chemical vapours / gases from industrial
processes.
“Cold Ironing” The Solution or Merely a Panacea?
“Shore power” is nothing new – NATO and former Warsaw pact navies have
used standard equipment in all major naval bases, for over 40 years:
440V, 3 phase, 3 wire, 60 Hz;
Standard bolted connections to cables.
For merchant ships, the lack of world-wide class standards for power systems
creates difficulty in providing shore power to a wide variety of ships:
“Cold-Ironing” is a way towards reducing emissions of ships in port but:
o It is more suitable for longer-term turn-around visits, especially where
dedicated berths are provided to one company or class of ships;
o The environmental benefits are largely localised, rather than total;
Other Means of Reducing Pollutants while Alongside
Shore-side Diesel generators – better matched to load, so lower “signature”
but still producing key pollutants;
Shore-side LPG powered generators – successful Pacific Gas and Electric
Company trials in Oakland, USA, July 2007: Better but still not “Carbon-
Neutral”
Shore power will not always be possible, so we should identify other areas of
sea and port activity, in which “offset” or other benefits can be obtained.
52

Cargo-Handling:
“Specific Power” (power needed to move 1 tonne of cargo 1Km) reduces as
ships’ sizes increase:
Do ports need to invest in dredged access and cargo handling facilities for the
largest container and bulk vessels?
Increased Vessel Productivity to Reduce Time in Port – Double-Cycling and
Twin/Tandem Picks for Quay Cranes
Container Yard
o Double-cycling of yard tractors
o Quay crane double-cycling
o Yard tractor double-cycling
o Pooling of tractors serving groups of quay cranes
o Intelligent route planning: Minimization of travelling distance yields
increased productivity and reduced fuel consumption
o Storage buffers at on-dock rail yards
o Depending on terminal layout and the type of lift & transport
equipment used, the benefit of double-cycling on a long drayage route
may offset any extra lifts in a grounded buffer area.
o Enables double-cycling of dray vehicles
Port transportation:
Cranes/container movers increasingly electrically driven;
Trucks, etc. likely to remain fossil-fuel powered but Euro 4/Tier III engines
available (reduced PM10s, HCs and Nox) Currently these are all typically
powered by diesel fuel
Port-based process and storage facilities:
o Not only economic sense (adding value from realestate)
o But sound environmental benefits to be gained (reduced transportation:
Tonne-Kms)
Port-located power generation.
o
Available industrial land and ports’ permitted development powers
lend to:
Wind turbines;
“Biomass”;
“Waste to power” generating plant.
Reduce the need for cargo onward double transportation?
o Ports should be developed with adjacent space for distribution facilities
serving local markets;
o This needs Government understanding, recognition and support for
planning, at both UK and local levels.
Co-Located Ports and Distribution Parks?
o
o
Combination of Port adjacent to major distribution park:
Typical of the European model but less usual in the UK.
53

Look to new technology to provide low-emission vessels for port
activity:
o
o
o
Seek efficient, modern tugs, running on low-sulphur MGO?
Encourage intra-port cargo services to renew their fleets or upgrade
propulsion machinery to Euro IV / Tier III standards?
Operate low-emissions pilotage and patrol vessels?
Outside Lorries
Reduce the number of truck visits for a given throughput
Enable trucks to perform two transactions per port visit
Web-enabled dispatch / container move matching systems
Virtual container yard (reduces empty re-position moves) – Reduce
gate process time and queuing / idling time
Web-based pre-process and pre-advise
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
RFID tagging of trucks – Spread the workload to the container yard
Extend gate (and yard crane) hours
Increase average truck travel speed on the road
Appointments aimed at avoiding congestion hours
WHAT IS OUR GOAL?
Climate Change?
Global Scale
Greenhouse gases (especially CO2) reduction
Human Health Risk
Regional Scale
o NOx
o SOx
o Local Scale
• PM (particulate matter), especially from diesel engines
The best strategy for reducing emissions depends on which types of emissions are
targeted.
The “best” strategies may be different in different ports this is why prescriptive
regulations can sometimes miss the target. Reducing GHG needs to become part of
daily environmental management of a port
Small-scale initiatives can generate important effects
A lot can be done through self-regulation but not everything
Any EU legal / policy framework for ports and shipping should be proportional and
dovetail the international framework
54

4.6: Inland Waterways
In the UK our waterways are an integrated part of a complex, sensitive and partly
threatened ecosystem. Therefore, inland navigation in the UK should be performed in
an environmentally sustainable way as it is energy efficient, quiet, uses little space
and thus makes the sector one of the least environmentally damaging mode of
transport. It is only responsible for 1.5 per cent of transport CO 2 emissions in the EU-
25, which is on the one hand due to its low average fossil fuel consumption but on the
other hand due to its ability to carry high weights of freight over long distances.
Consequently, emissions of other harmful air pollutants such as SO x , NO x and
particulate matters are also comparably small. At present, however, the capacity of
inland waterway vessels is not even fully utilised as they could handle even much
greater volumes.
Further reduction of fuel consumption and emissions may be achieved by energyefficiency
measures, such as improved and innovative technologies and vessel
concepts. However, these measures cannot be implemented immediately as vessels
have a very long lifetime.
Therefore it is not only necessary to construct environmentally friendly new vessels
but also to modernise existing ones. The modernisation of vessels, however, is not
only important for the environment but also for improving working and living
conditions on board. One crucial step in this direction is the installation of River
Information Systems, which support the planning and management of transport
operations by enabling an optimal cruise speed and an optimal operation of vessels.
Inland navigation is not harmless but has various environmental effects on the local
and regional river ecosystems, such as whirling up of fine sediments due to intense
traffic, an increase of the suspended particles in the rivers, the re-suspension of
sediments and due to the jet of ship propellers a relocation of sand and gravel. This
may not only have a direct impact on species living along river banks but may also
damage the hydraulic conditions of the river banks. The extent of the damage depends
on the size of the ships, the load, speed and direction of traffic. Waste from ships is
another environmental issue: Mineral oil is brought into rivers in the form of bilge oil
and the dumping of wash waters from tank cleaning into rivers can be found despite
existing regulations. Lastly there is the potential risk of accidents, although seldom
occurred, where potential quantities of hazardous substances could come into the
water and harm the environment.
The basic conflict is that natural rivers need diversity while inland navigations needs
stability and the rivers adjusted to the ships. Therefore, it is necessary to apply a
holistic and proportionate approach which balances the interest of the users and the
ecosystem and also takes into account the workers on board the vessels and those
working to maintain the rivers and the canals.
Although the importance of the inland waterways has decline in regards to the
transportation of freight, they can have an increasing important role in an integrated
and sustainable transport system.
55

From Table we can although waterborne freight in the UK declined over all by a total
of 9.4 per cent it was at its lowest in 2004 when it declined by 20.9 per cent to 1.63
billion tonnes-kilometres.
Inland water traffic 1999-2007 billions tonnes-kilometres
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
internal Coastwise Foreign one-port Total
Source: Table 2.3 Waterborne Freight in the United Kingdom 2007
Figure 4.2: Inland water traffic 1999-2007 billion tonnes kilometres
56

Figure 4.3: Major inland waterway routes - total goods moved 2007 Billion tonne
kilometre
River Forth 0.17
River Clyde 0.09
Aire and 0.01
Calder
River Ouse 0.04
River Mersey 0.11
Manchester
Ship Canal 0.09
River Humber 0.23
River Trent 0.03
River Severn 0.01
River Orwell 0.05
River Thames 0.82
River Medway 0.04
57

4.7: Shipping
The problem shipping is that tonne-miles and gross tonnage was growing at similar
rates to world GDP but the number of vessels growth smaller, due to shift to larger
ships.
Greenhouse gases from UK-based international shipping 1990-2006
10.0
million tonnes (CO2 equivalent)
5.0
0.0
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 4.4: Greenhouse gases from UK-based international shipping 1990-2006
The warning was reinforced in February 2008 by a study 49 presented to the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, which concluded that more than 40 per
cent of the world’s oceans are heavily affected by human activities and only 4 per
cent remain almost pristine. The results were obtained by overlaying maps of 17
different activities such as fishing, coastal development and shipping pollution. It
shows that the most heavily affected waters include large areas of the North Atlantic,
the South and East China seas, the Caribbean, Mediterranean, Red Sea, the Gulf,
Bering Sea, and much of the western Pacific.
The least affected areas are mainly near the Arctic and Antarctic, though a few places
far from the poles, such the Torres Strait, north of Australia, are also relatively
untouched.
US researchers have produced a composite picture of man-made damage to the seas.
The dumping of vast quantities of garbage and the rampant over fishing of almost all
forms of edible marine life. Growing areas of ocean are effectively ‘dead’. The
damage to biodiversity has knock on effects on the rest of us – from our food supply
to our leisure activities, and most pressing of all, to our climate.
Other problems, such as rising sea levels, changing ocean currents and the increased
intensity of typhoons and hurricanes, will impact most severely on coastal
49 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/319/5865/948
58

communities and on coastal infrastructure including ports and docks. For years the
oceans have silently served our planet by absorbing about a third of human-induced
carbon dioxide emissions (they already hold 38,000 gigatonnes 50 of carbon, many
times more than the air or the land), but climate change is already damaging the sea’s
ability to continue to absorb CO2. 51
Whilst no one weather event can ever be said conclusively to be caused by climate
change, Hurricane Katrina was just one example of the type of catastrophe that
scientists agree will become more common. Unfortunately this and other coastal
tragedies (such as the Sri Lankan Tsunami) had worse impacts in part due to the
degradation and industrialisation of nearby coastline and the loss of natural defences
such as mangrove swamps, which in the past helped absorb shock and flood waters.
Avoiding such problems, and reversing them, requires a drastic reduction of carbon
dioxide emissions, as well as sensible policies to protect marine biodiversity and to
police this.
Other problems, such as rising sea levels, changing ocean currents and the increased
intensity of typhoons and hurricanes – are more severe and will be harder to tackle
without a drastic reduction of carbon dioxide emissions.
And some of our problems with the seas are existential. For years the oceans have
silently served our planet by absorbing about a third of human-induced carbon dioxide
emissions (they already hold 38,000 gigatonnes of carbon, many times more than the
air or the land), but it is not clear exactly how quickly the absorption can continue or
what the effects might be on the oceans themselves.
But there is room for hope, with targeted efforts to protect the chunks of the ocean
that remain relatively pristine, we have a good chance of preserving these areas in
good condition.
Container shipping lines have started a concerted effort to rehabilitate the industry's
battered public image, recently they launched a campaign to show its environmental
record is improving and that the industry's record on security is good.
The growing criticism of the impact of shipping, particularly on the environment, has
prompted shipping lines to launch the Container Shipping Information Service.
There has been particularly strong criticism of Hong Kong - which, with neighbouring
Shenzhen, handles about 28 per cent of world container movements - and southern
California, which handles 40 per cent of US container imports.
"The largest category of ships, which carry most of the world's cargo, are termed
Category 3 vessels by the USA Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Category 3
vessels are fuelled by bunker oil, the dirtiest and least expensive form of fuel
available. As high-grade petroleum products such as jet fuel, gasoline, and diesel fuel
are produced, the refining process removes undesirable chemicals. The residue from
the production of these higher grade fuels is collected and sold as bunker oil. Bunker
50 Giga is a factor of 10 9
51 http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/jan/12/sea-co2-climate-japan-environment
59

oil contains high concentrations of toxic fuel compounds banned from use in most
other industrial and consumer applications.
The pollutants emitted from burning this dirty fuel leads to acid rain, global climate
changes, particularly over oceans, and damaging health effects for communities living
near major port areas.
Analysis by Carnegie Mellon and Duke Universities suggests that smokestack
emissions 52 from ships may account for half the sulphur found over the world's
oceans, and 60 percent of the airborne sulphur in the North Pacific and North Atlantic.
Worldwide, ship sulphur emissions rival the sulphur emissions of the world's largest
economies, resulting in staggering proportions when compared to sulphur generated
on land. Total worldwide ship sulphur emissions equals 43 percent of the sulphur
produced by the US and 53 percent of that produced by OECD Europe. Researchers
conclude that ship emissions are a critical and overlooked element in the global
climate change debate and in emissions modelling.
Adding to these concerns, to the results from the Indian Ocean Experiment in 1998-
1999 suggest that aerosol emissions from ships, power plants and industrial sources
may be trapping solar heat by "burning away" clouds through emissions of sulphates,
nitrates, soot and ash. Such an effect would increase global warming through loss of
heat-reflecting cloud cover."
Research published in 2007 claimed 60,000 people died each year as the result of
ships' high levels of sulphate emissions.
Information put out by the service, whose centrepiece is the website 53 , stresses the
benefits brought by container shipping, particularly the sharp reduction in global
transport costs achieved by the industry.
The service marks an unusual foray into the public arena by a group of senior
executives at the world's 24 largest container carriers. Many of its members,
particularly the many family controlled lines, are normally publicity-shy.
The shipping lines reject criticism of their environmental record, saying large, modern
container ships create far fewer emissions moving a tonne of cargo for a given
distance than any other means of transport. Most lines have also reduced the speed of
their ships in recent months, they point out. The move, intended to lower consumption
of expensive fuel, has reduced carbon emissions.
Emissions from some shipping lines ships were down 35 per cent following a
reduction in their average speed from 24 to 20 knots, even after taking into account
the emissions produced by the extra ship needed to maintain weekly services with the
slower speeds.
However, like other debates about the impact of transport on the environment there
are different claims. Some claim container shipping is the most environmentally
52 http://www.earthscape.org/p1/bwn01/
53 www.shipsandboxes.com
60

sound way to transport large volumes of goods across the world. Ninety percent of the
world’s manufactured goods and products travel by container ships and which has
doubled in 25 years, but when this fact is considered, the relative impact upon the
environment is low in comparison to other modes of transport.
For example, for every kilometre that a container ship carries a ton of cargo, it is far
more energy efficient and emits much less in the way of harmful CO 2 emissions than
any other type of freight transport, including airplanes, trucks and trains. It is
estimated that on average a container ship emits around 40 times less CO 2 than a large
freight aircraft and over three times less than a heavy truck. Container shipping is also
estimated to be two and a half times more energy efficient than rail and 7 times more
so than road.
Even so, the industry recognises it cannot rest on its laurels. It is by definition a large
industry and of course it does have an impact on the world around it. Container
shipping companies are therefore working hard, alongside environmental agencies
and governments, to minimise all impacts upon the environment.
For example, all member lines of CSIS work with, or are full members of, the Clean
Cargo Working Group and the World Shipping Council. The Clean Cargo Working
Group, set up by Business for Social Responsibility, develops voluntary guidelines
and metrics aimed at improving freight transport’s performance in environmental
sustainability. By taking a cooperative, pan-industry approach, the group helps to
promote environmental stewardship and sustainability in a competitive market.
Working with legislators, appropriate government agencies and international
organisations, the World Shipping Council focuses specifically on the areas of vessel
air emissions, ballast water management, and the protection of North Atlantic Right
Whales and coral reefs.
As well as industry regulations and voluntary codes of conduct, there are a great many
environmentally-focused design features specifically built into containers and the
ships that carry them. For example:
It is now possible to recycle 98% of most container ships
Containers are made of steel and are 100% recyclable
If they are not recycled to make new steel products they often become ‘static’
containers which can have charitable uses, such as schools in developing
countries, or use as storage
Many container shipping lines take steps to ensure that their ships travel at the
optimum speed for efficient fuel consumption
Developments in hull and propeller design continue to improve fuel
efficiency and reduce emissions – in fact a container ship now typically emits
about a quarter of the CO 2 it did in the 1970s as well as carrying up to ten
times as many containers
Use of lower sulphur fuels is increasing and maximum sulphur content
allowed in marine heavy fuel is now limited to 4.5 per cent, or as low as 1.5
per cent in some areas
All fuel is cleaned by filters and purifiers on board before use to help produce
cleaner emissions
61

The majority of container shipping lines have replaced tin-based ‘antifouling’
paint on ship hulls with a more environmentally-friendly alternative
New paints that keep hulls free of barnacles and other sea life offer energy
efficiencies of around 10 per cent
Furthermore, container shipping companies have risk management plans,
environmental policies and trained staff available so they can anticipate and avoid, or
react to, environmental issues or crises.
So through this mix of regulation, voluntary codes of conduct and from
environmentally-aware design to operation, the container shipping industry is
reducing its impact on our environment.
However, others in the shipping industry argue that the 90,000 ships that ply the
world's oceans emit carbon dioxide at a level twice that of aviation.
A report prepared by Intertanko, which represents the majority of the world's tanker
operators, says emissions have risen sharply in the past six years.
Previous International Maritime Organisation estimates suggested levels were
comparable with those of aeroplanes.
Intertanko says its figures are the most realistic estimation of the current levels of CO 2
from ships.
Its estimate suggests that the world's shipping uses between 350 and 410 million
tonnes of fuel each year, which equates to up to 1.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide
emissions.
Intertanko says that growth in global trade coupled with ships burning more fuel to
deliver freight faster has contributed significantly to the increase.
Dragos Routa, the technical director of Intertanko, told the BBC in October 2007 that
the figures were a work in progress but the levels of emissions had risen sharply.
While there are few accurate measures and even fewer restrictions on the amounts of
carbon dioxide that ships can emit at present, governments in many parts of the world
are considering a clampdown as part of their efforts to tackle global warming.
But Mr Routa argued that the much greater tonnage carried by each vessel, compared
with aircraft, meant that shipping was still a much greener form of transporting freight
around the globe.
Figures from the oil giant BP, which owns 50 tankers, and researchers at the Institute
for Physics and Atmosphere in Wessling, Germany reveal that annual emissions from
shipping range between 600 and 800m tonnes of carbon dioxide, or up to 5 per cent of
the global total. This is nearly double Britain's total emissions and more than all
African countries combined.
62

Carbon dioxide emissions from ships do not come under the Kyoto agreement or any
proposed European legislation and few studies have been made of them, even though
they are set to increase.
Aviation carbon dioxide emissions, estimated to be about 2 per cent of the global
total, have been at the forefront of the climate change debate because of the sharp
increase in cheap flights, whereas shipping emissions have risen nearly as fast in the
past 20 years but have been largely ignored by governments and environmental
groups.
In 2007 Donald Gregory, director of environment at BP Marine, said that BP
estimates that the global fleet of 70,000 ships uses approximately 200m tonnes of fuel
a year and this is expected to grow to 350m tonnes a year by 2020. "We estimate
carbon dioxide emissions from shipping to be 4% of the global total. Ships are getting
bigger and every shipyard in the world has a full order book. There are about 20,000
new ships on order" he said 54 .
The estimate supports other academic studies which, until now, have been dismissed
as "extreme", because the industry fears that emissions regulations will be forced on it
if it is not seen to be addressing the issue.
Dr Veronika Eyring, a researcher at the Institute of Physics and Atmosphere,
calculates that the global fleet used 280m tonnes of fuel in 2001 and that could reach
400m tonnes by 2020.
Government actions – by encouraging modal shift has the avowed aim of increasing
the volume of goods carried by sea, especially short-sea-shipping (based on a
recognition that the industry is the best alternative in terms of CO 2 output), which will
inevitably increase total carbon emissions from ships; similarly, delays in port
development approvals (perhaps on other environmental grounds) can increase CO 2
emissions as ships waste fuel while waiting for berths.
It also has to be remembered that shipping is one of the most regulated industries,
particularly in the area of environmental protection. The International Convention for
the Prevention of Pollution from Ships was first introduced over 30 years ago and its
provisions are regularly updated. The industry has done much to improve its
environmental performance – and of course producing less CO 2 means burning less
fuel so there is also a major financial incentive for the shippers to reduce their outputs
of CO 2 !
To summaries the situation in the long-term shipping will have a warming impact on
the climate due to CO 2 emissions. But there is a short-term cooling effect from SO 2
emissions, but this will diminish as the sulphur content of fuel is reduced.
Tank and bulk vessels the largest fuel consumer at roughly 135Mt in 2007, and
containers consumed around 80Mt. According to the Committee on Climate Change if
global shipping is left unconstrained it could grow from roughly 3.5 per cent of total
54 The Guardian Saturday March 3 2007
63

CO 2 emissions in 2007 to 15 per cent – 30 per cent of all CO 2 emissions permitted in
2050. Unless there is a reduction in greenhouse gases even with high carbon prices,
€200 a tonne, global shipping emissions would still be 2GtCO 2 in 2050 – this would
be double today’s levels.
4.8 What can shipping lines do?
Emissions Trading Scheme
Current Industry Position: International Shipping and World Trade
Commitment to reducing the impact off shipping
Shipping - the irreplaceable engine off world trade
Shipping - the greenest transport mode
Strive to improve fuel efficiency
Due to the complexities of the shipping industry, this sector is one where a global
sector deal on emissions is a priority, but in the absence of a global deal EU action is
still a 2nd best solution. The focus on international shipping should be towards getting
a global agreement to reduce emissions from this sector. However, shipping should be
in EU ETS by 2012 if IMO fails to act
Even the sensible allocations at the UK level produce a fairly wide range for UK
shipping emissions e.g. in 2000 (Source: Entec)
Ships’ Power How Can we Reduce or Offset Pollution?
o Legislation-Driven: Low-sulphur fuels: IMO North Sea SECA and EU
Directives: >1.0% sulphur now and >0.1% sulphur by 1st January 2010;
o Economically-Driven: Lower-speed running – but “shipping lines” may
require additional tonnage to maintain delivery rates;
o Vessel Speed Reduction (VSR)
Voluntary program in which ships slow to 12 knots within 20 nautical
miles of the port
High success rate in San Pedro Bay since 2001
VSR boundary may be extended to 40 nm
Effective regional strategy, but may actually increase global emissions
Design-Driven: Reducing CO 2 production: Match low sulphur MGO
harbour generator capacity to harbour load: B
Better matching and advances in engine technology is bringing lower
PM10s, HCs and NOx
But there is room for improvement and innovation in design:
In the past smokestacks billowing soot was acceptable but not today. Exhaust
scrubber technologies – trialled but not yet widely commercially available maybe a
future technology to deal with this problem.
What are the basics for a sea water scrubber?
Function - Exhaust contains pollutants of NOx, SOx, Particulates.
Scrubbing systems remove Sox and Particulates.
64

Exhaust – water absorbs and neutralises SOx and traps particulate.
System operates with a low back pressure discharging clean dry gas.
Water – scrubber discharge flows to a treatment plant in the engine
room. Clean water is discharged to the ocean exceeding IMO guideline
requirements.
Waste – Particulates are removed from scrubber water and can be
discharged into the existing oily waste tank.
Monitoring – the system has secure marine approved monitoring and
data storage for both exhaust and water discharge.
65

5 Passenger Services Trade Group: Towards Sustainable Transport
5.1 Introduction and Overview of the Sector
The T&G section of Unite the Union’s current membership in the Passenger Services
Trade Group, together with our membership in other trade groups, such as supervisory
and administrative grades, and some maintenance engineering members, well exceeds
100,000. The Passenger Services Trade Group represents workers in all areas of
passenger services including bus, coach, taxi, and tram and rail workers in 150 large
local companies. The Passenger Services Trade Group of the T&G section of Unite is
the largest trade union representing drivers, engineers, admin staff, inspectors and
managers employed in the UK transport industry, with over 96 per cent of the
organised workers in the sector in Unite.
All forms of public transport have a vital role to play in providing an efficient,
affordable and sustainable transport system. The Passenger Services Trade Group in
particular containing so many different modes of transport has a leading role to play
in shaping the type of sustainable transport system that will benefit the transport
workers that deliver it, the public that travel on it and the wider society that are
affected by its environmental fallout. There is no conflict between the role Unite plays
in the workplaces delivering public transport and the role it plays in wider civil
society. For the two million working members and retired members that Unite
represents, together with their immediate families, Unite represents a
disproportionately large segment of the travelling public.
In recent years we have seen a concerted effort to improve Greenhouse Gas Emissions
(GGE) by the transport sector with new technology and policy options being
introduced. These actions are having an impact but there is no magic cure. It’s a
continual fight and with UK population projected to be 71 million in 2031, 55 from just
under 61 million in mid 2007, 56 the strain on UK transport will only increase along
with GGE, unless we do all we can now to manage the impacts better, as well as
protecting and strengthening local economies.
According to the Labour Force Survey at least a minimum of 25 per cent of bus and
coaches drivers work over 48 hours a week. 57 From the union’s experiences drivers
and the support staff working for public transport operators are working closing to 50-
60 hours a week, 58 desperately trying to make a living so they can take care of their
families, who they never get to see. Pressure to drive long hours to make a decent
living is dangerous for the drivers and their passengers. In addition, drivers and
engineering staff in particular are exposed to GGE and other particles, which can
potentially cause a number of ill-health, even sometimes fatal, conditions in the short
and medium term. At a wider level CO2 is the main cause of global warming. The
World Health Organization estimates that global warming will contribute to more
than 300,000 deaths and 10m illnesses each year by 2030. 59 Transport workers are a
group that is disproportionately at risk.
55 www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=1352
56 www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6&Pos=6&ColRank=1&Rank=128
57 Labour Force Survey Jan-Mar 2008
58 www.wrp.org.uk/news/3535
59 http://74.125.77.132/search?q=cache:BSae12pS_IcJ:www.cdproject.net/admin/attachedfiles/Res
ponses/42421/963/CDP5_ABSA_AQ.doc+greenhouse+gas+emissions+illnesses&hl=en&ct=clnk&
cd=10&gl=uk
66

Drivers and transport workers are in the front line and are suffering bone or muscle
pains (especially back), headaches, frequent tiredness, swollen or upset stomach,
shortness of breath, numbed or tingling limbs, dizziness, difficulty in sleeping, high
blood pressure, occasional pain in the chest or heart area, mental overload. 60 Scores
of valid medical studies across the globe over the past two decades have more than
adequately established that the very process of handling the complex tasks of driving
human `cargo’ safely contributes excessively to the generation of stress-related
conditions, most especially in busy and congested city conditions. So it is vital that in
any proposed strategy for developing a sustainable transport system has the health and
safety of the professional drivers and transport workers at the centre of any future
plans.
In order to achieve a sustainable transport system we must challenge our obsession of
designing our working cities around the car and instead give priority to public
transport, bike or foot where it is possible to do so, like it has been in the city of
Amsterdam for example. In addition we must look at making public transport
sustainable for all including disabled people, pensioners, shift workers and part time
workers. They all have different needs and for transport to be truly sustainable, we
must compensate for those needs. For example easier access on and off for disabled
people, free travel for pensioners encouraging use of public transport, as well as rural
transport options so pensioners can travel where they want to, more preferential rates
for part-time workers who are travelling at off peak times and more travel options for
shift workers who are travelling outside the traditional 9-5 working hours.
5.2 Climate Change – Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GGE)
Transport Sector
So, one of the obvious challenges in trying to deliver a sustainable transport system is
to get people out of their cars and into mass public transport modes instead. We share
the widely-held satisfaction with the massive growth of use of the mainline railways
but the plain truth is that the major competitor to all public transport modes is
indiscriminate use of the private car. The failure of bus and coach deregulation and
privatisation, and the pressure to further deregulate taxi provision, to massively
expand ridership of road passenger transport vehicles of all kinds has adversely
affected any aims to address this imbalance. In most cases, the growth of regional and
inter-city railway travel has been important in challenging the use of motor cars on
motorways for long-distance commuting, which has risen astronomically with the
shift of employment away from manufacturing to service industries and people having
to travel longer distances to find work as traditional local economies collapse under
the strain of globalisation.
In this context, little attention has been given to the re-regulation and expansion of the
role of inter-city coach travel and this will be an increasingly important part of our
work. The once much-vaunted expansion of the tram and rapid transit sector has not
materialised, largely due to an aversion to the high public sector infrastructure
investment required. In fact, shorter-distance travel has seen the motor car replacing
the key role that public transport once played in daily travel. It is now becoming a
commonplace observation that the market does not make decisions on the basis of
logic and is not an all-seeing perfect instrument. Self-evidently, the view that the state
60 www.itfglobal.org/road-transport/busalert.cfm
67

has an important part to play in ensuring that the blindness of the market is addressed.
The unrestrained market has led to a massive deterioration of both public transport
provision and the quality of the jobs of public transport workers. This is not merely a
problem for those workers but should be a concern for all. There can be a solution but
it will require strength of conviction on the part of politicians to usher in a genuine
new deal that would be a plan to boost the widest range of public transport provision
that would enable benefits from the possible economies of scale savings in potential
GGE.
Whilst the transport sectors level of GGE has been going up, other sectors of the UK
economy have seen GGE fall to 78 per cent in 2006 from 84.9 per cent in 2000, which
is a real terms fall of 84,579 thousand tonnes of CO 2 equivalent. 61 Since deregulation,
it is understandable that the UK public transport sector has seen a rise in GGE. Bus
deregulation saw passenger levels plummet and fares rocketed. For example in South
Yorkshire fares rose by 750 per cent and passenger levels halved. Less profitable
routes and times (including night services) were taken out of service so overcrowding
increased. On more profitable routes there was increased waste through competing
companies all running the same service. A similar story happened in Tyneside where
the metro, tram and buses were integrated and publicly owned until deregulation.
Now they all overlap and there isn’t an integrated service. In essence what has
happened shows that rational integrated transport systems are in fact natural
monopolies and competition doesn’t work for workers, for passengers, or indeed for
the environment, which suffers as passengers are forced to either stay home or rely on
private cars.
So, the public transport sector clearly needs to go beyond merely getting more people
out of their cars and into public transport. It has to find new ways of meeting its
sustainable challenges. For us, it is natural that we should first and foremost consider
that this means improvements in terms and conditions for drivers and transport
workers. Our main point in existing is, after all to promote the well-being of our
members. Moreover, it is our contention that an improved working life for public
transport workers will flow through into wider benefits for all and that questions of
sustainability go beyond simple questions of direct environmental gains. Reductions
in the amount of GGE omitted by transport vehicles and a lifting in the standards
required are intimately linked to the need for a cultural shift from personal to mass
forms of public transport. Making this the viable option requires that an integrated
transport system is in place.
So the key areas are a shift from private to public transport, better working conditions
(in terms of pay, driving/working hours and rest periods as well as actual physical
working conditions in drivers cabs/cabins and garages), improved travelling
conditions and greener forms of transport.
Buses and Coaches
We will start by looking at buses and coaches in regards to their contribution to the
total GGE in the UK in comparison to the transport sector total contribution. Between
1990 and 2006, GGE from bus and coaches increased from 0.6 per cent of total GGE
61 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
68

to 0.8 per cent. During the same period, total GGE from the transport sector increased
from 7.75 per cent to 12.8 per cent. So, it is clear to see that buses and coaches make
up only a small amount of the total GGE in the UK and that has only increased
marginally in the last 17 years. 62
Percentage of the Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the UK 1990 - 2006
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
%
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Transport Sector
Buses & Coaches
Figure 5.1: Percentage of Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions in UK 1990 - 2006
In real terms buses and coaches total GGE has increased from 5,052 thousand tonnes
of CO 2 equivalent in 1990 to 5,655 in 2006, an increase of 11.9%. Whereas the
transport sector total GGE has increased from 62,753 thousand tonnes of CO 2
equivalent in 1990 to 92,869 in 2006, an increase of 48 per cent. So buses and
coaches GGE impact has been increasing at a slower rate in comparison to the overall
transport sector, which itself has seen a marked increase. 63
EA Economic Sector 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Code
Buses & coaches as a % of 0.6% 0.6% 0.6% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6% 0.7% 0.8%
total UK emissions
Transport sector as a % of
total UK emissions
7.75% 11.3% 11.8% 12.2% 12.5% 13.2% 13.5% 12.8%
Table 5.1: Buses and coaches and their contribution to the total GGE
62 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
63 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
69

Total Greenhouse Gases by Buses & Coaches 1990 - 2006
thousand tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 5.2: Total Greenhouse Gases by Buses and Coaches 1990 -2006
In 2006 bus and coaches accounted for 6.1% of the total GGE of the transport sector,
while in 1990 it accounted for 8 per cent of the total GGE of the transport sector. So
the contribution of buses and coaches to the transport sector total GGE has decreased
by 1.9%. 64
EA Economic Sector 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Code
64 Buses and coaches 5052 4662 4408 4889 4935 4774 5377 5655
Total transport industry 62763 83167 87542 88158 91515 96727 99537 92869
% of total UK transport
emissions
8.0% 5.6% 5.0% 5.5% 5.4% 4.9% 5.4% 6.1%
Table 5.2: Buses and coaches and their contribution to the total GGE for the
Transport Industry
Clearly, it can be seen that buses and coaches are not the main GGE perpetrator in the
UK transport sector. In fact, when some people take a bus or a coach rather than drive
in individual cars, we can all benefit from cleaner air. You may hear people complain
about the exhausts that buses and coaches produce. But from the perspective of the
community as a whole, the real issue is the per-mile difference in emissions between
bus and coach travel and car travel. A bus and a coach do produce more exhaust than
a car, but it also transports more people. In net terms, bus and coach travel reduces air
pollution. Although, as an aside, we would note that it is our perception that the anticollective
nature of ownership of public transport provision directly collides with its
ostensible collective role. It is our experience that, in general and with honourable
exceptions, many operators place a low priority on the costs of quality maintenance of
both their vehicles and their staff.
64 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
70

Bus traffic in particular currently releases lower levels of emissions per passenger
kilometre than car traffic. A well used bus service will omit 45-80 grams of CO 2 per
passenger kilometre. Compared with an average car which releases 145-260 grams of
CO 2 per kilometre for the average car carrying one person. 65 However we do
acknowledge that for some journeys personal transport is more appropriate than a
common carrier, especially in a deep rural area.
Coaches are in fact the lowest emissions way of travelling between cities 66 , and unlike
other transport systems (trains, planes) could be quickly expanded without massive
infrastructural investment being needed. As with city buses, deregulation in the early
1980s meant many of the less profitable routes being cut. Therefore, many
environmentalists see improving coach services as vital (which would require
integration, through ticketing and re-regulation). For passengers, one of the main
drawbacks of coach travel has always been the time spent crossing the towns and
cities. To address this problem, George Monbiot, the environmentalist, has strongly
advocated coach ‘hubs’ at motorway junctions on the edge of cities, which are
accessible by improved city transport. 67
In addition, when some people take a bus or a coach rather than drive in individual
cars, we all benefit from a reduced demand for parking. Of course there’s money to be
saved for every parking space that employers don’t have to build or maintain, but
there are also important environmental benefits to not building parking, too. By not
building parking, we reduce the rate at which land surrounding the urban area is
gobbled up, and we refrain from putting additional stress on local waterways with
more storm runoff.
It is worth our making the incidental, yet vitally important point here, that the T&G
section of Unite has long advocated the `hypothecation’, or dedicated use, of special
taxes to fund the provision of a massively expanded public transport provision. But
we have also long resisted the blandishments of those who advocate road pricing, road
user charging, toll roads and other forms of taxation.
Road pricing is the direct charges applied for the use of roads. These road charges
includes fuel taxes, licence fees, parking taxes, tolls, and congestion charges,
including those which may vary by time of day, by the specific road, or by the
specific vehicle type, being used. Road pricing has two distinct objectives: revenue
generation, usually for road infrastructure financing, and congestion pricing for
demand management purposes. Toll roads are the typical example of revenue
generation. Charges for using high-occupancy toll lanes or urban tolls for entering a
restricted area of a city are typical examples of using road pricing for congestion
management purposes.
Our main concern has been that such taxes are inevitably regressive in character,
ensuring that the poorest in society pay disproportionately for them. Whilst those with
access to company funding, or who are themselves pretty well-off, will merely pay
the charge and motoring behaviour will not be affected, unless the charges are
65 www.campaigncc.org/Howdoesairtravel.doc
66 www.climnet.org/publicawareness/transport.html
67 http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/dec/02/climate-change-lord-turner
71

enormously punitive but that would be politically difficult to steer through. Since the
avowed purpose of such charges is to do precisely this and to fund public transport
alternatives, this would seem to negate the very point. Moreover, we are aware that
existing road tax arrangements, not being hypothecated have devalued public trust,
whilst governments faced with declining revenues in, for example tobacco taxation,
may simply relish the prospect of new means to tax the ordinary working person.
We varied our long-standing opposition to road charging in the case of the London
congestion charge, largely since there was confidence in the objectives of the political
force, in the shape of the London Mayor and Assembly, of the time. To some extent,
this confidence was justified but times have changed in more ways than one. The
recent experience of the referendum in Greater Manchester, which saw a massive
rejection of the proposed congestion charge, suggests widespread suspicion as to the
aims of the government in respect of the Transport Infrastructure Fund.
For Unite, this may raise the prospect of our campaigning harder for our existed, longstanding
policy alternative to road pricing - that of the payroll public transport levy.
Such a tax has been successfully and widely used in France for the last quarter of a
century to fund public transport. The conception is that businesses with more than 10
employees have an obligation to pay wider society for their requirement for
employees to travel to work. The bus, rail and metro system of Paris is almost entirely
funded through such a payroll tax of 2.2 per cent on employment costs and this
generates well over €2 billion a year with no obvious deleterious effect on
employment having arisen. The fiscal effect of revenue generation of such a tax on
the finance sector in City of London, had there been one over the past 25 years, is
easy to imagine.
In France, the tax is set as a percentage of the total wage bill and is paid by the
employer. A cautious estimate of the application of such a tax in the UK is that some
£15 billion – about seven times the current public expenditure on bus provision –
could be raised if the tax were set at around 2.5%. To those who would be concerned
that an employment-related tax is the last thing that is needed in a period of rising
unemployment and recession, a public transport payroll tax could be offset, or allied
to, Corporation Tax, which is already extraordinarily low. Moreover, the notion that
businesses (especially banks!) should be ready to pay back something to the wider
taxpayer in the form of a demonstrable benefit for all, would surely be massively
popular. It is suggested here that the Passenger Services Sector promote this T&G
section of Unite policy so that it becomes the endorsed position of the whole of Unite.
Only by making public transport a safe and comfortable alterative can we gain the
benefits of seeing people taking a bus or coach rather than drive in individual cars and
the resulting reduced congestion on the roads. The Department for Transport have
forecast in the past that road traffic in the UK will increase by between 24 per cent
and 51 per cent from 1996 to 2016. 68 So unless public transport plays a larger role in
the way our community grows, drivers will spend more and more time sitting in their
cars in the years to come, using more petrol, creating more exhaust fumes.
68 www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/environment/cvtf/theenvironmentalimpactsofroa3793?page=2`
72

Beyond the inconvenience increased traffic congestion means for drivers and a certain
economic wastefulness, it also creates an environment that is hostile to other means of
transportation. As streets become more crowded with cars, they become more
dangerous for people who walk or bike, in effect creating pressure for them to drive,
too. Clearly, not everyone in our community is going to use a bus or coach service to
get from place to place. But that does not make the benefits of a bus or coach service
to the community any less real.
Taxi Operations
One important misconception to nail at the outset is that taxi transport is in some way
merely an extension of private car transport. On the contrary, for us, like car sharing
schemes, taxi transport is part of the solution not part of the problem. In many towns
and cities private hire provision, a discrete segment of overall taxi operations, has
actually replaced the former public transport provision of the former publicly-owned
bus sector.
As for the contribution of taxi provision to the total GGE in the UK in comparison to
the transport sector total contribution, between 1990 and 2006, emissions from taxi
operations increased from 0.20 per cent of total GGE to 0.34 per cent. During the
same period total GGE from the transport sector increased from 7.75 per cent to 12.8
per cent. Taxi operations GGE are a minimal part of the overall UK GGE levels and
in the past 17 years they have only increased marginally. 69
EA Economic Sector 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Code
Taxis operations as a % of 0.20% 0.31% 0.31% 0.32% 0.32% 0.32% 0.33% 0.34%
total UK emissions
Transport sector as a % of
total UK emissions
7.75% 11.3% 11.8% 12.2% 12.5% 13.2% 13.5% 12.8%
Table 4.3: Taxi operations and their contribution to the total GGE
In real terms, taxi operations total GGE has increased from 1,599 thousand tonnes of
CO 2 equivalent in 1990 to 2,464 in 2006, an increase of 54.1 per cent. Whereas the
transport sector total GGE has increased from 62,753 thousand tonnes of CO 2
equivalent in 1990 to 92,869 in 2006, an increase of 48 per cent. So taxi operations
have increased at a greater rate in percentage terms in comparison to the overall
transport sector which has also seen a marked increase. 70
In 2006 taxi operations accounted for 2.7 per cent of the total GGE of the transport
sector, while in 1990 it accounted for 2.5 per cent of the total GGE of the transport
sector. So the contribution of taxi operations to the transport sector total GGE has
increased by 0.2 per cent in the last 17 years. 71
69 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
70 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
71 www.statistics.gov.uk/statbase/Expodata/Spreadsheets/D5695.xls
73

Percentage of the Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the UK 1990 - 2006
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
%
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Transport Sector
Taxi Operations
Figure 5.3: Taxi operations and their contribution to total UK Greenhouse Gas
Emissions
EA Economic Sector 1990 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Code
66 Taxi operations 1599 2293 2287 2330 2357 2381 2426 2464
Total transport industry 62763 83167 87542 88158 91515 96727 99537 92869
% of total UK transport
2.5% 2.8% 2.6% 2.6% 2.6% 2.5% 2.4% 2.7%
emissions
Table 5.4: Taxi operations and their contribution to the Transport Industry total GGE
Total Greenhouse Gases by Taxi Operations 1990 - 2006
thousand tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 5.4: Greenhouse Gas Emissions by taxi operations 1990 - 2006
74

Taxi operations GGE is one of the lowest in comparison to other modes of transport.
However in the past 17 years taxi operations GGE have increased by 54.1% in the
UK, where as the whole transport sector has increased at a slower 48%. This is a little
disappointing when we know for example in London that the 21,000 strong black taxi
fleets exhaust omissions have to be a lot cleaner then other modes of public transport
due to stipulations by Transport for London’s Public Carriage Office. So perhaps mini
cabs are causing a disproportionate increase in GGE levels in this area and need to be
regulated to the same standards as black taxis and not just in London but in the whole
of the UK?
London in particular has the worst air quality in the UK and air pollution has a major
impact on health and quality of life. The former Mayor Ken Livingstone’s ‘Taxi
Emissions Strategy’ was launched in December 2004 and aimed to reduce the
emissions from London’s taxis by up to 37 per cent by July 2008. 72 The following
major steps have now been taken:-
Since October 2002 any new taxi licensed in London for the first time has had
to be Euro 3 standard.
From July 1st 2006 all taxis that are of a pre-Euro emissions standard will be
required to meet Euro 3 standards.
As of January 1st 2007 all taxis that are of a Euro 1 emissions standard will be
required to meet Euro 3 standards.
As of January 1st 2008 all taxis that are of a Euro 2 emissions standard will be
required to meet Euro 3 standards. 73
Taxi operations are a vital cog in any integrated sustainable transport system because
they help fill the gaps where direct connections cannot be made. This encourages the
public to use taxis along with other forms of public transport to complete a journey
rather then drive themselves, which in turn helps to create less traffic and therefore
less GGE. Sure further improvements can be made to taxi operations GGE levels as
they can to all other forms of transport and perhaps the London black taxi blueprint is
one that other taxis networks around the whole of the UK can take on board to
achieve this.
5.3 Policy Options
Drivers and Transport Workers
Working time and Timetabling - The health and safety of drivers and their
passengers must be of paramount importance. In order to achieve this, the
working week must be reduced with no detriment to pay and conditions. In
particular, UK Domestic Driving Hours need to encompass a minimum
standard of no more than four-and-a-half hour’s maximum driving in a single
spell, eight hours a day maximum driving, a maximum ten-hour a day total
duty and a minimum of 11 hours continuous break between duties.
Quality contracting
72 http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/air_quality/mayor/taxi_emissions.jsp
73 http://www.london.gov.uk/view_press_release.jsp?releaseid=4637
75

More than two thirds of journeys made on public transport are by bus, playing
a vital role in easing congestion and providing a green alternative to the car. It
is hoped that the Local Transport Act covering England and Wales, which was
given Royal Assent in Nov 08 through its introduction of Quality Contracts
will encourage as many people as possible to consider switching to buses. The
Local Transport Act is seen by many as a first attempt to address the
inadequacy and market failure of bus services since deregulation.
Local authorities will have greater power to serve routes that are demanded in
the local area, which have previously been dropped due to lack of profitability
by private contractors. There is the potential to cut down on empty/non full
buses on the road by having more full buses.
Unite has fought hard to protect bus workers employment conditions that may
be affected by the Quality Contract process by getting TUPE protection
written into the Act under Clause 39.
Unite needs to make sure that during the statutory instrument phase of the
Local Transport Act that it continues to deliver for bus workers. In particular
there is an opportunity to win access for bus workers to the Local Government
Pension Scheme. The company which is awarded the Quality Contract will
have Admitted Body Status and can apply for access to the Local Government
Pension Scheme or an equivalent scheme. In order to make sure this practice
becomes the norm Unite must make sure that the companies who win the
Quality Contracts choose to apply for access to the Local Government Pension
Scheme so this practice becomes the norm and therefore becomes an expected
part of what would make up a Quality Contract.
In Scotland the Transport (Scotland) Act 2001, establishes systems for setting
up formal bus quality partnerships and bus quality contract schemes. However,
to date no Quality Partnerships or Quality Contracts have been introduced and
only voluntary partnerships exist.
So the Bus Regulation (Scotland) Bill aims to simplify procedures whereby
transport authorities specify local bus services and standards to help facilitate
Quality Partnerships and Quality Contracts.
This is an ongoing battle in Scotland because the Scottish National Party
(SNP) are financially backed by Brian Souter who is the Chief Executive of
Stagecoach and opposed to Quality Contracts.
Modal shift
Promotion of public transport – By promoting public transport hopefully
people will be encouraged to leave their cars at home and use public transport
or walk or cycle.
High availability, attractive pricing & more reliable - Passenger numbers
will increase if there is a broader offering of public transport options at a lower
price which are more reliable.
Through ticketing – One ticket used for all forms of transport making public
transport more appealing to use.
Creating car free zones - To raise awareness on energy conservation,
vehicular pollution (both air and noise) and to improve the quality of life and
economy of the local community.
76

Creating a positive bus environment - Bus priority at traffic lights, bus
gates, bus lanes, bus only roads/segregated bus ways.
Green miles –Pressure must be created that stops companies from being able
to source their goods from all over the world in search of cheaper labour, with
no consideration for the environmental fall out of transporting goods
thousands of miles around the world. Unite has previously called for all
companies to include in their company reports their overall carbon footprint.
This may create consumer pressure to change and source locally.
Reducing emissions from vehicles
New fuels - Traffic can become increasingly sustainable through new fuels
such as biofuels, maritime fuel options and other fuel efficiency measures.
Economical driving – By accelerating and driving slower, as well as braking
more gradually.
New engines - Hybrid motors use a battery pack, backed by a diesel engine.
Hybrid motors can generate 40% less carbon dioxide than their diesel-powered
forebears. An entirely hybrid fleet of buses could produce 200,000 fewer
tonnes of carbon each year.
Warm coolant system - Buses that are connected to a warm coolant system
when on the parking ramp, reduce the number of environmentally harmful
cold starts to a minimum.
Recycling - Each transport depot should prepare its own waste plan. Recycling
of metals, corrugated board/batteries, burnable material, tyres and spill oil.
Destruction or disassembly of oil sludge, oil filters, chemical residue and
electronics.
Introducing vehicle emission standards & inspection / maintenance
systems - To improve the air quality of the urban environment and health of
the urban population through improved emission standards.
Introducing vehicle fuel standards - To improve the urban air quality by
reducing ambient concentration of the key pollutants.
Greening fuel taxes - To provide disincentives for excessive use of
automobiles and consumption of fuels, to induce switching to cleaner fuels, to
secure financial source for more environmentally sustainable measures of
transport, to induce structural impact on the choice of vehicles and location of
residences, to internalise the external costs of petroleum production and
consumption.
77

6 Road Transport Commercial
6.1 Introduction and Overview of the Road Transport Commercial Sector
Freight transport by road dominates the inland freight market in Europe Union and
has grown steadily over the past decade while it is predicted to further increase its
share in the future. This makes the road sector by far the biggest source of energy use
and thus emitter of Green House Gases (GHG) among the land-based transport
modes. Due to the huge amounts of burned diesel oil, road transport is also the largest
contributor to NOx emissions in Europe and the second largest one for particulate
matters.
The contribution of the freight sector to global warming has so far received less
attention than CO 2 emissions from car traffic and aviation. The European road freight
hire or reward industry accounted for 80% of Europe’s road freight traffic in 2006 and
90 per cent for journeys with an international element.
However, despite technological improvements to engines and various policy
measures, air quality on roads is not improving significantly.
The issue of poor air quality is foremost a health problem not only for people that live
near roads but also for professional lorry drivers (respiratory problems, cardiovascular
diseases, cancer).
Commercial vehicles performance is worst in urban traffic situation and in stop-start
traffic. Congestion of many of the main arterial road axis, particularly in central
Europe is another source of concern which impacts on the smooth running of
transportation and on the quality of life of citizens as well.
HGV Drivers SOC8211
Not 60.24:
Freight
transport by
road
60.24:
Freight
transport by
road
All
SOC
8211
Labour Force Survey Jan-Mar
2002 59.0 81.9 67.8
2003 53.1 77.4 63.0
2004 54.2 72.4 60.2
2005 54.0 74.0 61.9
2006 51.4 69.2 57.6
2007 47.1 64.9 53.0
2008 45.0 67.9 53.4
Table 6.1: Percentage of drivers usually working 48 hrs or more
Professional lorry drivers have always known that working long hours does not favour
a positive work-life balance; in freight transport, fatigue, stress and the lack of decent
and affordable parking places, give further arguments to the idea that the profession
lorry driver life, especially that of international transport drivers, is not only a risky
one but a unhealthy one as well.
78

Road transport is also the most widespread source of noise, which again not only has
an impact on local residents, but also on the drivers, resulting in hearing losses. As
both noise and congestion increases the truck driver’s level of stress also increases
significantly.
So, it has to be remembered that the environmental problems caused by road transport
are closely linked to health and safety of professional drivers and other transport
workers.
To tackle these environmental challenges, several environmental measures need to be
undertaken such as improved infrastructure, cleaner and alternative fuels as well as
cleaner and technologically advanced vehicles are required.
However, in regards to the increased use of bio fuels in the road transport sector, it
has to be taken into consideration where these fuels come from and whether they are
produced from sustainable resources. Furthermore, products are often transported
long distances across Europe and it is questionable whether some of these transport
flows are needed and could be avoided.
At the moment, the full internalisation of external environmental costs of road freight
transport is not taken into account, although pricing/ taxation policies could help to
get rid of any unfair cost advantages that road transport may have over other forms of
transport, and also help to make the end consumers more aware of the environmental
cost of what they buy. However, we have to be careful that increased costs do not
impact on workers but are paid for by the end users.
In the majority of EU Member States, freight transport by road employs a third to half
of all people working in the transport sector. In total, more than 2.7m workers are
employed in road freight transport in the EU-27.
According to Jan – Mar 2008 Labour Force Survey there are 293,981 employed LGV
drivers in the UK. The Road Transport Commercial Trade Group membership in
March 2008 was 69,126. However, there are a significant number of LGV drives in
other trade groups of the T&G Section of Unite the Union.
Due to the restructuring in the sector and the emergence of logistics, new jobs have
been created, in particular with warehousing operators. But only a small number of
these are covered by specific collective agreements.
Furthermore, 3PL companies increasingly exploit the possibilities of an internal
transport market using the huge wage gap between professional LGV drivers of the
new and old Member States. As a result, they employ cheaper labour from new
Member States through cabotage and cross trade. Such situation by no means helps to
improve the overall working conditions in the sector or create sustainable
employment.
The completion of the European internal market in 1992 but also the dynamics of
globalisation and the development of information technology (IT) has been the
catalyst for considerable restructuring in the road freight transport sector, especially
the growth of 3PLs.
79

The intra-EU freight transport, which was traditionally a fragmented market and
characterised by small and medium-sized companies, was opened up to competition.
In 1998, the transport market for both goods was fully liberalised, and thus transport
operators based in the EU could supply transport services between any Member
States. This led to a major consolidation process which still continues today.
A shift in activities has also been taking place from those companies which were
exclusively dedicated to transporting goods, towards those which also organise other
transport activities, 3PLs, and as a result the whole supply chain in relation to
transport.
These 3PL companies not only manage the flow of goods, they also respond as
quickly as possible to the just-in-time demands of their customers, both
manufacturing and retail, by reducing stock levels and therefore costs, using minimal
stock levels, and they increasingly operate door-to-door deliveries. Many of these
deliveries are a result of internet sales, which are increasing at a very fast rate.
As previously mentioned there is a trend towards mergers and concentration of large
companies with other large companies. As a result, an increasing number of megalogistic
providers are managing and controlling the transport and related services
market while small and medium-sized companies are working as subcontracting for
them. These small and medium-sized companies are struggle for survival due to the
low prices paid by these large 3PLs. This is a clear example of unsustainable business
model in transport.
Outsourcing and subcontracting has become a very common practice in the sector.
This whole restructuring process and the division of labour has severe repercussions
for road transport workers. Jobs in the sector have always included a high level of
mobility, antisocial working hours and do not support a positive work-life balance.
But the sector’s development in the last ten years has changed the workers’ situation.
The new jobs which have been created in warehousing are not always of a good
quality both in terms of pay and working conditions, as well as with regards to
training and education levels.
Another trend is that companies increasingly use low-cost labour from Eastern Europe
especially through cabotage, as well as the 3PLs establishing subsidiaries in Eastern
Europe.
In regard to professional transport drivers there is a tendency to use those workers
with the lowest wages to undertake international road transport through cabotage and
not respecting the principle of equal pay for equal work in the home country.
Human fatigue, mainly due to reduced rest-time, has become a major reason for road
accidents. An additional problem is the progression of bogus self-employed drivers,
which do not have to meet the same standards as employed drivers and further
undermine positive developments which have been made in commercial road
transport. As a result, the sector has a low level of job satisfaction, high turnover of
workers, which led to a shortage of experienced drivers, as well as to the problem of
recruiting and retaining professional drivers.
80

6.2 Greenhouse gas emissions and freight transport in the United Kingdom
We will start by looking at road freight in regards to its contribution to the total
Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GGE) in the UK and as part of the transport sector.
Between 1990 and 2006 GGE from freight transport by road increased by 31.7 per
cent from 2.0 percent of total GGE to 2.7 per cent.
During the same period total GGE from the transport sector increased 64.6 per cent
from 7.9 per cent to 13.0 per cent.
Percentage increase in Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990 - 2006
15.0
10.0
%
5.0
0.0
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Transport Sector
Freight by Road
Figure 6.1: Percentage increase in Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1990 -2006
CO 2 emissions from HGV, which are defined as lorries with a gross weight of 3.5
tonnes or more, can be measured in three ways – see Appendix 1 - but we will us the
input-based measure used in the United Kingdom Environmental Accounts,
maintained by Office of National Statistics (ONS). These accounts contain data on
CO 2 emissions for ‘road transport of freight’ Economic Activity (EA) code 67. This is
based on estimates of fuel purchases obtained from the Department for Business
Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR). Its published estimates of CO 2 emissions
for road freight relate solely to companies whose main activity is freight transport i.e.
road hauliers.
However, the Department for Transport advises ‘Data users’ to be ‘aware that the
road freight industry comprises solely the specialist road haulage companies and not
all road freight activities’ (Department for Transport, 2006 74 ). This was not made
clear when official statistics were released in 2004, suggesting that CO 2 emissions
from HGVs had risen by almost 40% between 1990 and 2003. These statistics,
however, excluded many ‘own account’ operators of lorries whose main activity is
not freight transport.
74 Department for Transport (2006) ‘Greenhouse gas emissions from transport: London.
81

During the 1990s, there was a significant switch from own account to hire and reward
transport operations as more companies outsourced their distribution. This had the
effect, ceteris paribus, of increasing fuel purchases by the ‘hire and reward’ sector.
This represented a transfer of the demand for fuel between different road freight
sectors rather than a net increase in the total demand for fuel and in CO 2 emissions. It
was subsequently recognised that there had been ‘a misallocation between industry
groups’ and the estimated CO 2 growth rate was revised downward (Department for
Transport, 2006).
Total Greenhouse Gases by Freight by Road 1990 - 2006
thousand tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
21000
20000
19000
18000
17000
16000
15000
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 6.2: Total Greenhouse Gases by Freight by Road 1990 -2006 – thousand
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
In 2006 freight transported by road accounted for 20 per cent of the total GGE of the
transport sector, while in 1990 it accounted for 25.4 per cent of the total GGE of the
transport sector. So the contribution to of freight transported by road to the transport
sector total GGE has decreased by 20 per cent.
Between 1990 and 2006 the average length of haul for all rigid vehicles was static at
43 kilometres. During the same period the average length of an articulated vehicle
hauls decreased by 4.7 per cent to 123 kilometres. For all HGV there was an average
increase of 7 kilometres per haul, an increase of 8.9 per cent.
82

Average length of haul: 1990 - 2006
140
120
Kilometres
100
80
60
40
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 6.3: Average length of haul 1990 - 2006
Rigid Articulated All Lorries
6.3 Van Traffic
CO 2 emissions from vans carrying freight have been estimated using an output based
approach. This used data from the 2004 Survey of Van Activity (Department for
Transport, 2004) and estimates of average fuel consumption from other sources.
Allowance was made for the fact that vans, unlike trucks, are used for purposes other
than the carriage of freight. In 2004, only 35 per cent of the distance travelled by
company-owned vans involved the collection and/or delivery of goods or related
empty running. Commuting to and from work accounted for a similar proportion of
the distance travelled. It is not possible, on the basis of available data, to calculate fuel
efficiency and CO 2 emissions specifically for freight collections and deliveries. It will
simply be assumed that freight-carrying vans account for around 35 per cent of total
van kilometres and a similar proportion of the CO 2 output from the van sector.
It is not possible to monitor trends in the amount of CO 2 emitted by vans carrying
freight as the Van Activity survey is only conducted occasionally. Indeed there have
only been two official surveys of van traffic over the past 16 years which measured
the weight of goods transported in these vehicles (in 1992-3 and 2004).
The National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI) contains data for the period
1990-2004 for CO 2 emissions from vans. This does not differentiate emissions by trip
purpose, however. This is important as the balance of freight-related and non-freight
work undertaken by small vans is likely to have changed significantly over the past
fifteen years, reflecting the growth and transformation of the service sector.
83

Light Duty Vehicles Carbon Dioxide (as Carbon) 1990 - 2006
2010
2005
2000
ktonnes
1995
1990
1985
1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 6.4: Light Duty Vehicles Carbon Dioxide (as carbon) 1990 -2006
6.4 Some policy options to be considered by the RTC National Committee
This is not an excusive list and there are different categories of instruments, which
aim to promote modal shift and promote sustainable employment
Give incentives for emission reduction and energy saving. The generated
income from pricing/ taxation of transport should be used for maintenance and
the supply of better transport infrastructure, as well as for more public
passenger transport. Also some of this income should be used to improve the
enforcement of driver’s hours regulations and vehicle safety standards related
to road transport activities.
The price of transport influences the modal choice. A market based instrument
to promote a modal shift towards more sustainable transport modes is the
internalisation of external environmental and social costs.
Avoid un-necessary transport and reduce empty running
84

Percentage empty running
Vehicle type
Business Type Rigids Artics All vehicles
Hire or Reward 29.8 25.6 27
Own account 27.5 28.6 27.8
Agriculture, forestry and fishing 40.7 34.8 38.2
Energy and water supply 58.3 50.7 58
Manufacture, mining and quarrying 25.7 312 27.7
Construction 44.0 38.9 43.6
Wholesale & retail trade, repairs and hotels 25.5 26.3 25.8
Transport, storage and communication 27.8 15.7 23
Banking, finance and insurance, business services and leasing 29.1 33.6 29.6
Education, public admin & defence, extra-territorial
organisations
61.8 32.7 60.9
Health, social work and other community services 17.1 46.3 79.8
All business types 28.4 26.4 27.4
Source: Table 1.6 Road Freight Statistics 2007
Table 6.2: Percentage empty running lorries
The ETF fully supports a policy aiming for modal shift and the internalisation of all
external costs in all transport modes. This is essential for an environmentally
sustainable transport system.
This policy must be complemented by a policy that promotes intermodal transport and
concepts that combine the different transport modes in a sustainable way.
However, “putting prices right” is not an aim, but a method to change transport and
production patterns. If internalisation of external costs is to be effective in terms of
avoiding environmental damages, it is necessary that it is not transport workers, who
pay the increase in price.
It must be ensured through a number of social policy instruments and strict
enforcement of social legislation, that higher infrastructure using costs are transferred
to the customer and thus give the right (environmentally sustainable) price signals.
Furthermore, a (environmentally) sustainable transport system needs a policy that
aims at:
Acknowledging and strengthening the human element in environmental
policies as well as respecting the close link between environmental and
working conditions, by tackling, amongst others, fatigue and excessive
workloads that raise the percentage of accidents having a negative impact on
environment. If there is an environmental impact assessment conducted at EU
level, additionally there should also be a social analysis with trade unions’
involvement to ensure a win-win situation;
Ensuring the effective implementation of existing environmental standards
and/ or regulations. Nevertheless, there is a clear need for improved, stricter
and binding environmental regulations in the transport sector with a view to
ensure higher respect for the environment;
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Tackling the sectors’ environmental challenges and further intensifying the
reduction of fuel consumption and pollutant emissions through improved
infrastructure and energy-efficiency measures, such as the use of cleaner fuels
as well as improved and innovative technologies when constructing more
environmentally friendly trains/ trucks/ airplanes/ vessels. Often these
measures cannot, due to the very long life time of those vehicles, be
implemented immediately. Therefore, particular attention has to be paid to the
need for modernising existing vehicles;
Ensuring that other regions of the world implement comparable measures, i.e.
global solutions are preferred to regional ones. However, the EU can and must
be a forerunner in the field of ecological protection and not defer the
implementation of the highest standards that protect European citizens.
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7 Conference Report
The conference was attended by 38 delegates from all the T&G Transport Sector
Trade Groups.
The meeting was opened by Paul Clark MP, Parliamentary Under Secretary of State
for Transport 75 . Paul’s speech was followed by a question and answer session, at
which delegates raised a number of issues.
This was followed by a round table discussion lead by: Richard Dyer, Friends of the
Earth; Philippa Edmunds Freight on Rail; Gideon Middleton, Ex Wincanton, ex
Kingfisher; Philip Pearson, TUC; Christopher Snelling, Freight Transport
Association; Mac Urata International Transport Workers’ Federation ;Roger
Wiltshire, British Air Transport Association;
It became clear that the delegates thought that activists were keen to have information
and materials they could use with members. They were also keen to learn more about
areas that they might face when dealing with employers: biofuels and offsetting were
examples where they felt they might need more information.
Environmental training should have union involvement otherwise could be counterproductive,
also should have rewards
The afternoon session began with a brief overview of the Sustainable Transport
Report by the Researchers from the Research Department. Caroline Molloy gave an
overview of the report and the introductory chapter; Colin Potter reported on the Civil
Air Transport chapter; John Neal reported on the Passenger Transport chapter; and
Roger Sealey reported on the Docks and Inland Waterways Chapter and the Road
Transport Commercial chapters
Delegates then broke into groups to discuss issues arising from the Introductory
Chapter and the relevant Trade Group Chapter.
7.1 Passenger Transport Trade Group
Affected by politics of privatisation and deregulation – more extensive in UK than
elsewhere – need to address the politics. More about market solutions will not provide
sustainable transport.
Biofules – Stagecoach Scotland – company in Motherwell processes cooking oil. This
is part of an environmental initiative that allows customers to exchange used cooking
oil for discounted bus travel. On Wednesday 5 November 2008 the Bio Bus won the
award at the Route One Operator Excellence Awards 2008 in Birmingham. What the
judges said: “without doubt the winning innovation has captured the hearts and minds
of not only the community in which it serves but also much further afield. The result
have surpassed all expectations and as a consequence serious consideration is being
given to broadening the project to other parts of the UK” 76
75 http://www.dft.gov.uk/press/speechesstatements/speeches/unite
76 See http://www.thebiobus.com/ for more details
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Taxi drivers more affected by transport emissions being in the centre of the road
Large increase in taxi numbers after a number of Councils lifted the restriction on the
number of taxis after a circular letter from the Department for Transport following an
Office of Fair Trading Report.
Use the Sustainable Transport document to campaign on environmental and social
issues
Practical solutions list – What can our members do? What are we doing? (Bus
workers Charter, Local Transport Act 2008)
Environmental reps – What would they do? What rights would they have?
Economical driving – Traffic light economical driving system in place in a lot of
workplaces already (Red – bad, Green – good, etc). They put stats on pay slips.
Potential for management misuse?
Workplace examples of what could be done in the workplace to deliver sustainable
transport – Garage side of sustainability.
Town planning – Around car or employer in the case of John Lewis in Leicester.
Cab design committees – Frank Llwellyn heads this up for us. They felt there was
some potential here.
7.2 Road Transport Commercial Trade Group
Delegates fully endorsed the recommendations in the RTC chapter of the report. The
issue of how to create an sustainable and integrated transport policy - through
regulation – is a question for the whole country. It was recalled that in the 1960s,
picking up and dropping off was largely handled locally. From 1975 this changed –
along with pressure for cheaper prices. Vehicles now run double or even triple shifts
for trunking and distribution. Companies do not want to hold stocks but this results in
lorries not being fully loaded. An easy way to reduce the number of lorry movements
would be to revert to more stock-holding.
Finding means to make holding stock more financially attractive than ‘just in time’
delivery was perhaps a way for government to address some of the problems – either
making the latter more expensive and/or the former cheaper. Additionally, measures
that would make it more expensive for lorries to travel without a load would have a
beneficial effect.
7.3 Civil Air Transport Trade Group
It was considered that there are some areas that we cannot affect – e.g. the technical
design of aircraft and the type of fuel used by aircraft. Employers held the key to this,
the key factor for employer is saving money and as there is a direct relationship
between fuel savings and environmental improvement the union can play a role in
making employers aware of the measures that could be taken.
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But what we can do is to look at fuel and cost savings – e.g. encourage holding areas
near the runway – this would reduce emissions and the costs savings could secure
ground handling jobs.
It was noted that stacking could last for up to 18 minutes and aircraft could be sitting
in a queue lining up to depart for more than 20 minutes with all engines idling. There
is a need to negotiate around the use of air space – currently companies fly the
cheapest route where air traffic costs are the cheapest – not always the best or shortest
routes. Overwhelmingly, there was a need to pressure Government and the EU to act.
More and better rail links to airports could take freight and passengers off roads.
There could be incentive schemes for employees who come up with sustainable
transport ideas – which might be self-funding through the cost savings achieved.
A simple energy saving might be for airports to scale down the extensive use of
lighting in of-peak periods. Sometimes the level of lighting was very high and some
airports didn’t even factor in an ability to turn part of the lighting off – it was all or
nothing and in some cases lighting was kept on 24/7.
Recycling need to be introduced into airports and EU ETS does not solve the issue
need to campaign for global trading scheme
An absolute need was to improve job security – using minimum standards to stop the
race to bottom syndrome; as it is now, in many cases, currently it is a case of a job
today but no job tomorrow.
The links with ETF and ITF were considered highly important.
7.4 Docks and Inland Waterways Trade Group
Delegates reviewed the content of the report in detail and were comfortable with the
text as it stood. A range of other pressing issues were discussed.
7.5 Day 2 of Conference
Eduardo Chagas, General Secretary of the European Transport Workers’ Federation
gave a presentation on behalf of the ETF, He started by outling the work of the ETF
and the various campaigns they had been involved in.
He then went on to say that this is a moment of growing pressure on labour and social
rights, with the spread of social and wage dumping, attacks on trade unions and
expansion of neo-liberal policies which requires a clear and firm response from
European workers and their organizations, and that a new front is thus now open in
our members’ priorities: the protection of jobs. And that the trade union movement
must go on the offensive and claim that the same support is found for preserving jobs
and workers’ living standards.
The credit crunch and the resulting economic crisis, has come at the same time when
the European trade union movement has been confronted with a series of rulings from
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the European Court of Justice - the Viking, Laval/Vaxholm, Ruffert and Luxembourg
– whose impact goes much further than just the cases they address.
Based upon the existing Treaty, the Court, although recognizing the right to strike,
considered actions or legislation aiming at ensuring equal treatment for workers and
preventing social dumping, to be in breach of the Treaty because they hinder the free
movement of businesses and the freedom of establishment. Suddenly we were told
that economic freedoms should prevail over fundamental social rights.
In adopting these rulings, the ECJ rewrote the legislation, it did not limit itself to
interpret the law and the Treaty but went further even using the law to interpret the
Treaty.
with just-in-time deliveries and zero stocks, requires more flexible - “modern” they
call it - forms of labour organization, we have assisted to the development of
shameful forms of precarious labour, namely in the freight distribution market.
Workers being paid by the kilometer or by the parcel are just examples of how
businesses perceive the concept of sustainability.
When the ETF finished the TRUST project, we concluded that the debate should be
continued and deepened but also that trade unions can and must play a key role in
shaping a different transport policy, one that promotes a broader concept of
sustainability, where the decision makers themselves demand and respect our
participation as responsible and representative actors.
Transport workers’ organisations have to be active players in promoting environment
protection, not because it is now fashionable, but because we want to ensure that
possible solutions take into account the interests of our members too.
The Congress will thus discuss a political paper that will expand the conclusions of
the TRUST project and provide the necessary tools for a trade union intervention in
the sustainability debate, seeking for adequate measures that can ensure a balanced
and sustainable development of the different transport modes.
The other main paper to be discussed and adopted by Congress, “Strong Unions”, will
deal with the need to reinforce the balance of power of transport trade unions, thus
also responding to the organizing globally strategy adopted at the last ITF Congress in
2006.
Eduardo concluded by giving his commitment, the commitment of the ETF
Secretariat, to continue fighting for a sustainable transport policy where the human
element, the contribution from all, women and men, to make Europe a better place to
live and work, is respected, valorised and dignified.
After a question and answer session the conference broke into four groups to discuss
issue raised in Eduardo’s presentation.
7.6 Yellow Group
Q1 What can unions do in the workplace to encourage environmental and social
sustainability?
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Power sharing forum - turning off lights – recycle water
Green reps let H&S reps to be green rep – out of recession pick up
Q2 What sustainability policies should unions be pushing for with national
government and how should these be progressed?
Use of taxation to encourage sustainable transport – higher stock level set against tax
Q3 What sustainability policies should unions be pushing for at European and
International levels and how should these be progressed?
Through social net works
Q4 On motorways is down – railways traffic down, large second-hand market for
lorries – decommission old lorries and add new EU standards
Green Group
Q1 What can unions do in the workplace to encourage environmental and social
sustainability?
Fuel savings – stationary vehicles switch off – company introduce company transport
scheme – promote share transport – Technology educate and train.
Q2 What sustainability policies should unions be pushing for with national
government and how should these be progressed?
Environmental reps – pursue issues to where we want to be rerouting – do we need
railways track – do we need to reroute – saving achieved reinvested
Q3 What sustainability policies should unions be pushing for at European and
International levels and how should these be progressed?
Global solutions on issues – not move problem from one side of the globe to the other
Q4 How can unions ensure that the transport system that emerges from the recession
is a sustainable one?
Companies put environmental issues on backburner – concentrate on profits –
minimum environmental or employment or social standards
7.8 Blue Group
Q1 What can unions do in the workplace to encourage environmental and social
sustainability?
encourage companies to introduce recycling scheme to include eg waste
metals, oil, tyres etc – motion detector/energy efficient lighting
work out payback times, survey people for their opinions.
plant tree when by a lorry
Measuring how much fuel is saved – Leicester Arriva giving people a bonus
on the fuel saved per driver. First are doing this too. Maybe need for more
collective solutions?
Limit speed - UPS vans are limited to 57mph.
Union involvement in driving training crucial. First are all having Smiths
training – an advanced driving course. This is going to be part of the new
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CPC training – all drivers have 5 days training. Concentrates on 5 keys – not
getting too close, etc.
Easier to ask people to be economical at work than at home – people care less.
Enforcement of working time eg busworkers charter, linking to scheduling
Leaving cabs pleasant (litter free, smoke free) for other drivers
All parts of union to negotiate for travel plans
Negotiate on vehicle types
Q2 What sustainability policies should unions be pushing for with national
government and how should these be progressed?
Better town planning –
environmental reps have same rights as SS
Working time – revision of driving hours and working time directives
Taxing empty running
Political control to challenge just in time delivery- planning, regulation –
nationalisation?
Commission to look at sustainable transport
Overturn the privatised, deregulated bus transport
Transport hubs (freight depots) from railways that are then unloaded into.
Freight corridors that are designed and planned, integrated with rail – maybe
even canal.
Q3 What sustainability policies should unions be pushing for at European and
International levels and how should these be progressed?
Levy on empty running on planes and ships (planes running empty to keep the
slots)
Working with sister unions
Consider international fuel duty on aviation
Tackle flags of convenience
Similar approach to all forms of transport – better global standards, improved
conditions, more regulation
Q4 How can unions ensure that the transport system that emerges from the recession
is a sustainable one?
Race to bottom means road haulage under-cutting more environmentally
friendly transport eg lost feeder service from Southampton to Grangemouth –
gone from sea back to road –the road hauliers are undercutting everyone –
forced rates right down. They will do it even if they make £1 load.
Intensifying competition, driving down standards
Increased use of clearing houses by independent haulier
Tackling this needs regulation and tariff controls and supporting increased
funding for public transport.
7.9 Orange Group
Q1 Most workplaces not well organised need to deal issues talk about TU delivering
sustainable. Social stainable is important for our industries. Need to home in on what
policies need connection with workforce. Need well organised teams – green reps as
add on will not work
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Q2 policies know what lifestyle need to follow this year - science or promote issues
we know about . This is what we want - members involvement in Labour Party
Q3 Use the institution we have ETF and ITF – Social Partnership can only exist
where both social partners can operate a sanction – the only way forward is by
organising workers – major priority EU Elections – are main priority
Q4 Could be good impact Of recession – go back to planned transport rather than free
market – NatEx equivalent of x ).5b in debt – left with coach network – create an
equivalent of network Rail. -
The conference concluded with closing remarks by Graham Stevenson, National
Organiser Transport
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Input-based measures: these are based on estimates of the fuel purchased by /
supplied to companies in particular sectors. They are industry-specific and apply only
to UK-registered companies. Many of these companies operate in other countries, as
well as the UK, and so CO2 emissions from their freight transport operations are not
confined to the UK.
Output-based measures: these are derived from estimates of the amount of freight
movement, expressed either in tonne-kms or vehicle-kms. They are activity- or modespecific
and not confined to the operations of UK-registered businesses. These outputbased
measures permit greater geographical targeting. For example, surveys of lorry
traffic in the UK, comprising both British and foreign-registered vehicles, can be used
to calculate total CO2 emissions from all trucks operating in the UK regardless of
their origin and ownership.
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Appendix 2
(i) Assumptions about the utilisation of vehicle capacity: Many estimates of CO 2
emissions from freight transport are based on standard mode-specific ratios of grams
of CO 2 per tonne-km. In deriving these ratios, researchers often make assumptions
about the utilisation of vehicle capacity. The amount of fuel consumed, and hence
CO 2 emitted, is very sensitive to vehicle load factors, particularly in the case of road
transport. Agencies promoting particular transport modes as being more ‘green’ have
sometimes based CO 2 calculations for their mode on high levels of utilisation while
using average load factor data for competing modes.
(ii) Use of parameters derived from international studies: in the absence of carbon
intensity data for freight transport operations in a particular country, researchers often
rely on intensity values calculated for other countries or international averages. This is
risky as there are wide international differences in the nature and efficiency of freight
transport operations, in the primary source of electricity (for rail and pipeline) and in
the condition of transport infrastructure.
(iii) National ‘emissions accounting’ typically quantifies CO 2 emissions by industry
sector. Freight transport is an activity which is highly diffuse within an economy,
often undertaken on an ancillary basis by companies whose main activity is not
transport. This makes it difficult to obtain a comprehensive, crosssectoral measure of
CO 2 emissions from freight transport.
(iv) Use of tonne-kms as the output measure for freight transport: Analyses of the
carbon intensity of freight transport invariably express CO 2 emissions as a ratio of
tonne-kms, i.e. weight transported multiplied by the distance travelled. For some
modes and commodity types it would be more appropriate to measure freight
movement in terms of volume rather than weight. Lack of government statistics on the
cubic volume of freight makes this impossible, however.
(v) Movement of freight in passenger vehicles: A significant amount of freight
(mainly shopping) is moved in cars or public transport vehicles. This does not appear
in any official statistics and so has not been included in CO 2 calculations for freight
transport. With the growth of online shopping, responsibility for the ‘last mile’
delivery to the home is transferring from the consumer to the retailer and or the
delivery company. The movement of online retail purchases in vans increases its
statistical visibility. Associated CO 2 emissions are then included in environmental
audits for the freight transport sector. The integration of passenger and freight
movement in the same vehicles also complicates CO 2 auditing in the aviation sector.
A large proportion of air cargo moves in the bellyholds of passenger aircraft, making
it difficult to decide how much of a plane’s CO 2 emissions should be attributed to the
airfreight.
(vi) CO 2 and other global warming gases: CO 2 is only one of several gases which
contribute to global warming. It is estimated to account for around 84% of the global
warming impact of the transport sector in the UK. This report is solely concerned with
CO 2 emissions from freight transport operations and ignores emissions of other global
warming gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide.
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Appendix 3
GREENING YOUR WORKPLACE – SOME PRACTICAL TIPS FOR UNITE
TRANSPORT WORKERS
Elect Union Green Reps This can be
a standalone role, or held by existing
union reps - shop stewards, Union
Learning Reps, or H&S reps, as well as
those new to (or returning to) activism.
Unite wants union reps to have the
same legal right to represent members
on environmental issues, as they
already do on H&S and learning
issues. In the mean time, in some
workplaces Union Green Reps have
negotiated to be recognized and
consulted, and for facilities. It’s
important to work closely with
stewards and other existing reps - eg
ULRs have promoted environmental
issues within the learning agenda, and
H&S Reps have brought their
knowledge of the employers legal
duties, eg on temperature &
equipment.
In well organised workplaces, Union
environmental reps can act as a conduit
between management and
members/staff, feeding concerns,
suggestions and responses in both
directions, and working with the
workforce and management to develop
best environmental practice. They can
help review or shape environmental
policies and initiatives, and help ensure
that such policies are properly
understood, fit for purpose, and can be
put into practical effect in a fair way at
each workplace.
Getting the union message across
Who is responsible for environmental
issues, on the management side?
There is often already a committee or
working party (either at local or group
level) combining roles like Facilities /
Energy Environment manager,
Corporate Social Responsibility/PR
dept, and possibly Human Resources
(especially if they are also looking at
travel). It is important to work with
the existing union structures to take the
environmental agenda forward,
whether by ensuring this item is on the
JNC’s agenda, the H&S committee is
given an expanded remit, that there is a
specific environment committee set up,
or getting an existing committee to
include trade union representation.
Environmental Agreement It is also
important to formalise trade union
involvement in environmental issues,
where possible, through environmental
agreements. An agreement could cover
the mechanisms for union
involvement, reps, facilities and
training; the issues to be covered;
mutual responsibilities and procedures
for dealing with issues; clear objectives
and monitoring policies; and links with
H&S and other policies and structures.
There should be an emphasis on
collective rewards and it should be
made clear that disciplinary procedures
will never be used to enforce
environmental agreements. There is a
draft model agreement in the free
guide available from TUC Publications
‘Go Green At Work’ For more ideas,
see the checklist, overleaf. If you do
negotiate an agreement on any
environmental issue, be sure to send a
copy to www.lrd.org.uk so that others
can benefit too.
Training Unite runs national courses
on the environment – contact your
regional Education officer. There is
also an online TUC course. A key role
is to negotiate for on-site training for
all members on energy efficiency,
greener driving, etc. If courses are put
on without union involvement they
may not properly meet people’s needs.
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Commitment from the top and the
grassroots is important. It’s linked to
information availability - people at all
levels are more likely to act if they
understand the financial and local
environmental impact, and they may
all have important information about
causes and impacts. As well as union
reps involvement, it’s important to
have both a senior champion and an
operational manager with clear
responsibility to make this information
transparent.
Maintaining enthusiasm Remember
that small steps add up to large
impacts. If organisations achieve cost
savings, a proportion could be reserved
for further ‘green’ investment, or for
rewarding staff as a whole. You and
your branch could also get involved in
campaigning, for example by lobbying
your MP or affiliating to a group like
the ‘Campaign Against Climate
Change’.
Communication We all look to others
for action - ‘I will if you will’ – but
messages from the organisation about
what it is doing, often become
wallpaper. Workers want facts and
targets that they can understand, that
focus on a particular area, that can be
updated, and that are personally
meaningful and tangible. For example,
how does the company’s use of fuel
and creation of climate changing
emissions, compare to the amount that
an individual produces in their home
life?
Communication needs to be 2-way,
through reps, meetings, events,
committees, posters, surveys and
newsletters. An important rule is that
no-one should be made to feel guilty or
threatened; the focus should be on
removing barriers to ‘green’ behaviour.
Open day Awareness raising events
such as open days are great ways of
getting people thinking about the
environment at home and at work.
Some reps have shown the Al Gore
film ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ during
working hours, or have arranged for
the local Friends of the Earth group, or
council Energy Saving team, to come
in to their workplace to give talks,
advice and materials, which also
resulted in new union members being
recruited. Or you could invite a
speaker from these organisations along
to the branch.
Audit To be able to improve
environmental impact, you need to
know where you’re starting from – ie
an audit of environmental
performance. There are many different
ways of auditing and measuring
environmental performance for union
purposes. The checklist overleaf gives
some starting points.
Finding out more - general
Discover your environmental
‘footprint’ at www.ecofoot.org and
encourage colleagues to do the same.
Have a look at your employer’s reports
and websites, particularly on
‘Corporate Social Responsibility’.
Unite’s research department can help
with this.
If you work for a large company,
check out www.cdproject.net (Carbon
Disclosure Project), which is a
voluntary reporting standard. Any
member of the public, including
employees, has the right to request
information about an organisation
under the Environmental Information
Regulations (and about public bodies
under the Freedom of Information
regulations) – see
http://community.foe.co.uk/tools/right
_to_know/ (very helpful. You may
also be able to use the Information and
Consultation Regulations, or European
Works Councils, see www.tuc.org.uk
for more on this.
www.netregs.gov.uk explains
environmental regulations in plain
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language, and has a good section on
the various environmental management
schemes (EMAS, ISO14001, etc). See
also www.epaw.co.uk.
Finding out more – within your
organisation
Here are some suggestions for
questions you might consider asking
colleagues or management. To start
with, pick one or two areas to focus on
that particularly interest you or your
colleagues, or that you think are
important or could be ‘quick wins’.
You might want to carry out a survey
to assess the most important areas to
your colleagues, to do a walk round
inspection (perhaps with the H&S
reps), or have a meeting to discuss
what’s already been done and what’s
outstanding.
1. Does the organisation publish
it’s total ‘carbon footprint’?
2. Does it publish any other
‘environmental indicators’?
3. Has the organisation had help
from organisations like the
Carbon Trust (energy),
Envirowise (waste/recycling),
or the Energy Saving Trust
(fleet)?
4. Has it implemented their
recommendations?
5. Does it have written
environmental policies and / or
plan? Is it detailed enough?
6. Is there a commitment to seek
ways of minimising the use of
scarce resources including fuel,
electricity, and raw materials,
particularly disposable items?
7. Do all these plans cover social
as well as environmental
sustainability for example
working time?
8. Does it have an accredited
environmental management
scheme (e.g. ISO4001, EMAS,
Carbon Trust Management
Scheme?)
9. Who has responsibility for
progressing any plans / policies
/ schemes?
10. Is the union currently involved
in decision making about what
the priorities are?
Possible workplace improvements
1. Are there automatic power
reducing features eg on lights
and pcs, power downs on idling
vehicles?
2. Are staff trained in more
energy efficient working and
driving? Is the training
appropriate, with union
involvement?
3. Is purchasing of goods,
vehicles etc done in
consultation with staff and
taking into account new energy
and environmental standards,
as well as labour standards?
4. If there are ‘eco-friendly’
options on equipment, vehicles,
etc, are staff trained to use them
properly?
5. Is equipment, vehicles etc,
regularly serviced and clearly
labelled (obviously other
regulations including H&S also
apply here).
6. Is the company changing it’s
fleet to plug-in hybrid, electric,
or hybrid vehicles? How
quickly?
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7. Is it introducing more energy
efficient vehicle design?
8. If biodiesel is used, is it only
recycled biodiesel (which is a
genuinely renewable product)?
9. Is it retro-fitting the existing
vehicle fleet and buildings with
more energy efficient
measures?
10. Is it working with the union to
minimise unnecessary journeys,
eg empty vehicles?
11. Is it working with the union to
minimise unnecessary weight
on vehicles?
12. Are any vehicles, equipment
etc, left on when not in use?
Why?
13. Is temperature an issue, either
generally or at particular times
of day?
14. Are staff or passengers opening
doors and windows, even when
cooling/heating is operating?
Why?
15. Are the thermostats in the right
place and set to the right
temperature (19-24 degrees)?
16. Can workers control or
influence the heating, cooling
and lighting in their workplace?
Can passengers? Are there any
issues here?
17. Is lighting on in areas, or at
times of day, when there should
be enough daylight? Why?
Are windows dirty or
insufficient?
18. Does the business make any
claims to be ‘greener’ than
competitors?
19. Is everything that can be,
recycled?
20. Are water saving measures in
place?
21. Is there an up to date travel
plan for transport to work,
negotiated with the union?
22. Are the catering arrangements
ok, or is food over-processed
and over-packaged?
23. Does the organisation seek
ways to support staff saving
energy and resources at home?
24. Is offsetting only carried out as
a last resort, after looking at
energy saving, and on-site
renewable energy (eg wind
turbines, solar water heating) or
combined heat and power?
GOVERNMENT TIPS FOR
‘GREENER’ DRIVING
Drive smoothly and slowly
driving smoothly and at a
slower speed can reduce fuel
consumption
check the road ahead, anticipate
traffic and avoid harsh
acceleration and braking
stick to the speed limits - at 70
miles per hour (mph) you could
use up to 15 per cent more fuel
than at 50 mph
Change gears at the right time
correct gear changing will save
fuel and reduce your emissions
a vehicle travelling at 37 mph
in third gear uses 25 per cent
more fuel than it would at the
same speed in fifth gear
Stop and start less
keeping the engine running or
pumping the accelerator wastes
fuel, increases engine wear and
increases emissions
get in and go - modern engines
are designed to be most
efficient when you do this
switch your engine off if you
won't be moving for a while
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