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<strong>Promoting</strong><br />
<strong>basic</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong><br />
Pai Obanya<br />
Four African Case Studies
Pr mn<br />
Ethiopia<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
n a Faso<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
E t h i o p i a<br />
PaSwazil<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong>Faso<br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
UNESCO, 2004<br />
Pr<br />
qomoting<br />
<strong>basic</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>n<br />
<strong>girls</strong><br />
Four african case studies<br />
studiesin<br />
Obanya<br />
aPai
The designations employed <strong>and</strong> the presentation of material<br />
throughout this publication do not imply the expression of<br />
any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning<br />
the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its<br />
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or<br />
boundaries.<br />
The author is responsible <strong>for</strong> the choice <strong>and</strong> the presentation<br />
of the facts contained in this work <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> the opinions<br />
expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of UNESCO<br />
<strong>and</strong> do not commit the Organization.<br />
Published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific <strong>and</strong><br />
Cultural Organization,<br />
7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris<br />
Composed <strong>and</strong> printed in the workshops of UNESCO<br />
© UNESCO 2004<br />
Printed in France<br />
(ED-2004/WS/17 cld 14435)
t h i o p 5E i a<br />
61Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
m9Mozambique<br />
Burkin Faso<br />
Ethiopia<br />
Preface<br />
p<br />
Introduction<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
l7<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
sContents<br />
Women’s<br />
oEthiopia: m<br />
issues are development issues<br />
<strong>ii</strong>ssues Swazil<strong>and</strong>: Apparent gender er<br />
balance Inclusion <strong>and</strong> participation 37<br />
iMozambique: Burkina Faso:<br />
h<br />
49<br />
hEducation–responsibility–empowerment<br />
a<br />
General conclusions<br />
Bibliography 65<br />
27m<br />
interviewed<br />
ns<br />
tAppendix:<br />
tPersons<br />
o<br />
organizations/institutions visited<br />
t<strong>and</strong><br />
68
idepartment; Swazil<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> its record on gender balance in<br />
Burkin<br />
T he four case studies reported here are a follow-up<br />
the study entitled ed “<strong>Promoting</strong> Basic Education<br />
Women end Girls: A Survey of lto oto a<br />
Structures,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Activities in Africa”, which has<br />
been published series.i<br />
in this series.<br />
countries (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Mozambique,<br />
o<strong>for</strong><br />
oActivities oProgrammes<br />
oFour n<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong>) were involved in the study, each selected <strong>for</strong><br />
a specific purpose: Ethiopia <strong>for</strong> its progressive <strong>women</strong>’s<br />
department, with a unit represented in every government<br />
department; Swazil<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> its record on gender balance in<br />
ifo<br />
ies<br />
<strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong>; Mozambique <strong>for</strong> its dynamic post-conflict<br />
<strong>education</strong> initiatives; <strong>and</strong> Burkina Faso <strong>for</strong> the positive<br />
a<strong>basic</strong><br />
a<br />
k<br />
contributions of its NGOs.<br />
All the studies examine developments in both the<br />
<strong>for</strong>mal <strong>and</strong> the non-<strong>for</strong>mal sectors of <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong>.<br />
They all show bold steps undertaken to address hne<br />
z<strong>for</strong>mal country-<br />
specific problems of <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong>’s <strong>education</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
rThey<br />
w<br />
r<br />
draw attention to the immense challenges the countries<br />
are facing in their ef<strong>for</strong>ts to achieve gender<br />
equality in <strong>education</strong>.<br />
tns<br />
tir<br />
tconcerned oconcerned u<br />
Particular attention should be drawn to the chal-<br />
lenges <strong>and</strong> the lessons highlighted hl<br />
at the end of each<br />
country report as well as to the conclusions of each<br />
Ethiopia<br />
S<br />
w<br />
a<br />
z i<br />
l a<br />
op<br />
T<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
a<br />
Mozambique<br />
B<br />
u<br />
r<br />
k<br />
i<br />
n a s<br />
Burkina B5B5B<br />
Faso<br />
sPreface<br />
o<br />
ibeen<br />
i<br />
za<br />
t<br />
wdraw<br />
ato<br />
a<strong>for</strong> b<br />
m<br />
nSwazil<strong>and</strong>)<br />
a<br />
k<strong>education</strong><br />
z<br />
rThey<br />
o<br />
uconcerned<br />
Burkin
Ethiopia<br />
i i<br />
l<br />
a<br />
n<br />
d<br />
n<strong>girls</strong>’<br />
nimmense i<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Faso<br />
They include: the pervasive influence of traditional<br />
areport. s<br />
beliefs <strong>and</strong> practices that are harmful to the promotion of<br />
<strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong>’s status; the under exploitation of the<br />
immense possibilities non-<strong>for</strong>mal <strong>education</strong>; the slow<br />
itu<br />
iof<br />
statistics that in addition are not gender<br />
disaggregated, idevelopment wom-a a<br />
<strong>and</strong> insufficient funding <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> wom-<br />
<strong>education</strong>. These studies have implications <strong>for</strong> our<br />
EFA process, <strong>and</strong> should be a golden opportunity<br />
<strong>for</strong> us to draw appropriate at<br />
lessons from today’s qdisaggregated, promising<br />
pen’s<br />
pon-going<br />
a<br />
practices the challenges we face in promoting <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong>.<br />
p<strong>for</strong> ppractices p<strong>women</strong>’s I would like to<br />
a<strong>for</strong> express my appreciation <strong>for</strong> the<br />
provided by the UNESCO National Commissions<br />
in the four countries to the author <strong>and</strong> to acknowledge the<br />
lassistance<br />
oassistance<br />
a<br />
of various agencies that provided in<strong>for</strong>-a<br />
the in<strong>for</strong>-<br />
that makes this report a good learning tool.<br />
oagencies<br />
ocooperation<br />
omation<br />
imation<br />
Diallona<br />
Diallon<br />
Aicha Bah<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
a<br />
E6<br />
Mozambique<br />
n<br />
a F<br />
a<br />
s<br />
q<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
Faso<br />
i<br />
F<strong>for</strong><br />
aassistance<br />
ain b<br />
Assistant Director General a.i.n<br />
<strong>for</strong> Education a.i.
E t h i o p i a<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
gSwazil<strong>and</strong><br />
tiSwazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
Faso<br />
Mozambique:d<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
a<br />
e:<br />
The impact of a wide variety of<br />
innovative initiatives <strong>for</strong> the promotion of <strong>basic</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong> <strong>women</strong>.u<br />
n<br />
s<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong>.<br />
<br />
Burkina Faso:<br />
the contribution of NGOs to<br />
a<br />
the promotion of <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>women</strong>. study was carried out in August-September, 2002. It<br />
visits to each of the countries, in the course of<br />
the following data collection methods were used:<br />
discus-Faso<br />
Faso<br />
(a) visits to projects; (b) interviews <strong>and</strong> focus group discus-<br />
sions with policy-makers <strong>and</strong> operators of programmes;<br />
(c) analysis pThe pinvolved pwhich of documentary<br />
awhich materials; <strong>and</strong> (d) exchange of<br />
with national authorities <strong>and</strong> other stakeholders on<br />
lviews<br />
oviews<br />
a<br />
major observations of fact-finding exercise.<br />
UNESCO National Commissions facilitated work of the consultant in all four countries. contri-a<br />
Valuable contri-<br />
athe butions UNESCO cluster offices in Ethiopia, Mozambique<br />
othe iof<br />
acknowledged.m<br />
n<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nigeria are also gratefully acknowledged.<br />
The report is presented according to the order in<br />
the countries were visited: Ethiopia, Swazil<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Mozambique <strong>and</strong> Burkina Faso. While, the iwhich<br />
zwhich<br />
i<br />
experience of<br />
each country is unique, the reports have followed simi-i<br />
a simi-<br />
lar pattern: (a) background in<strong>for</strong>mation (or context), to sit-<br />
aeach<br />
hlar k<br />
the experiences studied; (b) an outline of the policy<br />
(c) an assessment of the per<strong>for</strong>mance of the<br />
policy on the ground; <strong>and</strong> (d) some concluding remarks,<br />
drawing special attention auate to the lessons to huate<br />
hframework;<br />
zpolicy<br />
r<br />
be learnt from<br />
the experiences.<br />
Ethiopia<br />
E8<br />
Mozambique<br />
a<br />
Faso<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
n<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong>
E9<br />
E<br />
Ethiopia:<br />
Women’s issues are<br />
development issues<br />
Background<br />
<strong>and</strong> policy framework<br />
T<br />
We must do things with<br />
instead of <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong>.<br />
he Ethiopian experience is rooted in the country’s<br />
Constitution (Proclamation number 1 of 1995), which<br />
states in its Article 35:<br />
“Women have the right to full consultation in the <strong>for</strong>mu-<br />
lation of national policies, the designing <strong>and</strong> execution of<br />
“The historical legacy of inequality <strong>and</strong> discriminaThe<br />
historical legacy of inequality <strong>and</strong> discrimination suf-<br />
fered by <strong>women</strong> in Ethiopia taken into account, <strong>women</strong>,<br />
in order to remedy this legacy, are entitled to affirmative<br />
measures. The purpose of these measures shall be to<br />
special attention to <strong>women</strong> so as to enable them<br />
compete <strong>and</strong> participate on the basis of equality with<br />
men in political, social <strong>and</strong> economic life, as well as in<br />
tprovide<br />
public <strong>and</strong> private institutions [Article 35.3].”<br />
E thiopia<br />
ia
Ethiopia<br />
:p<br />
i<br />
10<br />
E<br />
projects, <strong>and</strong> particularly in the case of projects affecting<br />
the interests of <strong>women</strong> [Article 35.6].”<br />
Women constitute approximately half of the popula-<br />
Ethiopia (see Table 1), <strong>and</strong> a concerted ef<strong>for</strong>t has<br />
ien<br />
iof<br />
ition<br />
ibeen made to give vent to the equality provisions of the<br />
Constitution in the <strong>for</strong>m of a ‘National Policy on Ethiopian<br />
which targets the following twelve priority<br />
areas:<br />
Women <strong>and</strong> poverty.<br />
2. Education <strong>and</strong> training <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong>.<br />
3. Women <strong>and</strong> health.<br />
pen’,<br />
pWomen’,<br />
p1.<br />
4. Violence against <strong>women</strong>.<br />
5. Women <strong>and</strong> armed conflicts.<br />
6. Women <strong>and</strong> the economy.<br />
7. Women in power <strong>and</strong> decision-making.<br />
8. Institutional mechanisms<br />
<strong>for</strong> the advancement of <strong>women</strong>.<br />
9. Human rights of <strong>women</strong>.<br />
10. Women <strong>and</strong> the media.<br />
11. Women <strong>and</strong> the environment.<br />
12. The girl child.<br />
1: Ethiopia – projected population (1999)<br />
Zone<br />
Total population Female (%)<br />
Urban<br />
9 074 000<br />
50.4<br />
he<br />
hTable Rural<br />
52 598 000<br />
49.7<br />
Total<br />
61 672 000<br />
49.8<br />
objectives of the policy are to:<br />
tThe<br />
Guarantee <strong>women</strong> equal rights with men.<br />
Amend laws which adversely affect <strong>women</strong>’s<br />
social, cultural <strong>and</strong> economic conditions.
Ethiopia<br />
i<br />
12<br />
E<br />
agencies operate at each of these levels of<br />
aGovernment <strong>and</strong> they all have <strong>women</strong>’s affairs igovernment<br />
departis<br />
(the federal <strong>and</strong> Woreda levels), <strong>and</strong> gender focal<br />
s (at the<br />
Kebele level).<br />
inment<br />
iments<br />
ipoints<br />
The horizontal axis shows a system of co-ordinapof<br />
of gender-in-development activities among ption pzpns,<br />
government<br />
agencies, non-governmental <strong>and</strong> civil society organi-<br />
ations, <strong>education</strong>al research institutions (particularly<br />
ddis Ababa University), <strong>and</strong> a number of international<br />
notably USAID, Save the Children, UNESCO,<br />
pApAbaba<br />
pies,<br />
pagencies,<br />
UNICEF, WHO, FAO <strong>and</strong> the World Bank.<br />
Ethiopia’s policy guidelines <strong>and</strong> the institutional<br />
<strong>for</strong> the implementation of the policy seem<br />
be guided by a coherent philosophy, whose underlying<br />
rinciples<br />
oarrangements<br />
oguided<br />
oto<br />
opoiples are:<br />
Education <strong>for</strong> overall human development, with<br />
very special emphasis on the integration of<br />
<strong>women</strong> into the development process.<br />
Gender-in-development, with the development<br />
of <strong>women</strong> as the key element.<br />
General guidelines, capacity-building, co-ordination<br />
at the federal level.<br />
Practical development operational activities at<br />
the level of the regions <strong>and</strong> other decentralized<br />
administrative structures.<br />
Inter-agency collaboration.<br />
Close collaboration between government agencies<br />
<strong>and</strong> all other development partners.
Ethiopia<br />
14<br />
E<br />
Women’s<br />
Affairs<br />
Departments<br />
Government<br />
agencies<br />
NGOs/Civil<br />
Society<br />
Organizations<br />
Institutions<br />
International<br />
Agencies<br />
Regions<br />
Woreda<br />
Kebele<br />
Prime Minister’s<br />
Office<br />
Education<br />
Agriculture<br />
Industries<br />
Environment<br />
Health<br />
Communications<br />
Water<br />
Resources<br />
Labour <strong>and</strong><br />
Social Welfare<br />
Youth, Sports<br />
<strong>and</strong> Culture<br />
BEN:<br />
Basic Education<br />
Network<br />
FAWE:<br />
Forum <strong>for</strong><br />
African Women<br />
Educationalists<br />
CDRA:<br />
Christian<br />
Development<br />
<strong>and</strong> Relief<br />
Association<br />
Addis Ababa<br />
University<br />
(Centre <strong>for</strong><br />
Education<br />
Research <strong>and</strong><br />
Training on<br />
Women in<br />
Development<br />
CERTWID)<br />
USAID<br />
UNICEF<br />
UNESCO<br />
Save the<br />
Children<br />
WHO<br />
FAO<br />
World Bank<br />
Fig. 1.<br />
Vertical <strong>and</strong> horizontal co-ordination of gender-in-development activities<br />
in Ethiopia
E15<br />
E<br />
Formal <strong>education</strong><br />
An educated girl is likely to become<br />
• A more competent mother.<br />
• A knowledgeable family planner.<br />
• A more productive <strong>and</strong> better<br />
* paid worker.<br />
• An in<strong>for</strong>med citizen.<br />
• A skilled decision-maker.<br />
• A self confident individual<br />
[By courtesy of UNICEF]<br />
One major characteristic of the on-the-ground operation<br />
of the Ethiopian experience is that literacy <strong>and</strong> educa-<br />
tion are considered as the bedrock of all programmes of<br />
<strong>women</strong>-in-development.<br />
Low literacy rates <strong>and</strong> poor access to <strong>for</strong>mal edu-<br />
cation are among the issues that Ethiopia has tried to<br />
in the past decade through: (a) ETP: Education<br />
<strong>and</strong> Training Policy (1994); (b) ESDP: Education Sector<br />
Development Programme (1997–2001); <strong>and</strong> (c) ESDP II<br />
taddress<br />
(2002–2006).<br />
These programmes have resulted in a progressive<br />
improvement in net primary enrolment over the years, as<br />
There is a system of annual co-ordination meetings at<br />
various levels, at which ongoing activities are critically<br />
The Prime Ministers’ Office organizes such<br />
meetings with the regions <strong>and</strong> the sectoral ministries.<br />
Each sectoral ministry holds similar meetings with spe-<br />
ireviewed. cialized bureaux in the regions, while the regions relay the<br />
co-ordination meetings to the Woreda, <strong>and</strong> the Woreda to<br />
the Kebele. . NGOs <strong>and</strong> other development partners are also<br />
fully involved in these programme review meetings.<br />
E thiopia<br />
i
Ethiopia<br />
i<br />
16<br />
E<br />
2 illustrates. The table also shows that improved<br />
aTable<br />
net enrolment <strong>for</strong> both sexes has still not narrowed the<br />
gender gap. It has, in fact, widened it.<br />
are wide regional variations in gender parity<br />
ier<br />
iThere<br />
iat the primary level: 0.5 in the Somali region, 1 in Addis<br />
Ababa, a, <strong>and</strong> 0.7 as the national average.<br />
The system is also characterized by wide urban–<br />
rural Girls tend to be more disadvantaged in<br />
(primary net enrolment in 2001 = 45.5 per cent<br />
rban <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> 37.9 per cent rural <strong>girls</strong>). The figures <strong>for</strong><br />
et enrolment <strong>for</strong> boys show an interesting trend: 54.6<br />
pdisparities.<br />
pareas<br />
prural<br />
pupn<br />
pnpnrolment<br />
per cent urban <strong>and</strong> 62.1 per cent rural.<br />
2. Ethiopia – net primary enrolment rates<br />
Year<br />
Boys<br />
Girls<br />
Total<br />
oe<br />
oTable<br />
o(percentage)<br />
1996/1997<br />
1997/1998<br />
1998/1999<br />
1999/2000<br />
2000/2001<br />
29.5<br />
43.0<br />
44.9<br />
51.2<br />
55.7<br />
20.0<br />
28.0<br />
31.9<br />
36.6<br />
41.7<br />
24.9<br />
36.0<br />
39.5<br />
44.0<br />
48.8<br />
Source: Education Statistics Abstracts: 2000-2001<br />
Improving the participation of <strong>girls</strong> in primary <strong>education</strong><br />
an ongoing concern, <strong>and</strong> measures to address the his<br />
probhall<br />
fall into the following major categories:<br />
hoving<br />
hongoing<br />
hlem<br />
Research <strong>and</strong> studies to enlighten issues <strong>and</strong><br />
guide policy <strong>and</strong> practice.<br />
Awareness raising.<br />
Dissuasion of traditional practices that affect<br />
the <strong>education</strong> of <strong>girls</strong> (<strong>for</strong> example, marriage by<br />
adoption, or MBA).<br />
Policy interventions (example: the 1 : 1 textbook<br />
ratio policy in favour of <strong>girls</strong>).
Ethiopia<br />
18<br />
E<br />
Poverty reduction (including revenue generation<br />
activities <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong>).<br />
Social <strong>and</strong> political empowerment (including the<br />
promotion of access to decision-making positions).<br />
Strengthening of <strong>women</strong> organizations (including<br />
organizational/institutional capacity- building).<br />
Improved participation of <strong>women</strong> in specific<br />
sectors: industry, agriculture, <strong>education</strong>, culture,<br />
science <strong>and</strong> technology, politics, etc.<br />
A synopsis of the areas of focus:<br />
achievements <strong>and</strong> challenges of selected<br />
agencies/institutions/organizations<br />
involved in mainstreaming gender<br />
into development activities in Ethiopia<br />
Prime Minister’s Office<br />
national level co-ordination, between government<br />
agencies, with all partners, <strong>and</strong> among the<br />
ionsibilities:<br />
iResponsibilities:<br />
three levels of government.<br />
Achievements: the national policy on <strong>women</strong>, specific provisions<br />
on <strong>women</strong> in the Constitution, family laws<br />
at the federal level (laws at the regional level in<br />
progress), gender mainstreaming in <strong>education</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
all social sector development policies, civil service<br />
re<strong>for</strong>ms, incorporating maternity leave <strong>and</strong> affirmative<br />
action in favour of <strong>women</strong>, <strong>and</strong> progressive<br />
attitude change in society.<br />
Inadequate financial <strong>and</strong> human resources.<br />
enges:<br />
tChallenges:<br />
Ministry of Health<br />
mainstreaming gender into the policies,<br />
programmes <strong>and</strong> activities of the Health Sector.<br />
Eonsibilities:<br />
EResponsibilities:
E19<br />
E<br />
Achievements: mainstreaming gender into the Heath Sector<br />
Development Programme (HSDP), advocacy/gender<br />
<strong>and</strong> sensitization training <strong>and</strong> affirma-<br />
tive action within the ministry, studies on junior<br />
midwives, traditional birth attendants, <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong><br />
iawareness<br />
traditional healers <strong>and</strong> care-givers.<br />
Challenges: poor level of staffing, pockets of resistance,<br />
even among <strong>women</strong>.<br />
Ministry of Labour <strong>and</strong> Social Welfare<br />
Responsibilities: addressing <strong>women</strong>-specific issues in the<br />
labour <strong>for</strong>ce (employment opportunities, workplace<br />
hazards, <strong>and</strong> rights of <strong>women</strong> workers).<br />
Achievements: a functioning network arrangement with<br />
<strong>women</strong>’s affairs departments at the regional<br />
level, compilation of Basic Statistical Data <strong>and</strong><br />
Women’s Profile, studies on HIV <strong>and</strong> the factory<br />
survey of <strong>women</strong>’s self-help groups, <strong>and</strong><br />
NGO social services, production of an advocacy<br />
manual.<br />
tworker,<br />
Challenges: need <strong>for</strong> more in-depth training, limited financial<br />
resources.<br />
Ministry of Water Resources<br />
Responsibilities: promoting gender specific water issues.<br />
Achievements:<br />
regular training programmes technical<br />
experts at the regional level on gender analysis<br />
techniques <strong>and</strong> gender <strong>and</strong> water issues generally,<br />
training of staff of the ministry on assertiveness<br />
<strong>and</strong> gender awareness.<br />
Challenges: wrong perception of gender in the ministry,<br />
departments sending ‘inappropriate staff’ <strong>for</strong> train-<br />
ing programmes.<br />
E thiopia<br />
i
Ethiopia<br />
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20<br />
E<br />
Ministry of Youth, Sports <strong>and</strong> Culture<br />
Gender mainstreaming within the department<br />
<strong>and</strong> its various organs <strong>and</strong> services.<br />
vements: capacity building <strong>and</strong> gender awareness<br />
ionsibilities:<br />
iResponsibilities:<br />
iAchievements:<br />
creation, a wide variety of studies (<strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
culture, <strong>women</strong> participation in journalism, stereotypes<br />
on <strong>women</strong> in oral literature, analysis of the<br />
culture policy from a gender perspective, <strong>women</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> reading).<br />
enges: lack of appropriate follow-up to the studies.<br />
pChallenges:<br />
Ministry of Agriculture<br />
<strong>women</strong> farmers <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> professional<br />
agriculturists as primary targets.<br />
vements: ensuring that <strong>women</strong> are specifically targeted<br />
in the five-year development agricultural sector<br />
development plan, ensuring <strong>women</strong> participa-<br />
oonsibilities:<br />
oResponsibilities:<br />
oAchievements:<br />
tion — <strong>and</strong> that they do benefit as equal partners — in<br />
agricultural extension services, baseline data to generate<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>for</strong> mainstreaming <strong>women</strong> issues<br />
in agricultural sector activities, research <strong>and</strong> technology<br />
generation <strong>for</strong> the benefit of <strong>women</strong> farmers,<br />
regular training programmes on gender issues<br />
<strong>for</strong> agriculture sector staff, promotion – capacity<br />
building – organization of <strong>women</strong> professional in<br />
agriculture.<br />
‘It’s not an easy job’.<br />
hChallenges:<br />
Addis Ababa (regional) Education Department<br />
onsibilities: promotion of <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>education</strong>.<br />
vements: annual scholarships <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong> scoring a<br />
tResponsibilities:<br />
tAchievements:<br />
GPA of 3.6 <strong>and</strong> above in primary school certificate<br />
examinations – 94 awards in 2000 <strong>and</strong> 236 in<br />
200l/2002, special tutorials by ninety-seven educa-
E21<br />
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FAWE - Forum <strong>for</strong> African Women Educationalists<br />
high-level advocacy, social mobilization, <strong>and</strong><br />
capacity-building in favour of <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong>’s<br />
participation in <strong>education</strong>. iMission:<br />
ihigh-level<br />
Activities: a functioning national organization of committed<br />
<strong>women</strong> <strong>education</strong>alists, research to enlighten govern-<br />
ment policy, annual prize awards, bursary <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong><br />
(some 1,200 awards over the years), promotion of <strong>girls</strong>’<br />
participation in mathematics <strong>and</strong> science, counselling<br />
<strong>and</strong> assertiveness training <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong>.<br />
Challenges: ‘There is still a lot more to be done’.<br />
CRDA - Catholic Relief <strong>and</strong> Development<br />
Association<br />
Mission: an umbrella organization of 215 local <strong>and</strong> inter-<br />
national NGOs providing a more enabling environment<br />
<strong>for</strong> NGOs to work effectively.<br />
tion bureaux, to enhance the achievement of <strong>girls</strong><br />
in mathematics <strong>and</strong> the natural sciences.<br />
low level of awareness at the grass-roots level,<br />
‘gender gap not getting narrower’.<br />
iChallenges:<br />
ilow<br />
Oromia (regional) Education Bureau<br />
Responsibilities: working closely with <strong>women</strong> bureaux in<br />
all other sectors to promote the <strong>education</strong> of <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
Achievements: gender awareness training <strong>for</strong> teachers in<br />
cluster schools, <strong>for</strong> relay to satellite schools, <strong>and</strong><br />
even to mobile schools, assertiveness training <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>women</strong> teachers, provision of desks to schools, as<br />
reward <strong>for</strong> promoting the retention of <strong>girls</strong>, tutorial<br />
services to female students.<br />
Challenges: retention still a major problem, regional dis-<br />
parities in the participation of <strong>girls</strong> still strong.<br />
E thiopia
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22<br />
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vements: capacity building <strong>for</strong> members, functioning<br />
networking arrangements <strong>for</strong> improved gov-<br />
aAchievements:<br />
ernment–NGO relationships, task <strong>for</strong>ce on PRSP<br />
– poverty reduction strategy programme, gender<br />
working group as a cross-cutting concern, regular<br />
training programmes on a variety of gender issues<br />
(reproductive health, gender analysis, lobbying<br />
skills, rights-based approach to human development,<br />
leadership skills <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong>).<br />
enges: ‘Capacity building is not an easy task’.<br />
pChallenges:<br />
BEN - Basic Education Network<br />
a <strong>for</strong>um <strong>for</strong> experiences <strong>and</strong> ideas sharing <strong>for</strong> a<br />
collective voice <strong>and</strong> action in the realization of the<br />
EFA agenda.<br />
networking of some twenty member organizations<br />
(local NGOs), working on a variety of<br />
oon:<br />
oMission:<br />
oAchievements:<br />
special-need areas: the disabled, pastoralists, the<br />
urban poor, rural communities, etc.<br />
enges: resource constraints.<br />
iChallenges:<br />
CERTWID - Centre <strong>for</strong> Education Research <strong>and</strong><br />
Training<br />
on Women in Development<br />
Mission: research <strong>and</strong> training to enhance capacity to prohmoting<br />
the full participation of <strong>women</strong> in development.<br />
hon:<br />
hAchievements/activities:<br />
vements/activities: (a) research – a research agenda<br />
covering <strong>women</strong> in the labour <strong>for</strong>ce, <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
law, <strong>women</strong> in the media, <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>education</strong>,<br />
<strong>women</strong>, health, population <strong>and</strong> development <strong>and</strong><br />
rural <strong>women</strong>; (b) training: undergraduate courses<br />
on gender issues, one credit master’s degree course<br />
on the subject, (full-scale graduate programmes<br />
in the pipeline), assertiveness training to <strong>women</strong>
E23<br />
E<br />
students, regular open <strong>for</strong>um on gender issues; (c)<br />
grants to bachelor’s <strong>and</strong> masterss degree students<br />
projects on gender-related topics; <strong>and</strong> (d) lob-<br />
bying of academic departments to integrate gender<br />
into their programmes.<br />
i<strong>for</strong><br />
Challenges: limited capacity, due to lack of full-time staff<br />
<strong>and</strong> high staff turnover.<br />
Conclusions <strong>and</strong> major lessons<br />
he most interesting point about the Ethiopian expe-<br />
T<br />
rience is the government’s strong commitment to<br />
<strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> gender issues, as seen in the prominence<br />
given to these issues in the country’s Constitution, in the<br />
development of a National Policy on Ethiopian Women,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in entrusting the co-ordination of <strong>women</strong>-in-develop-<br />
programmes to the Office of the Prime Minister.<br />
Related to this is the fact that <strong>women</strong>’s <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>’<br />
<strong>education</strong> is being promoted as an integral part of the<br />
iment nation’s development agenda, hence the full integration<br />
of <strong>women</strong>-in-development issues into the work <strong>and</strong> pro-<br />
grammes of all sectoral departments <strong>and</strong> at all levels of<br />
government.<br />
Ethiopia has also come up with an ambitious co-ordi-<br />
nation mechanism, which seeks to consolidate the ef<strong>for</strong>ts<br />
of all partners, in different places <strong>and</strong> at different levels.<br />
all, Ethiopia has had a long-serving Woman<br />
Minister of Education, who is a founding member of FAWE<br />
(Forum <strong>for</strong> African Women Educationalists) <strong>and</strong> an activist<br />
tAbove<br />
on <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong>’s <strong>education</strong>.<br />
This situation has certainly worked in favour of<br />
Women’s <strong>and</strong> Girls’ Education, in that it has contributed to:<br />
E thiopia<br />
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24<br />
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Raising awareness among different classes in<br />
society.<br />
Building capacity at different levels.<br />
Progressively narrowing the gender gap, especially<br />
at the <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> level.<br />
Improving the level of awareness of the magnitude<br />
of the problems involved in enhancing the<br />
status of <strong>women</strong> in general, <strong>and</strong> in improving<br />
the participation of <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> in <strong>education</strong><br />
in particular.<br />
Above everything else, putting <strong>women</strong>-in-<strong>education</strong><br />
to its proper policy pedestal, that of a high<br />
priority area of national development.<br />
Negative attitudes to the<br />
emancipation of <strong>women</strong><br />
can also be feminine.<br />
Ethiopian experience is, however, still facing a number<br />
of challenges.<br />
Co-ordination with NGOs would require a great<br />
ithiopian<br />
iThe<br />
iallenges.<br />
i<br />
deal of improvement. While the major NGOs are<br />
making ef<strong>for</strong>ts to co-ordinate their activities,<br />
<strong>and</strong> while a good number of them have built up<br />
capacity <strong>for</strong> operating at the grass-roots level,<br />
they seem to have a strong feeling that government<br />
is not fully utilizing their potentials. This<br />
feeling is strongest in the case of government<br />
activities outside the <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>education</strong> sector.<br />
The research activities of the sectoral departments<br />
seem to have yielded knowledge that<br />
can be ploughed back to the process of curriculum<br />
material development. Those responsible<br />
<strong>for</strong> the research admitted, however, that<br />
these research projects were not carried out in
The context<br />
he situation of <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> in <strong>education</strong> in the<br />
T<br />
Kingdom of Swazil<strong>and</strong> can best be understood in the<br />
wider national context revolving around specific socio-his-<br />
torical <strong>and</strong> demographic factors.<br />
Over the years, <strong>women</strong> in Swazi society have<br />
become accustomed to being heads of households, a<br />
as a<br />
result of the migration of the men folk to the mines of<br />
South Africa. They have, in the process, sought to acquire the <strong>basic</strong> skills needed <strong>for</strong> their changing roles. They have also in the process tried to pass on the same skills to the<br />
girl-child, as preparation <strong>for</strong> their own adult roles.<br />
w<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e, there has traditionally been a practice of<br />
driving <strong>girls</strong> hard in the course of their upbringing. This<br />
practice seems to have impacted on the ways in which par- ents have pursued the <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>education</strong> of the girl-child.<br />
A major political action taken over the years was the attainment of Universal Primary Education as far back<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
d<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong>:<br />
apparent gender<br />
n<br />
balance napparent<br />
27S
1985. The approach to the development of <strong>basic</strong> das has, since then, been more or less ‘gender neutral’<br />
in terms of access), with most of the ef<strong>for</strong>ts on<br />
edu-<br />
addressing the problems of relevance <strong>and</strong> quality.<br />
terms of demography, there are more females<br />
males in all segments of the population, as shown in<br />
ncation<br />
n.<br />
n(i.e.<br />
ndressing<br />
nIn<br />
nthan 1.<br />
1. Swazil<strong>and</strong> – general population structure<br />
Male Female Total Female (%)<br />
able<br />
aTable<br />
able<br />
aTable<br />
wazil<strong>and</strong><br />
5–29il<br />
28<br />
4<br />
5–14<br />
l0–<br />
50–64<br />
65 <strong>and</strong> above<br />
il15–29<br />
i0–49<br />
i0–64<br />
i5<br />
i 30–49<br />
zilaAge Range<br />
zTotal<br />
67 529<br />
137 176<br />
113 207<br />
71 439<br />
25 882<br />
11 538<br />
440 154<br />
68 868<br />
139 556<br />
141 764<br />
91 575<br />
29 220<br />
15 957<br />
489 564<br />
136 397<br />
276 732<br />
254 973<br />
163 014<br />
55, 072<br />
29 495<br />
929 718<br />
51.51<br />
50.43<br />
55.60<br />
56.18<br />
53.06<br />
58.03<br />
52.66<br />
Source: Report of the 1997 Swazil<strong>and</strong> Population <strong>and</strong> Housing Census<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> in <strong>education</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong>mal system<br />
aWomen<br />
aTahe<br />
figures <strong>for</strong> primary <strong>education</strong> (Table 2) give<br />
impression that the gender gap is narrow. A more<br />
fundamental interpretation, however, is that <strong>girls</strong> are still<br />
in primary <strong>education</strong>. This is because<br />
numerical superiority within the school-age wtheir wtion<br />
popula-<br />
is hardly reflected in the overall primary enrolment<br />
wrolment<br />
wEnrolment<br />
we<br />
wthe<br />
wndamental<br />
wderrepresented<br />
wunderrepresented<br />
weir<br />
statistics. tistics.
Table 2. Swazil<strong>and</strong> – primary school enrolment: 2000<br />
Grade<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
6<br />
7<br />
Total<br />
Boys<br />
20 033<br />
18 678<br />
18 625<br />
15 820<br />
14 097<br />
12 592<br />
10 599<br />
110 444<br />
Girls<br />
17 675<br />
16 401<br />
16 544<br />
15 343<br />
14 187<br />
12 600<br />
10 738<br />
103 542<br />
Total<br />
37 708<br />
35 079<br />
35 169<br />
31 213<br />
28 284<br />
25 196<br />
21 337<br />
213 986<br />
Table 2 provides some evidence of a higher attrition rate<br />
boys as well as a more impressive completion rate a phenomenon which makes an equitable gender<br />
representation in the last three grades of primary educa-<br />
i<strong>for</strong> i<strong>girls</strong>, tion. This point is, to a certain extent, supported by Table<br />
3, which shows examination entry figures <strong>for</strong> the years<br />
2000 <strong>and</strong> 2001.<br />
The most interesting points emerge from Table 4,<br />
which shows the per<strong>for</strong>mances of boys <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> in the<br />
terminal examinations at the end of primary <strong>and</strong> junior<br />
secondary <strong>education</strong>. For both years, <strong>girls</strong> have a higher<br />
success rate than boys.<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
Girls (%)<br />
46.88<br />
46.75<br />
47.04<br />
49.32<br />
50.16<br />
50.03<br />
50.33<br />
48.39<br />
Table 3. Examination entries <strong>for</strong> 2000 <strong>and</strong> 2001<br />
Group<br />
Boys<br />
Girls<br />
Total<br />
Girls (%)<br />
Primary<br />
(2000)<br />
10 235<br />
10 394<br />
20 629<br />
50.3<br />
Primary<br />
(2001)<br />
9 964<br />
9 962<br />
19 926<br />
49.99<br />
Junior<br />
secondary<br />
(2000)<br />
4 166<br />
3 910<br />
8 076<br />
48.42<br />
Junior<br />
secondary<br />
(2001)<br />
4 634<br />
4 345<br />
8 979<br />
48.39<br />
29S<br />
Planning Division, Ministry of Education, Mbabane<br />
lSource:
wazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Boysn<br />
30<br />
4. Examination success rates<br />
dTable<br />
Junior<br />
secondary<br />
(2000)<br />
<strong>for</strong> boys <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong><br />
Primary Primary<br />
(2000) (2001)<br />
82.90<br />
82.40<br />
76.81<br />
n(percentage)<br />
86.30<br />
85.51<br />
81.61<br />
84.61<br />
84.46<br />
79.14<br />
anGroup<br />
aGirls<br />
aOverall<br />
Junior<br />
secondary<br />
(2001)<br />
73.50<br />
77.91<br />
75.63<br />
Source: Exams Council of Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
5, which gives the latest available enrolment figures<br />
<strong>for</strong> secondary schooling, shows a 50: 50 participation rate<br />
both boys <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
lble<br />
lTable<br />
lsecondary<br />
lboth<br />
l<strong>for</strong><br />
ble 5. in secondary school enrolment (1997–2000)<br />
iTable<br />
Year Boys Girls Total Girls (%)<br />
1997<br />
29 020<br />
29 177<br />
58 197<br />
50.13<br />
1998<br />
30 228<br />
30 602<br />
60 630<br />
50.31<br />
1999<br />
30 741<br />
30 825<br />
61 566<br />
50.07<br />
2000<br />
30 003<br />
30 252<br />
60 253<br />
50.20<br />
There is still the culture<br />
<strong>and</strong> belief in many schools<br />
that some subjectsare<br />
aziTrend strictly <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong> while<br />
others are <strong>for</strong> boys.<br />
Apparent gender balance<br />
what extent does the picture just painted amount<br />
gender balance in participation in <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> in<br />
wpparent<br />
wwhat<br />
wTo<br />
wgender<br />
wto<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong>? Some operators of the system believe that the
Pregnancy continues to be a leading cause <strong>for</strong> dropping out<br />
of school of most teen-age <strong>girls</strong>. 27 per cent of hospital deliv-<br />
eries are 15–19 year old <strong>girls</strong>. Ef<strong>for</strong>ts have been made by<br />
different organizations working with youth, but the impact is<br />
hardly measurable, as more <strong>girls</strong> drop out of school because<br />
of pregnancy. Young <strong>girls</strong> are faced with many challenges<br />
as they follow their line of growth from puberty to teenage<br />
stage <strong>and</strong> young adults. The home environment is not sup-<br />
portive. Proper <strong>education</strong> <strong>and</strong> counselling is something that<br />
homes do not offer.<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
31S<br />
situation is one of ‘apparent gender balance’. In the early<br />
years of secondary <strong>education</strong>, <strong>girls</strong> are in the majority, but<br />
the table turns in favour of the boys in later years.<br />
In the 1999 school year, <strong>for</strong> example, <strong>girls</strong> constituted<br />
51.71 per cent of children in the first year of secondary<br />
<strong>education</strong>. In the fifth year, the proportion of <strong>girls</strong><br />
was 46.22 per cent. The corresponding proportions <strong>for</strong><br />
the year 2000 were 52.6 per cent <strong>girls</strong> in the first year <strong>and</strong><br />
48.60 per cent in the fifth year.<br />
In addition, <strong>girls</strong> in Swazil<strong>and</strong> are still subject to<br />
the negative influences on <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>education</strong>, which are at<br />
work in other countries of Africa. Thus, poverty, pockets<br />
of resistance to Western <strong>education</strong> (<strong>and</strong> particularly negative<br />
attitudes to schooling <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong>), gender stereotyping<br />
in the choice of careers <strong>and</strong> areas of study, unwanted<br />
pregnancies, etc., are still stark realities in the country. As<br />
is very well known, these factors contribute to non-enrolment,<br />
drop-out, irregular attendance, repetition, <strong>and</strong> poor<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance among <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
The threat of teenage pregnancy<br />
Extracts from FAWESWA, Needs Assessment<br />
Report on Teenage/Young Mothers, November 2000
wazil<strong>and</strong><br />
32<br />
<strong>and</strong> incentives<br />
dInterventions<br />
Like most African countries, Swazil<strong>and</strong> is pursuing<br />
steady programme of encouragement to the <strong>education</strong><br />
of <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the following are the key areas of<br />
in that regard.<br />
Bursary awards to children in difficult circumstances,<br />
with special attention to <strong>girls</strong>. nteady<br />
na<br />
n<strong>women</strong><br />
nervention<br />
nintervention<br />
n<br />
Guidance <strong>and</strong> counselling <strong>for</strong> both in-school <strong>and</strong><br />
out-of-school <strong>girls</strong>, comprising activities in the<br />
areas of <strong>education</strong>, health (including HIV/AIDS),<br />
psychological testing.<br />
Parent counselling on the needs of the girl-child<br />
(with the support of FAWE <strong>and</strong> UNICEF).<br />
Public enlightenment, through radio programmes,<br />
leaflets, focus group discussions, etc.<br />
Science, mathematics <strong>and</strong> technology clinics <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>girls</strong>, with the assistance of FAWE (Forum <strong>for</strong><br />
African Women Educationalists).<br />
Encouraging teen-age mothers to return to<br />
school.<br />
Regular exposure of curriculum developers,<br />
school administrators <strong>and</strong> teachers to the ABC<br />
of Gender.<br />
The ongoing enrichment of curriculum materials<br />
through the elimination of gender bias.<br />
Development <strong>and</strong> encouragement of the non<strong>for</strong>mal<br />
route to <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong>.<br />
The non-<strong>for</strong>mal route<br />
provision of non-<strong>for</strong>mal <strong>education</strong> in Swazil<strong>and</strong> is<br />
by the work of the Sabenta National Institute,<br />
whe<br />
we<br />
wThe<br />
wemplified<br />
wexemplified<br />
which has been in existence <strong>for</strong> some <strong>for</strong>ty years.
is a highly decentralized institution that operates<br />
nine centres spread throughout the country. It is run<br />
by regional officers fully utilizing the traditional admin-<br />
iSabenta <strong>ii</strong>n istrative <strong>and</strong> political structure (traditional chiefs, inner<br />
councils, rural development motivators, head teachers,<br />
<strong>and</strong> community leaders) in the development <strong>and</strong> conduct<br />
of its programmes.<br />
There are two parallel programmes (Siswati <strong>and</strong> English)<br />
<strong>and</strong> these operate at three levels: (a) <strong>basic</strong> literacy; functional<br />
a<br />
literacy; <strong>and</strong> (c) AUPE (Adult Upper Primary Education).<br />
The functional literacy programme teaches a wide range of life skills: sewing, carpentry, computer opera-<br />
tions, weaving, hair-dressing, poultry farming, horticul-<br />
ture, catering, etc. Available statistics show that these<br />
w<br />
pro-<br />
grammes have been <strong>women</strong> dominated. In the year 2000,<br />
<strong>for</strong> example, the total enrolment was 4,074 <strong>and</strong> 2,587 (i.e.<br />
63.50 per cent) were <strong>women</strong>.<br />
AUPE is intended to provide: (a) adults with the opportunity to progress beyond conventional literacy <strong>and</strong><br />
numeracy; (b) adults with the means of achieving a quali-<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
d<br />
Many <strong>girls</strong> drop out of school be<strong>for</strong>e the last grade of primary <strong>education</strong>. Many more do not go to school n<br />
at<br />
all. Poverty <strong>and</strong> early pregnancies prevent others from<br />
into the <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> system. The non-<br />
<strong>for</strong>mal route, provided by Sabenta, has been trying to fill this vacuum <strong>for</strong> both boys/<strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> men/<strong>women</strong>.<br />
nfitting There are 222,000 Swazi<br />
who are unable to read,<br />
write <strong>and</strong> count – one<br />
of whom could be your<br />
relative. Ask <strong>for</strong> a <strong>for</strong>m at<br />
the in<strong>for</strong>mation desk <strong>and</strong><br />
as many people as<br />
with Sabenta, your<br />
literacy provider.<br />
lregister lpossible<br />
33S
wazil<strong>and</strong><br />
34<br />
fication equivalent to the Swazil<strong>and</strong> Primary Certificate<br />
dfication<br />
7), as a gateway to further learning; <strong>and</strong> (c) an<br />
<strong>for</strong> children aged 13 <strong>and</strong> over to rejoin the<br />
<strong>education</strong> system.<br />
n(grade<br />
nportunity<br />
nopportunity<br />
nmal<br />
n<strong>for</strong>mal<br />
<strong>and</strong> major lessons<br />
aonclusions<br />
aConclusions<br />
W<br />
enrolment figures show some cause <strong>for</strong> hope,<br />
it can still not be said that gender balance has been<br />
achieved in <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> in Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
There seem to be more <strong>girls</strong> out of school, at all<br />
lahile<br />
lhieved<br />
l<br />
levels, even when the enrolment figures show<br />
that there could be more <strong>girls</strong> in school.<br />
In percentage terms, <strong>girls</strong> are per<strong>for</strong>ming better<br />
than boys in primary <strong>and</strong> junior secondary certificate<br />
examinations. A larger proportion of the<br />
<strong>girls</strong> however tends to withdraw be<strong>for</strong>e the final<br />
examination years of high school.<br />
Most <strong>girls</strong> are still restricted to studying the<br />
‘soft option’ subjects, <strong>and</strong> this has limited the<br />
access of <strong>girls</strong> to scientific <strong>and</strong> technical disciplines<br />
in higher institutions.<br />
Poverty at the household level is still a hindrance<br />
to access to <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> have<br />
remained the sacrificial lambs in the hard choices<br />
that parents have to make in deciding whether<br />
the boy or girl child should go to school.<br />
The non-<strong>for</strong>mal route (particularly AUPE) is<br />
fee-paying, <strong>and</strong> there<strong>for</strong>e portends a potential<br />
obstacle to <strong>women</strong> from low-income families.<br />
Teenage pregnancy <strong>and</strong> the spread of HIV/AIDS
After gaining independence from Portugal in<br />
Mozambique waged a bitter civil war that laste<br />
teen years. The country has been engaged, however, in a<br />
steady process of consolidation of democracy <strong>and</strong> socio-<br />
reconstruction since the signing of a peace<br />
accord, <strong>and</strong> the holding of the first multi-party elections<br />
in 1992.<br />
aeconomic An essential part of the reconstruction process is a<br />
national <strong>education</strong> policy (Política Nacional de Educaçã<br />
o),<br />
published in 1995, which identified <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
adult literacy as the ‘topmost priority of the government’.<br />
The policy has since given birth to an Education Sector<br />
Strategic Plan 1999–2003, the first priority of which is<br />
‘increased access to <strong>education</strong>al opportunities, at all lev-<br />
els of the <strong>education</strong> system’.<br />
Mozambique<br />
M37M<br />
Mozambique:<br />
u<br />
Inclusion<br />
<strong>and</strong> participation<br />
The context<br />
m<br />
fter gaining independence from Portugal in 1975,<br />
Mozambique waged a bitter civil war that lasted six-
Mozambique<br />
M38<br />
M<br />
Exp<strong>and</strong>ed partnerships<br />
central goal is accelerated progress towards universal<br />
schooling, with particular emphasis on increasqprimary<br />
ing enrolment among <strong>girls</strong>. Accomplishing this goal would<br />
the participation of all Mozambicans – parents, qrequire qmunities,<br />
com-<br />
employers, NGOs, religious organizations – <strong>and</strong><br />
qhe<br />
qThe<br />
qrimary<br />
qng<br />
qequire<br />
government’s international partners as well. In the future<br />
the Mozambican <strong>education</strong>al system will comprise a diverse<br />
array of institutions – public <strong>and</strong> private, <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>and</strong> non<strong>for</strong>mal<br />
– supported by provisions from <strong>and</strong> governed in col-<br />
laboration with stakeholders. This implies a new vision of the<br />
Ministry of Education’s role, <strong>and</strong> greatly exp<strong>and</strong>ed roles of<br />
other actors as they assume a greater share of responsibility<br />
in the system.<br />
Extracts from Mozambique<br />
Education Sector Strategic Plan, 1999–2003<br />
The <strong>women</strong>-in-<strong>education</strong> policy<br />
in practice<br />
Formal <strong>education</strong><br />
Net enrolment figures <strong>for</strong> the seven years of primary <strong>education</strong><br />
(EP1, or first cycle – 5 years <strong>and</strong> EP2; or second cycle<br />
– 2 extra years) <strong>for</strong> the year 2001 show that 46 per cent<br />
of first-grade children were <strong>girls</strong>. The proportion of <strong>girls</strong>,<br />
however, decreases steadily through the higher grades,<br />
down to 39 per cent in the seventh grade (see Table 1).
M39<br />
M<br />
The drop-out rate is relatively high among the <strong>girls</strong>,<br />
but the reverse is true of repetition rate. The 2001 school<br />
survey recorded 641,072 repeaters at the primary level.<br />
Of this figure, 284,536 (44.38 per cent) were <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
Access to <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> is characterized by<br />
regional disparities, as shown in Table 2. Regions with<br />
relatively high enrolment rates also tend to record relatively<br />
high <strong>girls</strong>’ participation rates. This phenomenon has<br />
been explained in terms of a combination of socio-cultural<br />
<strong>and</strong> historical factors.<br />
In some regions, initiation rites are followed<br />
by boys returning to school, while the <strong>girls</strong> are<br />
considered ripe <strong>for</strong> marriage.<br />
Some parts of the country were more intensively<br />
exposed to Christian missionary <strong>education</strong>al<br />
influences than others.<br />
Some areas also suffered more severely from<br />
the post-independence civil war than others.<br />
Table 1. Mozambique: primary school enrolment – 2001<br />
Grade<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5<br />
6<br />
7<br />
Total<br />
Total enrolment<br />
844 732<br />
607 356<br />
475 903<br />
338 374<br />
242 246<br />
152 696<br />
109 438<br />
2 770 745<br />
Number of <strong>girls</strong><br />
396 451<br />
269 761<br />
203 225<br />
139 299<br />
94 191<br />
60 006<br />
42 903<br />
1 205 836<br />
Mozambique<br />
Girls (%)<br />
46.92<br />
44.42<br />
42.70<br />
41.17<br />
38.88<br />
39.30<br />
39.20<br />
43.52<br />
Source: Annual School Survey – 2001<br />
Gender parity is more noticeable in the larger cities. In the<br />
capital (Maputo) <strong>and</strong> the administrative region around it,<br />
there are in fact more <strong>girls</strong> than boys in primary schools.
Mozambique<br />
2. Regional trends in net enrolment rates<br />
– 2001<br />
uble<br />
uTable<br />
u(percentage)<br />
M/F Boys Girls Difference<br />
C Delgado<br />
54.1<br />
59.6<br />
48.7<br />
0.9<br />
02 Gaza<br />
71.7<br />
72.0<br />
71.5<br />
0.5<br />
Inhambane<br />
71.0<br />
71.4<br />
70.6<br />
0.8<br />
Manica<br />
58.1<br />
64.3<br />
52.2<br />
12.1<br />
Maputo<br />
80.6<br />
80.1<br />
81.0<br />
– 0.9<br />
q1<br />
q01<br />
q2<br />
q3<br />
q03<br />
q4<br />
q04<br />
q5<br />
q05<br />
06 Nampula<br />
47.3<br />
51.1<br />
43.4<br />
0.7<br />
07 Niassa<br />
58.3<br />
63.5<br />
53.1<br />
10.4<br />
08 Sofala<br />
54.3<br />
60.8<br />
47.8<br />
12.0<br />
09 Tete<br />
55.9<br />
59.9<br />
51.9<br />
8.0<br />
10 Zambezia<br />
61.7<br />
68.3<br />
55.0<br />
13.3<br />
11 1 C Maputo<br />
86.2<br />
84.8<br />
87.6<br />
– 3.2<br />
Mai (mothers) <strong>and</strong> Pai<br />
biquProvince<br />
(fathers) drawn<br />
from the local community<br />
<strong>and</strong> from older students<br />
have proved very effective<br />
as counsellors.<br />
Policy interventions <strong>and</strong> incentives<br />
commitment to the promotion of <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong> is part of its adherence to an SADC<br />
alicy<br />
azambique’s<br />
aMozambique’s<br />
amen’s to enhance <strong>women</strong>’s participation in zdeclaration<br />
educazn,<br />
tion, in public life, <strong>and</strong> in decision-making positions. In<br />
he <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> sector this commitment is pursued<br />
through za<strong>women</strong>’s<br />
zlaration<br />
ztz<strong>basic</strong> a wide range of interventions <strong>and</strong> incentives:<br />
M40<br />
M<br />
Gender units, focal points, <strong>and</strong> working groups.<br />
The Special Adviser to the Minister of Education<br />
on gender issues leads a team of specialists<br />
who constitute the gender unit at the central<br />
level. Similar structures (known as gender focal<br />
points) are at work at the provincial <strong>and</strong> district
Mozambique<br />
M42<br />
M<br />
Poverty reduction measures. Free tuition <strong>and</strong><br />
free books in primary schools, <strong>and</strong> in many<br />
places, the provision of potable water to schools<br />
<strong>and</strong> their host communities<br />
Decentralization of the management of <strong>basic</strong><br />
<strong>education</strong>. Through the division of administrative<br />
districts into a number of areas with identical<br />
<strong>education</strong> needs known as ZIPs (Zona do<br />
Influenco Pedagógico), <strong>and</strong> the establishment<br />
of school councils, intended to ‘devolve school<br />
daily business o communities, parents, NGOs,<br />
respected citizens <strong>and</strong> community leaders’.<br />
Curriculum enrichment. A new curriculum is<br />
being piloted in twenty-nine schools nationwide,<br />
<strong>and</strong> is expected to come fully on board<br />
in 2004. Its objectives are to: (a) eliminate gender<br />
stereotypes in the content <strong>and</strong> activities<br />
of textbooks; (b) enhance gender sensitivity among<br />
teachers; (c) enhance assertiveness among <strong>girls</strong>;<br />
<strong>and</strong> (d) enhance gender awareness among boys.<br />
Head teachers have to<br />
acknowledge<br />
that schools really belong<br />
to the communities.<br />
A tale of two pilot schools<br />
gender pilot schools concept is intended to boost the<br />
enrolment ztale<br />
zgender<br />
zThe <strong>and</strong> retention of <strong>girls</strong> in <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
the examples below illustrate the joys <strong>and</strong> the chal-<br />
enges of the experiment.<br />
Muda-Mufo otwo<br />
ologes (during the colonial period) a catholic mission,<br />
school, Muda-Mufo was upgraded after inde-<br />
Mginally<br />
MOriginally<br />
M-teacher<br />
Mone-teacher
M43<br />
M<br />
pendence by the Sofala provincial <strong>and</strong> the Nhamat<strong>and</strong>a<br />
district <strong>education</strong> authorities, with the support of UNESCO<br />
<strong>and</strong> the World Bank.<br />
It was closed between 1981 <strong>and</strong> 1984, due to the<br />
civil war. Reopened in 1995, it became part of a national<br />
pilot project <strong>for</strong> the enhancement of the participation of<br />
<strong>girls</strong> in primary <strong>education</strong>. The major thrust of the project<br />
was the involvement of the local community <strong>and</strong> the<br />
sensitization of society to the need <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>education</strong>.<br />
Community involvement was in membership of the school<br />
council, the provision of six classrooms, using local mate-<br />
rials, the preparation of school meals.<br />
There has been increased in enrolment over the<br />
years In 1996, the school had 345 children, made up of:<br />
m<br />
220 boys <strong>and</strong> 125 <strong>girls</strong> (i.e. 36 per cent <strong>girls</strong>). In 2002,<br />
total enrolment was 1,298 – 834 boys <strong>and</strong> 464 <strong>girls</strong><br />
(i.e. 36 per cent <strong>girls</strong>).<br />
Learning activities in the school are closely linked with poverty reduction; hence students are involved in practical work in the following areas: poultry farming,<br />
green zone protection, sewing <strong>and</strong> typewriting.<br />
are provided <strong>for</strong> teachers on the school<br />
premises, while the school has a health centre <strong>and</strong> solar<br />
electricity. Sixty-eight of the pupils (<strong>for</strong>ty-eight boys <strong>and</strong><br />
aHouses twenty <strong>girls</strong>) live in the boarding facilities provided within<br />
the school.<br />
The school still faces the problems of shortage of<br />
classrooms, while some children travel as much as 50–60<br />
kilometres to the school. Only two of the eighteen teach-<br />
ers are <strong>women</strong>.<br />
Mozambique<br />
Estoril<br />
The school is housed in rehabilitated structures a few kilo-<br />
metres outside Beira, capital of Sofala province. It operates a
double shift system, <strong>and</strong> only at the senior primary level.<br />
1,565 pupils, 708 boys <strong>and</strong> 717 (i.e.45.8 % <strong>girls</strong>)<br />
1,565 pupils, there are758 boys <strong>and</strong> 717 <strong>girls</strong><br />
(i.e.45.8 uIts<br />
% <strong>girls</strong>)<br />
headship of the school always conferred on <strong>women</strong>,<br />
n with government policy, <strong>and</strong> with the inten-<br />
tion q45.8<br />
qheadship<br />
qThe<br />
qiqkeeping of providing role models <strong>for</strong> girl children. The school<br />
been adjudged successful in the mobilizing of the<br />
ibeen<br />
ihas <strong>for</strong> the maintenance of<br />
bicommunity infrastructure, <strong>and</strong> of<br />
fully mobilized <strong>for</strong> the production/adaptation of<br />
teaching–learning materials.<br />
Mufo is a rural environment while Estoril is<br />
bchers<br />
bteachers<br />
bching–learning<br />
bMuda<br />
the select suburbs of a provincial capital city. The 35<br />
girl participation rate in Muda Mufo is consid-<br />
an ‘improvement’ by persons familiar with the harsh<br />
socio-economic terrain of the school. Child marriages are<br />
in the area. The school is also located along<br />
he ‘Beira corridor’, a transnational trade route that lures<br />
villagers (including <strong>girls</strong>), in search of an escape<br />
mbin<br />
mcent<br />
mper<br />
md<br />
mered<br />
mio-economic<br />
mrampant<br />
mstill<br />
mtm‘Beira<br />
mng<br />
from rural poverty, to the neighbouring countries<br />
of Zambia <strong>and</strong> Zimbabwe, as well as to the cities of<br />
amyoung<br />
ate<br />
aroute<br />
aZambia<br />
azambique.<br />
aMozambique.<br />
Mozambique<br />
non-<strong>for</strong>mal sector<br />
Mozambique ze<br />
zThe has a national strategy <strong>for</strong> the literacy<br />
sub-sector (Estratégia do Subsector de<br />
ão e Educação de Adultos/educação NãooAlfabetizaç<br />
) that runs from 2001-2005, the priority areas of<br />
which onon-<strong>for</strong>mal<br />
o<strong>and</strong><br />
omal)<br />
oFormal)<br />
are:<br />
M44<br />
M<br />
Continuous review of policies <strong>and</strong> strategies,<br />
including systematic monitoring <strong>and</strong> evaluation.
Mozambique<br />
M46<br />
M<br />
Regular/professional teachers also used.<br />
NGOs very active, especially at the grass-roots<br />
level.<br />
Diplomas are awarded as incentives – EP1 (fifth<br />
grade equivalent), allowing persons who so<br />
desire to rejoin the <strong>for</strong>mal sector.<br />
Literacy is not enough;<br />
it must help to alleviate<br />
poverty.<br />
illiteracy rate <strong>for</strong> the country is 60.5 per<br />
cent, while the illiteracy rate <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong> is 74.1 per cent.<br />
lliteracy is being tackled through a network of 1,162<br />
boverall<br />
bThe<br />
bt,<br />
bIberacy<br />
iteracy <strong>and</strong> adult <strong>education</strong> centres. Women seem to be<br />
to the call to acquire literacy <strong>and</strong> life skills,<br />
they <strong>for</strong>m approximately half of registered students in<br />
these centres (Table 3). The figures represent persons duly<br />
egistered <strong>and</strong> attending classes as at June 2001.<br />
3. Mozambique – Enrolment in adult <strong>education</strong><br />
mblbracy<br />
mponding<br />
mresponding<br />
mhey<br />
mas<br />
mse<br />
mrmstered<br />
mble<br />
mTable<br />
<strong>and</strong> literacy classes – 2001<br />
Year<br />
I<br />
II<br />
III<br />
Total<br />
Total enrolment<br />
72 602<br />
49 516<br />
31 024<br />
153 142<br />
Women<br />
40 941<br />
25 313<br />
14 769<br />
81 023<br />
Women (%)<br />
56.39<br />
51.12<br />
47.61<br />
52.91<br />
NGOs <strong>for</strong> practical matters;<br />
government <strong>for</strong> long-term<br />
perspective guidance.<br />
There has been a steady evolution in the approach<br />
the provision of adult literacy <strong>and</strong> non-<strong>for</strong>mal educa-<br />
Until 1978, the emphasis was on reading–writing–<br />
Mhe<br />
Mto<br />
Mn.<br />
Mtion.
Mozambique<br />
M48<br />
M<br />
Gender sensitization is an ongoing activity <strong>and</strong> the<br />
level of awareness is believed to be steadily rising.<br />
Girls <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> are embracing literacy <strong>and</strong> non<strong>for</strong>mal<br />
<strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> <strong>and</strong> are more strongly<br />
represented in ongoing programmes than men.<br />
nation’s pursuit of gender equality in <strong>education</strong> is<br />
also qThe facing a number of challenges:<br />
Regional disparities are a feature of the system.<br />
Girls’ participation in <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong><br />
is steadily improving, but this is related to the<br />
extent to which schooling is embraced in specific<br />
localities. With the pilot projects, <strong>for</strong> example,<br />
rural pilot schools are believed to be making<br />
an improvement when barely 36 per cent of<br />
learners are <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
The pockets of resistance to Western <strong>education</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> to schooling by <strong>girls</strong> are still quite strong,<br />
while poverty is an inhibiting factor to decisions<br />
by families to invest in the <strong>education</strong> of <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
Resources are scarce, as the country has numerous<br />
other areas of human welfare needing attention.<br />
the fact still remains that Mozambican zHowever,<br />
authorizare<br />
ties are seriously rebuilding the nation. Education (<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>) is an<br />
integral zwever,<br />
zticularly<br />
zparticularly element of this national rebuilding exercise.<br />
The ongoing EFA master planning process should be an<br />
<strong>for</strong> consolidating the gains already made, <strong>for</strong><br />
a frontal attack strategy on the major challenges<br />
<strong>and</strong>, oongoing<br />
oortunity<br />
oopportunity<br />
oigning<br />
odesigning most especially, the question of regional disparities<br />
attitudes to <strong>education</strong> in general <strong>and</strong> to the <strong>education</strong><br />
<strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> in particular.<br />
Mttitudes<br />
Min<br />
M<strong>girls</strong><br />
Mof
urkina Faso<br />
50<br />
Girls’ Education Conference of FAAPE: Federation<br />
of African Parents-Teachers Associations (2001).<br />
The International Centre <strong>for</strong> Girls’ <strong>and</strong> Women’s Education<br />
sThe<br />
Africa (CIEFFA) has since taken off, with Ouagadougou<br />
capital of Burkina Faso) as its headquarters.<br />
statistics show that access to <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong><br />
is still low in Burkina Faso. Only 901,291 of the<br />
ain<br />
a(the<br />
aAvailable<br />
is still low in Burkina Faso. Only 901,291 of the<br />
age population of 2,110,395 (i.e. 42.7 per cent) are<br />
school, <strong>and</strong> only 36.2 per cent of these are <strong>girls</strong>. The<br />
gap is approximately 10 percentage points in the<br />
urban Facation Fschool<br />
Fin Fgender<br />
centres <strong>and</strong> 12 in the rural areas. There are wide<br />
regional variations in access to primary <strong>education</strong>. The<br />
enrolment rate in the province around the capital city<br />
20 per cent, while that of the most under-schooled prov-<br />
(Kom<strong>and</strong>jari) is a mere 13.5 per cent.<br />
Faso also has one of the lowest literacy<br />
anet<br />
ais aince<br />
aBurkina the Africa region. UNESCO’s estimates <strong>for</strong> 1995<br />
a national average illiteracy rate of 80.8 per cent<br />
– 90.8 per cent <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> 70.5 per cent <strong>for</strong> men.<br />
challenges of bridging the wide gender gap in<br />
access nrates nshow<br />
n–<br />
nThe<br />
to <strong>education</strong> were recognized in the ten-year action<br />
of 1993, which addressed the issues from six fronts,<br />
iplan follows:<br />
Action-research, involving insightful analyses<br />
of the major problems <strong>and</strong> the search <strong>for</strong> viable<br />
solutions.<br />
kias<br />
Sensitization <strong>and</strong> mobilization, with the involvement<br />
of NGOs.<br />
Teacher <strong>education</strong>, including gender-sensitivity<br />
training.<br />
Special incentives: free textbooks <strong>for</strong> <strong>girls</strong>,<br />
improvement of the school environment, special<br />
admission quotas, housing <strong>for</strong> teachers, etc.<br />
Collaboration with other government depart-
urkina Faso<br />
52<br />
competence<br />
element of the beauty of the NGOs visited in Burkina<br />
is their simple (flat) organizational structure. Even<br />
sOrganizational sAn relatively large NGOs, with a wide geographical <strong>and</strong><br />
coverage (e.g. Promo Femmes) have very few per-<br />
on their permanent pay roll, <strong>and</strong> seem to depend as<br />
as possible on volunteers.<br />
asFaso athe aactivity<br />
asons<br />
amuch<br />
as possible on volunteers.<br />
The NGOs have also ingeniously adopted the tradi-<br />
Groupement concept, thus using as rallying points<br />
social structures already in place. This enables them<br />
Famuch Ftional<br />
Fthe Fto use the real beneficiaries of their programmes also as<br />
agents of change. It also makes participatory management<br />
possible. The ‘ Groupement’ is also the basis <strong>for</strong> organizing<br />
into ‘co-operatives’ <strong>for</strong> the management of their<br />
development projects.<br />
Outreach a<strong>women</strong> aown<br />
capacity<br />
NGOs studied target the social classes that are in<br />
need, <strong>women</strong> in general, but more particularly<br />
urban <strong>and</strong> rural <strong>women</strong>, the h<strong>and</strong>icapped, widows,<br />
nThe<br />
ngreatest npoor unskilled, the unemployed.<br />
A second angle to the outreach capacity of the<br />
NGOs inthe<br />
lies in the wide range of activities they are engaged<br />
promoting literacy, developing <strong>women</strong>’s organizations,<br />
skills <strong>for</strong> income generation, health promotion,<br />
security, nature <strong>and</strong> water conservation, etc.<br />
kin:<br />
kimproving kfood on the social,<br />
<strong>and</strong> economic empowerment<br />
rEmphasis rpolitical <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong><br />
wide range of activities carried out by Burkinabé NGOs<br />
favour of <strong>women</strong> is geared towards the goal of educa-<br />
<strong>for</strong> self-development <strong>and</strong> empowerment, in all its<br />
Thus, there is emphasis on human rights,<br />
urof uThe<br />
uin ution uramifications.
the financial independence of <strong>women</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the acquisition<br />
of knowledge <strong>and</strong> skills.<br />
Close link with local communities <strong>and</strong> their cultural milieu<br />
The Groupement concept is utilized to its fullest. It is<br />
the nucleus <strong>for</strong> the establishment of groups. It is also the<br />
major determinant of the activities carried out in specific<br />
locations. It also determines the choice of facilitators <strong>for</strong><br />
activities, <strong>and</strong> the methodology <strong>for</strong> the conduct<br />
of such activities.<br />
Peasants are also experts<br />
Fspecific<br />
in their own right.<br />
Moreover, training programmes are carried out in tradi-<br />
tional structures (homesteads, fields, traditional assembly<br />
points, etc.), while the calendar of activities is made to fit<br />
into <strong>women</strong>’s traditional free time.<br />
Direct access with decentralized structures <strong>and</strong> with donors<br />
The larger international NGOs (e.g. Catholic Relief Services,<br />
Suisse d’Entraide Ouvrière, Promo Femmes) do<br />
receive direct subventions from their external sponsors,<br />
even though they also raise funds from other sources.<br />
iOeuvre<br />
i) The interesting point here is that the smaller NGOs<br />
are also able to enlist the support of the in-country mis-<br />
sions of donor agencies: ILO, FAO, UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF,<br />
<strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> church groups in industrialized countries,<br />
<strong>and</strong> various diplomatic missions. There are, in fact, exam-<br />
ples of NGOs serving as executing agencies <strong>for</strong> eternally<br />
funded <strong>girls</strong> <strong>education</strong> projects.<br />
A good case here is Promo Femmes which, in 2002,<br />
successfully made a bid <strong>for</strong> the management of a couple<br />
of schools built <strong>for</strong> the state with World Bank assistance.<br />
Promo Femmes also had an interesting co-operation<br />
urkina Faso<br />
53
A culture sensitive approach to the gender question<br />
values are considered very important, <strong>and</strong> most<br />
<strong>women</strong> <strong>education</strong> <strong>and</strong> empowerment programmes<br />
the gospel of ‘Peace in the family’. The men folk<br />
are aA<br />
aFamily aNGO apreach made to accept the fact that an educated woman in an<br />
to the family, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>women</strong> who become economi-<br />
empowered are encouraged to use their resources to<br />
their families.<br />
nasset<br />
ncally nsupport<br />
A development-oriented view of literacy <strong>and</strong> <strong>education</strong><br />
iA NGOs studied promote the development, the emankiThe<br />
kcipation, <strong>and</strong> the full empowerment of <strong>women</strong>. However,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>education</strong> are seen (correctly) as the founda-<br />
<strong>and</strong> the bedrock of it all. This view has in<strong>for</strong>med the<br />
hierarchy kliteracy ktion<br />
of <strong>women</strong>’s learning needs that most of the<br />
have tried to promote, namely:<br />
Basic literacy in the mother tongue, <strong>for</strong> the<br />
rNGOs<br />
r<br />
rapid acquisition of reading–writing–calculation<br />
in the language of the <strong>women</strong>’s daily life.<br />
Basic literacy in French, <strong>for</strong> exposure to the official<br />
language of government business in the country.<br />
Functional literacy: reading–writing–calculation<br />
urkina Faso<br />
54<br />
with ILO, which involved: (a) schooling <strong>for</strong><br />
orphaned young <strong>girls</strong> from very poor families; <strong>and</strong> (b)<br />
<strong>education</strong> (literacy, gardening, poultry, other<br />
sarrangement s100 skills) <strong>for</strong> 100 over-aged, but not yet<br />
<strong>girls</strong>.<br />
the size, the functions, <strong>and</strong> the level of compeasnon-<strong>for</strong>mal<br />
aincome-generating<br />
amarriageable of these NGOs, they have been able to enlist the sup-<br />
of persons <strong>and</strong> institutions responsible <strong>for</strong> governance<br />
the local level. These include traditional <strong>and</strong> religious<br />
FaWhatever Ftence<br />
Fport Fat Fleaders, public servants, <strong>and</strong> elected representatives.
urkina Faso<br />
56<br />
parent–teacher associations to ensure that 40–60 per<br />
of pupils are <strong>girls</strong>. In addition, these schools are scent Catholic Relief Services: Its Education Support<br />
(Programme de Soutien à l’Éducation - ESP)<br />
pro-<br />
with separate toilet facilities <strong>for</strong> boys <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
s<strong>for</strong> at raising the rate of school enrolment, encourage<br />
attendance (particularly by <strong>girls</strong>), reducing drop-<br />
asvided<br />
aProgramme aaims rate, raising the level of success in primary <strong>education</strong>,<br />
sensitive parents to their role in ensuring the educa-<br />
of their children).<br />
Faschool Fout<br />
F<strong>and</strong> Ftion In 2001, the organization intervened in the following<br />
aareas:<br />
School feeding. To encourage school attendance<br />
<strong>and</strong> to improve per<strong>for</strong>mance of both boys <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>girls</strong>. Working in collaboration with the Ministry<br />
of Basic Education <strong>and</strong> Literacy (MEBA), the organization<br />
distributed 16,000 tonnes of foodstuff to<br />
400,000 children in 2,344 primary schools.<br />
School health <strong>and</strong> nutrition. The distribution<br />
of micro-nutrients, <strong>basic</strong> medicines to primary<br />
school children, <strong>and</strong> the promotion of heath/<br />
nutrition <strong>education</strong>, <strong>and</strong> the supply of medicine<br />
kits to schools.<br />
School infrastructure. Mobilizing local communities<br />
through a ‘food <strong>for</strong> work’ arrangement. Twenty<br />
primary schools were thus constructed in 2001.<br />
‘Take Away’ Ration. At the end of every month,<br />
Girls who attain 90 per cent school attendance<br />
are given 10 kg of wheat flour, intended to help<br />
the family in periods of food scarcity <strong>and</strong> to<br />
raise self-confidence in <strong>girls</strong> as being useful to<br />
the family. 4,000 <strong>girls</strong>, drawn from 135 schools,<br />
benefited from this bonus in 2001.
urkina Faso<br />
58<br />
major lessons<br />
sConclusions<br />
s<strong>and</strong><br />
T<br />
here is certainly a high level of awareness of the<br />
need to bridge the wide gender gap in <strong>basic</strong> educa-<br />
in Burkina Faso. This awareness is captured in the<br />
ten-year strategic plan <strong>for</strong> the development<br />
<strong>education</strong>. It is also taken as an area of concern by the<br />
NGOs operating in the country.<br />
Fation Fgovernment’s<br />
Fof Fnumerous<br />
NGOs are helping to extend the scope of coverage of<br />
<strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong> activities, <strong>and</strong> are complementing the work<br />
government in a number of ways. They seem to have a<br />
strong potential <strong>for</strong> reaching the ’unreached’. They<br />
seem to have acquired experience in linking <strong>basic</strong><br />
to overall human development activities, using<br />
traditional aof<br />
avery aalso a<strong>education</strong> organizational structures <strong>and</strong> collaborating with<br />
local authorities <strong>and</strong> external support agencies.<br />
They have, above all, approached the gender ques-<br />
in a culture-sensitive manner, <strong>and</strong> they seem to be<br />
winning, nboth<br />
ntion<br />
<strong>for</strong> as most of them said in the course of inter-<br />
‘the men are also involved’.<br />
iviews,<br />
iAt the same time, to enhance the sustainability <strong>and</strong><br />
positive impact of the interesting activities currently<br />
on, attention would have to be paid to a number of<br />
challenges:<br />
kthe<br />
kgoing kmajor<br />
Geographical coverage is still a problem. All<br />
actors attest to the fact that some parts of the<br />
country (among them areas in dire need) are<br />
not covered by NGOs, while some other areas<br />
(among them regions that are better off in terms<br />
of access to <strong>basic</strong> <strong>education</strong>) experience an<br />
over-concentration of NGO activities.<br />
There is a general feeling that co-ordination <strong>and</strong>
urkina Faso<br />
60<br />
work to be done in Burkina Faso, to attain the goals<br />
EFA (<strong>and</strong> more particularly, the gender equity–gender<br />
goal – goal number V), is enormous. It requires<br />
sThe sof all h<strong>and</strong>s must be fully on deck. The EFA master athat<br />
plan-<br />
process is a wonderful opportunity to make this hap-<br />
in an impactful manner.<br />
asequality aning apen,
Ethiopia<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
E t h i o p i a<br />
oSwazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
Faso<br />
o<br />
E<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
a<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
s<br />
sGeneral<br />
nconclusions<br />
a<br />
Even though each of the four studies focused on<br />
a specific angle to the enormous task involved<br />
in promoting the <strong>education</strong> of <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>,<br />
there is a common thread running through them.<br />
oven oa <strong>ii</strong>n The following elements of this constitute the major les-<br />
experiences.m<br />
Burkin n<br />
sons to be learned from the ongoing experiences.<br />
1. The <strong>education</strong> of <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> are really<br />
part <strong>and</strong> parcel of a nation’s <strong>education</strong>al <strong>and</strong><br />
isons<br />
i1. elo<br />
ipart<br />
a<br />
overall social development issues. This holistic<br />
places every micro-experiment in a wider<br />
developmental context.<br />
aoverall<br />
anational<br />
hview k<br />
2. The existence of a broader policy framework (such<br />
as a national constitution making appropriate<br />
provisions <strong>for</strong> <strong>women</strong>’s issues, a national hnational<br />
h2.<br />
zas r<br />
policy<br />
on <strong>women</strong>-in-development, op<br />
a strategic <strong>education</strong><br />
plan that targets the real concerns<br />
rprovisions <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> in <strong>education</strong>) helps to provide<br />
tdevelopment<br />
tof<br />
oof u<br />
a clearer focus <strong>for</strong> the development <strong>and</strong> manage-<br />
ment of <strong>girls</strong>’ <strong>education</strong> programmes.<br />
3. A data <strong>and</strong> research-generated knowledge base<br />
is essential to ensure that programmes address<br />
61B
E t h i o p i a<br />
Ethiopia<br />
62<br />
ntSwazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
Faso<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
a<br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
a<br />
Faso<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
the real issues, <strong>and</strong> that they are relevant to the<br />
s<br />
needs of specific groups of <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> in<br />
society.<br />
4. <strong>Promoting</strong> the <strong>education</strong> of <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> is<br />
a multi-sectoral toral undertaking. a<br />
Work done in all<br />
other development sectors help to rein<strong>for</strong>ce the<br />
work done in the <strong>education</strong> sector, since they all<br />
aa work towards the common gaol of mainstream-<br />
development.Faso<br />
Faso<br />
ing <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> gender issues in development.<br />
5. <strong>Promoting</strong> the <strong>education</strong> of <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong><br />
is also a multi-agency, multi-interest-group<br />
affair. The challenge here is to design appropri-<br />
ate strategies es <strong>for</strong> harnessing the potentials of<br />
every stakeholder.<br />
late<br />
a<br />
6. The primary beneficiaries – <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> – are the number one determinants orienta-a<br />
of the orienta-<br />
tion <strong>and</strong> content of programmes. The more they<br />
iare n<br />
– <strong>and</strong> their immediate communities – are treated<br />
as ‘experts in their own rights’, the better.<br />
7. Mainstreaming ing gender in <strong>education</strong> is likely<br />
Burkin<br />
to be more successful when ‘men are also<br />
ito<br />
a<br />
involved’, since the promotion of <strong>women</strong> is the<br />
promotion of both sexes. real-k<br />
ainvolved’, k<br />
8. In the African context, poverty is a stark real-<br />
ity, <strong>and</strong> all ef<strong>for</strong>ts to promote the <strong>education</strong><br />
of <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong> must take poverty in its<br />
stride.<br />
a8. zof<br />
r<br />
9. Communication is a major problem. It inhibits<br />
communication <strong>and</strong> collaboration stake-r<br />
among stake-<br />
holders <strong>and</strong> between African Member States.<br />
Since there are a lot of opportunities inter-u<br />
<strong>for</strong> inter-<br />
oholders u<br />
learning on ongoing activities, the area of<br />
communication <strong>and</strong> networking deserves very<br />
special attention.<br />
n<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
ofSwazil<strong>and</strong><br />
hoSwazil<strong>and</strong>
a10.<br />
athe E t h i o p i a<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Mozambique<br />
Burkin<br />
Faso<br />
Ethiopia<br />
i<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
a<br />
Mozambique<br />
a<br />
Faso<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
10. Age-old habits <strong>and</strong> attitudes die hard. Sensitizing<br />
s<br />
the populace (<strong>and</strong> this includes <strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
who have benefited from modern edu-<br />
has not been an easy task. A major challenge <strong>for</strong> the future is evolving ipersons<br />
ication)<br />
a<br />
innovative<br />
strategies <strong>for</strong> social mobilization in favour of<br />
<strong>education</strong> of <strong>women</strong> <strong>girls</strong>.q<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>.<br />
achallenge Education (<strong>and</strong> most especially <strong>education</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>) is seen to be beneficial when<br />
it directly <strong>and</strong> positively impacts on the qual-<br />
ity of life <strong>for</strong> the direct beneficiaries, as well as<br />
to pthe p11. p<strong>women</strong> their families <strong>and</strong> immediate communities.<br />
another major challenge <strong>for</strong> the immedi-<br />
lThus,<br />
oThus, a<br />
future is the search <strong>for</strong> innovative strate-<br />
<strong>for</strong> linking <strong>education</strong> with poverty reduc- tion, alleviation <strong>and</strong> overall human well-being aate programmes.<br />
oate<br />
ogies<br />
ition,<br />
Burkin<br />
n<br />
In spite of the many ongoing activities in the region, a<br />
great deal still has to be done to attain gender equity in<br />
primary <strong>education</strong> by 2005, <strong>and</strong> gender equality in sec-<br />
iIn<br />
igreat ondary <strong>education</strong> by 2015, as recommended by the Dakar<br />
iprimary EFA Forum of April, 2000.<br />
aondary k<br />
is, however, an opportunity that the Africa<br />
region should not allow to slip by. This is the ongoing EFA<br />
master planning process that t<br />
should be used hThere<br />
zregion<br />
r<br />
to develop<br />
appropriate national strategies es<br />
<strong>for</strong> moving the <strong>education</strong><br />
of <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> to its desired destination.<br />
rmaster<br />
Faso<br />
<strong>women</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>girls</strong>) is seen to be beneficial when<br />
it directly <strong>and</strong> positively impacts on the qual- ity of life <strong>for</strong> the direct beneficiaries, as well as<br />
tof <strong>girls</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>women</strong> to its desired destination.<br />
63BGeneral conclusion<br />
63B
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67
Appendix:<br />
Persons interviewed<br />
<strong>and</strong> organizations/<br />
institutions visited<br />
Ethiopia<br />
68<br />
Hon. Gifti Abasiyya, State Minister, Women Sub-sector, Prime Minister’s<br />
Office.<br />
Nuria Ahmed, Department of Women’s Affairs, Oromia Education<br />
Bureau.<br />
Bogalech Alemu, Head, Women <strong>and</strong> Development (WAD), Ministry of<br />
Agriculture.<br />
Konjit Alula, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Health.<br />
Rahel Bekele, Head, Policy, Advocacy <strong>and</strong> Family, CCRDA.<br />
Kassaw Checkole, Co-ordinator, Basic Education Network (BEN).<br />
Kassech Demissie, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Education.<br />
Lakesh Haile, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Water<br />
Resources.<br />
Martha Mangesha, Deputy Secretary-General, National Agency <strong>for</strong><br />
UNESCO <strong>and</strong> in her capacity as executive member of FAWE<br />
(Ethiopia Chapter).<br />
Allemayeu Minas, Secretary-General, National Agency <strong>for</strong> UNESCO.<br />
Mexia Mohammed, Women Sub-sector, Prime Minister’s Office.<br />
Enebet Mulugeta, Director, CERTWID, Addis Ababa University.
Mergerssa Negasa, Women’s Affairs Department, Addis Ababa<br />
University.<br />
Musie Tamir, Team Leader, Factory Women in the Industrial Sector,<br />
Ministry of Industries.<br />
Fananesh Tilahun, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Education.<br />
Almaz Witensaye, Addis Ababa Women’s Affairs Officer.<br />
Yelfign Worku, Chair, Women Education Association of Ethiopia (FAWE<br />
Ethiopia Chapter).<br />
Aster Zewde, Head, Women’s Affairs Department, Ministry of Youth,<br />
Sports <strong>and</strong> Culture.<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong><br />
Atticia Dladla, Acting Director, National Curriculum Centre.<br />
Thulsile Dladla, Chief Executive Officer, SEBENTA National Institute.<br />
Bernard Dlamini, Chief Inspector (Tertiary).<br />
Peterson Dlamini, Principal, Ngwane Teachers’ College.<br />
Zweli Gamedze, Assistant Registrar (Computer), Exams Council of<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Faith Khumalo, Inspector of Schools (Examinations), Exams Council of<br />
Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
J-G Kunene, Principal Secretary, Ministry of Education.<br />
Dorothy Littler, Secretary-General, National Commission <strong>for</strong> UNESCO.<br />
Musa Macwele, Assistant Chief Inspector (Adult Education).<br />
Thembinkosi Mamba, Directorate of Industrial <strong>and</strong> Vocational Training.<br />
Jane Maseko, Head of Department of Agriculture, Ngwane Teachers’<br />
College.<br />
Christobel Mkhonta, Chief Inspector (Secondary).<br />
Sibusiso Mkhonta, Director of Education, Ministry of Education.<br />
Della Nsib<strong>and</strong>e, Guidance <strong>and</strong> Counselling Unit, Ministry of Education.<br />
Bongie Potsoa, University of Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Martha Shongwe, Senior Inspector, Ministry of Education.<br />
Israel Similane, Chief Inspector (Primary).<br />
Nomcebo Similane, University of Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
69
Dr. Sukati, University of Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Hebron Sukati, Principal, Swazil<strong>and</strong> College of Technology (SCOT).<br />
Lineo Vilakazi, Guidance <strong>and</strong> Counselling Unit, Ministry of Education.<br />
Nomsa Zindela, University of Swazil<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Mozambique<br />
70<br />
Eninelinda Adelino, Deputy Head of the Maputo Provincial Department<br />
of Education.<br />
Raul Salomad Benzane, Head Teacher, Escola Primaria Centro Educacional,<br />
Maraccueme.<br />
Susana Betrossi, Head Teacher, EP2 do Estoril, Beira.<br />
Alvos Manuel Cagana, Chief of Pedagogical Department, Safala Provincial<br />
Education Department.<br />
Adelino Castigo David, Head Teacher, EPC de 25 de Juanho, Tica, Safala<br />
Province.<br />
Paula Encstina, Head, Centro de Desenvolvimento Commnitaria de<br />
Machanote, Dondo District, Safala Province.<br />
Soaguina Yosé de Higueino, Gender Co-ordinator, Dondo District Education<br />
Office.<br />
Virgilio Juvane, Director, Planning Department, Ministry of Education.<br />
Manuel Francisco Lobo, Adviser to the Hon. Minister of Education.<br />
Chota Marulino Maisne, Dondo District Education Office.<br />
Herminio Malate, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education.<br />
Mouzere Alberto Manuel, Programme Officer, Beira City Education<br />
Department.<br />
Martins Jaoa Mateus, Adjointo Pedagogico, EP1 (Dondo District Education<br />
Office).<br />
Francisco Itai Mecque, Director, Safala Provincial Education Department.<br />
Qestattina Francisco Moiene, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education.<br />
Francisco Eugenio Mutambe, Head of School Support Unit, Marracuene<br />
District Education Department.<br />
Januario Mutaquiha, Secretary-General, UNESCO National Commission.<br />
Mario Nhabaga, Adjointo Pedagogico, EPC, Muda-Mafa.
Felisberto de Jesus Antonio Nhapulo, Director, Basic Education, Ministry<br />
of Education.<br />
Teresa Paulino Mafage Nhoana, Co-ordinator (Gender Unit), Safala<br />
Provincial Education Department.<br />
Naissone Pedro Nogueira, Adjointo Pedagogico EP2 (Dondo District<br />
Education Office).<br />
Augusto Nunes, Programme Officer <strong>for</strong> Sciences, UNESCO National<br />
Commission.<br />
Henriqueta Anibal Oveamaz, Co-ordinator (Gender Unit), Marracuene<br />
District Department of Education.<br />
Anastasia Quitane, Co-ordinator (Gender, Reproductive Health, <strong>and</strong> HIV/<br />
AIDS Prevention Education), Maputo Provincial Department of<br />
Education.<br />
Da Gracia E Sambine, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education.<br />
Anthónio Tacarinda, District Education Director, Nhamat<strong>and</strong>a.<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>o Tembe, Department of Literacy, Adult <strong>and</strong> Non-Formal<br />
Education, Ministry of Education.<br />
David Uamusse, Basic Education Department, Ministry of Education.<br />
Domingos Ushavu, Head of Planning Maputo Provincial Department of<br />
Education.<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>a Wachave, Gender Unit, Ministry of Education.<br />
Burkina Faso<br />
Emile Bambara, Association Pag-La-Yiri.<br />
Fatoumata Bambara, FAWE–Burkina.<br />
Rasmata Barry, Focus group discussion with Association Duddal Leydi Men.<br />
Sidiki Belem.<br />
Rita Campaore (Treasurer), Focus Group Discussion (Association Féminine<br />
pour l’Entraide au Développement Durable).<br />
Sibry Conde.<br />
Marguerite Coulidiaty, FAWE–Burkina.<br />
Korotouma Gariko, Focus Group Discussion with Association Duddal<br />
Leydi Men.<br />
71
72<br />
Emiliene Ido, FAWE–Burkina.<br />
Olga Ilbuodo, International Centre <strong>for</strong> Girls’ <strong>and</strong> Women’s Education in<br />
Africa, Ouagadougou.<br />
Valentin Konsianbo, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants<br />
Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou.<br />
Kadiatou Kosarga, Directrice de la Promotion de l’Éducation des Filles,<br />
Ministère de l’Éducation de Base et de l’Alphabétisation.<br />
Maria Leugue, Association Pag-La-Yiri.<br />
Anatole Niameogo, Technical Adviser on Education, Catholic Relief<br />
Services.<br />
San Ouattara, Education Department, UNESCO National Commission.<br />
Clementine Ouedraogo, Director of Programmes, Promo Femmes.<br />
Emmanuel Ouedraogo, President <strong>and</strong> Founder, Vivre le Berger.<br />
Germaine Ouedraogo, International Centre <strong>for</strong> Girls’ <strong>and</strong> Women’s <strong>education</strong><br />
in Africa, Ouagadougou.<br />
Jean Ouedraogo, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants<br />
Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou.<br />
Salimata Sanou, EFA Focal Point, Ministry of Education.<br />
Issiatou Sawadogo, Legal Affairs Officer, Promo Femmes.<br />
Lassina Sessouma.<br />
Kadidia Sidibe, Secrétaire Permanent de la Commission Nationale pour<br />
l’Education des Filles.<br />
Abdoulaye Soulgane, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants<br />
Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou.<br />
Cecile Thiombiago, President, Focus Group Discussion (Association<br />
Féminine pour l’Entraide au Développement Durable).<br />
Marie-Magdalene Toure, President, Comite National des Femmes<br />
Aveugles.<br />
Blaise Toubré, Co-ordinator, Association Generation Montante, Ziniare.<br />
Susanne Ware, Association Pag-La-Yiri.<br />
Isabelle Yameogo, Association des Parents et Amis des Enfants<br />
Encephalopathes, Ouagadougou.<br />
Bernard Yonli, Secretary-General, UNESCO National Commission.<br />
Patricia Zagré, UNESCO National Commission.