Chapter 4: Assessing Learning Outcomes using Essay Tests

Chapter 4: Assessing Learning Outcomes Using Essay Tests 

63 

Chaptter 4:: 

ASSESSIING LEARNIING OUTCOMES USIING ESSAY 

TESTS 

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: 

Identify the attributes of an essay question 

Explain the purpose of using the essay test 

List the advantages and limitations of essay questions 

Identify those learning outcomes that are appropriately assessed using essay 

questions 

Construct well-written essay questions that assess given learning objectives 

CHAPTER OVERVIEW 

4.0 Introduction 

4.1 What is an essay question? 

4.2 Types of essay 

4.3 Why are essay questions used? 

4.4 Deciding whether to use essay 

questions or objective questions 

4.5 Limitation of essay questions 

4.6 Some misconceptions about essays 

4.7 Guidelines for constructing essay 

questions 

4.8 Common verbs used in essay 

questions 

4.9 Marking or scoring essay questions 

4.10 Summary 

Key Terms 

Readings 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

Chapter 2: Deciding What to Assess 

Chapter 3: Assessing Learning Outcomes 

Using Objective Tests 


Using Essay Tests 


Using Projects and Practicals 


Using Observations, Oral Tests, 

and Portfolios 

Chapter 7: Reliability and Validity of 

Assessment Methods 

Chapter 8: Item Analysis 

Chapter 9: Analysis of Test Scores 

Chapter 10: Reporting Student Assessment 

In Chapter 3, we discussed in detail the use of objective tests in assessing students. 

In this chapter, we will examine the essay test. The essay test is a popular technique 

for assessing learning and is used extensively at all levels of education. It is also 

widely used in assessing learning outcomes in business and professional 

examinations. Essay questions are used because they challenge students to create 

their own responses rather than simply to select a response. Essay questions have 

the potential to reveal students‟ ability to reason, create, analyse and synthesise 

which may not be effectively assessed using objective tests.


64 

4.1 WHAT IS AN ESSAY QUESTION? 

According to Stalnaker (1951), an 

essay is “a test item which requires a response 

composed by the examinee usually in the form 

of one or more sentences of a nature that no 

single response or pattern of responses can be 

listed as correct, and the accuracy and quality 

of which can be judged subjectively only by 

one skilled or informed in the subject”. 

Though the definition was provided a long 

time ago, it is a comprehensive definition. 

Elaborating on this definition, Reiner, Bothell, 

Sudweeks and Wood (2002), argued that to 

qualify as an essay question it should meet the 

following FOUR criteria: 

Figure 4.1 Learner composes an 

answer that consists of one or more 

sentences 

1. The learner has to compose rather than select his or her response or answer. 

In essay questions, students have to construct their own answer and decide on 

what material to include in their response. Objective test questions (MCQ, 

true-false, matching) require students to select the answer from a list of 

possibilities. 

2. The response or answer the learner provides will consist of one or more 

sentences. Students do not respond with a “yes” or “no” response but instead 

have to respond in the form of sentences. In theory there is no limit to the 

length of the answer. However, in most cases its length is predetermined by 

the demands of the questions and the time limit allotted for the question. 

3. There is no one single correct response or answer. In other words, the 

question should be composed so that it does not ask for one single correct 

response. For example, the question, “Who killed J.W.W. Birch?” assesses 

verbatim recall or memory and not the ability to think. Hence, it cannot 

qualify as an essay question. You could modify the question, “Who killed 

J.W.W. Birch and explain the factors that led to the killing?”. Now, it is an 

essay question that assesses students‟ ability to think and give reasons for the 

killing supported with relevant evidence. 

4. The accuracy and quality of students‟ responses or answers to essays must be 

judged subjectively by a specialist in the subject: The nature of essay 

questions is such that only specialists in the subject can judge to what degree 

responses (or answers) to an essay are complete, accurate and relevant. Good 

essay questions encourage students to think deeply about their answers that 

can only judged by someone with the appropriate experience and expertise in 

the content area. Thus, content expertise is essential for both writing and 

grading essay questions. For example, the question “List three reasons for the


65 

opening of Penang by the British in 1789” requires students to recall a set list 

of items. The person marking or grading the essay does not have to be a 

subject matter expert to know if the student has listed the three reasons 

correctly as long as the list of three reasons is available as an answer key. For 

the question, “To what extent is commerce the main reason for the opening of 

Penang by the British in 1789?”, a subject-matter expert is needed to grade or 

mark an answer to this essay question. 

4.2 TYPES OF ESSAYS 

Generally, there are two types of essays; the coursework essay and the examination 

essay which are used in educational institutions: 

WHAT IS A COURSEWORK ESSAY? 

The coursework essay may consist of the following: 

Essay Outlines: These is a short summary or outline of a particular topic 

(perhaps, about 500 words). It assesses the ability to organise material, to 

construct coherent arguments, to select relevant information from a wide field 

of study. 

Standard essays: These are full papers of anything from 1000 to 2500 words 

in length. They assess the ability to describe to analyse the relationship 

between ideas and events, to give a coherent account of a topic, to select and 

to weigh evidence in support of an argument, to diagnose and to suggest 

solutions to problems, to solve familiar types of problems, to solve familiar 

types of problems, to express critical judgements and to make comparisons. 

Extended essays: These are full papers of between 2500 to 5000 words in 

length. They assess the ability to solve less familiar problem and to analyse or 

critically evaluate less familiar materials. Hence, requiring more extensive 

preparation or research. 

Coursework essays are intended to assess students‟ ability to research a topic 

thoroughly and meticulously, and to handle a mass of material. It evaluates their 

ability to answer at length (“Give them enough rope…..”) on a chosen topic. Of 

particular concern are the points the student makes, how he or she has related them, 

the way in which his or her essay is organised, the value he or she attaches to different 

aspects of the topic. Coursework essays are a written response and students are 

expected, for the most part, to use their own words and communicate their ideas 

clearly and persuasively. 

WHAT IS AN EXAMINATION ESSAY? 

This is the short essay written as part of a formal examination [Surely you 

have had experience with this format of assessment!]. For example, in a 2-3 hour 

examination, students may be required to answer about three essay questions allotting 

about 35-45 minutes per question. In practice, there is much variation in the number 

of questions asked and duration of the examination. In some situations there is a 

choice of questions while in other situations there is no choice. The reason for 

controlling choice is to ensure that students are examined over a comparable range [In


66 

this chapter we will focus on the „Examination Essay‟; i.e. the use of essay questions 

in examinations which is commonly a „close-book‟ setting. We will discuss further 

about the Coursework Essay in Chapter 5 under Projects]. 

examinations. 

4.1 ACTIVITY 

Select a few essay questions used as tests in you subject area 

To what extent do these questions meet the criteria of an 

essay defined by Stalnaker (1951) and elaborated by Reiner, 

Bothell, Sudweeks and Wood (2002). 

4.3 WHY ARE ESSAY QUESTIONS USED? 

Essay questions are used to assess learning because of the following reasons: 

 

Essay questions provide an effective way of assessing complex learning 

outcomes. They allow one to assess 

students' ability to synthesise ideas, to 

organise, and express ideas and to evaluate 

Price is determined 

by supply and 

the worth of ideas. These abilities cannot 

demand. When there 

be effectively assessed directly with other 

is a shortage of……. 

paper-and-pencil test items. 

Essay questions allow students to 

demonstrate their reasoning. Essay 

questions not only allow students to 

present an answer to a question but also to 

explain how they arrived at their 

conclusion. This allows teachers to gain 

insights into a student's way of viewing 

and solving problems. With such insights, 

teachers are able to detect problems 

students may have with their reasoning 

process and help them overcome those 

problems. 

Figure 4.1 The reasoning 

process of a learner is 

reflected in the answer 

 

Essay questions provide authentic experiences. „Constructing responses‟ are 

closer to real life than selecting responses (as in the case of objective tests). 

Problem solving and decision-making are vital life competencies which 

require the ability to construct a solution or decision rather than selecting a 

solution or decision from a limited set of possibilities. In the world of work it 

is unlikely that an employer will give a list of „four options‟ for the worker to 

choose from when asked to solve a problem! In most cases, the worker will be 

required to construct a response. Hence, essay items are closer to real life than 

objective test question because in real life students typically construct 

responses, not select them.


67 

4.2 ACTIVITY 

Compare the following two essay questions and decide 

which one assesses higher-order thinking skills. 

What are the major advantages and limitations of using 

nuclear solar energy? 

Given its advantages and limitations, should governments 

spend money developing nuclear energy? 

4.4 DECIDING WHETHER TO USE ESSAY QUESTIONS OR 

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 

The decision whether to use essay questions 

or objective questions in examinations can be 

problematic for some educators. In such a situation 

one has to go back to the objectives of assessment. 

What kinds of learning outcomes do you intend to 

assess? Essay questions are generally suitable for 

the following purposes: 

To assess students' understanding of 

 

subject-matter content 

To assess thinking skills that require 

more than simple verbatim recall of 

information by challenging the students to reason with their 

knowledge. 

However, students‟ understanding of subject-matter content and many of the 

other higher-order thinking skills could also be assessed through objective items. 

When in doubt as to whether to use an essay question or an objective question, just 

remember that essay questions are used to assess students' ability to construct rather 

than select answers. 

To determine what type of test (essay or objective) to use, it is helpful that you 

examine the verb(s) that best describe the desired ability to be assessed [We discussed 

these verbs in Chapter 2]. These verbs indicate what students are expected to do and 

how they should respond. These verbs serve to channel and focus the student 

responses towards the performance of specific tasks. Some verbs clearly indicate that 

students need to construct rather than select their answer (e.g. to explain). Other verbs 

indicate that the intended learning outcome is focused on students‟ ability to recall 

information (e.g. to list). Perhaps, recall is best assessed through objectively-scored 

items. Verbs that test for understanding of subject-matter content or other forms of 

higher-order thinking but do not specify whether the student is to construct or to select 

the response (e.g. to interpret) can be assessed either by essay questions or by 

objective items.


68 

4.3 ACTIVITY 

a) Do you agree with the reasons for using essay tests in your 

subject area? 

b) Compare, explain, arrange, apply, state, classify, design, 

illustrate, describe, name, complete, choose, defend, name. 

Decide which of the above list of verbs is best assessed by 

essay tests or objective tests or both objective and essay 

tests. 

4.5 WHAT ARE SOME LIMITATIONS OF ESSAY QUESTIONS? 

While essay questions are popular because they enable the assessment of higher-order 

learning outcomes, this format of evaluating students in examinations has a number of 

limitations which should be kept in mind. 

 

 

 

One purpose of testing is to assess a student's mastery of the subject matter. In 

most cases it is not possible to assess the student's mastery of the complete 

subject matter domain with just a few questions. Because of the time it takes 

for students to respond to essay questions and for markers to mark students' 

responses, the number of essay questions that can be included in a test is 

limited. Therefore, using essay questions will limit the degree to which the test 

is representative of the subject-matter domain thereby reducing content 

validity. For instance, a test of 80 multiple-choice questions will most likely 

cover more of the content domain than a test of 3-4 essay questions 

Essay questions have limitations in reliability. While essay questions allow 

students some flexibility in formulating their responses, the reliability of 

marking or grading is questionable. 

Different markers or graders may vary in 

their marking or grading of the same or 

similar responses (interscorer reliability) 

and one marker can vary significantly in 

his or her marking or grading consistency 

across questions depending on many 

factors (intrascorer reliability). 

Therefore, essay answers of similar 

- Interscorer reliability 

is low. 

- Limited amount of the 

subject matter tested 

- Time consuming 

quality may receive notably different scores. Characteristics of the learner, 

length and legibility of responses, and personal preferences of the marker or 

grader with regards to the content and structure of the response are some of the 

factors that may lead to unreliable marking or grading. 

Essay questions require more time for marking student responses. Teachers 

need to invest large amounts of time to read and mark students‟ responses to


69 

essay questions. On the other hand relatively little or no time is required of 

teachers for scoring objective test items like multiple-choice items, matching 

exercises, etc. 

As mentioned earlier, one of the strengths of essay questions is that they provide 

students with authentic experiences because students are challenged to construct 

rather than to select their responses. To what extent does the short time given affect 

student response? Students have relatively little time to construct their responses and 

it does not allow them to give appropriate attention to the complex process of 

organizing, writing, and reviewing their responses. In fact, in responding to essay 

examinations. 

4.4 ACTIVITY 

a) Do you agree with the weaknesses of the essay 

with regards to your subject areas? 

b) Identify other weaknesses of the essay as an examination 

test in your subject area. 

questions, students use a writing process that is quite different from the typical 

process that produces excellent writing (draft, review, revise, evaluate, etc.). In 

addition students usually have no resources to aid their writing when answering essay 

questions (dictionary, thesaurus, etc.). This disadvantage may offset whatever 

advantage accrued from the fact that responses to essay questions are more authentic 

than responses to multiple-choice items. 

4.6 SOME MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT ESSAY QUESTIONS IN 

EXAMINATIONS 

Besides the limitations of essay questions, there are also some misconceptions about 

this format of assessment: 

By their very nature essay questions assess higher-order thinking. Whether 

or not an essay item assesses higher-order thinking depends on the design of 

the question and how students‟ responses are scored. An essay question does 

not automatically assess higher-order thinking skills. It is possible to write 

essay questions that simply assess recall. Also, if a teacher designs an essay 

question meant to assesses higher-order thinking but then scores students‟ 

responses in a way that only rewards recall ability, that teacher is not assessing 

higher-order thinking. 

 

 

Essay questions are easy to construct. Essay questions are easier to construct 

than multiple-choice items because teachers do not have to create effective 

distractors. However, that does not mean that good essay questions are easy to 

construct. They may be easier to construct in a relative sense, but they still 

require a lot of effort and time. Essay questions that are hastily constructed 

without much thought and review usually function poorly. 

The use of essay questions eliminates the problem of guessing. One of the 

drawbacks of objective test items is that students sometimes get the right


70 

answer by guessing which of the presented options is correct. This problem 

does not exist with essay questions because students need to generate the 

answer rather than identifying it from a set of options provided. At the same 

time, the use of essay questions introduces bluffing, another form of guessing. 

Some students are „good‟ at using various methods of bluffing (vague 

generalities, padding, name-dropping, etc.) to add credibility to an otherwise 

weak answer. Thus, the use of essay questions changes the nature of the 

guessing that occurs, but does not eliminate it. 

 

 

Essay questions benefit all students by placing emphasis on the importance 

of written communication skills. Written communication is a life competency 

that is required for effective and successful performance in many vocations. 

Essay questions challenge students to organise and express subject matter and 

problem solutions in their own words, thereby giving them a chance to 

practice written communication skills that will be helpful to them in future 

vocational responsibilities. At the same time, the focus on written 

communication skills is also a serious disadvantage for students who have 

marginal writing skills but know the subject-matter being assessed. To the 

degree that students who are knowledgeable in the subject obtain low scores 

because of their inability to write well, the validity of the test scores will be 

diminished. 

Essay questions encourage students to prepare more thoroughly. Some 

research seems to indicate that students are more thorough in their preparation 

for essay questions that in their preparation for objective examinations like 

multiple choice questions. However, after an extensive review of existing 

literature and research on this topic, Crook (1988) concluded that students 

prepare more based on the expectations teachers set upon them (higher-order 

thinking and breadth and depth of content) than they do by the type of test 

question they expect to be given. 

people h 

4.5 ACTIVITY 

a) To what extent do you agree with the misconceptions 

with regards to essay questions? 

b) Can you identify other common misconceptions or myths 

about essay questions? 

4.7 SOME GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTING ESSAY 

QUESTIONS 

When constructing essay questions, whether it be for Coursework Assessment or 

Examinations, the most important thing is to ENSURE THAT STUDENTS HAVE 

A CLEAR IDEA ON WHAT THEY ARE EXPECTED TO DO AFTER THEY 

HAVE READ THE QUESTION OR PROBLEM PRESENTED.


71 

Below are specific guidelines that can help you improve existing essay questions and 

create new ones. 

1. Clearly Define the Intended Learning Outcome to be Assessed by the 

Question. 

Knowing the intended learning outcome is crucial for designing essay questions. some 

skill, ability, or trait other than the one intended. In specifying the intended learning 

outcome teachers clarify the performance that students should be able to demonstrate 

as a result of what they have learned. The intended learning outcome typically begins 

with a verb that describes an observable behavior, action or outcome that students 

should demonstrate. The focus is on what students should be able to do and not on the 

learning or teaching process. Reviewing a list of verbs can help to clarify what ability 

students should demonstrate and to clearly define the intended learning outcome to be 

assessed. 

Example: 

Learning Outcome: To be able to differentiate the reproductive habits of birds and 

amphibians 

Essay Question: What are the differences in egg laying characteristics between 

birds and amphibians? 

Note: This learning outcome can be better assessed by an objective test 

Objective Item: 

Which of the following differences between birds and amphibians is correct? 

Birds 

Amphibians 

A Lay a few eggs at a time Lay many eggs at a time 

B Lay eggs Gives birth 

C Do not incubate eggs Incubate eggs 

D Lay eggs in nest Lay eggs on land 

2. Avoid Using Essay Questions for Intended Learning Outcomes that are 

Better Assessed with other Kinds of Assessment. 

Some types of learning outcomes can be more efficiently and more reliably assessed 

with objective tests than with essay questions. Since essay questions sample a limited 

range of subject-matter content, are more time consuming to score, and involve 

greater subjectivity in scoring, the use of essay questions should be reserved for 

learning outcomes that cannot be better assessed by some other means.


72 

3. Clarity about the Task and Scope. 

Essay questions have two variable elements—the degree to which the task is 

structured and the degree to which the scope of the content is focused. There is still 

confusion among educators whether more structure of the task required and more 

focus on the content are better than less structure and less focus. When the task is 

more structured and the scope of content is more focused two problems are reduced: 

 

 

the problem of student responses containing ideas that were not meant to be 

assessed, 

the problem of extreme subjectivity when scoring student answers or 

responses. 

Although more structure helps to avoid these problems, how much and what 

kind of structure and focus to provide is dependent on the intended learning outcome 

that is to be assessed by the essay question. The process of writing effective essay 

questions involves defining the task and delimiting the scope of the content in an 

effort to create an effective question that is aligned with the intended learning 

outcome to be assessed by it (see Figure 4.1). 

INFORMATION 

DESIGN 

LEARNING 

OUTCOMES 

BODY OF 

CONTENT 

LEARNING 

ACTIVITIES 

ASSESSMENT 

TASKS 

INTERACTION 

DESIGN 

Figure 4.1 Alignment between Content, Learning 

Learning Activities and Assessment Tasks 

[source: John A. Phillips, Ansary Ahmed & Kuldip Kaur , 2005. Instructional Design 

Principles in the Development of an E-Learning Graduate Course. Paper presented 

at The International Conference in E-Learning. Bangkok, Thailand.


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Example: 

IMPROVING CLARITY OF TASK AND 

SCOPE OF ESSAY QUESTIONS 

Weak essay question: 

Evaluate the impact of the Industrial Revolution on England. 

The verb is “evaluate” which is the task the student is supposed to do. The scope of 

the question is the impact of the Industrial Revolution on England. Very little 

guidance is given to students about the task of evaluating and the scope of the task. 

A student reading the question may ask: 

the impact on what in England? The economy? Foreign trade? A 

particular group of people? [The scope is not clear]. 

evaluate based on what criteria? The significance of the revolution? 

The quality of life in England? Progress in technological 

advancements? [The task is not clear]. 

what exactly do you want me to do in my evaluation? [The task is 

not clear] 

Improved essay question: 

Evaluate the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the quality of 

family life in England. Explain whether families were able to provide 

for the education of their children. 

The improved question delimits the task for students by specifying a particular unit 

of society in England affected by the Industrial Revolution (family). The task is 

also delimited by giving students a criterion for evaluating the impact of the 

Industrial Revolution (whether or not families were able to provide for their 

children‟s education. Students are clearer as to what must be done to “evaluate.” 

They need to explain how the family has changed and judge whether or not the 

changes are an improvement for their children. 

[source: adaptation: C.M. Reiner, T.W. Bothell, R.R. Sudweeks & B. Wood 

Preparing Effective Essay Questions. 2002 New Forums Press 

This alignment is absolutely necessary for obtaining student responses that can 

be accepted as evidence that a student has achieved the intended learning outcome. 

Hence, the essay question must be carefully and thoughtfully written in such a way 

that it elicits student responses that provide the teacher with valid and reliable 

evidence about the students‟ achievement of the intended learning outcome. Failure to 

establish adequate and effective limits for student answers to the essay question may 

result in students setting their own boundaries for their responses. This means that 

students might provide answers that are outside the intended task or address only a 

part of the intended task. If this happens then the teacher is left with unreliable and 

invalid information about the students‟ achievement of the intended learning outcome.


74 

Also, there is no basis for marking or grading student‟s answers. Therefore, it is the 

responsibility of the teacher to write essay questions in such a way that they provide 

students with clear boundaries for their answers or responses. 

SELF-CHECK 4.1 

a) When would you decide to use an objective test item rather 

than an essay test to assess learning? 

b) What is the difference between the task and scope of an 

essay question? 

4. Questions that are Fair 

One of the challenges that teachers face in composing essay questions is that 

because of their extensive experience with the subject matter they may be tempted to 

demand unreasonable content expertise on the part of the students. Hence, teachers 

need to make sure that their students can “be expected to have adequate material with 

which to answer the question.” (Stalnaker, 1952, p.52). In addition, teachers should 

ask themselves if students can be reasonably expected to adequately perform the 

thought processes which are required of them in the task. For assessment to be fair, 

teachers need to provide their students with sufficient instruction and practice in the 

subject matter and the thought processes to be assessed. 

Another important element is to avoid using indeterminate questions. A 

question is indeterminate if it is so unstructured that students can redefine the problem 

and focus on some aspect of it with which they are thoroughly familiar, or if experts 

in the subject matter cannot agree that one answer is better than another. One way to 

avoid indeterminate questions is to stay away from vocabulary that is ambiguous. For 

example, teachers should avoid using the verb “discuss” in an essay question. This 

verb simply is too broad and vague. Moreover, teachers should also avoid including 

vocabulary that is too advanced for students. 

5. Specify the approximate time limit and marks allotted for each question 

Specifying the approximate time limit helps students allocate their time in answering 

several essay questions. Without such guidelines students may feel at a loss as to how 

much time to spend on a question. When deciding the guidelines for how much time 

should be spent on a question keep the slower students and students with certain 

disabilities in mind. Also make sure that students can be realistically expected to 

provide an adequate answer in the given and/or suggested time. Similarly, state the 

marks allotted for each questions so that students can decide how much they should 

write about a questions. 

6. Use several relatively short essay questions rather than one long one. 

Only a very limited number of essay questions can be included on a test because of 

the time it takes for students to respond to them and the time it takes for teachers to 

grade the student responses. This creates a challenge with regards to designing valid 

essay questions. Shorter essay questions are better suited to assess the depth of student 

learning within a subject whereas longer essay questions are better suited to assess the 

breadth of student learning within a subject. Hence, there is a trade-off when choosing 

between several short essay questions or one long one. Focus on assessing the depth


75 

of student learning within a subject limits the assessment of the breadth of student 

learning within the same subject and focus on assessing the breadth of student 

learning within a subject limits the assessment of the depth of student learning within 

the same subject. When choosing between using several short essay questions or one 

long one also keep in mind that short essays are generally easier to mark than long 

essay questions. 

7. Avoid the use of optional questions 

Students should not be permitted to choose one essay question to answer from two or 

more optional questions. The use of optional questions should be avoided for the 

following reasons: 

Students may waste time deciding on an option. 

Some questions are likely to be harder which could make the 

comparative assessment of students' abilities unfair. 

The issue of the use of optional questions is debatable. It is often practiced, especially 

in higher education and students often demand that they be given choices. The 

practice is acceptable if it can be assured that the questions have equivalent difficulty 

levels and the tasks as well as the scope required by the questions are equivalent. 

SELF-CHECK 4.2 

a) Why should you specify time to be allotted for each question? 

b) b) Why should you avoid optional questions? 

c) c) What do you mean that questions should be „fair‟? 

d) d) What should you do before and after administering a test?


76 

Improving Essay Questions Through Preview and Review 

The following steps can help you improve the essay item before and after you 

administer it to your students. 

PREVIEW (before handing out the essay question to the students) 

 

 

 

Predict student responses. 

Try to respond to the question from the perspective of a typical student. 

Evaluate whether students have the content knowledge and the skills 

necessary to adequately respond to the question. In detecting possible 

weaknesses of the essay question, repair them before handing out the exam. 

Write a model answer. 

Before using a question, write model answer(s) or at least an outline of 

major points that should be included in an answer. Writing the model 

answer allows reflection on the clarity of the essay question. Furthermore, 

the model answer(s) serve as a basis for the grading of student responses. 

Once the model answer has been written compare its alignment with the 

essay question and the intended learning outcome and make changes as 

needed to assure that the intended learning outcome, the essay question, 

and the model answer are aligned with each other. 

Ask a knowledgeable colleague to critically review the essay question, 

the model answer, and the intended learning outcome for alignment. 

Before using the essay question on a test, ask a person knowledgeable in 

the subject to critically review the essay question, the model answer, and 

the intended learning outcome to determine how well they are aligned with 

each other. 

REVIEW (after receiving the student responses) 

Review student responses to the essay question. 

After students complete the essay questions, carefully review the range of 

answers given and the manner in which students seem to have interpreted 

the question. Make revisions based on the findings. Writing good essay 

questions is a process that requires time and practice. Carefully studying 

the student responses can help to evaluate students' understanding of the 

question as well as the effectiveness of the question in assessing the 

intended learning outcomes.


77 

4.8 VERBS DESCRIBING VARIOUS KINDS OF MENTAL TASKS 

Using the list suggested by Moss & Holder (1988) and Anderson & Krathwohl 

(2001); Reiner, Bothell, Sudweeks and Wood (2002) proposed the following list of 

verbs that describe mental tasks to be performed. The definitions specify thought 

processes a person must perform to complete the mental task. Note that this list is not 

exhaustive and local examples have been introduced to illustrate the mental tasks 

required in each essay question. 

Verbs Definitions & Examples 

Analyse: Break material into its constituent parts and determine how the parts 

relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose. 

Analyze the meaning of the line “He saw a dead crow, in a drain, near the 

post office” in the poem The Dead Crow. 

Apply: Decide which abstractions (concepts, principles, rules, laws, theories, 

generalizations) are relevant in a problem situation. 

Apply the principles of supply and demand to explain why the consumer price 

index(CPI) in Malaysia has increased in the last three months.. 

Attribute: Determine a point of view, bias, value, or intent underlying 

presented material. 

Determine the point of view of the author in the article about her political 

perspective. 

Classify: Determine which category belongs to something. 

Classify the organisms into vertebrates and invertebrates. 

Compare: Identify and describe points of similarity. 

Compare the role of the Dewan Rakyat and Dewan Negara. 

Compose: Make or form by combining things, parts, or elements. 

Compose an effective plan for solving flooding in Kuala Lumpur. 

Contrast: Bring out the points of difference. 

Contrast the contribution of Tun Hussein Onn and Tun Abdul Razak Hussien 

to the political stability of Malaysia. 

Create: Put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole, 

reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure. 

Create a solution for the traffic problem in Kuala Lumpur. 

Critique: Detect consistencies and inconsistencies between a product and 

relevant external criteria; detect the appropriateness of a procedure for a given 

problem. 

Judge which of two methods is the best way for solving a problem. 

Defend: Develop and present an argument to support a recommendation, to 

maintain or revise a policy, program, or propose a course of action. 

Defend the decision to raise fuel price by the government. 

Define: Give the meaning of a word or concept; place it in the class to which 

it belongs and distinguish it from other items in the same class. 

Define the term “chemical weathering". 

Describe: Give an account of; tell or depict in words; represent or delineate by 

a word picture.


78 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Describe the contribution of Za‟ab to the development of Bahasa Melayu.. 

Design: Devise a procedure for accomplishing some task. 

Design an experiment to prove that 21% of air is composed of oxygen.. 

Develop: Bring to a more advanced , effective, or usable state; produce. 

Develop an essay question by improving upon a less effective essay question. 

Differentiate: Distinguish relevant from irrelevant parts or important from 

unimportant parts of presented material. 

Distinguish between supply and demand in determining price. 

Explain: Make clear the cause or reason of something; construct a cause-andeffect 

model of a system; tell "how" to do; tell the meaning of. 

Explain the causes of the First World War.. 

Evaluate: Make judgments based on criteria and standards; determine the 

significance, value, quality, or relevance of; give the good points and the bad 

ones; identify and describe advantages and limitations. 

Evaluate the contribution of the microchip in telecommunications . 

Generate: Come up with alternative hypotheses, examples, solutions, 

proposals, etc. based on criteria. 

Generate hypotheses to account for an observed phenomenon. 

Identify: Recognise as being a particular person or thing. 

Identify the characteristics of the Mediterranean climate. 

Illustrate: Use a word picture, a diagram, a chart, or a concrete example to 

clarify a point. 

Illustrate the use of catapults in the amphibious warfare of Alexander. 

Infer: Draw a logical conclusion from presented information. 

What can you infer happened in the experiment?. 

Interpret: Give the meaning of; change from one form of representation (e.g. 

numerical) to another (e.g. verbal). 

Interpret the poetic line, "The sound of a cobweb snapping is the noise of my 

life." 

Justify: Show good reasons for; give your evidence; present facts to support 

your position. 

Justify the American entry into World War II. 

List: Create a series of names or other items. 

List the major functions of the human heart. 

Predict: Know or tell beforehand with precision of calculation, knowledge, or 

shrewd inference from facts or experience what will happen. 

Predict the outcome of a chemical reaction. 

Propose: Offer for consideration, acceptance, or action; suggest. 

Propose a solution for landslides along the North-South Highway.. 

Recognise: Locate knowledge in long term memory that is consistent with 

presented material. 

Recognise the important events in the road to independence in Malaysia. 

Recall: Retrieve relevant knowledge from long-term memory. 

Recall the dates of important events in Islamic history. 

Summarize: Sum up; give the main points briefly. 

Summarise the ways in which man preserves food. 

Trace: Follow the course of; follow the trail of; give a description of progress. 

Trace the development of television in school instruction.


79 

4.6 ACTIVITY 

a) Select some essay questions in your subject area and 

examine whether the verbs used are similar to the list. 

Do you think the tasks required by the verbs are 

appropriate? 

b) Do you think students are able to differentiate between the 

tasks required in the verbs listed? 

c) Are teachers able to describe the tasks required by these 

verbs? 

CHECKLIST FOR WRITING ESSAY QUESTIONS 

Could the item be better assessed with a different kind of assessment? 

Is the essay question aligned with the intended learning outcome? 

Is the essay question and should be split into short essay questions? 

Does the essay question contain a clear task and a specified scope? 

Is the question worded and structured clearly? 

Do the students know the recommended time for each question? 

Have you written a model answer or an outline for the answer? 

Do you have a person knowledgeable in the subject to review the 

question? 

4.9 MARKING AN ESSAY QUESTION 

Marking or Grading of essays is a 

notoriously unreliable activity. If we read an essay 

at two different times, the chances are good that we 

will give the essay a different grade each time. If 

two or more of us read the essay, our grades will 

likely differ, often dramatically so. We all like to 

think we are exceptions, but study after study of 

well meaning and conscientious teachers show that 

Marking should be 

free from bias and 

subjectivity, and 

reliable 

essay grading is unreliable (Ebel, 1972; McKeachie, 1986; White, 1985). Eliminating 

the problem is unlikely, but we can take steps to improve grading reliability. Using a


80 

scoring guide or marking scheme helps control the shifting of standards that 

inevitably take place as we read a collection of essays and papers. The two most 

common forms of scoring guides used are the analytic and holistic method. 

1) The Analytic Method 

Analytical marking is the system of most frequently used in large-scale public 

examinations (such as the SPM and STPM) and also by teachers in the classroom. Its 

basic characteristic is the marking scheme and the marks allocated (see Figure 4.2). 

The marking scheme consists of a list of the major elements the teacher believes 

students should include in the ideal answer. In the example, marks are allocated for 

describing each of the five factors (3 marks for each factor) and one mark is given for 

providing a relevant example. Marks are also allotted for the „introduction‟ and 

„conclusion‟ which are important elements in an essay. 

EXAMPLE: 

Explain FIVE factors that determine the location of a manufacturing plant. 

Marking Scheme (max 25 points) 

Introduction 2 points 

o Sets the organisation of the essay 

Site or Land 

o Description (how site influences location) 3 

o Example 1 

Labour 

o Description (role of workers) 3 

o Example 1 

Capital (Loan from banks) 

o Description (obtaining a loan) 3 

o Example 1 

Transport system 

o Description (access to port, population) 3 

o Example 1 

Entrepreneurial skills 

o Description (kind of skill) 3 

o Example 1 

Conclusion (interplay of the five factors) 3 

TOTAL 

25 points 

Figure 4.2 Sample of a Marking Scheme Using the Analytical Method 

The marker reads and compares the student's answer with the model answer. If 

all the necessary elements are present, the student receives the maximum number of 

points. Partial credit is given based on the elements included in the answer. In order to 

arrive at the overall exam score, the instructor adds the points earned on the separate 

questions.


81 

Identify in advance what will be worth a point, how many points available for 

each question so you can tell students; so they do not give more (or less) than 

necessary and they know precisely what you are looking for. If students come up with 

an unexpected but correct example give them the point immediately and add that 

point to your answer key so the next student will get the point too. 

2) Holistic Method (Global or Impressionistic Marking) 

The holistic approach to scoring essay questions involves reading an entire response 

and assigning it to a category identified by a score or grade. This method involves 

considering the student's answer as a whole and judging the total quality of the answer 

relative to other student responses or the total quality of the answer based on certain 

criteria that you develop. Think of it as sorting into bins.You read the answer to a 

particular question and assign it to the appropriate bins. The best answers go into the 

“exemplary” bin, the good goes into the “good” bin, and the weak answer goes into 

the “poor” bin. Then points are written on each paper appropriate to the bin it is in. It 

is based on overall impression, not point by point using the rubric or marking scheme 

based on a holistic approach (see Figure 4.3). You cannot be much finer than five 

divisions; six at most. You have to re-read everything to ensure that all the papers in 5 

piles roughly the same; all in middle pile roughly the same, and less good than top 

pile. 

` 

Exemplary Good Adequate Poor No Answer 

You can develop a description of the type of response that would illustrate each 

category before you start, and then try out this draft version using several actual 

papers. After reading and categorising all of the papers, it is a good idea to re-examine 

the papers within a category to see if they are similar enough in quality to receive the 

same points or grade. It may be faster to read essays holistically and provide only an 

overall score or grade, but students do not receive much feedback about their 

strengths and weaknesses. Some instructors who use holistic scoring also write brief 

comments on each paper to point out one or two strengths and/or weaknesses so 

students will have a better idea of why their responses received the scores they did. 

4.6 ACTIVITY 

a) Compare and analytical and holistic method of marking 

essays?. 

b) Which method is widely practiced in your institution? 

Why do you think? 

c) Do you think there would be a difference in marking 

Essays using the methods? Explain


82 

EXEMPLARY 

(10 pts) 

GOOD 

(8 points) 

ADEQUATE 

(6 pts) 

POOR 

(4 pts) 

NO ANSWER 

(0 pts) 

• Addresses the question 

• States a relevant argument 

• Presents arguments in a logical 

order 

• Uses acceptable style and 

grammar (no errors) 

• Combination of above traits, but 

less consistently represented (1-2 

errors) 

• Does not address the question 

explicitly, though does so 

tangentially 

• States a somewhat relevant 

argument 

• Presents some arguments in a 

logical order 

• Uses adequate style and grammar 

(more than 2 errors) 

• Does not address the question 

• States no relevant arguments 

• Is not clearly or logically 

organised? 

• Fails to use acceptable style and 

grammar 

• Demonstrates an accurate 

and complete 

understanding of the 

question 

• Uses several arguments 

and backs arguments with 

examples, data that support 

the conclusion 

• Same as above but less 

thorough, still accurate 

• Uses only one argument 

and example that supports 

conclusion 

• Demonstrates minimal 

understanding of question, 

still accurate 

• Uses a small subset of 

possible ideas for support 

of the argument. 

• Does not demonstrate 

understanding of the 

question, inaccurate 

• Does not provide 

evidence to support 

response to the question 

Table 4.1 Sample of a Marking Scheme Using the Holistic Method


83 

SUGGESTIONS FOR MARKING OR SCORING ESSAYS 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grade the papers anonymously. This will help control the influence of our 

expectations about the student on the evaluation of the answer. 

Read and score the answers to one question before going on to the next 

question. In other words, score all the students' responses to Question 1 before 

looking at Question 2. This helps to keep one frame of reference and one set of 

criteria in mind through all the papers, which results in more consistent 

grading. It also prevents an impression that we form in reading one question 

from carrying over to our reading of the student's next answer. If a student has 

not done a good job on say the first question; we could let this impression 

influence our evaluation of the student's second answer. But if other students' 

papers come in between, we are less likely to be influenced by the original 

impression. 

If possible, try to grade all the answers to one particular question without 

interruption. Our standards might vary from morning to night, or one day to 

the next. 

Shuffle the papers after each item is cored throughout all the papers. Changing 

the order reduces the context effect and the possibility that a student's score is 

the result of the location of the paper in relationship to other papers. If 

Rakesh‟s „B‟ work is always followed Jamal‟s „A‟ work, then it might look 

more like „C‟ work and his grade would be lower than if his paper were 

somewhere else in the stack. 

Decide in advance how you are going to handle extraneous factors and be 

consistent in applying the rule. Students should be informed about how you 

treat such things as misspelled words, neatness, handwriting, grammar, and so 

on. 

Be on the alert for bluffing. Some students who do not know the answer may 

write a well-organized coherent essay but one containing material irrelevant to 

the question. Decide how to treat irrelevant or inaccurate information 

contained in students' answers. We should not give credit for irrelevant 

material. It is not fair to other students who may also have preferred to write 

on another topic, but instead wrote on the required question. 

Write comments on the students' answers. Teacher comments make essay tests 

a good learning experience for students. They also serve to refresh your 

memory of your evaluation should the student question the grade. 

Be aware of the order in which papers are marked which can have an impact 

on the grades that are awarded. A marker may grow more critical (or more 

lenient) after having read several papers, thus the early papers receive lower 

(or higher) marks than papers of similar quality that are score later.


84 

 

Also, when students are directed to take a stand on a controversial issue, the 

marker must be careful to insure that the evidence and the way it is presented 

is evaluated, NOT the position taken by the student. If the student takes a 

position contrary to that of the marker, the marker must be aware of his or her 

own possible bias in marking the essay because the student‟s position differs 

from that of the marker.


85 

SUMMARY 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

An essay is a test item which requires a response composed by the examinee 

usually in the form of one or more sentences of a nature that no single 

response or pattern of responses can be listed as correct, and the accuracy and 

quality of which can be judged subjectively only by one skilled or informed in 

the subject. 

Two types of essay based on their function: coursework essay and 

examination essay 

Essay questions provide an effective way of assessing complex learning 

outcomes. 

Essay questions provide authentic experiences because constructing responses 

are closer to real life than selecting responses. 

Not possible to assess the student's mastery of the complete subject matter 

domain with just a few questions. 

Essay questions have two variable elements—the degree to which the task is 

structured and the degree to which the scope of the content is focused. 

Whether or not an essay item assesses higher-order thinking depends on the 

design of the question and how students‟ responses are scored. 

Specifying the approximate time limit helps students allocate their time in 

answering several essay questions. 

Avoid using essay questions for intended learning outcomes that are better 

assessed with other kinds of assessment. 

Analytical marking is the system of most frequently used in large-scale public 

examinations and also by teachers in the classroom. Its basic characteristic is 

the marking scheme and the marks allocated for elements in the answer. 

The holistic approach to scoring essay questions involves reading an entire 

response and assigning it to a category identified by a score or grade.


86 

KEY TERMS 

Essay Task & scope Holistic method 

Complex learning Intrascorer reliability Analytical method 

outcomes Mental tasks Model answer 

Inscorer reliability Marking scheme Time consuming 

Constructed responses Rubric Grading 

REFERENCES: 

 

 

 

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, 

Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational 

Objectives. New York: Addison Wesley Longman. 

Ebel. L. (1979). Essentials of Educational Measurement. Englewood Cliff, NJ: 

Prentice-Hall. 

Gramm, B. F. (1981). Measuring Classroom Achievement. NY: Holt, 

Rinehart, Winston, 1981. 

McKeachie, W. J. Teaching Tips. (8th ed.) Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1986. 

 

 

 

 

Moss, A., & Holder, C. (1988). Improving Student Learning: A Guidebook 

For Faculty in All Disciplines. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt. 

Reiner, C., Bothell, T., Sudweeks, R. & Wood, B. (2002). How to Prepare 

Effective Essay Questions. Department of Instructional Psychology & 

Technology. Brigham Young University Testing Services. 

Stalnaker, J. (1951). The Essay Type of Examination. In E.F. Lindquist (Ed). 

Educational Measurement. Menasha, Wisconsin: Geroge Banta. 495-530. 

White, E.M. (1985). Teaching and Assessing Writing: Recent Advances in 

Understanding,Evaluating and Improving Student Performance. San 

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chapter 4: Assessing Learning Outcomes using Essay Tests

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