Trends in Japan's Geography Education : Focusing on the 1980s to ...

<strong>Trends</strong> <strong>in</strong> Japan’s <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> :
Focus<strong>in</strong>g on the 1980s to the Present
TOIDA Katsuki
K<strong>in</strong>ki University
YOSHIMIZU Hiroya
Hyogo University of Teacher <strong>Education</strong>
IWAMOTO Hiromi
Nara University of <strong>Education</strong>
Abstract
This report aims to <strong>in</strong>form the current state of geography education <strong>in</strong> Japan to countries
abroad. An organized effort to create such a report is the first s<strong>in</strong>ce 1980 when the IGU
convention was held <strong>in</strong> Tokyo. This report aims to present the trends <strong>in</strong> Japan’s geography
education s<strong>in</strong>ce 1980, although trends before 1980 may be discussed depend<strong>in</strong>g on the topic.
Chapter I provides an overview about the general geography curriculum <strong>in</strong> Japan. The M<strong>in</strong>istry
of <strong>Education</strong>, Culture, Science, Sports and Technology MEXTcreated the Course of Study to
serve as a standard for the educational curriculum. Therefore the historic development of the
Course of Study is classified. Chapter II presents a discussion of articles and research results
concern<strong>in</strong>g geography education dur<strong>in</strong>g this time period. The subsections are overall review,
geography education research, foreign research, geography curriculum/coursework composition
theory research, cognitive research, and geography education content theory/methodology
theory research. Chapter III describes the promotional activities and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g activities promoted
by academic groups. The ma<strong>in</strong> focus of this chapter will describe the activities that are targeted
for school teachers and children/students regard<strong>in</strong>g geography education.
Key words : geography curriculum, the Course of Study, trends <strong>in</strong> geography education research,
social contribution activities by the geographical society
I<strong>Geography</strong> Curriculum
Work<strong>in</strong>gs of the Course of Study
Follow<strong>in</strong>g World War II, the Japanese government created the Course of Study to serve as a
standard for the educational curriculum. School curriculums are created by the schools or
regional boards of education <strong>in</strong> accordance with the Course of Study that meets the national
educational standards. Also, the textbooks that are authorized by the M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Education</strong>,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology MEXTmust follow the Course of Study.
The Course of Study is divided <strong>in</strong>to the Course of Study for the elementary school, junior high
school and high school. The Ord<strong>in</strong>ance for Enforcement of the School <strong>Education</strong> Act states the

necessity of these guidel<strong>in</strong>es and provides grounds for legal enforcement. On the other hand, the
process to make the guidel<strong>in</strong>es is ensured to be democratically conducted which demonstrates
the difference from the Statism that was practiced before the war.
Therefore, the creation of the Course of Study beg<strong>in</strong>s with a meet<strong>in</strong>g held by the M<strong>in</strong>ister of
<strong>Education</strong>, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology with the Central Council for <strong>Education</strong> to
decide the direction of the guidel<strong>in</strong>es. The Central Council for <strong>Education</strong> consists of experienced
educators as well as bus<strong>in</strong>ess officials from the public where a democratic debate is encouraged.
For new sets of the Course of Study, the Central Council for <strong>Education</strong> utilizes three years to
deliberate the necessary amendments to report to the M<strong>in</strong>ister of <strong>Education</strong>, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology.
New sets of the Course of Study are created from the reports mentioned above. At the same
time, “The Explanation of the Course of Study” is edited for each subject for each grade level <strong>in</strong>
elementary, junior high, and high schools. This document is created from discussions by a group
of collaborators led by the Senior Specialist for Curriculum. The collaborators <strong>in</strong>cluded school
teachers and university researchers. In most cases, the Senior Specialist for Curriculum is an
experienced former educator. “The Explanation of the Course of Study” is edited through
discussions by several education specialists and is used as a valuable reference when schools or
boards of education are creat<strong>in</strong>g the study curriculum or when textbook companies are creat<strong>in</strong>g
textbooks.
The first Course of Study follow<strong>in</strong>g the war was created <strong>in</strong> 1947. At first, revisions were made
every few years, but after the 1960s revisions have been made every about ten years. This is due
to the fact that the deliberation period for new guidel<strong>in</strong>es takes approximately three years, the
composition of the guidel<strong>in</strong>es takes approximately one year, and creation of “The Explanation of
the Course of Study” takes approximately one year for a total of roughly five years. In addition to
those five years, time is required to create textbooks. Although each textbook company
approaches creat<strong>in</strong>g textbooks us<strong>in</strong>g different approaches, creat<strong>in</strong>g textbooks that follow the
Course of Study generally takes about one year for read<strong>in</strong>g the guidel<strong>in</strong>es and com<strong>in</strong>g up with
the plan, one year for writ<strong>in</strong>g and edit<strong>in</strong>g, one year for the M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Education</strong>, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology to conduct its exam<strong>in</strong>ation, and one year to present and adopt
the sample copy for a total of approximately four years.
Today’s world is rapidly chang<strong>in</strong>g along with great advances <strong>in</strong> media which gives rise to the
issue of how to shorten the period of time it takes to update the Course of Study. However, if
the processes listed above are followed, creat<strong>in</strong>g a new Course of Study would take at least eight
to n<strong>in</strong>e years.
Changes to the Course of Study
Many changes have been made to the Course of Study <strong>in</strong> the past 60 years. Figure 1 displays the
ma<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ts of the Social Studies and <strong>Geography</strong> section of the Course of Study from the first
guidel<strong>in</strong>es after the war to the newest edition. Notable po<strong>in</strong>ts from this figure will be mentioned.
First of all, s<strong>in</strong>ce the first Course of Study was created <strong>in</strong> 1947, the title of the subject has
been Social Studies for elementary, junior high and high schools. Social Studies did not exist
before the war <strong>in</strong> Japan, although <strong>in</strong> the United States, Social Studies was a central theme <strong>in</strong> the
education curriculum. Due to these circumstances, Social Studies was implemented under strong
<strong>in</strong>fluence by the United States. The framework and name of the subject is cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> junior
high school, but <strong>in</strong> 1989, the subject was discont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> high school and replaced with

Year 1
Year 2
Table 1.
Ma<strong>in</strong> subject : Our liv<strong>in</strong>g sphere
Unit 1 : How can we make life at school and home more fun ?
Unit 2 : What does our country provide for our daily lives ?
Unit 3 : How are people’s food, cloth<strong>in</strong>g and shelter related to their natural environments ?
Unit 4 : How have the world’s countries become <strong>in</strong>terconnected ?
Ma<strong>in</strong> Subject : Liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the modern <strong>in</strong>dustrialized age
Unit 1 : How has daily life changed <strong>in</strong> cities <strong>in</strong> villages ?
Unit 2 : How has modern <strong>in</strong>dustry developed and affected our daily lives ?
Unit 3 : What should be considered when effectively utiliz<strong>in</strong>g natural resources ?
Unit 4 : What mean<strong>in</strong>g does employment have <strong>in</strong> our daily lives ?
Year 3 Unit 1 : How has our country developed democracy ?
Unit 2 : How does our government work ?
Unit 3 : How can we cooperate to improve our f<strong>in</strong>ancial well be<strong>in</strong>g ?
Unit 4 : How have we passed down our cultural heritage ?
Unit 5 : How can we protect world peace ?
<strong>Geography</strong> and History as well as Civics. In the same year, first and second grade <strong>in</strong> elementary
school removed Social Studies and Science and replaced them with Life Environmental Studies.
Second, as seen <strong>in</strong> the 1947 version of the Course of Study, subjects and courses were absent
while learn<strong>in</strong>g themes such as “problems” or “units” were mentioned. This reflected an
experiencebased education process that was be<strong>in</strong>g practiced <strong>in</strong> the United States. The
frameworks of the education process did not center on specialized academic areas such as
geography, history, or civics, but aimed to teach a comprehensive overview of Social Studies.
Table 1 displays the 1951 version of the junior high school Social Studies units. Although the
units are not divided <strong>in</strong>to <strong>Geography</strong> or History, the content conta<strong>in</strong>s geography and history
elements comb<strong>in</strong>ed with politics and economics to ultimately pose the question of “How can we
protect world peace ?” The classroom style also differed <strong>in</strong> that teachers did not give lectures but
<strong>in</strong>stead guided students <strong>in</strong> problem solv<strong>in</strong>g exercises. This type of experience based learn<strong>in</strong>g
from the 1947 and 1951 versions of Social Studies is referred to as the Early Social Studies.
Third, when look<strong>in</strong>g at the 1955/56 version of the junior high school guidel<strong>in</strong>es, Option A and
Option B are listed <strong>in</strong> parallel, leav<strong>in</strong>g the decision of which option to utilize up to the school or
board of education. Option A switches the focus subject from geography first year, history
second year, to politics and economics third yearand is thus known as the “zabuton Japanese
cushionformat” because zabuton can be easily stacked on top of each other. On the other hand,
Option B teaches geography and history together first and second yearsfollowed by politics and
economics third yearand is known as the “pi format” from the shape of the curriculum or the
“parallel geography and history teach<strong>in</strong>g format.” The difference between the two options is
rooted <strong>in</strong> different theories concern<strong>in</strong>g how to develop knowledge <strong>in</strong> geography and history.
Each option has its merits and demerits and differs on subtle differences, but the guidel<strong>in</strong>es that
follow have generally adopted the “pi format.”
And fourth, <strong>in</strong> elementary and junior high schools, all subjects and areas of study are required,
but <strong>in</strong> high school there are required and elective classes. Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the version of the
Course of Study, there are major differences <strong>in</strong> its stance. Until the 1977/78 version of the
guidel<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>Geography</strong>, Japanese History and World History formerly known as Eastern History and
Western Historywere not required but World History became a required subject beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with
the 1989 version. As a result of the curriculum change <strong>in</strong> 1989, an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number of high
school students did not learn geography and is currently at a very high level. A balance between
geography and history is not be<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed due to this change.

66580(CS2) 戸 井 田 先 生 _kitagawa.<strong>in</strong>dd 1 2012/10/30 15:52:54

Figure 1.
66580(CS2) 戸 井 田 先 生 _kitagawa.<strong>in</strong>dd 2 2012/10/30 15:52:55

Curriculum after the 1980s
As stated previously, the curriculum after the war was referred to as Early Social Studies, and
was based on experience based learn<strong>in</strong>g. However, <strong>in</strong> the 1960s to 1970s the curriculum became
more systematic and was referred to as New subject education. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this time, almost all
courses <strong>Geography</strong>, Japanese History, World History, Politics and Economics, and Ethics and Civics were
required and a vast amount of <strong>in</strong>formation was taught for each course.
This situation was not unique to the Social Studies curriculum but was a basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciple for
both humanities and science subjects. On one hand, this philosophy was crucial <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g a
capable workforce for rapid economic growth but on the other hand it produced a social
problem of cram education, severe competition for entrance exam<strong>in</strong>ations, and ochikobore
students, or students who fell beh<strong>in</strong>d. As a result, a relaxed education became desired which
emphasized more selective curriculum contents, optional courses, and a return to experience
based learn<strong>in</strong>g. The culm<strong>in</strong>ation of these theories became the 1989 version of the Course of
Study.
a1989 Version
We will discuss the characteristics of the 1989 version, especially <strong>in</strong> regards to geography. First,
<strong>in</strong> high school, <strong>Geography</strong> 4 creditsbecame newly divided <strong>in</strong>to <strong>Geography</strong> A 2 creditsand
<strong>Geography</strong> B 4 credits. <strong>Geography</strong> B is a comprehensive course cover<strong>in</strong>g topics from the
previous <strong>Geography</strong> course with a focus on the understand<strong>in</strong>g of the natural environment
landscapes, weather, soils, etc. and developments <strong>in</strong> civilization farm<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>dustry, bus<strong>in</strong>ess, cities,
transportation, culture, etc.. <strong>Geography</strong> A on the other hand, is a newly created course which
compresses <strong>Geography</strong> B and also focuses on a discussion of world issues. Schools can choose
between the two courses which differ <strong>in</strong> the number of credits, which fosters a relaxed education
system. However, as previously stated geography is not a required class and is one option that
can be chosen <strong>in</strong>stead of Japanese history. Many students who prefer math or science select
<strong>Geography</strong> A or B but students who prefer the humanities overwhelm<strong>in</strong>gly choose Japanese
History A or B.
Second, a common characteristic of the curriculum of junior high and high schools was that
the teach<strong>in</strong>g content was very selective and only two or three examples were studied <strong>in</strong>depth.
This enabled a decrease <strong>in</strong> the amount of teach<strong>in</strong>g material and promoted the relaxed education
policies. However, this trend led to issues such as a gap between the level of difficulty of the
entrance exams as well as a possibility of teach<strong>in</strong>g a stereotyped view of the world. In regards to
the latter, environmental issues would always be associated with the Sahel and city problems
with India. This problem is aggravated by the repetitive study<strong>in</strong>g of the topics <strong>in</strong> junior high and
high schools.
b1998/99 Version
<strong>Geography</strong> <strong>in</strong> the 1998/99 version was not significantly changed compared to the 1989 version.
In high school, geography was divided <strong>in</strong>to <strong>Geography</strong> A and B, and only World History A or B
was a required course. Students were required to choose between <strong>Geography</strong> A or B and
Japanese History A or B. The teach<strong>in</strong>g of a limited number of <strong>in</strong>depth examples was carried
over from the last guidel<strong>in</strong>es. Tak<strong>in</strong>g this <strong>in</strong>to account, the follow<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts are noteworthy of
the changes <strong>in</strong> the 1998/99 version.
First, examplebased teach<strong>in</strong>g expanded <strong>in</strong> high schools as well as junior high schools. World

geography <strong>in</strong> junior high schools only focused on roughly three countries and Japanese
geography on three prefectures. As a result, students mostly only learned about the U. S. A.,
Ch<strong>in</strong>a, and Australia while for Japanese prefectures, only Tokyo, Fukuoka, and Yamagata were
taken up by a major textbook. Many people questioned whether such a limited study of
countries and prefectures would provide a sufficient amount of knowledge for geography.
Second, due to the cont<strong>in</strong>uation of the optional nature of geography <strong>in</strong> high schools for two
versions of the guidel<strong>in</strong>es, the selection of geography decreased which <strong>in</strong> turn led to a significant
decrease <strong>in</strong> the utilization of the geography textbook. A major cause of the decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g number of
students who select geography is due to the lack of availability of geography as a test<strong>in</strong>g subject
by both public and private university entrance exams. In Japan, private universities create their
own entrance exams and select the subjects that they <strong>in</strong>clude for test<strong>in</strong>g of the 273 universities
and 860 departments that make “<strong>Geography</strong> and History” an available major, 848 98 . 6%provide
World History as a test<strong>in</strong>g option, 810 94 . 2%for Japanese History, and only 380 44 . 2%for
<strong>Geography</strong> The Association of Japanese Geographers Commission of Geographical <strong>Education</strong>, 2010 Study. Private
universities tend to not provide unpopular subjects as a test<strong>in</strong>g subject. Along with students not
choos<strong>in</strong>g geography, private universities are aggravat<strong>in</strong>g the decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g popularity of geography.
The third po<strong>in</strong>t does not concern geography but it is noteworthy that the revisions <strong>in</strong>cluded
an addition of The Period for Integrated Studies from third year elementary school to junior
high and high schools. This is an overarch<strong>in</strong>g theme not specific to any one subject and aims to
foster the <strong>in</strong>dividual learn<strong>in</strong>g of each student that adds to the experiencebased learn<strong>in</strong>g. As
stated previously, s<strong>in</strong>ce 1989, a return to experience based learn<strong>in</strong>g and a relaxed education
system has been promoted. However, schools had trouble utiliz<strong>in</strong>g this additional subject and
most teachers or schools used this subject to teach from the textbook or teach English. The
extremely limited selection of study topics led to an oppos<strong>in</strong>g view that claimed the curriculum
lacked basic knowledge and dubbed the children who grew up dur<strong>in</strong>g this version of the Course
of Study as the “relaxed educational generation,” which holds a negative connotation.
c2008/09 Version
The newest Course of Study was made public <strong>in</strong> 2008 for elementary and junior high schools
and <strong>in</strong> 2009 for high school. The guidel<strong>in</strong>es were implemented from 2011 for elementary school,
2012 for junior high school and 2013 for high school. This section summarizes the recent
characteristics of geography education through the new Course of Study and new textbooks.
The new Course of Study put an end to the example based teach<strong>in</strong>g that lasted for two
versions of the guidel<strong>in</strong>es or twenty years. The newest version revived the comprehensive
learn<strong>in</strong>g of geographical regions. In agreement with these changes, while the total weekly
study<strong>in</strong>g time of geography has cont<strong>in</strong>ually decl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> recent years Figure 1, the study<strong>in</strong>g time
<strong>in</strong> junior high schools has slightly <strong>in</strong>creased. The number of pages <strong>in</strong> the textbooks has also
<strong>in</strong>creased. The most frequently utilized textbook “Updated <strong>Geography</strong> B” Teikoku sho<strong>in</strong> was
composed of 331 A5sized pages <strong>in</strong> the old version but the new version scaled up the page size
to B5 and also <strong>in</strong>creased the number of pages to 336. The amount of <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>in</strong>creased by
to approximately 1 . 5 times the previous amount. This trend is also seen for high school
textbooks <strong>in</strong> other subjects as well as junior high school textbooks when compared to previously
used versions. These changes <strong>in</strong>dicate that the education system is mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a new direction
from the selective and limited example based teach<strong>in</strong>g that lasted for 20 years, and is now
promot<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>crease of the amount of actual knowledge.

In addition to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>dividuality of learn<strong>in</strong>g, many educational measures have been
set forth to develop model citizens and promote “social participation.” Some people <strong>in</strong>terpret this
as an experiencebased teach<strong>in</strong>g method and th<strong>in</strong>k it is <strong>in</strong>dicative of a return to the Early Social
Studies. The new geography curriculum on one hand strengthens systematic and coursebased
teach<strong>in</strong>g while also provid<strong>in</strong>g opportunities for experiencebased learn<strong>in</strong>g, thus aim<strong>in</strong>g to solve
the seem<strong>in</strong>gly mutually exclusive types of education. This trend is common for geography
education <strong>in</strong> both junior high and high schools.
Future Issues
The 2009 for high school version of the Course of Study did not have any changes <strong>in</strong> regards to
the course structure or required/optional nature of <strong>Geography</strong> and History. World History was
still required with students choos<strong>in</strong>g between <strong>Geography</strong> and Japanese History as their second
course. This means that high school <strong>Geography</strong> will have been an optional course for thirty
years and a worsen<strong>in</strong>g effect on the current situation concern<strong>in</strong>g geography education can be
predicted. Although the new Course of Study has been made recently, a plan to restore
geography education is needed for the next set of revisions. A balanced opportunity to learn
geography and history is needed to expand the temporal and spatial th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g abilities of people
<strong>in</strong> Japan.
In order to do so, the current group<strong>in</strong>gs of <strong>Geography</strong>, Japanese History and World History
may need to be restructured <strong>in</strong>to two courses divided <strong>in</strong>to <strong>Geography</strong> and History. Due to the
reduction <strong>in</strong> credits required for graduation, specific division of courses, and five day school
weeks it has become <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly difficult to teach three courses, so a radical change such as
divid<strong>in</strong>g the coursework <strong>in</strong>to <strong>Geography</strong> and History may be needed.
In that case, a possible division of coursework could be a choice between History of
Humank<strong>in</strong>d 4 creditsor Modern History 2 creditsand a choice between <strong>Geography</strong> A 2 credits
or <strong>Geography</strong> B 4 creditsCourse titles are hypothetical. In this case, it would be necessary to
develop the content of History of Humank<strong>in</strong>d and Modern History to <strong>in</strong>clude world history and
Japanese history.
II<strong>Trends</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research after the 1980s
In this chapter, we will review the results of research studies conducted on geography education
<strong>in</strong> Japan primarily through academic journals and books. <strong>Geography</strong> education research
discussed here refers to school education. We would like to discuss the trends <strong>in</strong> elementary,
junior high, and high schools concern<strong>in</strong>g geography education. We used the “Academic
perspectives” section of the journal “Human <strong>Geography</strong>” as a reference to come up with the
subsections of this review. The subsections are overall review, geography education research,
foreign research, geography curriculum/coursework composition theory research, cognitive
research, and geography education content theory/methodology theory research. Due to spatial
limitations, a comprehensive review of all important articles cannot be <strong>in</strong>troduced. With the
development of geography education for the future <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d, articles that the author deemed to
be most important will be <strong>in</strong>troduced.
Table 2 displays an organized view of academic meet<strong>in</strong>gs and journals concern<strong>in</strong>g geography
education follow<strong>in</strong>g the war. In addition, commercial journals that relate to geography education
such as the monthly magaz<strong>in</strong>e “Chiri <strong>Geography</strong>” Kokonsho<strong>in</strong>, October 1956 First Issue and the

M/Y
Table 2.
9 . 1947 Start of the Social Studies Class
Events related to Academic Meet<strong>in</strong>gs and Journals
11 . 1950 The Foundation of The Geographic <strong>Education</strong> Society of Japan
4 . 1951 The Foundation of Japanese <strong>Education</strong>al Research Association for the Social Studies Orig<strong>in</strong>ally named the Japanese Social
Studies <strong>Education</strong> Research Association
2 . 1952 The Foundation of Japanese Association for the Social StudiesOrig<strong>in</strong>ally named the Japanese <strong>Education</strong> Universities Social
Studies <strong>Education</strong> Academic Meet<strong>in</strong>g
4 . 1952 First Published of ‘Sh<strong>in</strong> Chiri The New <strong>Geography</strong>’
2 . 1953 First Published of ‘Shakaika Kyouiku Ronso Bullet<strong>in</strong> of Japanese <strong>Education</strong>al Research Association for Social Studies’
‘ShakaikaKenkyu Journal of <strong>Education</strong>al Research on Social Studies’ Jo<strong>in</strong>t issue between both journals and focused on
theoretical research
3 . 1953 First Published of ‘Shakaika Kyouiku Kenkyu The Journal of Social Studies’
11 . 1989 The Foundation of <strong>Education</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Social Studies Department Research Association Japan
10 . 1990 First Published of ‘Shakaikei Kyouka Kyouikugaku Kenkyu Journal of Research on <strong>Education</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Social Studies
Department’
11 . 2007 The Foundation of The Japan Association for Geographical <strong>Education</strong>
3 . 2008 First Publish of ‘Chiri Kyouiku Kenkyu Journal of Geographical <strong>Education</strong>’
monthly magaz<strong>in</strong>e “Kyouiku Kagaku Shakaika Kyouiku <strong>Education</strong>al Science Social Studies <strong>Education</strong>”
Meijitosho, October 1964 First Issue. These two magaz<strong>in</strong>es have played a major role <strong>in</strong> shap<strong>in</strong>g
geography education.
In addition to the Human Geographical Society of Japan and the Association of Japanese
Geographers, academic meet<strong>in</strong>gs concern<strong>in</strong>g social studies education and geography education
became the center of the development and deepen<strong>in</strong>g of geography research.
By the 1980s, national education universities provided master’s degrees for education and
several students wrote their master’s theses on geography education. Also, some national
universities provided doctoral degrees. For example, University of Tsukuba, Hiroshima
University, and from 1996, Tokyo Gakugei University and Hyogo University of Teacher
<strong>Education</strong>. This set the stage for doctoral theses concern<strong>in</strong>g geography education.
Overall Review
One of the achievements of geography education research is the completion of an encyclopedia
and lecture books multiple times over the course of 30 years.
The Geographic <strong>Education</strong> Society of Japan 2006created an encyclopedia cover<strong>in</strong>g 139 topics
that <strong>in</strong>cluded explanations of basic term<strong>in</strong>ology/concepts and theories/practices related to
geography education. The ma<strong>in</strong> purpose of the encyclopedia is to provide <strong>in</strong>formation for
geography education. The Human Geographical Society of Japan 2013 <strong>in</strong>cluded 12 items
concern<strong>in</strong>g geography education <strong>in</strong> its “Human <strong>Geography</strong> Encyclopedia”.
A four book collection of geography lectures as a lecture book series was published Nakamura
et al. 2009. This series covers the purpose, history, curriculum, content, and teach<strong>in</strong>g methods of
geography education.
S<strong>in</strong>ce the mid1950s, a concept of “geographical view/th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g” has developed. It is believed
that there are conceptual theories and academic skills that are unique to the subject of
geography. This “geographical view/th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g” is the academic skill that many academics believe
is what should be developed <strong>in</strong> students. The Course of Study made public <strong>in</strong> 1969 <strong>in</strong>cluded the
skill of “geographical view/th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g” as a skill to develop and the high school version of the
guidel<strong>in</strong>es also placed this skill as a goal for students to learn. However, as Toida 1999has

<strong>in</strong>dicated, there is not common understat<strong>in</strong>g of the mean<strong>in</strong>g of this concept at the level of
geography education.
Kusahara 2004 believes that geography education is a measure to develop the next
generations of leaders of the nation and society, a purposeful education tool, and a central
subject. He developed a new framework named “<strong>Education</strong> to develop leaders of a democratic
nation and society” to reth<strong>in</strong>k the theories govern<strong>in</strong>g geography education. He used geography
education research <strong>in</strong> America as a reference when develop<strong>in</strong>g the new framework. He concludes
that geography education that contributes to the development of its citizens is “desirable for the
development of scientific social awareness.” He has created curriculums, chapters for the
education process, and recommendations for professor lecture schedules based on research
results and communicate the necessity of geography <strong>in</strong> social studies education.
There are also other books that have discussed geography education theories notably Nishiwaki
1993, Sakurai 1999, Yamaguchi 2002, Ida 2005.
Historical Research
Selected studies will be discussed concern<strong>in</strong>g research on the history of geography education and
history of geography education theories which serve as a backdrop for the implementation of
geography education policies. The research area covers a broad topic <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g geography
concepts, geography education theories, and implementation research.
Iwata 1985aexpla<strong>in</strong>s the problems with the implementation of the Landscape theory <strong>in</strong> Japan
by Taro Tsujimura. He especially argues that Schluter’s landscape theory was not appropriately
<strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> Tsujimura’s implementation. Iwata 1985banalyzed the actual usage of Landscape
geography education conducted by Kumataro Yamamoto. Iwata po<strong>in</strong>ts out the gap between
us<strong>in</strong>g philosophical ideologies as a base for implement<strong>in</strong>g the Landscape theory while us<strong>in</strong>g
quantitative methods to design the classes. Iwata mentions that a discrepancy arises when
analysis and overall theory is brought down to the implementation level. This research can be
grouped <strong>in</strong> the realm of history of geography education theory.
In order to research the history of educational process theories <strong>in</strong> geography, Kondo 2006
<strong>in</strong>vestigated the roles of four geography researchers and their views on geography education. The
four researchers are Naomasa Yamasaki, Takuji Ogawa, Goro Ishibashi, and Keiji Tanaka who
played major roles <strong>in</strong> the development of Japan’s modern geography. Kondo discusses the roles
that each person played and places them on a historical timel<strong>in</strong>e of <strong>in</strong>fluential geography
education researchers.
Gion 2009conducted a study that looked at the history of geography education <strong>in</strong> Fukuoka
prefecture from before and after World War II. This study clarified that social studies education
dur<strong>in</strong>g the Meiji and Taisho periods conta<strong>in</strong>ed early forms of develop<strong>in</strong>g a scientific social
awareness. The research study is entitled “Discont<strong>in</strong>uation of social studies education before and
after the war.”
Overseas Research
Many studies have been conducted on geography research <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g
theories on education and curriculum components as well as studies that provide <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to the
development of social studies education <strong>in</strong> Japan.
Nakayama 1991reported on the geography education revival movement that occurred <strong>in</strong> the
United States dur<strong>in</strong>g 1987 to 1988. The geography revival movement’s actions <strong>in</strong> M<strong>in</strong>nesota and

the “Elementary and Junior High School <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es” <strong>in</strong> the United States
were translated <strong>in</strong> this report. Along with the revisions of the Course of Study when it was
decided that social studies would be broken up <strong>in</strong> high school, a strong response was elicited
due to the fact that changes <strong>in</strong> geography education was not unique to Japan. Tabe 2008focuses
on the textbooks written by the “father of American geography,” Morse as well as Goodrich who
is known for “Parley’s Universal History”. He expla<strong>in</strong>s the establishment process of modern
geography education. This study clarifies the establishments of modern geography education <strong>in</strong>
America and Europe, which is an achievement <strong>in</strong> itself.
Shimura 2010describes the state of geography education <strong>in</strong> England through the “<strong>Geography</strong> :
The National Curriculum for England”. This study captures the big picture by not only
referenc<strong>in</strong>g articles but also by visit<strong>in</strong>g several elementary and junior high schools and hold<strong>in</strong>g
discussions with researchers. The study <strong>in</strong>cluded perspectives on the strengthen<strong>in</strong>g of topics for
environmental geography that <strong>in</strong>cludes susta<strong>in</strong>able changes, studies on textbooks and teach<strong>in</strong>g
materials such as maps, studies on scheme of work, geography education revival movements <strong>in</strong>
England, graphicacy, sample studies, and case studies. This research is comprehensive and
detailed, thus a valuable reference s<strong>in</strong>ce geography education <strong>in</strong> England is frequently raised as
an example when discuss<strong>in</strong>g geography education <strong>in</strong> Japan.
Murayama 2005discussed the Swedish textbook “The Wonderful Adventures of Nils” which
is used <strong>in</strong> upper level elementary schools <strong>in</strong> Sweden. She uses the textbook to provide
perspective on the joy of learn<strong>in</strong>g geography from a child’s perspective. From there, <strong>in</strong>stead of
teach<strong>in</strong>g the regional produce of <strong>in</strong>dividual areas, general geographical rules on various scales to
learn phenomena will promote the richness of the content taught <strong>in</strong> geography education. Also,
geography education promotes the awareness and respect of diversity <strong>in</strong> regions as well as
respect and love for the earth that supports life. Murayama suggests that this could be what is
lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Japan’s geography education.
Ida 1995reports on the popularity of geography education <strong>in</strong> New Zealand. Arai 2011also
clarifies the content of citizen development education <strong>in</strong> New Zealand junior high schools.
<strong>Geography</strong> Curriculum/Course Composition Theory Research
In Japan, the Course of Study was created after the war under the supervision of the GHQ. The
provisional Course of Study was created <strong>in</strong> 1947. S<strong>in</strong>ce then the Course of Study has been
periodically revised and serves as a legally b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g document. Therefore, the motivation for
elementary and junior high school teachers to <strong>in</strong>dividually develop their own curriculums did
not arise. Schools only needed to teach accord<strong>in</strong>g to certified textbooks. A byproduct of the
Course of Study was that teachers lost <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the composition of the curriculum. However,
Ito 1994 stated that “the greatest mistake and crime of social studies is that history and
geography were <strong>in</strong>cluded with<strong>in</strong> the subject”. Due to the unstable nature of the balance between
geography and history with<strong>in</strong> the required social studies class sparked countless debates. Social
studies and geography education researchers worked to study the curriculum with<strong>in</strong> the Course
of Study. Curriculum research was based on foreign curriculum component theories and the
creation of curriculums looked to ga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>sight from these foreign studies.
Iwata 1986argues that the <strong>Geography</strong> textbook should be utilized <strong>in</strong> an easy to understand
lecture based on the components of knowledge and geographical views/th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. He presents a
lecture structure that allows for students to search for concepts <strong>in</strong> geography and enables them
to differentiate between “understand<strong>in</strong>g” and “know<strong>in</strong>g.” He based his work on social science

esearch studies. Recently, due to the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the PISA test, there has been a trend to
promote explanations and descriptions but Iwata has been push<strong>in</strong>g this type of explanation
based learn<strong>in</strong>g. Iwata also understood that social studies is a subject to develop model citizens
for society. He conducted a value analysis referred to as rational decisionmak<strong>in</strong>g of the
potential of citizens. He was a proponent of classes that allowed students to search for concepts
and analyze values with<strong>in</strong> societies i. e. Iwata 1991. This type of explanation based learn<strong>in</strong>g and
normative knowledge based teach<strong>in</strong>g was agreeable with the Course of Study and teachers were
able to understand it as well. These teach<strong>in</strong>g styles became the impetus to create geography
education content and promoted research on social studies education.
Ando 1993studied the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples underly<strong>in</strong>g the social studies curriculum for the United
States elementary schools. His theory on curriculums was an extension of P. R. Hanna’s theory <strong>in</strong>
the “expand<strong>in</strong>g communities of men” section <strong>in</strong> the article written <strong>in</strong> 1956 entitled “Society,
Children, Curriculums.” It is that Hanna’s theory has been modified to become <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>
Japan’s social studies curriculum. Expand<strong>in</strong>g Environments is a foundation for Japan’s elementary
school social studies curriculum.
Kusahara 1996 demonstrated that the HSGP curriculum structure that was previously
unpopular among geographers and geography education researchers was actually wellbalanced
for its use for teach<strong>in</strong>g social studies. This study was ground break<strong>in</strong>g and serves as one of the
basic references when discuss<strong>in</strong>g geography education with<strong>in</strong> the realm of the subject of social
studies.
Saito 2003 received <strong>in</strong>fluence from J. Piaget’s research on cognitive development and
proposed a “Developmental <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Theory”. This theory strives to match “spatial
experiences,” “knowledge acquisition” of the world, and “skill acquisition” with a child’s
development to teach <strong>in</strong>ternational understand<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>ternational politics, and environmental
problems while creat<strong>in</strong>g a connection with modern society. This perspective has led to new
curriculum theories as well as experimental research on children’s spatial cognition.
Nagata 2009studied the “lifestyle studies” taught <strong>in</strong> Asakusa elementary schools <strong>in</strong> the early
Showa period and analyzed the geography curriculum that was utilized dur<strong>in</strong>g this time. He
demonstrated the history of national education curriculums and its contrast<strong>in</strong>g structure to
world/country spatial formations from the perspective of “production of space” by H. Lefebvre.
Cognitive Research
One important aspect of geography education research is that experimental research has been
conducted on the expansion of a child’s worldview or spatial awareness. After the 1970s,
humanities based geography became prom<strong>in</strong>ent which <strong>in</strong>fluence geography education dur<strong>in</strong>g
that era. Experimental geography education research focused on spatial and locational awareness.
Researchers aimed to experimentally measure the changes <strong>in</strong> children’s experiences, perceptions,
and awareness. These research trends are <strong>in</strong>troduced by Iwamoto et al. 1985and Teramoto
2003.
Iwamoto 1981studied the visual environment of children and the structure of their local
environments while referenc<strong>in</strong>g Hart’s Hart 1979theories. He succeeded <strong>in</strong> measur<strong>in</strong>g the spatial
doma<strong>in</strong>s of children who live <strong>in</strong> cities. This research is a valuable resource conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g
experimental results that can be used when creat<strong>in</strong>g a geography curriculum or select<strong>in</strong>g the
content of the geography education. Teramoto 1984utilized handwritten maps to understand
the activity doma<strong>in</strong>s of children through detailed fieldwork. Onishi 1999demonstrated through

handwritten maps about children’s understand<strong>in</strong>g of their environment. Teramoto and Onishi
2004compiled their research results concern<strong>in</strong>g spatial understand<strong>in</strong>g and provided a novel
perspective regard<strong>in</strong>g geography for children which focuses on their use of spatial skills <strong>in</strong> their
daily lives. This view raised a new way to th<strong>in</strong>k about the problems surround<strong>in</strong>g cognition and
understand<strong>in</strong>g of geography raised <strong>in</strong> the area of geography education.
Yamaguchi 2002created a collection of his research f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> which high orig<strong>in</strong>ality is
shown <strong>in</strong> the section regard<strong>in</strong>g the development of children’s geography awareness. He believes
that children’s geography awareness has three stages : “preparation period,” “development period,”
and “deepen<strong>in</strong>g period.” The “development period” is also known as the “explosive growth
period” which is crucial to understand <strong>in</strong> order to create a successful curriculum for geography
education. His views are persuasive due to the great amount of data he uses as evidence.
Content Theory and Methodology Research Related to <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
Content theory research dur<strong>in</strong>g post war geography education <strong>in</strong> Japan was a reflection of social
conditions. The Course of Study also reflects the social conditions and is also responsive to
developments and trends <strong>in</strong> academia. Environmental conditions were discussed <strong>in</strong> the cognitive
research section, so here we will discuss <strong>in</strong>ternational understand<strong>in</strong>g.
International understand<strong>in</strong>g was <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the studies of foreign countries <strong>in</strong> high
schools s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1970s. The aims of the course are to promote understand<strong>in</strong>g of other countries
and teach students about foreign lifestyles and culture. Nishiwaki 1993discusses the aim for
geography education to develop world citizenship. He argues that <strong>in</strong>ternational understand<strong>in</strong>g
education should not stop at simple memorization or understand<strong>in</strong>g of facts but should promote
a student’s ability to participate <strong>in</strong> society. Nishiwaki discusses how geography education can
play a role <strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g how to participate <strong>in</strong> society. Nishioka 1996wrote the first systematic
development education book by a geography education specialist. His aim was to understand the
causative factors and reality of poverty <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries and class differences between the
north and south. He also discusses how we can change our attitudes to overcome these issues.
Research on education methodology is a broad topic <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g maps globes, atlases, topography
maps, GIS, landscape pictures which are uniquely tailored for geography education, simulation
materials which were <strong>in</strong>fluenced from western textbooks, discovery of teach<strong>in</strong>g topic, scale
theory, and the study of the development of citizenship.
In regards to GIS, Murayama 2004 has compiled theories related to GIS for geography
research and Ito 2010has developed a lowbudget GIS program that can be easily used and
could be utilized <strong>in</strong> the classroom. Ito <strong>in</strong>troduces his f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> his article.
In regards to simulation teach<strong>in</strong>g resources, Watanabe 1984<strong>in</strong>troduced a simulation game
used <strong>in</strong> geography textbooks <strong>in</strong> England. Nishiwaki 1989has reported an orig<strong>in</strong>al simulation
teach<strong>in</strong>g resource. Yamaguchi et al. 1993 <strong>in</strong>troduced and conducted a study on a foreign
simulation teach<strong>in</strong>g resource as well as an orig<strong>in</strong>al resource. They compiled research results
concern<strong>in</strong>g a group of simulation resources.
In regards to ESD, Onishi 2008 translated the Luzern proclamation which is a valuable
resource that touches upon susta<strong>in</strong>able development of geography education. Nakayama et al.
2011<strong>in</strong>troduced concrete examples of ways <strong>in</strong> which to <strong>in</strong>corporate the perspective from the
U.N.’s report entitled “Ten years of ESD” as well as suggested examples for the development of
geography education.
There are many studies that are related the development of geography units or lessons.

As a basic study for unit development, Yoshimizu 2002arranged the standards of the learn<strong>in</strong>g
problem about the location and distribution concept based on the results of geographical
research to secure the validity of learn<strong>in</strong>g contents <strong>in</strong> the curriculum. Yoshimizu 2011
performed unit development us<strong>in</strong>g multi scale approach based on the concept of the
geographical scale. Takeuchi 2012proposes a geography education that is based on various
scales with an aim for multi layered citizenship resource development with<strong>in</strong> the realm of
geography education.
Future Issues
Look<strong>in</strong>g back at Japan’s geography education demonstrates the broad and detailed nature of
research, but also <strong>in</strong>dicates the relative scarcity <strong>in</strong> research on geographical theories, rat<strong>in</strong>gs of
knowledge acquisition, and rat<strong>in</strong>gs of lectures. These are some of the tasks that need to be
addressed.
As Kusahara 2007has po<strong>in</strong>ted out, Japan’s geography education is becom<strong>in</strong>g polarized. One
of the views is “Region/environment centered view” while the other is “Society/structure
centered view.” The former is an applied version of traditional geography education. Supporters
of this trend argue that geography education should use geography as its fundamental base.
However the latter view attempts to place geography <strong>in</strong> the context of social studies. Supporters
of this view stress the importance of develop<strong>in</strong>g awareness of society rather than recogniz<strong>in</strong>g
regions. Saito 1988argued that geography education research should collaborate with other
fields such as philosophy, educational studies, and cultural humanities among other subjects. At
this po<strong>in</strong>t, the two views may be able to exchange ideas and work together <strong>in</strong>stead of diverge.
IIISocial Contribution Activities and <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> by the Geographical Society of Japan
The Orig<strong>in</strong> and Background of Social Contribution Activities by the Geographical Society
aNeeds and Background of Social Contribution Activities
The social contribution activities by the geographical society referred to <strong>in</strong> this document
<strong>in</strong>cludes all activities that are planned and conducted as an organization for non members. The
ma<strong>in</strong> focus of this section will describe the activities that are targeted for school teachers and
children/students regard<strong>in</strong>g geography education.
In recent years, the geographical society regularly holds events that non members can
participate <strong>in</strong> for free such as competitions. Many of the geographical society’s activities are
strongly conscious of provid<strong>in</strong>g social contributions.
There are two ma<strong>in</strong> problems with the <strong>in</strong>volvement of the geographical society <strong>in</strong> social
contribution activities.
The first po<strong>in</strong>t is that the geography is becom<strong>in</strong>g socialized. Currently, many university
students who majored <strong>in</strong> geography become employed <strong>in</strong> various fields <strong>in</strong> society and promote
the socialization of geography. These students are likely to be putt<strong>in</strong>g geography to use <strong>in</strong> their
respective new fields. However, the current situation <strong>in</strong> our society has a lack of awareness of
the utility of geography partly due to the fact that a national certificate concern<strong>in</strong>g geography
has not been available. In order for the general public to understand the utility and importance
of geography, the geographical society must work to develop certificate exams and transmit
<strong>in</strong>formation to the general public about geography.
The second po<strong>in</strong>t is that a revival of geography education is desired <strong>in</strong> the current state of a

low percentage of students choos<strong>in</strong>g geography <strong>in</strong> high school. Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with the 1978 version
of the Course of Study, Contemporary Society became a required course lead<strong>in</strong>g to the decl<strong>in</strong>e
of the popularity of geography. The 1989 version of the Course of Study further aggravated this
issue dismantl<strong>in</strong>g Social Studies and creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Geography</strong> and History that required either World
History A or World History B Kohno 1996. The geographical society has repeatedly voiced its
op<strong>in</strong>ions for reform to the M<strong>in</strong>istry of <strong>Education</strong>, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and is
still attempt<strong>in</strong>g to br<strong>in</strong>g about a change <strong>in</strong> policy. On one hand, policy reform is important, but
the promotion of the contents of geography education to make the material more compell<strong>in</strong>g is
also important. This issue br<strong>in</strong>gs about the necessity to work with school teachers as well as
students and children.
This document presents the activities of the Association of Japanese Geographers and the
Human Geographical Society of Japan <strong>in</strong> regards to social contributions. The mean<strong>in</strong>g of these
activities will also be discussed.
bThe Creation and Developments of Public Events Held by the Geographical Society of Japan
The “Geographical Review of Japan Series A” and “Japanese Journal of Human <strong>Geography</strong>” are
often cited as a reference to clarify when the Association of Japanese Geographers became active
<strong>in</strong> social contributions. In this section, we will discuss the publicly held events such as lectures,
sem<strong>in</strong>ars, and symposiums.
The fall competition of the Association of Japanese Geographers was held <strong>in</strong> Joetsu University
of <strong>Education</strong> <strong>in</strong> September 1990. A lecture was conducted at this venue although the program
did not explicitly <strong>in</strong>dicate that the lecture was “publicly available.” This is essentially the
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the publicly open events. Ryutaro Asakura spoke to attendees who attend to the
lecture at attached junior high school Joetsu University of <strong>Education</strong>. The theme of the lecture
was “Look<strong>in</strong>g Back and Forward on <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> : Us<strong>in</strong>g Practical Examples.” In the fall
competition of October 1991 held <strong>in</strong> Shimane University, Yoshihisa Fujita, Shigenori Sh<strong>in</strong>ohara
and others lectured about the “Increase <strong>in</strong> Elderly, Decreas<strong>in</strong>g Population, Settlement Issue :
From a <strong>Geography</strong> Perspective.” The lectures took place <strong>in</strong> the Matsue City General Welfare
Center. At the time, <strong>in</strong>corporation of the Association of Japanese Geographers was the top
priority thus lead<strong>in</strong>g to the end of the public events.
Public lectures by the Association of Japanese Geographers were conducted <strong>in</strong> 1997, 2004, and
2005 but have not been planned s<strong>in</strong>ce. Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2006, the symposium dur<strong>in</strong>g the
competition became publicly available and has cont<strong>in</strong>ued until 2012. The 2010 competition held
at Nagoya University had ten publicly available symposiums. It can be said that publicly available
events are engra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the current Association of Japanese Geographers. However it is unclear
how many attendees of the symposium were non members.
The Human Geographical Society of Japan conducted a public lecture <strong>in</strong> November 1998 at
the Kyoto public hall to celebrate its 50 th
anniversary. The theme was “Internationalized Social
Space and Regional Lifestyles.” This was the first public event organized by the Human
Geographical Society of Japan. The three lecturers were Kozo Narita, Keiichi Takeuchi, and
Komei Sasaki. It was reported that 160 people were general members of the public that attended
to the event.
S<strong>in</strong>ce its 50 th
anniversary, the Human Geographical Society of Japan began to plan public
sem<strong>in</strong>ars and public events. In December 1999, the board of directors created a future structure
committee. The committee raised an important aim as “<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g social contributions” thus

plac<strong>in</strong>g social contributions as one of its important activities. Follow<strong>in</strong>g these changes, the
Human Geographical Society of Japan held its first public sem<strong>in</strong>ar at the Osaka labor center
located <strong>in</strong> the Chuo ward of Osaka Theme : “Frontiers of Human <strong>Geography</strong>”. The Human
Geographical Society of Japan held this event separate from its competitions and has cont<strong>in</strong>ued
to hold public sem<strong>in</strong>ars with<strong>in</strong> the K<strong>in</strong>ki Region. Each public sem<strong>in</strong>ar tackles issues that are
raised <strong>in</strong> general society. The theme for the sem<strong>in</strong>ar held on November 2011 <strong>in</strong> Rikkyo
University was “Rebuild<strong>in</strong>g and Reviv<strong>in</strong>g follow<strong>in</strong>g the Great East Japan Earthquake and Disaster :
Proposals from Human <strong>Geography</strong> and Proposals for Human <strong>Geography</strong>.”
Although the first <strong>in</strong>stances of social contributions by the Human Geographical Society of
Japan were <strong>in</strong> the 1990s, fullfledged participation did not occur until after 2000.
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Association of Japanese Geographers and the Human Geographical Society
of Japan, they conduct these public events for the general public but these events also promote
social contributions activities <strong>in</strong> the field of geography education which will be described <strong>in</strong> the
follow<strong>in</strong>g sections.
Activities Targeted Towards Teachers
aActivities by the Commission of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> for the Association for Japanese Geographers
The Association of Japanese Geographers created the Commission of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> <strong>in</strong>
1998 to generate more <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> geography education. S<strong>in</strong>ce then, they have been active <strong>in</strong>
hold<strong>in</strong>g public events for teachers as well as the general public. The purpose of these endeavors
is to make people aware of the utility of geography and aga<strong>in</strong> to generate more <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong>
geography education.
One of the ma<strong>in</strong> activities conducted by the Commission of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> is to plan
the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Public Lecture dur<strong>in</strong>g the competitions. The fall 2012 competition will
mark its 22 nd
time runn<strong>in</strong>g, hav<strong>in</strong>g occurred every time s<strong>in</strong>ce the fall 2001 competition. The
purpose of this lecture is to provide <strong>in</strong>formation from geography field researchers for topics that
can be used as a teach<strong>in</strong>g resource for geography education Shimura 2007.
The overall theme of the first <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Public Lecture that took place dur<strong>in</strong>g the
2001 fall competition was “Professionals Speak about their Field : Learn<strong>in</strong>g about the World
through <strong>Geography</strong> First Lecture Turkey.” Yasuyuki Nishiwaki lectured about “Turkey and its
Spatial Perspective,” and Toshihiko Sugai lectured about “The People Who Live <strong>in</strong> the North
Anatolian Fault.” The regions that were focused on <strong>in</strong> the next lecture <strong>in</strong>clude America <strong>in</strong> the
second lecture, Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>in</strong> the third, New Zealand <strong>in</strong> the fourth, India <strong>in</strong> the fifth, South Korea <strong>in</strong>
the sixth, and England <strong>in</strong> the seventh. The 2008 fall competition focused on “ESD and
<strong>Geography</strong>” and lectures that followed did not focus on a specific region. However, the purpose
of the lectures rema<strong>in</strong>s the same <strong>in</strong> that it generates <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> geography education.
The Commission of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> also conducts sem<strong>in</strong>ars s<strong>in</strong>ce 2007 for teachers <strong>in</strong>
elementary and junior high schools. The sem<strong>in</strong>ars focus on geographical teach<strong>in</strong>g techniques
with themes <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g “How to Utilize Maps with Literature” and “Creation of Thematic Figures
and Distribution Figures Us<strong>in</strong>g Map Software.” Many teachers have become geography teachers
without any geographical skills Akimoto et al. 2010.
One of the sem<strong>in</strong>ars was conducted by Yoshiyasu Ida <strong>in</strong> February 2007 <strong>in</strong> Saitama Prefecture.
The attendees were junior high school social studies teachers who were not specialized <strong>in</strong>
geography. Ida <strong>in</strong>troduced “Twenty Four Eyes” which is a literary work of Japan. He connected
the plot with a 50 , 000 : 1 map and taught with the goal of foster<strong>in</strong>g geographical skills. This

sem<strong>in</strong>ar was received well by the participants Ida 2007.
bEfforts by the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research Group for Human Geographical Society of Japan
The Human Geographical Society of Japan created the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research Group <strong>in</strong>
2005. This group was <strong>in</strong>tended to conduct activities to generate <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> geography education.
The <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research Group ma<strong>in</strong>ly plans events for members as well as hold<strong>in</strong>g a
<strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Summer Sem<strong>in</strong>ar. The <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Summer Sem<strong>in</strong>ar targets
elementary and junior high school teachers who are not members. S<strong>in</strong>ce 2005, the summer
sem<strong>in</strong>ar has been conducted every year.
The First <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Summer Sem<strong>in</strong>ar was conducted <strong>in</strong> August 2005 <strong>in</strong> Kyotanabe
with an overall theme of “Creat<strong>in</strong>g Teach<strong>in</strong>g Resources from Regional Examples.” A field trip was
conducted led by Yoshifumi Kokudai <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g and participants observed the natural levees
and raised bed river near Kizu River. In the afternoon, Takashi Kagawa lectured about GIS and
thematic figures and Kiyotsugu Saito reported case studies from geography education Chiri
editorial department 2005.
S<strong>in</strong>ce the first sem<strong>in</strong>ar, the comb<strong>in</strong>ation of a field trip followed by lectures has been followed
and many prefectures have been visited <strong>in</strong> the K<strong>in</strong>ki Region to conduct the summer sem<strong>in</strong>ar.
Collaborations have also been made with local geography groups. The 2006 sem<strong>in</strong>ar was
conducted <strong>in</strong> Nish<strong>in</strong>omiya, Hyogo collaboration with the Hyogo <strong>Geography</strong> Association, 2007 <strong>in</strong>
Kishiwada, Osaka collaboration with the Wakayama <strong>Geography</strong> Society, 2008 <strong>in</strong> Ikeda, Osaka collaboration
with the Osaka Kyoiku University <strong>Geography</strong> Society, 2009 <strong>in</strong> Okayama, Okayama collaboration with the
Society for Systematic Regional <strong>Geography</strong>, 2010 <strong>in</strong> Nara, Nara collaboration with the Nara <strong>Geography</strong> Society,
2011 <strong>in</strong> Otsu, Shiga collaboration with the Shiga <strong>Geography</strong> Society, and 2012 <strong>in</strong> Gifu, Gifu collaboration
with the Gifu <strong>Geography</strong> Society. Each sem<strong>in</strong>ar attracts about 50 participants maximum 75 participants
from across the country.
A characteristic of the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Summer Sem<strong>in</strong>ar is that field trips are scheduled
<strong>in</strong> almost all of the sem<strong>in</strong>ars. Aga<strong>in</strong>, the participants are elementary and junior high school
teachers, university professors, students, and graduate students which provide an opportunity for
participants to stimulate each other.
Activities for Children/Students
aScience <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad Japan Competition
The social contributions target<strong>in</strong>g children/students that is most active is the Science and
<strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad Japan Championship here<strong>in</strong> referred to as Championships.
The Championships began <strong>in</strong> 2007 and 2012 marks the sixth time. The Championships also
serves as a prelim<strong>in</strong>ary event for the International <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad held by the International
<strong>Geography</strong> Union. The purpose of this event is to revive geography education by hav<strong>in</strong>g high
school students compete <strong>in</strong> the areas of “knowledge/concepts,” “thought process/decision
mak<strong>in</strong>g,” and “skills/expression” of geography knowledge. At the same time, the students will be
challenged by questions of <strong>in</strong>ternational standards and serves as an opportunity to reexam<strong>in</strong>e the
geography education <strong>in</strong> Japan. It also creates an opportunity to th<strong>in</strong>k about the social utility of
geography Izumi and Iwamoto 2012.
<strong>Geography</strong> educators from Asia and across the world have come to expect Japan to emerge as
a leader <strong>in</strong> geography education and the participation of Japan <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad
serves to at least <strong>in</strong> part, live up to those expectations Ida 2008.

There were only 13 participants <strong>in</strong> the 2007 Championships but the first round of the 2012
Championships <strong>in</strong>cluded 571 high school students. The 2012 F<strong>in</strong>al Round Championships was
held on March 11 th with 117 participants. Out of the 11 gold medal w<strong>in</strong>ners, four members will
compete <strong>in</strong> Cologne, Germany <strong>in</strong> August <strong>in</strong> the 9 th
International <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad as
Japanese representatives .
The questions from the 2012 Championships were all multimedia test questions MMQbut
the second round was solely a written response test WRT. Twenty percent of the answers are
written <strong>in</strong> English due to the fact that English is the language used <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternational
competition. The <strong>in</strong>ternational competition also <strong>in</strong>cludes a fieldwork test FWT. For the students
who will compete <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternational competition, a sem<strong>in</strong>ar for the fieldwork questions is
conducted <strong>in</strong> June s<strong>in</strong>ce 2007.
The adm<strong>in</strong>istrative tasks publicity, venue preparation, question preparation, scor<strong>in</strong>g, and recruit<strong>in</strong>g competitors
for the <strong>in</strong>ternational competitionof the Championships are conducted by the International <strong>Geography</strong>
Olympiad Japan Committee. Most of the committee is composed of junior high and high school
teachers as well as university professors who are also the Commission of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
members for the Association of Japanese Geographers as well as the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong>
Research Group members for the Human Geographical Society of Japan. S<strong>in</strong>ce 2007, the
necessary fund<strong>in</strong>g for the Championships was collected from the Association of Japanese
Geographers. However, efforts from Yoshiyasu Ida and others led to the certification of the
Championships as a Science Olympiad from the Japan Science and Technology Agency JST. A
f<strong>in</strong>ancial grant to fund a portion of the expenses became available s<strong>in</strong>ce 2011. The recruitment
of participants was s<strong>in</strong>ce conducted by JST, and the burden on the committee members
decreased. However, it rema<strong>in</strong>s that the Championships is a major social contribution for the
geographical society of Japan.
b<strong>Geography</strong> Week
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to various records from “Human <strong>Geography</strong>,” “<strong>Geography</strong> Week” is a sem<strong>in</strong>ar that is
hosted by the Human Geographical Society of Japan and targets junior high and high school
students dur<strong>in</strong>g their summer vacation. The purpose of this event is to foster <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong>
geography. The plan was to have high school students and geography teachers participate
together. The first “<strong>Geography</strong> Week” was named “<strong>Geography</strong> Week <strong>in</strong> Kansai 2001” and was
held <strong>in</strong> Campus Plaza <strong>in</strong> Kyoto on July 29, 2001. In 2002, “<strong>Geography</strong> Week <strong>in</strong> Kansai 2002” was
held <strong>in</strong> the Osaka International Exchange Center along with “<strong>Geography</strong> Week <strong>in</strong> Tokai 2002” <strong>in</strong>
the Nagoya city center. From 2003 to 2005, “<strong>Geography</strong> Week” was conducted <strong>in</strong> the Kansai
area.
The “<strong>Geography</strong> Week 2005” held <strong>in</strong> July 2005 covered the theme of “Disasters from a
Geographical Perspective.” A total of four lectures were conducted <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g one entitles “Our
Natural Environment and Natural Disasters” by Masatomo Umitsu.
”<strong>Geography</strong> Week” was a social contribution by the Human Geographical Society of Japan but
it has not been conducted s<strong>in</strong>ce 2005. The reason for this is due to the unexpectedly low
number of high school participants and the overlapp<strong>in</strong>g of topic with the public sem<strong>in</strong>ars
discussed previously. As stated before, the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research Group was created <strong>in</strong>
2005 with the expectation for this group to carry the responsibility of coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g efforts for
the education of teachers and high school students. Therefore, it can be said that “<strong>Geography</strong>
Week” played a lead<strong>in</strong>g role <strong>in</strong> sett<strong>in</strong>g the foundation for efforts with teachers and high school

students.
cOur Local Environment Map Exhibition
“Our Local Environment Map Exhibition” here<strong>in</strong> referred to as Map Exhibition is an exhibit that
displays the artistic map works from across Japan and the world, that are selected by judges. It is
held <strong>in</strong> Asahikawa, Hokkaido and is prepar<strong>in</strong>g for its 22 nd exhibition. Its first exhibition was <strong>in</strong>
1991.
This Map Exhibition is hosted by The Society for Environmental Map <strong>Education</strong> Chairman :
Yukio Himiyamabased <strong>in</strong> Asahikawa. Their efforts are supported by the Association of Japanese
Geographers and <strong>Geography</strong> related groups and can be thought of as an extension of the social
contributions by the Association of Japanese Geographers. The 21 st
Map Exhibition held <strong>in</strong>
October 2011 received 2811 works from Japan, 795 works from Ch<strong>in</strong>a, for a total of 3606 works .
Judges select approximately 100 works and display them <strong>in</strong> the exhibit.
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the exhibition guidel<strong>in</strong>es for the 22 nd Map Exhibition <strong>in</strong> 2012, the environment
map is “a map that is made of th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the local environment that you <strong>in</strong>vestigated, observed, or
thought about.” Any student/child between the ages of 6 and 18 can submit a work. The
submission genres <strong>in</strong>clude two genres : “selected theme” and “orig<strong>in</strong>al theme.” “Selected themes”
began <strong>in</strong> 1996 and the selected theme for the 22 nd Map Exhibition 2012is “Disaster Prevention.”
Submission of map works is ma<strong>in</strong>ly done through schools. Two examples where map creation
is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the geography curriculum are described below.
The First Urawa Girls’ High School <strong>in</strong> Saitama Prefecture requires first year students to take
<strong>Geography</strong> A 2 credits<strong>in</strong> which summer homework is the creation of a map that deals with the
“local environment” and also demonstrates the results of a regional survey. The teacher, Toshio
Asakawa expla<strong>in</strong>s the methods and procedures for construct<strong>in</strong>g an environment map and gives
concrete advice on how to conduct a regional survey us<strong>in</strong>g one class period before the summer
vacation. After the summer vacation, one or two class periods will be dedicated to two m<strong>in</strong>ute
presentations for each map with question and answers. The ten highest rated works will be
submitted to the Map Exhibition Asakawa 2012.
Arata Ohno, a teacher from Junior & Senior High School at Komaba, University of Tsukuba
dedicates two class periods before the summer vacation and four to five class periods after the
summer vacation for the environment map creation. This process is part of the <strong>Geography</strong> Area
of the Social Studies classes. After the completion of the maps, over half of them are submitted
to the Map Exhibition. The best works are also presented <strong>in</strong> the school festivals which provide
an opportunity for parents to view the works Ohno 2012.
The <strong>in</strong>corporation of environment maps as part of geography education also serves as a
“regional survey” <strong>in</strong> junior high and high schools. The Map Exhibition is greatly generat<strong>in</strong>g
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> geography education. The submission of the maps to the Map Exhibition requires the
hard work of the teachers, but other schools could utilize this Exhibition as well.
Future Issues for Social Contribution Activities
This document discussed the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g efforts <strong>in</strong> the 1990s and the serious developments from
the 2000s <strong>in</strong> social contributions by the Association of Japanese Geographers and The Human
Geographical Society of Japan. The concrete examples of recent social contributions conducted
by the Commission of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> for the Association of Japanese Geographers and
the <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research Group for the Human Geographical Society of Japan were

listed above. Aspects of their efforts were described <strong>in</strong> regards to its <strong>in</strong>volvement with the
“Science <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad Japan Competition” and the “Local Environment Map Exhibition.”
Due to these efforts, along with much of the general public, many students and teachers can
understand the utility and joy of geography education. However, there are many issues that need
to be considered for the future of social contributions by the geographical society of Japan.
The most important issue is that the results from the social contribution efforts are not always
clear. For example, the popularity of geography <strong>in</strong> high schools seems to be decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g despite the
efforts by the geographical society of Japan. This is not a direct relationship and <strong>in</strong> some areas
like Tokyo, high school Japanese History has become a required course. As a result, the
opportunity to learn geography is decreas<strong>in</strong>g Shibata 2011. This is a reflection of the lack of
understand<strong>in</strong>g of the utility of geography.
There are also issues that need to be addressed for the geographical society of Japan. There is
a limit to the human resources that can be expended on social contributions. Many of the
activities are supported by the dedication of its members. There needs to be a system <strong>in</strong> which
one group of members does not handle the entire burden. In that regard, it is a step <strong>in</strong> the right
direction that the Science <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad Japan Competition Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary competition for
participation <strong>in</strong> the International <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad was certified by the JST and some of the
adm<strong>in</strong>istrative responsibilities have been transferred to JST.
Postscript
Chapter I was written by Toida, Chapter II by Yoshimizu, and Chapter III by Iwamoto, all of
whom were leaders of <strong>Geography</strong> <strong>Education</strong> Research Group <strong>in</strong> the Human Geographical
Society of Japan.
Notes
1.Homepage for the Japan Committee for International <strong>Geography</strong> Olympiad, see http://japan igeo.com/ last accessed
July 10, 2012
2.Homepage for the Environmental Map Research Group, see http://environmentalmap.org/ last accessed July 10,
2012
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