Rare Earth Elements: A Review of Production, Processing ...

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Rare Earth Elements Review List of Acronyms REO rare earth oxide RESTART Act Rare Earths Supply-Chain Technology and Resources Transformation Act of 2010 RO reverse osmosis RTI RTI International TDS total dissolved solids TENORM technologically enhanced, naturally occurring radioactive material UN United Nations UNEP United Nations Environment Programme USGS U.S. Geological Survey VOC volatile organic compounds xii
Rare Earth Elements Review Section 1 – Introduction 1. Introduction 1.1 Background Rare earth elements (REEs) are a group of 15 chemical elements in the periodic table, specifically the lanthanides. Two other elements, scandium and yttrium, have a similar physiochemistry to the lanthanides, are commonly found in the same mineral assemblages, and are often referred to as REEs. Although relatively abundant in the earth’s crust, REEs rarely occur in concentrated forms, making them economically challenging to obtain. These elements constitute critical components of many important technologies and products, such as hybrid vehicles, wind turbines, and cell phones. Given this global demand for green and sustainable products in energy, military, and manufacturing industries, REE demand in the United States and throughout the world is projected to increase. In recent years, China has been providing 95 to 97 percent of REEs worldwide. Because China has demonstrated its ability to control and limit REE exports, it is crucial that the United States expand its ability to obtain REE resources. Mining in the natural environment is the primary means of REE acquisition; however, it results in a large quantity (greater than 90 percent) of excess and unused materials and other environmental impacts. If the United States is to ensure a continuous supply of REEs, responsible mining practices will need to be developed and enhanced. Additionally, effective recycling, recovery, and reuse of spent consumer and industrial products may reduce the need to develop new mineral resource areas. To obtain up-to-date information on the environmental aspects and potential impacts of REE mining, recovery, recycling, and reuse, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Office of Research and Development’s (ORD’s) Engineering Technical Support Center contracted with RTI International (RTI) to conduct a literature review and to develop this report. The purpose of this report is to serve as a technical information resource to policy makers and other stakeholders who are concerned with the potential environmental and health effects and impacts that can be identified across the REE supply chain. This document is not a life-cycle assessment or a risk assessment. However, it does, to the extent possible based on anticipated, proposed, or past practices, attempt to identify environmental compartments (i.e., aquatic environment, terrestrial environment, and air) that may be at risk and the corresponding environmental loads (e.g., raw material consumption, air emissions, water discharges, wastes), when that information is available in the literature or an association can be made with anticipated, current, and past practices. RTI conducted a search of the technical literature and other Internet sources related to each segment of the supply chain, including recent initiatives of U.S. government agencies (i.e., U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], and the EPA) that document issues associated with REE production, processing, manufacturing, end uses, recycling, and health/ecological effects. Information contained in this report also draws upon past domestic and international experience (United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]), as appropriate. 1.2 Report Organization This report is organized into eight sections and appendices, as follows: • Section 1 provides the overall background for the project. • Section 2 provides general background information on REEs, including information on their uses, their reserves in the United States, and their current supplies and demand worldwide. • Section 3 provides information on REE mining operations and potential environmental impacts. 1-1
Page 1 and 2: EPA 600/R-12/572 | December 2012 |
Page 3 and 4: Foreword The U.S. Environmental Pro
Page 5 and 6: Abstract Rare earth elements (REEs)
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