journal of business and educational leadership - Asbbs.org

Journal of Business and Educational Leadership
development of a knowledge-based economy. These elements are highly
correlated with the previously discussed characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon
model, so it is not surprising to see adaptations of the model across the globe.
Implications stemming from these adaptations are addressed in the following
paragraphs and are grouped along three considerations: the individual student
level, the institutional level, and the national level.
Student Level—A Global Set of Skilled Graduates: One implication
of the adaptation of the Anglo-Saxon model is the production of a global set of
graduates. According to the World Bank, the new knowledge-based economy no
longer favors narrowly specialized graduates, but ones with cross-disciplinary
knowledge, broad and transferable skills, and functional flexibility (World Bank,
2005; Brennan, 2004; Knight & Yorke, 2003). As the Dearing Report suggests,
higher education institutions should be at the forefront in offering opportunities
for lifelong learning in order to increase the stock of human capital for national
economic well-being within the global context (Knight & Yorke, 2003).
The knowledge economy seeks workers with the ability to adapt to the
rapidly changing nature of work, hence lifelong learning becomes a critical
component of global educational reforms (Spring, 2008). Indeed, the primary
rationale behind the Bologna process for establishing a three-tiered higher
education system is to separate research and professional education from studentcentered
teaching. At the bachelor‘s level, the emphasis is on student-centered
teaching that develops the skills and competencies necessary for lifelong
learning. Key descriptors of the Bologna reformation of academic programs
include ―academic and generic competencies‖ and ―knowledge and transferable
skills,‖ with the latter focusing on critical thinking, communication, and problem
solving (Arthur, 2006; Christensen, 2004; Koutsopoulos, 2008). With the
demands of the global labor market and the need for sustainable economic
growth, many Asian nations are restructuring university curricula by shifting
from the conventional "teacher-oriented" approach to a more "student-oriented"
approach; to produce global graduates, the concepts of independent and selfmotivated
learning are increasingly promoted (Mok, 2006; Meek, 2006). Within
these reforms creativity and innovation become important components for the
assessment of student abilities.
The themes of competency development and lifelong learning appear
throughout global higher education. Along with these themes are calls for
consistent and transnational academic program structures. The adaptation of
credit systems in many Asian countries reflects not only the reform of university
curricula to become more responsive to individual student differences but also
the need to ensure the transferability of credentials (Mason, Arnove, & Sutton,
2001). In Japan, program evaluation and assessment have shifted from being the
sole responsibility of the government to a shared stakeholder responsibility in
order to enhance internationalized curricula and address student and employer
needs (Huang, 2006). According to ministries, rectors, and higher education
leaders in Europe, restructuring and implementing credit systems consistent
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