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St Francis Magazine Vol 7, No 2 | April 2011 

1 Introduction 

THE EKKLESIA AND THE MOSQUE: 

SAME, SIMILAR OR DIFFERENT 

By Salaam Corniche 1 

An Arabia Islamic World Review article in July 1987 described the 

tactics of a particular group of Christian missionaries among Muslims 

and concluded that their approaches were “new”, “devious” and 

“underhanded.” 

More specifically the article addressed what it called “the contextualized 

approach” and observed that believers in Christ were now 

encouraged to use the name “Followers of Isa” instead of “Christian,” 

and that churches were now called “masjid Isa”. 2 A decade 

later, in 1997 missionaries working in Benin, reported in glowing 

terms the proliferation of what they called ‘Jesus mosques.” 3 

The purpose of this article is to take a closer look at this phenomenon 

of “Jesus mosques” which was described as “underhanded” 

by the Muslim source cited and in glowing terms by the Christian 

source cited. Obviously there is a difference of opinion as to this 

phenomenon. 

The way that we shall approach the subject is to take in part, the 

advice of Dudley Woodberry who stated that “To determine the 

1 Salaam Corniche is an ordained minister who loves "theology on fire"; he works 

with his family in a predominantly Muslim country. 

2 Ata'ullah Siddiqi, “Islam and Missions: Mohammad or Christ," in Islamic World 

Review, 6, No. 71, (July1987), p.30 cited by J. Dudley, Woodberry, “Contextualization 

Among Muslims: Reusing Common Pillars” pp. 286-7, in Dean S. Gilliland 

(ed), The Word Among Us: Contextualizing Theology for Mission Today. (Dallas: Word, 

1989). 

3 Erich Bridges, "Of Jesus Mosques' and Muslim Christians," Mission Frontiers, 

(July-October 1997), p. 19 reprinted from The Commission [August 1997], a publication 

of the International Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. The 

accolades for ‘Muslim followers of Jesus in the mosque’ also are found in Richard 

Jameson and Nick Scalevich’s “First Century Jews and Twentieth Century Muslims,” 

International Journal of Frontier Missions, Vol 17:1 (Spring 2000) and Rick 

Brown’s contribution at the 2009 ISFM Orlando meetings with a story of an imam 

installing a cross in a mosque in IJFM Vol 26:4 (Winter 2009), p. 179. 

St Francis Magazine is published by Interserve and Arab Vision 

261


extent to which Muslim followers of Christ may still worship in a 

mosque or mosque-like context, we need to determine the function 

of both mosques and churches.” 4 In our previous article on the ekklesia 

of Ephesians, we addressed the function of the church, as seen 

by the Old and New Testaments. Thus this present article will 

examine more closely the role and function of the mosque in an 

Islamic context. Islamic sources will predominate in our investigation. 

First we will begin with a brief historical overview of the development 

of ideas that the church and the mosque can be said to be 

functionally or dynamically equivalent, and also analyze the underlying 

assertion that Islamic forms are neutral vehicles into which 

Christian meaning can be poured. Secondly we will look at the 

mosque in the ‘big picture’ of Islam; how it was seen by Muhammad; 

the meaning of its Arabic equivalent --masjid; how it is viewed by 

Islamic thinkers today; and finally its ‘heart.’ Lastly, the Islamic assertion 

that the mosque is ‘theology in concrete’ will be affirmed, 

but not according to Muslim thinking. 

2 The mosque and the ekklesia 

and dynamic or functional equivalence 

When a group of Arabic Christians in Jordan and Bahrain were 

asked by Bruce Heckman "How do you feel about Muslim believers 

using Islamic styles of worship when they meet together” some of 

the answers were revealing: 

• “The use of Islamic styles of worship is wrong. We cannot 

accept expressions of worship that relate to idolatry or 

strange rituals." 

4 J. Dudley Woodberry, “Contextualization Among Muslims: Using Common Pillars,” 

International Journal of Frontier Missions, Vol 13:4 (Oct.-Dec. 1996), p. 10. 

The reason that we say, ‘in part’ is because the phrase ‘Muslim followers of Christ’ 

could be assumed to be accepted without reservation by this author, but as we 

explore what it means to be a Muslim in the context of the mosque this phrase will 

be seen to be increasingly problematic. 


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• "I personally believe Islamic worship is devised by the devil. 

The worship structure of Muslim believers should therefore 

be different and not attached to the past." 

He also asked "What could be the effects of using Islamic styles 

of worship" The negative responses included: 

• “Those using Islamic style of worship would deviate from 

true Christianity." 

• "Using old forms of worship would take them back to the 

life from which they were delivered." 

• "Continuity with the past will tie the Muslim believer to 

darkness." 5 

The challenge of this paper is to examine in the light of Islamic 

doctrine, a Biblical Christian worldview, and the history of missions 

to Muslims, if these statements by these Arabic Christians are to be 

considered as wise counsel. 

3 Historical background 

Sam Schlorff has done a great service to help understand the history 

of missions to Muslims in his book Missiological Models in Ministry to 

Muslims. There he traces some of the roots of the modern day contextualization 

movement. He observes that in the early 1900’s 

voices were starting to ask questions about methodology and the 

underlying view of other religions. Schlorff carefully analyses some 

of the ideas behind the changes that were arriving and detects two 

major presuppositions are at work, namely the so-called sin of “missionary 

extractionism”, the assertion of “neutrality of culture” with 

its resultant idea that one can infuse “Muslim forms with Christian 

meaning.” 6 He also helpfully traces the effects of taking the phi- 

5 Bruce Heckman, "Arab Christian Reaction to Contextualization in the Middle 

East," (Unpublished M.A. thesis; Pasadena, CA: Fuller Theological Seminary, 

1988), pp. 73-75; 80-81 cited by Dudley Woodberry, (1989) “Dimensions of Witness 

Among Muslims” in The World of Islam CD v. 1.0 (Global Mapping International,2000), 

n.p. 

6 Samuel P. Schlorff, Missiological Models in Ministry to Muslims. (Upper Darby, PA.: 

Middle East Resources, 2006), pp. 84-85. 


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losophy behind dynamic equivalence translation theories and applying 

them to missions. His analyses will be used to lay the groundwork 

in answering the question whether “a follower of Jesus can 

stay in the mosque” or is it whether “the mosque can stay in the follower 

of Jesus” in perspective. 7 

4 Two streams 

Schlorff identifies two streams of thought with respect to the relationship 

between the use of Muslim forms and the Christian believer. 

The first stream, he noted was a growing sensitivity to leaving 

areas of Middle Eastern culture, for example, that were neither 

offensive to the gospel nor send mixed messages, as possibly useful 

in Christian worship. Already in 1916 it was recommended that in 

order to reach Muslims in India, what was needed were “Churches 

furnished more in Mosque-fashion and erected in Saracenic style.” 8 

This sentiment was expressed again by Robert McClenahan in 

1942 in the same journal under the title “'The Moslem's Mosque 

and the Christian's Church” where he suggested in so many words 

that some of the barnacles of Christendom surrounding ecclesiastic 

practices might be well be scrutinized in the light of scripture and 

that hard questions be asked about their helpfulness or hindrances 

to missions to Muslims. This stream, if we would fast forward to 

the 1990’s might be fleshed out in a C-4 church where a mat instead 

of a pew is used. 

The second stream, which Schlorff identified, was that Islam 

“must be viewed as a work of the Holy Spirit” and this was encapsulated 

in Bevan Jones’ 1932 book, The People of the Mosque. 9 The 

seeds of this line of thought found fertile ground in Eugene Nida’s 

“dynamic equivalence” theories of translation of the 1950’s which 

suggested that it would be desirable to make the Bible fully/entirely 

7 This is a tongue in cheek push-back of a group of analysts who came to the country 

where I work, and they posed the following question to ex-Muslim believers, 

“Can a Christian stay in the mosque” 

8 Arthur, J.P. French, “The Problem of Islam in India: A Discussion of ‘Methods,’” 

The Moslem World, Vol 6, No. 1 (Jan 1916), p. 11. 

9Schlorff, p. 15. 


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meaningful to the receptor language. 10 Nida’s ideas were taken up 

by Charles Kraft and in 1974 he advocated “that we bend every effort 

toward stimulating a faith renewal movement within Islam". 11 

To accomplish this noble goal he suggested "that we encourage 

some Christians to become Christian Muslims in order to win Muslims 

to Muslim Christianity". The barn door had swung open. 

The stream continued and in 1977 John Wilder wrote "Some 

Reflections on Possibilities for People Movements among Muslims." 

There he suggested two possibilities, namely "a people 

movement to Christ which remains within Islam” or "a people 

movement constituting a new church of Muslim cultural orientation" 

12 Schlorff notes that Wilder’s first option seems to have “captured 

the imagination of evangelicals.” 13 In 1978 at a Colorado 

Springs conference Kraft ran with this concept, which he would 

flesh out more fully in his 1979 publication of "Dynamic Equivalence 

Churches in Muslim Society." Listen to Kraft’s own words 

concerning the essential neutrality of Islamic forms, and the possibility 

to infuse them with Christian meaning. 

The kinds of ritual, behavior patterns, places and times of meeting, 

music (if any), prayer times and postures, even doctrinal formulations 

are quite incidental to the allegiance that is being expressed through 

them… 

I believe […] that it would be thoroughly Biblical to work toward a 

recombination of Christian allegiance with so-called Muslim religious 

structures... Indeed […] I believe that this is what Muhammad himself 

was trying to do: to combine an allegiance to the Judeo-Christian God 

with Arabic cultural structures. Abraham and Moses and Paul before 

10 Eugene A. Nida, Customs and Cultures; Anthropology for Christian Missions. (New 

York: Harper, 1954.) 

11Charles H. Kraft, "Psychological Stress Factors Among Muslims," in Conference 

on Media in Islamic Culture (1974), p. 143 cited by Schlorff, p. 80. 

12 John W. Wilder, "Some Reflections on Possibilities for People Movements 

among Muslims," in Missiology 5/3 (July 1977), pp 301-20, as cited by Schlorff, pp. 

80-81. 

13 Ibid. p. 81. 


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him had performed similar recombinations between that allegiance and 

the cultures within which they worked. 14 

The old adage, ideas have consequences certainly has proven to 

be true, historically speaking. The cross pollination of ideas reached 

to the venerable John Stott, who wrote an article in Christianity 

Today of 1978 entitled, “Christians and Muslims: some barriers are 

cultural rather than theological”. 15 

[The] question is whether a whole new way of presenting the Gospel 

can be developed. Can we show that “however much new converts feel 

they need to renounce for the sake Christ, they are still the same people 

with the same heritage and the same family.” (Willowbank Report) 

and that “conversion does not unmake, it remakes” (Kenneth Cragg) 

Is it possible to conceive of converts becoming followers of Jesus without 

so forsaking their Islamic culture that they are regarded as traitors 

Can we contemplate Jesus mosques instead of churches and Jesus 

Muslims instead of Christians 

The mantra of barriers to the gospel as being cultural rather 

than theological is still with us to this present day, as evidenced by 

the February 2011 issue of Christianity Today, with Rick Brown’s 

justification of “tweaking” the term ‘Son of God’ due to cultural issues 

with Muslims. 

As much as Phil Parshall quoted approvingly, John Stott’s assertion 

for the creation of “Jesus mosques” in his 1980 book New Paths 

to Muslim Evangelism five years later he seemed to have second 

thoughts about his first flush of approval. In his Beyond the Mosque: 

Christians Within Muslim Community he concludes that “continued 

involvement in prayers at the mosque" involves a “ritual [that] is 

too closely connected to, Islamic belief. theology and religious practice. 

I conclude that participation involves either compromise or 

14 Charles H. Kraft, “Dynamic equivalence churches in Muslim society,” pp. 117- 

118 in Don McCurry ed. Gospel and Islam: A 1978 Compendium. (Monrovia, Calif : 

Missions Advanced Research & Communications Ctr, 1979) 

15 John R.W. Stott in Christianity Today, 23 no 5 (D 1 1978), pp 34-35 cited by Phil 

Parshall, New Paths in Muslim Evangelism. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1980), pp. 157- 

158. 


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deceit." 16 Parshall continues to worry about the over-zealous efforts 

of some missionaries to Muslims in their radical contextualization 

schemes as illustrated by the titles of his 1998 and 2004 articles entitled 

“Danger! New Directions in Contextualization," and “Lifting 

the Fatwa." 

Yet, if we continue our historical overview, one will see that new 

ideas have an incredibly persistent quality to them and this even 

shows in the opening phrase of Dudley Woodberry, where it appears 

that he accepts unquestioningly the term “Muslim followers of 

Jesus.” He is certainly not alone as this is a widely accepted term by 

proponents of the Insider Movement. 

5 The question of neutrality of culture 

As we will observe the form and function of the mosque from an 

Islamic standpoint will we see that it is the primary tool of identity 

formation for the Muslim. With a Biblical worldview as the basis of 

examination of the presuppositions of the Islamic texts which will 

speak for themselves, we will be struck by the fact that it has a ‘theology 

in concrete’ that is a replacement for the gospel. This will 

certainly challenge Kraft’s assertion that the forms and functions of 

culture are essentially “a neutral vehicle” in which to pour in gospel 

truth. 17 This will also raise serious doubts as to whether Kraft’s 

suggestion, albeit in a round-about way, that the ekklesia and 

mosque can be considered dynamically equivalent is actually valid. 

6 The mosque in the big picture 

According to Mark Durie’s recent book, The Third Choice, Islamic 

doctrine can be distilled down to three words: ignorance (jahiliyyah), 

guidance (huda), and success (falah). He shows that for good reason, 

the call to prayer at the mosque (the Adhan) includes the words, 

16 Phil Parshall, Beyond the Mosque: Christians Within Muslim Community. (Grand 

Rapids: Baker. 1985), p. 184. 

17 Charles Kraft, Christianity in Culture. )Maryknoll, NY: Orbis.), pp.113-15 cited by 

Schlorff, p.85. 


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“come to success.” 18 Similarly, we observe the manner in which 

mosques are used as tools for guidance in a doctoral thesis by a 

Muslim named Ijaz Mukhtar Mian entitled, “The Mosque as an institution 

of Islamic Da’wah.” He defines da’wah as a call to faith 

which requires, according to him, proper guidance. 19 About the 

role of the mosque he states: 

So they are places, educational establishments, social centers to learn 

to worship and worship to learn to obey and obey the rules and regulations 

of the Creator of the Universe. They reflect a belief and action 

system, so they are in every way extremely useful institutions on the 

face of this earth for the benefit of mankind. 20 

In Islamic thought, architecture serves to re-enforce belief, and 

so it will become quite evident, therefore that mosques are used to 

declare Islamic superiority over all other religions, having rescued 

pagan Arabian tribes from their state of ignorance. 

7 Etymology of the word for mosque. 

7.1 Place for bowing down 

‘And that the Masajid are for Allah (alone) so invoke not anyone 

along with Allah.’ Surah 72:3 

The etymology of the word for mosque helps provide a more indepth 

picture of its form and function. The Qur’anic word ‘masajid’ 

is a plural of the Semitic word ‘masjid’ which when Anglicized can 

be rendered mosque. According to Arthur Jeffrey, this Arabic word 

has its roots in Aramaic with the Semitic root s-j-d, meaning: “to 

18 Mark Durie, The Third Choice: Islam, Dhimmitude and Freedom. (Melbourne: Deror 

Books, 2010), pp. 16-18. 

19 Mian elaborates on his definition of ‘Da’Wah: “I may say that Da'wah is to 

invite the people to: 'La Ilaha Illa Allah-Muhammad Rasul-Ullah", (that is, Allah 

Alone is worthy of obedience and worship and that Muhammad is the Messenger 

of Allah).” Ijaz Mukhtar Mian, “The Mosque as an institution of Islamic 

Da’Wah” (Phd Diss., University of Wales, Lampeter, 2001), p. 27. 

20 Ibid, p. 16. 


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bow down, to prostrate oneself, to fall down, to perform the prostration, 

to pray, to serve.” 21 

In the Elephantine papyri circa 5 th century BC one reads “Then 

did I, Ashiqar, indeed bow down and perform the prostration [i.e. s- 

j-d] before Esarhaddon [king] of Assyria”. 22 In the Bible the verbal 

form in Aramaic occurs in the book of Daniel where the king attempts 

to render homage to Daniel, and the young men refuse to 

bow down to the king’s statue (Da 2:46; 3:5-7, 10-11, 15; 7:20). 23 

Scholars disagree on the dating of Daniel, but a late 6 th to early 5 th 

century BC is not out of the question. 

In Biblical Hebrew, the word sagad meaning to prostrate oneself in 

worship which also uses the s-j-d root is found in Isa 44:15, 17, 19; 

46:6. Isa 44:15b reads “Also he makes a god and worships it; he 

makes it an idol and falls (s-j-d) down before it.” Curiously in the 

Isaiah passages written about 550 BC and in the instances cited in 

Daniel, the emphasis is on either a refusal to worship an image of a 

deified king, or a mockery of those who create their own idols and 

prostrate themselves before them. The prohibitions of the Decalogue 

(Ex 20.5) seem to be at play, especially when one considers 

that the Greek Septuagint translators used the same word in Isa 

44.15b and Ex 20:5. 

In pre-Islamic Arabia, the courtyard around the Ka’ba, known as 

“The House of God” which itself contained 360 idols, was a pilgrimage 

destination and was known as the masjid. A pre-Islamic text 

refers to the Ka’ba itself as “the Holy Masdjid.” The same s-j-d root 

appears in the Arabic word 'Sajada' meaning ‘to bow down, bow in 

21 Jeffery, Arthur. The Foreign Vocabulary of the Qur’an. ( Baroda: Oriental Institute, 

1938), pp. 263-4 “Masjid” in Thomas Patrick Hughes, A Dictionary of Islam. (London, 

Allen, 1885) pp. 329-333; Johannes Pedersen “Masdjid” in H.A.R. Gibb and 

J.H.Kramers eds. Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell U. Press, 

reprint of Leiden: Brill 1961), pp. 330-353; Also see Encyclopædia of Islam, 2nd Edition., 

Vol 6 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991) articles on “Masdjid.” 

22 Rusmir Mahmutc"ehajic". The Mosque: The Heart of Submission. (New York: 

Fordham University Press, 2006), pp. 84-85, fn 11. 

23 James Swanson, Dictionary of Biblical Languages With Semantic Domains : Aramaic 

(Old Testament). electronic ed. (Oak Harbor : Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997), 

S. DBLA 10504. Alternate transliteration sagid 


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worship, to throw oneself down, prostrate oneself (before).’ Hans 

Wehr and J.M. Cowan in an Arabic-English dictionary also have the 

following entries: 

sajda: prostration in prayer 

sujid: prostration, adoration, worship 

sajjad: worshipper (of God) 

sajid; pl sujjad prostrate in adoration, worshipping 24 

It can thus be concluded as one Muslim author noted, “The Masjid 

[mosque] is the place where one throws oneself in prostration to 

invoke Allah, the All-Mighty.” 

7.2 Uses in the Qur’an and in the hadiths. 

7.2.1 Qur’an 

Variations on the word masjid are used (31x) in the Qur’an and 

other words like prostration and worship, using the s-j-d root are 

quite common. A complete listing is available in Arabic and English 

at the “Qur’anic Arabic Corpus”. 25 Select examples include: 

A place of worship (lamasjidun) which was founded upon reverence from 

the first day…wherein are men who love to purify themselves. Allah 

loves the purifiers. Surah 9:108 

The Masajid (masajida), of Allah shall be visited and maintained [Pickthall 

says “only”] by such as believe in Allah and the Last Day, and establish 

regular prayers, and pay zakat." 26 Surah 9:18 

Prostrate (wa-us'jud) and draw near to Allah. Surah 96: 19 

24 Hans Wehr and J. Milton Cowan. A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Arabic - 

English) = Arabisches Woerterbuch Fuer Die Schriftsprache Der Gegenwart. (Wiesbaden: 

Harrassowitz, 1979), pp. 462-3. 

25 For a listing of all the Qur’anic words using the s-j-d root see “The Qur’anic 

Arabic Corpus” 

http://corpus.quran.com/qurandictionary.jsproot=sjd#%282:34:4%29 (Accessed 

2011/3/1) 

26 Pickthall: He only shall tend Allah's sanctuaries who believeth in Allah and the 

Last Day and observeth proper worship and payeth the poor-due and feareth none 

save Allah. For such (only) is it possible that they can be of the rightly guided 


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It has been observed by Woodberry that the word masjid is used 

in the Qur’an both of Muslim sanctuaries and also of the Christian 

sanctuary associated with the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus (Surah 

18:21/20) and the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem if, according to him, 

the traditional interpretation of Surah 17:1 is adopted. 27 

7.2.2 Hadithic literature 

Narrrated Abu Qatada (r): Allah's Messenger said, "When one of you 

enters the Masjid, he should pray two Raka before sitting down. 28 [ed: 

Rak'ah is the unit of prayer, done by standing, bowing, prostrating 

and reading as prescribed] 

The bondsman is nearest to Allah when he is in prostration. 29 

Ibn ‘Abbas relates: Masjids are the houses of Allah on the earth. They 

shine up to the inhabitants of the heavens just as the stars in the sky 

shine down to the inhabitants of the earth (Tabarani). 30 

7.2.3. Later Islamic literature. 

Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) used the word masjid in a general sense to 

include the temple of Solomon. He said, “Jerusalem is the house of 

David and Solomon. God commanded them to build the mosque 

there and to erect its monuments. Many of the prophets, descendants 

of Isaac, were buried around it." 31 Despite English translators 

rendering the original word ‘masjid’ as mosque, instead of place of 

worship or temple, they likely reflect an Islamic tendency to rewrite 

history, with prime examples of Abraham being described as 

the first Muslim, and an Islamic tradition that had Joseph and Mary 

working as water carriers at a mosque. 

27 Woodberry (1996), p. 9. 

28 Ibn Hajar Al-Asqalani, Bulugh Al-Maram. (Dar-us-Salam Publications, Riyadh, 

1996), Hadith. No. 209, p. 94 as cited by Mian 

29 Abu Bakr Al-Jazairee, Minhaj-Al-Muslim.[=The Way of the Muslim] (Maktabah 

Al-Hadithah, Riyadh, 1976,), p. 52 as cited by Mian 

30 Mufti Abdur-Rahman Ibn Yusuf, “Masjid or Musalla” http://www.centralmosque.com/fiqh/mmussalla1.htm 

(Accessed 2011/3/1) 

31 Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, and N. J. Dawood, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction 

to History. (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969), p. 269. 


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7.2.4 Summary 

According to Islamic usage then, wheresoever sajda (prostration) is 

done, that place is described as a masjid. Another citation echoed 

this by stating “the mosque is essentially a courtyard for the faithful 

to worship in, either in solitude or under due supervision.” 32 

Take note: There are parallels between the Biblical word ekklesia 

–the people who God has assembled, and the word ‘jami’ as seen in 

the word for Friday mosque which means ‘gathering.’ The motivations 

and reasons for gathering, however, might caution us against 

making hasty conclusions as to the ability to “reuse common pillars” 

33 or to read Christian ideas of worship into Islamic ideas. 34 

8 The Mosque as the centre of the Islamic universe 

Consider the following statements by M. Quraishy in his Textbook of 

Islam: “The mosque is the undying symbol of Islam. The mosque is 

the centre of all Muslim activities. […] Where there is no adhan or 

prayers in congregation, there can be no Islamic community” 35 

Could these be overstatements Let us examine other Islamic literature. 

32 E.M. Forster, Abinger Harvest. Part 4: The East: “The Mosque” (Mariner Books, 

1950), p. 275. Also referred to by Harold W. Turner, “The History of Islam’s 

Mosques: A Critical Analysis,” Scottish Journal of Religious Studies, 2 no 2 (Aut 

1981), p 149. 

33 This refers to Woodberry’s reference to a mosque in Tunisia which had used 

building materials from other sources, notably churches in its construction. He 

used the metaphor to suggest the possibility of adopting Islamic forms as they 

stood on formerly Christian and Jewish “pillars.” (See fn #3) 

34 It is beyond the scope of this paper to distinguish between the finer nuances of 

what have been called the street mosque, the district mosque, the congregational 

mosque often called the Friday mosque (masjid jami‘ ), national mosque, and the 

shrine. Suffice it to say, that for our purposes we will have the Friday mosque in 

mind when discussing the role and function of the mosque. 

35 M.A. Quraishy, Textbook of Islam I. (Nairobi: The Islamic Foundation, 1989), p. 

67 cited by Gerhard Nehls and Walter Eric, Islam As It Sees Itself, As Others See It, As 

It Is. (Nairobi, Kenya: Life Challenge Africa ,1996), Appendix. On-line: 

http://www.answering-islam.org/Nehls/tt1/tt10.html#MOSQUE (Accessed 

2011/2/17) 


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By means of the word-picture of a wheel, the Scottish convert to 

Islam, James Dickie (a.k.a. Yakub Zaki) describes the interrelationship 

between the orientation of each mosque and the hub of the 

wheel. He states that each mosque is: 

[A] building erected over an invisible axis, an axis which is none the 

less the principal determinant of its design. The Muslim world is 

spread out like a gigantic wheel with Mecca as the hub, with lines 

drawn from all the mosques in the world forming the spokes. These 

lines converge on a city and within that city on a point. The city is 

Mecca, and the point is the Ka’ba at its centre. …..The Ka’ba, a hollow 

cube of stone, many times rebuilt, the original of which goes back beyond 

the time of Muhammed, is the axis mundi of Islamic cosmology. It 

is diagonally oriented, with its corners facing the cardinal points of the 

compass. ..It is the centre of the world, because it is the primordial 

symbol of the intersection between the vertical axis of the spirit and 

the horizontal plane of phenomenal existence. 36 

Thus the Ka’ba is the geographical and spiritual center of Islam. 

Its shape in the form of a cube, has not gone un-noticed by Harold 

Turner who observed that its bears a striking resemblance to the 

form of the Holy of Holies of the Jerusalem temple, and to the shape 

of the New Jerusalem. 37 Observers have noted that the Ka’ba is 

black in colour in sharp contrast to the New Jerusalem’s luminosity, 

has a black stone of adoration vs. the brilliant foundation stones of 

the New Jerusalem and is said to be positioned directly beneath the 

throne of God, whereas in the New Jerusalem the throne of God is 

within it. It was the Ka’ba that needed a cleansing by Muhammad in 

order to make it an appropriate ‘house of prayer for all nations.’ 

Simply put, the Ka’ba appears to be a pseudo-holy of holies. 

Islamic sources tell us that the Ka’ba was designated as the 

prototypical mosque, although we know that Abu Bakr built a place 

of prayer next to his house in Mecca before the Hijrah, and that first 

mosque was built by Muhammad at Quba in Medina when he ar- 

36 James Dickie, “Allah and Eternity: Mosques, Madrassa and Tombs,” p. 16 in 

Ernst J. Grube, James Dickie, Oleg Grabar, and Eleanor Sims eds., Architecture of 

the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning. (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996) 

37 Turner, p. 136. 


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rived there. 38 In traditions [=hadiths] narrated by Abu Dhar we 

read: 

I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Which mosque was first built on the surface 

of the earth" He said, "Al-Masjid-ul-Haram (in Mecca)." I said, 

"Which was built next" He replied "The mosque of Al-Aqsa (in Jerusalem)." 

I said, "What was the period of construction between the 

two" He said, "Forty years." He added, "Wherever (you may be, and) 

the prayer time becomes due, perform the prayer there, for the best 

thing is to do so (i.e. to offer the prayers in time)." 39 

[as the above, but the ending reads]… for all the earth is a place of 

worshipping for you." 40 

Notice that the Ka’ba is contained within the precincts of the 

Great Mosque called Masjid al-Haram. Thus by definition it is said 

to be “inviolable,” “sacred,” “set apart,” and “consecrated” which 

were words also used to describe the inner sanctuary of the Jerusalem 

temple and the holy of holies of the tabernacle. 41 Glasse makes 

an insightful comment when he describes the Ka’ba and its purposes 

as paralleling, or should we say, attempting to overshadow the Old 

Testament motifs connected with sacred buildings. In his words: 

Thus the Ka'bah is both the Ark of the Covenant and the Holy of Holies, 

not in the sense of enclosing the Divine Presence, but, rather, as 

the center of a Holy of Holies that stretches out in all directions; thus 

the whole earth becomes the locus of prayer for every Muslim, who 

each day fulfills the role that the Jewish high priest performed only on 

the Day of Atonement. 42 

38 « Mosque » p. 316 in Cyril Glasse" and Huston Smith eds., New Encyclopedia of 

Islam: A Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira 

Press, 2003). 

39 Sahih Bukhari, (Book #55, Hadith #585) 

40 Ibid, #636 

41 Sayyid Abul Aâla Maududi commenting on Surah 2:144, 149 “turning your 

faces to the Holy Mosque” states The ‘Holy Mosque’ refers to the sanctuary invested 

with holiness and sanctity; the sanctuary in the centre of which the Ka’bah is 

located.” in Towards Understanding the Qurâan. (English Version of abridged Tafhim 

al-Qurâan): Tr.: Zafar Ishaq Ansari. Vol. 1 (The Islamic Foundation: Leichester 

UK, 1988), p. n149. 

42 Cyril Glasse, Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. (San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, 

1989), p. 216. 


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Glasse’s throw out comment, that the Muslim daily “fulfils” the 

role of the high priest “only on the Day of Atonement” will receive 

more scrutiny later in this paper. The building, which was said to 

be the “House of God” (“Bait-Ullah”) was said to be built by Adam 

and Eve, and then later reconstructed by Abraham. Ibn Kathir 

quotes Ibn Umar regarding Adam and later by Ali regarding Abraham: 

Adam and Hawwa built the "Bait-Ullah" (that is, "the Ka'bat-Ullah") 

on the instructions of Allah and performed Tawaf [circumambulated] 

around it and Allah said to him: "You are the first human being and 

this is the First House of Allah for you to worship in it. 43 

Ali narrated, Allah ordered Abraham [Ibrahim] to build Ka’bat-Ullah. 

Ibrahim showed his concern about its shape and size. Allah sent a special 

piece of cloud and a voice said, “Build it exactly under its 

shadow.” 44 

J. Obermann is not entirely convinced that Muhammad’s invoking 

the imprimatur of Abraham were altogether spiritual. He prefers 

to see a certain amount of recycling for the sake of gaining authority. 

He states, “The Abrahamization of Islam had led Muhammad 

so far as to include the age-old national centre of Arab worship in 

his institutionalized monotheism; now this stark residue of pre- 

Islamic paganism is in turn Islamicized by being anchored in God’s 

primeval design for the salvation of man.” 45 Mian further elaborates 

from an Islamic point of view and suggests that Muhammad “laid 

the foundation of the Muslim society, around the five daily obligatory 

prayers (Salawat).” In doing so he established the mosque as 

the central place of prayer, and thus “the masjid became the heart, 

core and kernel of every Muslim settlement.” Elsewhere he says 

that the masjid must be to the Muslim community, what the heart is 

to the body. 46 

43 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir. Arabic-Urdu, Vol. 1, (Juz 1, Noor Muhamnmed 

Karkhana, Karachi, n.d.) p. 191 as cited by Mian 

44 Ibid, p. 189. 

45 Turner (p. 138) citing J. Obermann in R.H. Bainton et al. (eds), The Idea of History 

in the Ancient Near East. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955), p. 278. 

46 Mian, pp. ix; 400. 


275


What we are seeing and will continue to see is that the mosque is 

much more than an empty shell of a building, contrary to what some 

well-meaning, but potentially naïve missionaries have described it 

to be 47 . Rather, it is what some Muslims have described as ‘theology 

in concrete’ 48 It was the fact that the mosque plays such a central 

role in Islamic society that caused Phil Parshall to question whether 

a Christian can legitimately be incorporated into mosque life and 

remain a Christian. Thus he entitled his book, Beyond the Mosque. 

9 How Muhammad viewed the mosque 

Muhammad viewed the mosque both descriptively and prescriptively. 

When he stated that he was unique in this world due to six 

things that had been confided to him alone; one of them was that the 

whole earth was a mosque. He meant this to be both a description of 

the fact that a Muslim could pray anywhere, and also a prescription 

that all inhabitants of the earth should perform the Islamic prayers. 

Thus Bukhari relates: 

Allah the Exalted has conferred a special blessing upon his ummah - 

that is, the whole earth has been declared a mosque for it. Therefore, 

when the time for prayer comes, a Muslim may pray wherever he may 

be. 49 

Another tradition related by Jabir noted: The Messenger of Allah said, 

‘Unlike any other Messenger before me, all the Earth has been made a 

Masjid and Pure (clean) for me. 50 

47 For example, consider the words of Avery Willis, IMB senior vice president. 

“Does the look of a building make a difference Does how you kneel make a difference, 

or that you pray five times a day, if you transfer that into a Christian context 

We need to struggle with that.God is doing a work in the people of other religions; 

a lot is going on in Islam” in Erich Bridges, p. 19. 

48 George W. Braswell, What You Need to Know About Islam & Muslims. (Nashville, 

Tenn: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2000), p. 49 quoting Ira G. Zepp Jr., A 

Muslim Primer: Beginner's Guide to Islam. (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas 

Press, 2000. first printed 1992), p. 197. See also Robert Irwin, Islamic Art in Context: 

Art, Architecture, and the Literary World. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 

1997) 

49 Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 55, Number 585. 

50 Sayyid Sabiq. Fiqh-us-Sunnah. Vol. 1, (Dar al-Fikr, 1977), pp. 66-67. 


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Note that the contents of these traditions have been used as justifications 

to “cleanse” Muslim and non-Muslim countries of anyone 

who does not adhere to what Mian called the “whole ideology of 

Islam” namely the declarations of the Sahadah, that God is greater 

and Muhammad is his messenger and all that entails. 51 

10 Role and function 

In order to further explore what Woodberry challenged us to do, 

namely to closely examine the roles and functions of the mosque 

this section will engage with a number of voices, all of whom have 

been Muslim at some time in their lives. Since Islam is based on 

emulation of Muhammad’s activities, all mosques also seek to emulate 

the first mosque and its roles and functions. The words of two 

serious students of Islamic traditions, a Sheikh, and a trustee of the 

Oxford University Centre for Islamic Studies, along with words at 

mosque inaugurations all confirm this. 

10.1 S. Solomon and E. Alamaqdisi 

In their book, The Mosque Exposed, Sam Solomon and E. Alamaqdisi, 

former Muslims, detail the activities that occurred at Muhammad’s 

first mosque. In summary they say it was: 

1. A Madrassa or Islamic seminary 

2. The place where spiritual admonitions and encouragement 

to resist non-Islamic influence through jihad were given 

3. Where jihad operations were discussed, directed and its 

commanders appointed 

4. The origin of official Islamic delegations sent by Muhammad 

and his successors 

5. The place where delegations and representatives of tribes 

under control or negotiating for peace were received 

6. The place where pledges of loyalty to Islam by the Arabic 

tribes to Muhammad were received 

7. Where affairs of Islamic State were conducted, and was its 

headquarters 

51 Mian, p. 398. 


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8. Where jihad was proclaimed and armies mobilized and dispatched 

9. Where the companions received honour in order to encourage 

them, to continue the spread of Islam, and eliminate opposition 

10. The place where Muhammad and Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman 

and Ali appointed judges for different regions as well as 

commanders. It was the origin of tax collectors and high 

ranking state officials 

11. The place of origin of contracts, pacts and treaties. 

12. Where Islamic Shariah unfolded and where “binding, and 

loosing, permitting, and prohibiting was declared.” 

13. The location where the superiority of Muslims and the inferiority 

of non-Muslims was declared 

14. The location where the supremacy of man over woman and 

inequality of people was declared 

15. The place where death sentences were issued for any kind of 

opposition 

16. Where people who executed death sentences on oppposers 

whether Jew or breast-feeding mother, were honoured 

17. An army base 52 

In a word, one would say that the authors see the mosque as the 

command and control centre for Islam. Perhaps they would agree 

that the first mosque served in some fashion, the role described in a 

poem penned in 1998 by Recep Erdogan, now the Prime Minister of 

Turkey who then wrote “"The mosques are our barracks, the domes 

our helmets, the minarets our bayonets and the faithful our soldiers." 

53 

In case one thinks this is a case of exaggeration or skewed emphases 

due to Solomon being a former Muslim, consider the following 

list which bears striking resemblance to the above. 

52 Sam Solomon and E. Alamaqdisi, The Mosque Exposed (Charlottesville, Va: Advancing 

Native Missions Press, 2007), pp. 30-34 

53 BBC News “"Turkey's charismatic pro-Islamic leader" 

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2270642.stm (Accessed 2011/2/16) 


278


10.2 Sheikh Omar Bakri Muhammad 

In his publication, “The Role of the Mosque” Sheikh Muhammad, 

the principal lecturer of the London School of Shari’ah said that the 

mosque is… 

1. the headquarters of the Islamic State's supreme leadership 

2. section of the Department of Information and Culture 

3. Judiciary Court 

4. University for Learning and Teaching 

5. platform for oratory, eloquence and poetry 

6. place where war booties are divided 

7. detention centre for the prisoner of war 

8. hospital where casualties of war are treated 

9. home and refuge for the poor, needy and the travelers 

10. a place of relaxation and siesta 

11. a place where the pleasure of Allah and 'good reputation' is 

sought 

12. eating place for the hungry and the needy 

13. place for celebrations, socializing and amusement 

14. where people in need can ask for help 

15. place for consultation and exchanging views 

16. place of worship and prayer 

17. a Jami’a [place of assembly] 

18. the best place to be 

19. place where some of the penal codes are implemented 

20. [was] one of the first houses built for mankind 54 

A close reading of the hadiths such as Sahih Bukhari, Ibn Maja, 

Muslim and Abu Daowed, along with the Sira (i.e. the accounts of 

the life of Muhammad) by the likes of Ibn Ishaq (Life of Muhammad) 

show that the Sheikh, and for that matter Solomon and Alamaqdisi 

are not deviating from the lines of majority Muslim thinking. Their 

lists are confirmed by a man considered to have a perhaps yet a 

more weighty opinion in the contemporary Islamic world. 

54 Sheikh Omar Bakri Muhammad, “The Role of the Mosque,” 

http://www.izharudeen.com/uploads/4/1/2/2/4122615/role_of_mosque_www.iz 

harudeen.com.pdf pp. 7-20 (Accessed 2010/10/15) 


279


10.3 Yusuf Al-Qaradawi 

In response to a question, “Is it permissible to use the mosque for 

political purposes” Yusuf Al-Qaradawi issued a fatwa or legal ruling 

in 2006. Qaradawi’s opinions are considered authoritative in the Islamic 

world and he is a trustee of the Oxford University Centre for 

Islamic Studies. He replied: 

The mosque at the time of the Messenger of Allah [Muhammad] was 

the center of the activities of the Muslim community as a whole: it was 

not just a house of worship and prayer, but included worship, a university 

for science, a forum for literature, and a parliament for consultation 

... it was used by delegations from various places in the Arabian peninsula 

to meet with the prophet [Muhammad], and it was the place 

where he gave his sermons and guidance in all religious, social and political 

aspects of life. 

In the life of the prophet there was no distinction between what the 

people call sacred and secular, or religion and politics: he had no place 

other than the mosque for politics and other related issues. That established 

a precedent for his religion. The mosque at the time of the 

prophet was his propagation centre and the headquarters of the state. 

This was also the case for his successors, the rightly guided Caliphs: 

the mosque was their base for all activities political as well as nonpolitical. 

... Politics as a science is one of the best disciplines, and as a practice 

and career it is the most honourable. The surprising thing is that it is 

politicians, who are totally immersed in it [politics] from the top of 

their heads to the soles of their feet, who are inquiring if the mosque 

should embark on and leap into political affairs. Politics in itself is neither 

vice, nor evil, according to Islam. ... For Muslims it is part of our 

religion: doctrine and worship constitute a system for the whole of life. 

... It must be the role of the mosque to guide the public policy of a nation, 

raise awareness of critical issues, and reveal its enemies. 

From ancient times the mosque has had a role in urging jihad for the 

sake of Allah, resisting the enemies of the religion who are invading occupiers. 

That blessed Intifada in the land of the prophets, Palestine, 

started from none other than the mosques. Its first call came from the 

minarets and it was first known as the mosque revolution. The 


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mosque's role in the Afghan jihad, and in every Islamic jihad cannot be 

denied. 55 

Finally, to underscore the data from Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, Sheikh 

Omar Bakri Muhammad, along with Solomon and Alamaqdisi notice 

a number of statements made in conjunction with an intended 

or actual inauguration of a mosque. 

1. In his relationship in A.H. 9 to the subjugated Christian tribe, the 

Bani Hanifa, the following action was described concerning Muhammad: 

"On the departure of the embassy the Prophet gave them a 

vessel with some water in it, running over from his own ablutions, 

and said to them, 'When ye reach your country, break down your 

church, sprinkle its site with this water and build a Masjid in its 

place.'” 56 

2. "The construction of this mosque is not solely to provide for the 

needs of Orientals, but also to furnish a centre of missionary activity 

and to explain Islam to the German people." 57 

3. “The mosque exists for the purpose of bringing people together, 

and our purpose is to teach in the mosques the moral, social, educational, 

economic, and above all the hygienic sides of religion.” 58 

4. "We are met together to open one of the Houses of God which 

God has commanded should be raised, and in which His Name is 

55 Mark Durie Blogspot (Sept 15, 2010), “What is A Mosque” 

http://markdurie.blogspot.com/2010/09/what-is-mosque.html (Accessed, 

2011/1/11). 

56 William Muir, The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam to the Era of the Hegira: 

With Introductory Chapters on the Original Sources for the Biography of Mahomet and on 

the Pre-Islamite History of Arabia. Vol 4, (London: Smith, Elder & Co, 1858.), p. 219 

citing K. Wackidi, [=Al Waqqidi, Kitab al Maghazi], p 61. Muir also produces a 

facsimile of Muhammad’s words in Arabic. In his Vol 2 (pp. 303-4) Muir expressed 

some reservation about the authenticity of the tradition, but later felt that sufficient 

data about Muhammad’s treatment of Jews and other Christians would likely substantiate 

it. J. Pedersen in the Encyclopedia of Islam, (Vol 6, p. 648)-[see fn # 73] 

cites this tradition, attributes it to Ibn Sa'ad , yet calls its authenticity into question. 

57 Current Topics: “Two New Mosques in Berlin,” The Moslem World, Vol 19, No. 1 

(Jan. 1924), p. 90. 

58 “Can Islam be Reformed” The Moslem World, Vol 16, No. 1 (Jan 1926), p. 244. 


281


remembered. A House in which a Moslem earnestly desires that 

worship which God has ordained for him; a House of purity and holiness, 

a House where the worshippers stand lined like a building 

well founded, behind their prayer leader, facing their kiblah (Mecca) 

in goodly array, in accordance with that true correctness required 

by religion. Side by side they stand with no difference between the 

Emir and his servant, between the poor man and the rich man. 

From the tower of this House sounds forth daily that honoured 

word-the word of the Unity of God.” 59 

5. “Attached to every mosque is a kuttab or elementary school, whose 

avowed purpose is to train up the boys of each generation in the 

knowledge and practice of the religion of Mohammed. A kuttab is as 

thoroughly Moslem as a Sunday School is Christian. The kuttab 

holds its classes every day, and weaves the thoughts of Islam into 

the primers and copy books and memories of the smallest lads. “ 60 

6. “We started using the premises as a "Masjid" (that is where, 

whoever enters, prostrates before the Creator imagining that He 

sees him)…..The entire top floor became the Prayer Hall, an attractively 

maintained place. This is “the heart" of the centre. Here 

are the people who meditate, read the Qur'an, and stand rightly 

behind the Imam to benefit from the Blessings of Allah in the 

form of unity of faith and practice through togetherness. 61 ….Let 

me also thank the companions (As'hab) of the Prophet for keeping 

the Sunnah of the Prophet alive through the great institution of the 

Masjid. It is from the Masjid that they advanced the message of Islam 

through Da'wah throughout the lands on this earth. 62 

59 An excerpt translated from the Algerian Arabic newspaper ‘Al Najah’ in “A 

Moslem Preacher Quotes the Bible,” The Moslem World, Vol 20, No. 1 (Jan. 1930), 

pp. 412-3. 

60 Stephen VanRensselaer Trowbridge, “For Egypt’s Childhood,” The Moslem 

World, Vol 16, No. 1 (Jan 1926), p. 288. See also, Salah Zaimeche, “Education in 

Islam: The Role of the Mosque,” (Manchester, U.K.:Foundation for Science Technology 

and Civilization, June 2002) 

61 Mian (pp. 375,378) details how the Lewisham and Kent Islamic Community originated 

and developed in London. 

62 Ibid, p. ix. 


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Synthesis: Later in this paper we will observe that there are areas of 

sameness, similarity and difference between the ekkl sia and the 

mosque. The data just surveyed, would affirm a statement made 

Solomon and Alamaqdisi that : 

Islam cannot be defined only as a religion in the Western sense of the 

word, neither can it be termed as a faith only. It is a whole encompassing 

system. It is first and foremost a socio-political and socio-religious 

system, as well as socio-economic, socio-educational, legislative, judiciary, 

and military system, cloaked and garbed in religious terminology 

with regulations that govern every aspect of the lives of its adherents 

and their relationships among themselves, and with those that are non- 

Muslims. 

The main institution that plays a central role in directing the lives of 

the Muslim community and everything related to it is the mosque. 63 

In a word, one could say that the mosque is the principal tool of 

Islamic identity formation. That is its role and function. Looking 

deeper, we will see how this affects the Muslim heart. 

11 The heart of the mosque: 

the place of rewards for right observance. 

In order to examine the “heart of the mosque” one must become 

aware of the presuppositions behind its prescribed activities. Presuppositions 

are vitally important, as they expose the unseen thinking 

that lies behind the actions that are seen. Fortunately the body 

of Muslim traditions is quite explicit in revealing Islamic presuppositions, 

thereby preventing the charge of reading meanings into the 

texts. 

This section will observe numerous ways Muhammad guaranteed 

that activities surrounding the mosque would ensure success in 

the form of temporal and eternal rewards. This is a logical extension 

of the ignorance-guidance-success motif. As well, the Dutch 

missiologist J.H. Bavinck saw this as an outworking of the doctrine 

of duties, or fikh [also spelled as fiqh], which he affirms “constitutes 

63 Solomon and Al. pp. 20-21. 


283


the very heart of Moslem theological thought.” 64 The language of 

the balance sheet with debits and credits is most evident. 

11.1 Intentions and good rewarded 

Umar bin al al Khattab reported, "I heard Allah's Messenger say, 'The 

reward of deeds depends upon the intentions and every person will 

get the reward according to what he has intended. So whoever emigrates 

for worldly benefits or for a woman to marry, his emigration 

will be for what he emigrated for." 65 

In a nutshell the intention is what counts, and in some way this 

hadith presupposes that intentions are pure. In a similar fashion Surah 

6:10 presupposes that unalloyed goodness is possible and thus 

has its rewards, to a much higher degree than evil. 

He that does goodness shall have ten times as much to his credit; he 

that does evil will only be recompensed according to his evil. No 

wrong shall be done to them. 

11.2 Self cleansing prior to prayers (ablutions) 

and walking to the mosque rewarded 

Cleansing in a prescribed manner, by external washing is a way to 

expiate sin in Islamic thinking. According to this system this is best 

done prior to prayers as it guarantees their effectiveness. In the 

Fiqh al-Sunnah, a book on how to best emulate the deeds and attitudes 

of Muhammed, we read the following two injunctions: 

Anas (r) reported that the Messenger of Allah said: ‘If good characteristics 

exist in a person; Allah makes all of his acts good. If a person purifies 

himself for As-Salat, he expiates all of his sins and his As-Salat is 

considered an extra reward for him. 66 

64J. H. Bavinck, Introduction to the Science of Missions. Tr. David H. Freeman. (Grand 

Rapids: Baker. I960), p. 264. 

65 Az-Zubaidi, Summarised Sahih al-Bukhari. Arabic-English, (Dar-Us-Salaam Publishers, 

Riyadh Z. A, 1994), Hadith No. 1, p. 49 as cited by Mian. *The use of 

Islamic statements referring to “The Prophet” or “Allah’s Messenger” does not 

necessarily imply acceptance of the validity of these terms by this author. 

66 Sabiq, (Vol. 1, p. 37), as cited by Mian 


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Abdullah Ibn al-Sunnabiji (r) stated that the Messenger of Allah 

said: 'When a slave (faithful) makes ablution and rinses his mouth, his 

wrong deeds fall from it. As he rinses his nose, his wrong deeds fall 

from it. When he washes his hands, his wrong deeds fall from them 

until they fall from beneath his fingernails. When he wipes his head, 

his wrong deeds fall from it until they fall from his ears. When he 

washes his feet, his wrong deeds fall from them until they fall from beneath 

his toenails. Then his walking to the Masjid and his As-Salat 

give him extra reward. 67 

It was narrated that Abu Hurayrah: “Whoever purifies himself in his 

house then walks to one of the houses of Allah in order to perform one 

of the duties enjoined by Allah, for every two steps he takes, one will 

erase a sin and the other will raise him one degree in status.” (Narrated 

by Muslim, 666) 

11.3 Rewards for prayer done communally 

The following traditions give a range of credit for prayer, depending 

where it occurs. They also presuppose that one can do their 

ablutions perfectly, and that intentions can be entirely noble, and 

that the act of walking can purge away sin. 

In the Sahih [i.e. reliable] hadiths of Bukhari, which are acknowledged 

with Sahih Muslim to be most authoritative we read that 

Abu Huraira narrated: 

Allah's Apostle said, 'The reward of the prayer offered by a person in 

congregation is twenty-five times greater than that of the prayer offered 

in one's house or in the market (alone). And this is because if he 

performs ablution and does it perfectly and then proceeds to the 

mosque with the sole intention of praying, then for every step he takes 

towards the mosque, he is upgraded one degree in reward and one sin 

is taken off (crossed out) from his accounts (of deeds).’ 68 

Another tradition in the Bukhari collection mentions that “The 

prayer in congregation is twenty-seven times superior to the prayer 

offered by a person alone." 69 

67 Ibid. p. 37. 

68 Sahih al-Bukhari, Hadith 1:352: l0.30.620. 

69 Bukhari [Vol. 1], 351); Bukhari, 11(Call to Prayers=Adhaan):620 


285


Jabir reports that the Messenger of Allah said: "Prayer in the 

inviolable mosque (in Makkah) is like one hundred thousand prayers 

(elsewhere). And a prayer in my mosque (in Madinah) is like one 

thousand prayers (elsewhere). And a prayer in Bayt al-Maqdis (in 

Jerusalem) is like five hundred prayers (elsewhere). [Al-Baihaqi, as- 

Sayuti] 

Thus, not all mosques are created equal. According to the 

hadiths, and even in modern day Egypt, as observed by Solomon a 

prayer offered in the mosque of Amer ib Al’aas has more potential 

effectiveness than that in other places such as the Misr al Gadida 

mosque. 70 

It should be noted that Muhammad frequently referred to his 

mosque with a possessive “my”, “mine.” Echoes of scriptures such as 

“build a temple for my Name” (I Kings 5:5), “I will give them within 

my temple”, “my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations” 

(Isa 56:5, 7 c.f. Mark 11:17), “the house that bears my Name, 

the temple” (Jer 7:14) cannot be overlooked. 

11.4 Early and frequent mosque attendance rewarded 

These traditions presuppose that showing up to the mosque can be 

an indicator of one’s faith, and that early attendees have the potential 

of gaining more “sacrifice-credit.” 

On the authority of Abu Sa’id Al-Khudari Allah's Messenger said: 

When you see a person coming to the mosque frequently, bear witness 

to his faith, for Allah says: "Only one who affirms his faith in Allah and 

the Last Day, can maintain the mosques of Allah." (9:18) 71 

Narrated Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, "When it is a Friday, the angels 

stand at the gate of the mosque and keep on writing the names of 

the persons coming to the mosque in succession according to their arrivals. 

The example of the one who enters the mosque in the earliest 

hour is that of one offering a camel (in sacrifice). The one coming next 

is like one offering a cow and then a ram and then a chicken and then 

70 Solomon, p. 27. 

71 On the authority of Abu Sa’id Al-Khudari and transmitted by Tirmidhi Ibn Majah 

and Darimi. 


286


an egg respectively. When the Imam comes out (for Jumua prayer) they 

(i.e. angels) fold their papers and listen to the Khutbah." 72 

11.5 Contentment and tranquillity promised 

for gathering and study in the mosque 

This traditions presupposes that the mind and activities of Allah can 

be known to Muhammad, who gave ample incentive for study at the 

mosque. According to Al-Umree, Muhammad stated: 

Anyone who followed a way to seek knowledge, Allah will make his 

way easy to the Paradise. Never do a people gather in one of the 

Houses of Allah (that is, a Masjid) to study the Book of Allah (Al- 

Qur'an) and discuss (to understand) its meanings; but Allah showers 

them with contentment and tranquility, Mercy covers them, Angels, 

surround them and Allah mentions them to the Angels around 

Him. 73 

11.6 Eternal rewards for mosque building promised 

Two streams of thought appear to converge in the following traditions, 

namely that rewards are commensurate with intention, and 

also with executing the plan. The dynamic of “if I scratch your back, 

then you will scratch mine” or the Roman idea of “I give to the gods 

in order to get” seem to be at play. Might there be a subtle reference 

to the scriptural echo of “in my Father’s house are many mansions…I 

go to prepare a place for you” (John 14:2-3) in Faye’s recipe 

for success 

Whoever built a mosque, "Intending Allah's Pleasure", Allah would 

build for him a similar place in Paradise.' 74 

Ibn 'Abbas reports that the Prophet said: "Whoever builds for Allah a 

mosque, even if it be tiny, like a bird's nest, Allah will build for him a 

house in paradise." (Ahmad, ibn Hibban, al-Bazzar – Sahih) 

Cheikh Aliou Faye, the chief marabout of the Gambia revised and 

embellished a poem detailing Islamic etiquette written by his mas- 

72 Sahih Bukhari: 2.51 

73 Wali-ud-din Bin Abdullah Al-Khatib Al-Umree, Mishkat Shareef. Arabic-Urdu, 

(Maktabah Rahmania, Lahore, n. d,), Hadith No. 193, p. 64. as cited by Mian 

74 Sahih Bukhari: Vol.1, Book 8, No.441 


287


ter, Cheikh El-Hadji Malik Sy, who was of the Tijaniyya branch of 

Islam in Senegal and entitled it The Way of Success for the Disciple. 

Two sample verses read: “Whosoever wishes to enter Paradise 

without punishment and without the need to give an exact account 

of his actions at the Resurrection, should build a mosque for God 

the Merciful, and he will be granted one hundred and thirty palaces 

in Paradise.” “Every believer who enters this mosque to pray will 

obtain a pleasant dwelling in Paradise.” 75 

11.7 Eternal rewards unique to mosque 

attendees and mosque cleaners 

On the dreadful Day of Resurrection, when there will be no shade except 

under the Divine Throne, seven groups of people will be provided 

a place thereunder: one group will be those people whose hearts were 

much inclined for prostration (in the Mosque). 76 

Sweeping the Mosque clean of dust and dirt is indeed arranging for 

dowry of the black-eyed houri [perpetual virgins in paradise] (Tabarani) 

77 

11.8 Rewards for being the prayer caller 

These rewards presuppose that it would be possible award both 

paradise and ranking on the day of resurrection for pronouncing the 

call to prayer. Years of service also are meritorious. 

Narrated Muawiyyiah (r), 'The Prophet said, "The Callers to the As- 

Salawat will have the longest neck (that is, they will be the tallest) of 

all people on the Day of Resurrection. 78 

Ibn Umar (r) narrated, 'Allah's Messenger said, "The Muedhdhin 

who pronounces the Adhan (sincerely) regularly for a period of 

twelve years is declared a man of Paradise. Everyday sixty grades are 

75 A. Samb. “Masdjid ‘In West Africa’’ p. 705 in P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. 

Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs et al. eds. Encyclopædia of Islam, 2nd 

Edition., Vol 6 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1991) 

76 Bukhari, “Adhan,” 36; Muslim, “Zakat,”91; Tirmidhi, “Zuhd,”53. 

77“Rules and Regulations for using the Mosque and Islamic Centre of Hampton 

Roads,” http://members.cox.net/z_noor/Rules.pdf (Accessed 2011/3/1) 

78 Sabiq (Vol. 1, p. 94) as cited by Mian 


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recorded for him. As far as the reward for his iqamah [the second call to 

prayer] is concerned, he gets thirty rewards. 79 

11.9 Rewards for placement in the mosque 

and attentive listening 

Abu Hurairah (r) reported; The Messenger of Allah said; ‘Salat behind 

the Imam is twenty-five times more excellent than the one performed 

individually. 80 

It was narrated from Abu Hurayrah that the Prophet said: “Whoever 

does ghusl then comes to Jumu’ah, and prays as much as Allah decrees 

for him, then listens attentively until the khutbah is over, then prays 

with him (the imam), will be forgiven for (his sins) between that and 

the next Jumu’ah and three more days.” 81 

11.10 Rewards for standing for prayer in the mosque 

It is related that 'Imran said, "I asked the Prophet, may Allah bless him 

and grant him peace, about the prayer of a man sitting down and he 

said, 'It is better if he prays standing. Someone who prays sitting down 

has only half the reward of someone standing. And anyone who prays 

lying down has only half the reward of someone who prays sitting 

down." 82 

11.11 Rewards for lingering at the mosque 

Muadh bin Anas Jahni (r) narrated: The Messenger of Allah said; 

‘Whoever continues to sit in his place after Salat al-Fajr and then perform 

two rak'at, of Salat ad-Duha and does not enter into loose 

talk, all his sins are forgiven even if they were more than the lather 

of the ocean. 83 

79 AI-Umree (Vol I, Hadith No. 627, p. 147) as cited by Mian 

80 Sahih Muslim, Book 4, No. 1364 

81 Sahih Muslim, 857 

82 Sahih Bukhari Ch. 24 (Shortening the Prayer) 13, No. 1065 Note: The previous 

hadith, No. 1064 refers to a man who had piles, and some commentators see both of 

these references as a concession to someone who is sick, yet the gradation in merit 

from one lying down, to one sitting, to one standing is obvious. 

83 Abu Da'ud, further reference unknown. 


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11.12 Fridays offer more rewards than other days 

Narrated Abu Huraira: Allah's Apostle talked about Friday and said, 

"There is an hour (opportune time) on Friday and if a Muslim gets it 

while praying and asks something from Allah, then Allah will definitely 

meet his demand." And he (the Prophet) pointed out the shortness of 

that time with his hands. 84 

According to a tradition cited by D.S. Margoliouth, Allah rewards the 

piety of his believers with a generous act of liberation, namely that on 

Fridays he releases sixty thousand souls that are imprisoned in Hell. 85 

11.13 Certain days offer even more rewards 

for mosque attendance 

The night of Qadr, or the night of destiny is said by Qur’an (Al- 

Qadr 97: 1-5) to be worth a 1000 months of prayers at other times. 

For good reason, mosque attendance at this night is especially meritorious. 

11.14 Rewards or disincentives for 

the gender of the mosque attendee 

A woman is closest to God's face, if she is found in the core of her 

house. And the prayer of the woman in the house is better than her 

prayer in the mosque. 86 

11.15 Summary 

Every detail surrounding the mosque has the potential for meritorious 

behaviour. 87 With each of these acts, good is either increased or 

84 Sahih Bukhari 2.57 

85 David S. Margoliouth, The early development of Mohammedanism. (New York: C. 

Scribner's sons, 1914), p. 165. 

86 This hadith is classed as 'Hassan', or ‘approved.’ According to Nonie Darwish in 

her Cruel and Usual Punishment. (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2008), p. 78 this hadith 

was very formative in dissuading mosque attendance by women in her native 

Egypt even though Muhammad did say elsewhere that women should not be prevented 

from mosque attendance when they were in a state of purity. She cites Al- 

Ghazali, Ihy'a 'Uloum ed-Din. Vol II, Kitab Adab al-Nikah (Dar al-Kotob al- 

'Elmeyah, Beirut,), p. 65. 

87 For a collection of Islamic traditions which promise rewards for recitation of the 

Qur’an see: Benefits of the Recitation of the Chapters of the Holy Qur’an (Civil 


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sin effaced, albeit almost wholly dependent on meeting various conditions. 

All of them presuppose that someone had the ability to actually 

declare the terms of forgiveness of sin, the entry into Paradise 

and position there, aversion of judgment, and that humans are able 

to fulfil all the conditions laid out before them. The phrase “it is not 

by works, that you should boast” (Eph 2:9) is wholly missing from 

the formula. This is most poignant in Surah 9:108. “A place of worship 

which was founded upon reverence from the first day […] 

wherein are men who love to purify themselves. Allah loves the purifiers.” 

Glasse’s observation concerning every Muslim, “who each day 

fulfils the role that the Jewish high priest performed only on the 

Day of Atonement" was designed to be the highest compliment to 

Islam. Yet it is the most damning statement from a Christian standpoint. 

Essentially, it says that the observations surrounding the 

mosque are an implicit statement that one can make atonement for 

oneself daily, as a fulfilment and improvement on the role of the Old 

Testament high priest. This directly undermines the work of the 

new High Priest, with a better sacrifice, a better covenant, a better 

country, a better word, a better promise, a better hope and better 

possessions to quote the book of Hebrews. Likely echoes of Phil 3:8 

“not having a righteousness of my own that comes from the law, but 

that which is through faith in Christ--the righteousness that comes 

from God and is by faith” would have reverberated in Paul’s mind at 

hearing the above Surah and Glasse’s quote. 

Sam Schlorff’s adage that “Islam provides a perfect illustration of 

the cycle of sin, repression and suppression, substitution, and more 

sin” will be examined for veracity in the next section, which examines 

whether the mosque and ekkl sia can be said to be the same, 

similar or different. 

Service of Pakistan) http://www.cssforum.com.pk/off-topic-section/islam/17666- 

benefits-recitation-chapters-holy-qur.html (Accessed 2011/2/17) 


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12 The ekklesia and the mosque: Same, Similar or Different 

As soon as two systems of worship share similar terminology, it 

becomes incumbent to tease apart the semantics or meanings associated 

with words, in each system. Otherwise, facile equivalences 

can be made, which can prove to be more of a hindrance than a help. 

12.1 Areas of sameness. 

12.1.1 The call to faith 

In both Islam and Christianity people are said to be ‘the called ones.’ 

In the former adherents are said to respond to al-Da’wah al Tammah 

or as it is referred to ‘the complete call.’ This is the call that goes 

out each time the call to prayer comes from the mosque. Mian asserts, 

“Because Islam is ultimate and entire, the invitation to it is 

something that cannot be improved. As Islam is whole, perfect and 

a complete way of life so is the call to it.” 88 

In Christianity, as well, we have observed that the qahal on 

which the NT word ekklesia is based, is due to the sovereign call of 

God. It is His convocation for a holy assembly at Sinai of the people 

of Israel that he saved out of the slavery of Egypt. In the New Testament 

it is God’s gracious call of sinners “out of darkness into his 

marvellous light” that constitutes His people. 

12.1.2 The language of worship 

Just as the Shahadah is the Muslims’ stated expression of their beliefs, 

so the Christian expresses his/her belief by means of a creed. 

When entering a mosque with the right foot first in emulation of 

Muhammad, a variation on the theme of the Shahadah is spoken 

with the words “In the name of Allah, praise be to Allah, O Allah, 

bless our liegelord (= a feudal lord entitled to allegiance and service. 

Arabic: Sayyidina,) Muhammad, his folk and his Companions, and 

give them peace. O Allah, open unto me the gates of Your mercy.” 89 

88 Kenneth Cragg, The Call of the Minaret. (Oxford University Press, 1956), p. vii-ix 

cited by Mian p. 155-156. 

89 Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri, Reliance of the Traveler: A Classic Manual of Islamic 

Sacred Law. Tr. Noah Ha Mim Keller (Beltsville, Md: Amana Publications, Revised 

1994), p. 355 item j13.1. This is the classic medieval Shafi manual of Islamic 

jurisprudence. 


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Just as the Muslim call to prayer is said to be the ‘Muslim International 

Anthem’ so Christians have their anthem “Jesus Christ is 

Lord to the glory of God the Father.” 

Just as Christians have terminology for postures in prayer, 

namely that of standing, sitting, bowing, prostrating, so Muslims 

have terminology for postures of prayer, some of which are similar. 

The heart motivation, the object of adoration and petition as well as 

means of access to such, are all other matters. 

12.1.3 Life is liturgy 

Both Christians and Muslims understand profoundly that what one 

does with their body, re-enforces belief, which in turn re-enforces 

what one does with their bodies. In a word, both believe that “life is 

liturgy.” In Islam this comes out most strongly in the rituals of 

ablutions prior to prayer and the movements of the rakas during 

prayer. Islamic rituals re-enforce both the belief that it is possible to 

purify oneself, and to present oneself in obeisance as the slave of 

Allah in such a way as to gain merit with such. 

Christians see life as liturgy expressed in the church via the 

sacraments of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, both of which are affirmations 

of God’s covenant relationship in Christ to his people. 

Both share in the fact that liturgy is permeated with physicality. 

For Christians this derives from the belief in the essential goodness 

of the original creation as well as the Incarnation. For Muslims, this 

derives from a belief that the whole world is a place of prayer. 

12.1.4 Social aspects of the gathered congregation 

Two groups gather. They can both be called assemblies. One is 

called jam’a in Arabic and the other ekkl sia in Greek. Both state 

that unity and equality are highly valued. This was somewhat the 

same situation of the meeting of the Roman polis [=ekklesia] and 

the people of God as part of the Kingdom of God [=ekklesia]. The 

case for sameness seems strong. But is it 

12.1.5 Architecture. 

In his paper, “Re-using Contextualization Among Muslims: Using 

Common Pillars” Woodberry takes one on a tour of the mosque to 

show that it has borrowed much of Christian and Jewish architec- 


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tural and religious furnishings as well as liturgical elements ranging 

from the pulpit, to the placement of revered texts, to the presence of 

a sermon and so forth. At first glance there are multiple areas of 

sameness. When we recall, however, Glasse’s and Dickie’s comments 

relating mosque architectural form and functions areas of 

dissimilarity emerge. 

12.1.6 Focus on the day of resurrection 

A number of the traditions examined in the area of rewards for 

cleaning, attending, building, and working in conjunction with the 

mosque point to the day of resurrection. Obviously the hereafter 

and giving assurance about one’s place in it was a great preoccupation 

of Muhammad. 

One might say the same about the orientation of many Biblical 

writers who talked in terms of paradise, hope, resurrection and assurance. 

It was only Jesus, however, who could say in most definitive 

terms, “Today you---all of your de-merits notwithstanding-- 

will be with me-personally- in paradise.” 

12.1.7 Summary 

Words that imply sameness can provide a springboard for discussion 

between Muslims and Christians. They might also provide 

openings to discuss the meanings behind such words and challenge 

Christian thinkers who might have subtly adopted Gnostic thinking 

in making a divorce between what one does with the body and its 

influence on the spirit. 

12.2 Similarities 

12.2.1 The metaphor of light 

It has been observed by Kenneth Cragg in his book, The Call of the 

Minaret, that the towers at the four corners of a mosque, from which 

the call to prayer originate have the metaphor of a lighthouse. He 

notes that the English word ‘minaret’ is derived from its Arabic original 

‘manarah’ or belonging to the realm of light. This is consistent 

with Durie’s synopsis of Islamic thinking that shows a progression 

from ignorance via guidance culminating in success. Thus the minaret 

is the tool to call people out of their darkness---literally in the 

early morning—of ignorance to success. For example the apex of a 


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minaret usually is crowned with a crescent moon and a star. Both of 

these are seen at night, and some have dubbed Islam, “the religion of 

the night.” This was not lost on Samuel Zwemer who stated, 

“Mohammed's mission, whatever else it may have been or done, was 

[an attempt to] an eclipse of the Sun of Righteousness by the moon 

of Mecca.” 90 

Metaphors of light abound in Christianity with the one just cited 

by Zwemer as an example. Likewise, Paul tells the Philippian Christians 

that they are to “ Do everything without complaining or arguing, 

so that you may become blameless and pure, children of God 

without fault in a crooked and depraved generation, in which you 

shine like stars in the universe as you hold out the word of life. 

(Phil 2:14-16b; cf Dan 12:3). 

12.2.2 A place of purity. 

Cyril Glasse gives us a brief summary of the architectural elements 

of a mosque along with their function, and shows that its essence 

can be found in the word ‘consecrated’. 

The style of mosques varies greatly, but the elements are constant. 

The fundamental requirement is for a consecrated space, either open or 

covered or both, upon which the worshippers, ranked in rows behind 

the prayer leader (imam), perform the actions of canonical prayer, 

standing, bowing and kneeling. No one should set foot in this space except 

in a state of ritual purity. To indicate the direction of Mecca (qiblah) 

which all face in prayer, there is generally a closed arch, of varying 

degrees of adornment and elaboration, called the mihrab. In very large 

mosques there may well be more than one mihrab. To the right of the 

mihrab in larger mosques stands the pulpit (minbar) from which the 

Friday exhortation, or sermon (Khutbah) is delivered. 91 

An example of this ritual purity is seen in a tradition that states 

that Umm Salamah related that the Prophet came to the mosque's 

courtyard and said at the top of his voice, "The mosque is off limits 

90 Samuel M. Zwemer, The Glory of the Cross. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1982 original 

1935), p. 41. 

91 Glasse, p. 315. 


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to menstruating women and the sexually impure persons." 92 The 

description of the New Jerusalem, as well precludes sexually impure 

persons from attending, but their purity is derived from an externally 

derived purity, namely that of the blood of the Lamb. It strikes 

one as ironic, that Muhammad could set limits to mosque attendance 

based on gender and menstrual cycles, and yet somehow be 

untouchable when it came to his own state of sexual purity. As with 

many of the traditions that we have seen, a presupposition of being 

able to purify oneself runs through Islamic thought. 

The quote from Glasse demonstrates that Islam adheres to the 

belief that sacred spaces exist, and this much more so with the gradation 

of sacredness that we have seen with the efficacy of prayers 

in one place or another. In Christianity, however, the sacred space of 

the tabernacle and of the temple has been taken over by the person 

of Christ who is the embodiment of the temple. Thus, His dwelling 

in and with His people, renders them sacred, both individually and 

collectively. 

12.2.3 All of life is religion 

The apostle Paul said, “whether you eat or you drink do all for the 

glory of God” (I Cor 10:31). In his thinking there was no dualism 

between the mundane activities of eating and drinking and his spiritual 

life. That is to say, he saw life as a complete whole. Islam has a 

similar dynamic in that it does not compartmentalize life into the 

physical and the spiritual, but rather views all of life as a religious 

activity. Thus one finds hadiths that tell one whether sneezing or 

yawning is permitted or forbidden based on precedents of observations 

on Muhammad’s life and teachings. 

Just to what end this life serves however, serves as a parting of 

the ways. 


It becomes quickly apparent that the philosophy and presuppositions 

that are part and parcel of a religion play a major role in how 

92 Related by al-Tabarani. See Fiqh-us-Sunnah-Volume-1-Ghusl-the-completeablution, 

Vol. 1, p. 54 

http://www.yanabi.com/Hadith.aspxHadithID=147376 (Accessed 2011/3/1) 


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it “fleshes itself out.” When examined at this level, apparent similarities 

start to reveal themselves as springing from rather different 

sources. 

12.3 Differences 

12.3.1 The gathered people and warfare. 

In every mosque is a niche which shows the orientation that prayer 

must be made. It is called the mihrab which is an Arabic word, according 

to Zwemer, for “the place of fighting.” Prayer thus, is said 

to be an instrument by which demons are fought. 93 Lest one think 

that the only motif is spiritual warfare, however, it would be wise to 

listen to the words Sir Valentine Chirol who observed: 

Islam alone of all the great religions of the human race was born sword 

in hand. Islam has always relied on the sword, and for thirteen hundred 

years the mullah who reads the Friday prayers in the mosque wears a 

sword, even if only made of wood, as a symbol of his creed. 94 

Another classical scholar of Islam, D.S. Margoliouth shows this 

relationship between physical warfare and religion and asserts that 

"the original Moslem system was to make its adherents soldierpriests, 

i.e., to combine the sacerdotal with the warrior caste." 95 He 

shows, as well that the prayers in military formation, along with 

Ramadan as a month test of endurance, enthusiasm kindled by the 

claim to form the most excellent race on earth, and a right, proclaimed 

from the pulpit to all the possessions of all who did not belong 

to that race of Muslims, all contributed to a war-like spirit. 96 

This war-like spirit coming from the Friday preachers at the 

mosque is a present-day concern for Coptic Christians in Egypt, 

93 Samuel M. Zwemer, “Animistic Elements in Moslem Prayer” The Moslem World, 

Vol 8, No. 4 (October 1918), p. 367. J. Pedersen (1961, p. 343), suggests, however 

that the word is derived from a palace or a part of it, or could refer to a niche where 

a bust of a prominent person or saint would be displayed. 

94 Sir Valentine Chirol in Foreign Affairs, Vol. I, No 3 quoted by Samuel Zwemer 

“The Sword of Mohammed and Ali” in The Moslem World, Vol 21, No. 2, (April 

1931), p.109. 

95 David S. Margoliouth,. Mohammedanism, (London, Williams and Norgate, Original 

1911, 1921 reprint), pp. 76-77. 

96 Ibid,, p. 76. 


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who can statistically show a relationship between a fiery sermon, 

and the likelihood of a rogue or radical element using them as whipping-boys 

for whatever the preacher has alleged. 97 Margoliouth observed 

this already in 1911 when he said, “From the year 7 A.H. to 

the present day, the minbar of every great mosque in the world of 

Islam is “the seat of the mighty”. From such minbars the Khatib 

(Friday preacher) has exercised the power of eloquence, roused the 

multitudes to new fervor, or even jihad, and pulled down princes 

from their thrones.” 98 

In the context of God’s gathered people in the ekklesia the motif 

of warfare also exists. It no longer embodies the Old Testament 

concept of holy war against the enemies of God, but now is a celebration 

of the decisive battle of Christ against his arch-enemy Satan 

at the cross, and a looking forward to the final victory battle at the 

Parousia. The church is commanded to act in military ways, but 

that is to use the motif of a soldier’s watchfulness to encourage it to 

pray, and to identify assaults against it by Satan and his minions. 

12.3.2 The relationship of religion and the state 

Recall that Sheikh Omar Bakri Muhammad in his publication on the 

role of the mosque, had as its first item, The Mosque is the headquarters 

of the Islamic State's supreme leadership. Since there is no separation 

in Islam between “church and state” nor an acknowledgement 

of “giving to Caesar what is Caesar’s and to God what is God’s” the 

mosque can easily become a religious tool for state domination. 

97 See also “Friday Sermons in Saudi Mosques: Review and Analysis,” MEMRI 

[The Middle East Media Research Institute] No.10 (September 26, 2002), 

http://www.memritv.org/report/en/736.htm (Accessed 2011/2/28). The sampling 

included the following categories: Christians and Jews are "Infidels," "Enemies 

of Allah"' ;'Jews - The Descendants of Pigs and Apes';'It is Impossible to 

Make Peace With the Jews' 'Muslims Must Educate Their Children to Jihad… and 

to Hatred of Jews and Christians'; The Palestinian Struggle Must be An Islamic 

Jihad. 

98 Zwemer, “Sword of Mohammed”. p.28. See also "What Muslims Hear at Friday 

Prayers". Der Spiegel.(April 19, 2006), 

http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,411903,00.html. (Accessed 

2011/2/10) 


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Samuel Zwemer in his article, “The Clergy and Priesthood of Islam” 

states: 

Church and state are so completely identified that the religious life is 

made subject to the supervision of the courts of law; and the constitution 

of society and the government is supposed to be the result of a series 

of Divine enactments. 99 

A hadith might explain how this occurred in Muhammad’s day. 

Anyone not joining in the prayers would receive a heavy sanction, 

from Muhammad who was the head of state and the head of the religion. 

Hammam bin Munabbih reported: 'The Messenger of Allah said; "I intend 

that I should command my young men to gather bundles of fuel 

for me, and then order a person to lead people in As-Salat, and then 

burn the houses with their inmates (who have not joined the congregation.)" 

100 

The Christian church, however is ordered to “honour the emperor” 

(I Pet 2:17), to pray for those in authority (I Tim 2:2), to submit 

to those in authority (Rom 13:1; I Pet 2:13) and to speak prophetically 

to it. It sees its ‘head of state’ and rightful recipient of its ultimate 

allegiance as King Jesus, who Himself said to Pilate the Roman 

governor, that his Kingdom did not have its origins in this 

world (John 18:36). Thus the church sees itself as influencing, not 

taking the role of the state. 

12.3.3 Religious observances for the glory of… 

In a fashion not unlike that of an injunction to the Ephesian church 

to be imitators of God, Muhammad gave an injunction to his followers 

to be imitators of him. Regarding observances at the 

mosque, he was said to say to his followers, "Pray as you have seen 

me praying.” 101 Mian justifies this imitation by describing Muhammad 

as the ‘Model Practitioner.’ He states: “Allah owns all knowledge. 

He blessed His Last Messenger with perfect knowledge of 

99 Samuel M. Zwemer “The Clergy and Priesthood of Islam,” The Moslem World, 

Vol. No. 1 (January 1944), p. 18. 

100 Sahih Muslim, (The Book of Prayers No. 1371) 

101Al-Asqalani, (Hadith, No. 259), p. 119 as cited by Mian. 


299


what was essential for him in order to be the "Model Human Being” 

in all walks of life. 102 

Besides praying like Muhammad, Muslims are to pray for him 

and to reverence him. Thus prayers for him [= tasliya] occur at 

each entry and exit of the mosque and are consistent with the Surah 

48:9 “That ye (mankind) may believe in Allah and His messenger 

and may honour Him, and may revere Him, and may glorify Him at 

early dawn and at the close of day” (Pickthall). Sale, translates the 

same verse as “that ye may believe in God, and his apostle; and may 

assist him, and revere him, and praise him morning and evening.” Even 

among Islamic scholars there is a certain ambivalence if the pronoun 

“him” refers to Allah or to Muhammad or to both. Regardless of 

where their opinion falls on this verse, Islam has a definite tendency 

to glorification of Muhammad and in many ways that is the role of 

mosque observance. 103 

The ekklesia however, exists “to the praise of his glory” (Eph 

1:12.14) and due to the plan of salvation delivered by Christ. 

12.3.4 A declaration of the superiority of ….. 

According to Islamic tradition, at the end of time, Jesus’ return will 

centre around the institution of the mosque. This brings his life full 

circle, as according to other Muslim traditions Jesus’ parents were 

water carriers for a mosque. The story goes that just three days after 

Jesus’ conception Mary ‘was at that time a girl of fifteen years 

old, and some say thirteen years old, - she dwelt in a mosque; and 

there was with her in the mosque her cousin, named Joseph the carpenter, 

and he was a sweet-tempered man, who earned his living by 

his trade. And Joseph and Mary were also servants of the mosque as 

water-carriers, and when Mary had emptied her water-jar and Joseph 

his, each of them took the jar and went to a cave where the 

102 Mian, p. 54. 

103 See the comments of G.E. Haddad concerning this ambivalence in “The Prophetic 

Title ‘The Best of Creation’”http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/misc/best.htm 

(Accessed 2011/2/19) 


300


water-spring was, to draw water. And then they returned to the 

Mosque.” 104 

According to hadithic traditions Jesus (‘Isa), will descend from 

heaven and will appear in the mosque at Damascus, at the hour of 

the midday Prayer, in the angle nearest to the eastern minaret. 

There the imam will give up his place to him and he will lead the 

Prayer. Then he will slay Dajjal [the anti-Christ] at the gates of 

Lydda, and he will obtain from God the destruction of Gog and 

Magog. He will marry, have children, and will reign on the earth for 

forty years, eliminate the jizya tax on non-Muslims i.e. they will 

accept Islam or die, kill all the pigs, and destroy all the crosses. He 

will die at the end of the forty years, before which he will work to 

usher in Islam worldwide, and will be buried next to Muhammad in 

the Masjid an-Nabi [literally: Mosque of the Prophet] in Medina. 105 

Both of these stories underscore the supremacy of the mosque in 

Islamic tradition, and this supremacy extends to the present day 

where in many Islamic countries it is forbidden to make a church 

steeple higher than the minaret of the mosque. 106 The message is 

loud and clear. Islam is the superior religion, and our architecture 

declares it aloud. This can be observed in a talk given by Dr. Abeed 

bin Muhammed A’Sufiyani of the University Of Umm El Qurra who 

stated that “Islam Rises Above all” is a basic principle of the Islamic 

Shari’ah that permeates all aspects of Islamic jurisprudence. 107 This 

same sentiment was expressed in a fatwa describing the supremacy 

of Islam and by extension the mosque: 

104 Samuel M. Zwemer cites Imam Abu Isbak Ahmed bin muhammad Mohammed 

bin Ibrahim Eth-Thalabi as his source of this tradition in The Moslem Christ, (London, 

U.K: Oliphants, 1912), p. 38 

105 See Reliance of the Traveller, 603-4; John Gilchrist, The Christian Witness to the 

Muslim (1987) http://www.answering-islam.org/Gilchrist/Vol2/5a.html (Accessed 

2011/2/28): Sahih Muslim Book 041, Number 7015, Book 001, Number 

0287; Sunan Abu Dawud, Book 37, Number 4310, Narrated by Abu Hurayrah: Sahih 

Bukhari Volume 3, Book 43, Number 656 

106 Hans Jansen, “Hans Jansen on Dhimmitude in Holland” 

http://www.jihadwatch.org/2005/04/hans-jansen-on-dhimmitude-inholland.html 

(Accessed 2011/2/15) 

107 Solomon, Mosque Exposed , p. 81. 


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For a mosque is symbol of the presence of Islam, the heartbeat of the 

Muslim community, an educational outlet where the community is 

taught to combat evil, ignorance and apostasy. It is a university as well 

as a court, from where the laws of Allah are promoted, it is a symbol of 

authority within that community and ultimately within the state and 

beyond, for the Apostle of Allah said Islam rises and nothing rises 

above it, for it is the uppermost. 108 

The role of the ekkl sia however, is “to declare the excellencies 

of Him who brought the assembly out of darkness into his wonderful 

light” (cf. I Peter 2:9). It exists, not to declare its own praises, 

but wholly the praises of Another who has conquered sin and death. 

Thus the strength of the ekklesia is not in declaring, by word and 

architecture, that it is superior to all others, but can assume a humble 

position of service in the world to the glory of God. 

12.3.5 Effect on the attendee 

Durie helpfully demonstrates that there is a quantum difference between 

someone who is declared to be successful and has been “raised 

x number of degrees in status,” as in the case of a faithful mosque 

attendee, and someone who has been rescued, as in the case of an 

attendee of the ekklesia. The former can pride themselves on having 

a superior way of life and the later are intrinsically humbled by the 

fact that their contribution consisted in a cry for help, as per the 

condition of the Hebrew slaves prior to their liberation and eventual 

sacred assembly (qahal) at Sinai which was the prototype for the 

ekkl sia. 

One cannot help but wonder if one can connect a few dots between 

the implicit legalism of Islam and something somewhat intangible, 

but what has been identified as a “seductive sprit.” When 

Paul addressed the Galatian church, which had fallen into the trap 

of legalism, he asked them “who has put a spell on you”(Gal 3:1). 

Veteran missionaries have observed that mosque attendance appears 

to place a “spell” on its adherents. Could they be on to something 

108 Mosque Exposed, p. 80, quoting www.islameyat.com/Fatwa_26159.htm 


302


The historian Edith Butcher in 1887, related a story of a Tunisian 

who went to visit the mosque of Amr in Cairo. Although a 

sense of dirt and disorder surrounded the comings and goings on in 

this place, the 13 th century visitor stated: 

Nevertheless….I experienced in it a soft and soothing influence without 

there being anything to look upon which was sufficient to account 

for it… Then I learned that this is a secret influence left there from the 

fact that the companions of the Prophet … stood in its courts while it 

was building. 109 

At the i2 Ministries conference of October 2010, a missionary to 

the Arabic world related that as he stood in front of a famous 

mosque, an invisible seductive female voice was heard to be saying, 

“Come and worship me…” Accompanying the voice was a scent of a 

most attractive female perfume, which in the open air where he 

stood could not have been exactly natural. Other anecdotal stories, 

including the use of the word “spiritual seduction” were tabled, notably 

that of Jay Smith and his documented reaction to the material 

presented at the Atlanta 2009 Common Ground conference. 

Curiously, A.M. Forster, the noted writer, cited the experience of 

the Tunisian, and observed, “He was conscious of an atmosphere 

which, though supernatural, was not divine; men had produced 

it.” 110 Although it was “supernatural” could there be another source 

than men who had produced it 

Might this “spirit” have contributed to the slippery-slope, what 

seems to be apostasy of a so-called Christian missionary family described 

by Dick Brogden in the Spring 2010 Journal of Frontier Missiology 

who “decided to live as “insiders” and embrace Islam as a social-religious 

context… publicly said the full ‘shahada’, joined a 

109 Edith L. Butcher The Story of the Church of Egypt Being an Outline of the History of 

the Egyptians Under Their Successive Masters from the Roman Conquest Until Now. Vol. 

2. (London: Smith, Elder, 1897), p. 150. 

110 Forster, p. 276. 


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mosque and placed their children in Islamic schools…[and who] no 

longer believe Jesus is divine” 111 


As much as there are some areas that one could call sameness, along 

with similarities, the underlying role and function of the mosque 

and ekklesia are dramatically different. In his book, The Mosque: The 

Heart of Submission Rusmir Mahmutcehajic, a professed Muslim 

states, “Christians in particular may suppose that “the Mosque” is 

the Islamic analogue of the Church, the mystical body of Christ. But 

the “mosque” has no similar connotation for Muslims.” 112 This was 

observed more than 60 years earlier by McClenahan who said, “The 

mosque is indeed sometimes thought of as the"church" of the Moslems, 

as if the two were analogous. In fact they are very unlike, in 

their physical and material design and equipment, in their organization, 

use and general spirit. 113 

13 Conclusion 

This study began by engaging in the challenge of J. Dudley Woodberry 

to “to determine the function of both mosques and churches” 

in order to determine “the extent to which Muslim followers of 

Christ may still worship in a mosque or mosque-like context.” We 

took exception to his phraseology “Muslim followers of Christ” and 

still do, perhaps with even more reserve after observing the Islamic 

assertions that it is an all-encompassing socio-political-religious 

system. Thus the advice of two ex-Muslims, namely Solomon and 

Alamaqdisi to not allow Christian definitions of worship to be facilely 

superimposed on Islamic words that might have resemblance 

to Christian words but entirely different meaning, proved to be extremely 

important to this examination. Specifically, their suggestion 

to keep in mind that worship in Islam is “upholding and imple- 

111 Dick Brogden, “On Religious Identity: Inside out—Probing Presuppositions 

Among Insider Movements,” International Journal of Frontier Missiology, 27:1 

(Spring 2010), p. 37. 

112 Rusmir Mahmutc"ehajic", The Mosque: The Heart of Submission. (New York: 

Fordham University Press, 2006), p. x. 

113 McClenahan, pp. 159-60. 


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menting the revealed law of Allah—the Shari’ah” contributed to 

allowing Islamic texts to speak for themselves. 

The mosque as described by Muslims themselves is said to be 

‘theology in concrete.’ We granted that Islamic architecture is entirely 

consistent with its worldview. Yet, from a Biblical perspective, 

might concrete be seen as cold, dead and lifeless Was Glasse, 

an advocate for Islam so far off the mark when he described in so 

many words the fact that the mosque is the symbol of institutionalized 

self-righteousness has come up with a better solution than a 

Savior. The Qur’anic words ”a mosque founded on piety” ring true. 

The only problem is that it is not the Savior’s piety, but human piety. 

Might the mosque, as E.J. Long writing some 80 years ago in the 

Moslem World suggested, embody a Crescent dominated religion, 

which as the moon, is not a light source in itself, but bears only reflected 

light What of his statement…“the moon has no physical, 

and Islam has no spiritual atmosphere” 114 

Islamic sources, themselves revealed that in many ways the 

mosque, for all its superficial sameness and similarities with the ekklesia, 

actually functions as an “un-ekklesia,” or to use stronger 

words: “a counterfeit ekklesia”. Through imitation of its human 

founder it re-enforces self-righteousness, an attitude of superiority, 

saving of oneself by meritorious behavior, self-assurance and acceptance 

by God conditional on performance and conquest by human 

power, in a word to “put confidence in the flesh.” Thus the 

words “Jesus mosque” combine the former’s ethos with the name of 

Jesus, who came to demolish all confidence in the flesh. Is this not 

akin to combining oil and water 

Heckman’s interviewees gave sage advice. They reflected Sam 

Schlorff’s observation that culture and cultural objects are not neutral 

vessels in which to pour Christian meaning. Sadly, many efforts 

at missions to Muslims reflect an almost fanatical assertion that cultural 

forms are neutral. Perhaps listening to the larger Body of 

114 E.J. Long, “Cross and Crescent in an Arab Mosque,” The Moslem World, Vol 19 

No 2 (April 1929), p. 203. 


305


Christ is a good antidote to what appears to be ‘zeal without knowledge’ 

leading to careless experimentation. 

We will close with some words by Warren Chastain of the 

Zwemer Institute of Muslim Studies who responded to the glowing 

reports in Benin. His response will suffice as well to call into question 

the assertion by Kraft that one can classify the church and the 

mosque as more or less dynamically equivalent. Chastain minces no 

words by stating: 

Muslim forms cannot be divorced from their meanings. A “Christian 

mosque” is neither fish nor fowl. It confuses converts and outrages Islamic 

leaders, who see it as a deceptive lure for ignorant Muslims. 

Other Muslims may see it as an admission of defeat, a sign that Christians 

are adopting their “superior” form of worship. Westernized, urban 

Muslims may just laugh at the idea, since many of them no longer 

practice the traditions of their own religion. 115 

For further reflection 

How would you respond to the following statements 

1 Thursday, 03 February 2011 (TOLO News) “Militants Use 

Mosques to Plot Attacks” 116 

…. National security forces seized 12 magnetic mines and more than 10 

IEDs from the Imam that were kept in the mosque 117 

2 Concerning the phenomenon of Jesus mosques: “The motivation 

is good, but the price you pay is too high. You’re making Muhammad 

another of the religious authorities—someone besides Jesus 

115 In Bridges, Mission Frontiers, p. 19. 

116 

www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/1769-militants-use-mosques-to-plotattacks-ndsformat=pdf 

www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/1769-militants-use-mosques-to-plot-attacksndstmpl=component&print=1&layout=default&page= 

www.tolonews.com/en/component/mailto/tmpl=component&link=aHR0cDovL 

3d3dy50b2xvbmV3cy5jb20vZW4vYWZnaGFuaXN0YW4vMTc2OS1taWxpdGF 

udHMtdXNlLW1vc3F1ZXMtdG8tcGxvdC1hdHRhY2tzLW5kcw%3D%3D 

117 www.tolonews.com/en/afghanistan/1769-militants-use-mosques-to-plotattacks-nds 

(Accessed 2011/2/11) 


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and the apostles setting up your practice and theology for the 

church.” “You don’t find Paul starting a Jesus-Diana temple or a 

Jesus-Apollo temple.” 118 

3 A statement by the Dutch missiologist J.H. Bavinck. "From a 

strictly theological point of view there is no point within [Islam] 

which offers an unripe truth that can be simply taken over and utilized 

as a basis for Christian witness." 119 

4 A statement by Ata'ullah Siddiqi in the Islamic World Review 

commenting on the use of contextual missionary methods in the 

Muslim world. “It would appear that it no longer matters whether 

heresies are being taught as long as recruits [i.e. new converts] are 

being brought in, especially if they were Muslims. The matter of 

orthodox belief can (hopefully) be sorted out later.” 120 

118 In Bridges, Mission Frontiers, p. 19. 

119 J. H. Bavinck, Introduction to the Science of Missions. Tr David H. Freeman. 

(Grand Rapids: Baker. I960), p. 140. 

120 Siddiqi, p. 31. 


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