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ZIGGURAT
prophecy that dictated that all old cattle and grain must be destroyed
naturally aligns the Cattle-Killing movement with this definition of
catastrophic millennialism. Interesting and more complex, however, are
the roots of Nongqawuse’s claim that the “new condition” that would be
ushered in would be brought by the resurrection of the dead ancestors.
It is likely that this particular aspect of the prophecy is intimately
intertwined with the dawn and spread of Christianity in Xhosaland, and
its complex relationship with indigenous Xhosa beliefs, particularly those
surrounding relationships with ancestors. Christian missionary work
began in Xhosaland in 1817, yet yielded few real conversions. Elements
of Christian doctrine did, however, disperse and absorb into Xhosa
society. 9 The integration of Christian ideas, particularly those relevant to
Nongqawuse’s prophecy, into the traditional Xhosa belief system is in fact
the product of the greatest of coincidences. A smallpox epidemic in the
1770s led to the disruption of Xhosa funeral practices, as healthy family
members were so afraid to touch the dead that they instead drove the dying
out of the homestead, thereby eliminating the possibility of a traditional
burial. This practice was perpetuated in order to avoid the “religious
necessity of abandoning a homestead where a death had occurred.” 10 This
new practice, in combination with the increasing overcrowding of the
population, dismantled traditional spatial distinctions between the worlds
of the living and the dead.
Traditionally in Xhosa society, ancestors inhabited the space where
they died, and from their parallel spirit world were thought to actively
affect the living. Ancestors could not, however, cross from the spirit to
the living world. With the dawn of colonialism, the intersection of Xhosa
beliefs about the active role of the ancestors and Christian beliefs about
resurrection were melded into a new worldview for the Xhosa people.
This altered practice created the intellectual room in which ideas such as
the concept of resurrection as a return of the ancestors could be integrated
into Xhosa beliefs. It was most likely Mhlakaza, who was in fact the first
Anglican Xhosa, who introduced these ideas to Nongqawuse:
Since Mhlakaza was conversant with the concept of Christian
resurrection, it seems not unlikely that this particular element,
generally absent from traditional religions, was either clarified or
initially, possibly even prior to Nongqawuse’s experience, suggested