structuring africa(s): cultural policies and their ... - AICA international

STRUCTURING AFRICA(S): 

CULTURAL POLICIES AND THEIR 

DIFFERENCIES AND SIMILARITIES, 

OR HOW TO DEAL WITH NEEDS AND 

DESIRES 

CAPE TOWN - Three-Day Combined Seminar and Workshop 

Organised by the International Association of Art Critics (AICA) Paris, 

with the support of VANSA, Visual Arts Network South Africa (VANSA) 

and Michaelis School of Fine Art, Cape Town. 

8-10 November 2007

STRUCTURING AFRICA(S) : CULTURAL POLICIES AND THEIR DIFFERENCIES AND SIMILARITIES, 

OR HOW TO DEAL WITH NEEDS AND DESIRES 

CAPE TOWN - NOVEMBER 2007 

STRUCTURING AFRICA(S): CULTURAL POLICIES AND 

THEIR DIFFERENCIES AND SIMILARITIES, OR HOW 

TO DEAL WITH NEEDS AND DESIRES 

CAPE TOWN - Three-Day Combined Seminar and Workshop 

Summary 

Session 1: A look at the countries in Southern Africa with their different 

and Similar histories, current differences and similarities through their 

existing structures and institutions, followed by an attempt to evaluate 

these histories in objective terms. 

- Pip Curling, The historical and current role of the National Gallery and other 

institutions in Zimbabwe: an assessment of the effects of validation and marketing 

of contemporary African art 

- William Bwalya Miko, ‘Kundwe’ out here! - It is always darkest just before dawn: 

an overview and critical analysis of the state of Zambian contemporary visual art 

developments 

- Joseph Madisia, A Look Countries in Southern Africa with their similar and 

different Histories through existing Structures and Institutions – A Namibian 

Example 

- Neo Matome, Art in Botswana: The Role of Training Institutions in the 

Development of the Visual Arts 

Harun Harun, The Fine Arts in Mozambique: Aspects of Arts Education and Art 

Criticism that have contributed to the Development of Fine Arts in Mozambique 

2 

5 

12 

17 

22 

Session 2: An examination of the kind of art training that is available in 

these countries and of the infrastructure for providing this, including 

museums, art centres, galleries, agencies, magazines and the educational 

system, in general; together with an assessment of the ways in which 

choices and decisions are made, or impeded, and vary from one situation 

to another. 

- Carol Brown, Recuperating the Present 29 

Session 3: A discussion of national and international events, including 

biennials and other large-scale exhibitions and, in particular, of the 

cutting edge of mediation, recognition, Diaspora or resettlement and of 

how to deal with these realities. 

- Ramon Tio Bellido 33 

- Kwezi Gule, The Cost of Failure and Getting Used to 38 

- Heeten Bhagat, Talk and Demonstration 40 

List of speakers 42 

1




THE HISTORICAL AND CURRENT ROLE OF THE NATIONAL 

GALLERY AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN ZIMBABWE: AN 

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF VALIDATION AND MARKETING 

OF CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN ART. 

Pip Curling 

Zimbabwe has been a country of political turmoil, repression and upheaval – with islands of 

relative peace and prosperity – for most of its recent history. Political change has possibly been 

the single greatest factor to influence and impact on the art of the country in both positive and 

negative ways. 

The key institution, central to the evolution and growth of the various art forms and 

movements has been, and still is, the National Gallery of Zimbabwe. Other institutions have 

played lesser roles in the fields of art education, social empowerment through art, and the 

economics of the art business. Prior to the building of the National Gallery the individuals and 

institutions teaching and encouraging art among the black people of the country were Canon 

Paterson at Cyrene Anglican Mission outside Bulawayo and Father Gruber at the Catholic 

Serima Mission in the Midlands. It must be noted here that before Zimbabwean independence in 

1980 there was a deliberate government policy to not offer art teaching in government schools 

falling under the then Ministry of African Education. 

The fact that Zimbabwe has a custom built National Gallery is in itself an accident of political 

history. The idea of a National Gallery was mooted by Sir James Macdonald (a friend of Cecil 

Rhodes) in 1943 when he bequeathed thirty thousand pounds for its building. It wasn’t until after 

the creation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953 that this idea was to become 

reality. The Federation, which drew its wealth from the tobacco and gold of Southern Rhodesia 

and the copper of Northern Rhodesia, was able to indulge in an orgy of developmental building. 

Institutions such as the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland and the National Gallery 

were located in Salisbury (now Harare), the capital of the Federation. Thus Zimbabwe benefited 

materially at the expense of Zambia and Malawi. 

Frank McEwen, the first appointed director of the National Gallery arrived in April 1956 and 

the gallery was officially opened in July 1957. McEwen came to the National Gallery with an 

impressive string of influential contacts in the European, American and West African art worlds. 

He personally knew Picasso and Brancusi. McEwen was later to say that he came to the country 

fully aware that, 

In Rhodesia there existed no traditional art or valuable foreign collections to be relied upon to 

fill the gallery; … and that the only road open to the gallery would be to become an art institute 

and to promote art locally in a country where there was as yet no major sign whatsoever of artistic 

creations approaching international levels. 

Here, perhaps, was an unfortunate oversight. McEwen did not acknowledge the rich cultural 

and aesthetic heritage of the country’s functional artefacts; and it was not until 1963 that the 

National Gallery bought for its collection the first headrest. Even then it was purchased in 

Europe, not locally. The legacy of this oversight lingers on even today in the non-recognition of 

cultural artefacts as de facto artworks. Ask anyone who has a vague or working knowledge of the 

art of the country and most will say, “art in Zimbabwe began with the opening of the National 

Gallery in 1957”. 

Immediately after the opening of the gallery, McEwen launched into his single-minded 

campaign to generate a local, but internationally recognised, ‘School’ of artists. He conducted his 

2




campaign on two fronts. At home he gave unstinting material, financial and aesthetic 

encouragement to a group of young men who painted and carved within the ambit of the National 

Gallery. In the early days he personally bought the young artist’s works recognising that, given 

the relative poverty of the majority of the country’s population, a financial incentive was critical 

to keep the artists working. Abroad he praised and promoted their work through letters to gallery 

directors and influential businessmen, lecture tours, travelling exhibitions and aggressive 

salesmanship. 

McEwen had certain preconceptions as to what might constitute contemporary African Art. 

He said of the new art: 

These carvings possess form and style recognisable as African. They do not adhere to any local 

tradition. … What cannot be missed, however, is the fact that these carvers embrace certain 

stylistic tendencies and even observe symbols common to Western Africa … 

The results of McEwen’s two-fold campaign were also two-fold. Art as a saleable commodity 

tended to supersede the idea of art as meaningful social comment. This said it does not negate 

the fact that, at the time, the mere act of making images of indigenous African people, their 

physiognomy and their cultural beliefs, was in itself an outright and forceful social comment 

found abhorrent by some members of the white government and population. In a parliamentary 

debate on the National Gallery one politician complained about, 

... those monstrosities conceived by diseased brains that have become the main feature of the 

Gallery. On occasion when I have visited the Gallery, as I opened the front door there I looked at 

the face of an African carved in soapstone ... I deplore the fact that there is a workshop indulging 

in the creation of this type of monstrosity and that, in fact, it has also turned itself into a trading 

store. 

The use of the term ‘trading store’ was racially inflammatory as urban white Rhodesians 

patronised shops while most black citizens used rural trading stores. 

As a result of McEwen’s promotion of the new contemporary art in Europe and America, the 

appreciative audience for this art became, not the local community, (neither black nor white) but 

that of England, France, The United States of America and even South Africa; countries where 

the art was mostly exhibited and sold. 

As an incentive to artists McEwen established a selected annual exhibition. It was here that 

artists of all races throughout the country could submit their work for exhibition. The “Annual 

Exhibition” (later to become the “Zimbabwe Heritage Exhibition”) continued until 2002 after 

which it was disbanded through lack of funding and a re-evaluation of its validity. 

When the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland broke up at the end of 1963, Zambia and 

Malawi achieved their independence from Britain. The white government of Southern Rhodesia 

declared unilateral independence from Britain in November 1965 and the country was 

immediately subjected to international economic, sporting and cultural sanctions. Despite 

McEwen’s best efforts to defend his ideas for the Gallery and its promotion of the fledgling 

contemporary African art movement, politics defeated him and he left the country in 1973. 

For the next seven years Rhodesia was in cultural limbo. Commercial dealers continued to 

support the African artists as best they could and so did the National Gallery, but in a much 

lower key than previously. 

With legitimate political independence in 1980 the lid blew off the isolation of Zimbabwean 

art. Almost overnight stone sculpture became a commodity in high demand on the international 

market. The National Gallery seized the moment and again was a major player in the sale and 

commercial promotion of that art form. Through sales the Gallery was able to raise significant 

funds to restore Douslin House, the new home of the National Gallery in Bulawayo. This building 

had been purchased in 1978. 

Because Bulawayo did not have the full impact of McEwen’s forceful ideas of contemporary 

African art, the artists in Matabeland were fewer than in Mashonaland and they developed in 

more individualistic ways. Many Bulawayo artists benefited from the Mzilikazi arts and crafts 

training project under the auspices of the Bulawayo Municipality. 

The National Gallery made another major contribution to Zimbabwean art in the early 1980s 

with the opening of the BAT Workshop in Harare. This facility was intended to benefit young 

Zimbabweans who had been denied art education in schools and whose academic performance 

3




might not be good enough for them to be able to attend a tertiary educational institution. The 

BAT Workshop was initially funded partly by British American Tobacco and partly by the 

National Gallery. It had one full-time instructor but visiting teachers also made significant 

contributions. The Workshop continues today wholly funded by NORAD. (Norwegian Government 

Aid) 

Students training at the BAT Workshop had a full-time curriculum of drawing, painting, 

printmaking and sculpture with a heavy emphasis on figure drawing. Influenced by the resident 

teacher, the resultant work from the young artists was figurative and expressive with an almost 

universal painterly style. The best of the artists graduating after two years at the BAT Workshop 

were readily gathered into the stable of artists at Gallery Delta, the major commercial gallery in 

Harare. During the 80s and 90s sales at the National Gallery, Gallery Delta and the many stone 

sculpture formal and informal galleries were good. A proliferation of stone carving mushroomed 

on the streets of Harare and on the roadside of major highways in the country. 

For half a century in Zimbabwe there was a distinct bias towards the artwork as art object. 

Buyers and patrons were mostly from the richer Western nations and subject matter tended to 

pander to consumer demands. Much of the art reinforced the unfortunate and unjustified 

perception of Africa as primitive, poor, earthy, naïve. Subjects favoured for painting included 

women in the fields, women carrying babies and firewood, market sellers, men on street corners. 

Sculptors focused on images of idealised womanhood, animals, birds and the metamorphosis of 

man into animal. 

Major developments in concept, performance art, environmental and installation art, that 

might have challenged stereotypical perceptions of art, largely passed by Zimbabwe. A few 

individual artists attempted more challenging concepts and newer genre; but the idea of art as 

tradable commodity held sway in the main. It was not in the National Gallery’s interest to 

vigorously pursue unsaleable art forms because the sale of art benefited the gallery by 

subsidising its inadequate government grant. For obvious financial reasons commercial galleries 

and most of the artists themselves favoured income over idea. 

Conceptual art genres demand re-cognition through supporting infrastructure and the written 

word. Ekphrastic writing, critical analysis and the more permanent media of publication serve to 

concretise impermanent art forms. The paucity of empathetic and meaningful writing about art 

within Zimbabwe has possibly contributed to the lack of stimulus for experimental art forms. 

For a brief time “Gallery” magazine, published by Gallery Delta from 1994 to 2002, was 

significantly influential in focusing local and international attention on contemporary 

Zimbabwean art. It provided a platform for discussion, fuelled debate on the nature of art, and 

highlighted the few artists who were testing boundaries and challenging paradigms constricting 

the art of the country. 

Zimbabwe has not had the corporate business climate prepared to financially support the 

visual arts in a substantially meaningful way. My personal thesis is that the original colonisers 

were men intent on amassing their fortunes from the country’s resources, more interested in gold 

and land than aesthetics and object d’art. Their ethos, perpetuated through the generations, 

appears to live on today. 

The world is aware of the recent economic collapse within Zimbabwe. Like other industries, 

the art industry as it was is moribund and all but defunct. The art object is no longer a viable, 

marketable commodity within the country. Therefore, with nothing to lose financially, the 

National Gallery and the artists are theoretically liberated from market demands and have the 

freedom to dispute, disrupt or disembowel any previously held concepts and constraints of art 

making. Given Zimbabwe’s exposure in the international news, this is an opportunity for artists 

to move into protest art, as have playwrights and actors. 

The entropic present promises a future explosion of new energy. But these thoughts should be 

left to Heeten Bhagat, the current curator at the National Gallery, to expand on later in the 

proceedings of this conference. 

© AICA Press et l’auteur 

4




‘KUNDWE’ OUT HERE! - IT IS ALWAYS DARKEST JUST BEFORE 

DAWN: AN OVERVIEW AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STATE OF 

ZAMBIAN CONTEMPORARY VISUAL ART DEVELOPMENTS 

William Bwalya Miko 

Preamble 

The literal meaning of the word kundwe in Bemba, one of Zambia’s languages, is a period 

early in the morning just before dawn or daybreak. It is an apt description of the visual arts scene 

in Zambia, and an appropriate theme for this seminar... As we shall see, however, any discussion 

of the contemporary art scene in Zambia is made more difficult by lack of objectivity of those most 

directly concerned, and the uncritical praise that is heaped on local artists by visitors to the 

country from abroad. 

Introduction 

In a nutshell, during the last four decades very few steps have been taken by artists and the 

public authorities to contribute to the development of the visual arts in Zambia - particularly, in 

terms of international exposure. Although a few individual artists and certain sections of the 

artistic community have sometimes made remarkable strides forward, with occasional assistance 

from the private sector, a far greater effort is needed all round. In many cases, individual 

commitment to experimentation, largely underwritten by interested individuals or arts 

organisations abroad, has been misdirected and ignored. This has left Zambian artists and their 

public starved of the international exposure and critical dialogue currently enjoyed by artists 

from other Southern African countries, such as Namibia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. It must be 

stressed that South Africa, with its strong economy, which prompts broad areas of the private 

sector to engage fully with promoting culture and the arts, provides a unique and remains 

outstanding example for the region. 

In Zambia’s case, where there is a poor climate of critical debate, the few successes that have 

been registered have been largely inspired by the success of individual artists, in lobbying for 

support along lines with which they have become familiar, as a result of spending some time in 

different contexts overseas. It is as well to point out in this connection that individual artists have 

benefited enormously from a whole range of cultural exchanges, long-term studio residencies and 

ventures such as international art workshops, where sponsorship has been given to them directly, 

for training purposes, higher education and self advancement. 

Here I should say something about the current situation in the arts in Zambia, since I would 

not wish you to go away with the impression that everything there was in a moribund condition. 

In reality, the Zambian visual art scene is small, but miraculously vibrant, despite the fact that 

the arts and culture, in general, have been left largely to their own devices, within ill-defined, 

largely self-regulating parameters. In the last twenty years, there have been some positive 

developments, but problems arise from the lack of a proper art school and professional training 

for artists at university level. Apart from the courses offered by institutions such as the Evelyn 

Hone College, which focus on producing art teachers, there is no system of formal art training. 

This has led to a situation in which the state is incapable of taking a proper lead, especially in the 

5




absence of intermediaries such as curators, critics, professional galleries and art dealers, who 

might be expected to offer sound professional advice. 

The limited achievements in the public arena, to date, have been quite conspicuous. These 

include private and public art collections, such as that of the Lechwe Trust, which was recently 

displayed at the Lusaka National Museum; and those of the Garden House Group of hotels, the 

Chaminuka Lodge & Nature Reserve, Namwandwe, and Madson Insurance, with occasional short 

term expositions at such spaces as the Rockston Studios and the Henry Tayali Galleries. 

Corporate Sector Support for the Arts 

Corporate Sector support for the visual arts in Zambia is very rare and extremely scanty. One 

exceptional opportunity for support was provided by the now defunct Meridien BIAO Bank, over 

two decades ago. Since the collapse of the BIAO, which collected and displayed Zambian 

contemporary art, there has been a dearth of intensive and extensive support to the visual arts on 

such a scale. On the other hand, patrons and some of the senior staff who were involved with the 

BIAO support to the arts have continued in their individual capacities, at a reduced level. 

In one notable instance, in Zambia today, the Hotel Intercontinental Lusaka has set aside 

substantial pro bono space for the use of the visual arts community that has been turned into a 

professional gallery showcasing contemporary art, run by Twaya Art-Zambia. The gallery space 

at the hotel Intercontinental Lusaka is a unique and successful venture, where artists can exhibit 

their work free of charge, so long as they can manage the display themselves. The hotel considers 

this kind of arrangement with the art community purely as an outreach programme, to support 

both individual artists and the community within which the hotel operates. And the artists who 

exhibit their work in the space are very grateful for this kind of private sector support. Twaya 

Art-Zambia gallery attracts the patronage of both a local public and private visitors, and 

international dignitaries. Among others, are such distinguished personalities as the famous 

American TV talk show queen Oprah Winfrey. The gallery has also been popular with school and 

college students, to whom it is able to offer valuable insight into the visual arts. Nonetheless, a 

small number of Zambian artists involved in this project have yet to understand that developing 

an art business, as an income generating activity, involves calls for considerable patience and 

negotiating skills! Unfortunately, this same small minority of artists have yet to accept that this 

principle of entrepreneurship is a prerequisite for survival, as full time working artists who are 

dependent on the income from the sale of their works within the context of a small-scale economy. 

In a separate effort to try and promote the visual arts, the Twaya Art-Zambia Gallery has 

initiated a very promising project, called ‘Art in Work Places.’ Under the terms of this project, the 

Gallery offers to display art in the offices of private sector companies, on the basis of a hire 

purchase scheme. In negotiating arrangements of this kind, the Gallery always draws companies’ 

attention to their responsibilities towards the local community, as well as the prestige attached to 

owning, and displaying, works of art on their premises. The Intermarket Banking Corporation 

was the first major company to take the plunge, by acquiring works of art for display in their 

boardroom and reception area. Currently, and in a more substantial way, the daily newspaper, 

The Post, leads the way, in its response to this ‘Art in Work Places’ Project. As a corporate sector 

enterprise aiming to build up its own collection of Zambian contemporary art collection, The Post 

has chosen to adorn all its offices with works of art and is well on the way to forming the largest 

contemporary art collection in the country. In addition to creating this opportunity for artists, the 

management of The Post have also initiated their own scheme for presenting works of art as gifts 

to distinguished individual visiting dignitaries who call at their offices. Since then, DHL Zambia 

have also come on board, adorning their head office with quality contemporary art. This shows 

that, as everywhere else in the world, private businesses are happy to support cultural initiatives, 

provided they are properly run and professionally administered. 

6




Art Discourse and Criticism 

While this positive contribution to the arts continues, other aspects of visual arts promotion 

require substantial input and development. Critical writing about visual art, which one might 

assume to be a basic requirement for any form of healthy debate, always causes considerable 

apprehension among artists in Zambia. Here, I have in mind the ‘Art Beat’ column, that 

appeared weekly in the Zambia Daily Mail, under the pseudonym ‘Petro Borm’. The veteran 

author of this column, Roy Kausa - now writing ‘Top Art’ for the same newspaper - has been 

writing on art for as long as I can remember. He has a story to tell! So, too, has Andrew Mulenga, 

the young versatile author of the weekly column, ‘The Hole in the Wall’, that appears every 

Friday in The Post. These two writers are always at the receiving end of critical comments from 

artists, who, because of their basic lack of professional training, fail to understand or appreciate 

the role of the critic, in developing artistic paradigms. 

This lack of professional knowledge, on the part of artists and those who deal with art, also 

creates a situation in which there is a tendency to refuse to accept that, once a particular work of 

art is exposed to the public – whether it is an object, performance or piece of writing – it assumes 

a life of its own. A work of art is susceptible to a range of different responses, in the trajectory of 

its existence. Once it is on view to the public, it is always bound to provoke reactions, which may 

be either positive or negative. Hence, both artists and the public need to understand that the 

trajectory of an artwork is always marked by different and, sometimes, conflicting reactions, and 

that their refusal to accept this can only be detrimental to an artist’s future development. 

It follows from this that the role of the art critic is to provide both positive and negative 

critical analysis and to generate debate, in a given artistic milieu. However, in countries such as 

Zambia, where it is not generally accepted that the task of the critic is to set certain parameters, 

writers such as the two columnists for the Zambia Daily Mail and The Post, encounter negative 

reactions not only from the artists themselves, but in some cases even from the authorities, 

patrons and other experts who might normally be expected to welcome the positive role that a 

critic can make to the overall scene. However, this may also be the reason why these two 

columnists succeed in attracting a comparatively wide readership! 

There is a comprehensive lack of professional expertise across the entire visual arts sector in 

Zambia. Owing to the conspicuous lack of qualified interlocutors, the art scene is still prey to the 

dictates and limitations of a weak national economy and general absence of extensive goodwill 

and support. However, it is also scarcely surprising that the authorities and experts who are 

supposed to be wrestling with the problem of extricating the art scene from the half-light 

(‘kundwe’) in which it currently languishes should take their lead from the artists themselves, 

and from the kind of the work they produce. 

Art and Print Media 

In Zambia we have to thank certain print media, such as the Zambia Daily Mail, The Post, 

the National Mirror, Monitor Digest and Guardian Weekly for giving occasional space to art 

criticism and press coverage of artistic events. Over the past few decades, The Post has mostly 

been the only newspaper in the country to give consistent support to the visual arts, by devoting a 

full page column to visual art coverage and criticism on a regular basis, over extended periods. 

The only other articles on the visual arts appear in a sporadic fashion in certain local newspapers 

and magazines, and normally take the form of a simple report on an event. This might extend to 

coverage of an art exhibition or a private preview that took place at the residence of an 

expatriate, highlighting the official guest of honour and the variety of cheeses and wines that 

were served to the invited guests, but would be quite capable of omitting any reference 

whatsoever to the pretext for the event in question – namely, the art! Should a work of art form 

part of the event, one can be fairly certain that the caption beneath the photographic image 

accompanying the main story will omit any mention of details such as the name of the artist, title 

of the artwork, medium, dimensions, or the year in which it was made. The artist’s short 

biographical data and sources of inspiration are likely to be far fetched, or omitted altogether. 

7




Maybe journalists and editorial staff should consider running special induction courses for artists 

and art lovers who seek a deeper knowledge and understanding of culture and the arts. 

Art Policy and Administration 

The lack of any systematic art education at university level has adversely affected the 

development of visual art in Zambia. Schools such as the Evelyn Hone College, that offer art 

teachers’ diplomas, are inadequately equipped to cater for the increasing demand for art 

education and training in the country, as a whole. To make matters worse, it is left to the artists 

themselves to try and formulate specific policies for the development of visual arts in Zambia, and 

they mostly have only a basic art education and no academic qualifications whatsoever. This 

situation makes it difficult for the artists to tackle issues such as professional art administration, 

criticism, dialogue and the global context, in trying to develop a suitably rounded artistic outlook, 

that matches up to international standards. There is a general feeling in the artistic circles that 

the current cultural policies, that have been in force for less than half a decade, were ill thoughtout 

and put together in altogether too much of a hurry. As a result, they omit any reference to 

those compelling aspects of the cultural industries that might persuade the government to enter 

into a firmer commitment to give more substantive support to the arts. Thus, government 

continues, in its forward budgets, to make paltry provision for funding future development of the 

arts, at the national level. This provides the background to the highly exiguous annual budgets 

that governmental institutions, such as the National Arts Council of Zambia and the Department 

of Cultural Affairs, under the Ministry of Community Development and Social Services, are 

forced to accept. The lack of serious cultural policies and regulatory mechanisms also discourages 

the private sector from supporting the arts in exchange for policy incentives (tax rebate or 

exemption) for every Kwacha, or dollar that is spent on supporting the arts. Eventually, this 

results in art remaining inconspicuous, or even non-existent, in the public domain. Repeating this 

argument in public is seen by many to be the equivalent of trying to drag a drowning cow out of 

the water with the aid of a piece of string! 

Nonetheless, it must be pointed out that in the last two decades in Zambia, there has been 

significant impetus behind individual manifestations of artistic expression. The definition of 

artistic skills and the formulation of individual artistic expression are grey areas, or topics of 

heated debate, in which the art itself has been left to take care of itself. We have to remember 

that issues relating to so-called artistic advances that are shared by critical discourse in the 

global arena often prove to be more highly contentious still. How, then, can we hope to move this 

critical debate out of the local domain and into the international arena 

Artists’ Professional Consciousness 

It is also common in this country for artists not to be concerned about the paradoxical 

implications of where they display their art, just so long as the artworks are purchased, or seen 

by prospective buyers. Similarly, art criticism and any form of discussion about art itself, art 

venues, or methods of production and display, are of little concern to a great many Zambian 

artists and those who purchase their work. Zambian artists can broadly be categorised as 

combining a comparatively high level of technical skills with a minimum of self-critical 

reflexivity. Many artists get seduced by temporary success into churning out numerous nearidentical 

pieces, which offer slight variations on the same themes or endless repetitions of 

whatever it is that is popular at the time, and for the same thing, if they are popular or in 

demand, or as long as the market is there. 

How does such a situation arise After all, artists are expected to be aware of the professional 

demands and the ethics of their practice. This situation is brought about by market demands, by 

the constant flow of private commissions direct to artists, without regard to the kind of 

professional guidance that could be provided by curators, agents, critics, art historians or gallery 

professionals. Artists only seem to be concerned with producing ‘something saleable’! Market 

8




forces play such a determining role that they dictate what art should be. In a country with a weak 

economy, such as Zambia, other factors such as the lack of high level art education and a ‘politics 

of the stomach’ also play a negative part, in shaping the local art scene. 

Fundamentally, the role of art criticism and professional integrity in the development of the 

arts is introduced to everyone who goes through some kind of art education. In most situations, 

even where the artist learns informally, or as an apprentice to a good master or mistress, he or 

she is bound to be aware that the critical faculty is inevitably involved at every stage of the 

artistic process. Therefore, it might be supposed that anybody who has had formal art training of 

any kind is bound to be concerned about the meaning of art itself and to have the basic ability to 

appreciate the important role that art critics can play, in the national development of the visual 

arts. 

Local Purchasers of Works of Art 

Paradoxically, most sales of art produced in Zambia are to members of the expatriate 

community, some visitors to the country, representatives of the business community and a few 

local individuals. There is a handful of major art collectors, including some who are extremely 

keen to supporting artistic development in the country. Sadly, alas! the market also includes 

individual collectors whose sole concern is to negotiate the lowest possible price for a piece of art. 

Artists in Zambia live close to the bread line, and their families risk facing starvation, as a result. 

Surprisingly enough, though, most of the collectors who drive such excessively hard bargains 

work in institutions and organisations that pay comfortable salaries, and in many cases their 

normal daytime jobs even have something to do with the alleviation of poverty! More often than 

not, collectors of contemporary art with this kind of attitude and high economic standing in 

society are very insensitive to the status of artists. Usually, artists are asked to withdraw work 

from their own periodic expositions in galleries and take it direct to collectors’ offices or 

residences, where that they are compelled, in negotiation, further to reduce their asking price to 

the barest minimum. Perhaps these kinds of ‘art consumer’ do not even know about the 

conditions of poverty in which many Zambian artists try to subsist, because, if they did, we might 

be forgiven for wondering whether they had come to the country to alleviate, or to aggravate, the 

conditions of such poverty.! Extreme financial hardship is a given, in an artistic milieu where 

professional artist remain unprotected by knowledgeable intermediaries, or adequate legislation. 

Interestingly though, there are a number of indigenous artists who are fully aware of their 

value and that which, technically, pre-occupies them – art. These artists are engaged in trying to 

address these existential issues, by establishing their own artistic integrity and dissecting 

society, by means of their own. They seek to generate discussion of professional issues, including 

the social and economic status of the artist and the hegemonic powers of those on whose 

patronage they depend. They are also busy addressing issues in their communities, such as the 

impact of HIV/Aids and the plight of those affected by it. 

Financial Support for the Arts 

Unfortunately, however, many of the donors and quasi-governmental institutions that are 

supposed to give financial support to the arts, but refuse to give assistance to individual artists, 

on the grounds that their systems and financial policies supposedly do not allow this. What a 

misguided policy! This betrays a serious misunderstanding of the nature of art and the local 

options for improving the status of the artist! 

In most cases, donors and quasi-governmental institutions insist that artists belong to a 

group, forgetting that the very nature of being an artist demands uniqueness and individualism, 

and is contrary to the influences, constrictions and constraints that are inherent to membership 

of a group. Belonging to a group also places greater demands on artists to manage and 

communicate with others and leaves theme with less time for creating new work, not to mention 

the pressures on them to conform, which lay them open to charges of lack of originality, by 

9




patrons and institutions. Yet this is just the kind of norm-setting that is encouraged by some of 

the unenlightened institutions which become involved with funding the arts. More often than not, 

artists have a propensity to shy away from such avenues of support. When they comply with such 

expectations, artists tend to form temporary groupings, specifically in order to access financial 

support for short periods of time, after which they disband and creep back to the necessary 

solitude which their profession demands. The Zambian artist and his family can hardly overcome 

this situation, if such draconian policies are not held in check and adapted to mainstream 

international art world norms, where they do not have to submit to such exaggerated demands, 

and where such norms as exist are appropriately applied. 

The paradox resides in the fact that in Zambia, and maybe elsewhere on the African 

continent, it is not the organisations that create the art, it is not the organisations that are dying 

of HIV/Aids (though that is bound ultimately to happen), and it is not the organisations that need 

to eat and survive the current odds, yet it is the organisations that control the means for survival. 

Ultimately, it is the individuals (who may or may not belong to organisations or groupings) that 

need to overcome all these obstacles placed in their path by poverty, in order to flourish and 

assert their right to posterity. 

Milestones and Paradoxes 

In addition to the above difficulties, alas! the few Zambian artists, who are currently able to 

survive and continue to show their concern for policy issues, dialogue and art criticism, as a 

paramount discourse in art practice, require the means with which to put these optimistic 

principles into effect. Here, I have in mind direct financial support to individual artists for tools, 

equipment and materials; supplementary elements, such as books, magazines and journals; and 

training of local expert personnel, so that they can collaborate with international colleagues, 

wherever possible. Local expertise is essential in this area. Intermediaries also play their part 

and can make an important contribution, in canalizing and legitimizing the advancement of 

visual arts discourse. Much can be achieved, if only the artists themselves are able to assert their 

integrity and rise above the petty disputes of local art politics. 

Perhaps one should not entirely look to the authorities to direct the future course of artistic 

development, but the temptation to do so is another indisputable product of cultural 

underdevelopment, in a weak economy. Unfortunately, there is still no recognition in Zambia that 

the arts and culture constitute a viable independent sector of industry, requiring substantial 

financial input, policy guidance, self-regulatory output mechanisms, and both public and private 

sector support. At every art functions, it is still common to see senior artists getting together in a 

huddle, to discuss the dilemma of who is to blame for the lack of support for their individual 

efforts. Even the gossip at funerals, when a senior artist dies, is commonly about what has 

happened to the financial support that they had heard about on the radio, or read about in the 

print media, or agreements they saw being signed by government officials on television, for the 

financing of the arts in Zambia. 

Ghost Support and the Elusive Connoisseur 

More often than not, an external art expert concocts an arts and culture project, outlining the 

huge benefits to local artists, and underscoring the need to work with a local arts organisation to 

access locally or externally available funds. Most donors, being sympathetic to the gross 

underdevelopment of Zambia, but unfortunately having no local arts and culture experts in their 

offices to assess or shape these initiatives, end up pumping huge sums of money into misdirected 

projects such as workshops and official tours that produce no tangible results for the individual 

Zambian artists concerned. As a result, at the end of these projects, the poor artist still sees no 

transformation, to boost his/her career or the development of art in the country. In the final 

analysis, the artist is still relegated within the old boundaries of an underdeveloped art scene. 

Time and again, as artists beg for a sale of an art object or money for a performance in the streets 

10




of the city, they remember a seminar at some five-star hotel or prestigious venue, where their 

hopes had been raised high. 

While it may be difficult to speak for the entire continent, sometimes one assumes that this 

situation is the same elsewhere in Africa. One Zambian artist commented that the worst of the 

situation in this country was that support given to the arts by government, well-wishers, donors 

or private sector firms seldom filtered down to the needy artists. How does one justify this state of 

affairs It is a fact that artists in Zambia are amongst the poorest people, living below the poverty 

line, and not knowing where the next meal may come from. But, because they love what they do – 

art – they continue to create outstanding works, which are strong enough to compete in the 

international arena but never manage to get there. Integrity, critical dialogue, individual 

transparency, institutional accountability, and local/international networks are the essential 

ingredients needed to shape future artistic development. Over and above these necessary aspects 

of an art industry, education for individual players on the art scene is an essential ingredient for 

Zambia. 

Ratification and Domestication of International Agreements 

It is a prevalent characteristic of the SADC region, that regional and international artistic 

and cultural agreements are never ratified or domesticated. In Zambia’s case, this situation is 

aggravated by the fact that the government has never adopted the policy of creating a Ministry 

exclusively dedicated to Culture and the Arts. Although there is a Department of Cultural Affairs 

under the Ministry of Community Development and Social Services, with several quasigovernmental 

institutions and associations asserting themselves as key promoters of arts 

development in the nation, there is little these institutions can do, in a poor economy, to 

influence, direct and achieve deliberate policies that will create an enabling environment, for 

example, with regard to the establishment of a Ministry of Culture and the Arts, or visual arts 

education at university degree level. As I have already pointed out, this level of education and 

training is an important factor in creating a strong platform and appreciation of the role of art 

manifestations, private sector involvement, and criticism, as a guiding principle and integral part 

of artistic development. 

Conclusion 

Finally, in my own view, higher-level visual arts education in Zambia will only come through 

private entrepreneurship, supported by private sector initiatives and concerned individuals and 

well-wishers, as exemplified by the Zambian Open University, which has just established a 

School of Media, Performing and Fine Arts, which will become operational in early 2009. In the 

meantime, support to individual artists is paramount in this developing process. The artist is the 

individual who has to survive against all the odds. And it is the survival of the individual artist 

that will give fresh impetus to the arts sector, to the benefit of equitable regional, national and, 

ultimately, international development. 

In the meantime, it is still kundwe out there, so far as we individual artist in Zambia are 

concerned! 


11




A LOOK COUNTRIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA WITH THEIR SIMILAR 

AND DIFFERENT HISTORIES THROUGH EXISTING STRUCTURES 

AND INSTITUTIONS – A NAMIBIAN EXAMPLE 

Joseph Madisia 

Introduction 

If one examines the background from which art and culture in Southern African Countries 

emerges in their post independence era, it becomes evident that transformation inevitably made 

space for a diversity of post modern creative artforms. Which resulted in contrasting expectations 

and attitudes previously overlooked, neglected, or some imposed through means of colonialist 

supremacy. 

On the one extreme were those who painfully accepted the changes of independence, at the 

centre were those for whom the dead of colonialism has offered a growing experience, on the other 

extreme were cultural activist and community educators who included many expatriates, 

grassroots community leaders, refugee camp teachers and their intellectual advisors. It was painfull 

for the one extreme to let go of a situation where only their aesthetic of modernity was the 

over ruling reality, whilst the other extreme make use of the exciting opportunities to implement 

plural forms of appraisals and new acceptable values. 

Considering the fact that the “winds of change 1 ” that swept through Africa for more than fifty 

years reached Southern Africa only during the last thirty years, makes it very important for me 

to express my appreciation on behalf of Namibia that AICA and VANSA made this important 

seminar possible. And I hope, this will be the beginning of an ongoing dialogue to visual arts and 

culture developments in Africa more tolerant. 

Historical background before the restructuring of arts and cultural policies in 

Namibia in 1990 

The history of visual arts in Namibia can be traced back to 1947 when the Arts Association of 

South West Africa (AASWA) operated under a constitution that was considered as a branch of the 

South African Arts Association. 

Founder members, Joseph Reiter (Windhoek Art Dealer), Otto Schroeder ( a painter who later 

became the Professor of arts at the Stellenbosch University) and Olga Levinson (Spouse of Jack 

Levinson – South West African Businessman) was the trio responsible for the establishment of 

the AASWA with the assistance of Emma Hoogenhout (wife of the South African Administrator of 

South West) as a branch of the South African Association of Art 2. 

In the wake of new art developments in South West Africa during the seventies, the 

performing and fine arts were gradually taken out the hands of AASWA by the South West 

African Administration. 

“ It all began when the Arts Association approached the Administration for financial support 

for the urgently needed renovation of the stage floor in the theatre. Contrary to all expectations 

1 Winds of Change: – Song title of Namibian Musician: Jackson Kaueja. 

2 1986: Heilwig and Peter Andreae and Ed. Ute Scholz “The Levinson Collection” – Art Archives of University of Pretoria - 

pg:11. ISBN 0 86979 593 7. 

12




the Administration spent over a million rand on rebuilding the theatre and at the same time took 

out of control of the Arts Association. 3 ” 

The AASWA government subsidy was made conditional to the extent that the Administration 

for Whites could showcase their art collection in the newly renovated premises. This led to an 

exhibition of 29 paintings from the historical collection of Whites in Windhoek during the 1980’s, 

which was also honoured by a visit of the Administrator –General for South Africa in South West; 

Dr Willie van Niekerk and his wife 4 . 

It was clear that the visual arts scene was predominantly white and that black artists was the 

minority. Where artists from South Africa showcased in SWA at the time became the indicators of 

what should be avante garde during the colonial era. It was the time wherein the historical “Cape 

Town Triennale” also allowed SWA/Namibians to participate to measure status as artists in the 

Southern hemisphere of Africa. 

However the entry of the late John Muafangejo in 1970 (born as a Namibian on the border 

with Angola with his Kwanyama family in Namibia 5 ) as one of Namibia’s most prolific artists 

into to exclusively white dominated artscene changed the tide and the Arts Association of SWA/ 

Namibia. It was the presence of such black artists like the late John Muafangejo with me (Joe 

Madisia) following in his footsteps that made way for pre- independence consideration among 

predominantly white art scene to contemplate on the concept of a exclusively art scene for whites 

only 6 . Because these artists reflected began to define personal feelings in the country’s changing 

political and social context. 

The Arts Association as a proactive body who have already “cemented their position as a 

progressive institution…sloughed of the skin of apartheid… and moved into a new era” . Thus 

began to prepare themselves in 1976 to promote more national participation of artists across the 

colour line but remained all along a branch of the South African Association of Arts. 

By 1985 the Arts Association gradually shrugged for the SWA abbreviation and only refer to 

themselves as the Arts Association of Namibia and not SWA/Namibia anymore. 

It becomes clear by this aforementioned that the political aspirations of the wider community 

were harshly repressed by the administration of the South African Apartheid Regime. 

Accustomed to their social status, it was very evident that the European “South West Africans” 

visual arts of the 1950’s, 1960’s and 1970’s reflected a kind of apolitical and sheltered context, 

where they moved away from the realistic and romantic landscapes and following Eurocentric art 

depictions. 

Visual Arts situation since 1990 

From the time of independence in 1990, efforts were underway to have a National Art Gallery 

of Namibia, which resulted that the NAGN formally came into being with the promulgation of the 

National Art Gallery of Namibia Act No 14 of 2000. 

Thus the first ten years of visual arts in Namibia became a watershed of transformation 

whereby more black artists entered the predominantly white art mainstream. The post 

independence climate gave way to a number of new development on the Visual Art Scene: 

- The former Biennale formerly known as the Standardbank SWA (Stanswa) since early 

1980s changed to Standardbank Namibia Biennale after 1990. 

- I (Joe Madisia) started with the first informal art training for early school leavers and 

young expatriates which supported by the French Embassy through a cultural centre known as 

the Franco Namibian Cultural Centre in 1991. 

- In 1994 the Tulipamwe International Artists workshop was inspired by the 

establishment of “Thupelo” in South Africa, “Thapong” in Botswana, “Pachipamwe” in Zimbabwe. 

3 Olga Levinson Collection -: pg 15. 

4 South African Arts Calendar; November 1983; Vol 8 No 6; pg. 18. 

5 “The life and art of John Muafangejo” – The moving story of an artist in troubled times: by Olga Levinson. 

6 Lilienthal A: 1997 – Art in Namibia – pg:231 – ISBN 99916 30 73 2 

13




This was the efforts of Robert Loader and Anthony Caro of the UK to work alongside Southern 

African artists. Tulipamwe lasted until 1998 and there are still efforts to revive it. 

- It was also in 1994 that the John Muafangejo Art Centre was established as the second 

informal art training centre under the auspieces of the National Art Gallery of Namibia. 

- The Artists Guild was established by Namibian Visual Artists in the early 1990s but 

lasted until the end of the 1990s. 

- The Conservatoire which was more musical orientated which formerly placed more 

emphasis on the symphonic orchestra and ballet, integrated visual art into their programmes and 

fell directly under the directorate Art of the Ministry of Basic Education Sport and Culture since 

1990. 

- The Oruaano Artists Union who registered members of all disciplines (including visual 

artist) was established in around 1997, but the term “UNION” was considered as negative and 

many white refuse to register as members. 

- The former Academy of Tertiary Education changed into the University of Namibia and 

equipped itself with a Visual Art Department and mainly catered for Educational student. It was 

by 1995 that the senate of the University of Namibia approved the first Bacholar of Arts Degree 

course. 

- The Windhoek College of Education (formerly know as the “Windhoek Kollege van 

Onderwys”) came up with an Art Education Diploma of three years. 

Most of these bodies and institution including the National Gallery of Namibia continued to 

grow over the first ten years with the exception of the few mentioned that did not lasted. Which 

can be ascribed either to donor fatigue or because it was not initiated with interventionist 

tendencies. 

Recent developments in support structures for artists in Namibia 

The year 2000 mark a turning point in the history of Namibian visual arts. It became clear 

that quick fixes which dropped out during the first ten years were not rooted within the art 

fraternity and only those with genuine aims survived. 

It was during the year 2000 that the first SADC Art and Cultural Festival held in Namibia, 

whereby artistic and cultural members from most Southern African Countries participated it 

included countries such as Mauritius, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, 

Mozambique. 

It was also in 2004 that the NAGN also held it’s first strategic planning w/shop to assess its 

strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats on micro and macro level. This paved the way for 

the NAGN to gain momentum with its transformation process and finally enable us to implement 

the National Art Gallery Act No 14 of 2000. Two professionals namely Mr Dawson Munjeri from 

UNESCO Paris and Mr Henry Meyric Hughes from the UK facilitated the workshop for three 

days. The Board of Trustees, Management Committee, and key staff members participated in this 

workshop which can be considered as the turning point in the history of the NAGN. 

With the appointment of me (J Madisia) as the first “Black” Director of the NAGN the last 

Standardbank Namibia Biennale was held by 2005. But this can be ascribed to the fact that 

Standardbank South Africa backed out as a major supporter of the “Grahamstown Arts Festival”. 

It also became the start for a truly Namibian Financial Institution namely Bank Windhoek to 

invest seriously in art, and the Bank Windhoek Triennal was born out of it with 2008 as the 1st 

Triennale. 

Achievements reach during my reign as Director was to secure two vechicles as the fleet of the 

institution. We started to purchase works of art from contemporary artists for the permanent 

collection. Since the NAGN No 14 of 2000 also stipulate that we must take custody of the 

Government of the Republic of Namibia’s collection it became important to acquire a mobile 

toolkit to measure humidity and temperature levels in offices, compile a data base of all artworks 

in the GRN Collection, and compile condition reports on how the artworks are cared for. All this 

mentioned new equipment was purchased with the kind financial assistance of the Royal 

Netherlands Embassy in Namibia. 

14




We have successfully negotiated with the government through a deed of lease to obtain a longterm 

lease on the current premises that houses the NAGN. This have enabled us to extent the 

building through a government masterplan to construct additional collection storage space and a 

library section for the gallery. 

We are currently busy with a mobile exhibition system to enable the institution to take art to 

the people in the remote regions of Namibia. This system will serve a two fold purpose: a) to 

entent our educational systems to schools and b) to expand the data base compilation on the GRN 

collection. It is for this reason that a Junior Curator have been appointed this year in June to 

take responsibility of this educational section. It is also vital to note that we cannot take original 

artworks on the trip, that is why we have embarked on the reproduction of copies from original 

art to give the public an idea of what they can expect when they visit the gallery in the city. It is 

also the right step in decentralizing our public service. 

Constraints 

However, no matter how bright the changes may sound, some obstacles were also in the way 

of the NAGN’s transformation. 

Firstly, the Arts Association of SWA/Namibia hijacked the NAGN to have access to the 

heritage art collection acquired since 1947, and we are therefore currently in negotiation on the 

ownership of it. 

This is one of the reasons why I had to sketch a clear historical background in order to give 

you deeper insight, thus I am currently busy to convince my Board of Trustees that we must seek 

legal advise from the GRN Attorney General’s Office a d Namibian Heritage Council in how we 

can secure the Nations Heritage by obtaining a court order against the Arts Association of 

Namibia (AAN). It is a serious national issue that we are dealing with and have become even 

more worrying after the AAN have formed itself into a trust, known as the Arts Association 

Heritage Trust in August 2006. 

Secondly, as a result of this issue of ownership, the AAHT continue to deny the Namibian 

public access to their own heritage art collection, which is ongoing since my appointment in 2005. 

But precautions are in place that the collection is still in the NAGN premises and we are still 

paying insurance on it, with the conviction that I will never allow the AAHT to remove the 

heritage from our premises. 

Thirdly, we are aware that most of our leaders was in exile for more than 30 years and that 

they have no insight into the historical background of the heritage collection. That is why it will 

take some time to convince the leadership that this issue of ownership is just as important like 

any other national programmes such as education, HIV/AIDS and unemployment in the country. 

Thus this requires patient research and lobbying with the right legal bodies to free our heritage 

collection. 

The year 2006 saw the National Art Council Bill passed in the Namibian Parliament, and 

recently launched at the NAGN. 

It was also during 2006 that the NAGN give a platform for artists to revive the concept of a 

visual arts body, which eventually gave rise to a body known as the VAN – Visual Artists 

Namibia. The aim of VAN is once again to be a support structure for visual artists (like the 

Artist’s Guild preciously mentioned) and is unfortunately dominated by predominantly white 

artists with a young ambitious “Black” artist rubberstamped as chairperson. 

It becomes clear that the term UNION will continue haunt the off springs of the colonizers in 

our past of the world because it is the very unions that formed part of the liberation struggle 

against “apartheid”. Whereas during my recent trip to the UNION OF PLASTIC ARTS IN 

ANGOLA I came to find that it was established already in 1977 and the unity still continues with 

the same founder members from strength to strength. 

15




Recommendations to secure longterm support structures for visual artists on a sub 

regional level 

I realized that my 20 minutes of presentation would be to short to focus on our regional issues 

in Southern Africa, thus I considered the following brief points as important to ensure that we 

keep contact with each other after this seminar: 

- Efforts to seek sub regional stakeholders to seek funds for regional coordination. 

- SADC Arts & Culture protocol review and the goodwill of politicians in Southern Africa 

to have SADC art collection and regular seminar budget. 

- Regional V/Arts Newspaper and/or Website. 

- Recognition of sub regional artists by allowing artists to participate regional cross 

border art activities. 

- Exchange of art exhibitions on a sub regional, continental and international level. 

- Networking among visual artist’s bodies. 

Significance roles played by institutions, facilitators and art representatives in sub 

regions 

- Roles played and future challenges. 

- Royalties, acknowledgement and incentives in the sub regional art market. 

- Propose activities that are beneficial for artists 

International support structure for sub regional artmarket 

- Establish longterm relationship with AICA 

- Link up with AICA for continued discussion and dialogue between participants 

- Market artists through a common website with AICA 


16




ART IN BOTSWANA: THE ROLE OF TRAINING INSTITUTIONS IN 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VISUAL ARTS 

Neo Matome 

Introduction 

Botswana is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa, with a population of 1.7 million. 

Two-thirds of its land mass is dominated by the Kgalagadi (Kalahari) Desert, resulting in human 

settlement being concentrated in the eastern parts of the country. It is bordered by Namibia to 

the north and west, Zambia and Zimbabwe to the northeast, and South Africa to the south and 

southeast. Formerly known as Bechuanaland Protectorate, Botswana’s colonial period extended 

from 1885 to 1966, when the country gained its independence. The majority of the population is 

located in rural areas, and subsists on agriculture, especially cattle-rearing. Gaborone, the capital 

city, has an estimated population of 208,411 (1 January 2005) and is one of Africa’s fastest 

growing cities. 

Botswana was one of the poorest countries in the world until the discovery of diamonds, 

shortly after independence. The country has since developed and prospered, through the prudent 

use of revenue generated from its diamond and beef exports. Botswana is reputed to be the 

largest exporter of gemstone diamonds in the world, as well as a large beef exporter to the 

European Union. Tourism – Botswana’s third largest income earner – may soon overtake the beef 

industry through the country’s economic diversification drive. The Republic of Botswana is 

democratically ruled and has a track record of political stability and peace. The Botswana 

Democratic Party is the political party that has been in power since independence, and the main 

opposition parties are the Botswana National Front and the Botswana Congress Party. 

The provision of Health and Education for its citizens was top on the Government’s list of 

priorities. Great strides have been made in extending health services to Botswana’s rural 

communities through the establishment of a robust Primary Health Care system, consisting of 

health posts, clinics and primary hospitals. Very little formal education was available to 

Botswana during the colonial era; 68% of the population in 1971 did not have any formal 

education, and only 13% were in school. Of the Botswana population aged 15 years and over, only 

11% of males and 10% of females had a minimum of 5 years of primary education. By 1981, 

approximately 83.5% of primary school age children were attending school, provisions for 

secondary and tertiary education had escalated, and significant progress had been made in 

improving literacy levels. According to the 2003 literacy survey jointly conducted by the Central 

Statistics Office and the Department of Non-Formal Education, Botswana has an 81% national 

literacy rate. The country currently has around 770 Primary Schools, 203 Community Junior 

Secondary Schools 27 Government Senior Secondary Schools and about 35 private Secondary 

Schools. Although the country has made substantial progress in education, a thorn in the 

Government’s side is unemployment, which stands at 23.8%. On the other hand, the HIV/AIDS 

scourge is threatening to undo these valuable achievements, with more than 300,000 people 

infected with HIV. In its effort to curb the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS, the Government of 

Botswana is providing its infected citizens with free anti-retroviral treatment. 

17




The Visual Arts in Botswana: Overview (1980s – 2007) 

With the advent of capitalism, cultural objects in African countries such as Botswana began 

to be evaluated in terms of money. This was the beginning of what is today known as the tourist 

art industry. Due to insufficient infrastructural, educational and financial support for the arts in 

Botswana, not enough groundwork has been laid to stimulate critical, thought-provoking 

discussions around the subject of contemporary art. Because of a lack of art education, a number 

of local artists are reluctant to leave their comfort zones and experiment with new techniques, 

media and ideas. They prefer to stick to the ‘tried and tested’, rather than challenge the status 

quo with regard to society’s perception and understanding of the role of art. By failing to assert 

themselves professionally, such artists end up pandering to the demands of the tourist market, in 

order to earn a living, with the result that the art they create is of a lesser quality. However, 

there are many factors that fuel this situation, the most significant being the education system. 

Even though art is offered at secondary or high school level, the subject is not made accessible to 

all students who wish to study it. In Government schools, art is mainly offered to students who 

are regarded as being less academic, because it is a practical subject. Students who are good at 

science subjects are not encouraged to pursue art. This, then, cultivates a negative perception of 

art as a profession. The Visual Arts are thus currently not afforded the same status that careers 

such as architecture or engineering command, even though the two rely on visuals for their 

execution. In other words, visual art in Botswana is generally treated as a frivolous pursuit, 

rather than a necessity. 

This raises the question of patronage and its role in the development of the visual arts in 

Botswana and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, as a whole, as well 

as the impact of globalisation. The expatriate community in Botswana tends to live in the country 

for a finite period of time, determined by the length of their contracts. Because of the strength of 

the dollar, pound or euro relative to the pula, expatriates and tourists become the art patrons 

whereas in their home countries, most would not qualify as collectors, owing to the unaffordable 

price of artworks there. The question then is, how can patronage that fosters growth, quality and 

professionalism amongst Botswana’s artists be cultivated What can be done to energise more 

citizens, local companies and government to invest in the visual arts Which relevant or key 

policies ought to be in place, to facilitate the organic evolution of art in the country Much as 

tourist art has its place, a bone of contention is its long-term impact on the culture of a developing 

nation, the worst-case scenario being that: ‘In the long term, and in the absence of a strong and 

established visual art tradition, it (tourist art) serves to devalue and denigrate national culture.’ 7 

In terms of globalisation, the criteria used to select art from developed and developing 

countries for inclusion in international events, such as biennales, are debatable. Decisions of 

what to include appear to be based on what is fashionable or acceptable in the West – ‘cutting 

edge’ – at a given point in time. Currently, video, photography and installation art dominate. 

Such decisions automatically disqualify countries such as Botswana, whose contemporary art 

practice is still largely orientated towards painting and sculpture. So far, for Botswana artists, 

such events have been exclusive, rather than inclusive - even those hosted on the African 

continent, such as Africa Remix, the Second Johannesburg Biennale and the Dakar Biennale. 

Does the problem, then, lie with the Botswana arts scene or those selecting work for international 

art events Simon Njami, Chief Curator of Africa Remix, makes the following observation, which 

rings true: ‘The secret of a work of art that achieves its purpose is that it speaks to us. Whatever 

language the artist chooses to use, whatever personal tone the work has, it will move the part of 

us that defines humanity. That is probably why it is not always easy to deal with contemporary 

African art. It’s not about form but about a history of tones. 8 ’ 

On the other hand, when Paulina Sokolow, the editor of the Moderna Museet’s Vänners 

Bulletin questioned David Elliott, one of the co-curators of Africa Remix, during an interview, as 

to why there was no painting in the exhibition, his response, in part, was: ‘Of course there are 

7 Williams, S. (1990). ‘The Visual Arts of Botswana’. In Art from the Frontline. Contemporary Art from Southern Africa. 

pp. 36-43 (p.40). London: Frontline States Ltd/Karia Press. 

8 Africa Remix, ex. cat., ed. Simon Njami, Moderna Museet, Stockholm, 2004. 

http://www.modernamuseet.se/v4/templates/template1_africa.aspid=3288 Retrieved, 31 March 2008. 

18




many more painters in Africa but we chose not to show them exactly, because a lot of such work 

presents a clichéd view of African art and is actually not very good. 9 ’ 

While both viewpoints are valid – the importance of quality art by individual African artists 

and a post-colonial representation of contemporary African art that is not patronising – it is 

essential to consider how these factors can positively influence the development of art in 

countries like Botswana. What cross-cultural provisions can be made through for a such as 

biennales/major art events in Africa, to foster dialogue and critical thinking amongst artists from 

Botswana and other developing southern African countries An immediate idea that comes to 

mind is that more art discussions and criticism seminars should be held on the African continent, 

to facilitate greater dialogue amongst African artists and cultural workers. Secondly, biennales or 

art events in the southern African region must be organised and curated by Africa-based curators 

who understand the cultural nuances and the issues African artists grapple with, and who can 

give modern African art visibility and a distinctive voice. Such curators should strive to engage 

with Southern African art from an Afrocentric, rather than a Eurocentric, perspective. Thirdly, it 

is imperative for more research on Southern African art to be conducted, published and 

disseminated. These are important factors that need to be urgently addressed, because many of 

us do not know what is happening in the arts of our neighbours. We are more in touch with what 

is happening abroad than in the SADC region countries and the rest of Africa. 

Another factor that needs to be highlighted is the fact that artists in Botswana have various 

levels of training and, therefore, different understandings of art and its role. In some quarters of 

the art community and society, visual art is regarded as a means of preserving and perpetuating 

‘traditional culture’. This viewpoint is valid from the perspective of intangible cultural heritage 

(ICH), whereby conventional images are not merely replicated, but creatively explored, in terms 

of their connection with identity and the contemporary social milieu or setting. Elsewhere, there 

is a concerted effort to promote new ideas and new approaches to making art. The importance and 

functionality of culture, as a reflector of social change and progress, is eloquently expressed by 

the renowned African-American economist, Thomas Sowell, when he suggests: ‘Cultural features 

do not exist merely as badges of “identity” to which we have some emotional attachment. They 

exist to meet the necessities and forward the purposes of human life. When they are surpassed by 

features of other cultures, they tend to fall by the wayside or to survive only as curiosities, like 

Roman numerals today. 10 ’ 

The University of Botswana is looking to start the long overdue Department of Visual and 

Performing Arts around 2009/2010. In Botswana, there is currently no tertiary level training 

programme in the Fine Arts, except at Molepolole College of Education (the only teacher training 

college in the country that offers art). This is an opportune time critically to consider the type of 

curricula that would be most appropriate within the Botswana context, taking into consideration 

that some of the artists who would wish to develop their skills are self-taught and, therefore, do 

not have the conventional university entry requirements. It is important for such people to be 

catered for, because they possess indigenous knowledge of traditional art-making processes such 

as lokgapho (traditional wall decoration) and clay mixing/firing techniques, which are now dying 

out. These are good examples of the ‘intangible cultural heritage’ I referred to earlier. It is 

imperative for the University of Botswana to establish a strong basis in the visual arts, as a 

means of initiating an active engagement with African art, in particular. Research and 

comprehensive documentation of the visual arts is vital. For a nation to have a vibrant visual arts 

culture, it must be able to support a robust climate for critical debate, as well as the necessary 

institutional infrastructure. 

In spite of these numerous challenges, a number of local artists have succeeded in 

establishing careers in the fine arts. Even though some of theses artists have received western 

training in the areas of fine arts and graphic design, their imagery is inspired by the 

Botswana/African context. Senior artists who emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s include 

Phillip Segola, Keeme Mosinyi, Jack Mazebedi, Victor Moremi, and Rantefe Mothebe (self- 

9 ‘David Elliot on African Art.’ Interview with Paulina Sokolow, editor of the Moderna Museets Vänners Bulletin, 

Moderna Museet, Stockholm, 2004. http://www.modernamuseet.se/v4/templates/template1_africa.asplang=Eng&id=3289 

Retrieved, 31 March 2008. 

10 . Sowell, T. (1992). ‘How Civilizations Advance’. Dialogue 1, 29-35 (p.30) 

19




taught). Amongst this group of veteran local artists, Segola’s work stands out, as a result of its 

successful combination of realism and abstract qualities, which are undoubtedly African, yet have 

universal appeal. Mosinyi’s artwork is influenced by traditional life in rural Botswana. His earlier 

work was influenced by lokgapho (traditional wall design), which he portrayed on paper or canvas 

as flat areas of geometric design. He further developed this idea by representing village and city 

scenes, whereby perspective is flattened and compressed to the point where his paintings take on 

a mural-like quality 11 . Mazebedi’s work is informed by rock art; Moremi focuses on portraying the 

rural landscape. Mothebe’s paintings can be described as didactic. They are a personal account of 

his two decades’ experience of working as a migrant labourer in the gold mines of South Africa. 

He also has a passion for depicting trains from the former Rhodesian (now Botswanan) Railways, 

which serve as a comment on the social and political changes that Botswana has undergone. 

The next generation of local artists who gained prominence include Velias Ndaba, Mokwaledi 

Gontshwanetse, Stephen Mogotsi, Neo Matome, Kentse Bogatsu, Moitshepi Madibela, Monica 

Mosarwa, Isaac Chibua, Gigi Kenalemang, Sedireng Mothibatsela, Ray Gare, Reginald Bakwena 

Andrew Matseba, Doreen Perekisi and the upcoming Kate Kwati. The most well known artists 

from the Kuru Art Project Group in D’Kar include Xwexae Qgam (Dada), Thamae Setshogo 

(deceased), Xwaa (deceased), Antjie (deceased), Thamae Kaashe and Moses Olemogeng who has 

left the group to operate on his own. The Kuru Art Project in the north-eastern Kgalagadi 

(Kalahari) Desert is a project that promotes San art, in the form of paintings and prints. The art 

produced by the Kuru Group is a genre that draws inspiration from the culture of the Ncokhoe 

(San) people. Imagery primarily consists of plants, animals and birds, with compositions 

rendered in a semi-abstract way. Cg’ose Ntcox’o, one of the women artists at Kuru, put Botswana 

on the map, when one of her paintings was selected in 1997 by British Airways (BA) for inclusion 

in their revamped corporate image. Her artwork is featured on the tailfins of eight BA 

aeroplanes. 

The work of the aforementioned artists varies in subject matter, media and conception, but 

the majority of these artists had some formal art training and have also gone through the 

Thapong Workshop experience, which gave them their first opportunity to interact and work 

alongside artists from other SADC countries, as well as artists from abroad, for an intense twoweek 

period. Some of the younger artists, such as Isaac and Gigi, developed their skills through 

the Tlhale Workshop (a smaller version of Thapong, aimed at young artists who do not have 

experience). There are many students from Botswana studying art and multimedia in South 

Africa, and others in Australia, through sponsorship from the Botswana Government. However, 

in my view, this is not a long-term solution, because in time education costs will become 

prohibitive and necessitate students being educated in the country rather than across the border, 

or abroad. This is why it is critical for the University of Botswana to establish a visual arts 

department. 

Existing Art Structures/Institutions/Facilities 

The visual arts of Botswana are virtually unknown internationally, although projects such as 

the 1993 exhibition Botswana Live at the Commonwealth Institute in London, the Secure the 

Future exhibition funded by Bristol-Myers Squibb, the Soul of Africa 2005 exhibition, sponsored 

by the Development Bank of Southern Africa in Johannesburg, and the exhibition of Botswana 

art at the National Museum of China in Beijing, in 2006, have alleviated this situation. Other 

important institutions and organisations that have contributed to the growth and visibility of the 

visual arts in Botswana are the National Museum, in Gaborone; Thapong International Artists’ 

Workshop, initiated in 1989 and Thapong Visual Arts Centre, set up in 2000 (these two, being 

non-governmental); Botswana Society for the Arts; Maitisong; Botswanacraft; Kuru Art Project; 

Alliance Française in Gaborone; University of Botswana; Regional Museums (Molepolole, 

Mochudi, Serowe, Francistown, Maun); Gallery Ann; and Frame Gallery. The National Museum 

11 Williams, S. (1990). ‘The Visual Arts of Botswana’. In Art from the Frontline. Contemporary Art from Southern Africa. 

pp. 36-43 (p.40). London: Frontline States Ltd/Karia Press. 

20




was established by an Act of Parliament in 1967 and officially opened to the public in 1968 as a 

private institution. It was taken over by the Government in 1976 and will be celebrating 40 years 

of existence in 2008. The role of the National Museum is to research into, collect, conserve and 

preserve Botswana's natural and cultural heritage. 

Constraints 

There is a general dearth of resources, such as books on art, slides, videos, magazines and 

journals, and this is particularly serious, when it comes to material on African art that would be 

relevant to Botswana. The situation in this regard is even worse in the rural areas. The high cost 

of art materials, framing, printing exhibition brochures and transporting artworks outside the 

country limits exhibition opportunities for individual artists. Another important point is the 

insufficient use of local art in public buildings e.g. hotels, government buildings and corporate 

buildings. Many times one will see prints from South Africa and elsewhere, rather than artwork 

produced by Botswana artists. A positive development this year in the visual arts was that 

President Seretse Khama Ian Khama issued a directive, stating that local artworks must be 

purchased for display in government and parastatal buildings. There are currently very few 

companies that purchase local art for their buildings. Examples include the Bank of Botswana, 

Princess Marina Hospital (public art), Botswana Building Society, Public Enterprise Evaluation 

and Privatization Agency (PEEPA) and Rahim Khan & Company (lawyers). Arts initiatives are 

dependent on donor funds for survival. Moreover, these initiatives tend to be started and run by 

individuals, rather than institutions. Examples of this are the Thapong Visual Art Centre and the 

Botswana Society for the Arts. 

Teacher Training and Art Education in Botswana 

In Botswana there are six Teacher Training Colleges; four Colleges (Tlokweng, Lobatse, 

Francistown and Serowe) provide diploma level courses in primary education; and the remaining 

two, (Tonota and Molepolole) offer training for teachers at Community Junior Secondary School 

level. Molepolole College of Education (MCE) is the only institution that offers art and design as a 

specialist subject at Community Junior Secondary School (CJSS) level. MCE opened its doors in 

1985, with an enrolment of 150 students. Today there are more than 800 students studying for 

the three-year Diploma in Secondary Education. Annually, around 40 students specialise in art 

and design. The three-year art education programme is divided into three broad study areas that 

comprise: Studio Practice (fine art, craft and design), Professional Studies (teaching methods and 

curriculum planning) and Art Appreciation (including the social, political, historical and cultural 

context). It was not until 1995 that an attempt was made to teach these three areas of study 

thematically 12 . After graduating from the Molepolole College of Education, these newly qualified 

teachers are posted to Community Junior Secondary Schools to teach, and after two or three 

years service they are eligible to apply for Government scholarships to pursue degree courses at 

the University of Botswana, or abroad. Once they have successfully completed their degree 

courses, they are eligible to teach art at Senior Secondary Schools in the country. 

Art was taught as a formal subject in public schools in 1987 and was only initially offered at 

junior and senior secondary school levels but not at primary school. In 1988, art was introduced 

as an optional subject in the then two-year CJSS curriculum. When a three-year curriculum was 

introduced in 1996, as a result of the Second National Commission for Education (1993), the new 

Art, Craft and Design syllabus placed emphasis on ‘practical skills’ and ‘creative activities’ 13 . (7) 

Emphasis was placed on cross-curricular links across subjects, because art was perceived as a 

teaching aid, and a channel for creative expression and communication. The number of students 

12 E. Dichaba, A Thematic Based Art Appreciation Curriculum for Pedagogical Training of Junior Secondary School 

Teachers in Botswana. Master of Science in Art Education thesis, Central Connecticut State University, New Britain, 

Connecticut, 2002. 

13 G. Brennan, Art Education and the Visual Arts in Botswana, London, NSEAD/Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2006. 

21




studying art as an optional subject at both CJSS and Senior Secondary School (SSS) level has 

increased steadily over the years. Numbers are currently in the region of 15,000 and 5,000 

students at CJSS and SSS respectively. An important point to stress is the fact that there are 

fewer girls than boys taking art classes. This is due, in part, to the fact that girls are encouraged 

to take subjects like Home Economics or Religious Education. Furthermore, Batswana still 

perceive art negatively as a career option, though this attitude is slowly changing. 

When Molepolole College of Education started operating only a small number of schools 

offered Art as an optional subject at CJSS level. Inevitably, most of the lecturers were expatriates 

from the United Kingdom, the USA and Asia, and they made an input into in the development of 

the school art curriculum, in the absence of suitably qualified local staff for doing this. Over the 

years, an increasing number of Batswana have succeeded in furthering their studies mostly in 

the UK, USA, Australia and South Africa, and they have since been able, in turn, to influence the 

content of the school curriculum. 

Conclusion 

For the visual arts of Botswana to develop, there need to be clear policies, adequate funding 

and overall improvements to the infrastructure. There already exists a National Policy on 

Culture, but implementation lags far behind. However, this situation should be remedied by the 

development of the National Action Plan on Culture, which will facilitate the enactment of 

measures that have been agreed. Furthermore, there is a need to increase the provision of art 

education, as a whole, as well as of essential informal training opportunities for artists – both on 

a theoretical and a practical level. The visual arts of Botswana have more importance than they 

are given credit for. Not only do they satisfy a basic human need for self-expression; they reflect 

the past, present and future commitment of a people to enhancing their creativity, cultural 

identity and heritage. Also of significance is the fact that the visual arts are an inextricable 

component of the burgeoning multimedia modes of communication, so failure to innovate will 

result in the unique cultural elements of Botswana falling by the wayside, to make way for more 

dominant cultures. Therefore, visual literacy is just as important as verbal literacy and 

numeracy. Last, but not least, it is worth pointing out that research and art criticism are 

essential elements that serve as barometers of a nation’s cultural development. 


FURTHER READING 

- Botswana achieves over 80% literacy rate. 10 September 2007. BOPA Daily News Archive. 

http://www.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgid=20070910 Retrieved 25 August 2008. 

- Botswana in Brief. http://www.unbotswana.org.bw/about_b.html. Retrieved, 31 October 2007. 

- Lefhoko challenges local artists. 16 July 2008. BOPA Daily News Archive. http://www.gov.bw/cgibin/news.cgid=20080716&i=Lefhoko_challenges_local_artists 

Retrieved 1 September 2008. 

- Merafhe, ‘Botswana: Unemployment Threatens Attainment of MDGs’, in Mmegi/The Reporter (Gaborone), 

29 October 2007. http://allafrica.com/stories/200710292125.html Retrieved, 31 October 2007. 

- N. Matome and S. Williams (posth.), ‘Bridging Cultural Boundaries: A School of Art and Design for the 

Southern African Development Community (SADC) Region’, in Legacies of Stone: Zimbabwe Past and 

Present. Volume II, Tervuren, Royal Museum for Central Africa, 1997 

- S. Williams and N. Matome, ‘Visual Art in the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The 

Argument for a Regional School of Art and Design’. Feasibility Study Report, Harare, 1992 

22




THE FINE ARTS IN MOZAMBIQUE: ASPECTS OF ARTS 

EDUCATION AND ART CRITICISM THAT HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF FINE ARTS IN MOZAMBIQUE 

Harun Harun 

Nelson Mandela: ‘Like truth, culture and creativity are enduring.’ (From: In the Words of Nelson 

Mandela, 1998) 

Introduction 

After national independence, in 1975, the dynamics of the cultural scene in Mozambique had 

a varied impact on the visual arts scene and the fine arts, in particular. As this is a big topic that 

cannot be evaluated in depth in the short time that I have for my presentation, I will focus on 

some aspects of art education and art criticism that have contributed to the development of fine 

arts in Mozambique. 

The formal education system in Mozambique (pre- and postcolonial) always had an arts 

education component, from the primary to the secondary school level. However, post 

independence, there were difficulties in the implementation of the subject, such as a shortage of 

skilled personnel to teach art, and lack of access to tertiary level training. As a result, many 

artists were self-taught or ended up with an informal arts education, that relied upon courses, 

training and workshops that were offered locally. The creation of the National Schools of Visual 

Arts, Dance and Music was a gigantic step in the Mozambican Government’s policy, whose results 

are visible today. 

The practice of art criticism in Mozambique took several forms, with contributions from the 

cultural sector, media and the public. I will cover all these areas in my presentation, to enable a 

better understanding of the development of the fine arts in Mozambique. 

Brief Historical Overview 

Prior to colonisation, the arts in Mozambique flourished independently of any foreign cultural 

influences. However, Portuguese rule had a devastating impact on the indigenous Mozambican, 

especially since assimilated persons (educated, colonised Mozambicans) were forbidden to speak 

their native languages - some of them are in danger of dying out, because they have not been 

developed – or to follow their traditional cultural practices. Today, the Ministry of Education is 

working to retrieve these cultural values. In some schools in the country, students are learning 

their maternal languages. 

Mozambique’s independence was an important step in the liberation of its citizens - a new 

page was turned, on which the history of a new and free Mozambique could be written. The 

Government of Mozambique created new organisational and governmental structures, systems, 

organs and institutions to implement all the policies and practical decisions that were made. In 

terms of infrastructure, some nationalised public buildings were adapted for new functions and, 

later, the Government built new ones, but also encouraged the private sector to invest in the 

construction of additional municipal buildings. The Government was led by a one-party regime, 

with a centrally planned economy. Thus, everything was under a centralised state command, 

where every citizen was called upon to make his/her contribution to national reconstruction, 

thereby laying the foundations for building a new nation. 

23




In the years following independence, international cooperation developed with several 

countries such as Russia, Bulgaria, Sweden, Germany, Spain and Portugal. This began with the 

signing of cooperation agreements, memoranda of understanding and cooperation programmes at 

various levels, and in a variety of different domains. The arts and culture were included, and 

donor agencies helped with scholarships, training, and support in the form of art materials, 

exchange programmes for artists, exhibitions and other activities that benefited the social and 

cultural development of country. 

Education 

After independence, education became a priority. Literacy campaigns were put together, to 

reduce the illiteracy rate that was around 90% at that time, and a new national system of 

education was introduced in the whole country. This process was long and continuous and 

whenever it became necessary the programmes were reformulated, to address existing 

deficiencies. 

In the early years after independence, arts education faced many constraints in the education 

system because more attention was given to the basic disciplines, which were considered a 

priority, such as mathematics and Portuguese. This situation created major problems, because 

specialised art teachers did not exist, and the few who were available could not cover the whole 

country. On other hand, the Ministry wanted a suitable curriculum to be developed for the 

schools. Mozambican and foreign art teachers worked together, to accomplish this. The staff 

situation has recently improved in secondary schools, because local art teachers trained at the 

School of Visual Arts are now employed to teach the subject. At primary school level, however, the 

difficulties still obtain, because teachers are multidisciplinary and are expected to teach all 

subjects, including the arts. Many teachers at this level - even those who have had basic training 

in art education – are not comfortable, teaching art. The explanation for this is that the primary 

teachers believe that they need to be equipped with more in-depth art training, in order to teach 

the subject effectively. 

The formal teaching of arts in the education system did not encourage or stimulate 

Mozambicans to choose the fine arts as a career, because the content and structure of the 

discipline called ‘Drawing’ gave priority to the technical approach, as in the case, for example, of 

Geometric Drawing and Perspective Drawing. Only a small role was assigned to ‘Artistic 

Drawing’ and 

the study of colour and other artistic aspects. However, some of the more talented students 

decided to become artists, as a means of survival, rather than by choice. At this point, it is 

important to mention that the visual arts are not respected as a professional career option by 

Mozambican society. In fact, those who pursue art as a career are often considered to be lacking 

in academic skills. In the early years of the post independence era, individuals that wanted to 

continue to study the arts after completing their secondary school education were not able to do 

so, because arts subjects were not offered at the university. Much later, the Universidade 

Eduardo Mondlane (Eduardo Mondlane University) opened the Department of Architecture 

(Departamento de Arquitectura) and later government created the National Schools of Arts, 

including the Escola Nacional de Artes Visuais (National School of Visual Arts). 

The Decorative Painting course that was offered before independence was discontinued and 

other courses were created under leadership of the Centro de Estudos Culturais (Centre of 

Cultural Studies). 

Teaching of the Arts 

In 1977 the Centro de Estudos Culturais (Centre of Cultural Studies) was created. It was the 

first educational institution in the country that was dedicated to teaching the arts and culture, 

and the value of the cultural heritage. Students were trained in fine art, theatre, dance, music, 

cultural heritage and related subjects. The main objective was specifically, to revitalise and to 

24




educate communities in this subject area. On completion of their course, the students went back 

to their communities, to promote the various artistic disciplines. 

National School of Visual Arts (Escola Nacional de Artes Visuais) (ENAV) 

In 1978, the National School of the Visual Arts (ENAV) was created, together with the other 

two Schools of the Arts, the National School of Dance and the National School of Music. 

In 1983, the ENAV developed technical and specialised basic courses in Ceramics, Graphics 

and Textiles. Later, in 1991, with the adoption of its formal Statutes, the ENAV was awarded 

official recognitions for its national training programme. In 1989, 1990 and 1995, respectively, the 

intermediate courses in Graphics, Ceramics and Textiles were introduced. By 2002, the school 

had already trained 734 students: 523 in the basic courses, and 211 in the intermediate courses. 

In 2005, the School had 309 students, including a small percentage from different provinces of the 

country. The staff component consisted of 38 Mozambican teachers, 24 of whom gave instruction 

in the various arts disciplines (‘Art Teaching’) and the remaining 14 the courses in ‘General 

Teaching’. The point I wish to emphasise here is that, when the ENAV started, the majority of 

teachers were foreign, but today, practically all the teachers are Mozambicans. 

On completion of their studies, the trainees went into different professions. Some went into 

art teaching, as drawing teachers in state and private schools; others worked as specialised 

draughtsmen and -women in graphic design and textile companies, ceramics factories, and so on. 

Aside from their formal employment, these professionals began to dedicate time to developing 

their skills as fine artists and participating in various art events. These people constituted the 

new generations of artists. 

Support for the Visual Arts 

Prior to National Independence, most fine arts practitioners were self-taught. Only a few, 

such as Malangatana, Jacob Estevão Macambaco and Bertina Lopes, had ever attended an art 

training course of any kind. 

Mozambican artists continued to develop their art and had frequent opportunities for 

participating in the principal events that were organised at the time, particularly exhibitions and 

art competitions. They were almost all concentrated in the immediate surroundings of the city of 

Maputo and communicated with each other, to share skills and exchange experiences. The two 

important and best known names in the artistic arena of Mozambique were Malangatana for 

painting, drawing and ceramics and Chissano, for sculpture. They both played an important role, 

by becoming points of reference and sources of inspiration for younger artists. Malangatana lived 

in the airport area and Chissano in the area of Dlhavana. As these established artists lived in 

close proximity to other local artists and had both already set up studios in their homes, they 

were both easily accessible and open to dialogue. 

In the years between 1975 and 1980, opportunities for apprenticeships, training, workshops 

and exchanges became available outside the country. As a result, some artists were the first to be 

given the opportunities of training abroad. Examples of these included Oblino Magaia, Mussica 

and Samate, who went to Russia for training in sculpture and painting. In the 1990s, the first 

artists to be trained at university level overseas were Gilberto Cossa and Dias Mahlate. 

Indeed, there was a huge, and intense, explosion of cultural and artistic activity in the 

country, and this included the fine arts. Thus, the group of artists that began to create art before 

independence were: Marcos Zicale, Jacob Estavao Macambaco, Naftal Langa, Mankew, Makamo, 

Sansao Cossa, João Reginaldo Tinga, Vasco Campira, Malangatana, Chissano, Bertina Lopes, 

Samate, Noel Langa, Oblino Magaia, Chichorro, Agostinho Mutemba, Makukule. Artists who 

have gained recognition after independence include Isabel Martins, Victor Sousa, Idasse, Naguib, 

Neto, Fernando Rosa, Nurdino Ubisse, Fátima Fernandes, Ramadane, Mazive, Mafenhe, Reinata 

Sadhimba, Muando and Ndlozy. 

25




This first, large group of artists, who mainly lived in Maputo, worked hard to create artworks 

from a wide range of materials that demonstrated a wide variety of themes and techniques. Their 

artistic production was strongly influenced by the political environment and atmosphere in which 

they lived. They artists reflected the socio-political-economic climate of the time, from the 

euphoria of freedom after national independence, to the civil war, natural calamities, multi-party 

system, and many different contemporary issues. 

The Museum of Popular Art, now called named the Museu Nacional de Arte (National 

Museum of Art) played a crucial role in this, and in the development of the fine arts in the 

country, as a whole. The Board and a group of selected artists, who played an advisory role, 

provided the leadership in this institution. This group helped to mould the policies and activities 

of the Museum. 

In the main cities of Mozambique the Casas de Culturas (Cultural Institutes), together with 

other state institutions, were responsible for the organisation of all cultural activities and events. 

In Maputo, the Centro Organizativo dos Artistas (Artists’ Association), in spite of its many 

problems, also played an important role, in trying to work with artist and bring them together. 

The private sector was also encouraged by Government to create additional cultural centres 

and art galleries. 

Art Criticism 

After independence, art critics adopted a variety of approaches, which greatly contributed to 

supporting artists’ careers and fostering an interest in the fine arts. These included organising 

discussions, serving on juries for exhibitions and writing about the work. The dialogue between 

artists taught them to talk about their work and to accept, or reject, feedback from their peers, 

art critics and the public. The type of written art criticism that was practised was a basic and 

necessary factor, in recording the art historical developments of post-colonial Mozambique. 

Written or verbal comments were made by individuals who visited the exhibitions or the artists’ 

studios; the dialogue between artists and art lovers - namely, curators, art collectors or buyers, 

and the general public - also acted as a barometer of the changing level of art appreciation in the 

society. 

Group exhibitions organised with a selection panel were another form of art criticism, where 

members of the jury had to select artworks according to pre-established criteria for participation. 

The artists could assume that only artworks of quality were selected, and that those of lesser 

quality were rejected. Individual artists also invited personalities in the community, whose 

writing was respected, to advise them and write texts for their solo exhibition catalogues. 

Randzarte 

In the 1980s, the creation of the weekly newspaper Tribuna - later, renamed Domingo - began 

to publish pieces of art criticism. The newspaper created a column for fine arts, called ‘Randzarte’, 

which was coordinated by journalist, Julio Navarro, a group of motivated art lovers, and artists, 

who themselves started to write art criticism. All art exhibitions held in Maputo city were 

reviewed, and the commentaries about them published in this newspaper, weekly. 

In the beginning, Randzarte encountered strong objections from some artists, who rejected 

the ‘critical’ content of reviews, as unjust, but relations between the artists and Navarro, 

improved steadily, in the years leading up to his death. After Navarro’s death, the publication of 

Randzarte ceased. Nonetheless, it had provided a platform that enabled art criticism to flourish, 

by encouraging individuals to write. These people continue to write and publish their 

commentaries in other local newspapers. 

Nowadays it is very normal and common for practising artists to invite respected art critics 

who are usually writers, art collectors, professors or lecturers, to write for catalogues of 

exhibitions. 

26




In conclusion, this subject of art criticism in Mozambique raises some interesting and complex 

questions. How do African countries that have no university level art programmes in art history 

cultivate systematic, sustainable skills and practice in art criticism So far, it has been through 

the efforts of individuals, rather than institutions, that the seeds of art criticism have been sown 

in Mozambique. It is important to highlight the fact that, such art criticism as there has been in 

Mozambique, has been mostly written by individuals who have received no training in the field. 

Other Aspects 

Unfortunately, the fine arts in Mozambique have developed in an uneven fashion. The arts in 

the other cities and towns have not enjoyed the same level of development as in Maputo. 

However, in Beira, artists such as Silva Duduru, Sting, Anisio, Sitoe, Anisio Páscoa, Chamo, 

Nene (Roque) and the art activist, the late Carlos Beirao, have played an important role. In the 

cities of Nampula and Quelimane, there is a small nucleus of artists who also play an active role. 

The former Nucleus of Art now called ‘Centro Organizativo dos Artistas’ tried in the face of 

certain problems and conflicts to bring artists together, to work collaboratively on certain projects 

and events. In Mozambique’s experience, Artists’ associations are a necessary means of 

organising and mobilising artists and enabling them to speak with a strong, united voice. 

The cultural centres created by certain embassies, such as the CEB-Centro de Estudos 

Brasileiros (Brazil), Instituto Camoes (Portugal), Centre Cultural Franco Mocambicano (France), 

and others, have also made a contribution. 

The upsurge of cultural activity after Independence was intense in fields of artistic 

expression, the first example being the great national exhibition that took place in the year of 

independence and set the seal on one form of artistic practice that was strengthened and 

reaffirmed in succeeding years. 

These are just some of the main events that have been established since then: 

- National and international group exhibitions, adjudicated by a jury 

- Weeks of cultural exchange between Mozambique and other countries 

- Expo MUSART, an annual group exhibition to commemorate the anniversary of 

National Independence, nowadays organised by the National Museum of Art 

- The TDM Bienal, which is an international event organised by the TDM Company. To 

date, six editions of this international event have been held 

- The FUNDAC Annual Awards, accompanying exhibitions of all the arts, with the same 

name 

- The MUVART Bienal, which has been an international event since 2004 

The Government created a fund, called FUNDAC, to support cultural activities with the 

proceeds from a tax on ticket sales to cultural events. It is insufficient, but does greatly help to 

solve a number of artistic problems and situations. 

Institutions and Art Galleries 

As far as the infrastructure for the arts in Mozambique is concerned, not many new 

institutions and art galleries have been built since Independence, but many existing arts 

buildings have been rehabilitated and adapted. Some of these used to be cultural associations in 

colonial times. These include, among others: 

- Museu Popular de Arte, now the National Museum of Art, Maputo 

- National Museum of Ethnology, Nampula 

- Culture Houses in the cities of Maputo, Beira, Nampula, Quelimane and Inhambane 

- Nucleus of Art, Maputo 

- Loja-Galeria, Horizonte Arte Difusão, Maputo 

- CEB-Centro de Estudos Brasileiros, Maputo 

- Centro Cultural Franco-Maçambicano, Maputo 

- Atelier Arco Iris, Maputo 

- Galeria Afritique, Maputo 

- Galeria da Fortaleza, Maputo 

- Galeria do Instituto Camões, Maputo 

27




- Museu-Galeria Chissano, Maputo 

- Centro Cultural Naguib, Maputo 

- Centro Cultural de Matalana, Marracuene 

- Associação Moçambicana de Fotografia, Maputo 

In conclusion, this presentation only provides insight into the status of the visual arts of 

Mozambique, and cannot claim to be exhaustive. A much fuller account would be needed, to do 

justice to the situation of the fine arts in Mozambique, now that artists have a much wider vision 

and have been able, in many different ways, to create openings for their work on the globalised 

visual and contemporary art scene. 

Finally, we have to remember that Mozambique is located in the southern region of the 

continent of Africa. In the north, it is separated from Tanzania by the river Rovuma; to the south, 

it has borders with Swaziland and South Africa to the West, with Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi; 

and to the East it is bounded by the Indian Ocean. It has 12 provinces, including Maputo City, 

the country’s capital. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

- António Sopa, Artes Plásticas em Moçambique: para uma percepção das práticas culturais (1975-1999), 

Outras Plasticidades, Lisbon, Instituto Camões, 1999. 

- Alda Costa, in ENAV – 1983-2003, ex. cat., Maputo, ENAV, 2005. 

- Victor Sala, ibid. 

- Alda Costa, A maquina que queria voar , ex. cat., Maputo, TDM, 2007. 

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RECUPERATING THE PRESENT 

Carol Brown 

Art education has many aspects. There is formal education which is that learned in schools 

and colleges and which is disseminated by structured programmes supported by textbooks, 

discussions, and practice usually in an institutional environment. The aim of this is generally to 

produce artists or people whose careers will involve the arts i.e. design, advertising, teaching and 

art practice itself. It is usually packaged with related subjects so if, for instance, one wished to 

concentrate on mathematics or sciences, art education would not be an available option. 

To accept art as an integral part of society which enriches the cultural climate and 

consciousness of a nation is the ideal. The small percentage of people who study art formally 

therefore do not make a critical mass. That brings me to the point which I wish to make in this 

paper which is that formal education is but one side of the coin. Non-formal education is vital if 

art to survive. Art needs to be in the public sphere and not only in the Academy. One of the 

ways in which this is done is by an encounter with the artwork. This is but one way of developing 

an understanding of art but it remains a fundamental cornerstone upon which a more diverse set 

of interpretations and examinations can be made. It is that encounter and the circumstances 

around the presence of the work that interests me in this paper. What are the conditions which 

are necessary for the majority of the population to experience and understand art What 

education is necessary Who should provide it and how What is the role of the museum in this 

process 

My premise is that the physical presence of an artwork is the first requisite. This may sound 

reductive in the light of the discourse during this century as instigated by Benjamin in his 

discussion of the Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction and Malraux’s subsequent 

Museum without Walls discussion. However even the reproduction needs an original with which 

to start - without that original the reproduction does not exist. I therefore take the concept of the 

original as starting point and look into its dissemination and conditions for production which 

takes me straight to the exhibition and the museum. 

These are not necessarily the same. The exhibition can take place in many different spaces, 

both temporary and permanent, indoors and outdoors, virtual and real. The museum has its own 

structures and protocols. However all these spaces have certain things in common – they put 

artworks on view for an audience and display them in a manner which is intended to influence 

the viewer in one way or another– they are usually the springboard for text such as explanatory 

labeling, didactic wall panels, brochures and catalogues all of which are necessary for wider 

public education which are also then co-opted into the formal education system where the 

discourse around the exhibition eventually become the historical text . 

History of collection 

Placing this in a South African context we need to understand that art museums in this 

country were established in the late nineteenth century with the aim of promoting a European 

type of culture amongst the citizens. Collections were almost exclusively foreign and included the 

production of white artists trained in a European context. The first works by black artists to enter 

the museums were in the sixties and these collections grew very slowly until the early eighties. 

The curricula of educational establishments followed this with very little emphasis being placed 

on local South African or artists from the rest of Africa. This has resulted in a sense of inferiority 

and ignorance about local art and artists which still lingers on today. 

29




An example of the attitude which permeated society was that one of the most publicized 

events ever in the Durban Art Gallery was the acquisition of East Bergholt Church by British 

painter, John Constable in 1984. This was considered of sufficient importance to mobilise the 

community and the press. The money was raised from the public in 2 weeks. Even more 

significant was the fact that there were 28 editorial articles in local newspapers in a 2 month 

period which enthused over and lauded this achievement. The idea of strengthening the British 

collection obviously had great appeal for both the citizens and the City Council. During these 

years, the gallery was being increasingly seen as an upholder of British and European values and 

an area in which this form of ‘high’ culture could be maintained. There was no art collected from 

the rest of the continent. 

The irony of this event is that this was concurrent with the movement happening outside the 

official structures towards a less institutional form of culture. Conferences such as Art Towards 

Social Development: Culture and Resistance, the Cultural Voice of Resistance Festival and 

Culture in Another South Africa were held in the eighties outside of the borders of the country. 

The introduction of the cultural boycott by the United Nations in 1980 was another important 

factor. Art and exhibitions had to look inwards but without the stimulation of access to global 

trends and artists. Important contemporary art made in South Africa was mainly protest art 

which, due to the above reasons, did not achieve international notice and the cut-off from outside 

influences did not produce art which was to international taste. Many artists left the country in 

protest against apartheid and also due to the social conditions in which they lived resulting in the 

fact that the work they produced was unknown in their home country. This caused a significant 

gap in the writing and exhibiting of art made during these years. 

Post-Apartheid 

The first democratic election in 1994 marked a turning point in the country’s history and this 

naturally had an impact on culture. For the first time in the history of the country a Ministry for 

Arts was established under the portfolio of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology. This appeared 

to be a positive commitment to the development and support of the arts. 

It was with the advent of the Johannesburg Biennales in 1995 and 1997 that South Africa 

really entered the global arena. The exhibition of works by international artists in these 

exhibitions, the level of debate around contemporary theoretical issues and the exposure of local 

artists to an international audience changed the face of South African art. 

These biennales were undoubtedly instrumental in placing the South African contemporary 

artists on the global stage however the irony of it was that a cluster of artists became so sought 

after that South African museums and collectors could no longer afford to purchase their works. 

I now jump to the present – 14 years after democracy we are living in an era, in South Africa, 

which is still obsessed with the nation building project started after 1994 although there is also 

an awareness of the African Renaissance project and this country’s place on the continent. There 

is a tussle between past and present for supremacy in South African art and culture. It is almost 

as though history is in competition with the present. This ongoing creation of certain narratives 

involves a wide public. 

The scramble for a recuperation and building of the nation’s heritage has been very evident 

particularly in the last few years. In his Speech for the Budget in June 2006, Pallo Jordan, the 

Minister for Arts and Culture reported that they had spent R490 million on heritage institutions 

which accounted for 67% of his budget. I quote: “This expresses the Department’s mandate as the 

custodian of the nation’s collective memory. Heritage can best contribute to social cohesion and 

the building of a sense of South African national identity because it is a palpable record of our 

past”. 

There are retrospectives of previously ignored artists in many art museums and ironically 

most of these have not been fully supported by state funding.(Shilakoe, Feni. This past is also 

being acknowledged by the establishment of new history museums which are cropping up like 

mushrooms – most of these to honour previously marginalised heroes and events –The smaller 

and more local museums have often been created hurriedly to a formula where the text panels 

30




and photographs are mass produced and repeated over and over. Many of them spring up almost 

overnight in a ‘Big Mac’ type of franchise. I have observed several of these literally being created 

in the space of a few weeks in order to satisfy either a particular anniversary or a political 

imperative. This can be problematic as the education provided is not discursive. It is packaged 

knowledge with a certain perspective. Furthermore these sites are often left to be inadequately 

staffed and then forgotten about, regardless of the initial expenditure. The majority do not 

contain any evidence of the material culture of the times they portray and artistic expression does 

not feature at all. In certain regions there was also a great deal of money spent on community 

halls with an idea that these could serve as art centres mainly for the purpose of informal adult 

education. However this has been an issue of contention because no operating budgets or support 

systems were allocated and they have now become blots on the landscape and are causing 

problems as they are run-down and inhabited informally by homeless people causing centres of 

concern and not creativity as was the initial intention. Not one museum of contemporary art has 

been built, despite much lobbying on the part of Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban who have 

all had plans thwarted for either separate wings to existing museums or new structures for 

contemporary art. 

The importance of the museum in non-formal education is often under-estimated. It is only a 

few years since education in this country has been equal and the opportunities for museums to 

play an important role in wider education is great. As discussed, formal art education is limited 

and only accessible to a few and this is unlikely to change. Even more seriously, we have several 

generations who were not given the opportunity to study art at school, did not have access to 

media or even museum visits. Many of these are our decision makers who decide upon arts policy 

and also are potential art purchasers. It is now apparent that since museums have become more 

accessible, families frequently spend time in visiting them and it is here that an important role 

can be played in educating people around art. Critical faculties can be honed, social 

commentaries can be understood and in so doing an audience can be built. 

Earlier this year when I attended the Acasa (Arts Council of African Studies Association) 

Conference held in Gainesville, Florida the panel on Museums featured American contemporary 

art curators bubbling with enthusiasm for their collections of African art which, because of 

obvious comparisons with trophy hunting, I call the Big Five of Africa i.e. Shonibare, Ofili, el 

Anatsui, Odundo, Kentridge. There has recently been much discussion about who is African and 

I will not focus on this issue but take my definition from the fact that all members of this panel 

represented the theme which was specific to African art. 

It struck me as tragic that the museums in South Africa and the rest of Africa either do not 

have works by these flagship African artists or, if they do, they are very under represented and 

generally minor or earlier examples. Yet, the rest of the world is vying for their works. 

Corporate collections fare slightly better and are only recently beginning to demonstrate greater 

importance in making these available to the public. These are being collected under the rubric of 

social responsibility. The question is how can these collections then become part of the nonformal 

education process Visiting a corporate collection in corporate headquarters is 

intimidating and complicated therefore it is the responsibility of the collectors to make their 

collections more publicly available by linkages with education establishments, museums and 

other public facilities. Publications and internet access could also be valuable. 

The potential for the role of corporates is currently rivaling that of museums who, due to 

suffer from inadequate official funding. Most have had their acquisition budgets cut drastically 

and all are expected to seek outside funding. This in itself is problematic because with many of 

the official funding organizations the work has to be identified first and bureaucracy can take 

months before a decision is reached. Artists and galleries cannot afford to put their works on hold 

in such a situation. There is no tax relief for donations to museums. Donors are encouraged to 

put their money into ‘hard’ sells like formal education or housing developments. Art is still seen 

as a luxury. 

Access to exhibitions of contemporary African art is also part of the problem. Exhibitions as 

mentioned before play an important role in the dissemination of information and education in the 

arts. The Short Century and Snap Judgements, to name a few, did not reach the continent at all, 

and it has only been after a very protracted series of negotiations and fund raising that the Jhb 

31




Art Gallery, managed to finally get Africa Remix to Johannesburg right at the tail end of its 

journey. 

The Solution 

It is evident that we need to retain representative collections of contemporary art production 

in the country. Museums need to adapt their spaces to become more important as centres of life 

long learning. They need to act as platforms for different activities, provide facilities for debate 

and discussion and be the “forum rather than the temple”. However their lifeblood is the 

preservation of culture through acknowledgement of contemporary production. This is but one 

chain in the link of establishing an informed arts community but like with any chain each link is 

vital. Artists are leaving South Africa to live elsewhere, ( Kendell Geers (Stephen Friedman, 

London), Claudette Schreuders (Jack Shainman, New York), Candice Breitz (White Cube, 

London) and Robin Rhode (Perry Rubenstein, New York) Moshekwa Langa, ) which in an age of 

globalization is to be expected but with a paucity of contemporary artists and art debate in the 

country young people have no role models. The solution is not to prevent artworks or artists 

leaving. This would put us back into the provincialism of the earlier years and, given a global 

economy, it would be a naïve desire. It is also evident that artistic and cultural heritage belongs 

to humankind. However there is a fear that our museums are going to have large gaps in their 

collections of contemporary production if government funding and public education towards 

appreciating African contemporary art does not take cognizance of the problem. The recent 

debate on the Sindika Dokolo private collection representing African art at the Venice Biennale 

could be seen in the light of how the private or corporate collectors are becoming the custodians 

of our heritage. 

Serious contemporary art publications (with the exception of Art South Africa) are unable to 

survive, the publication of books and inclusion in curricula of contemporary African art needs to 

grow. Our art and artists must be acknowledged and appreciated. If the State values our 

heritage and wishes to be part of the African continent, as they frequently advocate, it must then 

support current production which is the heritage of the future. We do not want to be sitting in a 

position in twenty years time when we are once again repatriating the art lost during the postapartheid 

period. We must acknowledge that this is a vital era in the history of our country when 

the rest of the world is scrambling once again for Africa whilst we let it slip through our fingers. 


32




Ramon Tio Bellido 

Dear Friends, dear colleagues, 

I will just say how happy I am to be here at the Cape, before starting my speech, and even if 

Henry has remembered us that this is our 3rd seminar to take place in Africa, after the two we 

have had in Dakar and Addis Ababa, I dare to add that this looks like a logical step, in terms of 

« geography » when looking at the dimension of this Continent. But also, and we have started to 

notice this since the beginning of this seminar, in terms of its cultural, economical and social 

diversity(ies) of course. Thanks then to Andrew and Storm, among very many others, for keeping 

on this idea and making it possible since the seminar at Addis Ababa. 

As a matter of fact, the occasion to improve and experiment this diversity is very much what 

we wished when we decided to put on this meeting, because, as no surprise –at least for me since, 

I should say, ever- nothing is more absurd than to use the world « africa/an- when refering to art 

and artists coming from this enormous part of our world. In the same time, and quite amazingly, 

it is nevertheless the first semantic solution that happens when you look and check all the great 

exhibitions in which, since, let’s say a long decade, groups, or « sets » of artists from this continent 

have been shown abroad. 

I hope today this will be reconsidered as well as an excuse and an obligation or a pretext may 

be, but I also thing strongly that it is time to put ahead other realities. They might be « national » 

-being very cautious with such a term-, « local or vernacular » -for so far this is also plainly 

explained, and/or, simply –if possible !- singular, personal and individual, when looking at 

artists, curators, critics as beings, persons, involved and committed in the art « business », with 

their own differences, their own options, their own directions and strategies. 

I have since ever in mind the problem of making something personal possible without getting 

rid of the context you live, because, as some of you might know, I just have to refer to my own 

history, the one of a child born in France, but from spanish refugees parents, and who has had to 

« feel and deal » with these two cultures over the shoulders since ever, and, much more stronger 

than this, with all the administrative and ideological differences that such a situation creates. 

Of course, I am not going to complain of this, because, even if this is much more complex than 

what might look as currently happen, France is without any doubt, still a democratic country. A 

place where you have good chances to accomplish yourself, with more or less capabilities, helps 

and recognitions from the « others » -and they are a big lot as Sartre pointed out when having to 

define what « hell » can be- , but where exist strong rules and standarts of life that are obviously 

still deeply interfering for and on any person educated there, like it or not. What I do mean by 

this is that, even if someone might feel « european » today, and be granted that this reality exists 

and has a strong sense, you are supposed to be first yourself, brood up and build with precise and 

heavy cultural moods and manners. 

Saying from this that there is a kind of « french artistic style » is something that I assume, 

and I frankly never have been making any mistake when telling this work of art proceeds from 

France (I say the country and not the individual, french !). The same for Spain, for England, for 

Germany, for the US, or better said, the same for quite all the werstern countries from where I 

have had to look at art and artistic proposals. May I say the same for so-called african proposals 

The paradox, and I guess you agree, is yes and no. But may be here this yes and no is a bit more 

stronger than what we know or perceive from Asia, and, of course, from all the latin american 

countries, that are very much « westernized » since nearly two centuries now. 

Or should I say that this was more easy to do some three decades ago, just before, let’s say, 

postmodernism and then globalisation happened The answer –my answer- is still « yes and no », 

just adding, by prudence, that it was of course due to the cultural and economical relations that 

33




were imperialistically dealing the market and the art business, naming by that the source that 

was distributing the standarts and the rules that had to be obeyed and followed to be considered 

as part the « art family ». Not that this has changed very much since then, and even in my point 

of view on the contrary, but what has changed is that in these times – a kind of « prehistory » 

when I check it with my students today !!- what was supposedly to be taken on first range was a 

kind of progressist « neutrality » of expression, that accepted whatever was considered 

« primitivist » or « singular », insofar such proposals were kept in a « margin ». At the same time, 

this « neutrality » had also to be « corrected » by strong nationalistic ideologies that supposed that 

spaniards could pratice a kind of « expressionist abstraction » because of their peculiar history ; 

americans or english could popartized their iconography because they were the two major 

countries where consumerism was stronger, and in the same time develop « minimal » proposals 

because this same consumerism was a social shame that demanded moral responses. Then, last 

but not least, conceptual art could display itself everywhere because the ideology of progress in 

art settled when the renaissance, has reached with it its own limits and could be totally 

« immaterialized/ spiritualized ». (and not non or de-materialized) 

Were these great times This is not the question, the point is to consider, and remember, 

that, as a symptom –and a very welcome one from my point of view- when the personnality of the 

artist started to gain his right to exist only by his behaviour and no more by or because his or her 

material or technical production, a climax was reached, that openly expressed the expansion and 

the possibility for each one to become an artist worldwidely, in the same time it pointed the end 

and the loss of until then western models and rules. 

Postmodern mainly consisted in looking backwards and everywhere, putting as unbearable 

conditions that the figure of the artist had to appear « melted », « transversal » and/ or 

« anachronic ». The epistemologic brake between modernism and after consist, in my opinion, that 

during let’s say 5 centuries, art has had to take out as much as possible all its structuring 

elements, when, since this extremely strong change, it has to add an display more and more 

feeding items, reaching since a short while the priority and necessity of being the equal of stage 

proposals, a kind of show. It is during the big 80s’ decade that started to be fully considered nonwesterns 

artists, but also, equal to the others, those considered marginal up to then. I already 

have spoken about this before in similar occasions, but just remember, looking back to France, 

the triumph that knew between 80/90 Dubuffet and Chaissac, to put it clear, or, of course, the 

success known by Basquiat in New York and elsewhere. Like it or not, this is not the question 

ever, or better said, the average of taste and evaluation that has been used until then to gave 

credit to art production just splited, vanished, and the criteria became to be deeply reconsidered. 

In fact, we started to have a kind of local/national « schools » -or groups- that were appearing 

day after day –or may be week after week but not very much more !- like in a spiral which was of 

course following the major political changes we have known during these years. England, 

Germany, Italy, Spain, then Russia plus some ex « sattelized » countries like Poland, Yougoslavia 

still, close to this Turkey, and etc, have had their time of glory and strengh.. 

Meanwhile, US was strongly and permanently present, but let path to some latin american 

countries, like Cuba in first range, Colombia and Venezuela, Brazil and Argentina. Then we jump 

to Japan, Corea –China was not still in I might say- an effort was tried with Lebanon and Egypt, 

and then… and then came the hour of Africa. 

Many people insist in the fact that it came with the so famous exhibition Les Magiciens de la 

Terre, but when you look at who was in it, the « african » artists were not that many, compared to 

all the non western ones. The main difference, if any, is that this presence was taken as an entire 

act of justice, as if at least the westerners felt really guilty –and sorry- of their not so old 

colonialist presence in this Continent. 

I don’t think it’s the only reason, even if it is a strong one which was very much discussed and 

debated when the opening of this event. My belief is that what was shown then from what came 

from Africa, represented strongly what the westerners were looking for, that can be simply 

announced as a will or a wish of freedom, a possibility of making art different and far from what 

had been the rules and the conditions since a very long time. I am not going to speak about this 

exhibition, that I found personnaly very critical, but what I can just say is that apart from two or 

three « african artists » that were concious of what « art » could mean accordind it to western 

34




rules, -putting among them Bruly Bouabré and Cheri Samba (Yacouba might add some comments 

about this) - the rest did not. Ethically I always have considered this not acceptable, and even 

more because it has been causing traumatic situations in certain cases, when some of the selected 

« artists » suddenly had to respond to the western art market and didn’t really evaluate what this 

was going to generate in their own social, family and economical contexts. 

(this note refers to the chapter in next page and following) 14 

May be to put it more clear, my feeling, and belief, is that the relation between Africa and the 

western world is uneven, and depends very much of the contexts that exist in this continent, and, 

very often, do not produce the « benefits » that might be expected from such recognitions. As we 

are speaking here in South Africa, there is no doubt that, despite or because the apartheid regime 

this country has had to support during a too long time, an art « scene » did exist since a century 

and a half or so, of course hold by the white bourgeoisie, but that also generated this bizarre 

dialectical situation that can be explained by the critical social responsability that were supposed 

to share worldwide the intellectuals (artists, writers, poets, musicians…). 

In the AICA archives, we have a book since ever, not knowing how it arrived there, titled : 

« Art & Artists from South Africa », whose author is Esmé Berman, published in Cape Town 1970, 

ed. A.A. Balkema. Looking at it from time to time, because it helps me to understand and 

illustrate what I am trying to explain now, I frankly have to admit that I don’t know any of the 

artists presented, but that what is shown looks very much to what I know from other contexts. A 

rather good bunch of painters, very linked to western modernism and avant-gardes, but always 

with a short « provincial » delay, and that seem very much concerned by their own culture and 

local realities as subject-matters for their art. In terms of pure « socio-anthropolgy », may be more 

than in aesthetical ones, it is an astonishing lesson, that looks very much like what you can check 

in quite all the major latin american countries, by instance, when I don’t believe you can do the 

same here in this continent. May be in Senegal, even if the french colonial system was very 

different of the others, may be in Mozambique and Angola, because the same difference with the 

portuguese « melted » type of colonialism existed, surely in Ethiopia and Egypt, but quite less 

than here. Apart of it, because of the special regime known by this country, this did exist in 

Algeria, a situation that I know quite well, having curated a show of modern and contemporary 

algerian art some years ago, on the invitation of algerian colleagues and its ministry of culture. If 

you compare what can be compared, the algerian case is very interesting, when you learn that the 

« indigènes » were allowed to enter art schools not before 1905, (due to the change of policy in 

France), and were first authorized just to enter the crafts sections of the school of Fine Arts !! I do 

not know if something similar happened here and there, but I guess yes, and it is something I 

checked in this famous book I refer to, when looking at the photographic portraits of the artists. A 

few of them are black, and not before, let’s say, end of Word War 2 or near, when, on the contrary, 

a quite good number of them are women, at least since the beggining of the XXth century… (This 

« gender » phenomenon is also something very much linked with the boers regime, I guess, but 

you don’t find dit in Algeria or Senegal for as far as I can compare). 

What does this reality mean anyway, if not that structures as museums, galleries (private or 

public), were present in this country for years, and that among a lot others, the art system was 

supposedly perceptible by, quite, everybody. I am only trying to draw a kind of explanation about 

the fact that, when the 80’s, the number of artists known in Europe from South Africa was higher 

than others coming from the rest of african countries, and, that, looking at this from an 

14 Book « Art & Artists from South Africa », Esmé Berman, Cape Town 1970, ed. A.A. Balkema. Among others : Frans 

Oerder (1867-1944), Pieter Wenning (1873-1921), Hugo Naudé (1869-1941), J.F. Pierneef (186-1967), Irma Stern (1894- 

1966), Maggie Laubser (1886>), Alexis Preller (1911>), Walter Battis (1906>), Maurice Van Essche (1906>), Maud Sumner 

(1902>), Douglas Portway (1922>), Cecil Skotnes (1926>), Judith Mason (1938>), Cecily Sash (1925>). Ruth Everard 

Hadden, George Boys, Bettie Cilliers Barnard, Cristo Coettze, Erasmus, Fritz Krampe, Robert Brooks, Aileen Lipkin…… 

« Art Contemporain d’Afrique du Sud », (Jean Yves Jouannais/ préface Marylin Martin) Ed. Plume /AFAA, 1994 : Jane 

Alexander (1959), Willie Bester (1956), Andries Botha (1952), Karin Dando (1961), Kendell Geers (1967), Günther Herbst 

(1963), Conrad J. Morkel (1961), William Kentridge (1955), Freddy Ramabulana (1930), Joachim Schönfeldt (1958), Lucas 

Seage (1956), Mashego Johannes Segogela (1937), Linda Mbhele Sibusiso (1972), Diane Victor (1964), Jeremy Wafer 

(1953), Konrad Welz (1967), Sue Williamson (1941), Gavin Younge (1947). 

« Africa, Vibrant New art from a Dynamic Continent », Toshio shimizu + authors (Njami, Konaté, JH Martin, PM Tayou), 

1998. Cyprien Tokoudagba, Pascale Marthine Tayou, Cheri Samba, Gedewon, Gera, Kane Kwei, Abdallah Salim, Kivuthi 

Mbuno, Farid Belkahia, Osi Audu, Esther Mahlangu, Jane Alexander, Zwelethu Mthethwa. 

35




aesthetical point of view this time, they were much more « connected » to western criterias, even 

if considered by a « post modern » situation than what could be found in many other places. When 

a show of south african artists was organized in Paris in 1994, curated by JY Jouannais, he fairly 

insited in the fact that the selected works were responding very much to the western expectations 

of taking pleasure with an art dealing with the presence of the body, representing a « mutation », 

facing a lot of forbidden proposals, because considered if not obscene, at least « primitive », open 

to moral censorship. Like it or not, I do agree with this comment, as it matches exactely with 

what were the expectations then, if one wants to remember that France –but not only- was 

knowing a very rightist opposition to the « new art » of this time, under the pretext that it was not 

« serious », not « thought », open to whathever kind of nonsense and stupidies. 

As I said a few minutes ago, art from Africa was accepted because of these very evident topics 

on « difference » and, I quoted but repeat, « singularity ». 

It is then with no big surprise that, a few years after, when having to give an analysis about 

art from this continent for the catalog « Africa, Vibrant New art from a Dynamic Continent », hold 

in Japan, Simon Njami pointed very accurately that the « past and the future of Africa » are 

sanctified by the West, without taking any care about its reality, but using a comparative study 

that is supposed to serve the power of the curators and the art market. Njami follows by saying 

that doing so the semantic mistake of what means contemporary, modernity, and of course 

history, is totally vanished to the favour of what is « current ». In others ways, he points by this 

that the West has « invented » african art as a concept when it was necessary for it, whatever the 

goods or bad reasons of its conciousness and guiltiness. He then takes a very appropriate example 

of this when, refering to Susan Vogel’s exhibition « Africa Explores » (Moma 1991, touring 1994), 

he describes it as « an exhibition of ethnological presentation focusing on the contexts and not on 

the aesthetics, meaning », and that « what is meant by african art has still to find its true 

expression ». Its conclusion consisted in criticising the supposed « advantage of the context, which 

generates a width of endless analyses, based only on sociology, politics and anthropology ». 

This is sadly totally true, and this is what we use to feel when we hear or have to look at 

« african » contributions here and there, like if they were labels or trade marks. A weight that 

makes why, for this very same reason, I have not been a fan –not to say more- about Simon’s 

proper project, this heavy, confusing and contradictorial « Africa Remix » show… 

I repeat, and I don’t have the answer of course, that this way of qualifing the art from this 

Continent, through a post colonial generic entity is the worst for me. There is plenty of proposals 

that do have their own singularities and personalities, and in first range because they accept to 

show the difficult dialectical deal between the « mother cultures » and the « international » 

features that can give them existence. A challenge that, in other terms, Bassam called yesterday 

« Glocal », a concept that I find of sharp awareness. 

May I hope that this is true for everybody everywhere, and let me –not- conclude with an 

anecdote that I love to remember : 

Two years ago, Emma Bedford and myself were visiting together the Venice Biennale, and she 

was very proud – with all the legitimity about this- because altogether, in the two shows set up by 

Maria del Corral and Rosa Martinez, were present 6 south african artists. We went all through 

looking at the works, and, at the end of the Arsenale, she suddenly heard me laughing loudly. She 

came to look to what was the resaon of this and she saw me in front of a video made by Pilar 

Albarracin, an artist from not only Spain, but certainly Andalucia ! This video shows a kind of 

executive woman, dressed in yellow, that is pursued by a band playing one of the most stupid post 

ironical franco’s time song : Viva España. She said, yes well, it’s funny, but from this to be 

laughing as you do, I frankly do not understand. My only response consisted in trying to explain : 

« well you know Emma, this is very « spanish » and very deeply inside our brains !! The same, but 

on another direction, of what you can feel for Bernie’s work, that I do like and respect, but that 

you do UNDERSTAND deeply and culturally immediately much more than I do. This is a slight 

difference, and both artists deserve to be here in this show in Venice, but you, me, others, will not 

feel the same, when we can without any doubt read with no mistake « homework made » 

meanings »... 

36




Is Gera perceived the same way in Ethiopia than elsewhere, and, on the contrary, is Marthine 

Tayou received plainly when he has a show in Cameroon, if any,.. 

What is the part of the individual and the one of the « global » in both cases 

Are two artists like this, plus many others, to be shown together with the only excuse or 

pretext that they are « africans » What does it really mean and for who 

These are the type of questions I have in mind since a quite long time now, and even if I can 

have my own responses and feelings, I don’t think it is up to me or to many others not from this 

Continent to give the answers, but that they have to stand and raise everywhere from it, quite 

urgently I would add... 

Thank you for listening. 


37




THE COST OF FAILURE AND GETTING USED TO 

Kwezi Gule 

First of all I would like to say that there are several reasons why it is necessary to have largescale 

events not only in the developed world but also in developing countries. But I mention just 

two. The first is that they provide an opportunity to see a cross-section of artistic production at a 

particular moment. The second is that these exhibitions often bring with them a lot of attention 

from the media and from the artistic community. There are of course certain dangers that come 

with these benefits. While it is true that large-scale exhibitions offer an overview of artistic 

production There are also a number of very good reasons why the debate around this issue has 

been stultified. 

Over the past year I have been involved in two large-scale exhibitions held in South Africa, 

namely TransCape and Africa Remix. In addition to this there has also been a lot of controversy 

surrounding the Africa Pavilion at the Venice Biennial. Both exhibitions solicited many debates 

about the appropriateness of these kinds of exhibitions in general and Africa in particular. These 

arguments have been made on the basis of ideological concerns but also on the basis of practical 

considerations. What concerns me in this discussion is whether or not these controversies help to 

enrich or to impoverish the reception and appreciation of contemporary African art. 

In many discussions around the issue of large-scale exhibitions are a number of things that 

tend to cloud the issue. What seems to surface most among these is the issue of legitimacy. 

Implied in the issue of legitimacy are a constellation of issues such as who is the curator, the 

artistic director, or the organisation/body that is hosting the show, who the intended audience is 

or ought to be, where the event is staged, which artists are included or excluded and which 

themes, ideas and discourses are given prominence. Also tied to the idea of legitimacy are the 

issues of merit and the global circuits of art and their ability to give value and validate. 

I will start from the assumption that if there were an unlimited amount of resources and if 

these resources were freely available to everyone, there would be no issue of legitimacy since 

everyone would have not only the knowledge but also the means to undertake any project. They 

would be able to formulate and mould the project in whichever way they felt necessary. So the 

lack of resources or rather the perceived uneven distribution of resources has also shaped the 

kinds of debates we have had over this issue. I have even heard coming from some quarters 

statements to the effect that debate tends to scare away potential funders. And the classical case 

that is often quoted is the 1997 Johannesburg Biennale and the drought that followed for the next 

ten years. 

This of course also brings out the issue of the quality of debate that we are having around 

these things. Quality is important because in the many of the legitimate criticisms of TransCape 

and the subsequent Cape 07 exhibition it seems that people were unable to distinguish between 

the organisation that organised the exhibition and the personalities involved in it and the 

exhibition itself. While I think that this is understandable in light of the fact that it was unclear 

to many people who was in charge whether it was Susan Glanville-Zini the CEO of the Cape 

organisation while I was there and subsequently Mirjam Dik-Asmal or the artistic director Gavin 

Jantjes and to what degree the curators Gabi Ngcobo and myself had any influence in the 

organisation, I also think that these things might not have been as much of an issue if TransCape 

did not represent and if the Cape organisation had not represented the exhibition as the next best 

thing since the 97 biennale. 

38




But more than this I think the issue was that for some strange reason South Africans have 

developed a kind of sniper mentality where people are happy to stay within their caves until they 

see something moving so that they can shoot it down. In the case of the Cape organisation this 

was not so easy to do because there were so many players involved. And we have a culture where 

we always need someone to blame when things go wrong. 

This sniper mentality more than the debate or criticisms of the Johannesburg biennale 

couples with institutional lethargy that it engenders is to blame for the absence of any large-scale 

exhibition between the last biennale and the Cape exhibition. 

On the other hand the continued survival and popularity of events such as the Dakar 

Biennale despite its organisational challenges and something of a ‘false start’ in 1992 indicates 

that the success of large scale exhibitions depends on their staying power than it does on size of 

its splash on its first outing. 

It would seem logical to suppose that the health of a country’s art scene is a good indication of 

the country’s ability to host a biennale. A country like South Africa is a good indication that this 

is clearly not the case. On the other hand a country such as the Senegal has been able to host 

what I would consider a successful biennale despite a relatively less developed art infrastructure 

that of South Africa in terms of art schools, access to resources and museums. 

On the other hand part of the success of Africa Remix was that it already had an established 

reputation and legitimacy at least in the art scene after having toured Europe and Japan. Of 

course one can only take comparisons so far. A biennale demands a different type or organisation 

to a touring exhibition such as Remix and the expectations are also different. Another important 

difference is that while touring exhibitions among them Remix and the Short Century depended 

on established institutions to host them other types of exhibitions have to rely on alternative 

spaces to accommodate them. 

What is similar however is that much of the energy and focus (good or bad) is expended on the 

personality or personalities involved in staging the event, usually in the person of the curator or 

on the patron in the case of the Africa Pavilion at this year’s Venice biennale. While this may in 

part be a necessary part of the marketing of these exhibitions, it may equally deviate attention 

away from the content of the exhibition and a fruitful engagement with the ideas it presents. 

In the very last in the series of panel discussion organised during the run of Africa Remix at 

the Johannesburg Art Gallery Ruth Simbao noted that one of the drawbacks of large-scale 

exhibitions is that they often sacrifice depth for scope. Others have argued that at times it is more 

useful to have fewer artists with more works by each artist as a possible solution to this dilemma. 

In conclusion what I hope that to raise here is the question of how one quantifies the success 

of large-scale exhibitions, especially those that focus on African art and to suggest that this 

success should not be measured solely on its ability to replicate a tried and trusted formula but 

also on the ability of these events to deepen our understanding of contemporary art production. 

Finally I want to urge fellow curators and critics that we should have the courage to seek 

different models of staging and framing exhibitions with the understanding that sometimes we 

will fall flat and get up with egg on our faces. But also with the understanding that this need not 

debilitate us into inaction, suspicion and playing safe. 


39




TALK AND DEMONSTRATION 

Heeten Bhagat 

[Please note that this talk was accompanied by a short film.] 

Good day, 

Please may I ask everyone to please stand up 

The National Gallery of Zimbabwe is dead 

Long live the National Gallery of Zimbabwe. 

The 50 th anniversary of the National Gallery of Zimbabwe [NGZ], celebrated on the 16 th of 

July 2007 posed an interesting conundrum for this institution. Albeit maybe semantic in nature, 

but relevant, we had to ask ourselves, do we want to be 51 or is this a chance to be 0, to start 

again This lead to a very interesting and sometimes quite volatile series of discussions amongst 

the staff at the Gallery, some of whom have worked at the gallery for almost 30 years…... The 

question that kept coming up over and over again was, in the midst of our spectacular and 

excruciating national collapse, 

- Do we actually have a function anymore 

- What is our role in this context of what our country is going through, what is our 

purpose and why art 

The gallery is situated, for those of you who may not know, in the centre of the city, in an 

amazing generally Bauhaus inspired building, that offers more than 1000m 2 of incredible 

exhibition space. We have hundreds of people walk by the gallery each day, on the way to work, 

on the way to appointments, even waiting for people, or having a break near the fountain, all day, 

and yet we have hardly any visitors. Jabulani and Everjoice Public, still, 50 years later find this 

place intimidating, foreign, its lasting legacy of elitism and racial segregation still endure. This 

questioning also coincided with the Gallery’s Jubilee anniversary and as such has had us having 

to conceive of and stage a momentous show to mark and celebrate this incredible milestone 15 . A 

tough call, when one live in an inflationary time of almost 8000% 16 . 

So this gives us some curious licence towards some fortunately radical posturing…. If you can 

excuse this unfortunate cliché, there is another side to this coin…..or kilo dollar 17 , in this 

situation. If we are to see it differently, our current economic, social, political climate places us in 

perhaps the most amazing position,……….to actually re-COGNIZE, to re-MEMBER what we are, 

who we are and why we are. This gave rise to a series of extraordinary interventions all inspired 

and driven by the fact that, if we can find a way to secure our purpose in the depths of this 

demise, finding a way to secure ourselves in the foundation of a want to be new country, then we 

can and know we have a fighting chance. 

15 50 years ago, the Rhodes National Gallery, as it was known then, opened with a momentous show titled “From Picasso 

to Rembrandt” which saw an incredible collection of work lent by European galleries to this newly established gallery in 

Southern Africa. 

16 This is the official rate, unofficially the figure stands closer to 90 000%. Officially as of the 24 th of May, inflation stands 

at over 100 000% with the introduction of a Z$ 10 million dollar note. 

17 In August 2006, The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, under a programme titled “SUNRISE1” declared the new “Kilo Dollar” 

in response to the incredibly high inflation. In effect, all that was done was to “chop” off 3 zeros off the existing currency. 

Therefore Z$ 1000 became Z$ 1. Etc. 

40




The question for us then becomes not so much, 

“What is African art” 

but more importantly 

“WHAT IS ART IN AFRICA” 

and even more locally, “what is art in Zimbabwe” 

This provides us at NGZ a valuable platform to question our practice towards a larger and 

more secure future, a process by which we circumnavigate our own identity through a willing and 

multidimensional lens called art. 

This gives rise to an institutional strategy that is firmly based in realising initially new local 

and then regional audiences for this thing called we call “art”. As an overall strategy this allows 

us a wide berth to explore, in this context, very new initiatives. One for these projects saw us 

printing and distributing a simple A3 poster with the question printed large, “WHAT IS ART” 

These posters were sent out to all corners of the country and encouraged people to send us a 

communication in any form, written, drawn, spoken, sung etc telling us what, in their opinion, 

was “art”. This lead to is receiving several thousand replies from all ages of people, from school 

kids through to elders as to their opinions. This has been a key element in the development of our 

coming exhibition schedule and a way in which we can validate and nurture a public audience for 

the work that is done here. These and other interventions allow also the building of new 

networks with educational establishments, town and city planners, urban regeneration platforms, 

and other arts disciplines, such as film, music and theatre. The idea behind these collaborations 

is to make the work of artists more visible as a daily visual experience, building it to a necessity. 

Art as a necessary experience, art as a social requirement. 

Ekphrastic processes and Dialogue inform the programme of exhibitions at the National 

Gallery of Zimbabwe for the year of 2008. Incorporating the celebration of The Year of Language, 

the list of shows aims to explore valuable and necessary communication the visual arts in 

Zimbabwe can potentially have with: 

- Other arts disciplines such as film, music, dance and the literary arts towards 

stimulating hybrid partnerships, 

- Key cultural organisations, such as The Culture Fund Trust, The Mbira Centre, OCPA 

[Observatory for Cultural Policies in Africa], HIFA etc. 

- Restorative and Peace Building organisations exploring the rehabilitative potential of 

visual arts practice, 

- Educational pARTners, exploring the value of sound and dynamic arts education in 

primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. 

We feel that Zimbabwe sits on the verge of an incredible artistic and cultural explosion, and 

the development and support for the visual arts over the past 50 years and surely taught us and 

prepared us for this stratospheric boost. We have been getting our house in order these past years 

and now, we think we are ready, ready to show, to talk, to argue, to learn, to laugh, to ………..for 

the most part re-connect ourselves with us, with you all, because the results can and will be 

spectacular. 

Thank you very much for your time and attention, 

We promise to respect and reward it handsomely 

Over and above it all, I urge you one thing, do not believe a word of what I have said, rather 

come and experience it for yourself, …….soon. 

We will be waiting, 

Thank you again, 

[The film is to be screened at this point]. 


41




LIST OF SPEAKERS 

Heeten Bhagat 

Curator of the National Gallery of Zimbabwe in Harare. 

Carol Brown 

Independent art curator and Museum consultant, Durban editor for the website Arthrob. 

Pip Curling 

Previously curator of National Gallery of Zimbabwe in Harare, engaged in ongoing research on Franck 

McEwen and the early years of the of National Gallery of Zimbabwe. 

Khwezi Gule 

Curator of contemporary collections at Johannesburg Art Gallery, artist and art critic. 

Harun Harun 

Independent curator and artist. 

Joseph Madisia 

Director of the National Gallery of Namibia. 

Neo Matome 

Works at the University of Botswana. 

William Bwalya Miko 

Artist, curator and culture consultant in Lusaka, Zambia. 

Ramon Tio Bellido 

General Secretary of AICA, freelance art critic and curator. 

42

structuring africa(s): cultural policies and their ... - AICA international

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