PTJ Sep Oct 2010.pdf
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NSCA’s<br />
Issue 9.5<br />
<strong>Sep</strong>t./<strong>Oct</strong>. 10<br />
www.nsca-lift.org<br />
P T<br />
J erformance raining<br />
ournal<br />
Core Training<br />
Features<br />
The Role of the Core<br />
Musculature In<br />
the Three Major<br />
Tennis Strokes<br />
Mark Kovacs, PhD,<br />
CSCS, Pat Etcheberry,<br />
and Dave Ramos, MA<br />
General, Special, and<br />
Specific Core Training<br />
for Baseball Players<br />
David J. Szymanski, PhD,<br />
CSCS,*D
about this<br />
PUBLICATION<br />
NSCA’s Performance Training<br />
Journal (ISSN: 2157-7358) is<br />
a publication of the National<br />
Strength and Conditioning<br />
Association (NSCA). Articles<br />
can be accessed online at<br />
www.nsca-lift.org/perform.<br />
NSCA’s<br />
P erformance T raining<br />
J ournal<br />
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is copyrighted by NSCA.<br />
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Permission to reprint or redistribute<br />
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NSCA Mission<br />
As the worldwide authority on<br />
strength and conditioning, we<br />
support and disseminate research–based<br />
knowledge and<br />
its practical application, to improve<br />
athletic performance and<br />
fitness.<br />
Talk to us…<br />
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The views stated in the NSCA’s<br />
Performance Training Journal<br />
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positions of the NSCA.<br />
Editorial Office<br />
1885 Bob Johnson Drive<br />
Colorado Springs, Colorado 80906<br />
Phone: +1 719-632-6722<br />
Editor<br />
T. Jeff Chandler, EdD,<br />
CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D, FNSCA<br />
email: jchandler@jsu.edu<br />
Managing Editor<br />
Britt Chandler, MS,<br />
CSCS,*D, NSCA-CPT,*D<br />
email:chandler.britt@att.net<br />
Publisher<br />
Keith Cinea, MA, CSCS,*D,<br />
NSCA-CPT,*D<br />
email: kcinea@nsca-lift.org<br />
Copy Editor<br />
Matthew Sandstead<br />
email: msandstead@nsca-lift.org<br />
Editorial Review Panel<br />
Scott Cheatham DPT, OCS, ATC,<br />
CSCS, NSCA-CPT<br />
Jay Dawes, MS, CSCS,*D,<br />
NSCA-CPT,*D, FNSCA<br />
Greg Frounfelter, DPT, ATC, CSCS<br />
Paul Goodman, MS, CSCS<br />
Meredith Hale-Griffin, MS, CSCS<br />
Michael Hartman, PhD, CSCS<br />
Mark S. Kovacs, CSCS<br />
David Pollitt, CSCS,*D<br />
Matthew Rhea, PhD, CSCS<br />
Mike Rickett, MS, CSCS<br />
David Sandler, MS, CSCS,*D<br />
Brian K. Schilling, PhD, CSCS<br />
Mark Stephenson, ATC, CSCS,*D<br />
David J Szymanski, PhD, CSCS<br />
Chad D. Touchberry, PhD, CSCS<br />
Randall Walton, CSCS<br />
Joseph M. Warpeha, MA, CSCS,*D,<br />
NSCA-CPT,*D<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5<br />
2
table of<br />
CONTENTS<br />
8<br />
4<br />
7<br />
17<br />
core training<br />
The Role of the Core Musculature In<br />
the Three Major Tennis Strokes<br />
Mark Kovacs, PhD, CSCS, Pat<br />
Etcheberry, and Dave Ramos, MA<br />
Core training is essential for excelling on<br />
the tennis court. This article examines<br />
the importance of core strength through<br />
the three major strokes in tennis and<br />
offers suggestions on how to improve<br />
performance by providing examples of<br />
exercises that could be included into a<br />
tennis player’s strength and conditioning<br />
program.<br />
departments<br />
Fitness Frontlines<br />
G. Gregory Haff, PhD, CSCS,*D, FNSCA<br />
This article examines three recently-conducted<br />
studies that included the effects<br />
of high-intensity interval training on the<br />
muscles of well-trained runners, the effectiveness<br />
of aquatic resistance training on<br />
mobility after knee surgery and the effects<br />
a carbohydrate-reduced, energy-restricted<br />
diet has on preserving muscle mass.<br />
In the Gym<br />
Heavy Resistance Instead of High<br />
Repetition for Six-Pack Abs<br />
Kyle Brown, CSCS<br />
This article debunks myths about training<br />
the abdominals and offers advice on how<br />
to properly train for six-pack abs.<br />
Training Table<br />
Measuring Hydration Status<br />
in Athletes<br />
Debra Wein, MS, RD, LDN, CSSD,<br />
NSCA-CPT,*D and Caitlin O. Riley<br />
When participating in sports or physical<br />
activity, your body loses water. This article<br />
will discuss how to monitor hydration<br />
status during those activities along with<br />
methods to properly rehydrate your body.<br />
13<br />
15<br />
22<br />
General, Special, and Specifi c Core<br />
Training for Baseball Players<br />
David J. Szymanski, PhD, CSCS,*D<br />
Baseball is a sport based upon explosive<br />
and dynamic movements across all<br />
planes. This article discusses the importance<br />
of training the core through all<br />
planes and the effect it has when coupled<br />
with a baseball-specific training program.<br />
Ounce Of Prevention<br />
Develop Power and Core Strength<br />
with Kettlebell Exercises<br />
Jason Brumitt, MSPT,<br />
SCS, ATC/R, CSCS*D<br />
Explosive power is pivotal in the success<br />
or failure in many sports. The kettlebell is<br />
an excellent tool in developing strength<br />
and explosive power for success in any<br />
competition. This article offers multiple<br />
exercises that can be implemented into a<br />
training program to improve strength and<br />
power.<br />
Mind Games<br />
Being Effortful<br />
Suzie Tuffey-Riewald, PhD, NSCA-CPT<br />
This article attempts to uncover steps to<br />
increase motivation and minimize days of<br />
training that lack effort and drive.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5<br />
3
fi tness<br />
frontlines<br />
G. Gregory Haff, PhD, CSCS, FNSCA<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
G. Gregory Haff is an<br />
assistant professor<br />
in the Division of<br />
Exercise Physiology at<br />
the Medical School at<br />
West Virginia University<br />
in Morgantown, WV.<br />
He is a Fellow of the<br />
National Strength<br />
and Conditioning<br />
Association. Dr.<br />
Haff received the<br />
National Strength<br />
and Conditioning<br />
Association’s Young<br />
Investigator Award<br />
in 2001.<br />
High-Intensity Exercise Preserves<br />
Muscle Mass When Undertaken In<br />
Conjunction with a Carbohydrate-<br />
Reduced, Energy-Restricted Diet<br />
Obesity has become a major problem worldwide and is<br />
considered to be a major predictor of morbidity. Additionally,<br />
an increase in visceral fat depositions has been linked<br />
to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Diets which provide<br />
high glycemic loads that are coupled with sedentary<br />
lifestyles have been linked to impaired glucose homeostasis<br />
and fat oxidation.<br />
One proposed method for reducing glycemic loads is to<br />
employ a diet low in carbohydrates. This practice has been<br />
shown to reduce fasting insulin and glucose levels, while<br />
increasing insulin sensitivity, which is typically suppressed<br />
in obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. From an exercise<br />
perspective, the use of high-intensity interval exercise<br />
has been shown to decrease muscle glycogen stores,<br />
while increasing oxidative capacity and improving insulin<br />
sensitivity. There are however, very few studies which examine<br />
both carbohydrate-restricted diets and high-intensity<br />
interval exercise.<br />
To address this, a recent study performed by Sartor and<br />
colleagues examined the effects of 14 days of carbohydrate-restricted<br />
diets coupled with high-intensity interval<br />
training. Nineteen subjects participated in this investigation<br />
with 10 subjects being placed in a carbohydrate-restricted<br />
diet coupled with high-intensity interval training<br />
and nine subjects only undertaking a carbohydrate-restricted<br />
diet. The carbohydrate-restricted diet required<br />
subjects to consume ~147 – 163g of carbohydrates per<br />
day, effectively reducing their carbohydrate intake from<br />
54% of their total calories at baseline testing to 35% during<br />
the two-week intervention. Additionally, their caloric<br />
intake was decreased by ~500kcals over the course of the<br />
two-week study. The diet and exercise group performed<br />
up to 10 four-minute bouts of cycle exercise at 90% of VOpeak<br />
(maximal aerobic power) separated by 2 – 3 minutes<br />
2<br />
of rest.<br />
Prior to the two-week intervention, subjects participated<br />
in VO2peak assessment to determine their maximal aerobic<br />
power and oral glucose tolerance test, a resting glucose<br />
and insulin test, a measurement of resting energy<br />
expenditure, and a determination of their resting muscle<br />
glycogen levels. After the two-week intervention the same<br />
tests were repeated. Both groups demonstrated significant<br />
increases in oral glucose insulin sensitivity, reductions<br />
in their fasting expiratory exchange ratio, improvements<br />
in lipid profiles, and a reduction in leptin levels. Only the<br />
combination of high-intensity interval training and carbohydrate<br />
restriction resulted in significant increases in<br />
maximal aerobic power and maintenance of lean body<br />
mass. Based upon these findings, the authors concluded<br />
that energy-restricted diets and/or carbohydrate-restriction<br />
results in a reduction of risk factors for obese type 2<br />
diabetic individuals over a relatively short period of time.<br />
Additionally, the inclusion of high-intensity exercise interventions<br />
with carbohydrate and caloric restriction helped<br />
to improve aerobic power and preserve lean body mass.<br />
While this study offers promising and interesting results,<br />
the author points out that a longer research intervention<br />
is necessary to elucidate the health benefits of combining<br />
high-intensity interval training with carbohydrate and<br />
caloric restriction.<br />
Sartor, F, De Morree HM, Matschke, V, Marcora, SM,<br />
Milousis, A, Thom, JM, and Kubis, HP. High-intensity<br />
exercise and carbohydrate-reduced energy-restricted diet<br />
in obese individuals. Eur J Appl Physiol (ahead of print).<br />
How Do the Muscles of Well-Trained<br />
Runners Respond to High-Intensity<br />
Interval Training<br />
Traditionally, endurance runners are thought to have an<br />
abundance of fiber area occupied by type I muscle fibers<br />
and some fast type IIa fibers comprising a small amount of<br />
fiber area. However, recent research has reported a much<br />
higher type IIa muscle fiber area as well as a higher lactate<br />
dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in these types of athletes<br />
than previously thought.<br />
Since LDH plays a role in lactate control and as lactate<br />
has recently been shown to be related to metabolic responses<br />
to exercise, these findings are particularly interesting.<br />
From a training perspective, high-intensity interval<br />
training plays a large role in the development of endurance<br />
athletes, as this type of training has been shown to<br />
result in significant improvements in performance as well<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 4
fi tness frontlines<br />
as stimulate specific changes to maximal oxygen consumption. While the<br />
effects of high-intensity interval exercise have been widely investigated,<br />
very little research has been completed looking at its effects on intramuscular<br />
metabolic or fiber type adaptations.<br />
To address this issue, Kohn and colleagues recently examined the effects<br />
of six weeks of high-intensity interval training on muscular adaptations of<br />
10 highly trained endurance athletes. Prior to the training portion of the<br />
study, each subject underwent a maximal aerobic power or VO2max test.<br />
During this test, the peak treadmill speed that the subject could run at for<br />
30 seconds was determined and subjects then ran at this speed until exhaustion<br />
in order to determine their Tmax or time at maximum. Additionally,<br />
a submaximal treadmill test was used which corresponded to 64%,<br />
72%, and 80% of peak treadmill speed. During this test lactate levels were<br />
assessed. Muscle biopsies were also taken before the initiation of the study<br />
in order to examine muscle morphology, myosin heavy chain content, single<br />
fiber identification, and an analysis of enzymatic activity. Specifically,<br />
isocitrate dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyacetyl CoA dehydrogenase, and LDH<br />
activity were measured.<br />
The interval training intervention required subjects to run six intervals at<br />
94% of their maximal treadmill speed for 60% of their Tmax time with a<br />
half of their 60% Tmax as their recovery between efforts. This training was<br />
undertaken for six weeks. After six weeks of training the subjects peak<br />
treadmill speed increased and their lactate production during at 64% and<br />
84% peak treadmill speed decreased markedly. There was a slight nonstatistically<br />
significant decrease in type II muscle fiber size and no changes<br />
to maximal aerobic power, muscle fiber type, capillary supply, citrate<br />
synthase activity, and 3-hydroxyacetyl CoA dehydrogenase activity. LDH<br />
activity was increased significantly and was correlated to interval training<br />
speed, suggesting that those who ran at higher speeds had a greater<br />
increase in LDH activity. Overall, this novel data suggests that in highly<br />
trained runners, the primary adaptation to high-intensity interval training<br />
is related to improvements in lactate metabolism and not elevations in<br />
oxidative enzyme activities. Further research is needed in order to further<br />
understand the effects of this type of training in elite endurance athletes.<br />
Kohn, TA, Essen-Gustavsson, B, and Myburgh, KH. Specifi c muscle<br />
adaptations in type II fi bers after high-intensity interval training of welltrained<br />
runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports (ahead of print).<br />
Aquatic Resistance Training ImprovesMobility<br />
and Lower Limb Function after a Knee<br />
Replacement<br />
When individuals have knee replacement surgery there is a reduction in<br />
their ability to perform power and strength-based tasks with their lower<br />
body. Specifically, reductions in the ability to walk, ascend or descend<br />
stairs, and engage in other activities of daily living can occur. Impairments<br />
in these abilities appear to be related to reductions in knee extensor and<br />
flexor strength that can persist long after the surgery has been completed.<br />
Recently, aquatic exercise has been suggested as a training modality for<br />
people with knee or hip osteoarthritis. Individuals who have had knee replacement<br />
surgery may benefit from an aquatic exercise program.<br />
Recently, Valtonen and colleagues examined the effects of 12 weeks of<br />
aquatic resistance training on mobility, muscle power and muscle cross<br />
sectional area in a group of 50 older adults who had had knee replacement<br />
surgery. Subjects in the study had to be 4 – 18 months removed from knee<br />
replacement surgery and be between the ages of 55 – 74 years of age. Two<br />
intervention groups were formed, with one group performing no exercise<br />
and the other engaging in the aquatic resistance training program. Prior<br />
to and after the completion of the intervention the subjects were assessed<br />
for walking speed, stair climbing ability, and self reported functional difficulty,<br />
pain, and stiffness. Leg extension and flexor strength was assessed<br />
with the use of an isokinetic dynamometer, while the leg muscle cross sectional<br />
area was measured with the use of computed tomography.<br />
After the 12-week study, the aquatic resistance training group demonstrated<br />
a 9% increase in walking speed and a 15% reduction in stair climbing<br />
time. These positive performance changes occurred in conjunction with a<br />
32% increase in leg extensor power for the leg which contained the knee<br />
replacement and 10% increase in the leg which was not operated on. Additionally,<br />
the operated leg demonstrated a 48% increase in flexor power,<br />
while the non-operated leg increased by 8%. Finally, the cross sectional<br />
area of the surgically repaired leg was increased by 3% and the non-operated<br />
leg increased by 2% when compared to controls. Overall, the study<br />
suggests that aquatic resistance training offers a positive stimulus for adaptations<br />
that translates into functional performance in individuals who<br />
have recently undergone knee replacement surgery.<br />
Valtonen, A, Poyhonen, T,Sipila, S, and Heinonen, A. Effects of aquatic<br />
resistance training on mobility limitation and lower-limb impairments after<br />
knee replacement. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 91:833 – 839. 2010.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 5
fi tness frontlines<br />
Does the addition of Sport-Related Physical<br />
Training (SRPT) to Military Basic Training<br />
Improve Performance<br />
Basic training practices conducted by the military are complex and demanding<br />
undertakings. Core to the basic training philosophy is to improve<br />
the overall physical fitness of the military operator so that they can engage<br />
in lifting or carrying tasks with heavy loads which challenge both endurance<br />
and strength. One potential method for improving performance outcomes<br />
associated with basic training may be the inclusion of sport-related<br />
physical training (SRPT) such as strength training, Nordic walking, cycling,<br />
running, and other sporting activities. Currently, there is very little research<br />
exploring the effects of including these types of activities in the basic training<br />
model.<br />
To address the lack of literature exploring this area, researchers from Finland<br />
conducted a research investigation that examined the effect of eight<br />
weeks of basic training which contained various training modalities on<br />
performance and acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses. A total of<br />
72 male conscripts volunteered for participation in this investigation and<br />
were divided into one of three training interventions. The three training<br />
groups consisted of normal basic training (NT), basic training with added<br />
resistance training (ST), or basic training with added endurance training<br />
(ET). All groups completed 300 hours of military training which contained<br />
combat simulations and marching with a load of 12 – 25kg. Additionally,<br />
marksmanship training, material handling and general military and theoretical<br />
educational training were performed. The ST group also participated<br />
in a periodized resistance training program which employed circuit<br />
training.<br />
The program consisted of three weeks of preparatory training 2 – 3 sets of<br />
10 – 15 repetitions at 60 –70% of 1-RM or 2 – 3 sets of 20 – 40 repetitions<br />
at 30 – 50% of 1-RM. During week 4 – 5 subjects performed 2 – 4 sets of<br />
6 – 10 repetitions with 60 – 80% of 1-RM. Finally, during weeks 6 – 8 subjects<br />
performed 5 – 7 sets of 1 – 6 repetitions at 80 –100% of 1-RM. The ET<br />
group also participated in additional training with the inclusion of three<br />
60 – 90 minute endurance training sessions per week for a total of 51 additional<br />
hours of training. Performance measures included a 3K loaded combat<br />
run test in which each soldier carried a 14.2kg sack which represented<br />
about 19.2% of their body weight and a maximal isometric force test. After<br />
eight weeks of preparation all groups increased their run performance ST<br />
(12.4%) >ET(11.6%)>NT(10.2%) and demonstrated significant decreases in<br />
maximal leg extensor forces following the run. Overall, it was noted that<br />
while ST improved run performance its adaptive potential was compromised<br />
by the rigors of basic training. It is likely that the lack of integration<br />
of the training activity and the periodization model chosen partially explains<br />
these findings. Further research on this topic is warranted in order<br />
to elucidate the optimal basic training milieu. •<br />
Santtila, M, Hakkinen, K, Kraemer, WJ, and Kyrolainen, H. Effects of basic<br />
training on acute physiological responses to a combat loaded run test. Mil<br />
Med 175:273 – 279. 2010.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 6
in the gym<br />
Kyle Brown, CSCS<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
Kyle Brown is a health<br />
and fitness expert<br />
whose portfolio<br />
includes everything<br />
from leading<br />
workshops for Fortune<br />
500 companies and<br />
publishing nutrition<br />
articles in top-ranked<br />
fitness journals, to<br />
training celebrity<br />
clientele—from pro<br />
athletes to CEOs<br />
to multiplatinum<br />
recording artists. Kyle’s<br />
unique approach to<br />
health and fitness<br />
emphasizes nutrition<br />
and supplementation<br />
as the foundation for<br />
optimal wellness. After<br />
playing water polo<br />
for Indiana University,<br />
as well as in London,<br />
Kyle became involved<br />
in bodybuilding and<br />
fitness for sportspecific<br />
training. Kyle<br />
is the creator and Chief<br />
Operating Officer for<br />
FIT 365—Complete<br />
Nutritional Shake<br />
(www.fit365.com).<br />
Heavy Resistance Instead<br />
of High Repetition for<br />
Six-Pack Abs<br />
While mainstream fitness enthusiasts have progressed in<br />
the gym—incorporating balance and stability exercises to<br />
strengthen their core—most are still hung up on doing<br />
hundreds of sit-ups or crunches everyday to lose belly fat<br />
and get six-pack abs. They often fall victim to two wellmarketed<br />
myths: 1) You can reduce belly fat by training<br />
your abdominals and 2) Abdominals should be trained<br />
differently than the other muscles in your body. The truth<br />
is that your abdominals apply to the same scientific principles<br />
of every other muscle group in your body.<br />
Many people still believe the outdated fitness myth that if<br />
they do crunches with high-repetition and low-resistance<br />
every day, they can reduce abdominal fat. The erroneous<br />
belief behind fat reduction is that if you train a muscle<br />
that is covered by body fat, the fat will go away, turn into<br />
muscle, and get “toned.” Contrary to popular belief, there<br />
is no way to reduce only abdominal fat with abdominal<br />
training exercises. If you could, everyone who chewed<br />
bubble gum would have skinny faces.<br />
The other myth is that abdominals should be trained differently<br />
than other muscles in the body and do not apply<br />
to the same scientific principles. Many believe that<br />
abdominal muscles should be trained everyday with high<br />
repetition sets and no resistance. One main reason why<br />
people, especially women, do not use resistance when<br />
training their abdominals is because they do not want to<br />
get too muscular. They want to “tone” their muscles not<br />
build muscle. Yet, there is no such thing as toning a muscle.<br />
It is an erroneously used marketing term that helps<br />
sell magazines and exercise equipment. Muscles can either<br />
hypertrophy (grow) or atrophy (shrink). This applies<br />
to all muscles, including the abdominals.<br />
the overload principle. The human body is involved in a<br />
constant process of adapting to stresses or lack of stresses<br />
placed upon it. When you stress the body in a manner it is<br />
unaccustomed to (overload), the body will react by causing<br />
physiological changes (adaptation) to be able to handle<br />
that stress in a better way the next time it occurs (1).<br />
These concepts make sense to the average fitness enthusiast<br />
when it comes to training other muscle groups;<br />
i.e., they would not expect their arms to look any better if<br />
they performed 300 curls with a broomstick seven days a<br />
week. Therefore, strength training 2 – 3 times a week, with<br />
moderate to heavy resistance, moderate repetitions, rest<br />
in between and a variety of exercises to target different<br />
areas applies to the abdominals as well as all other muscle<br />
groups. For example, cable crunches on a resistance<br />
ball, cable rope crunches, hanging abdominal raises with<br />
dumbbell between legs, cable rotations, and seated abdominal<br />
crunches are the types of exercises that will yield<br />
the desired results. •<br />
References<br />
1. McArdle, WD, Katch, FI, and Katch, VL. (2000).<br />
Essentials of exercise physiology (2nd ed.). Baltimore:<br />
Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.<br />
The purpose behind training the abdominal muscles with<br />
resistance is to stress them to the point where they must<br />
adapt to meet the unaccustomed demands. This is called<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 7
feature<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
Mark Kovacs, PhD,<br />
CSCS is the Senior<br />
Manager of Coaching<br />
Education, Sport<br />
Science/Strength<br />
& Conditioning for<br />
the United States<br />
Tennis Association<br />
Player Development<br />
Incorporated. He<br />
was previously was a<br />
full-time strength and<br />
conditioning coach<br />
and former university<br />
professor.<br />
David A. Ramos,<br />
M.A. is a Coordinator<br />
of Sport Science/<br />
Coaching Education<br />
for the United States<br />
Tennis Association<br />
Player Development<br />
Incorporated. He<br />
is a USPTA/PTR<br />
professional with 20<br />
years of experience<br />
specializing in video<br />
analysis.<br />
Pat Etcheberry, M.A.<br />
is the Director of the<br />
Etcheberry Sports<br />
Performance Division<br />
at the Mission Inn<br />
Resort, where he<br />
develops both worldclass<br />
professionals and<br />
aspiring athletes.<br />
Mark Kovacs, PhD, CSCS, Pat Etcheberry, and Dave Ramos, MA<br />
core training<br />
The Role of the Core<br />
Musculature In the Three<br />
Major Tennis Strokes:<br />
Serve, Forehand and Backhand<br />
Tennis players, like athletes in most ground-based sports,<br />
utilize the core/torso extensively throughout all movements<br />
on the court, but specifically during each tennis<br />
stroke. This article will highlight the three major tennis<br />
strokes—serve, forehand and backhand—with specific<br />
emphasis on the core/torso involvement in each of these<br />
strokes followed by exercises that are specifically intended<br />
to improve stroke performance on the court.<br />
Typically the major core muscles include the following:<br />
transversus abdominis, multifidus, internal and external<br />
obliques, rectus abdominis, erector spinae. However, other<br />
muscles in the hips and torso also contribute to core<br />
stability and due to the dynamic multi-planar movements<br />
of tennis, the core must be considered the link between<br />
the lower and upper body and not simply individual muscles.<br />
Tennis Serve<br />
The core muscles are highly utilized in the service motion<br />
of all tennis players. The loading stage of the service motion<br />
(Figure 1) results in horizontal twisting of the trunk<br />
(in the transverse plane) which elicits a stretch-shortening<br />
cycle response with muscles of the trunk (3). For a right<br />
handed player this would predominately involve the storage<br />
of potential energy (via eccentric contractions) of the<br />
left oblique muscles, left erector spinae and multifidus.<br />
During this position, sometimes referred to as the rear lateral<br />
tilt, the shoulders and the hips are tilted down and<br />
away from the net. This is the major stage where power is<br />
stored during the serve (i.e., loading stage).<br />
In the shoulder cocking stage of the serve (Figure 2) the<br />
leg drive has commenced and rotation occurs in the<br />
sagittal plane. Some coaches have a misconception that<br />
tennis players only need to train in transverse and sagittal<br />
planes. It is important to highlight the need to also<br />
include ample lateral trunk flexion training (3). It is also<br />
important to note that research has shown a strength imbalance<br />
in competitive tennis players between the anterior<br />
(abdominals) and posterior (lower back) muscles (5).<br />
Forehand<br />
The forehand typically has four major variations of stances:<br />
open, semi-open, square and closed (Figure 3). It must<br />
be understood that these forehand stances are situation<br />
specific, time specific and all use a combination of linear<br />
and angular momentum to power the stroke (4).<br />
The loading position on the forehand varies slightly between<br />
the four different foot positions. However, the<br />
obliques (internal and external) are eccentrically contracted<br />
during the loading stage of the stroke and the trunk is<br />
required to rotate significantly around the pelvis to store<br />
the potential energy which will be released during the remainder<br />
of the forehand stroke.<br />
The follow-through after ball contact requires eccentric<br />
strength especially in posterior muscles of the core (i.e.,<br />
multifidus and erector spinae) and this is an area that typically<br />
receives less training and needs to be fully trained<br />
and considered when planning tennis-specific training<br />
sessions (1).<br />
Backhand<br />
The backhand is performed in a very similar manner to<br />
the forehand stroke, just on the opposite side of the body<br />
(i.e., left side of the body for a right-handed player). The<br />
four stances are utilized, but more preference is usually<br />
given to the square and semi-open stances (Figure 4). The<br />
open-stance backhand is usually used on wide balls when<br />
the athlete has very limited time. The majority of male<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 8
Core Training<br />
Figure 1. Loading stage of the serve Figure 2. Cocking stage of the serve Figure 3. The Four Major Forehand Stances<br />
(1. Semi-Open, 2. Open, 3. Square, 4. Closed)<br />
and female players now utilize a two-handed<br />
grip on the backhand stroke as opposed to a<br />
single-handed grip. There are differences in the<br />
core/trunk utilization between the one and twohanded<br />
backhands. Greater upper trunk rotation<br />
has been observed in two-handed backhands<br />
than in one-handed backhands and this needs<br />
to be trained appropriately based on whether<br />
the athlete utilizes a one-handed or two-handed<br />
backhand stroke (2).<br />
Conclusion<br />
Backhand and forehand tennis strokes, as well<br />
as most movements on the tennis court, incorporate<br />
use of the core. So a weak core could be<br />
detrimental to the performance of an athlete if<br />
not addressed in their workout program. Included<br />
in this article are examples of tennis-specific<br />
core exercises that could be included in a tennis<br />
player’s workout program to help improve core<br />
strength and stability. •<br />
Figure 4. Two Major Backhand Stances: 1. Square, 2. Semi-Open<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 9
Core Training<br />
References<br />
1. Kovacs M, Chandler WB, and Chandler<br />
TJ. Tennis Training: Enhancing On-Court<br />
Performance. Vista, CA: Racquet Tech<br />
Publishing; 2007.<br />
2. Reid M, Elliott B. The one- and two-handed<br />
backhand in tennis. Sport Biomech. 2002;1:47<br />
– 68.<br />
3. Roetert EP, Ellenbecker TS, and Reid M.<br />
Biomechanics of the tennis serve: implications<br />
for strength training. Strength and Conditioning<br />
Journal. 2009;31(4):35 – 40.<br />
4. Roetert EP, Kovacs MS, Knudson D, and<br />
Groppel JL. Biomechanics of the tennis<br />
groundstrokes: implications for strength training.<br />
Strength and Conditioning Journal. 2009;31(4):41<br />
– 49.<br />
5a. 5b.<br />
5. Roetert EP, McCormick T, Brown SW, and<br />
Ellenbecker TS. Relationship between isokinetic<br />
and functional trunk strength in elite junior tennis<br />
players. Isokinet Exerc Sci. 1996;6:15 – 30.<br />
5c. 5d.<br />
Figures 5a – d. Serve-Specific Medicine Ball Exercise, Rotational Overhead Medicine Ball Service Throw<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 10
Core Training<br />
6a. 6b.<br />
6c. 6d.<br />
Figures 6a – d. Forehand-Specific Medicine Ball Exercise, Single-Leg (Right Leg) Medicine Ball Catch and Throw<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 11
Core Training<br />
7a. 7b.<br />
7c. 7d<br />
Figures 7a – d. Backhand-Specific Medicine Ball Exercise, Single-Leg (Left Leg) Medicine Ball Catch and Throw<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 12
feature<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
David J. Szymanski,<br />
PhD, CSCS,*D, is an<br />
Assistant Professor of<br />
exercise physiology,<br />
Director of the Applied<br />
Physiology Laboratory,<br />
and the Head Strength<br />
& Conditioning Coach<br />
for the Baseball<br />
team at Louisiana<br />
Tech University.<br />
Dr. Szymanski is a<br />
Certified Strength and<br />
Conditioning Specialist<br />
with Distinction and<br />
a Registered Coach<br />
with the NSCA. In<br />
1997, he was apart of<br />
the Auburn baseball<br />
team that went to<br />
the NCAA College<br />
World Series. Before<br />
attending Auburn<br />
University, where he<br />
earned a doctorate in<br />
exercise physiology,<br />
Dr. Szymanski was<br />
the Assistant Baseball<br />
Coach and Weight<br />
Room Director at Texas<br />
Lutheran University for<br />
5 years. His primary<br />
research has focused<br />
on ways to improve<br />
baseball performance.<br />
Dr. Szymanski can<br />
be contacted at<br />
dszyman@latech.edu.<br />
General, Special, and<br />
Specific Core Training<br />
for Baseball Players<br />
David J. Szymanski, PhD, CSCS,*D<br />
When conditioning baseball players, the importance of<br />
core training and its effect on improving performance<br />
should be emphasized. Core training predominantly<br />
consists of torso or trunk (rectus abdominus, external<br />
obliques, internal obliques, and transverse abdominus)<br />
training, but also includes the stabilizing muscles of the<br />
hips, lumbar, thoracic, and cervical spine. When designing<br />
a baseball-specific core exercise program, a variety of<br />
exercises requiring the athlete to move dynamically in all<br />
three planes (frontal, sagittal, and transverse) of human<br />
movement should be included. Frontal plane movements<br />
involve lateral flexion and bending on both sides of the<br />
body. Sagittal plane movements involve flexion and extension<br />
of the trunk in forward and backward movements.<br />
Transverse plane movements involve rotation or twisting<br />
on both sides of the body.<br />
Baseball movements occur through sequential, coordinated<br />
muscle contractions that require timing and balance.<br />
The system by which this occurs is called the kinetic<br />
link. If the multi-planar human movements are not coordinated<br />
to allow the forces generated from the lower<br />
body to be transferred through the torso to the arms, then<br />
baseball performance (hitting and throwing) will not be<br />
optimal. It is often said that the weak link in the human<br />
body is the torso since it may not be trained properly, or<br />
sport-specifically. If training for the torso is not geared at<br />
developing core strength and power in hitting and throwing,<br />
a player’s performance may not be optimal and there<br />
may be a greater likelihood of sustaining an injury. Torso<br />
contributions are vital for both the execution of high bat<br />
swing and throwing velocities, and for improving bat<br />
swing and throwing velocities within individual players.<br />
Thus, enhancing core performance utilizing strength and<br />
power training should maintain and may even improve<br />
bat swing and throwing velocities depending on the maturation,<br />
initial strength, resistance training experience,<br />
and baseball skills of individual players.<br />
core training<br />
There are four different phases of an annual periodized<br />
program. They are off-season, preseason, in-season, and<br />
active rest. Off-season and preseason core training will be<br />
addressed in this article for the baseball player. In order<br />
to improve core performance, strength training professionals<br />
can implement general, special, and specific exercises<br />
into a progressive periodized program. Progression<br />
means incorporating movements from simple to complex,<br />
known to unknown, low force to high force, static to<br />
dynamic, lying to sitting, kneeling to standing, and on two<br />
legs to standing on one leg.<br />
General core exercises would be traditional abdominal,<br />
oblique, lower back exercises, pillar bridges, and some<br />
lower body multi-joint exercises. Traditional trunk exercises<br />
are routinely performed slowly with greater volume<br />
during the off-season when athletes are attempting to<br />
develop core muscular endurance and hypertrophy. As<br />
the off-season progresses towards the preseason, traditional<br />
trunk exercises are performed with resistance to<br />
develop muscular strength. Pillar bridge exercises require<br />
an athlete to isometrically stabilize the trunk in prone or<br />
lateral positions. Furthermore, multi-joint resistance training<br />
exercises such as the squat, good mornings and deadlifts<br />
can improve core strength. The activation of trunk<br />
muscles while executing a squat or deadlift exercise may<br />
be greater or equal to is the activation produced during<br />
stability ball exercises. Stability exercises, such as pillar<br />
bridges, may not need to be performed if athletes are<br />
squatting and deadlifting with loads greater than 80% of<br />
their 1-repetition maximum. An example of the first two<br />
weeks of a six-week general trunk exercise program can<br />
be found in Table 1. An example of the first two weeks of<br />
a six-week general weighted trunk exercise program can<br />
be found in Table 2.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 13
Core Training<br />
Table 1. General Trunk Exercises (6 weeks) • Microcycle 1 (2 weeks)<br />
Day Exercise Sets x Repetitions<br />
1 Side Crunch 2 x 15<br />
Reverse Crunch 2 x 20<br />
Regular Crunch 2 x 25<br />
Back Extension 2 x 15<br />
2 Side Bridge, Right Side 2 x 30 sec.<br />
Side Bridge, Left Side<br />
2 x 30 sec.<br />
Prone Pillar Bridge<br />
2 x 30 sec.<br />
3 Alternate Arm and Leg Raise 2 x 15<br />
Superman 2 x 15<br />
Double Ab Crunch 2 x 20<br />
The main focus is muscular endurance. Perform all exercises consecutively for first set without rest. Rest period is 60 sec between sets. Microcycles 2 and 3 make<br />
up the next 4 weeks (2-week cycles within the 6 week mesocycle). Increase repetitions by 5 or 5 seconds each 2-week microcycle.<br />
Special core exercises would include powerful<br />
rotational medicine ball exercises performed in<br />
all three planes where an athlete either holds<br />
onto the medicine ball or throws it with two<br />
hands as hard as possible with a greater range<br />
of motion (ROM) than traditional trunk exercises.<br />
Special medicine ball exercises can be introduced<br />
once trunk strength improves during the<br />
mid to late off-season and further progressed<br />
into the preseason. Special medicine ball exercises<br />
can be executed as chopping, twisting, or<br />
throwing movements that progress from seated<br />
to kneeling and up to standing. The exercises<br />
can be advanced even further by performing the<br />
movements standing on one leg.<br />
Progression of medicine ball training can be<br />
manipulated by the number of sets, repetitions,<br />
exercises, or by the mass of the ball. Since one of<br />
the training goals of the preseason is to improve<br />
power for a baseball player, the variable of intensity<br />
should be addressed. This means that programs<br />
should focus primarily on adjusting the<br />
mass of the medicine ball. To increase power, one<br />
should develop strength first, then transition to<br />
power development. This can be accomplished<br />
by increasing the mass of the medicine ball (2,<br />
3, 4, 5kg) during the latter part of the off-season<br />
before decreasing the mass of the medicine ball<br />
(4, 3, 2kg) during mid-preseason in an attempt<br />
to accelerate the ball as fast as possible. Special<br />
medicine ball exercises can be performed either<br />
two or three times a week but more is not better.<br />
An example of a non-throwing seated and standing<br />
medicine ball routine can be found in Table<br />
3. An example of a two-arm standing throwing<br />
medicine ball program can be found in Table 4.<br />
Specific core exercises for throwing would be<br />
double and single-arm medicine ball exercises<br />
that replicate throwing or the pitching motion,<br />
while specific core exercises for position players<br />
would be double-arm medicine ball exercises<br />
and swinging over and underweighted bats<br />
that mimic the movements and acceleration<br />
patterns of throwing and hitting. Increases in<br />
thrown ball velocity within pitchers may be due<br />
to pelvis and upper torso velocities. Theoretically,<br />
increased pelvis and upper torso velocities<br />
would allow more energy to be transferred from<br />
the trunk to the arms and eventually to the ball,<br />
which will lead to an increase in thrown ball velocity.<br />
Specific training that focuses on improving<br />
both ROM and velocities of the core would<br />
seem to be important for augmenting throwing<br />
velocities. Professional baseball hitters logically<br />
should generate higher bat swing velocities<br />
than college and high school baseball players.<br />
This would mean that their hips and shoulders<br />
are moving at higher angular velocities than the<br />
younger, less experienced hitters. If specific core<br />
exercises could be implemented into a training<br />
program that would demonstrate similar ROM<br />
and velocities as produced in hitting, bat swing<br />
velocity could be increased. Examples of specific<br />
core exercises for pitchers and position players<br />
can be found in Tables 5 and 6.<br />
In Table 6, Day 2 position players will take one<br />
set of 10 swings with the heavy, light, and standard<br />
bat before resting. Then, they will repeat<br />
this sequence four more times. This will total<br />
150 swings per day, 50 with the heavy, light, and<br />
standard baseball bat. Then the next two weeks<br />
will use the sequence of 32, 28, and 30oz bats.<br />
In the final two weeks, players will swing the 33,<br />
27, 30oz bats.<br />
To optimize the contribution of the core in hitting<br />
and throwing, baseball players must be<br />
able to effectively use energy produced by the<br />
lower body and core musculature and optimally<br />
transfer it through their upper body. Maintaining<br />
a strong and powerful core may decrease<br />
the forces placed upon the muscles and joints of<br />
the throwing arm and lumbar region that aid in<br />
the production of throwing and bat swing velocity,<br />
especially if players have good throwing and<br />
hitting mechanics. This may also decrease the<br />
chances of sustaining an injury. Optimal training<br />
of core musculature should focus on increasing<br />
ROM, muscular endurance, strength, and power.<br />
Increased forces generated by core musculature<br />
will likely produce higher trunk velocities and,<br />
more specifically, bat swing and throwing velocities.<br />
•<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 14
Core Training<br />
Table 2. General Trunk Exercises (6 weeks) • Microcycle 4 (2 weeks)<br />
Day Exercise Sets x Repetitions<br />
1 Weighted Side Crunch 2 x 12<br />
Weighted Leg Lift 2 x 12<br />
Weighted Crunch 2 x 15<br />
Back Extension with Twist 2 x 12<br />
2 Weighted Side Bridge Right 2 x 20 sec.<br />
Weighted Side Bridge Left<br />
2 x 20 sec.<br />
Weighted Prone Pillar Bridge<br />
2 x 20 sec.<br />
3 Weighted Back Extension 2 x 12<br />
Weighted Reverse Crunch 2 x 12<br />
Weighted Oblique Crunch 2 x 12<br />
Weighted Double Ab Crunch 2 x 15<br />
The main focus is muscular strength. Perform all exercises consecutively in a series for the first set without rest. Rest period is 90 sec between 1st and 2nd set.<br />
Microcycles 5 and 6 make up the next 4 weeks (2-week cycles within the 6-week mesocycle). Add resistance with 10lb plate, and then progress program by either<br />
moving the weight further from the axis of rotation (torso) or progress to the next higher Olympic plate each 2-week microcycle. For Day 2, add 5 sec for each<br />
2-week microcycle.<br />
Table 3. Non-throwing Seated & Standing Medicine Ball Exercises (6 Weeks) • Microcycle 7 (2 weeks)<br />
Day Exercise Sets x Repetitions<br />
1 Lying Hip Rotation 2 x 10 each side<br />
Seated Twist<br />
2 x 10 each side<br />
Seated Trunk Rotation<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Seated Figure 8<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
2 Standing Woodchop 2 x 10<br />
Standing Figure 8<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Diagonal Woodchop<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Lunge Figure 8<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
3 Repeat Day 1 If Needed 2 x 12<br />
The main focus is absolute muscular strength/power. Mass of medicine ball begins at 3kg in microcycle 7, then progresses to 4kg in microcycle 8, and 5kg in<br />
microcycle 9 for a physically mature high school or college player. Physically immature high school players should begin with a 2kg ball, while middle school<br />
players should begin with a 1kg ball. Increase the mass of the medicine ball by 1kg each 2-week microcycle. Rest period is 90 sec between sets. Microcycles 8 and<br />
9 make up the next 4 weeks (2-week microcycles within the 6-week mesocycle).<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 15
Core Training<br />
Table 4. Throwing Standing Medicine Ball Exercises (6 Weeks) • Microcycle 10 (2 Weeks)<br />
Day Exercise Sets x Repetitions<br />
1 Speed Rotation 2 x 8 each side<br />
Twisting Wall Toss<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Lateral Side Hip Toss<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Hitter’s Throw<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
2 1-Leg Balance Overhead Throw 2 x 10<br />
Lunge Figure 8 Throw<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Twisting Woodchop Throw<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
1-Leg Balance Twisting Overhead Throw 2 x 10<br />
3 Repeat Day 1 If Needed 2 x 12<br />
The main focus is muscular power. Medicine balls are thrown with two hands. Microcycle 10 uses a 4kg medicine ball, then progresses to 3kg in microcycle 11,<br />
and 2kg in microcycle 12 for a physically mature high school or college player. Physically immature high school players should begin with a 3kg ball, while middle<br />
school players should begin with a 2kg ball. Decrease the mass of the medicine ball by 1kg each 2-week microcycle. Rest period is 90 sec between the 1st and 2nd<br />
sets. Microcycles 11 and 12 make up the next 4 weeks (2-week microcycles within the 6-week mesocycle).<br />
Table 5. Pitcher’s Throwing Medicine Ball Exercises (6 Weeks) • Microcycle 13 (2 Weeks)<br />
Day Exercise Sets x Repetitions<br />
1 7oz Max Throws 1 x 10<br />
7oz Side Max Throws 1 x 10<br />
7oz External Rotation Throws 1 x 10<br />
5oz Baseball Max Throws 1 x 15<br />
2 1-Leg Balance Overhead Throw 2 x 10<br />
Lunge Figure 8 Throw<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
Twisting Woodchop Throw<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
1-Leg Balance Twisting 2 x 10<br />
The main focus is muscular power. Day 1 implements 1-arm throws with a 7oz medicine ball and 5oz baseball. There is a 2:1 ratio of heavy to standard weighted<br />
balls. Day 2 implements 2-arm throws. The first set is performed with a heavier medicine ball followed by the second set with a lighter medicine ball. Medicine<br />
ball mass progresses from 4 & 3kg to 3 & 2kg to 2 & 1kg for each 2-week microcycle. Rest period is 90 sec between the 1st and 2nd sets.<br />
Table 6. Position Player’s Throwing Core Exercises (6 Weeks) • Microcycle 13 (2 Weeks)<br />
Day Exercise Sets x Repetitions<br />
1 Speed Rotation 2 x 8 each side<br />
Lateral Side Hip Toss<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
1-Leg Balance Twisting Overhead Throw 2 x 10<br />
Hitter’s Throw<br />
2 x 8 each side<br />
2 Heavy Bat (31, 32, 33oz) 5 x 10<br />
Light Bat (29, 28, 27oz) 5 x 10<br />
Standard Baseball Bat (30oz) 5 x 10<br />
The main focus is muscular power. Day 1 incorporates 2-arm throws. The first set is performed with a heavier medicine ball followed by the second set with a<br />
lighter medicine ball. Microcycle 13 uses 5 & 4kg medicine balls, then progresses to 4 & 3kg in microcycle 14, and 3 & 2kg in microcycle 15. For physically immature<br />
players, the mass of the medicine balls are 4 & 3kg, 3 & 2kg, and 2 & 1kg. Over and underweighted bat swing sequences progress every two weeks. High school or<br />
college players that normally swing a standard 33”, 30oz baseball bat will take one set of 10 swings with each of the three bats (31, 29, 30oz), then rest. Four more<br />
sets in this sequence will follow for a total of 150 swings. Bat weight sequences will progress to 32, 28, 30oz for microcycle 14, and 33, 27, 30oz for microcycle 15.<br />
Rest periods are 90 sec between the 1st and 2nd sets. For those that swing a different size baseball bat, the sequence of swings remains the same, but the mass of<br />
the bat is based off of a standard bat.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 16
training<br />
table<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
Debra Wein, MS, RD,<br />
LDN, CSSD, NSCA-<br />
CPT is a recognized<br />
expert on health<br />
and wellness and<br />
has designed award<br />
winning programs<br />
for both individuals<br />
and corporations<br />
around the US. She<br />
is president and<br />
founder of Wellness<br />
Workdays, Inc., (www.<br />
wellnessworkdays.<br />
com) a leading<br />
provider of worksite<br />
wellness programs. In<br />
addition, Debra is the<br />
president and founder<br />
of partner company,<br />
Sensible Nutrition, Inc.<br />
(www.sensiblenutrition.<br />
com), a consulting firm<br />
of RD’s and personal<br />
trainers, established<br />
in 1994, that provides<br />
nutrition and wellness<br />
services to individuals.<br />
Her sport nutrition<br />
handouts and<br />
free weekly email<br />
newsletter are available<br />
online at www.<br />
sensiblenutrition.com.<br />
Caitlin O. Riley is<br />
a candidate for a<br />
graduate certificate<br />
in dietetics from<br />
Simmons College<br />
and earned a BA<br />
in Marketing and<br />
Advertising from<br />
Simmons College<br />
in 2005. Caitlin was<br />
on the crew team in<br />
college and enjoys<br />
running, staying active<br />
and plans to pursue a<br />
career as a Registered<br />
Dietitian.<br />
Debra Wein, MS, RD, LDN, CSSD, NSCA-CPT,*D and Caitlin O. Riley<br />
Measuring Hydration<br />
Status in Athletes<br />
Athletes often turn to a variety of supplements in order to<br />
maximize performance, yet often overlook hydration as an<br />
important factor. When engaging in sports, athletes will<br />
lose body weight through water loss. When their sweat<br />
loss exceeds fluid intake, athletes become dehydrated during<br />
activity. Dehydration of 1 to 2% of their body weight<br />
will begin to compromise physiologic function and negatively<br />
influence performance. Dehydration of greater than<br />
3% of body weight further disturbs physiological function<br />
and increases the athlete’s risk of developing heat cramps<br />
or heat exhaustion. Loss of 5% or more body weight, or a<br />
temperature of 104 degrees Fahrenheit or higher, can result<br />
in heatstroke (2).<br />
Athletes should begin all exercise sessions well hydrated.<br />
There are numerous, reliable ways to measure hydration<br />
status. Urine specific gravity (Usg), change in body mass<br />
(BM), urine color (Ucol), urine osmolality (Uosm), and plasma<br />
osmolality (Posm) are common measures of hydration<br />
status, and each method presents advantages and limitations<br />
(4).<br />
Urine Specific Gravity: The NCAA suggests Usg as the most<br />
practical, cost efficient measurement of hydration status<br />
for athletes. Usg measures the ratio between the density<br />
of urine and the density of water (4). Urinary concentration<br />
is determined by the number of particles (electrolytes,<br />
phosphate, urea, uric acid, proteins, glucose, and<br />
radiographic contrast media) per unit of urine volume.<br />
A fluid more dense than water will have a measurement<br />
greater than 1.000μG. A normal value for Usg ranges between<br />
1.002 to 1.030μG; minimal dehydration is associated<br />
with values in the range of 1.010 to 1.020μG, and<br />
severe dehydration produces values above 1.030μG. This<br />
is a rapid, non-invasive and inexpensive measurement, requiring<br />
only a small amount of urine (4).<br />
Change in Body Mass: The total mass of the human body is<br />
comprised of 50 – 70% water (4). A common clinical measurement<br />
for determining hydration status in athletes is<br />
BM (body mass), calculated from pre-exercise and postexercise<br />
body mass measurements (4). This clinical measurement<br />
is commonly used, but BM has limitations. There<br />
must be a protocol for standardization of measurements<br />
obtained for each athlete. Day-to-day body mass fluctuations<br />
may affect the accuracy of measurements and measurements<br />
obtained over a period of several weeks cannot<br />
be compared due to changes in body fat mass over the<br />
course of training (4). Even though BM is an inexpensive<br />
and practical method for hydration measurement, steps<br />
must be taken to ensure the validity and reliability of body<br />
mass values.<br />
When calculating BM, and assuming the athlete is properly<br />
hydrated, pre-exercise body weight should be relatively<br />
consistent throughout the entire exercise session. The<br />
results of the calculation should determine the percentage<br />
difference between the post-exercise body weights as<br />
well as determine the baseline hydrated body weight. The<br />
post-exercise weight should be no more than 2% less than<br />
the pre-exercise weight (2).<br />
Urine Color: Ucol is an inexpensive and reliable indicator<br />
of hydration status (4). Normal Ucol is described as light<br />
yellow (lemonade), whereas severe dehydration is associated<br />
with Ucol that is described as brownish-green (applesauce).<br />
Ucol does not provide the accuracy or precision of<br />
Usg or Uosm, and it tends to underestimate the level of<br />
hydration and it may be misleading if a large amount of<br />
fluid is consumed rapidly. It may be altered by the consumption<br />
of vitamins and some vegetables. However,<br />
Ucol may provide a valid means for self-assessment of hydration<br />
level when precision is not necessary (4).<br />
Urine Osmolality: Uosm quantifies the number of dissociated<br />
solute particles per kilogram of solution, which<br />
is measured in osmoles. Because Uosm measurements<br />
require an osmometer and a trained technician, it is not<br />
practical for clinical use. Although osmolality is the most<br />
accurate indicator of total solute concentration, it may not<br />
accurately reflect hydration status immediately after ac-<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 17
training table<br />
Measuring Hydration Status in Athletes<br />
tivity due to water turnover, intercultural differences, and regulatory<br />
mechanisms (4).<br />
Plasma Osmolality: Posm is the most widely used hematological index of<br />
hydration, and it is considered the “gold standard” for determination of hydration<br />
status. Posm is positively correlated with hydration status; Posm<br />
will proportionally decrease when dehydrated and it will increase when<br />
euhydrated. Posm is measured by an osmometer which is expensive and<br />
requires training. Thus, Posm is also considered impractical for clinical use<br />
(4).<br />
Calculating Sweat Rate: To correctly assess rehydration needs for each individual,<br />
it is important to calculate one’s sweat rate. The following sweat<br />
rate calculation is recommended: (Sweat Rate = body weight pre-run –<br />
body weight post-run + fluid intake – urine volume/exercise time in hours).<br />
Establishing a sweat rate in similar climatic conditions is recommended (1).<br />
References<br />
1. Casa, DJ, Proper hydration for distance running-identifying individual<br />
fl uid needs: A USA Track & Field Advisory.2003. Retrieved <strong>Sep</strong>tember 23,<br />
2010 from http://www.usatf.org/groups/Coaches/library/2007/hydration/<br />
ProperHydrationForDistanceRunning.pdf<br />
2. Caselli MA and Brummer J. Recognizing and preventing dehydration in<br />
athletes. Podiatry Today17(12): 66-69, 2004.<br />
3. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium,<br />
Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate for Hydration. 2009. Retrieved August 6,<br />
2010 from http://iom.edu/Activities/Nutrition/SummaryDRIs/~/media/Files/<br />
Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRI_Electrolytes_Water.ashx<br />
4. Minton DM, Eberman, LE. Best practices for clinical hydration<br />
measurement. Athletic Therapy Today 14(1): 9-11, 2009.<br />
Measurement of hydration status is essential for prevention, recognition,<br />
and treatment of heat-related illness. Individual differences will exist<br />
with regards to tolerance of amount of fluids that can be comfortably<br />
consumed, gastric emptying, intestinal absorption rates, and availability<br />
of fluids during the workout or event. Each individual’s rehydration procedures<br />
should be tested in practice and modified regularly, if necessary, to<br />
optimize hydration while maximizing performance in competition. Individuals<br />
should be encouraged to retest themselves during different seasons<br />
depending on their training/racing schedule to know their hydration<br />
needs during those seasons (1).<br />
Practical hydration recommendations to<br />
promote optimal hydration:<br />
The recommendation to drink eight 8-ounce glasses (64 fluid ounces) of<br />
water per day is a general rule of thumb; it is not based on scientific evidence.<br />
However, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) Food and Nutrition Board<br />
recommends 2.7 liters (91 ounces) for women and 3.7 liters (125 ounces)<br />
for men. These recommendations represent total fluid intake for all beverages<br />
and food consumed per day (3).<br />
About 80% of our total water intake comes from drinking water and other<br />
beverages, and food contributes to the other 20%. So the actual recommendations<br />
for water including beverages are approximately 9 cups of<br />
fluids for women and 13 cups of fluids for men (3). •<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 18
ounce of<br />
prevention<br />
Jason Brumitt, MSPT, SCS, ATC/R, CSCS,*D<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
Jason Brumitt is an<br />
assistant professor<br />
of physical therapy<br />
at Pacific University<br />
(Oregon). He is<br />
currently a doctoral<br />
candidate with Rocky<br />
Mountain University<br />
of Health Professions.<br />
He can be reached via<br />
email at brum4084@<br />
pacificu.edu.<br />
Develop Power and Core<br />
Strength with Kettlebell<br />
Exercises<br />
To be successful in a sport, an athlete must possess the<br />
ability to generate explosive power (2). But what is power<br />
Basically, it is the ability to perform a lift in as little time as<br />
possible. How is power different from strength An individual<br />
may be able to demonstrate that he or she is very<br />
strong (based on the amount of weight they lift); however,<br />
when they perform a lift, they do it slowly. To develop<br />
power, an athlete must perform exercises in a short period<br />
of time. The traditional power/weightlifting lifts (e.g.,<br />
cleans, snatch, jerk) help facilitate an athlete’s ability to<br />
generate force quickly (2, 4).<br />
Figure 1. 20lbs Kettlebell<br />
The Swings<br />
What if an athlete is unable to perform these exercises<br />
with the traditional barbell and plate equipment Not all<br />
athletes are of the elite collegiate and professional ranks.<br />
An athlete may be a 34-year old woman who is returning<br />
to running eight weeks after delivering her first child. Or<br />
an athlete may be a 75-year old male who is swimming at<br />
the master’s level. Since athletes come in all shapes and<br />
sizes, their training programs should account for their fitness<br />
level and be tailored to meet their individual goals.<br />
The use of kettlebells in one’s training program will help to<br />
enhance core strength and facilitate power development<br />
in non-elite athletes.<br />
If you are not familiar with a kettlebell, it is a cast-iron<br />
weight shaped like a ball with a handle (Figure 1). Kettlebells<br />
range in size from 5lbs to 50lbs, or greater. Although<br />
considered a relatively new piece of equipment, the use<br />
of kettlebells dates back to Russia in the early 1700s (1,<br />
3). Recently, kettlebell training has emerged as a popular<br />
piece of training equipment (3). The unique shape of the<br />
kettlebell allows one to perform traditional exercises to<br />
enhance core strength (Table 1) as well as the swings to<br />
improve functional power (Table 2).<br />
The shape of the kettlebell allows for the ability to perform<br />
swinging motions. By grasping the kettlebell handle<br />
with one or both hands, an individual is able to swing<br />
the kettlebell through a large arc of motion. Performing<br />
a one-handed (Figure 4) or two-handed kettlebell swings<br />
(Figure 5 and 6) activates muscles throughout the body.<br />
Conclusion<br />
These simple exercises (and basic modifications) can be<br />
used to increase core strength and develop functional<br />
power. Not all individuals are alike and as such their training<br />
programs should be tailored to their skills and abilities.<br />
The use of kettlebells offers a safe alternative to the traditional<br />
Olympic weightlifting lifts if performed properly. •<br />
References<br />
1. Farrar RE, Mayhew JL, Koch AJ. Oxygen cost of<br />
kettlebell swings. J Strength Con Res. 2010;24(4):1034 –<br />
1036.<br />
2. Sandler D. Sports Power. Champaign, IL: Human<br />
Kinetics; 2005.<br />
3. Tsatsouline P. Enter the Kettlebell! St. Paul, MN: Dragon<br />
Door Publications, Inc., 2006.<br />
4. Werner G. Strength and conditioning techniques in the<br />
rehabilitation of sports injury. Clin Sports Med. 2010;<br />
29(1):177 – 191.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5<br />
19
ounce of prevention<br />
Develop Power and Core Strength with Kettlebell Exercises<br />
Figure 2. Squat with 1 Kettlebell Figure 3. Lunge with Kettlebell Overhead Figure 4. One-Arm Swing Starting Position<br />
Figure 5. One-Arm Swing Terminal Position Figure 6. Two-Arm Swing Starting Position Figure 7. Two-Arm Swing Terminal Position<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 20
ounce of prevention<br />
Develop Power and Core Strength with Kettlebell Exercises<br />
Table 1. Kettlebell Exercises to Improve Core Strength<br />
Exercise Starting Position Movement<br />
Squats<br />
Squat with 1 Kettlebell Grasp a kettlebell handle with both hands Perform the squat with the kettlebell hanging<br />
between the legs (Figure 2).<br />
Squat with 2 Kettlebells<br />
Hold a kettlebell in each hand with the<br />
weights positioned by the shoulders<br />
The squat should be performed with the<br />
kettlebells held near each shoulder.<br />
Lunges<br />
Lunges Holding Kettlebells Hold a kettlebell in each hand Perform a traditional lunge exercise.<br />
Variation: Hold one kettlebell only with the<br />
arm extended overhead (Figure 3).<br />
Lunge with Kettlebell Pass Between the Lead<br />
Leg<br />
Hold a kettlebell in one hand<br />
Perform the lunge, and pass the kettlebell<br />
from the one hand under the lead leg to the<br />
other hand. Repeat the passing motion on<br />
each side.<br />
Table 2. The Swings: Exercise Description<br />
Exercise Starting Position Movement<br />
One-Arm Kettlebell Swing<br />
Get in a squat position with one arm holding a<br />
kettlebell (overhand grip) between the legs<br />
Grasp the kettlebell with one hand and<br />
forcefully swing it to shoulder height. Next,<br />
allow the kettlebell to lower in the same arc<br />
of motion between the legs, just posterior to<br />
the body. Repeat the swing, quickly reversing<br />
the direction creating the power for the<br />
movement from the hips and legs.<br />
Two-Arm Kettlebell Swing Grasp a kettlebell with both hands Performed the same way as the one-arm<br />
kettlebell swing except that both hands are<br />
holding the kettlebell.<br />
Clean with 1 or 2 Kettlebells<br />
Assume a deep squat grabbing a kettlebell<br />
with one or both hands. The kettlebell (or<br />
kettlebells) should be situated between one’s<br />
feet.<br />
Raise the kettlebell(s) up to the shoulder(s),<br />
generating power for the movement from the<br />
hips.<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 21
mind<br />
games<br />
Suzie Tuffey-Riewald, PhD, NSCA-CPT<br />
about the<br />
AUTHOR<br />
Suzie Tuffey-Riewald<br />
received her degrees<br />
in Sport Psychology/<br />
Exercise Science from<br />
the University of North<br />
Carolina —Greensboro.<br />
She has worked for<br />
USA Swimming as the<br />
Sport Psychology and<br />
Sport Science Director,<br />
and most recently<br />
as the Associate<br />
Director of Coaching<br />
with the USOC where<br />
she worked with<br />
various sport national<br />
governing bodies<br />
(NGBs) to develop<br />
and enhance coaching<br />
education and training.<br />
Suzie currently works<br />
as a sport psychology<br />
consultant to several<br />
NGBs.<br />
Being Effortful<br />
Imagine watching the following video clip. The music<br />
is fast paced and the video shows snippets of a warrior<br />
of sorts running through the forest, a man chasing rapidly<br />
after a deer (seemingly for food), men running across<br />
dirt roads in Western-style garb, and a policeman racing<br />
through the streets. Then, the music slows and the video<br />
cuts to a man jogging on a treadmill looking aimlessly<br />
out the window. The words, “need motivation” appear<br />
and moments later the jogger blasts through the window<br />
and takes off running down the street. The words “need<br />
motivation” did not need to be shown on the screen as<br />
the stark contrast in behavior said it all. After watching the<br />
first few clips, the words that come to mind to describe<br />
the behavior include effort, high energy, intensity, purpose,<br />
and focus. After watching the person jogging on the<br />
treadmill one thinks of words such as plodding, aimless,<br />
going through the motions.<br />
What do you want to embody on a consistent basis Do<br />
you want to demonstrate intensity, purposefulness, effort,<br />
focus or do you want to demonstrate aimlessness and just<br />
getting it done The answer to this question is obvious for<br />
most exercisers and athletes—of course you want to be<br />
intense and effortful. But think for a minute about your<br />
actual behaviors as it relates to your sport and/or exercise<br />
endeavors. Reflect back on the last few weeks of training<br />
and ask yourself if you tend to behave more often like the<br />
warrior or the jogger. If you have more “effortless” days<br />
relative to “effortful” days, let us take a look at a few things<br />
you can do to behave more like the warrior.<br />
You might be lacking effort because you don’t have a clear<br />
plan as to where you are directing your efforts; you do<br />
not have a “why” behind what you are doing. On a weekly<br />
or even daily basis give yourself a reason to behave with<br />
intensity, purpose and effort. Ideally, this goal or reason<br />
should tie into a longer term goal. For example, an athlete<br />
may have a goal of improving his performance on the cycling<br />
leg of triathlons. How is this of relevance this week<br />
Well, to accomplish that goal, a goal this week may be to<br />
train at a higher heart rate for a longer duration during<br />
aerobic work. Such a goal can provide a reason for effortful<br />
behavior.<br />
Would change help It may be that changing the environment<br />
might influence your training behavior. The environment<br />
may have become stale for you—this can include<br />
the physical environment where you train as well<br />
as individuals within the environment and your internal<br />
environment. Think about whether it would help to have a<br />
workout partner, train more on your own, take an exercise<br />
class with a different instructor, cycle outdoors instead of<br />
on a trainer, listen to music, or do a day of circuit training<br />
instead of free weights. Picture an athlete training for<br />
a half marathon. She dreads getting on the treadmill for<br />
longer runs—she is losing her intensity and effort. She decides<br />
to train outside two times a week on running trails.<br />
She felt this may offer a needed change, and that the cost<br />
of giving up the control over pace and distance provided<br />
by the treadmill could be well worth it. Two weeks later,<br />
she is running more on trails and those runs are often the<br />
most productive and enjoyable. Change may often be a<br />
wonderful thing.<br />
Recognize successes—It is important to note areas of<br />
improvement and things you are doing well whether it<br />
is physical, technical, mental or nutritional. Recognizing<br />
little successes and improvement reinforces all the work<br />
that went in to your success—one can train with renewed<br />
motivation knowing the payoff down the road. Additionally,<br />
recognizing improvement can help build confidence<br />
and with a continued effort results will be seen. To note<br />
improvement, it is beneficial to keep a log of important<br />
aspects of your training or to keep records of your goals<br />
and goal attainment.<br />
Find fun—One overriding factor kids participate in sports<br />
may be for fun. Young athletes may stay involved in sports<br />
because they enjoy it and it is fun. Tap into the fun aspects<br />
of your sport and exercise involvement. Maybe fun is<br />
pushing your body, fun could be achieving a difficult goal,<br />
fun may be working hard in the gym then joining friends<br />
for social time. What is fun for you •<br />
nsca’s performance training journal • www.nsca-lift.org • volume 9 issue 5 22
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