Booklet Sept 11.pdf - Journal of Threatened Taxa

September 2011 | Vol. 3 | No. 9 | Pages 2033–2108 

Date of Publication 26 September 2011 

ISSN 0974-7907 (online) | 0974-7893 (print) 

Larvae of the Odonata family Gomphidae 

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continued on the back inside cover

JoTT Es s a y 3(9): 2033–2044 

Strategic planning for invertebrate species conservation - 

how effective is it 

T.R. New 

Department of Zoology, La Trobe University, Victoria 3086, Australia 

Email: t.new@latrobe.edu.au 

Date of publication (online): 26 September 2011 

Date of publication (print): 26 September 2011 


Editor: Michael J. Samways 

Manuscript details: 

Ms # o2850 

Received 28 June 2011 

Final received 09 August 2011 

Finally accepted 08 September 2011 

Citation: New, T.R. (2011). Strategic planning 

for invertebrate species conservation - how 

effective is it Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(9): 

2033–2044. 

Copyright: © T.R. New 2011. Creative 

Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. 

JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any 

medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction 

and distribution by providing adequate credit to 

the authors and the source of publication. 

Author Detail: Emeritus Professor T.R. Ne w 

has wide interests in insect systematics, 

ecology and conservation, and has promoted 

the value of insect conservation for many years, 

from local to international scales. 

Acknowledgements: This essay is based on a 

contribution to the symposium ‘Foundations of 

Biodiversity: saving the world’s non-vertebrates’, 

held at the Zoological Society of London in 

February 2010, and sponsored by the Society 

and IUCN. I am very grateful to the organising 

committee for inviting me to participate, and for 

the financial assistance received through the 

Society. Perceptive comments from a reviewer 

are also appreciated greatly. 

OPEN ACCESS | FREE DOWNLOAD 

Abstract: Activities for invertebrate conservation range from single species programmes 

to those spanning habitats or landscapes, but at any scale are often largely isolated 

and not integrated effectively with other efforts. Problems of promoting invertebrate 

conservation and synergies by effective cooperation are discussed. The rationale 

of species-level conservation is outlined briefly, with suggestions of how some of the 

apparent limitations of this approach may be countered in ways that benefit a greater 

variety of invertebrate life. This essay is intended to promote debate on some of the 

complex issues involved, and implies the need for careful and well-considered integration 

of individual conservation tactics into enhanced strategies to increase the benefits from 

the very limited resources devoted to invertebrate conservation. 

Keywords: Butterflies, conservation strategy, insects, management plans, species 

conservation, triage. 

‘You’ve got to accentuate the positive. Eliminate the negative. Latch on to 

the affirmative’. [Johnny Mercer/Harold Arlen] 

INTRODUCTION 

The broad term ‘invertebrates’ encompasses a great variety of 

hyperdiverse animal groups that are poorly documented, for many of 

which we have only very approximate ideas of their richness, and for 

which ecological and distributional information is commonly fragmentary 

to non-existent. Many invertebrates are believed to be under threat from 

anthropogenic changes, and both ethically and practically need conservation. 

They contrast dramatically with the more tractable vertebrate groups 

(mostly with comparatively few species and taxonomy well-understood) 

and some vascular plants, but have generally been treated by conservation 

planners in similar ways, focusing on single species management plans, 

and with agendas based largely on threat status evaluation by similar 

criteria to those applied to mammals and birds. This one-by-one species 

approach has severe limitations for invertebrates, not least because of 

large numbers of threatened species far exceeding resources available 

to conserve them. Likewise, their enormous taxonomic and ecological 

variety renders broader conservation prescriptions (beyond obvious 

generalities) difficult. Part of the perspective in discussing how—and 

if—better approaches are possible must be to assess our capability to plan 

and undertake practical conservation for invertebrates, and to assemble 

and improve conservation strategies to do this. Invertebrate conservation, 

at species or other level, is not a separate discipline from most vertebrate 

conservation, despite the vastly different scales of need that flow from 

enormous richness and ecological variety. Widespread unfamiliarity with 

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | September 2011 | 3(9): 2033–2044 2033

Invertebrate species conservation 

the organisms tends to foster it being treated as such. 

‘Strategic planning’ in military terms is allied to 

the outcome of a campaign and implicitly demands 

integration of ‘tactics’, the lower category of planning 

and practical measures, for anticipated greater 

collective benefit than summing individual tactics 

alone. ‘Tactics’ equate to individual species plans or 

individual measures within these, and ‘strategy’ to 

any way in which these can be changed, amalgamated 

or replaced for wider benefit. A central theme is to 

consider whether invertebrates are disadvantaged, 

or may become so, in the wider conservation arena 

without such strategy. The scope of any conservation 

plan, together with its mission or purpose, may need 

to be considered very carefully. It should be defined 

objectively at the outset, together with provision for 

critical review before it is translated formally into policy 

and practice. At present, some purported strategies for 

invertebrate conservation are little more than ‘wishlists’ 

of ingredients and lack clear evidence of integration 

or complementarity of purpose or feasibility, although 

the need for this may be implicit. Most give priority to 

the importance of conserving the present scenarios or 

sites where the focal threatened species occur. These 

may include attempts to re-introduce populations to 

sites from which the organism has disappeared, or to 

augment small populations to increase their viability. 

With the widespread acceptance of climate change, 

needs for future evolution and dispersal potential 

are progressively being considered as constructively 

as possible. Long term strategies, to be assured well 

beyond the next one or two political terms, are a critical 

need, together with these incorporating dynamic 

‘adaptive management’. Climate change, for example, 

implies that sites well beyond the current species’ range 

may be needed to replace present areas of occupancy 

that will no longer be suitable for habitation. Such 

considerations, however difficult to address, cannot 

be ignored and are urgent. Without such long-term 

perspective, many current management measures may 

be inadequate. 

The stated ‘visions’ of conservation strategies tend 

to be formulated on the idealistic premise of ‘zero 

extinctions’. Recent flurry of papers on this subject 

emphasises that, whilst we may indeed wish to heed 

this ethical ideal, some form of loss is largely inevitable 

in allocating resources when budgets are constrained 

(Botterill et al. 2008), with the impracticalities of 

T.R. New 

completely supporting all deserving cases recognised 

by scientists, managers and politicians alike. Rational 

triage, however abhorrent, as a core strategy component 

has some benefit in enhancing credibility - because 

it demonstrates that priorities have indeed been 

set and lays out the grounds or principles for doing 

so. The major problem with setting priority in this 

way, most commonly selecting amongst an array of 

species eligible for support and needing conservation 

(designated by formal listing, or investigation of 

need) is simply that each species given priority is at 

the expense of others. The importance of the process 

therefore includes deciding what not to do. Triage 

in this sense is thus acceptance of the possibility of 

extinction of species excluded from attention (New 

1991, 1993 for additional background). The grounds for 

this selection should ideally be transparent and agreed 

by wide consensus to avoid acrimony and promote 

cooperation by stakeholders. Thus, the Red-Listing 

of selected invertebrate taxa for conservation status 

priority promoted through the World Conservation 

Union includes several recent examples for which 

groups of specialists have agreed conservation status 

and needs during workshops convened expressly for 

that purpose. The ensuing reports have provided 

the first such authoritative accounts for particular 

taxonomic (e.g. Mediterranean dragonflies: Riservato 

et al. 2009) or ecological (European saproxylic 

beetles: Nieto & Alexander 2010) groups. Both these 

investigations, for example, indicated substantial 

numbers of threatened species. In addition to scientific 

knowledge of species’ status and needs, ‘image’ can 

strongly influence choice of conservation targets and 

subsequent allocation of limited support resources. 

Many invertebrates have a less appealing public 

image than do many vertebrates: the ‘cute and cuddly’ 

syndrome is still influential, notwithstanding that many 

threatened vertebrates overtly exhibit neither of these 

qualities. Nevertheless, it is valuable to understand 

the grounds on which priorities have been selected 

amongst species, as possible constructive leads to 

wider strategy. It is important to acknowledge also 

that defeatism from the implications of triage is not 

universal: Parr et al. (2009) cleave to the ideal that ‘we 

just might save everything’, and that we should indeed 

aim for zero extinctions. 

A somewhat different emphasis was presented in 

the recent ‘European Strategy for Conservation of 

2034 

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | September 2011 | 3(9): 2033–2044


Invertebrates’ (Haslett 2007), namely to recognise the 

importance of invertebrates, rather than demanding that 

all be conserved. The Strategy’s vision is ‘A world in 

which invertebrate animals are valued and conserved, 

in parallel with all other groups of organisms, now and 

in the future’. The seven main objectives emphasise 

recognition and integration of needs and efforts to 

conserve invertebrates. One objective (no. 6) is echoed 

widely elsewhere: ‘… inclusion of a fully representative 

variety of invertebrate species on conservation and 

environmental management decisions..’. The process 

of triage or other selection to obtain ‘fully representative 

variety’ demands rather different priority than triage 

based purely on level of threat, as tends to flow in many 

places from IUCN or other categorisation, irrespective 

of what the invertebrate is or of its ecological role and 

distribution. 

There are obvious problems in this ‘omission by 

necessity’ in emphasising species-level conservation 

whilst ignoring other, wider, approaches, and three 

broad packages of strategy options are available; 

1. To improve individual species plans to render 

them increasingly credible, practicable and effective. 

2. To expand plans based initially on individual 

species to promote wider benefits – such as providing 

for several related species or changing focus for wider 

habitat considerations. 

3. To adopt the commonly-made suggestion of 

replacing most individual species plans with broader 

approaches to emphasise landscape and community 

conservation, so assuring contexts in which the species 

can survive. 

These are not mutually exclusive. 

Many species management plans for invertebrates 

have been largely ad hoc developments, and many 

have been produced in isolation from (or with little 

consideration for) other organisms, even those on the 

same sites or dependent on the same biotopes. It is 

pertinent to consider the drivers for developing these 

plans, and the reasons for their production. These 

are not restricted to invertebrate plans, of course, 

but may at times have greater importance for them 

when combined priority is needed. The three major 

drivers are (1) legislative obligation, (2) political 

appeasement, and (3) practical conservation. Each 

may suffer considerable delay in development, and 

it is common for the formal obligations for plans 

that commonly flow from legislative recognition 

T.R. New 

of taxa as threatened to take far longer to produce 

than promised under a given legislation. However, 

many plans under the first two drivers above are 

superficial and couched in rather general terms rather 

than containing well-planned SMART objectives and 

actions. Further, most of those plans are not fully 

translated into practice, but remain as ‘ticked off’ on 

a list of formal obligations. Many conservation plans 

for invertebrates are necessarily proposed or prepared 

initially by people who are not invertebrate zoologists. 

If indeed zoologists, many agency personnel are 

versed predominantly in vertebrate biology and 

(1) are outside the area of their primary interest or 

expertise when dealing with invertebrates and so (2) 

may give them low priority in relation to dealing with 

organisms with which they have greater confidence 

and experience, and (3) may not appraise and criticize 

the outcomes adequately. Without initial effective 

peer-review and revision, a plan may be overly bland 

- and, perhaps, far more tentative than if prepared by 

a relevant specialist in the organisms involved. A 

major need is to increase invertebrate expertise in the 

variety of agencies involved in such documentation, 

and to move progressively toward scientifically 

rigorous and adequately resourced conservation plans, 

rather than being content with superficial alternatives. 

Nevertheless, political awareness of need for 

invertebrate conservation is important, and there may 

thus be a very constructive role for plans in categories 

1 and 2 above. But they may not always achieve the 

major aim of practical conservation. 

The relevant point of contrast is that many 

vertebrates already have high public profiles, and are 

widely accepted politically as ‘worthy’. So-called 

‘vertebrate chauvinism’ remains potent in developing 

conservation policy, and greater levels of interest 

and knowledge facilitate production of progressively 

realistic and credible conservation plans. 

A second contrast in many cases is that of scale 

of management need. As one common example, 

small sites which would be dismissed as inadequate 

for conservation by many vertebrate biologists, 

and sacrificed, have immense importance for some 

butterflies and others that can sustain populations on 

areas of a hectare or less under suitable conditions. 

Many invertebrates are, or appear to be, point or narrow 

range endemic species. In management terms, this also 

involves ecological specialisation - many vertebrate 

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | September 2011 | 3(9): 2033–2044 

2035


foci for conservation are, by comparison with many 

invertebrates, both geographically and ecologically 

more widespread: not only are we likely to know much 

more about their population size and dynamics, but 

also have a reasonably clear picture of the major threats 

to them. Almost by default, the resource needs (both 

consumables and utilities, sensu Dennis et al. 2006) of 

ecologically specialised insects are more restricted and 

restricting to the species involved. Following Hanski’s 

(2005) apposite simile of insect habitats forming a 

nested hierarchy of scales, and likened to matrioscka 

dolls, most habitats of threatened insects (many of 

which have very narrow ecological amplitude, in 

additional to restricted distributions) equate firmly to 

‘small dolls’, so that fine scale refined management 

may commonly be needed. Equivalent fine detail, 

of course, occurs also for many vertebrates and for 

any species this level of management becomes both 

difficult to define and expensive to prosecute. In an 

environment in which the limiting costs of conservation 

are a primary consideration in determining priority, 

less subtle steps (such as site reservation alone) may 

be deemed sufficient. From another viewpoint, it is 

often assumed that areas reserved for particular large 

or iconic vertebrates (such as forest primates) will 

effectively also protect everything else that lives 

there - so that the focal vertebrate is presumed to 

be an effective umbrella species. This presumption 

is dangerous and must not be accepted uncritically; 

simply that a butterfly or snail lives at present in a 

high ranked protected area such as a National Park that 

also harbours a threatened parrot, rodent, or ungulate 

does not secure it in perpetuity. Even in Britain, many 

population losses of butterflies in such areas have 

occurred but, conversely, a preserved area may give 

a secure base for the management needed to foster 

conservation. For Australian butterflies, Sands & New 

(2003) urged surveys of protected areas to determine 

incidence of designated threatened species, and so save 

the massive costs of private land purchase or assuring 

security of tenure elsewhere, should already protected 

populations exist in areas in which management could 

be undertaken. A protected site is the major need as 

focus for more detailed conservation, but is no more 

than that vital first step - detailed management, such 

as to assure early successional stages on which many 

invertebrates depend, must be based on individual 

circumstances, and at this level, some site-specific 

T.R. New 

management is largely inevitable to sustain particular 

species or wider representative diversity. Almost 

invariably, primary research will be needed to focus 

management effectively. Emphasis on habitats (rather 

than the species alone) tends to shift the focus of 

strategies along the gradient ‘species - community 

-habitat - ecosystem - landscape’, in the expectation 

that broader scales will prove more cost-effective: for 

most invertebrates it remains to be proved that this 

approach is also more conservation-effective. 

Indeed, for many invertebrates, knowledge is 

insufficient to formulate any realistic conservation 

plan extending beyond bland generalities without 

insights from a strong research component. In many 

groups, the only people who are familiar with the 

species in the field are those involved in bringing them 

to conservation attention - so that even independent 

peer review of nominations for protection or funding 

may be difficult to arrange. There is understandable 

temptation to extrapolate from knowledge of any 

related species of concern or in the same arena, but this 

can rarely (if ever) replace information on the focal 

species. Focus on ‘better known’ groups is common 

- both knowledge and image impediments may be 

at least partially overcome for many butterflies, for 

example, simply because many butterfly species 

conservation plans have been made and carried into 

practice to varying extents. In Britain, an initial 

tranche of 25 butterfly species action plans was made, 

as working documents, by Butterfly Conservation in 

1995. The variety included helps indicate general 

features applicable elsewhere as well as measures 

that can be carried across plans for different species. 

People may thus feel more comfortable working with 

‘another butterfly’ than with some less familiar and 

poorly known animal. By parallel, the large number 

of vertebrate species plans helps generate confidence 

in producing others; for many, the research component 

needed initially may be relatively small, because of 

the large amount of attention vertebrates have received 

already. 

However, few groups of invertebrates can be treated 

in the same way as butterflies, or birds or mammals - 

some groups of beetles, moths, and terrestrial snails 

are, perhaps, the main contenders. In contrast, many 

groups rarely, if ever, appear on conservation agendas 

- for many (see Wells et al. 1983 on Tardigrada) 

knowledge is patently inadequate to assess the status 

2036 



of any species reliably, and interest in doing so scarcely 

exists. Substantial taxonomic lacunae persist in the 

invertebrate conservation portfolio! 

Haslett (1998) in considering priorities for 

augmenting the list of insects to be included under 

the Bern Convention recognised, as have many 

other commentators, that there are simply too many 

deserving candidates. Whatever we elect to include, 

we are ‘spoiled for choice’, principles for selection 

may differ with different taxonomic groups (depending 

on level of interest and knowledge), and additional 

criteria such as habitat factors, global centres of 

endemism, hotspots of richness, and functional roles 

might all contribute to selection. Extending the range 

of criteria in this way helps draw attention to the 

invertebrate variety and the importance of the biotopes 

in which they live. Haslett thus noted cave systems, 

running waters, and saproxylic environments as some 

which were under-represented by invertebrate listings 

in Europe, and supporting functionally important 

invertebrates without which those systems could not 

persist. 

Contrast this approach with adding yet more 

butterflies characteristic of open woodland, heathland, 

or subclimax vegetation systems, for which other 

priority species already represent the value and 

importance of those biotopes. With some further 

attention to habitat health - as a stated priority in almost 

all conservation plans - relatively small augmentations 

have potential to change single species plans to covering 

an array of co-occurring species, each treated as an 

individual focus. The major need here may be simply 

to broaden perspective to emphasise the importance 

of the community as the context for any focal species 

to thrive, and that treatment of individual species can 

have wider effects. This goes beyond the usual tacit 

and more anonymous umbrella approach because it 

combines separate management needs of carefully 

selected species for wider collective benefit. It moves 

toward a ‘habitat directive’ approach of incorporating 

broader values. 

In reality, any and every list of invertebrate species 

of conservation concern, however these are selected 

or given priority, will be both (1) too long for all the 

species to be dealt with individually and (2) too short 

to be ecologically or taxonomically even reasonably 

representative of those needing that attention (New 

2009 for discussion). Increasingly, selection transcends 

T.R. New 

both taxonomic and political boundaries and draws 

on ecological and distributional knowledge to seek 

principles as the bases for strategies to achieve this 

effectively. Political boundaries, such as contiguous 

countries in Europe or states in North America or 

Australia, are each subject to geographically restricted 

legislations, so that policy at the higher national or 

regional level is needed to harmonise and facilitate 

conservation beyond those boundaries. A global 

review of the various national and regional legislative 

provisions for invertebrate conservation, much as 

Collins (1987) initiated for Europe, together with 

critical appraisal of their achievements, may give 

valuable clues to future needs. 

DO WE NEED MORE BUTTERFLY PLANS 

Formation of the organisation Butterfly Conservation 

Europe, coupled with the recent European Butterflies 

Red Data Book (Van Swaay & Warren 1999) and a 

treatise on priority sites for butterflies in Europe 

(Van Swaay & Warren 2003), has emphasised the 

magnitude of conservation effort needed even for this 

best-documented and most popular invertebrate group 

in the world’s best-known regional fauna. It has also 

revealed effectively the logistic problems of dealing 

with these needs comprehensively, and with adequate 

coordination. 

Regional endemism is strong, with 19 threatened 

butterfly species restricted to Europe accompanying 

a further 52 species threatened in Europe but found 

also beyond Europe. The 19 threatened endemics 

could justifiably be given priority, but the markedly 

lower conservation interest for some of the others 

outside Europe throws the major conservation burden 

and responsibility onto securing populations within 

Europe, so that their threatened status within Europe 

must be taken seriously. Whatever actions ensue, 

the grounds for conservation need are here clear and 

soundly investigated. The ‘SPEC’ system applied to 

the European butterflies, following its development 

for birds, combines considerations of threat and 

geographical range (Table 1). Adding the SPECs for 

political units helps to reveal a geographical pattern of 

relative need. It does not take into account per se the 

measures needed, and at its most basic level has simply 

indicated the sobering scale of needs (and supporting 


2037


Table 1. Concept of ‘Species of European Conservation 

Concern’ (SPECs) in designating conservation importance, 

based on (1) global conservation status, (2) European 

threat status and (3) proportion of world range in Europe 

(From Van Swaay et al. 2009) (‘Threatened’ is one of 

Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) 

Category 

SPEC 1 

SPEC 2 

SPEC 3 

SPEC 4 

4a 

4b 

Specification 

Of global concern because restricted to Europe 

and considered globally threatened. 

Global distribution concentrated in Europe, and 

considered threatened in Europe. 

Global distribution not concentrated in Europe, 

but considered threatened in Europe. 

Global distribution restricted to Europe but 

not considered threatened either globally or in 

Europe. 

Global distribution concentrated in Europe, but 

not considered threatened either globally or in 

Europe. 

resources) that emerge if we remain committed to 

single species focus alone. 

However, from wider considerations of the ecology 

of European butterflies, several general principles of 

wide importance emerge (Settele et al. 2009: Table 

2). These emphasise the fundamental roles of habitat 

conservation, including supply of critical resources, 

the needs to foster conservation in anthropogenic 

areas - particularly agroecosystems and urban areas - 

and to increase education and support for this, with 

care not to overgeneralise in any context. Some of 

Table 2. Factors that may help guide conservation of 

butterflies, based on the European fauna (after Settele et 

al. 2009). 

Butterflies in modern landscapes cannot survive without active 

management. 

Traditional management practices have been (and still are) the 

driving force for the evolution of plant and animal communities of 

European ecosystems. 

A recurrent pattern of dependence on early successional stages is 

evident. 

Continuation of natural disturbance (exemplified by landslides, 

avalanches, outbreaks of defoliating insects, animal grazing) is 

critical. 

Many remaining sites are too small for sustaining populations of 

specialised species, so increased connectivity may be critical for 

long-term survival. 

When remnant habitats remain small and isolated (as for many 

species) management must adopt a mosaic (patchy) approach. 

Where large habitat areas occur, management should also be 

mosaic, but to create networks of different land use regimes and 

intensities. 

Indirect effects on sites important, in addition to direct alterations. 

Agri-environment schemes are vital and should target resources 

needed by wildlife. 

Support programmes for these need to increase consideration of 

needs of biodiversity, rather than just expediency. 

Urban areas are also a primary focus for the future. 

Avoid unified prescriptions. 

T.R. New 

these are important pointers toward wider strategy, 

involving both landscapes and politicoscapes. 

Agricultural ecosystems present multiple opportunities 

for both, such as mosaic management to incorporate 

conservation needs, together with offsets and 

trading policy modifications (New 2005; Samways 

2007). Achieving any of this necessitates goodwill 

and demonstration of the benefits, together with 

inducements for change (such as offset rewards, direct 

financial compensations, evidence of tangible uses 

such as pest suppression by conservation biological 

control, and so on). 

Multiple examples within the same taxonomic 

group, such as the European butterflies, (1) help to 

demonstrate the real scale of need for conservation 

action; (2) lead toward key general ecological and 

management themes; (3) increase the difficulties of 

selection or triage; and (4) lead to increased taxonomic 

imbalance in assuring invertebrate representation on 

conservation agendas. Working with ‘what we know’ 

or ‘what we like’ is both appealing and pragmatic, but 

may not be enough. It is necessary to capitalize on 

such ‘well-known’ groups as effectively as possible to 

promote conservation awareness, and - in that example 

- using our knowledge of European butterflies as an 

educational avenue may provide greater collective 

benefits than insisting on a broader taxonomic array of 

invertebrates on any local directory - especially when 

we know virtually nothing about those additional taxa. 

One major lesson for strategy development results from 

the disappearance of many butterfly populations from 

nature reserves in Britain, despite early confidence 

that they could thrive indefinitely on small (10–100 

ha) areas. As noted above, securing a site is not alone 

sufficient, and the key to preventing loss is fine-scale, 

information-based management. 

Butterflies have massive importance for 

conservation policy, likely to persist, as a flagship group 

of terrestrial insects, with the plight and treatment of 

European species serving as models for much of the 

rest of the world. As a ‘stand-alone’ group, they have 

potency, with potential to compile suites of specific 

umbrellas for a variety of ecosystems and places 

without need to invoke less sensitive vertebrates in 

this role. Few scientists, I think, would disagree that 

some priority might be accorded within invertebrates 

to those that give us sound and subtle information on 

environmental changes and condition (New 1993) - or 

2038 



Table 3. Some criteria that may be useful to select 

invertebrate groups as priorities in conservation, as 

‘tools’ in wider environmental assessment (variously as 

indicators, flagships, umbrella groups and keystones) 

(after New 1993). 

Taxonomy well-known (species recognisable and namable). 

High diversity (collective responses to environmental changes). 

Geographically widespread (collective benefits and experience across 

similar taxa in various places). 

Abundant/dominant (sufficiently accessible for realistic information). 

Accessible to standard sampling (can detect responses). 

Ecology understood (can interpret responses). 

Occupy key ecological roles (functionally definable, justify use 

pragmatically) 

Habitat specific (sufficiently circumscribed for responses to be 

relatively specific). 

Respond to changes in environment (increased values as indicators or 

monitoring tools). 

Engender public sympathy (advocacy, overcome perception barrier by 

demonstrated values). 

that are keystone species, effective flagship or umbrella 

species or simply have political and educational value 

from ‘rarity’ alone. The categories of relative factors 

(New 1993: Table 3) may augment the generalities 

suggested above for European butterflies. Despite 

cautions (see Simberloff 1998) I do not believe we can 

afford to abandon some focus on individual species in 

developing invertebrate conservation strategies, but in 

many contexts the principles of triage - whether based 

on taxonomy, habitat, ecological role, extent of threat, 

or other, may need to be subsumed progressively in 

favour of wider issues. Knowledge and understanding 

of distributions, biology and systematics will remain 

highly incomplete, and invertebrate conservationists 

cannot be persistent apologists for this. An 

‘impediment’ can so easily be also an ‘opportunity’ - 

but strategies must heed major practical issues whilst 

acknowledging the importance of those minutiae 

in a (non-realistic) ideal world. Focusing on our 

ignorance, rather than what we do know, weakens our 

advocacy considerably. Issues include not preparing 

superficial individualised conservation plans for 

each of the vast numbers of threatened species that 

we do not understand adequately - these are rarely 

competitive for the limited funding or other support 

available, and simply acknowledging their threat 

status formally (such as on a widely available advisory 

list) may accord the same notoriety. Wider plans for 

either better-known taxonomic groups (e.g. carabids 

or weta in New Zealand, Maculinea butterflies in 

Europe, selected Harpalus ground beetles in Britain), 

or ecological arrays (e.g. saproxylic insects) give 

initial wider focus and reveal possible generalities or 

T.R. New 

common features across constituent species, as well as 

signaling their importance. Agreement on a suite of 

focal groups for such treatments, with a well-defined 

common approach, to include practical milestones and 

monitoring criteria against SMART objectives, would 

be invaluable. The ‘Globenet initiative’ (Niemela et 

al. 2000) was planned to document the urban-rural 

transitions of carabid beetle assemblages in different 

parts of the world, for example, but parallels have 

not proliferated. Standard approaches are difficult to 

promote - standardised sampling protocols have been 

proposed for ants (Agosti et al. 2001), but lack of 

widespread common approaches to evaluation render 

inter-site and international comparisons of richness 

and numerical trends almost impossible. 

For most invertebrates, we simply do not know 

specifically whether they have ecological ‘importance’, 

and what the consequences of their demise might be. 

Collectively, these are the ‘meek inheritors’ (New 

2000), often taxonomically orphaned and ecologically 

neglected, and to which we pay token ethical 

acknowledgement whilst also being largely helpless 

to conserve them other than by generalised biotope 

security as an anticipated umbrella effect. This is 

usually without assurance that any such areas can be 

managed for successional maintenance or be resilient 

to climate change. Most of these species cannot be 

promoted individually or effectively on ecological 

importance, even though this is often considerable. 

Many soil invertebrates play ecological roles that are 

significant and pivotal in sustaining the ecosystems in 

which they participate and, as Wall et al. (2001) put 

it ‘We do know that soil and sediment communities 

perform functions that are critical for the future of the 

ecosystems as a whole, although the role of biodiversity 

in the processes is poorly understood’ (p. 114), coupled 

with ‘The public is generally unaware of the essential 

ecosystem services provided by subsurface organisms’ 

(p. 115). Similar comments could be made for many 

other aspects of invertebrate ecology, encompassing 

many taxonomic groups. 

Many commentators on development of 

conservation biology over the last few decades (in part 

summarised in Soulé & Orians 2001) have repeatedly 

noted a number of themes that are essential to consider 

- some born of need, others more of frustration and that 

would be more tangential to core conservation practice. 

Janzen’s (1997) essay on what conservation biologists 


2039


do not need to know helps to emphasise the need for 

clear focus. Precise documentation of biodiversity 

may indeed be distractive, for example. The 

embracing themes listed by Soulé & Orians, together 

with reviewing progress since the earlier account by 

Soulé & Kohm (1989), reveal the many persistent 

gaps in coverage. Progress might be demonstrated 

more effectively through smaller scale operations, so 

that the individual tactics of a concerted strategy have 

massive political value once demonstrated successful. 

COMPLEMENTARITY 

Many sites, across a wide array of ecosystems, 

have been signaled as having especial conservation 

importance. These are either general hotspots (Myers 

et al. 2002), or much more finely delimited areas 

of value for conservation of particular groups of 

organisms. They thereby parallel the Butterfly Priority 

Sites for Europe, but establish a framework of readily 

acknowledged importance - for birds in particular. 

Ramsar wetlands, for example, are distributed very 

widely, and many have considerable importance also 

for aquatic invertebrates. Moves to include dragonfly 

conservation (Moore 1997) within the aegis of these 

reserves are perhaps a priority in helping to overcome 

the additional logistic restrictions that more obviously 

independent moves would create. Another example is 

Birdlife International’s global network of ‘Important 

Bird Areas’ (IBAs), designated as sites of critical 

conservation value or that support key species. Their 

advantages are that, at least for birds, sites can be 

managed as single units, but combined with limited 

species-specific conservation where needed. They vary 

greatly in size, and can collectively cover all relevant 

ecosystems. Australia’s 314 recently designated IBAs, 

for example, include examples of most biotopes across 

the country, together with important island sites, all 

initiated under a strong support network (Birds 

Australia) likely to assure continuing interest. More 

broadly, the UK ‘Sites of Special Scientific Interest’ 

incorporate individual and occasionally broader 

invertebrate values. For any of these categories, 

additional conservation values, including those of 

notable invertebrate species or communities, might 

enhance conservation interest. 

However, if we seek to incorporate invertebrate 

T.R. New 

conservation into such established initiatives for birds 

or other organisms, we need to assess carefully what 

compromises and compatibilities are really possible, 

particularly in relation to need for any different scales 

of management. Insects pose different conservation 

problems to birds in Europe, for example (Thomas 

1995), with their needs affecting management. 

Climate may influence insect distributions far more 

than those of birds, but a major contrast is that many 

insects with ecologically specialised needs are often 

associated with ephemeral successional stages - so 

that a small patch of habitat/biotope at present suitable 

may remain so for no more than a decade or so, and 

often considerably less. Further, restricted dispersal 

capability may prevent many insects colonising nearby 

habitat patches as they become suitable, even when 

these are only a few hundred metres away. In the 

past, it seems that sensitivity to temperature by many 

insects may not have been acknowledged sufficiently 

in conservation planning. Many insects in Britain now 

depend on traditional farming or forestry practices to 

maintain suitable conditions, simply because these 

practices may regenerate early succession at intervals 

of only a few years. Whilst Thomas’ inferences were 

largely from studies on butterflies, Moore (1997) 

noted the importance for dragonflies of habitats 

outside formal protected areas, and the importance 

of landscape features is now a central plank in insect 

conservation advocacy (Samways 2007). Offsets 

and direct financial subsidies or incentives as tactics 

to gain sympathetic management of private lands are 

becoming varied. 

‘Value-adding’ for wider conservation benefit 

takes many forms, but it is still rare for invertebrate 

conservation to drive major conservation endeavours 

and thereby become the major benefactors for 

communities that also include sensitive vertebrate 

species. In south eastern Australia, the endangered 

Golden Sun-moth (Synemon plana, Castniidae) is 

one of a trio of flagship species viewed as critical 

foci for threatened native grasslands - the three are 

publicised as ‘a legless lizard, an earless dragon, and 

a mouthless moth’ but Synemon is accorded at least 

the same significance as the two reptiles. Perhaps 

only the most notable invertebrates can be useful in 

such roles, and in situations where novelty value also 

persists, in which they can be garnered for political 

advantage. The world’s largest butterfly (Queen 

2040 



Alexandra’s Birdwing, Ornithoptera alexandrae) 

is a notable example, for highly vulnerable primary 

forest communities in Papua New Guinea (New 2007, 

2011, for background). The ubiquity of invertebrates 

gives them considerable importance in conservation of 

particularly restricted or vulnerable habitats - as well 

as forests and grasslands as above, partulid snails on 

Pacific islands, dragonflies in wetlands, and a variety 

of arthropods in caves are simply further examples 

from an endless possible array. 

TARGETS AND TOOLS 

The dual foci of invertebrate conservation based 

on conservation of individual focal taxa (targets), 

however these are selected, and wider values in 

ecological assessment or other human terms (tools) 

will assuredly continue. The balance between these 

will also continue to be flexible and reflect local 

needs and complexity. Any single strategy developed 

cannot therefore be universal or comprehensive, and 

this reality - even if it appears defeatist - must be 

accepted as a practical working guide. A number 

of fields of practical conservation interest that may 

help progress and integration can be specified, but 

the major themes of increased education, awareness 

of need, and appreciation of ecological importance 

as benefits that cannot be costed fully in dollars, are 

more difficult to convey. They are the foundation 

of capitalising on whatever biological knowledge is 

available but, without that advocacy and acceptance, 

any science-based strategy is likely to fail. Not 

least, the needs to transcend political boundaries, to 

harmonise human needs for land use and resources 

with adequate conservation, and secure a full range 

of representative habitats with provision for future 

changes for biodiversity conservation include both 

pragmatic compromise and ethical integrity, and 

many such decisions are deficient without inclusion of 

invertebrates. 

It is difficult to decide whether our capability for 

such wide-ranging strategy design has really improved 

over recent decades. In common with much other 

conservation practice (Soulé & Orians 2001), progress 

has been made, but central problems continue to 

dominate. In part, this reflects that the embracing 

themes are indeed broad, so that tangible progress may 

T.R. New 

be assessed more easily from smaller scale approaches 

- for which invertebrates afford many examples of 

ecological specialisation, endemism, distribution 

(etc.) which draw attention to this need for detail to be 

included within wider strategic moves. A successful 

strategy must be capable of implementation and 

assessment, rather than simply remaining as a design 

document based on unrealistic demands. Initial 

considerations include (1) existing plans for any focal 

species, biotope or site, or similar ones from which 

information can be derived, and (2) how to integrate 

or augment these for wider benefits, once these have 

been defined. The full range of interested stakeholders 

(community, authority, science) should be involved 

from the initial stages, and continue to be represented 

on the management team - many plans have in the past 

failed through not heeding the interests of important 

community or other constituency groups whose 

interests are affected by the process. Many strategies 

initially have narrow focus, because they are stimulated 

by local issues, but it is pertinent to consider the widest 

relevant geographical scope from the outset, and how 

any local strategy may be broadened in effects. The 

MacMan project, for the five species of large blue 

butterflies (Maculinea) in Europe, integrated many 

local conservation interests into a continent-wide 

approach. Almost a hundred papers across its major 

themes presented at a recent symposium (Settele et al. 

2005) demonstrated the advances and consolidation 

of knowledge and practice that can occur from such 

breadth of focus. 

POINTERS TO STRATEGY 

Ad hoc conservation plans may prove excellent 

investments in many cases but alone can never fill the 

wider needs for invertebrate conservation. Successes 

gained are important demonstrations of what can be 

done, and vital for effective advocacy as case histories 

for education. Few, however, have been costed 

adequately (or, at least, have furnished such details 

for public scrutiny), and almost all have a strong 

component of volunteer support as a key contributor 

to success. Further review of species management 

plans may further aid detection of the common themes 

needed, and how accountability may differ under 

different governing authorities (New 2009). 


2041


The scope of the exercise must be clear from 

the start, with clear definition of the objectives and 

synopses of the actions proposed, preferably in 

SMART terms (New 2009). A clear sequential process 

exists for this, whatever scale is anticipated. Either for 

an individual plan or a wider strategy, careful planning 

at the outset may pay dividends. Among these, an 

objective appraisal of what may be gained, and also 

of what may be lost, through a wider perspective is 

wise, together with a frank appraisal of the influences 

of the compromises that may be needed. For example, 

evaluation of threats for a snail or beetle may be very 

different in scale than to a bird or mammal in the same 

area, and ameliorative micromosaic management may 

become more difficult to pursue. ‘Smart decision 

making’, as discussed by Possingham et al. (2001), 

is critical but - as they pointed out - few protocols 

exist for answering even very basic questions in 

conservation management, and perhaps nowhere less 

so than for invertebrates. Those protocols that have 

been suggested may be based on single cases rather 

than on a replicated suite, and on results whose causes 

are not fully understood. With insect translocations, 

for example, we often do not know why any particular 

exercise succeeds or fails, often simply because the 

outcome is not monitored in sufficient detail (Oates & 

Warren 1990). 

Despite increasing awareness of needs for 

invertebrate conservation, and substantial attempts to 

‘accentuate the positive and eliminate the negative’, 

many of the basic points that have arisen have yet to 

become established firmly or consistently on political 

agendas. Yen & Butcher (1997) noted the perception 

impediments for invertebrates that arise from (1) small 

size, equated commonly with insignificance; (2) high 

diversity and abundance, associated with difficulty 

of study and with lack of vulnerability; (3) adverse 

publicity associated with pests, nuisances and general 

antagonists to human interests; (4) entomophobia; 

(5) their being ‘a low form of life’; and (6) innate 

reluctance to understand them. The last two points, 

among those discussed by Kellert (1993) are commonly 

overlooked but important influences and, as Yen & 

Butcher emphasised, many of these impediments 

are encountered by people in early childhood; they 

are amongst the most important ‘negatives’ to be 

eliminated. Conservation measures and advocacy 

for the Elephant Dung Beetle (Circellium bacchus) in 

T.R. New 

South Africa have helped to change the perspective for 

elephants emphasised by Poole & Thomsen (1989), 

and similar examples are becoming more frequent. 

A successful strategy is one that works! Knowledge 

and experience are ‘positives’, but it is all-too-easy 

to get distracted by research that is of fundamental 

scientific interest and value but may not directly focus 

on conservation. Many conservation biologists wish 

primarily to ‘do science’, and can run risks of losing 

touch with managers whose priorities are founded in 

a different perspective. A strategy cannot be based 

on ex cathedra statements: invertebrate conservation 

biologists and other scientists are not simply talking 

to their peers, but to the global constituency of 

people whose interest and livelihood are affected by 

management decisions. Strategies should ideally be 

based in truly cooperative endeavour toward realistic 

agreed objectives, in a cultural environment in which 

invertebrates do not have to be rescued from political 

and conservation oblivion. 

Perhaps the biggest question to address here is 

whether invertebrate species-level conservation has 

serious place in future conservation strategy. With 

the very real and continuing scientific and logistic 

difficulties, would invertebrates indeed be served better 

as passengers under any wider umbrella endeavours 

to which greater support could then be given If this 

approach were adopted, could benefits to invertebrates 

even be measured Proponents of not focusing 

specifically on invertebrates are commonly those who 

dismiss them as ‘too difficult’ or ‘too numerous’; their 

supporters tend to emphasise the subtle differences in 

biology and resource uses flowing from ecological and 

taxonomic variety, some citing values as ‘indicators’ 

in various contexts. Both recognise the intrinsic 

difficulties of advocacy and garnering effective support 

on any wide basis, and the ethical dilemmas that arise 

from simply ignoring such major components of 

Earth’s biodiversity. I would urge that we continue to 

benefit from the understanding of individual species 

conservation programmes spanning a substantial 

variety of invertebrate life forms and life styles, to 

facilitate their participation in wider conservation 

agendas, and to accept that an important component of 

our job is to make such strategy work. 

Careful consideration of the issues noted in this 

essay, and debate over their worth and feasibility, may 

contribute to this end. 

2042 



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2044 


JoTT Co m m u n ic a t i o n 3(9): 2045–2060 

Key to the larval stages of common Odonata of 

Hindu Kush Himalaya, with short notes on habitats 

and ecology 

Hasko Nesemann 1 , Ram Devi Tachamo Shah 2 & Deep Narayan Shah 3 

1 

Centre for Environmental Science, Central University of Bihar, BIT Campus, Patna, Bihar 800014, India 

2 

Hindu Kush Himalayan Benthological Society, Kausaltar, Nepal. P.O. Box: 20791, Sundhara, Kathmandu, Nepal 

3 

Senckenberg Research Institutes and Natural History Museums, Department of Limnology and Nature Conservation, 

Clamecystrasse 12, D-63571, Gelnhausen, Germany. 

Email: 1 hnesemann2000@yahoo.co.in, 2 ramdevishah@hkhbenso.org (corresponding author), 3 Deep-Narayan.Shah@senckenberg.de 




Editor: K.A. Subramanian 


Ms # o2759 

Received 11 April 2011 

Final received 22 July 2011 

Finally accepted 11 August 2011 

Citation: Nesemann, H., R.D.T. Shah & 

D.N. Shah (2011). Key to the larval stages of 

common Odonata of Hindu Kush Himalaya, with 

short notes on habitats and ecology. Journal of 

Threatened Taxa 3(9): 2045–2060. 

Copyright: © Hasko Nesemann, Ram Devi 

Tachamo Shah & Deep Narayan Shah 2011. 

Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported 

License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this 

article in any medium for non-profit purposes, 

reproduction and distribution by providing 

adequate credit to the authors and the source 

of publication. 

Author Details: Ha s k o Ne s e m a n n, Ra m De v i 

Ta c h a m o Sh a h & De e p Na r a y a n Sh a h are aquatic 

ecologists. They are specialized in aquatic 

macroinvertebrates diversity with a keen 

interest in freshwater ecology, biogeography, 

conservation, and ecological water quality 

monitoring. 

Author Contribution: HN, RDTS and DNS 

conducted fieldworks and equally contributed 

in manuscript preparation. HN illustrated the 

specimens. 

Acknowledgements: We want to thank Subodh 

Sharma (Aquatic Ecology Centre, Kathmandu 

University, Dhulikhel, Kavre, Nepal), Gopal 

Sharma (Zoological Survey of India, Gangetic 

Plains Regional Station, Patna, India), and 

R.K. Sinha (Centre for Environmental Science, 

Central University of Bihar, Patna, India) for 

their help in fieldwork. 


Abstract: The order Odonata is one of the most widely studied groups among insects 

from the oriental region. They colonize in both stagnant and running water bodies of 

wide water quality. Hitherto, the existing literature on the Odonata contained numerous 

publications with coloured figures of adults, helpful for identification. Identification key 

with figures on larval stages, using their coloration as distinguishing characters are 

largely missing. The current work attempts to provide an identification key to aquatic 

larvae of the most common families of Zygoptera, Anisoptera and Anisozygoptera 

with colour illustrations. The specimens were collected from Nepal and India (northern 

part). Each family is represented by several examples to demonstrate the range of 

morphological variability. This key helps determination of aquatic larvae Odonata up to 

family level without enormous efforts in field and laboratory. 

Keywords: Aquatic insect, damselfly, dragonfly, ecology, identification key, India, 

Nepal. 

INTRODUCTION 

The modern order Odonata is highly diversified with 5,680–5,747 

(accepted) extant species, 864 (accepted) extant subspecies and 

approximately 600 fossil species (Xylander & Günther 2003; Kalman et 

al. 2008; van Tol 2008). The highest species number is known from the 

Oriental region which has more than 1,000 species. From India, exactly 

499 species were recorded until 2005 by Mitra and 463 species confirmed 

by Subramanian (2009). Among all the species and subspecies within 

this geographical limit, the figure or description is known only for 78 

taxa (Mitra 2005). For Nepal the number of species and subspecies was 

previously 172 published by Vick (1989). Later Sharma (1998) listed 202 

taxa and Kemp & Butler (2001) added a new species for the country. In 

Bhutan, Mitra (2006) has published an actualized Odonata list with 31 

taxa, to which the occurrence of Epiophlebia laidlawi around Thimpu can 

be added (Brockhaus & Hartmann 2009). 

The taxonomy and knowledge of odonates in the Indian subcontinent 

and in many other parts of the world is largely based on terrestrial adults. 

There has been an old tradition in publication of very high quality colour 

figures for each species since the 18th century (Malz & Schröder 1979). 

In recent years all known Odonata species from the Japanese Archipelago 

were published by Okudaira et al. (2005) giving colour figures of both the 

larvae and the adults. 

Mitra (2003) has provided an updated list of the regional species 


Key to the larval stages of Odonata 

composition for the different ecoregions of the Indian 

subcontinent. It allows recognition of the local fauna 

and the possible presence of their aquatic larvae for 

the Himalayan region. In contrast, the distinction of 

aquatic odonates from the same territory is poorly 

known. Even the identification at the family level 

remains difficult for many Zygoptera (Superfamilies 

Coenagrionoidea, Lestoidea) and some Anisoptera 

(Libellulidae vs. Corduliidae). 

The classification of the order Odonata at the 

family level is a matter of controversy/ discussion. 

The number of families recognized by different authors 

varies largely. The 15 families in St. Quentin & Beier 

(1967), 27 families in Trueman & Rowe (2001), 56 

families in Xylander & Günther (2003) demonstrate 

the different views. The present study follows the 

proposed system of Kalkman et al. (2008) with one 

addition. 

The Odonata represents 7% among a total of 76,000 

freshwater insect species of the world (Balian et al. 

2008). Many species have small distributional ranges, 

and are habitat specialists; including inhabitants of 

alpine mountain bogs, seepage areas in tropical rain 

forests, and waterfalls (Kalkman et al. 2008). Larvae 

are mostly aquatic and predatory in nature. They 

feed on small odonates, oligochaetes, chironomids, 

H. Nesemann et al. 

bettles, bugs, mayflies, molluscs, even tadpoles and 

small fishes, thus playing a major role in the aquatic 

ecosystem. The Odonata richness alone occupies a 

major component in freshwater macroinvertebrate 

assemblages. This aspect is clearly shown in Fig. 1 

based on data sets of 250 macroinvertebrate samples 

from various studies (Shah 2007; Tachamo 2007; 

Nesemann 2009; Tachamo 2010). 

The order Odonata is an ideal model taxon for the 

investigation of the impact of environmental warming 

and climate change due to its tropical evolutionary 

history and adaptations to temperate climates (Hassall 

& Thompson 2008). Its assemblages are also 

considered as surrogates for the insect community 

structure in water bodies, being capable of indicating 

changes in the biological integrity of these ecosystems 

(Silva et al. 2010). This can be proven from the newly 

developed HKHbios scoring (Ofenböck et al. 2010) 

list for the Hindu Kush Himalayan river system (Fig. 

2). The Odonata at family level alone occupy about 

11% of the scoring list with tolerance scores ranging 

from 5 to 10. 

The objective of the present study is to fill the gap 

in the knowledge of the odonata larvae and to provide a 

pictorial catalogue to help in their identification. Here 

31 examples from recent collections are presented to 

14 

12 

10 

Number of Taxa 

8 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Odonata 

Ephemeroptera 

Plecoptera 

Trichoptera 

Coleoptera 

Heteroptera 

Taxonomic groups 

Diptera 

Oligochaeta 

Hirudinea 

Mollusca 

Figure 1. Number of taxa 

in different taxonomic 

groups based on 250 

macroinvertebrate samples 

data. Whiskor and Box plots: 

□ indicates 25–75 th percentile 

range; - indicates median; o 

indicates outliers (both graphs) 

2046 




10 

8 

HKHbios score 

6 

4 

2 

0 

Odonata 

Ephemeroptera 

Plecoptera 

Trichoptera 

Coleoptera 

Heteroptera 

Taxonomic groups 

Diptera 

Oligochaeta 

Hirudinea 

Mollusca 

Figure 2. Taxa Tolerance scores 

of macroinvertebrates in 

HKHbios Scoring list (Ofenböck 

et al. 2010) for different 

taxonomic groups. HKHbios list 

consists of 139 families from 

different taxonomic groups for 

Hindu Kush Himalaya. 

give their morphological characters as well as live 

colour. Colour was studied in living materials. 

Identification characters of odonata larvae 

Srivastava (1990) highlighted that the aquatic phase 

of the life cycle comprises eggs, pro-larval and larval 

stages, and 70–95 % of the whole life span is passed 

in water. Larvae undergo approximately 10–20 molts 

(mostly 11–14), over a period of three months (e.g. some 

Libellulidae) and about 6–10 years (e.g. Epiophlebiidae) 

depending on the species. One characteristic shared by 

all Odonata larvae is the conspicuous grasping labium 

(mask) (Fig. 3 a–c), used for capturing the prey. At rest 

stage, the labium is held folded underneath the head. 

During prey-capture, the labium is shot rapidly forward 

and the prey is grasped with paired hand-like lateral 

lobes (palps). Form, size and number of mental setae 

can be used for family or even genus identification 

but requires a microscope. Even from the above 

characters and with mask retracted, identification of 

larvae to suborder and family is very easy, based on 

several other features. These are namely the apices of 

abdomen, number and form of caudal gills, presence of 

abdominal gills, form, size and number of segments of 

antennae, presence of teeth along the anterior margin 

of the lateral lobes (palps) of labium (mask) and anal 

Labium 

c 

a 

Premental Setae 

Palpal Lope 

Postmentum 

Prementum 

Figure 3 a–c. Head with labium of Damselfly larvae 

a - ventral view of Euphaeidae; b - dorsal view of labium of 

Coenagrionidae showing the premental setae; c - lateral 

view showing the resting position of labium. 

pyramid with length relationship of epiproct, paraprocts 

and cerci (Fig. 4 a–b). 

The identification of larvae (nymphs) even to 

genus, is often difficult because of the fact that 

morphological differences are so slight (Pennak 1978, 

b 


2047



a 

b 

Figure 4 a–b. Odonata Morphology [figs. modified from Fraser 1919b (pl. XXXII fig. 3, pl. XXXVI, fig. 3)]. 

a - dorsal view of Damselfly larva Protoneuridae: Disparoneura spec.; b - dorsal view of Dragonfly larva Libellulidae: 

Tramea spec. 

p. 557). Therefore, keys must be used with great care. 

The identification of the collected and figured 

specimens was mainly based on descriptions given for 

the Odonata fauna of Japan (Kawai 2005; Okudaira et 

al. 2005), Malaysia (Yule & Hoi Sen 2004), and a few 

available publications from the western Himalayan 

region (Kumar 1973; Mitra 2005). The identification 

result reached in the present study remains mostly at 

family level. Only in a few cases the genus or species 

level could be reached. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Study area 

The study was carried out in various parts of Nepal 

and the northern part of India (Fig. 5) between 2005 

and 2009. The climate in the region varies from 

humid sub-tropical to temperate with hot summers 

from March to early June, the monsoon season from 

mid-June to September and winter from November to 

February. There is a dominance of monsoon rainfall 

pattern with maximum precipitation in the summer. 

The region is one of the most fertile and densely 

populated regions of the world. 

All the illustrated specimens are with the authors’ 

personal collection. 

Illustrated catalogue 

Zygoptera: Chlorocyphidae 

The medium-sized larvae (Fig. 6) have two 

forceps-like caudal gills which are triangular in cross 

section. They inhabit unpolluted, fast running streams 

and rivers (Fraser 1919a; Kumar & Prasad 1977). 

2048 




Figure 6. 

Chlorocyphidae [fig. 

taken from Fraser 

1919a (fig. No. XXIII), 

Libellago sp. (syn. 

Micromerus), length 

unknown] 

Figure 5. Major study sites in Nepal and India. 

Chlorocyphidae occur from tropical Africa to Australia 

with the highest diversity in the Oriental region 

(Kalkman et al. 2008). The family is represented with 

21 species in India (Subramanian 2009) and five have 

been recorded from Nepal (Sharma 1998) based on 

adults. 

Euphaeidae 

The larvae (Image 1 a–b) are medium-sized to 

large and robust with stonefly-like, flattened body 

form. They have three very large caudal gills that are 

saccoid. In addition, there are filamentous gills on 

the underside of abdominal segments II-VIII that are 

light grey-blue and un-pigmented (Image 1b). These 

characters allow easy identification of the family in the 

field. 

Euphaeidae (and some related families) are 

distributed from the Mediterranean in the west to Japan 

a 

b 

Image 1 a–b. Euphaeidae - Habitat: a 

- Khimti Khola, central Nepal, length 

29.3mm; b - Yangi Khola, Pokhara, 

western Nepal. Length 21mm. 


2049



in the east. These pollution-sensitive larvae are highly 

specialized on lotic microhabitats. They are locally 

common in fast running streams and smaller rivers 

of the Himalayan middle mountains. They prefer 

unpolluted waters with low organic load. Usually 

they are found on the underside of large stones in high 

water current of riffles and rapids together with large 

stoneflies of the family Perlidae. Earlier Euphaeidae 

were often united with other similar forms as families 

Polythoridae and Epallagidae (Xylander & Günther 

2003). 

Calopterygidae 

The family is also known as broad-winged 

Damselflies (Image 2). The larvae of the family has a 

shorter middle gill than lateral gills that are triangular 

in cross section without visible veins. Prementum 

is diamond shaped with deep median cleft. Palpal 

lobes are deprived of setae. First segment of antenna 

is longer than or equal to the combined length of the 

remaining antennal segments. The body size ranges 

between 30–40 mm. 

The family has cosmopolitan distribution and 

contains 171 species worldwide. They are most often 

found at the edge of streams with slow flowing water. 

In the study area, they were clinging to root masses 

and overhung on twigs. 

Synlestidae 

The caudal gills of Synlestidae (Image 3) are short, 

broad and leaf like rounded, with oval apices and a 

smaller median lobe. Prementum or palps do not hold 

any setae. The mentum is deeply cleft. The palpal 

lobes have a long moveable hook and two robust 

spines. The adults are large, metallic green or bronzeblack 

damselflies inhabiting in forested streams. A 

distinct ‘breaking joint’ or area of weakness occurs at 

the base of each caudal gill. In our study, Synlestidae 

occurred in pristine rocky mountain streams at an 

elevation of 1600m. 

Amphipterygidae (including: Philogangidae) 

The deeply pigmented aquatic larvae (Image 4) are 

typical running water species which have a flattened 

body and bear long 7-segmented antennae. They may 

be larger than other damselflies and have a stonefly-like 

appearance. The palpal lobes of the labium have three 

spines and one movable hook. Their long gills are of 

Image 2. Calopterygidae - 

Habitat: Sano Khahare Khola, 

Maghi gau, central Nepal. 

Length 38mm. 

Image 3. 

Synlestidae ‐ 

Habitat: Bagmati 

River, Kathmandu, 

central Nepal. 

Length 36.5mm. 

saccoid type. They are rare in the Himalayan region 

with a few scattered records from Nepal (Kemp & Butler 

2001) and northeastern India from Darjeeling to Assam 

and Meghalaya (Prasad & Varshney 1995). 

This family includes around 10–12 species of 4–5 

genera in the tropical and oriental region. They share 

generally plesiomorhic characters and might be an ancient 

relict line within the Zygoptera (Dudgeon 1999; Kalkman 

2050 




Image 4. 

Amphipterygidae 

Habitat: Poyang, 

China. length 

24.5mm. 

Image 6. Protoneuridae ‐ 

Habitat: Ghate Khola (Inlet of 

fishpond), Hetauda, central 

Nepal. Length: 13mm. 

spindly with large bulbous eyes. 

The Platystictidae are widespread in South Asia to 

Southeast Asia (New Guinea) and are also known from 

central America and the northern part of South America. 

The larvae are found in small forested streams. Around 

191–213 species are known worldwide (Kalkman et 

al. 2008; van Tol 2008). 

Image 5. 

Platystictidae - 

Habitat: Jakeshwori 

Khola, Melamchi, 


Length 15mm. 

et al. 2008, 2010). The genus Philoganga is often 

separated as subfamily or family (Subramanian 2009). 

Platystictidae 

The larvae of the Platystictidae family (Image 5) 

possess more or less saccoid gills as in Euphaeidae, 

but do not bear any abdominal gills. The palpal lobes 

of the labium consist one spine and one movable hook. 

The colour pattern of the body is pale and somewhat 

Protoneuridae 

The larvae of this family (Image 6) have twosegmented 

leaf-like caudal gills of similar shape and 

length. The gills are clearly divided into a thickened 

dark proximal portion and a thin, paler distal part. The 

anterolateral margins of the labial mentum are fringed 

with tiny teeth. One premental seta is situated on either 

side of the midline of the mentum. There are three 

setae on the palpal lobes. This family has delicate 

aquatic larvae with flattened bodies and relatively long 

antennae; the long, slender legs are fringed with setae. 

The posterior margin of the head forms two lateral 

horn-like extensions, whereas it is smoothly rounded 

in Coenagrionidae. 

Protoneuridae have a wide distribution in tropical 

and subtropical zones but they are insufficiently known 

and not generally recognized as family by traditional 

odonatology. Protoneuridae inhabit in a narrow range 

of slowly running and stagnant waters. The most 

abundant fauna is found in wetlands and lentic zones 


2051


Image 7. Platycnemididae - 

Habitat: Jagadishpur Reservoir, 

Lumbini, central Nepal. Length 

15mm. 

of rivers and streams in lowlands and plains. In the 

study area, they occurred numerously together with 

Coenagrionidae in submerged macrophytes of ponds, 

reservoirs and lakes. The general color appearance 

of the observed larval forms is uniform light yellow 

brown. The identification of genus- or species level is 

almost impossible due to the high number of taxa with 

completely unknown larvae. 

Platycnemididae 

The caudal gills of the larvae are very long, their 

length is approximately the same as the abdomen 

with apices somewhat pointed or attenuated and 

inconspicuous tracheal branching (Image 7). The gills 

are not usually clearly divided into proximal and distal 

portions. The third segment of antenna is slightly 

longer than the second. The anterolateral margins of 

the labial mentum are not toothed. 

The records of larvae in the study area are rare. The 

family occurs at elevations ranging from about 200m 

to 1900m. The figured specimen (Image 7) was found 

in the littoral section of Jagadishpur reservoir (197m). 

Coenagrionidae (Synonym: Agrionidae) 

The larvae have leaf-like caudal gills of similar 

shape and length. The gills are not usually distinctly 

divided into proximal and distal portions. The caudal 

gills are shorter than the abdomen, with rounded apices 


and conspicuous tracheal branching. The anterolateral 

margins of the labial mentum are not toothed and 3-5 

premental setae are usually situated on either side 

of the midline of the mentum. The third segment of 

antenna is shorter than the second. 

This family has the highest species number among 

all Zygoptera with 1,080 taxa and a worldwide 

distribution. Coenagrionidae (Image 8a–d) inhabit a 

wide range of running and stagnant waters; the most 

diversified fauna is found in wetlands and lentic zones 

of rivers and streams. In the study area, they occurred 

numerously together with Libellulidae in submerged 

macrophytes of ponds, reservoirs and lakes. The 

general color appearance included light yellow brown 

forms, dark striped forms, and bright green to dark 

brown forms. The distinction between Coenagrionidae 

and Protoneuridae is very easy based on the form of 

head and color but the identification of genus or species 

level is almost impossible due to the high number of 

taxa with completely unknown larvae. 

Anisoptera: Gomphidae 

The general body shape of Gomphidae (Image 9 

a–b) is compact, and elongate with an ovate dorsoventrally 

flattened abdomen. The legs and often 

the whole larval body is covered with various types 

of hairs, setae, and spines. The antennae are foursegmented 

with the third segment enlarged. The tarsi 

of the first two pairs of legs are two-segmented. The 

labial mentum is more or less quadrate and the anterior 

margin of labial mentum is never cleft. 

The larvae mostly inhabit running waters and are 

highly diversified in lowlands at floodplains of large 

rivers. Worldwide there are more than 966 species 

known. All Gomphidae are burrowers in sediment. 

The larvae process various morphological adaptations 

to different sediment types. Despite their burrowing 

lifestyle some Gomphidae are very good swimmers 

too. 

The larval body of sand and silt (Psammopelal, 

Pelal) burrower is covered with fine hairs. Living 

specimens have attracting light greenish colour (Image 

9a). They occur in moderately polluted water bodies. 

In case of fine gravel (akal) burrower, only the legs are 

covered with fine hairs. The third antenna segment 

is broadened spooned-shaped (Image 9b). Living 

specimens have yellow-orange brownish colour. They 

occur in non/slightly and moderately polluted river 

2052 




a b c d 

Image 8 a–d: Coenagrionidae – Habitat: a & b - Dhobi Khola near Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, central Nepal; 

c - Ghodaghodi Tal, Kailali, far western Nepal; d - Ghate Khola (Inlet of fishpond), Hetauda, central Nepal. 

Length: (a) 18.2mm; (b) 12.5mm; (c) 14.5mm; (d) 13mm. 

a 

b 

Image 9 a–b. Gomphidae - Habitat: 

(a) Ganga River, right bank at 

Ghandi Ghat, Patna (Bihar) 

Northern India; (b) Bijayapur Khola, 

Pokhara, western Nepal. 

Length: (a) 21mm; (b)18mm. 

stretches. The figured specimen (Image 9b) was found 

in the same habitat of Aphelocheirus spp. (Heteroptera: 

Nepomorpha: Aphelocheiridae). 

Lindeniinae 

This subfamily (Prasad & Varshney 1995, p. 403) or 

family (Hawking & Theischinger 1999, p. 25) (Image 

10) comprises the genera Sieboldius, Ictinogomphus 

and Gomphidia in Asia and Australia. Kalkman et al., 

(2008) does not include Lindeniinae (or Lindeniidae) 

as a separate taxon. The larvae are very large and 

robust with circular flattened abdomen. Previously 

they were placed into the family Gomphidae, but 

differ in several characters and life style. The labium 

is enlarged and much broader than in Gomphidae. The 

colour of the body is dark ochre-brown. 

Lindeniinae larvae are not sediment-inhabiting; 

they are exclusive climbers on submerged macrophytes. 

They colonize large stagnant water bodies and slowly 

running rivers from lowlands up to 800m. Larva 


2053


Image 10. 

Lindeniinae - 

Habitat: Phewa 

Lake wetland, 

Pokhara, 

western 

Nepal. Length: 

20.5mm. 

was found climbing on submerged macrophytes in a 

lentic zone of Metapotamon-type (large river). They 

were recorded in a moderately polluted water body. 

It is locally abundant in floating macrophytes, found 

in Nepal (Phewa Tal wetlands, Begnas Tal effluent) 

and India (Jharkhand, upper Subernarekha River and 

Maharashtra, Tahoba wetland), preferring Eichhornia 

crassipes as substrate. 

Lindeniidae were already separated from the 

majority of Gomphidae on subfamily level as 

Hageniinae by several authors (St. Quentin & Beier 

1968, p. 8). More recent publications raise them to 

family level (Xylander & Günther 2003, p. 141). 


Aeshnidae 

Aeshnidae larvae (Image 11 a–d) are the largest 

among odonata reaching more than 5cm length. The 

larvae are rather elongated with a robust, cylindrical 

abdomen and very large eyes. The antennae are six or 

seven-segmented and filamentous. The tarsi of all legs 

have three segments. The labial mentum is widest in 

the distal portion and narrowing towards the posterior 

part with a cleft in the anterior margin. The body 

surface of the larvae is smooth, without any hairs, 

setae or bristles. The larval colour display a wide 

range from light yellow, bright green, ochre brown to 

dark brownish often with segmentally arranged dark 

patterns on the dorsal side of the abdomen. 

Within the family Aeshnidae, the subfamily 

Anactinae is mainly confined to the Ethiopian and 

Oriental regions with range extension of some 

species into the temperate Palearctic. In the Indian 

subcontinent, they are found sporadically in various 

undisturbed, natural, slightly and moderately polluted 

waters. They are nowhere abundant or common and 

only small numbers of individuals were observed. 

Cordulegastridae 

The body of Cordulegastridae larvae (Image 12) 

is elongate and covered with bristles or tufts of setae. 

The distal margin of the palpal lobes of labium is with 

large irregular teeth which interlock with those on 

the corresponding lobe. The anterior margin of the 

mentum is cleft. The colour appearance is dominated 

a b c d 

Image 11 a–d. Aeshnidae - Habitat: a - Gaur municipality pond, Rautahat, central Nepal; b - Punpun River, Gaurichak, 

Patna, northern India; c - Khimti Khola, central Nepal; d - Punyamata Khola, Nagarkot hill, central Nepal. 

Length (a) 53mm; (b) 10.3mm; (c) 30.5mm; (d) 26.5mm 

2054 




Image 12. 

Cordulegastridae ‐ 

Habitat: Pengul Khola, 

Sindhupalanchwok, 


Length: 33.5 mm. 

by a dark brown background with some blackish 

markings, regularly arranged on the dorsal side of the 

abdominal segments. 

The family has a limited distribution range in 

the Palearctic and Oriental regions. The larvae are 

crawlers on sand and muddy sediments of fast running 

cool streams and rivers, especially in the Himalaya. 

They usually lay half buried in the surface sediment 

layer and wait for prey. The larvae are pollutionsensitive 

and demand highly oxygenated water. They 

are not common and were recorded during the present 

study only from the upper stretches of small rivers and 

streams of natural forests above 1500m. 

Macromiidae 

The legs of Macromiidae (Image 13) are very long, 

giving the larvae a “spidery” appearance. The abdomen 

is depressed and more or less circular in outline. 

On the head, a small “horn” is present between the 

antennal bases. The labium bears rather long, regular 

teeth along the distal margins of the palpal lobes. 

The family has a worldwide distribution but their 

occurrence is restricted in the tropical, subtropical and 

warm temperate zones except South America. There 

are approximately 120 species known. They prefer 

running water with low organic input and are found 

in slightly to moderately polluted stretches. A few 

Macromia and Epophthalmia species are recorded 

from northern India and Nepal (Sharma 1998; Mitra 

Image 13. Macromiidae - Habitat: Mahadev Khola, 

Bhaktapur, central Nepal. Length: 23.5mm. 

2003). The Macromiidae are recently raised to family 

level, previously they were placed as subfamily 

Epophthalmiinae into family Corduliidae. 

They are frequently recorded from the upper regions 

of undisturbed forest streams in the Himalayan middle 

mountains from 800 to 1970 m. The figured specimen 

might belong to Macromia moorei moorei, which is 

spread widely over the northern Indian subcontinent. 

The larvae occur on coarse-grained sand or gravel 

substrate (Psammal, Akal) deposited behind or under 

large stones. 

Corduliidae 

The larvae of Corduliidae (Image 14 a–b) resemble 

Libellulidae, but their size is usually larger and the 

body is more firm than the latter ones. Their legs are 

rather short and the apex of the femur does not extend 

beyond abdominal segment VIII. The abdomen is not 

markedly depressed or circular in outline. The cerci are 

generally more than one-half as long as paraprocts. 

The total number of species is 255 worldwide; in 

Asia the family is less represented. Historically, there 

was no clear distinction between the three families 

Libellulidae, Corduliidae and Macromiidae. They all 

were placed into a single family Libellulidae. More 

recently fundamental characters of the anal pyramid 

allow distinguishing larvae. In Corduliidae, the length 

of cerci exceeds always more than half as long as 

epiproct, whereas in Libellulidae the length of cerci 

is less than half as long as epiproct (Okudaira et al. 

2005, p. 360). They were rarely collected in the study 

area from slowly running stretches of stream and river 


2055



a 

b 

Image 14 a–b: Corduliidae - Habitat: 

a - Dhobi Khola near Kathmandu 

University, Dhulikhel, central Nepal; 

b - Ghate Khola (Inlet of fishpond), 

Hetauda, central Nepal. 

Length: (a) 26.3mm; (b) 22mm. 

with moderate to heavy pollution. It is not possible 

to recognize and separate them in the field from 

Libellulidae; proper identification can be only done in 

a laboratory with a microscope. 

Libellulidae 

The larvae (Image 15 a–g) are minute to mediumsized 

and have a delicate comparatively soft body. 

Their legs are rather short and the apex of the femur 

does not extend beyond abdominal segment VIII. The 

abdomen is not markedly depressed or circular in 

outline. The cerci generally are not more than onehalf 

as long as paraprocts. 

The family Libellulidae, the largest family of 

Anisoptera has a cosmopolitan distribution with more 

than 970–1,012 described species. The larvae are 

very similar in appearance and shape to Corduliidae 

but differ by their anal pyramid. In Libellulidae, the 

length of the cerci is less than half as long as epiproct. 

Body colour of the different species may cover a 

wide range from bright yellow, light greenish to dark 

brown. Larvae are usually very abundant in all types of 

stagnant waters and are able to colonize successfully 

even in small water bodies with low oxygen where 

other odonates cannot survive. 

Anisozygoptera: Epiophlebiidae 

The larvae are somewhat slender and elongate; 

with a slight petiolation at the base of the wing pad. 

The minute and very short antennae are with five 

segments. The larval body is very hard and firm 

covered with tubercles, but lacking any bristles. The 

family is extremely rare with isolated discontinuous 

relict distribution in Japan and the Himalaya only. The 

family is certainly recorded from Mesozoic onwards 

(Nel & Jarzembowski 1996). 

There are only two extant species, regarded as 

‘living fossils’. Epiophlebia superstes are recorded 

only from Japan while Epiophlebia laidlawi are 

recorded from the Himalayan regions of Bhutan, India 

and Nepal. The life cycle of the Epiophlebia superstes 

is better known, including adults, terrestrial phase, 

and egg deposition; adults of E. laidlawi are not yet 

found. The larvae are limited on natural upper regions 

of fast running forest streams with good water quality. 

Small larvae prefer rapids and riffles with embedded 

stream bottom; they are highly pollution-sensitive 

and live only in Epirhithron- to Metarhithron-type of 

biocoenotic zone (Nesemann et al. 2008, 2011). 

The young larvae (Image 16a) differ markedly 

in dorsal colour, having dark pigmentation only on 

abdominal segments 2 to 5, and 9. Large larvae have 

generally brownish or nearly blackish appearance with 

dorsal metameric pattern on abdomen (Image 16b). 

The distinguishing of male and female individuals by 

the presence of ovipositor is only possible for larger 

larvae from 8mm body length onwards (Nesemann et 

al. 2008, 2011). 

2056 




a b c d 

e f g 

Image 15 a–g. Libellulidae - Habitat: a - Cha Khola (irrigation channel), Kuntabesi, central Nepal; b - Nagdaha pond, 

Lalitpur, central Nepal; c - Kumhrar park, “Bivalvia” pond, Patna, northern India; d - Taudaha Lake, Kirtipur, central Nepal; 

e - Kumhrar park, “Phoenix” pond, Patna, northern India; f & g - spring pools in Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, central 

Nepal. Length (a) 24mm; (b) 11.5mm; (c) 12.2mm; (d) 12.5mm; (e) 13.8mm; (f) 18mm; (g) 18mm. 

a 

b 

Image 16 a–b. Epiophlebiidae 

(Epiophlebia laidlawi) - Habitat: 

a - Sim; b - Simbhanjyang Khola, 

Daman, central Nepal. 

Length: (a) 8.6mm; (b) 23mm. 


2057



References 

TAXONOMIC KEY 

Figure 7. Lestidae [fig. 

taken: Kawai 1985: 62 

(fig. no. 3a), Lestes sp. 

(length unknown)] 

The order Odonata can be divided into two distinct 

groups or suborders: Damselflies (Zygoptera) and 

Dragonflies (Anisoptera). 

Damselflies larvae are usually more slender than 

dragonflies and their abdomen terminates in three 

caudal filaments (gills) resembling leaves. Dragonflies 

larvae are much more robust with an abdomen 

terminating in five points consisting of a pair of cerci, 

a pair of paraprocts, and a single epiproct. In both 

damselflies and dragonflies, the shape of the lower lip 

(labium) can be a diagnostic character for separating 

families. The shape of antennal segments is also an 

important character in identification of odonates. 

Balian, E.V., H. Segers, C. Le´v`eque & K. Martens (2008). 

The freshwater animal diversity assessment: an overview of 

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Brockhaus, T. & A. Hartmann (2009). New records of 

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38(3): 203–215. 

Dudgeon, D. (1999). Tropical Asian Streams: Zoobenthos, 

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Key to Odonata suborders 

1. Larvae slender, head wider than thorax and abdomen; abdomen terminating in three long caudal leaf-or 

sac-like gills (these gills are fragile and are sometimes broken off and lost)... Zygoptera (Damselflies) 

2. Abdomen rather short and stout, lacking caudal gills; head usually narrower than thorax and abdomen; 

five short stiff, pointed appendages at tip of abdomen ending in five points; the three largest of which 

form an ‘anal pyramid’ …......................................................................................…Anisoptera (Dragonflies) 

3. Larvae stout, elongate with a slight petiolation at the base of the wing pad; antennae with five 

segments; body covered with tubercles, but lacking bristles, body firm; extremely rare and restricted 

in the Himalayas (Nepal, India and Bhutan)……................................................…...Anisozygoptera (Relict 

Dragonflies): one family with one species: Epiophlebiidae (Epiophlebia laidlawi) (Image 16 a&b) 

2058 




Key to Zygoptera Families 

1. Two forceps-like caudal gills (the median gill is minute) which are triangular in cross section………. ....... 

................................................................................................................ ..............Chlorocyphidae (Fig. 6) 

- Three caudal gills that are sac-, leaf-, or blade-like………...............................................………….……..2 

2. Filamentous gills on the underside of abdominal segments II-VIII…......... ………… ………………… …… 

……… ……..............................................................................................……..Euphaeidae (Image 1 a-b) 

- No filamentous gills on the underside of abdominal segments II-VIII …...................................................3 

3. First antennal segment longer than the combined length of subsequent segments; anterior margin has a 

well-developed median cleft ..…………............................................................. Calopterygidae (Image 2) 

- First antennal segment much shorter than the combined length of subsequent segments..... ....... .. .....4 

4. Labium distinctly spoon-shaped and strongly tapered posteriorly ………….……………...Lestidae (Fig. 7) 

- Labium quadrate or more or less triangular in shape, with palpal lobes bearing moveable hooks or 

spines at the tips, and lacks setae on the mentum or palpal lobes…………..............………....................5 

- Labium with setae on the mentum or palpal lobes………………...............................................................8 

5. 

- 

6. 

Gills leaf-like with rounded apices…………..............................................................Synlestidae (Image 3) 

Gills more or less saccoid……………………….............................................…………..............................6 

Delicate aquatic larvae with flattened bodies and relatively long antennae; long, slender legs fringed 

with setae…….......................................................................................................................................... 7 

7. Larvae may be large and deeply pigmented; palpal lobes of the labium with three spines and one 

movable hook ……..............…......…………………Amphipterygidae (including: Philogangidae) (Image 4) 

- Pale, somewhat spindly larvae with large bulbous eyes; palpal lobes of the labium with a single spine 

and one movable hook…..................................................................................…..Platystictidae (Image 5) 

8. Gills clearly divided into a thickened dark proximal portion and a thin, paler distal part; one premental 

seta is situated on either side of the midline of the mentum; anterolateral margins of the labial mentum 

fringed with tiny teeth ……...........…………………………….....…………………Protoneuridae (Image 6) 

- Gills not usually clearly divided into proximal and distal portions; anterolateral margins of the labial 

mentum are not toothed; usually more than one premental seta on either side of the midline of the 

mentum….............................................................................................................................…............... 9 

9. Caudal gills long (approximately the same length as the abdomen); third segment of antenna longer 

than the second...............................................................................................Platycnemididae (Image 7) 

- Caudal gills shorter than the abdomen; third segment of antenna shorter than the second; 3-5 

premental setae are usually situated on either side of the midline of the mentum…................................ 

................................................................................................................. Coenagrionidae (Image 8 a-d) 

Key to Anisoptera Families 

1. Labial mentum or palpal lobes more or less flat; without setae on the mentum or (usually) the palpal 

lobes ....................................................................................................................................................... 2 

- Labial mentum or palpal lobes are mask-or bowl-shaped; setae usually occur on the mentum and are 

always present on the palpal lobes …….…………………… …………………………...............................3 

2. Antennae four-segmented, with the 3rd segment enlarged; tarsi of the first two pairs of legs are twosegmented; 

labial mentum more or less quadrate; anterior margin of labial mentum is never cleft, 

A. With elongated abdomen,burrowing in substrate ………...............................….Gomphidae (Image 9 a-b) 

B. With circular and widened abdomen, climbing on macrophytes……………...…….Lindeniinae (Image 10) 

- Antennae six or seven-segmented and filamentous; tarsi of all legs have three segments; labial mentum 

widest in the distal portion and narrowing towards the posterior with a cleft in the anterior margin......... 

......... ................................................................................................................Aeshnidae (Image 11 a–d) 

3. Body elongate and covered with bristles or tufts of setae; distal margin of the palpal lobes of the 

labium with large irregular teeth; anterior margin of the mentum is cleft......Cordulegastridae (Image 12) 

- Body short and stout; anterior margin of the mentum is cleft....................................................................4 

4. 

- 

5. 

- 

Legs very long giving the larvae a ‘spidery’ appearance; abdomen depressed and more or less circular 

in outline; a small ‘horn’ may be present between the antennal bases................ Macromiidae (Image 13) 

Legs rather short; abdomen not markedly depressed or circular in outline ……………… … ………...... 5 

Cerci generally more than one-half as long as paraprocts ……...….................Corduliidae (Image 14 a-b) 

Cerci generally not more than one-half as long as paraprocts ….................... Libellulidae (Image 15 a-g) 

Montana (Selys) (Zygoptera: Amphipterygidae). Notulae 

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2059


Zoological Survey of India, Occasional Paper No. 202: 

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Vii+861pp. 

2060 



Reproductive ecology of Shorea roxburghii G. Don 

(Dipterocarpaceae), an Endangered semievergreen tree 

species of peninsular India 

A.J. Solomon Raju 1 , K. Venkata Ramana 2 & P. Hareesh Chandra 3 

1,2,3 

Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530003, India 

Email: 1 ajsraju@yahoo.com (corresponding author), 2 vrkes.btny@gmail.com, 3 hareeshchandu@gmail.com 




Editor: K.R. Sasidharan 


Ms # o2763 




Citation: Raju, A.J.S., K.V. Ramana & P.H. 

Chandra (2011). Reproductive ecology of 

Shorea roxburghii G. Don (Dipterocarpaceae), 

an Endangered semievergreen tree species of 

peninsular India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 

3(9): 2061–2070. 

Copyright: © A.J. Solomon Raju, K. Venkata 

Ramana & P. Hareesh Chandra 2011. Creative 

Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. 

JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any 

medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction 

and distribution by providing adequate credit to 


Author Detail: see end of this article 

Author Contribution: AJSR has done part of 

the field work and write-up of the manuscript 

while VR and HC were involved in field work 

and provided assistance in writing. 

Acknowledgements: This study is a part of 

the research work carried out under an All India 

Coordinated Research Project on Reproductive 

Biology of RET Tree species funded by the 

Ministry of Environment & Forests, New 

Delhi sanctioned to AJSR. We thank Dr. V.V. 

Ramamurthy, Division of Entomology, Indian 

Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, for 

identification of some insects reported in the 

present study. 


Abstract: Shorea roxburghii is an Endangered semievergreen tree species restricted 

to peninsular India in the Eastern Ghats. Leaf shedding and leaf flushing are annual 

events while flowering is not annual, but when it does flower, in March, it shows massive 

blooming. Massive blooming, drooping inflorescence with pendulous flowers, ample 

pollen production, gradual pollen release as a function of anther appendage and 

aerodynamic pollen grains - all suggest anemophily. The characteristics of nectar 

secretion, hexose-rich sugars and amino acids in nectar are additional adaptations 

for entomophily. The plant is functionally self-incompatible, obligately outcrossing 

and ambophilous. The natural fruit set does not exceed 15% despite the plant being 

ambophilous. Scarabaeid beetle by causing flower damage and bruchid beetle by using 

buds, flowers and fruits for breeding greatly affect fruit set rate and thus the success 

of sexual reproduction in this plant species is also affected. Seeds are non-dormant, 

the embryo is chlorophyllous while the fruits are on the plant. Healthy seeds germinate 

as soon as they reach the forest floor but their establishment is seemingly affected 

by resource constraints due to the rocky habitat. The study suggests that non-annual 

flowering, massive flowering for a short period, high bud/flower and fruit infestation rate, 

absence of seed dormancy and rocky habitat could attribute to the endangered status 

of S. roxburghii. 

Keywords: Ambophily, anemochory, bud, flower and fruit predation, self-incompatibility, 

Shorea roxburghii. 

Introduction 

Shorea is an important timber genus with most of its species classified 

as Critically Endangered in the IUCN Red List (IUCN 2011). James & 

Chan (1991) stated that Shorea species are insect pollinated; a variety of 

insects have been implicated in its pollination. Shorea species occurring 

within one habitat and sharing the same insect pollinators, flower 

sequentially to prevent competition for pollinators (James & Chan 1991). 

S. megistophylla, an endemic canopy tree species in Sri Lanka has been 

reported to be pollinated by Apis bees (Dayanandan et al. 1990). Shorea 

flowers with large yellow elongate anthers have been reported to be 

pollinated by bees while those with small, white anthers by thrips. Thrips 

are implicated as pollen vectors for several Malaysian species of Shorea 

(Appanah & Chan 1981). In India, the genus Shorea is represented by S. 

assamica, S. robusta, S. tumbuggaia and S. roxburghii. S. robusta is an 

anemophile with explosive pollen release pollination mechanism (Atluri et 

al. 2004). S. tumbuggaia is a Data Deficient (Ashton 1998a) semievergreen 

tree species restricted to the southern Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh and 

Tamil Nadu. It is anemophilous as well as anemochorous (Solomon Raju 

et al. 2009). S. roxburghii is a semievergreen Endangered (Ashton 1998b) 

tree species of peninsular India, which is included in the list of medicinal 


Reproductive ecology of Shorea roxburghii 

plants of conservation areas of Eastern Ghats of Andhra 

Pradesh (Rani & Pullaiah 2002; Jadhav & Reddy 

2006). It is a constituent species of southern tropical 

dry deciduous forests in the Eastern Ghats (Chauhan 

1998) and extends its distribution to dry evergreen or 

deciduous forest and bamboo forest, often on sandy 

soils in Burma, Thailand, Indochina and peninsular 

Malaysia in tropical Asia. It is an important timber and 

resin source; the latter is used as a stimulant and for 

fumigation (Ashton 1963, 1982; Anonymous 1985). 

There is absolutely no information on the reproductive 

ecology of this species, hence the present study was 

contemplated to provide a comprehensive account on 

its reproductive ecology and discuss the same in the 

light of relevant published information. 

Materials and Methods 

Shorea roxburghii populations growing on rocky 

areas at Akasaganga, Papavinasanam and Talakona 

sites of Tirupati Hills of the Eastern Ghats (Talakona— 

13 0 40’N & 79 0 19’E, elevation 744m; Akasaganga and 

Papavinasanam are 3km apart from each other but 

both the sites are about 80km to the west of Talakona) 

in Andhra Pradesh State were selected for study during 

2008–2010. The study aspects included flowering, 

fruiting, seed dispersal and seedling ecology. Ten 

inflorescences, two each from five trees were tagged 

and followed for their flowering duration. Thirty 

flowers collected from six trees were used to record 

floral details. Mature flower buds on ten inflorescences 

were tagged and followed for recording the time of 

flower opening. The same flowers were followed for 

recording the time of anther dehiscence. The pollen 

grain characteristics were recorded by consulting the 

book of Bhattacharya et al. (2006). Pollen production 

per flower was calculated following the method 

described by Cruden (1977). Pollen fertility was 

assessed by staining them in 1% acetocarmine. Stigma 

receptivity and nectar volume, sugar concentration 

and sugar types were recorded by following the 

protocols given in Dafni et al. (2005). Nectar was also 

analyzed for amino acid types by following the paper 

chromatography method of Baker & Baker (1973). 

Fifty mature buds, five each from 10 inflorescences on 

five trees were bagged a day before anthesis, without 

manual self pollination, to know whether fruit set 

A.J.S. Raju et al. 

occurs through autogamy. Another set of 50 mature 

buds was selected in the same way, then emasculated 

and bagged a day prior to anthesis. The next day, the 

bags were removed and the stigmas were brushed with 

freshly dehisced anthers from the flowers of the same 

tree and rebagged to know whether fruit set occurs 

through geitonogamy. Five trees each at Akasaganga, 

Papavinasanam and Talakona were selected for manual 

cross-pollination and open-pollination. Fifty flowers 

were used per tree for manual cross-pollination. For 

this, mature buds were emasculated and bagged a 

day prior to anthesis. The next day, the bags were 

removed; freshly dehisced anthers from the flowers of 

another tree were brushed on the stigma and rebagged. 

Ten inflorescences on each tree were tagged for fruit 

set in open pollination. The bagged flowers and 

tagged inflorescences were followed for four weeks 

to record the results. Observations on flower visitors 

and their foraging activity period with reference to 

pollination were made by using binoculars. The insect 

species visiting the flowers and the forage sought by 

them were recorded. Five-hundred flowers collected 

at random from 20 trees were examined to record 

the percentage of flower damage by the scarabaeid 

beetle. Another set of 500 flowers collected from 20 

trees were examined for flower infestation rate by the 

bruchid beetle. Further, 385 fallen fruit were collected 

to record fruit infestation rate by the same bruchid 

beetle. Fruit set rate, maturation and fruit fall timing 

and dispersal aspects were observed in the field. 

Field observations were made to record natural seed 

germination and establishment rate. One-hundred 

mature fruits collected from the trees were sown in an 

experimental plot to record seed germination rate. 

Results 

Shorea roxburghii is a semievergreen tree species. 

Leaf shedding, flowering and leaf flushing are annual 

events in this species. Leaf shedding occurs during 

the winter season from mid-November to mid- 

February (Image 1a). About a week later, leaf flushing 

begins and ends in July (Image 1b). Flowering 

begins in the first week of March and ceases by the 

end of March at population level. A tree flowers for 

about three weeks only. Trees grow up to a height 

of 12m and flowering at canopy level is quite visible 

2062 




a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

f 

g 

h 

i 

j 

k 

l 

m n o 

Image 1 - Shorea roxburghii: a - Leaf shedding stage; b - Leaf flushing followed by flowering; c - Flowering paniculate 

drooping inflorescence; d - Flower; e - Stamen arrangement and anthers equipped with appendage; f - Pollen grain; 

g - Ovary with style and stigma; h - Trifid stigma; i & j - Bruchid beetle larva in mature buds; k-o - Insect foragers - 

k - Apis dorsata; l - Apis cerana; m - Apis florea; n - Trigona iridipennis; o - Vespa cincta. 

from a long distance due to the presence of newly 

emerging bright green leaves. Inflorescence is a 

drooping terminal or axillary racemose panicle with 

an average of 37±6 flowers which anthese over an 


2063


average period of 5±2 days (Image 1c). Flowers are 

pedicellate, hang downwards, milky white with light 

reddish tinge, fragrant, 2cm long and 3cm across, 

bisexual, zygomorphic, cup-like at base and star-like 

terminally (Image 1d). Sepals are five, blunt-lobed, 

0.7cm long, light green, imbricate, basally united into 

a cup, free terminally and persistent. Petals are five, 

milky white, fragrant, 2.2cm long, connate at base 

forming a cup-like structure, free terminally. Stamens 

are 15, free, arranged closely in two whorls to the 

base of the corolla; inner row consists of five stamens 

while outer row with ten stamens. They are situated 

below the level of stigma. Each stamen consists 

of a 0.2cm long filament with a 0.2cm long anther. 

Anthers are light yellow, dorsifixed but appear to be 

basifixed; tetrasporangiate and dehisce by longitudinal 

slits ca. 30min after anthesis. The connectival part of 

the filament of each anther extends into a 0.3cm long 

sterile tip constituting “anther appendage” (Image 1e). 

The pollen production per anther is 3,379.8±196.62 

grains, and per flower it is 50,697. The pollen grains 

are yellow, powdery, radially symmetric, tricolporate, 

24.9µm long and have reticulate exine with muri 

separated by lumina (Image 1f). In a flower, fertile 

pollen is 92% while the remaining 8% is sterile. Pollen 

to ovule ratio is 8,449.5:1. Ovary is semi-inferior, 

syncarpous with three united locules having a total of 

six light yellow ovules on axile placentation. Style 

is 0.6cm long, semi-wet and extended into a trilobed 

stigma (Image 1g,h). The petals, stamens, style and 

stigma fall off on the third day while the sepals remain 

until the fruits fall off. 

The flower opening occurs at 0500–0600 hr while 

anther dehiscence occurs after three hours. The petals 

being twisted in bud gradually unfold and spread 

upwards gradually giving a star-like appearance. The 

cup-like flower base with stamens is exposed to the 

outside environment. The flowers are nectariferous 

and each flower produces 2.15±0.28 µl of nectar. The 

nectar sugar concentration is 11.7±1.9 % consisting of 

glucose, fructose and sucrose but the first two sugar 

types are dominant. The nectar also contains both 

essential and non-essential amino acids; the essential 

ones are histidine, arginine, iso-leucine and threonine 

while the non-essentials are proline, aspartic acid, 

alanine, glutamic acid, glysine, tyrosine and cystine. 

The stigma lobes are erect and united in bud but 

unfold at anthesis indicating receptivity which lasts 


for two days by being in semi-wet state; it is dry and 

shows signs of withering by the end of the second day. 

The same duration of stigma receptivity was recorded 

when tested with hydrogen peroxide. The flowers 

in the hanging position do not allow nectar flow 

along the length of the corolla since it is in a minute 

quantity and held intact by the ovary base and staminal 

filaments. The pollen release from dehisced anthers 

was gradual when the flowers were shaken manually. 

The dehisced anthers became empty after 3–5 manual 

shakes. This gradual pollen release was considered 

to be an adaptation for anemophily. The insects 

probing the flowers for forage collection also caused 

the anthers to release pollen gradually. The flowers 

were foraged during day time by eight insect species 

belonging to Hymenoptera [Apis dorsata (Image 1k), 

A. cerana (Image 1l), A. florea (Image 1m), Trigona 

iridipennis (Image 1n) and Vespa cincta (Image 1o)], 

Diptera [Helophilus sp. (Image 2a)] and Lepidoptera 

[Euploea core (Image 2b) and Tirumala limniace 

(Table 1)]. Bees were found to collect both nectar 

and pollen; they were regular foragers throughout 

the flowering season. Their foraging activity pattern 

showed two schedules, one during 0700–1200 hr with 

hectic activity and the other during 1600–1800 hr with 

low activity. Wasps and fly foragers were also regular 

but only a few individuals visited the flowers. They 

foraged for nectar only during the forenoon period 

from 1000 to 1200 hr (Fig. 1). Nymphalid butterflies 

were also exclusive nectar foragers but their visits 

were not consistent during the day. The data collected 

on the foraging visits of these foragers on a given day 

Table 1. List of insect foragers on Shorea roxburghii 

Family Scientific Name Common Name 

Hymenoptera 

Apidae Apis dorsata Rock Bee 

Apis cerana 

Indian Honey Bee 

Apis florea 

Dwarf Honey Bee 

Trigona iridipennis Stingless Bee 

Vespidae Vespa cincta Potter Wasp 

Diptera 

Syrphidae Helophilus sp. Hoverfly 

Lepidoptera 

Nymphalidae Euploea core Common Indian Crow 

Tirumala limniace Blue Tiger 

2064 




c 

a 

b d e 

f 

g 

h 

i 

j 

k 

l 

m 

n 

o 

p 

Image 2. Shorea roxburghii: a - Helophilus sp.; b - Euploea core, c – e - Juvenile and adult Popillia impressipyga; f - Early 

stage of fruit; g - Maturing fruit; h - Mature fruit; i - Fruit without calyx; j – l - Fruits infested with Bruchid beetle larva; 

m - Seedling mortality; n – p - Growing seedling. 

indicated that bees accounted for 77%, wasps and 

flies each 5% and butterflies 13% of the total foraging 

visits (Fig. 2). All insects after landing probed the 

flowers for nectar and/or pollen. Both nectar and 


2065



No. of foraging visits 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

Apis dorsata 

Apis cerana 

Apis florea 

Trigona iridipennis 

Vespa cincta 

Helophilus sp. 

0 

0600 0700 0800 0900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 

Time (h) 

Figure 1. Hourly foraging activity of insects on Shorea roxburghii 

% of foraging visits 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Bees Wasp Fly Butterflies 

Insect order 

Figure 2. Forgaing visits of different categories of insects 

on Shorea roxburghii 

pollen collecting insects were found to be contacting 

the anthers and stigma invariably while collecting 

the forage and such contact with the sex organs was 

considered to be resulting in pollination. Trigona 

bees tended to stay mostly on the same tree for forage 

collection effecting mostly selfpollinations while Apis 

bees and wasps made frequent inter-tree flights in 

search of more pollen/nectar causing cross-pollination 

simultaneously. The flies tended to forage mostly on 

the same tree; it could effect mostly selfpollinations. 

The nymphalid butterflies being inconsistent foragers 

also made frequent inter-tree flights in search of nectar 

and in doing so effecting crosspollinations. 

Further, swarms of Coleopteran Popillia 

impressipyga (Scarabaeidae) (Image 2c-e) were found 

to be consistent flower-feeders. Its newly emerging 

offspring especially juveniles fed on the sap of floral 

petals while the adults on all parts of the flowers 

effecting the success of sexual reproduction to a great 

extent. The breeding site of this beetle was not known. 

Flower damage rate by this beetle was 48% and these 

flowers subsequently fell off. An unidentified bruchid 

beetle was found to be breeding in flowers and the 

flowers hosting this beetle were found subsequently 

to be falling off without fruit set. In each flower, there 

was only one green coloured larva of this beetle (Image 

1i,j) and the larva falls off along with the petals and 

stamens. The larvae upon reaching the ground pupate 

within the soil to produce adults. Flower infestation 

rate by this beetle was 36.6%. 

The manual pollinations for autogamy and 

geitonogamy did not set fruit while those of 

xenogamous pollinations set fruit ranging from 15.7 

to 28.4 %. The fruit set was 8.4–15.4 % in openpollinations 

(Table 2). The number of fruits set in 

open-pollinations at inflorescence level was 5.03±0.52. 

Each fruit produces only one seed against the actual 

number of six ovules. The fruits take about five weeks 

to mature and fall to the ground by the end of May 

(Image 2f-g). They are winged and wings represent 

sepals which are accrescent in that they are thickened 

and three of them expand into wings and are larger than 

the other two sepals (Image 2h). They are 1.41±0.29 

gm in weight while the fruits without winged sepals 

are 1.18 ± 0.26 (Image 2i). The fruits show colour 

change from green to brown to dark brown gradually 

and finally become dry. The fruit wall is free from 

calyx, woody, with a thin inner membranous lining 

invaginated into the folds of cotyledons and split into 

two parts at the apex. The seed is non-dormant and the 

embryo is chlorophyllous. 

The fruits also contained the same bruchid beetle 

which was found in flowers. Each fruit contained a 

single larva which was creamy white in colour. The 

larva feeds on the internal soft parts of the developing 

2066 



Table 2. Fruit set under open pollinations and manual 

xenogamous cross-pollinations in Shorea roxburghii at 

three sites in the Tirumala Hills 

Tree number 

fruit and emerges from the exit hole drilled by it 

(Image 2j-l). When the fruit falls to the ground, the 

larva leaves the fruit through the hole for pupation in 

the soil. The pupal stage was observed for six weeks 

but there was no emergence of adult in the lab set up; 

this long period was considered as dormant stage of 

pupa for the emergence of the adult when conditions 

are favourable in the forest soil. Further, in 2% of 

fallen fruits, the larva remains inside to pupate and 

produce the adult beetle. Fruit infestation rate was 

87%. The dry winged fruits fall to the ground and 

disperse within a 10–20 m area of the tree due to wind 

action. Healthy seeds germinate in field conditions 

following monsoon showers. A small number of 

seedlings withered initially (Image 2m) while most 

of them perished after some growth and development. 

Finally, a few seedlings grew continually (Image 2np). 

Seed germination rate was 8% in the experimental 

plot. 

Discussion 

Per cent fruit set 

(open pollination) 

Per cent fruit 

set (hand crosspollination) 

AG1 8.5 26.4 

AG2 12.4 21.6 

AG3 9.4 15.7 

AG4 7.3 28.4 

AG5 15.4 21.5 

PV1 13.5 17.5 

PV2 12.6 18.5 

PV3 7.3 21.3 

PV4 9.8 18.3 

PV5 11.8 19.4 

TK1 8.4 22.6 

TK2 11.7 24.5 

TK3 13.5 28.4 

TK4 6.5 19.4 

TK5 14.8 27.3 

AG - Akasaganga; PV - Papavinasanam; TK - Talakona 

Shorea roxburghii is an important constituent 

of deciduous forests in the Eastern Ghats. It is a 

semievergreen tree species due to its very brief leafless 


state during the dry season. Leaf shedding, leaf flushing 

and flowering occur almost sequentially one after the 

other. Leaf flushing however extends beyond fruit 

dispersal. In S. robusta and S. tumbuggaia also, these 

three phenological events occur in sequence (Singh & 

Kushwaha 2005; Raju et al. 2009). In S. roxburghii, 

the flowering is not an annual event as only a few 

trees flowered at each study site but leaf shedding and 

flushing occurred annually. Flowering occurred on all 

branches of the tree. In S. tumbuggaia also, flowering 

is not annual and in the flowering individuals, the 

flowering is restricted to branches which are exposed 

to sunlight (Raju et al. 2009). The flowering period is 

very brief in S. roxburghii while its duration is further 

reduced in S. tumbuggaia (Raju et al. 2009). In both the 

species, the flowering pattern represents the massive 

flowering pattern in which more flowers are produced 

per day during the flowering period (Gentry 1974; 

Opler et al. 1980). Mass flowering is considered as 

a property of the individuals of a plant species (Bawa 

1983) and this pattern of flowering may have evolved 

among individuals of S. roxburghii for effective pollen 

movement between trees. The new leaves are known 

for their photosynthetic efficiency and hence have the 

ability to provide the required photosynthate to the 

growing fruits. 

In S. roxburghii, the flowers are morphologically 

and functionally bisexual. The absence of fruit set 

in autogamy and geitonogamy suggests that the plant 

is self-incompatible. The sterile pollen present in 

the flowers appears to be a derived trait to promote 

self-incompatibility. The protogyny is an important 

functional mechanism to promote out-crossing but it is 

weak in this species. Bertin & Newman (1993) stated 

that protogyny is a characteristic associated with selfcompatible 

anemophilous flowers to reduce selfing 

rate. S. roxburghii being self-incompatible exhibits 

weak protogyny and hence it is a residual character 

and does not serve to achieve cross-pollination. On 

the contrary, S. tumbuggaia and S. robusta are selfcompatible 

anemophiles; but protogyny is weak in the 

former while it is strong in the latter species (Atluri et al. 

2004; Raju et al. 2009). In S. roxburghii, the drooping 

inflorescence, hanging flowers with compactly 

arranged anthers at the base and held above by anther 

appendages and the exposed cup-like flower base 

collectively aid in the gradual dispersal of pollen by 

wind. Gradual pollen release occurs when the flowers 


2067


are manually shaken; it suggests that wind force does 

not make the anthers release the pollen at once, hence 

there is an in-built device for the gradual and economical 

release of pollen from oscillating flowers due to wind 

force. As the flowers are at the canopy level, the wind 

force can easily make flowers release pollen into the 

air and then carry the same to the receptive stigmas 

of flowers on different trees. The pollen grain size is 

a characteristic typical aerodynamic particle, which 

permits effective wind transport and deposition on the 

stigma through impaction (Gregory 1973; Reddi 1976) 

and the characters such as reticulate exine and muri 

separated by lumina may reduce terminal velocity and 

contribute to the increased dispersal range of the pollen 

(Niklas 1985). Synchronous anthesis and high pollen 

production enable anemophily to be more effective. 

In S. robusta and S. tumbuggaia also, a similar pollen 

release mechanism and anemophily exist (Atluri et al. 

2004; Raju et al. 2009). The study sites experienced 

moderate turbulent atmospheric conditions especially 

during the forenoon period and this favoured efficient 

transport of the entrained pollen (Mason 1979). 

The self-compatible S. robusta and S. tumbuggaia 

are strictly anemophilous. The flowers of both the 

species do not secrete nectar and hence pollen is the 

only floral reward for the insects which visit them. 

Atluri et al. (2004) reported that honey bees may visit S. 

robusta for pollen collection and their foraging activity 

is of no use to this plant. Raju et al. (2009) reported 

that the stingless bee, Trigona iridipennis visits S. 

tumbuggaia for pollen collection and its foraging 

activity is important for self-pollination due to its slow 

mobility. The fruits formed from selfed-flowers have 

been considered to be abortive. In S. roxburghii, the 

flowers are nectariferous and produce hexose-rich 

nectar with low sugar concentration. Since the flowers 

offer both nectar and pollen, they attract nectar and 

pollen foraging bees, nectar foraging wasps, flies and 

butterflies; flies are important for self-pollination and 

all the other insects for both self-and cross-pollination. 

Their foraging activity on S. roxburghii flowers is not 

in line with the generalization that they visit flowers 

rewarded with sucrose-rich nectar with high sugar 

concentration (Baker & Baker 1982, 1983; Cruden et 

al. 1983). The nectar of S. roxburghii is also a source 

of four of the ten essential amino acids and seven nonessential 

amino acids (DeGroot 1953). They add taste 

to the nectar and serve as an important cue for insects to 


pay visits to the flowers; and the insects while collecting 

the forage effect pollination. The amino acids are 

especially important for the growth and development 

of flower-visiting insects (DeGroot 1953). Therefore, 

S. roxburghii being a self-incompatible species has 

evolved to produce nectar with sugars and amino acids 

as rewards to attract insects for increasing the crosspollinate 

rate. The ability to have both anemophily 

and entomophily is adaptive for S. roxburghii to set 

fruit to permitted level through cross-pollination. The 

function of a pollination system involving both wind 

and insects as vectors of pollen transfer is referred 

to as ‘ambophily’ (Culley et al. 2002) and hence S. 

roxburghii is functionally ambophilous. 

S. roxburghii flowers attract two beetle species. The 

scarabaeid beetle causes flower damage by sucking 

sap from petals and the damaged flowers whether 

pollinated or un-pollinated fall off. The bruchid beetle 

uses the floral buds for its breeding. A single larva 

emerges when the buds mature and bloom; such buds 

and flowers fall off together with the larvae without 

fruit set. The bud and flower infestation rate by these 

two beetle species is very high and hence have a great 

bearing on the success of sexual reproduction in S. 

roxburghii. 

In S. roxburghii, the fruits mature quickly during 

the dry season. They are winged, light-weight and 

characteristically produce a single seed. The embryo 

is chlorophyllous while on the parent plant, suggesting 

that the seed is non-dormant and such a characteristic 

may aid in better survival in unpredictable habitats 

with irregular supply of light, nutrients and water 

during the germination period (Maury 1978; Maury- 

Lechon & Ponge 1979). A similar situation exists 

in S. tumbuggaia (Raju et al. 2009). The winged 

character of fruits is seen in most dipterocarps and it 

is an important adaptation for dissemination by wind 

(Ashton 1982). The winged structure of the sepals 

allows 1-seeded fruits to gyrate toward the ground 

and hence the seed dispersal is anemochorous. Seeds 

disperse by wind to a short distance only, due to the 

semi-closed nature of the canopy cover of the forest. 

The dispersal of winged fruits takes place much more 

efficiently by wind if the forest is of the open, seasonal, 

dry deciduous type (Maury-Lechon & Curtet 1998). 

The seeds fallen on the ground have no possibility 

for further dispersal by the sweeping action of the 

wind due to litter accumulation and grass growth in 

2068 



the study sites during rainy season. In S. tumbuggaia, 

seed dissemination by wind takes place up to a distance 

of 10m (Raju et al. 2009) and up to 2km in S. albida 

(Ashton 1982). 

Different insect species attack seeds of Shorea 

species during their development (Singh 1976). Insect 

pests attack at the pre- or post-dispersal stage of the 

seed; in the pre-dispersal stage, the pest attacks the 

fruit on the tree before dispersal while in the postdispersal 

stage, the pest attacks fruits on the ground 

(Toy 1988). In S. roxburghii, the same bruchid beetle 

which uses buds and flowers for breeding also attacks 

at an early stage of the development of the fruit. Its 

larva leaves through the exit hole created by it when the 

mature fruits fall to the ground. It pupates in the soil 

and perhaps, produces an adult only when favourable 

conditions return to the forest floor to repeat its life 

cycle. Khatua & Chakrabarti (1990) reported that 

many bruchid species spend a dormant stage as pupae 

in the soil and it holds true in the case of the bruchid 

beetle which is a pest of the seeds of S. roxburghii. 

Further, in a small percentage of fallen fruits, the larva 

remains within, pupates and produces an adult beetle 

suggesting that the beetle has the ability to use the fruit 

for its entire life cycle. The same bruchid beetle attacks 

the co-occurring S. tumbuggaia seeds in the study sites 

but the per cent of infested seeds is comparatively less 

due to its late flowering which occurs for two weeks in 

the last week of April and the first week of May (Raju 

et al. 2009). They also reported that in India, the seed 

weevil Sitophilus (Calandra) rugicollis attacks seeds 

of Shorea robusta, survives as a dormant adult in the 

forest floor and emerges with the first monsoon rain, 

which coincides with the commencement of seed fall 

(Khatua & Chakrabarti 1990). 

Mass fruiting appears to favour seed predators, 

but it can also be a strategy to escape complete seed 

destruction (Janzen 1974). Seed predation can be 

very high, and the crop can be completely wiped 

out. Natawiria et al. (1986) observed that weevils 

(Curculionidae) damage 40–90% of the seeds of Shorea 

pauciflora, S. ovalis, S. laevis and S. smithiana. In S. 

tumbuggaia, seed damage is 70% and only about half of 

the remaining healthy seed crop established seedlings 

in the forest (Raju et al. 2009). In S. roxburghii, seed 

predation is 87% suggesting that this tree is threatened 

by bruchid beetle in terms of reproductive success. 

In S. roxburghii, fruit set in open pollination is up 


to 15% while it has almost doubled in manual crosspollination. 

This suggests that fruit set does not exceed 

beyond 30% even if the cross-pollination rate increases 

by wind and insects. The tree appears to have resource 

constraints to increase fruit set; the rocky nature of the 

forest floor with dry conditions during the fruit set 

period is perhaps the main constraint. Such a low 

fruit set in open-pollination has also been reported in 

S. tumbuggaia in the same study sites by Raju et al. 

(2009). The study suggests that non-annual flowering, 

massive flowering for a short period, high bud/ 

flower and fruit infestation rate, and the absence of 

seed dormancy could be attributed to the endangered 

status of S. roxburghii. Field situation relating to the 

mortality rate of seedlings and the seed germinate rate 

evidenced in the experimental plot also substantiate 

this conclusion. 

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Author Details: Dr. A.J. So l o m o n Ra j u, Professor and Head in the 

Department of Environmental Sciences, is on the editorial board of several 

international journals. He is presently working on endemic and endangered 

plant species in southern Eastern Ghats forests with financial support 

from University Grants Commission and the Ministry of Environment and 

Forests, Government of India. K. Ve n k a t a Ra m a n a and P. Ha r e e s h Ch a n d r a 

are Junior Research Fellows working in All India Coordinated Research 

Project on Reproductive Biology of Four Rare Endangered and Threatened 

(RET) Tree species namely, Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott. & Endl., 

Eriolaena lushingtonii Dunn (Sterculiaceae), Syzygium alternifolium (Wt.) 

Walp. (Myrtaceae) and Shorea roxburghii (Dipterocarpaceae) of Andhra 

Pradesh, funded by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government 

of India, under the supervision of Dr. A.J. Solomon Raju. 

2070 



Western Ghats 

Special Series 

Reproductive biology of Puntius denisonii, an endemic 

and threatened aquarium fish of the Western Ghats and its 

implications for conservation 

Simmy Solomon 1 , M.R. Ramprasanth 2 , Fibin Baby 3 , Benno Pereira 4 , Josin Tharian 5 , Anvar Ali 6 & 

Rajeev Raghavan 7 

1,2,3,4,5,6,7 

Conservation Research Group (CRG), St. Albert’s College, Kochi, Kerala 682018, India 

2 

Integrated Rural Technology Center (IRTC), Mundur, Palakkad, Kerala, India 

5 

Department of Zoology and Environmental Science, St. John’s College, Anchal, Kerala 691306, India 

7 

Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, CT2 

7NZ, United Kingdom 

Email: 1 mariyasimmy@gmail.com, 2 ramprasanthmanasam@gmail.com, 3 fibinaqua@gmail.com, 4 bennopereira@gmail.com, 

5 

josinc@stjohns.ac.in, 6 anvaraliif@gmail.com, 7 rajeevraq@hotmail.com (corresponding author) 




Editor: Neelesh Dahanukar 


Ms # o2608 

Received 20 October 2010 

Final received 13 September 2011 


Citation: Solomon, S., M.R. Ramprasanth, 

F. Baby, B. Pereira, J. Tharian, A. Ali & R. 

Raghavan (2011). Reproductive biology of 

Puntius denisonii, an endemic and threatened 

aquarium fish of the Western Ghats and 

its implications for conservation. Journal of 


Copyright: © Simmy Solomon, M.R. 

Ramprasanth, Fibin Baby, Benno Pereira, Josin 

Tharian, Anvar Ali & Rajeev Raghavan 2011. 







Author Detail, Author Contribution and 

Acknowledgements see end of this article. 

Abstract: This study presents fundamental information on the reproductive biology of Puntius 

denisonii, an endemic and threatened aquarium fish of the Western Ghats Hotspot. Results 

are based on the observations from three river systems, Chandragiri, Valapattannam and 

Chaliyar. Maximum observed total length in P. denisonii was 162mm and 132mm for males 

and females, respectively. Males attained sexual maturity at a lower size than females with 

mean size at first maturity determined as 85.33±1.52 mm for males and 95.66±1.15 mm for 

females. Puntius denisonii spawned from October to March with minor differences in the peak 

breeding months between the three river systems, which were studied. Sex ratio deviated 

significantly from 1:1 and was skewed in favour of males. Absolute fecundity varied from 376 

(fish of 102mm total length) to 1098 (fish of 106mm total length) eggs. Currently, the closed 

seasons for P. denisonii have been put in place during June, July and October based on the 

(mis)assumption that the species breeds during these three months. However, the results of 

the present study have helped us to understand more about the reproductive biology of the 

species so as to recommend more appropriate seasonal closures. The months from October 

until March need to be designated as a closed season for protecting the breeding population 

of P. denisonii. 

Keywords: Conservation, endemic fish, Puntius denisonii, reproduction, threatened, Western 

Ghats. 

INTRODUCTION 

Unsustainable collection of endemic freshwater fish for the aquarium 

trade is an emerging conservation issue in the tropics, which has 

resulted in the population decline of several species such as the Asian 

Arowana Scleropages formosus (Rowley et al. 2009), Silver Arowana 

Osteoglossum bicirrhosum (Moreau & Coomes 2006), Celestial Pearl 

Danio Danio margaritatus (Roberts 2007) and Bala Shark Balantiocheilos 


This article forms part of a special series on the Western Ghats of India, disseminating the 

results of work supported by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF), a joint initiative 

of l’Agence Française de Développement, Conservation International, the Global Environment 

Facility, the Government of Japan, the MacArthur Foundation and the World Bank. A fundamental 

goal of CEPF is to ensure civil society is engaged in biodiversity conservation. Implementation of 

the CEPF investment program in the Western Ghats is led and coordinated by the Ashoka Trust 

for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE). 


Reproductive biology of Puntius denisonii 

melanopterus (Ng & Tan 1997). Nevertheless, 

wild caught aquarium fish industry receives little 

attention from ichthyologists, local governments and 

conservation organizations throughout the world, with 

very little research, and no legislative controls (Moreau 

& Coomes 2007; Rowley et al. 2009). 

The Western Ghats (WG), an exceptional 

Hotspot of freshwater fish diversity and endemism in 

peninsular India (Kottelat & Whitten 1996; Dahanukar 

et al. 2004) is an important region for aquarium fish 

collections (Tlusty et al. 2008). More than a hundred 

species including several threatened endemics are 

currently collected and exported from this region 

(Raghavan 2010). Similar to other parts of the world, 

aquarium fish collections in WG are open access 

and unregulated, raising concerns about their ecobiological 

impact (Raghavan 2010). Several endemic 

species are known to be facing serious population 

decline due to indiscriminate collections for the trade 

(Kurup et al. 2004; Raghavan et al. 2009). 

One such endemic species, which is currently 

considered to be under severe threat from the aquarium 

pet trade is the Denison Barb (AKA Red Lined 

Torpedo Barb and Miss Kerala), Puntius denisonii, a 

small- to medium- sized cyprinid having an extremely 

restricted distribution in the southern WG (Prasad 

et al. 2008). Due to its limited distributional range 

in the southern WG and declining populations, P. 

denisonii was assigned Vulnerable species status in 

the IUCN Red List (Devi & Boguskaya 2009). The 

recently completed IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity 

Assessments in the WG has categorised this species 

as Endangered (Ali et al. 2010). Nevertheless, this 

species is poorly known with no information on its 

micro level distribution, life history, ecology and 

demography (Raghavan et al. 2010). The objective of 

this study was to understand the reproductive biology 

of P. denisonii, and discuss its implications on the 

conservation of wild populations. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Samples for the present study were purchased from 

aquarium fish collectors operating in three major rivers 

of the southern WG, viz., Chandragiri, Valapattannam 

and Chaliyar (Fig. 1) between December 2008 and 

November 2009. Fish were received live in packed 

S. Solomon et al. 

polythene bags and euthanized immediately by 

immersing in ice-slurry. Subsequently they were 

preserved in 4% formaldehyde and transferred to 

the laboratory, where each individual was tagged, 

measured (Total Length T L 

), weighed (Total Weight 

T W 

) and sexed (by internal sexual characteristics or 

by examining gonads under a dissecting microscope). 

Gonads were subsequently removed, weighed (G W 

) 

and preserved in 4% formaldehyde, while matured 

ovaries with visible eggs were preserved in Gilson 

fluid (100ml 60% alcohol, 800ml water, 15ml 80% 

nitric acid, 18ml glacial acetic acid, 20g mercuric 

chloride) to break down ovarian tissues. 

Gonado somatic index (GSI) was calculated as 100 

X G W 

(T W 

-G W 

) -1 and used to delineate the spawning 

season. The length at which 50% of male and female 

fish were in maturing stages III and IV was taken 

as the minimum length at first maturity (Bagenal 

1978). Deviation from the expected 1:1 sex ratio was 

analyzed using chi-square test (Corder & Foreman 

2009). Absolute fecundity (A F 

) was estimated by 

weighing all the eggs in the ovary and also by counting 

three sub samples of eggs from different parts of the 

ovary. Relative fecundity (R F 

) was calculated as T F 

/ 

T W 

. Relationship of A F 

with both T L 

and T W 

were 

determined by plotting the points on a log-log scale 

as these are expected to be allometric relationships 

described by a general power function y = ax b , where 

y is the dependent variable, x is independent variable, 

b is the scaling exponent and a is the normalization 

constant (Kharat et al. 2008). A least square line was 

fitted to the scatter of the data and the significance of 

the relationship was determined from coefficient of 

determination (R 2 ) and uncertainty in the prediction of 

the exponent by calculating its standard error. 

RESULTS 

Of 1,080 fish analysed, 792 (73.33%) were mature, 

composed of 570 males (52.77%) and 222 females 

(20.55%). Sex ratio of P. denisonii from all three 

rivers deviated significantly from the expected 1:1 and 

was extremely skewed in favour of males (Table 1). 

GSI in all three river systems peaked during October 

to March with minor differences between rivers (Fig. 

2). Peak maturity of P. denisonii in Chandragiri and 

Valapattannam rivers were observed during December 

2072 




Karnataka 

Valapattannam 

Tamil Nadu 

Kerala 

Figure 1. The three river systems from where P. denisonii were collected in southern India 

and, in the Chaliyar River during February. No temporal 

variation in spawning season could be observed even 

though the three rivers from where the fish samples 

originated were located at different latitudes (Fig. 1). 

In P. denisonii, males start to mature earlier than 

females (Table 1). Mean sizes at first maturity was 

85.33±1.52 mm T L 

(male) and 95.66±1.15 mm T L 

(females). Absolute fecundity (A F 

) in P. denisonii 

from the Chandragiri River system varied from 376 

(102mm T L 

) to 1098 (106mm T L 

) with a mean of 

762.66±264.270 eggs/fish (n=12), while relative 

fecundity (R F 

) was between 36.11 and 94.65 with a 

mean of 70.44±22.79 eggs. Although we obtained 

several fecund female specimens of P. denisonii from 

the other two rivers as well, they were released back into 

the stream without sacrificing for our study. This was 

done taking into consideration the threatened status of 

the species, and based on our assumption that the same 

Table 1. Maximum observed length, minimum size at first maturity and sex ratio of Puntius denisonii from three river 

systems of Western Ghats 

River Max length (mm T L 

) Min size at maturity (mm T L 

) Sex ratio (M:F) 

Male Female Male Female Ratio Chi Square (χ 2 ) 

Chaliyar 110 100 84 97 1:0.35 63.947* 

Chandragiri 162 132 87 95 1:0.36 49.717* 

Valapattannam 136 105 85 95 1:0.57 19.810* 

* - P < 0.0001 


2073



5 

Gonado Somatic Index 

4 

3 

2 

1 

Chandragiri 

Valapattannam 

Chaliyar 

0 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 

Figure 2. Annual changes in the mean Gonado Somatic Index (GSI) of Puntius denisonii from three river systems of 

Western Ghats (error bars denote standard deviation). 

7.3 

7.1 

6.9 

Log Absolute Fecundity (A F 

) 

6.7 

6.5 

6.3 

6.1 

y = 26.69x -117.3 

R 2 = 0.873 

n = 12 

5.9 

5.7 

5.5 

4.62 4.625 4.63 4.635 4.64 4.645 4.65 4.655 4.66 4.665 4.67 

Log Total Length (T L 

) 

Figure 3. Relationship between Total Length and Absolute Fecundity in Puntius denisonii from Chandragiri River 

species may show similar range of fecundity between DISCUSSION 

river systems. The relationship of absolute fecundity 

with total length was best explained as logA F 

= 26.69 

logT L 

– 117.3 (Fig. 3) and the relationship of absolute 

fecundity with total weight was better explained as 

logA F 

= 9.55 logT W 

– 16.10 (Fig. 4). 

Although sex ratio of a fish may deviate from 

the normal 1:1 due to a number of factors (Nikolsky 

1963; Alp et al. 2003) extremely skewed ratios such 

as those observed in the present study are very rarely 

2074 




7.5 

7.3 

7.1 

Log Absolute Fecundity (A F 

) 

6.9 

6.7 

6.5 

6.3 

6.1 

y = 9.55x -16.10 

R 2 = 0.596 

n = 12 

5.9 

5.7 

5.5 

2.32 2.34 2.36 2.38 2.4 2.42 2.44 2.46 

Log Total Weight (T w 

) 

Figure 4. Relationship between Total Weight and Absolute Fecundity in Puntius denisonii from Chandragiri River 

encountered. One possible reason for this skew in P. 

denisonii could be the differential habitat occupation 

of the sexes. i.e., females preferring deeper waters 

and therefore being less vulnerable to capture and 

males on the other hand living in shallow areas 

from where they are easily caught. Such differential 

habitat occupancy by sexes has been earlier observed 

in tropical fish (Macuiane et al. 2009; Lewis et al. 

2005). Skewed ratios may also occur as a result of the 

differences in instantaneous natural mortality between 

sexes (Vincentini & Araujo 2003). However, there is 

no information on the demography of P. denisonii to 

support such an argument. 

Results obtained in this study on the spawning 

season are contrary to the information in gray 

literature. P. denisonii was reported to spawn during 

June-August with mature specimens observed from 

May (Radhakrishnan & Kurup 2005). However, the 

annual dynamics of GSI from three river systems of 

WG observed in this study indicated that P. denisonii 

breeds during October to March. 

As the first step towards conservation, the State 

Department of Fisheries in Kerala (India) has issued 

an order, restricting collection and exports of P. 

denisonii from the rivers of the region (Clarke et al. 

2009). Several management measures including 

quotas, restrictions on gears, catch size, and a seasonal 

closure of fishery have been enforced (Mittal et al. 

2009). Currently, the closed seasons for P. denisonii 

have been put in place during June, July and October 

(Clarke et al. 2009) based on the assumption that the 

species breeds during these three months. However, 

results of the present study provide hard evidence 

that this seasonal closure is mistimed and has been 

designed without proper understanding of the biology 

of this species. 

Absolute fecundity of P. denisonii is extremely 

low when compared to other cyprinids such as P. 

sarana (Chandrasoma & de Silva 1981) and Rasbora 

daniconius (Nagendran et al. 1981). However, three 

endemic cyprinids threatened by aquarium collections 

in Sri Lanka, P. nigrofasciatus, P. cumingi and P. 

pleurotaenia are known to have a low absolute 

fecundity (151–638 for 46–64 mm T L 

) (de Silva & 

Kortmulder 1976; Chandrasoma et al. 1994) similar 

to P. denisonii. 

As the scale of the body increases the relationship 

depicting change in lengths and weights of different 

body parts change as allometric relationships. As 

per Euclidian geometry, the lengths of two tissues 

should show an exponent of one and the relationship 

depicting change in length versus weight should show 

an exponent of 1/3 depicting isometric relationships. 

Kharat et al. (2008, p. 13) suggested that if the volume 

of each egg is constant, then the fecundity should 

scale as unity with the ovary volume and as a result, 


2075


at a constant density, the fecundity should change as 

a cube of length of the fish and as unity with weight 

of the fish under isometry. On the contrary, in our 

analysis the fecundity changed as 27 th power of length 

and 10 th power of the weight of the fish. Our results 

show that the scaling exponent of the relationship of 

absolute fecundity with both total length and total 

weight in P. denisonii were significantly different from 

the values suggested by Euclidian geometry and thus 

the fecundity grows non-isometrically. As a result, the 

larger fish (length and weight) have drastically more 

fecundity then the slightly smaller individuals. Thus, 

larger specimens contribute more to reproduction 

in the species and the removal of larger individuals 

from a population will have a drastic impact on the 

demographics and subsequently on the status. 

The peculiar characters of reproduction including 

an extremely low absolute fecundity and a skewed sex 

ratio will undoubtedly hamper natural recruitment, 

influence population dynamics and lead to low 

population levels in P. denisonii. This cyprinid may 

therefore be unsuited for large scale collections for 

the pet trade. The present study has also revealed that 

closed seasons, the most important conservation plan 

for P. denisonii implemented by the local government 

in Kerala is wrongly timed, and has little or no impact 

on the protection of wild stocks. There is hence an 

urgent need for re-designing conservation strategies 

for the species based on biological information such 

as those generated in this study. The closed season 

for protecting the breeding population of P. denisonii 

in the rivers of northern Kerala should be put in place 

from October to March. 

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(2004). Biodiversity status of fishes inhabiting rivers of 

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(2010). Miss Kerala added to the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Current 

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Fishery’ in a Biodiversity Hotspot - Is the Western Ghats (South India) losing its 

most celebrated ornamental fish, Puntius denisonii, Day Current Science 92(12): 

1671–1672. 

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trade and conservation of the Asian Arowana, Malayalam Abstract: 

Scleropages formosus in Cambodia. Aquatic 

Conservation - Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 

18(7): 1255–1262. 

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forests through the fisheries: ornamental fisheries 

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International Journal 56: 21–25. 

Vincentini, R.N. & F.G. Araujo (2003). Sex ratio and 

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559–566. 


Authors: Si m m y So l o m o n works on taxonomy 

and conservation of freshwater fishes of 

Western Ghats. M.R. Ra m p r a s a n t h works on 

biology and captive breeding of indigenous 

ornamental fishes of Kerala. Fibin Ba b y works 

on taxonomy and biology of freshwater fishes 

of Kerala. Be n n o Pe r e ir a is interested in 

research on fish genetics and aquaculture 

with an emphasis on native fishes of Kerala. 

Jo s i n Th a r i a n is interested in the connectivity 

between systematic conservation planning and 

freshwater biodiversity. An v a r Ali is interested 

in taxonomy, systematics and biogeography 

of freshwater fishes of Western Ghats. 

Ra j e e v Ra g h a v a n is interested in research that 

addresses the connectivity between freshwater 

biodiversity, conservation and livelihoods in 

Western Ghats. 

Author Contributions: BP, AA and RR designed 

the study; SS, MRR and FB carried out the field 

and laboratory work; AA, JT and RR carried out 

the analysis; RR wrote the manuscript; RR was 

the Principal Investigator of the projects from 

which the current manuscript originated. 

Acknowledgements: We thank Rateesh, 

Naushad and Santosh for help with the collection 

of samples; Shylaja Menon and Santhi P.S. 

(CRG, St. Albert’s College, Kochi) for assistance 

in the laboratory; Ambily Nair (University of 

Hasselt, Belgium) and Siby Philip (University 

of Porto, Portugal) for their help during the 

preparation of the manuscript. Thanks are also 

due to an anonymous reviewer and the subject 

editor for suggesting necessary modifications 

that greatly improved the manuscript. Funding 

for this study came from the North of England 

Zoological Society-Chester Zoo Conservation 

Grant (UK), Critical Ecosystem Partnership 

Fund (CEPF)-Western Ghats Small Grants and 

Columbus Zoo (Ohio- USA) Conservation Grant 

to the senior author. 


2077


Osteobrama bhimensis (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae): a 

junior synonym of O. vigorsii 

Shrikant S. Jadhav 1 , Mandar Paingankar 2 & Neelesh Dahanukar 3 

1 

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Centre, Vidyanagar, Akurdi, Pune, Maharashtra 411044, India 

2 

Prerana Heights, Flat No. B13, Balaji Nagar, Dhankawadi, Pune, Maharashtra 411043, India 

3 

Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Sai Trinity, Garware Circle, Pune, Maharashtra 411021, India 

Email: 1 shrikantj123@yahoo.com, 2 mandarpaingankar@gmail.com, 3 n.dahanukar@iiserpune.ac.in (corresponding author) 




Editor: Anonymity requested 


Ms # o2841 

Received 22 June 2011 



Citation: Jadhav, S.S., M. Paingankar & N. 

Dahanukar (2011). Osteobrama bhimensis 

(Cypriniformes:Cyprinidae): a junior synonym 

of O. vigorsii. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(9): 

2078–2084. 

Copyright: © Shrikant S. Jadhav, Mandar 

Paingankar & Neelesh Dahanukar 2011. 







Author Detail: Sh r i k a n t S. Ja d h a v is Scientist 

A at the Zoological Survey of India, Western 

Regional Centre, Pune. He works on taxonomy 

and distribution of freshwater fishes and has 

published several papers in this area. Ma n d a r 

Pa i n g a n k a r is a molecular biologist and works 

on vector biology with an emphasis on host 

parasite interactions. He works on animal 

ecology as a hobby. Ne e l e s h Da h a n u k a r works 

in ecology and evolution with an emphasis on 

mathematical and statistical analysis. He is also 

interested in taxonomy, distribution patterns and 

molecular phylogeny of freshwater fishes. 

Author Contribution: SSJ and ND put forth the 

concept. SSJ, MP and ND collected the data, 

analyzed the data and wrote the paper. 

Acknowledgements: We are thankful to Dr. 

R.M. Sharma, Scientist-D and Officer-in-charge, 

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional 

Centre, Akurdi, Pune, and Dr. G.M. Yazdani for 

encouragement and support. We are grateful 

to Varsha Mysker for providing two specimens 

of Osteobrama vigorsii from Bhima River at 

Kollakur, Karnataka. We are also grateful to two 

anonymous referees for critical comments on 

an earlier draft of our manuscript. 

Abstract: Osteobrama bhimensis (Singh & Yazdani) was described from the Ujani 

wetland on Bhima River in Maharashtra, India, about 100 km downstream of the type 

locality of O. vigorsii (Sykes). Based on examination of the type material of O. bhimensis 

and comparison with O. vigorsii collected from different localities in the Krishna and 

Godavari River systems, we show that O. bhimensis is conspecific with O. vigorsii. 

Keywords: Conspecific, junior synonym, Osteobrama bhimensis, Rohtee vigorsii. 

INTRODUCTION 

Sykes (1839) described Rohtee vigorsii (now Osteobrama) from the 

Bhima River at Pairgaon (approx. 18.506 0 N & 74.704 0 E). Although 

the types of this species are missing (Eschmeyer & Fricke 2011), Sykes 

(1841) provided a clear illustration of the species and gave an adequate 

description for purposes of identification. The species is widely distributed 

in the Krishna, Godavari and Mahanadi river systems of peninsular India 

and is common throughout its range (Dahanukar 2011). Singh & Yazdani 

(1992) described Osteobrama bhimensis from the Ujani Wetland on 

Bhima River, about 100km downstream of the type locality of O. vigorsii. 

Osteobrama bhimensis has since been considered a valid species by most 

authors (e.g., Menon 1999; Jayaram 2010). Even though Singh & Yazdani 

(1992) considered O. bhimensis to be closely related to O. cotio, owing to 

the lack of barbels, their figure of O. bhimensis resembles O. vigorsii more 

than it does O. cotio. Singh & Yazdani (1992) did, however, mention the 

similarity between O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii and sought to distinguish 

the two species through a number of characters (discussed below). 

Recently we had an opportunity to study all the type material, 

comprising the holotype and five paratypes, of O. bhimensis currently in 

the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Centre, 

Pune. We compared the type material of O. bhimensis with specimens 

of O. vigorsii from the Krishna and Godavari river systems. Our study 

suggests that O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii are conspecific. 

METHODS 


Data collection 

The type material of Osteobrama bhimensis, comprising of the 

holotype and five paratypes, was available in the fish collection of the 

2078 


Osteobrama bhimensis synonymy 

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Centre, 

Pune (ZSI Pune). Specimens of O. vigorsii and O. 

cotio peninsularis were available in the Wildlife 

Information Liaison Development, Coimbatore 

(WILD) and ZSI Pune. Morphometric and meristic 

data were recorded following Jayaram (2010). 

Measurements were taken point to point using dial 

calipers to the nearest hundredth of an inch and then 

converted to millimetres. Subunits of the body are 

presented as a percent of standard length (SL) and 

subunits of the head are presented as a percent of 

head length (HL). All pored scales were counted for 

reporting the lateral lines scales. We dissected three 

specimens of O. vigorsii (P/2671, 110mm SL; P/2672, 

105mm SL and P/2673, 128mm SL) to resolve the 

structure of the urohyal bone. 

Material examined 

Osteobrama bhimensis: Holotype, 06.ix.1989, 

Bhima River, Saha Village (approx. 18.133 0 N & 

75.093 0 E), Indapur Taluka, Pune District, Maharashtra, 

coll. D.F. Singh (ZSI Pune P/1235). Paratypes, 5 ex., 

collection data same as holotype (ZSI Pune P/1236). 

Osteobrama vigorsii: 1 ex., WILD-11-PIS-017, 

Mula-Mutha River at Yerawada (18.542 0 N & 

73.877 0 E), collected on 14.i.2011 by N. Dahanukar & 

M. Paingankar; 1 ex., ZSI Pune P/2670, Bhima River 

at Koregaon-Bhima (18.647 0 N & 74.054 0 E), collected 

on 25.v.2011 by N. Dahanukar & M. Paingankar; 1 

ex., ZSI Pune P/2672, Mula-Mutha River at Yerawada 

(18.542 0 N & 73.877 0 E), collected on 07.i.2011 by 

N. Dahanukar & M. Paingankar; 1 ex., ZSI Pune 

P/2673, Krishna River at Wai (17.956 0 N & 73.879 0 E), 

collected in March 2011 by N. Dahanukar & M. 

Paingankar; 1 ex., ZSI Pune P/2671, Nira River at 

Bhor (18.153 0 N, 73.843 0 E), collected in December 

2009 by N. Dahanukar & M. Paingankar; 1 ex., ZSI 

Pune P/2674, Wasumbre tank (approx. 17.298 0 N, 

74.579 0 E) in Sangli District, collected on 16.vi.1979 

by A.S. Mahabal; 1 ex., ZSI Pune P/2676, Mutha 

River at Warje (18.481 0 N, 73.816 0 E), collected on 

24 February 1999 by N. Dahanukar; 1 ex., ZSI Pune 

P/2675, Mula River at Aundh (18.568 0 N & 73.811 0 E), 

collected on 02.vi.1999 by N. Dahanukar; 2 ex., 

unregistered, Bhima River at Kollakur (17.086 0 N & 

76.764 0 E), collected on 10.v.2011 by Varsha Mysker; 

3 ex., ZSI Pune P/2105, Godavari River at Kaigaon 

(approx. 19.624 0 N, 75.026 0 E) in Gangapur Taluka, 

S.S. Jadhav et al. 

Aurangabad, collected on 13.x.1999 by P.P. Kulkarni. 

Osteobrama cotio peninsularis: 1 ex., WILD-11- 

PIS-015, Mula-Mutha River at Yerawada (18.542 0 N 

& 73.877 0 E), collected on 07.i.2011 by N. Dahanukar 

& M. Paingankar; 1 ex., ZSI Pune P/2595, Indrayani 

River at Markal (18.673 0 N & 73.984 0 E), collected 

during 2009–2010 by N. Dahanukar & M. Paingankar; 

1 ex., ZSI Pune P/2443, Nira River at Bhor (18.153 0 N & 

73.843 0 E), collected on 01.i.2011 by N. Dahanukar & 

M. Paingankar; 1 ex., ZSI Pune P/2684, Mula River at 

Paud (18.529 0 N & 73.611 0 E), collected on 08.vi.2011 

by N. Dahanukar & M. Paingankar; 3 ex., ZSI Pune 

P/2685, Mula-Mutha River at Yerawada (18.543 0 N & 

73.879 0 E), collected on 16.vi.2011 by N. Dahanukar 

& M. Paingankar. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

One of the most important characters that Singh 

& Yazdani (1992) used for diagnosing Osteobrama 

bhimensis was the absence of barbels. Our study of 

the type material of O. bhimensis revealed that the 

holotype and all the paratypes of O. bhimensis do in 

fact possess a pair of rudimentary maxillary barbels 

(Image 1), a character state also present in O. vigorsii. 

Image 1. Rudimentary maxillary barbels in Osteobrama 

bhimensis (a) holotype (ZSI Pune P/1235) and (b) one of the 

paratypes (ZSI Pune P/1236). 


2079


Indeed, if the character state ‘barbels present’ were 

applied to specimens of O. bhimensis using Singh & 

Yazdani’s (1992) own key, the species keys out as O. 

vigorsii. 

Singh & Yazdani (1992) suggested that O. 

bhimensis is related to O. cotio and compared it with 

two subspecies of O. cotio, namely O. cotio cotio 

and O. cotio cunma. Even though these authors 

did not explicitly mention why they consider O. 

bhimensis to be affined to O. cotio, it appears they 

considered the absence of barbels in O. bhimensis 

to be synapomorphic in the O. bhimensis-O. cotio 

group. Our data, however, does not suggest a closer 

relationship between O. bhimensis and O. cotio than 

that between the former species and O. vigorsii, for 

two reasons. First, the holotype and all the paratypes 

of O. bhimensis do possess rudimentary barbels (Image 

1). Second, the morphometric and meristic data of O. 

bhimensis do not coincide substantially with O. cotio, 

an observation that was also made by Singh & Yazdani 


(1992). Interestingly, Singh & Yazdani (1992) did 

not compare O. bhimensis with O. cotio peninsularis 

described by Silas (1952) from Poona [= Pune], which 

is close to the type locality of O. bhimensis. Our 

comparison suggests that O. bhimensis differs from O. 

cotio peninsularis in a number of characters including 

ii22–ii24 (vs. ii27–ii32 in O. c. peninsularis) anal fin 

rays, 26-30 (vs. 17–18) predorsal scales, 72–79 (vs. 

55–56) lateral-line scales and head length 26.0–28.3 

% SL (vs. 22.3–24.0 % SL). 

The type material of O. bhimensis and the figure 

given in Singh & Yazdani (1992, fig. 1), however, is 

consistent with Sykes’ (1842) description and figure 

of O. vigorsii, a species very widely distributed across 

the Krishna and Godavari river systems of the northcentral 

part of the peninsular India. A comparison 

of the morphometric data of the type series of O. 

bhimensis with the material of O. vigorsii referred to 

herein, from a number of locations across the Krishna 

River and Godavari basins (Fig. 1), suggests that 

19 0 N 

18 0 N 

17 0 N 

16 0 N 

73 0 E 74 0 E 75 0 E 76 0 E 77 0 E 

sampling sites for Osteobrama vigorsii 

0 50km 

type locality of Osteobrama vigorsii 

type locality of Osteobrama bhimensis 

Figure 1. Study area showing sampling sites and type localities of Osteobrama vigorsii and O. bhimensis. 

2080 




Table 1. Comparison of ranges of morphometric and meristic data of the type series of Osteobrama bhimensis (ZSI Pune 

P/1235 and ZSI Pune P/1236, total 6 specimens) and the 13 specimens of O. vigorsii listed in Material Examined. 

Character 

Morphometrics 

Osteobrama bhimensis 

(N=6) 

Osteobrama vigorsii 

(N=13) 

Total length (mm) 168–270 123–190 

Standard length (mm) 135–212 96.4–147 

As a percentage of SL 

Body depth 30.0–33.1 30.6–35.6 

Head length 26.0–28.3 24.4–28.7 

Predorsal length 52.0–54.6 50.2–54.8 

Dorsal to caudal length 50.9–53.5 50.1–57.5 

Distance between pectoral and ventral 15.7–17.9 15.8–18.4 

Distance between ventral to anal fin 19.1–22.1 17.4–38.9 

Pectoral to anal distance 34.3–39.5 33.9–40.8 

Preanal length 60.4–63.1 56.7–63.2 

Caudal peduncle length 16.4–19.2 15.0–19.7 

Caudal peduncle depth 10.4–11.2 10.3–11.7 

As a percentage of HL 

Snout length 23.0–26.8 25.3–30.6 

Eye diameter 26.9–30.2 23.9–30.7 

Interorbital width 21.7–23.6 19.7–26.4 

Meristics 

Predorsal scales 26–30 26–28 

Lateral line scales 72–79 75–78 

Scale rows between lateral line and base of pelvic fin 11–11½ 11–11½ 

Scale rows between lateral line and origin of dorsal fin 13–15 13–14 

Dorsal fin rays I,8 I,8 

Pectoral fin rays i,13–i,14 i,13–i,14 

Ventral fin rays i,8–i,9 i,8–i,9 

Anal fin rays ii,22–ii,24 ii,22–ii,23 

the morphometric and meristic data of O. bhimensis 

substantially overlap with those of O. vigorsii (Table 1, 

Appendix A, B). Further, comparison of images of the 

types of O. bhimensis with those of O. vigorsii from a 

variety of sources, and the illustration of Sykes (1841) 

iteself, shows a remarkable resemblance (Image 2). 

Although Singh & Yazdani (1992) were aware of 

the resemblance between O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii, 

they separated the former from the latter based on the 

absence of barbels (vs. presence), 13–17 transverse 

scale rows between lateral line and pelvic fin base (vs. 

11–11½ ), the possession of 24–32 predorsal scales 

(vs. 33–37), and the structure of urohyal. As already 

mentioned, the entire type series of O. bhimensis 

possesses rudimentary maxillary barbels, a character 

state shared with O. vigorsii. Although Singh & 

Yazdani (1992, Table 2) mention the number of 

transverse scale rows between lateral line and pelvic 

fin base as 13-15, we count 11 or 11½ (Table 1), which 

is the same range also for O. vigorsii (Hora & Misra 

1940; Singh & Yazdani 1992; see also Table 1). The 

predorsal scales of O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii also 

have overlapping ranges (Table 1). 

An additional difference that Singh & Yazdani 

(1992) used to differentiate O. bhimensis from O. 

vigorsii was the shape of the urohyal. This is a single 

median triradiate bone with the anterior tip connected 

to the ventral hypohyals, the antero-dorsal part of 

which is connected to the first basibranchial and the 

posterior part of which is connected to the pectoral 

girdle by means of muscles (Johal et al. 2000). The 

shape of the urohyal of O. vigorsii (Image 3) matches 


2081


Image 2. Osteobrama bhimensis and O. vigorsii. (a) 

Osteobrama bhimensis holotype (ZSI Pune P/1235, 138mm 

SL), (b) O. bhimensis paratype (ZSI Pune P/1236, 143mm 

SL), (c) O. vigorsii from Bhima River at Koregaon-Bhima 

(ZSI Pune P/2670, 110mm SL), (d) O. vigorsii from Nira 

River at Bhor (ZSI Pune P/2671, 110mm SL), (e) O. vigorsii 

from Bhima River at Kollakur (unregistered, 126mm SL) 

and (f) original drawing of O. vigorsii, reproduced laterally 

inverted, from Sykes (1841). 


Image 3. Urohyal bone (ZSI Pune P/2683) of Osteobrama 

vigorsii (P/2673, 128mm SL). (a) Lateral view and (b) dorsal 

view. 

that of O. bhimensis as illustrated in fig. 2 of Singh & 

Yazdani (1992). Singh & Yazdani (1992) suggested 

that the urohyal of O. vigorsii exhibits a radial process 

on the vertical plate, which is absent in O. bhimensis. 

However, in the three specimens of O. vigorsii we 

dissected, there is no such radial process (note that 

in Image 3a the thickened area on the lower surface 

is merely an undulation, not a process). Further, 

Singh & Yazdani (1992) mention that the dorsal 

spread ends in equal wings in O. bhimensis, while it 

ends in unequal wings in O. vigorsii. Our specimens 

of O. vigorsii show the dorsal spread to end in two 

equal wings (Image 3b). Therefore, the difference 

between the urohyals of O. bhimensis and O. vigorsii 

mentioned by Singh & Yazdani (1992) do not, in fact, 

exist. We did not dissect any of the type specimens 

of O. bhimensis. However, it is important to note that 

even though Singh & Yazdani (1992) mentioned that 

they studied the urohyal bone of O. bhimensis and O. 

vigorsii, they omitted to mention which specimens 

were used for their study. It is clear that none of the 

types of O. bhimensis have been dissected or cleared 

and stained. 

The present study shows, therefore, that all the 

differences stated by Singh & Yazdani (1992) as 

distinguishing O. bhimensis from O. vigorsii do 

not in fact exist: the two nominal species are in fact 

conspecific and, O. vigorsii being the senior one, is 

valid, while O. bhimensis must now be placed in its 

synonymy. 

Dahanukar (2010) assessed the IUCN conservation 

status of Osteobrama bhimensis as Endangered under 

criteria B1ab(iii)+2ab(iii) (IUCN 2001) owing to the 

2082 




Appendix A. Morphometric and meristic data of type material of Osteobrama bhimensis. 

Character 

Morphometric 

Holotype 

(ZSI Pune P/1235) 

Paratypes (ZSI Pune P/1236) 

#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 

Total length (mm) 173 270 178 182 171 168 

Standard length (mm) 138 212 146 143 137 135 


Body depth 30.1 31.7 31.5 33.1 31.3 30.0 

Head length 26.4 26.0 28.0 28.3 27.3 26.6 

Predorsal length 52.0 53.4 52.9 54.6 54.6 54.4 

Dorsal to caudal length 53.3 52.4 50.8 53.5 51.2 51.3 

Distance between pectoral and ventral 17.9 16.9 15.7 17.2 16.8 17.2 

Distance between ventral to anal fin 20.5 19.7 19.0 20.8 22.1 21.3 

Pectoral to anal distance 39.5 36.5 34.3 37.3 35.9 38.8 

Preanal length 61.5 60.8 60.4 62.3 63.1 62.9 

Caudal peduncle length 18.2 18.3 17.5 18.0 16.4 19.2 

Caudal peduncle depth 11.0 11.0 10.3 11.1 11.2 11.0 


Snout length 24.7 24.3 26.4 26.9 23.3 22.8 

Eye diameter 30.1 27.0 26.9 29.6 27.5 28.1 

Interorbital width 22.5 21.9 21.8 23.0 23.5 22.0 

Meristic 

Predorsal scales 27 28 30 27 27 26 

Lateral line scales 74 79 75 72 74 75 

Scales between lateral line and pelvic fin 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5 11 

Scales between lateral line and dorsal fin 13 14 14 14 15 14 

Dorsal fin rays I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 

Pectoral fin rays i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,13 i,14 

Ventral fin rays i,8 i,9 i,9 i,8 i,9 i,9 

Anal fin rays ii,22 ii,22 ii,23 ii,22 ii,24 ii,23 

fact that the species is known only from its type locality 

in the Ujani wetland, with an Extent of Occurrence 

of 260km 2 and threats to the habitat and the species 

due to increasing urbanization, agricultural pollution 

and invasive exotic fishes. Dahanukar (2010) also 

noted the need to validate the taxonomy of this 

nominal species because of its remarkable similarity 

to O. vigorsii. In the current study we have established 

that O. bhimensis is not a valid species but a junior 

subjective synonym of O. vigorsii. 

REFERENCES 

Dahanukar, N. (2010). Osteobrama bhimensis. In: IUCN 2011. 

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. 

. Downloaded on 18 June 2011. 

Dahanukar, N. (2011). Osteobrama vigorsii. In: IUCN 2011. 

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.1. 

. Downloaded on 18 June 2011. 

Eschmeyer, W.N. & R. Fricke (eds.) (2011). Catalog of 

Fishes electronic version. http://research.calacademy.org/ 

ichthyology/catalog/fishcatmain.asp. Online version dated 

5 May 2011. Downloaded on 20 June 2011. 

Hora, S.L. & K.S. Misra (1940). Notes on fishes in the Indian 

museum. XL. On fishes of the genus Rohtee Sykes. Records 

of the Indian Museum 42(1): 155–172. 

IUCN (2001). IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 

3.1. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, Gland, 

Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, ii+30pp. 

Jayaram, K.C. (2010). The Freshwater Fishes of The Indian 

Region. Second Edition. Narendra Publishing House, 

Delhi, 616pp. 

Johal, M.S., H.R. Esmaeili & K.K. Tandon (2000). Reliability 


2083



Appendix B. Morphometric and meristic data of Osteobrama vigorsii from Krishna and Godavari river systems. 

Krishna river system: Ml - Mula River (ZSI Pune P/2675); Mt - Mutha River (ZSI Pune P/2676); MM1 - Mula-Mutha River 

(WILD-11-PIS-017); MM2 - Mula Mutha River (ZSI Pune P/2672); BK - Bhima River at Koregaon (ZSI Pune P/2670); 

N - Nira River at Bhor (ZSI Pune P/2671); BKo1 - Bhima River at Kollakur (unregistered); BKo2 - Bhima River at Kollakur 

(unregistered); Kr - Krishna River at Wai (ZSI Pune P/2673), S - Wasumbre tank in Sangli District (ZSI Pune P/2674). 

Godavari river system: 3 examples, Godavari River at Kaigaon (ZSI Pune P/2105). 

Character 

Krishna river system 

Godavari river 

system 

Ml Mt MM 1 MM 2 BK N BKo 1 BKo 2 Kr S #1 #2 #3 

Morphometric 

Total length (mm) 136 161 156 133 141 146 159 190 164 139 123 125 139 

Standard length (mm) 113 123 122 105 110 110 126 147 128 110 96.4 98.2 110 


Body depth 32.1 30.6 34.3 35.0 34.6 33.5 34.0 34.4 34.5 34.3 33.7 34.0 35.6 

Head length 27.3 27.4 26.2 25.6 26.7 27.6 27.0 28.7 27.3 26.1 25.2 25.1 24.4 

Predorsal length 53.4 51.1 53.4 52.0 54.8 53.7 51.7 54.0 54.6 53.2 50.5 50.2 52.9 

Dorsal to caudal length 53.6 50.8 51.9 53.0 52.6 55.7 52.4 53.9 55.2 50.1 56.7 54.7 57.5 

Distance between pectoral and ventral 16.7 17.7 17.5 18.4 16.7 18.4 16.3 16.5 16.3 16.7 16.9 15.8 17.0 

Distance between ventral to anal fin 20.8 38.9 21.2 19.9 22.6 19.2 20.0 20.7 20.9 20.4 17.8 17.4 18.4 

Pectoral to anal distance 35.7 36.6 37.5 36.3 38.0 34.5 40.8 36.4 37.0 38.4 35.7 35.6 33.9 

Preanal length 61.1 62.5 60.1 61.2 62.0 61.3 63.2 61.8 61.8 61.2 59.4 56.7 57.5 

Caudal peduncle length 16.4 18.1 16.7 16.7 19.7 18.4 16.6 15.9 19.0 15.0 18.1 15.7 15.6 

Caudal peduncle depth 10.9 10.8 11.3 11.2 11.1 10.3 11.0 11.6 11.6 11.1 11.1 10.5 11.0 


Snout length 28.0 27.8 28.1 27.7 28.7 28.4 29.2 25.3 30.3 30.6 30.6 29.1 28.1 

Eye diameter 29.0 30.7 28.3 28.5 28.2 25.0 25.4 24.7 27.8 25.7 27.1 25.9 23.9 

Interorbital width 19.7 19.7 25.9 22.4 22.6 23.1 26.4 23.6 21.4 21.8 21.9 23.7 26.1 

Meristic 

Predorsal scales 28 28 27 27 26 27 27 28 28 28 26 27 28 

Lateral line scales 78 76 75 78 75 76 75 77 77 78 76 77 77 

Scales between lateral line and pelvic 

fin 

Scales between lateral line and dorsal 

fin 

11 11 11.5 11.5 11.5 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 

14 14 13 13.5 13.5 13.5 14 14 14 14 13.5 13.5 13.5 

Dorsal fin rays I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 I,8 

Pectoral fin rays i,14 i,14 i,13 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 i,14 

Ventral fin rays i,8 i,8 i,8 i,9 i,9 i,9 i,9 i,9 i,9 i,8 i,8 i,8 i,8 

Anal fin rays ii,23 ii,23 ii,23 ii,23 ii,22 ii,22 ii,23 ii,23 ii,22 ii,23 ii,23 ii,23 ii,23 

of urohyal bone of silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 

(Val. 1844) for age determination. Current Science 79(1): 

27–28. 

Menon, A.G.K. (1999). Check list - fresh water fishes of India. 

Occasional Paper No. 175. Records of the Zoological 

Survey of India, Kolkata. 366pp. 

Silas, E.G. (1952). Further studies regarding Hora’s Satpura 

hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Institute of Sciences 

of India 18(5): 423-448. 

Singh, D.F. & G.M. Yazdani (1992). Osteobrama bhimensis, 

a new cyprinid fish from Bhima River, Pune District, 

Maharahtra. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 

89(1): 96-99. 

Sykes, W.H. (1839). On the fishes of the Deccan. Proceedings 

of the General Meetings for Scientific Business of the 

Zoological Society of London 1838(6): 157–165. 

Sykes, W.H. (1841). On the fishes of the Dukhun. Transactions 

of the Zoological Society of London 2: 349–378. 

2084 


JoTT Sh o r t Co m m u n ic a t i o n 3(9): 2085–2089 

Badis singenensis, a new fish species (Teleostei: 

Badidae) from Singen River, Arunachal Pradesh, 

northeastern India 

K. Geetakumari 1 & Kento Kadu 2 

1 

Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal, Manipur 795003, India 

Present addresss: ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Manipur Centre, Lamphelpat, Imphal, Manipur 795004, India 

2 

Department of Zoology, Jawaharlal Nehru College, Pasighat, East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh 791102, India 

Email: 1 geetameme@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 kentokadu@yahoo.com 

Abstract: A new species of Badis from Singen River, Brahmaputra 

basin in Arunachal Pradesh, India, has the following combination 

of characters: a conspicuous round black blotch postero-dorsally 

on opercle at the base of opercle spine covering many scales; 

three distinct black blotches at dorsal fin base: the first, behind 

the third spine; the second, behind the sixth dorsal spine and 

the third, behind the fifth and sixth soft dorsal rays. The species 

differs from its nearest congeners, B. assamensis and B. blosyrus 

by the presence of a black blotch at the base behind the fifth soft 

anal fin ray. 

Keywords: Arunachal Pradesh, Brahmaputra basin, new fish, 

Perciformes. 

The Indo-Burmese genus Badis Bleeker is 

characteristic in having an opercle with a single 

sharp spine at its postero-dorsal corner; contiguous 

spinous and soft dorsal fins; the base of the soft part 

longer than that of the spinous part; anal fin with three 




Editor: K. Rema Devi 


Ms # o2531 

Received 02 August 2010 

Final received 06 June 2011 


Citation: Geetakumari, K. & K. Kadu (2011). Badis singenensis, a new 

fish species (Teleostei: Badidae) from Singen River, Arunachal Pradesh, 

northeastern India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(9): 2085–2089. 

Copyright: © K. Geetakumari & Kento Kadu 2011. Creative Commons 

Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this 

article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution 

by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. 

Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to Prof. W. Vishwanath, 

Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University for his valuable 

suggestions; to Dr. D.N. Das, Department of Zoology, Rajiv Gandhi 

University, Itanagar for his valuable help and to Dr. Kenjum Bagra, Research 

Officer, Arunachal Pradesh, Biodiversity Board, Itanagar for his precious 

information. The first author records her thankfulness to Department of 

Biotechnology for financial assistance for DBT-RA programme. 


spines; lateral line pores tubed and interrupted; jaws, 

vomer and palatines with villiform teeth; scales both 

ctenoid and cycloid; 2-4 dentary foramina; 3-toothed 

hypobranchial; short pelvic fin in males, not reaching 

the first dorsal spine; short dorsal fin lappets and 

rounded caudal fin (Kullander & Britz 2002). 

As many as 14 species of Badis are currently 

treated valid, of which six are from Brahmaputra 

drainage—Badis assamensis Ahl, B. badis (Hamilton), 

B. blosyrus Kullander & Britz, B. dibruensis 

Geetakumari & Vishwanath, B. kanabos Kullander & 

Britz, and B. tuivaiei Vishwanath & Shanta; five from 

Irrawaddy drainage—B. corycaeus Kullander & Britz, 

B. ferrarisi Kullander & Britz, B. kyar Kullander 

& Britz, B. pyema Kullander & Britz, and B. ruber 

Schreitmiiller and one each from Matamohuri River 

drainage, of Takaupa River basin and Mae Nam 

Khwae Noi drainage, respectively, B. chittagongis 

Kullander and Britz, B. siamensis Klausewitz and B. 

khwae Kullander and Britz. 

During field surveys in northeastern India during 

2008–2009, 27 specimens of an undescribed Badis 

were collected from Singen River, Brahmaputra basin, 

Arunachal Pradesh (Fig. 1). The species is herein 

described as Badis singenensis sp. nov. 

Materials and Methods 

Measurements were made with dial calipers to 

the nearest 0.1mm and expressed as percentages of 

standard length (SL). Counts and measurements were 

made on the left side of specimens under a PC-based 

binocular stereozoom microscope (Olympus SZ40) 

with transmitted light. Counts and measurements 

followed Kullander & Britz (2002), clearing and 

staining of specimens for osteology after Hollister 

(1934) and identification and nomenclature of bones 


Badis singenensis, a new species 

K. Geetakumari & K. Kadu 

Figure 1. Map showing distribution of Badis singenensis sp. nov. 

and vertebral counts after Greenwood (1976). For 

branchial toothplate count, the first gill arch on the left 

side of the specimens was taken and plates starting 

from hypobranchial to epibranchial of the outer side 

were counted. Type specimens are deposited in the 

Manipur University Museum of fishes (MUMF) 

and Rajiv Gandhi University Museum of Fishery 

(RGUMF) 

a 

b 

Badis singenensis sp. nov. 

(Image 1a-c) 

Type material 

Holotype: 25.ii.2008, 22.3mm SL, 27 0 54’18.72”N 

& 94°55’21.12”E, Brahmaputra drainage, Singen 

River, Saku-Kadu Village, Arunachal Pradesh, India, 

coll. Rikge Kadu & Kento Kadu (MUMF-Per 112). 

Paratypes: 26 exs., RGUMF 0218-0225, 27.0– 

37.0 mm SL, same data as of holotype; MUMF-Per 

113-131, 19, 24.4-42.0 mm SL, data as for holotype; 

MUMF Per-119-120, 2, dissected, cleared and stained 

for osteology. 

Image 1. a - Side view of Badis singenensis sp. nov. 

(uncat.) showing colouration; b - (RGUMF- 0218, paratype, 

female); c - (RGUMF- 0219, paratype, male) 

c 

Diagnosis 

The new Badis singenensis sp. nov. is with the 

following combination of characters: a conspicuous 

black blotch posterodorsally on opercle, at the base 

of opercle spine, round and usually covering portion 

2086 



of several scales; three distinct dark blotches at dorsal 

fin base, first blotch behind third spine, second behind 

sixth dorsal spine and third behind the fifth and sixth 

soft dorsal ray; another distinct black blotch at the base 

of anal fin behind the fifth soft anal fin ray; tooth plate 

count 5; scales in lateral row 25-26; interorbital width 

9.2–13.3% SL; upper jaw length 7.6–8.8% SL; lower 

jaw length 9.4–10.2% SL; head length 30.2–34.6% 

SL. 

Description 

Morphometric data and counts are in Tables 

1 & 2, respectively. Frequency distributions of 

meristic characters are in Table 3 and comparison 

with related species, in Table 4. Body elongate, 

moderately compressed laterally. Predorsal profile 

in small specimens straight, sloping at some angle 

similar prepelvic profile in larger specimens and 

more strongly as the size increases. Head pointed in 

lateral aspect. Orbit situated in anterior half of head 

at about mid-lateral axis of body and moderately 

large, diameter about one-third of head length. Mouth 

oblique and moderately large, protrusible, lower jaw 

slightly projecting beyond upper, maxilla reaching to 

⅓ of orbit. Opercular spine slender, with a sharp tip. 

Palatine, vomer and parasphenoid toothed. 

Pores: dental three, anguloarticular two, 

preopercular six, nasal three, supraorbital three, 

extrascapular two, supracleithral two, posttemporal 

two, coronalis one, lachrymal three, infraorbital pores 

three. A row of free neuromasts extending across the 

gap between lachrymal and anteriormost infraorbital. 

Scales strongly ctenoid on sides, cycloid on top 

of head. On the ventral side, the sizes of the scales 

become reduced towards the posterior side. Predorsal 

scales anterior to coronalis pore 4-5, posteriorly 8-9. 

Cheek and opercular scales ctenoid, 4-5 rows of scales 

on cheek. Three rows of scales on opercle, one row 

each on preopercle, subopercle and interopercle, a few 

scales anterior to cheek cycloid. Lateral line divided 

into two segments, with anterior segment more dorsally 

located than posterior segment. Upper lateral line 

begins at dorsal origin of operculum. Lower lateral 

line begins at vertical through the posterior end of anal 

fin origin, vertically centered along length of caudal 

peduncle. Circumpeduncular scale rows nine above, 

nine below lateral line, totaling 19. Dorsal fin scale 

cover up to 3-4 scales wide; anal fin scale cover three 


Table 1. Proportional measurements of Badis singenensis 

sp. nov. in percentage of standard length except standard 

length. 

Holotype 

Standard length (mm) 0.85 

Paratypes N=26 

Mean Min. Max. S.D. 

Head length 32.9 32.0 30.2 34.6 1.6 

Snout length 7.1 7.8 6.9 9.2 0.9 

Orbital diameter 12.9 10.4 8.1 12.9 1.9 

Interorbital width 9.4 10.7 9.2 13.3 1.5 

Upper jaw length 8.2 8.3 7.6 8.8 0.4 

Lower jaw length 9.4 9.8 9.4 10.2 0.4 

Body depth 29.4 30.2 29.4 30.6 0.5 

Pelvic fin length 25.9 24.7 23.4 25.9 0.9 

Pelvic to anal fin distance 29.4 30.9 27.6 37.2 3.3 

Table 2. Counts of Badis singenensis sp. nov. 

Counts 

Holotype 

Min. 

Paratypes 

Max. 

D 15/7 15/7 15/8 

P 14 14 14 

A iii,6 6 7 

Lateral scale rows 32 29 32 

Lateral line count 21/5 21/4 21/5 

Lateral transverse scales 1½/1/7 1½/1/7 1½/1/7 

Circumpeduncular scales 19 19 20 

Toothplate count 5 5 

Vertebrae 28 28 

scales wide. Scales in vertical row 1½ above, seven 

below lateral lines. Toothplates on the first branchial 

arch five, vertebra 28 (16/12). 

Dorsal fin with long base, anterior insertion 

vertically above the pectoral fin insertion and posterior 

insertion at vertical through base of last anal-fin ray. 

Soft dorsal and anal fins with rounded tips reaching 

to almost about ½ or ⅓ of caudal fin. Caudal fin 

rounded. Pectoral fin rounded, extending about ⅔ 

distance to anal- fin origin. Pelvic fin elongated and 

pointed, inner branch of second soft ray longest, not 

reaching up to vent, but terminating close to vent in 

some large specimens. Head length, orbital diameter, 

interorbital width, upper jaw length and lower jaw 

length respectively (30.2–34.6), (8.1–12.9), (9.2– 

13.3), (7.6–8.8) and (9.4–10.2) % SL. 


2087



Table 3. Frequency distribution of meristic characters 

a 

Dorsal fin counts (spines/soft rays) 

Specimens 

15/8 

1 

15/7 

8 

16/9 

3 

17/8 

3 

b 

Anal fin counts 

Specimens 

5 

2 

6 

7 

7 

3 

8 

3 

c 

Pectoral fin counts 

Specimens 

13 

4 

14 

11 

d 

Lateral scale rows 

Specimens 

29 

1 

30 

3 

31 

9 

32 

- 

33 

2 

e 

Lateral line scale counts (upper/lower 

scales) 

Specimens 

20/5 

1 

21/4 

1 

20/6 

1 

21/5 

10 

22/4 

2 

f 

Tooth plate 

Specimens 

5 

3 

6 

1 

g 

Vertebrae number 

Specimens 

15/13 

2 

15/14 

1 

Table 4. Comparison of proportional measurements in % SL and counts of 

Badis singenensis sp. nov. with related species. 

Proportions B. singenensis sp.nov. B. assamensis B. blosyrus 

Tooth plate count 5 7–9 10–13 

Interorbital width 11.25(9.2–13.3) 5.4(4.8–6.0) 7.4(6.4–8.0) 

Upper jaw length 8.2(7.6–8.8) 10.3(9.7–10.9) 12.8(12.0–13.6) 

Lower jaw length 9.8(9.4–10.2) 13.7(12.7–14.6) 17.4(16.3–18.5) 

Head length 32.4(30.2–34.6) 31.9(29.2–34.5) 37.4(36.0–38.8) 

Scales in lateral row 26(25–26) 28–29 27(27–28) 

Colouration 

Live colours: body dark slaty gray dorsally, paler on 

sides, each scale with reddish tinge; dorsal fin reddish, 

tips of fin rays black. Caudal fin orange, paired fins and 

anal fin slaty gray with reddish tinge. Posterodorsally 

on opercle, at base of opercular spine, a rounded black 

spot covering 3-4 scales. Three distinct dark black 

blotches surrounded by red coloration at dorsal fin 

base: the first behind the third dorsal spine, the second 

behind the sixth dorsal spine and the third, behind the 

fifth dorsal soft ray. A black blotch at the base behind 

the fifth soft anal fin ray. 

In 10% formalin: supraorbital stripe prominent, 

rounded black opercular spot prominent. Body with 5–6 

broad black bars. Black bar on caudal peduncle well 

separated from the preceeding bar between posterior 

ends of dorsal and anal fin bases. Black blotches on 

dorsal fin base and soft anal fins prominent. Dorsal fin 

gray with narrow, contrasting white margin, and each 

lappet with a blackish submarginal stripe. 

Sexual dimorphism 

Males have brighter body colour than their female 

counterpart. In the male vertical bars on posterior 

portion of lateral body are more distinct than on the 

female which are less distinct or absent. During the 

breeding season (April to June) males develop a red 

coloured mark on their soft dorsal and soft anal fin and 

in some female specimens red coloured marks were 

observed in lateral scales. Females have a deeper body 

height than the males. 

Etymology 

The species is named after the Singen River, 

Arunachal Pradesh, type locality of the species. 

Distribution 

Presently known only from Singen River at Saku- 

Kadu Village, East Siang District, Arunachal Pradesh, 

Brahmaputra drainage, northeastern India. 

Discussion 

Badis singenensis is distinguished from all its 

congeners by the presence (vs. absence) of black 

blotches on the dorsal fin and one on the soft anal fin. It 

further differs from its nearest congener, B. assamensis 

2088 



in having fewer tooth plates (5 vs. 7–9), scales in 

lateral row (25–26 vs. 28–29); wider interorbital 

region (9.2–13.3 vs. 4.8–6.0% SL); shorter upper jaw 

(7.6–8.8 vs.9.7–10.9% SL) and lower jaw (9.4–10.2 

vs. 12.7–14.6% SL). It is also distinguished from B. 

blosyrus in having fewer tooth plates (5 vs. 10–13); 

less scales in lateral row (25–25 vs. 27–28); shorter 

head length (30.2–34.6 vs. 36.0–38.8% SL); wider 

interorbital space (9.2–13.3 vs. 6.4–8.0% SL); shorter 

upper jaw (7.6–8.8 vs.12.0–13.6%SL) and lower jaw 

(9.4–10.2 vs. 16.3–18.5%SL). 

Badis singenensis differs from its congeners from 

the Brahmaputra basin, viz., B. badis, B. dibruensis, B. 

kanabos and B. tuivaiei by the presence (vs. absence) 

of black blotch on the soft anal fin. It further differs 

from B. badis in having wider interorbital space (9.2– 

13.3 vs. 6.5–8.3% SL) and shorter lower jaw (9.4–10.2 

vs. 11.3–14.5% SL). It also differs from B. dibruensis 

in having longer upper jaw (7.6–8.8 vs. 6.1–6.9% SL) 

and lower jaw (9.4–10.2 vs. 7.8–8.3% SL). It further 

differs from B. kanabos in having wider interorbital 

space (9.2–13.3 vs. 7.3–8.6% SL) and shorter lower 

jaw (9.4–10.2 vs. 11.0–13.5% SL). It also further 

differs from B. tuivaiei in having wider interorbital 

space (9.2–13.3 vs. 5.6–7.2% SL) and shorter lower 

jaw (9.4–10.2 vs 10.9–16.4). 

The new species differs from all the five species of 

the Irrawaddy drainage in the presence (vs. absence) 

of opercle blotch and in the presence (vs. absence) of 

black blotch on the soft dorsal fin. It further differs 

from B. ferrarisi in having longer interorbital width 

(9.2–13.3% SL) and longer lower jaw (11.3–12.8 vs. 

9.4–10.2% SL). 

Badis singenensis also differs from B. siamensis 

and B. khwae in the absence (vs. presence) of opercle 

blotch and from B. chittagongis in absence (vs. 

presence) of opercle blotch. 

Kullander & Britz (2002) classified the species of 

Badis into five groups viz., B. ruber, B. assamensis, B. 


corycaeus, B. kyar and B. badis group. They reported 

B. assamensis group to be characteristic in having 

an opercle blotch and believed that more numbers of 

undescribed species of the group exist in the region. 

The new species under description belongs to the B. 

assamensis group. 

Comparative materials 

Badis assamensis: MUMF Per-51-54, 4, 41.6–55.8 

mm SL; India; Assam, Dibrugarh, Dibru River; Badis 

assamensis: RGUMF-0180, 2, 49–52 mm SL, Dibang 

river, Lohit, Arunachal Pradesh, India; B. badis: 

MUMF Per-55-65, 11, 23.5–28.7 mm SL; India; 

Manipur, Barak River; Badis badis: RGUMF- 0149, 

5, 23–40 mm SL, Mebang River, Arunachal Pradesh, 

India; B. blosyrus: MUMF Per-66-68, 3, 36.8–38.9 

mm SL; India; Arunachal Pradesh, Lohit River; B. 

dibruensis: MUMF- Per 95, Holotype, 1, 37.3mm SL; 

India; Assam, Dibrugarh, Dibru River; B. ferrarisi: 

MUMF Per- 69-75, 7, 32.0–44.0 mm SL; India; 

Manipur, Lokchao River; B. kanabos: MUMF Per-76- 

81, 6, 48.7–54.9 mm SL; India; Manipur, Barak River; 

B. tuivaiei: MUMF 5125-5132, 8, 53.5–59.4 mm SL; 

India; Manipur, Tuivai and Irang River. 

References 

Greenwood, P.H. (1976). A review of the family centropomidae 

(Pisces, Perciformes). Bulletin of the British Museum 

(Natural History) 29(1): 1–81. 

Hollister, G. (1934). Clearing and dyeing fish for bone study. 

Zoologica 12: 89–101. 

Kullander, S.O. & R. Britz (2002). Revision of the family 

Badidae (Teleostei: Perciformes), with description of a new 

genus and ten new species. Ichthyological Exploration of 

Freshwaters 13(4): 295–372. 


2089

JoTT Sh o r t Co m m u n ic a t i o n 3(9): 2090–2094 

Distribution of the Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (Gruiformes: 

Otididae) in Gujarat State, India 

Sandeep B. Munjpara 1 , B. Jethva 2 & C.N. Pandey 3 

1 

Junior Research Fellow, GEER Foundation, Indroda Nature Park, P.O. Sector-7, Gandhinagar 382007, Gujarat, India 

2 

Asian Waterfowl Census Coordinator, Wetland International, C-101, Sarthak Apartment, Kh-0, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382007, India 

3 

Additional Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Sector-10, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382007, India 

Email: 1 sandeepmunjpara@gmail.com (corresponding author), 2 bharatjethva2000@yahoo.co.in, 3 pandeycn08@rediffmail.com 

Abstract: The last surviving population of the Indian Bustard 

(IB) of Gujarat State was found to be distributed in the coastal 

grasslands of the Abdasa and Mandvi talukas of Kachchh District. 

The major part of the present distribution range of IB falls in 

the Abdasa Taluka and a small portion of this range falls in the 

Mandvi Taluka of Kachchh District in Gujarat. Geographically, 

this distribution of the IB is located on the northern coast of 

the Gulf of Kachchh. The total area of this distribution range 

of the IB in Gujarat covers a total of 996.4km 2 area. The entire 

area of the distribution range is more or less flat as compared 

to the surrounding typical topography of Kachchh District. The 

area within the distribution range of IB is mainly composed of 

grassland followed by open flat land. 

Keywords: Distirbution, Indian Bustard, Kachchh, Naliya 

grasslands. 

Distribution is the ecological occurrence of a species 

in geographical areas, and information on distribution 

of any animal plays an important role in ecological 

research because the size, shape, orientation of the 




Editor: Rajiv S. Kalsi 


Ms # o2756 




Citation: Sandeep B. Munjpara, B. Jethva & C.N. Pandey (2011). 

Distribution of the Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (Gruiformes: Otididae) 

in Gujarat State, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(9): 2090–2094. 

Copyright: © Sandeep B. Munjpara, B. Jethva & C.N. Pandey 2011. 

Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows 

unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, 

reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors 

and the source of publication. 

Acknowledgements: We are thankful to the Ministry of Environment and 

Forests, Government of India for financially supporting the present study. 

We sincerely acknowledge the valuable support received from Gujarat 

Forest Department. We extend our deep gratitude towards the forest 

officers of Kachchh Circle who constantly helped us out during various 

field visits. We are grateful to the staff members of GEER Foundation for 

helping and supporting our various activities for the project. 


distribution range and distribution pattern explains 

the conservation status of a species on a spatial scale. 

Such information is important for formulating future 

management strategies for the species under study. In 

view of the paucity of such information on the Critically 

Endangered (Bildlife Internation 2008) Indian Bustard 

(IB) [also known as the Great Indian Bustard (GIB)] in 

Gujarat, the present study was conducted to demarcate 

the boundaries of their distribution range in Gujarat 

based on systematic and scientific data collection. 

Study area 

This study was carried out in Naliya grasslands 

and surrounding areas in Abdasa as well as adjoining 

talukas (i.e. Mandvi, Lakhapat and Nakhtrana) of 

Kachchh District (Fig. 1). The area is located in 

the southwestern province of the district. On the 

southern side, it joins with the Gulf of Kachchh. Low 

precipitation and frequent drought condition in this 

area do not support the growth of big tree species; 

moisture from the air supports the growth of grass. 

Ecologically, this area is of the type of 5A/DS 4-Dry 

grassland with few scattered patches of 5A/DS 2-Dry 

Savannah forest as per Classification of Forest Types 

of India (Champion & Seth 1968). The study area 

was composed of both continuous and discontinuous 

patches of grassland. A part of the area was covered 

with only grasses and forbs, while other areas had 

grass cover as well as scattered bushes of Acacia 

spp., Prosopis juliflora, P. cineraria, Zizyphus spp., 

Salvadora spp.,and Caparis spp. 

Methods 

Preliminary information on the distribution of 

Indian Bustards in Gujarat was collected with the 

help of secondary literature and consultation with 

experienced ornithologists and nature lovers. The area 

under the intensive study (i.e. Naliya grassland) was 

2090 


Distribution of Indian Bustard 

Figure 1. Stuey area 

visited at least once a month. A total of 22 field visits 

were made from May 2006 to October 2007 and each 

field visit was of 4 to 10 days. The field visits were 

made to ensure data collection in all the seasons of 

the year as well as breeding and non-breeding phases 

of the species. Field observations were made with 

the help of powerful binoculars (Nikon-10X50) and 

spotting scope (Nikon-20X80). During each field 

visit, various physical and ecological parameters were 

noted upon sighting of the Indian Bustard [e.g. time 

of sightings, number of individuals (group size), their 

sex/age group (Male/Female/Juvenile), vegetation 

type where birds were sighted, activities of the birds, 

and the location of the birds]. The location of each 

sighting of the bustards was noted using GPS for 

studying distribution patterns and habitat preferences 

with respect to grass species, vegetation pattern etc. 

Results 

The population of Indian Bustards was found to 

be distributed in the coastal grasslands of the Abdasa 

and Mandvi talukas of Kachchh District (Fig. 2). 

This area is located in the southwestern province of 

Kachchh District in Gujarat (Fig. 2). A major part of 

the present distribution range of Indian Bustards falls 

in the Abdasa Taluka and a small portion of this range 

falls in the Mandvi Taluka of Kachchh District in 

Gujarat. The main locations of sightings of the species 

were grasslands and scrublands of some villages of 

Mandvi and Abdasa Taluka such as Bhanad, Kunathia, 

Naliya, Kalatalav, Jakhau, Jasapar, Gahdavada plot, 

S.B. Munjpara et al. 

Bhavanipar, Budiya, Rampar, Jasapar, Vinghaber, 

Khauda, Lala, Lala Bustard Sanctuary, Lathedi, 

Bhachunda, Parjav, Ranpar, Sandhan, Suthari, 

Udheja Van and Vinjan (GPS locations in Table 1). 

Geographically, this distribution of Indian Bustard was 

located on the northern coast of the Gulf of Kachchh 

and the western-most part of the state and the country. 

This population, distributed in Kachchh District, is 

known to be the last surviving population of Indian 

Bustards in Gujarat State as the species is not found to 

breed or be localized in any other parts in the state. The 

total area of this distribution range of Indian Bustard 

in Gujarat covered 996.4km 2 . The Indian Bustard’s 

population was distributed in 0.51% of the total area 

of Gujarat State and 2.18% total area of Kutch District. 

The distribution range lie between 23 0 12’32.3”– 

23 0 11’1.1”N to 68 0 40’14.4”–69 0 9’26.4”E in an eastwest 

direction and from 23 0 17’28.1”–23 0 0’8.8”N to 

68 0 54’25.3”–69 0 3’54.0”E in a north-south direction. 

The distribution range of the Indian Bustard overlapped 

the revenue land of more than 37 villages, forest areas 

and “Kachchh Bustard Sanctuary” in Gujarat. The 

spread of the distribution range of Indian Bustards 

started from Mothala Village in the east to Jakhau 

Village in the west and from Tera Village in the north 

to Babhadai Village (of Mandvi tehsil) in the south. 

The entire area of the distribution range was more or 

less flat as compared to the surrounding topography 

typical of Kachchh District. The habitat use pattern 

within the distribution range of the Indian Bustard 

suggested that the majority of the area was composed 

of grassland (28%) followed by open flat land (27%). 

Discussion 

Apart from the present distribution range, the 

Indian Bustard was not sighted anywhere else in the 

state throughout the study period. The Indian Bustard 

once had a widespread distribution in Saurashtra and 

Kachchh (Fig. 3). In Kathiawar Peninsula, it was found 

in all areas except the forest areas of Gir, Girnar and 

Bardahills (Dharmakumarsinhji 1957). From 1950 

to 1979 the distribution range of Indian Bustard was 

restricted to five districts of Gujarat i.e. Kachchh, Rajkot, 

Surendranagar, Jamnagar and Bhavnagar. Later they 

were sighted in Velavadar National Park, Bhavnagar in 

1980 (Rahmani & Manakadan 1990). By the end of the 

1980s a few birds were recorded from Surendranagar 

and Rajkot (Rahmani & Manakadan 1990) (Fig. 3). 


2091



NAKHATRANA 

ABDASA 

Jakhau 

Vinghaber 

Naliya 

Kunathia 

Lala 

Bhanada 

GIB singhtings 

Distribution range 

Taluka boundary 

Grassland area 

MANDVI 

Figure 2. Annual distriution of Indian Bustard in Kachchh (Gujarat) between 2006–2007 

In Jamnagar, it was last sighted from 1985 to 1986 at 

Ghoghera Talab and Kalyanpur Taluka. At the end 

of 1990 Indian Bustard became rare in most parts of 

the state and the distribution range was restricted to 

the Kachchh District. After the year 1990 no sighting 

records of the Indian Bustard were made from other 

areas of the state except Kachchh. However, recently, 

a pair of Indian Bustards was recorded for a short 

duration in the grasslands of Velavadar National Park 

in Saurashtra region in December 2005 (V. Rathod, 

RFO, Gujarat Forest Department pers. comm.). Apart 

from this, very recently in May 2008 one individual 

Indian Bustard was observed (Yogendra Shah pers. 

comm.) in the sparse saline grassland habitat of Little 

Rann of Kachchh in Surendranagar District of Gujarat. 

These recent records suggest that the Indian Bustard 

may be dispersing from the source population either 

from its distribution in Gujarat or from Rajasthan. It is 

also likely that the populations of Indian Bustard in the 

Thar Desert of Rajasthan and the grasslands of Kachchh 

are mixing. It is likely that the birds are moving 

along the marginal grass patches on the edge of Great 

Rann and Little Rann of Kachchh in Banaskantha, 

Patan and Surendranager districts in Gujarat. The 

Indian Bustard is confirmed to be distributed only 

in six states of India that include Rajasthan, Madhya 

Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra 

and Gujarat (Rahmani 2006). The Indian Bustard is 

not only locally extinct from its former range, it has 

also disappeared from the three sanctuaries declared 

25 years ago for its protection (Rahmani 2006). One 

of these is Gaga Bustard Sanctuary, which lies in the 

Saurashtra peninsula in Gujarat. It is in this context 

that the present distribution range in Kachchh has great 

conservation significance as the present distribution 

range has been holding the population of the Indian 

Bustard for a long duration compared to many other 

habitats in Gujarat and across India (Fig. 3). 

References 

BirdLife International (2008). Ardeotis nigriceps. In: IUCN 

2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 

2092 




Table 1. GPS coordinates of Indian Bustard’s sightings in study area 

Latitude 

Longitude 

dd mm ss dd mm ss 

1 23 09 07.7 68 45 43.7 

2 23 09 50.3 68 45 39.1 

3 23 09 54.6 68 45 37.7 

4 23 10 29.9 68 49 32.4 

5 23 10 43.8 68 43 54.2 

6 23 10 46.6 68 42 56.7 

7 23 10 49.4 68 42 56.8 

8 23 10 53.6 68 43 04.5 

9 23 10 56.1 69 07 20.1 

10 23 10 56.8 68 49 18.8 

11 23 10 57.2 68 44 01.6 

12 23 11 00.4 69 07 09.7 

13 23 11 00.7 68 48 25.8 

14 23 11 01.1 68 50 19.3 

15 23 11 02.9 68 44 06.4 

16 23 11 06.5 68 42 55.5 

17 23 11 08.9 68 49 31.7 

18 23 11 10.3 68 49 51.0 

19 23 11 15.4 68 42 57.7 

20 23 11 17.9 68 50 48.4 

21 23 11 18.8 68 48 15.5 

22 23 11 20.5 68 49 13.3 

23 23 11 24.8 68 42 44.5 

24 23 11 25.4 68 41 46.6 

25 23 11 27.4 68 50 20.1 

26 23 11 31.8 68 49 16.8 

27 23 11 35.8 68 50 10.2 

28 23 11 37.9 68 51 05.5 

29 23 11 36.9 68 51 56.6 

30 23 11 40.8 68 51 21.4 

31 23 11 42.2 68 51 08.6 

32 23 11 43.8 68 50 48.5 

33 23 11 49.2 68 49 22.1 

34 23 11 49.8 68 50 24.3 

35 23 11 50.9 68 51 19.8 

36 23 11 51.2 68 48 53.2 

37 23 11 52.4 68 50 16.9 

38 23 11 52.9 68 50 18.2 

39 23 11 53.6 68 51 10.1 

40 23 11 59.2 68 51 16.1 

41 23 11 59.8 68 49 27.1 

42 23 12 00.0 68 50 31.2 

43 23 12 04.9 68 51 11.2 

44 23 12 05.6 68 51 06.2 

45 23 12 09.0 68 50 04.5 

46 23 12 09.8 68 50 08.2 

47 23 12 11.5 68 49 44.6 

48 23 12 11.6 68 49 59.6 

49 23 12 11.9 68 51 00.3 

50 23 12 12.5 68 49 16.3 

51 23 12 13.4 68 51 02.2 

52 23 12 13.8 68 50 41.0 

53 23 12 14.3 68 49 33.1 

54 23 12 14.4 68 50 56.2 

55 23 12 14.8 68 50 29.9 

56 23 12 15.7 68 49 35.3 

57 23 12 15.9 68 49 11.4 

58 23 12 19.5 68 48 42.2 

59 23 12 21.2 68 49 00.1 

60 23 12 22.1 68 52 00.8 

Latitude 

Longitude 

61 23 12 22.2 68 48 16.0 

62 23 12 23.7 68 50 58.8 

63 23 12 28.9 68 50 44.4 

64 23 12 33.3 68 51 37.1 

65 23 12 37.3 68 51 09.3 

66 23 12 42.8 69 00 17.8 

67 23 12 43.8 68 48 59.6 

68 23 12 44.2 69 03 01.3 

69 23 12 45.0 68 48 38.2 

70 23 12 47.6 68 50 26.3 

71 23 12 48.0 68 50 48.9 

72 23 12 49.3 68 50 35.9 

73 23 12 49.8 68 51 59.3 

74 23 12 50.0 68 51 52.0 

75 23 12 50.5 68 58 00.5 

76 23 12 51.6 68 55 20.4 

77 23 12 51.9 68 55 20.4 

78 23 12 59.8 68 59 20.8 

79 23 13 00.9 68 58 11.6 

80 23 13 04.1 68 51 03.0 

81 23 13 08.8 68 49 25.5 

82 23 13 13.2 68 50 06.7 

83 23 13 15.8 68 47 36.6 

84 23 13 17.4 68 57 10.4 

85 23 13 19.4 68 57 23.9 

86 23 13 20.8 68 58 04.9 

87 23 13 24.5 68 57 47.8 

88 23 13 25.4 68 59 05.2 

89 23 13 25.5 68 57 27.5 

90 23 13 27.1 68 57 28.0 

91 23 13 30.4 68 59 10.9 

92 23 13 30.7 68 58 21.1 

93 23 13 33.4 68 57 14.1 

94 23 13 33.5 68 59 41.7 

95 23 13 36.1 68 57 52.8 

96 23 13 37.7 68 59 16.3 

97 23 13 38.9 68 58 25.1 

98 23 13 39.8 68 58 42.6 

99 23 13 44.5 69 00 17.5 

100 23 13 45.8 68 58 21.0 

101 23 13 46.6 68 57 53.2 

102 23 13 48.9 68 58 23.1 

103 23 13 50.7 68 59 30.9 

104 23 13 56.9 68 57 03.8 

105 23 14 00.0 68 58 12.3 

106 23 14 02.7 68 57 38.8 

107 23 14 05.6 68 57 48.0 

108 23 14 08.1 68 58 14.6 

109 23 14 11.3 69 01 03.2 

110 23 14 25.1 69 01 16.7 

111 23 14 27.3 68 58 00.5 

112 23 14 42.2 68 59 26.4 

113 23 14 44.1 69 01 00.0 

114 23 15 09.1 68 56 27.3 

115 23 15 11.3 68 55 31.3 

116 23 15 42.6 68 55 33.7 

117 23 15 49.8 68 55 56.2 

118 23 17 09.8 68 54 14.4 

dd - degree; mm - minute; ss - second 

* Many times, more than one bird was sighed at the same locations 


2093



a 

b 

c 

d 

e 

Distribution range of Indian Bustard 

Locations/site of occurrence of Indian Bustards 

Recent sighting of Indian Bustard 

in Little Rann of Kuchchh 

Figure 3. Shrinking of distribution range of Indian Bustard in Gujarat. Maps adapted from 3(a) - Dharmakumarsinhiji (1957); 

3(b) - Rahmani & Manakadan (1990); 3(c) - Rahmani & Manakadan (1990) and Rahmani (2001); Incidental sightings of the species 

of 2005 and 2008 have not been shown in the map which indicates 3(d) - distribution from 2001 onwards; 3(e) - Based on present 

study and incidental sighting. 

2011.1. . Downloaded on 16 

September 2011. 

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968). A Revised Survey of 

Forest Types of India. Government of India Publication, 

New Delhi, 404pp. 

Dharmakumarsinhiji, K.S. (1957). Ecological Study of 

the Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps (Vigor) (Aves: 

Otididae) in Kathiawar Peninsula, Western India. Journal 

of Zoological Society of India 9: 140–152. 

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1990). The past and 

present distribution of the Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps 

(Vigors) in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History 

Society 87: 175–194. 

Rahmani, A.R. (2001). The Godawan Saga: Great Indian 

Bustards in decline. Sanctuary (Asia) 21(1): 24–28 

Rahmani, A.R. (2006). Need to Start Project Bustards. Bombay 

Natural History Society, Mumbai, 20pp. 

2094 


JoTT No t e 3(9): 2095–2099 

Distribution of six little known plant 

species from Arunachal Pradesh, India 

S.S. Dash 1 & A.A. Mao 2 

Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Regional Centre, 

Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh 791111, India 

Email: 1 ssdash2002@yahoo.co.in (corresponding author), 

2 

aamao2001@yahoo.co.in 

Arunachal Pradesh being a part of the Himalaya- 

East Himalaya biogeographic zone (Rodgers et 

al. 2000) is also the confluence point of three 

biogeographic realms, namely, the Afro-tropical, the 

Indo-Malayan and the Indo-Chinese (Takhtajan 1969). 

It harbours a unique composition of different plant 

communities, influenced by various factors including 

rainfall, temperature, humidity and altitude (Biswas 

1966). The biodiversity of Arunachal Pradesh is 

supported by a wide range of endemic species and 

various fragile ecosystems. More than 82% of the 

geographical area of the state is covered with forests, 

which are the custodians of c. 29% flowering plants of 

India (Hajra & Mudgal 1997). 

During the recent floristic survey conducted in the 

Kurung Kumey District of Arunachal Pradesh, six 

interesting species were collected which were known 

only from the type locality. The present collection of 

these species from areas other than the type localities 

confirms that they may have a wider distribution in this 

region. Out of the six species, Dalbergia thomsonii 




Editor: P. Lakshminarasimhan 


Ms # o2688 

Received 31 January 2011 



Citation: Dash, S.S. & A.A. Mao (2011). Distribution of six little known 

plant species from Arunachal Pradesh, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 

3(9): 2095–2099. 

Copyright: © S.S. Dash & A.A. Mao 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 

3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any 

medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing 

adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. 

Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to Director, Botanical 

Survey of India, and Kolkata for encouragement and facility. 


Benth., Larsenianthus assamensis 

S. Dey, Mood & S. Choudhury 

and Plectocomia himalayana 

Griff. are reported for the first time 

from the state while Begonia silhetensis (A.DC.) C.B. 

Clarke, Larsenianthus arunachalensis M. Sabu, Sanoj 

& T. Rajesh Kumar and Tricarpelema glanduliferum 

(J. Joseph & R.S. Rao) R.S. Rao show extended 

distribution. These species are provided with the valid 

name, citation, family name in parenthesis, followd by 

the specimens studied, a short description, phenology 

data, critical field notes and photographs for easy 

identification. The herbarium where the specimens 

were available are also given in parenthesis. (CAL: 

Central National Herbarium; ARUN: Herbarium, 

Botanical Survey of India, Arunachal Pradesh Regional 

Centre). 

1. Begonia silhetensis (A. DC.) C.B. Clarke 

in Hook, f., Fl. Brit. India 2: 636. 1879; Golding & 

Kareg. in Smithsonian Contr. Bot. 60: 233. 1986. 

Casparya silhetensis A. DC., Prodr. 15(1): 277. 1864. 

(Begoniaceae) 

Specimens studied: Arunachal Pradesh: Abor 

Hills, I.H. Burkill 37376 (CAL); Kurung Kumey 

District: On way from Sangram to Koloriang, S.S. 

Dash 31223 (ARUN); NEFA (Kameng), G.Panigrahi 

6029 (CAL). 

Succulent herbs with tuberous, fibrous rootstock. 

Stem 35–90 cm high, glabrous. Leaves obliquely 

ovate-cordate, 16–28 x 13–22 cm, glabrous, glaucous 

and whitish beneath, shaggy on both surfaces, base 

broadly cordate, margins finely denticulate, often 

glandular at dentate tips, apex acute or acuminate, 

broadly palmately veined with 7–8 further forked 

midribs; stipules ovate, 1–1.5 cm long, apex acuminate; 

petioles 15–50 cm long, glabrous or occasionally 

covered with whitish hairs, often purple tinged. 

Inflorescence in scapes, 5–12 cm long. Flowers 

unisexual. Male flowers: white or pinkish-white; 

sepals two, oblanceolate or oblong-ovate, 1–1.8 x 0.8– 

1.5 cm; petals usually two, occasionally 3–10, cyclic; 

stamens numerous, yellowish. Female flowers: sepals 

and petals similar to male flowers; styles bifid, connate 

at base. Fruits globose, 1.5–4.5 cm across, glabrous to 

densely brownish hairy, often variegated. 

Flowering & Fruiting: January–June. 


Six little known plants 

Image 1. Begonia silhetensis (A. DC.) C.B. Clarke 

© S.S. Dash 

Ecology: Found in gregarious patches on forest 

floors, moist and damp grounds of primary forests, 

800–1500 m. 

Notes: After type, this species was first collected by 

I.H. Burkill from the Abor Hills of Arunachal Pradesh 

on 24.xi.1911 and was known only from its type 

locality till it was recollected from Kameng District 

of Arunachal Pradesh on 24.iii.1957 by G. Panigrahi. 

While exploring the Kurung Kumey District, the 

species was again collected and a good population was 

found scattered along the primary forest floors. 

S.S. Dash & A.A. Mao 

leaflets imparipinnate, oblong-elliptic or elliptic, 2–3.5 

x 1–2 cm, glabrous on both surfaces, base cuneate 

or rounded, margins entire, apex emarginate; lateral 

veins 7–8 pairs, prominent beneath; petiolules 3–4 

mm long, terete; stipules 4–5 mm long. Inflorescence 

in axillary and terminal panicles, corymbose at first; 

branches ascending and ultimate becoming scorpioid. 

Flowers deciduous; bracts acuminate. Calyx minutely 

pubescent, unequally 5-lobed; upper 2-lobed, rounded 

at apex, connate at base; lower 3-lobed. Petals pinkishwhite; 

standard suborbicular or elliptic-obovate, 7–10 

x 5–8 mm, emarginate at apex; wings oblong; keels 

boat shaped. Anther filaments unequal, connate with a 

sheath at base. Pods greenish, narrowed at base, strap 

shaped, 5–10 x 2.5–4 cm, indehiscent, glabrous. Seed 

one. 

Flowering & Fruiting: July–January. 

Ecology: Found occasionally in the primary dense 

forests, 400–1200 m. 

Notes: Dalbergia thomsonii Benth. is endemic to 

Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura (Kumar & Sane 2003). 

This species was first collected from Arunachal Pradesh 

by G.D. Pal from Yazali of Lower Subansiri District 

and wrongly identified as Dalbergia assamica Benth. 

[synonym of Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. var. assamica 

(Benth.) Thoth.]. The species was again collected by 

one of us (SSD) from subtropical primary forests of 

Kurung Kumey and West Siang districts. Dalbergia 

thomsonii Benth. can be differentiated from the other 

climbing species of the genus Dalbergia of Arunachal 

Pradesh by the presence of emarginate elliptic leaves, 

axillary and terminal panicled inflorescence which 

are initially corymbose later becoming ascending 

scorpioid. 

2. Dalbergia thomsonii Benth. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 

4 (Suppl.): 33.1860; Baker in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 

2: 236. 1876; Sanjappa, Legumes India 141. 1992. 

Amerimnon thomsonii (Benth.) Kuntze, Revis. Gen. 

Pl. 1: 159. 1891. (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae) 

Specimens studied: Arunachal Pradesh: Kurung 

Kumey District: Kurung River to Yangtey, S.S. Dash 

32834 (ARUN); Lower Subansiri District: Yazali, 

G.D.Pal 1265 (ARUN); West Siang District: on way to 

Kane Wildlife Sanctuary, S.S. Dash 32280 (ARUN). 

Large woody climbers. Stem glabrous; branchlets 

lenticellate. Leaves 10–15 cm long, petioles terete; 

Image 2. Dalbergia thomsonii Benth. 

© S.S. Dash 

2096 



3. Larsenianthus arunachalensis M. Sabu, Sanoj 

& T. Rajesh Kumar in PhytoKeys 1: 28, fig 4 & Pl. 1D. 

2010. (Zingiberaceae) 


Kumey District: along the Wabia River, on way to 

Parlo, S.S. Dash 31721 (ARUN). 

Herbs, 1–1.5 m high. Rhizomes c. 1.9cm across, 

hard, fibrous, slightly aromatic, inner colour pale brown. 

Leaves 2–4 per flowering shoot, elliptic-oblong, 35–75 

× 11–18 cm, base narrowly attenuate, margins entire, 

apex finely acuminate; lateral veins depressed below; 

basal leaf sheath red, glabrous; petioles 15–25 cm long, 

glabrous; ligules lanceolate 6–12 × 2–2.5 cm, glabrous, 

apex attenuate. Inflorescence terminal on leafy shoots, 

erect, 25–65 cm long; spikes elliptic, 11–15 x 3–4 cm; 

floral bracts deep red, spirally arranged and closely 

imbricate, orbicular to broadly elliptic, 2–2.7 × 2.5– 

2.8 cm, coriaceous, glabrous, apex acute; bracteoles 

tubular, longer than bracts. Flowers conspicuous, 2–4 

per bract. Calyx tubular, pale red, white towards base, 

1.4–1.6 cm long, glabrous, apex trilobed; floral tube 

red, 3.2–3.3 cm long; dorsal lobe reflexed, sparsely 

pubescent; lateral lobes glabrous. Lateral staminodes 

orbicular to broadly elliptic, pinkish-white; labellum 

red to creamy yellow towards base, 20–25 × 2.5–3 

mm; fertile stamens red; anthers creamy-yellow, 

arching like a fish-hook. Ovary trilocular; stigma 

white, bulbous, margins ciliate, exserted. 

Flowering & Fruiting: July - September. 

Ecology: Occasionally found in dense and 

extremely moist primary forests, 1200–1500 m. 

Notes: This species was recently described by 

Sabu et al. from Lohit District of Arunachal Pradesh 

(Kress et al. 2010) and was known only from the type 

locality. While surveying the Kurung Kumey District, 

the species was collected by one of us (SSD) from a 

single locality where c. 150 adult plants were growing. 

The occurrence of this species in Kurung Kumey 

District shows that the species might have a wider 

distribution in the state. It is interesting to note that 

the specimens collected from Kurung Kumey District 

differ from the protologue by its complete nature of 

glabrousness. Studies on the herbarium specimens as 

well as live plants in the field, could not confirm the 

hairy nature of leaf ligules, pubescent nature of the 

leaf lamina with silvery hair, twisting condition of the 

leaf apex and pubescent nature of the floral bract as 

mentioned in the protologue. 


© S.S. Dash 

Image 3. Larsenianthus arunachalensis M.Sabu, Sanoj & T. 

Rajesh Kumar 

4. Larsenianthus assamensis S. Dey, Mood & S. 

Choudhury in PhytoKeys 1: 26, fig.3 & Pl. 1C. 2010. 

(Zingiberaceae) 

Specimens studied: Arunachal Pradesh: West Siang 

District: on way to Kane Wildlife Sanctuary, S.S. Dash 

32218 (ARUN). 

Rhizomatous herbs, 60–80 cm high. Leaves 

oblong-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, 20–35 × 5–7 

cm, glabrous above, glaucous beneath, base narrowed 

to a leaf sheath, margins entire, apex finely acuminate; 

leaf sheaths 5–11 cm long, drying brown, whitish 

inside; ligules bilobed. Inflorescence terminal, usually 

on a reflexed peduncle, erect, 7–9 x 3–8 cm, glabrous; 

involucral bracts deep red, 3–4 x 0.7–1 cm, acuminate 

at apex; floral bracts overlapping, closely clasping to 

each other, 2–3 x 0.8–1.3 cm, conspicuously veined. 

Flowers white, 1-3 per bract. Calyx tubular. Corolla 

lobes linear-lanceolate; lobes conspicuous. Staminodes 

reddish, ovate, with a reflexed labellum of 2–2.5 cm 

long; fertile stamens whitish, light orange outside 

arched at base, oblong. Ovary trilobed. 

Flowering & Fruiting: July–September. 

Ecology : Occasionally found in the primary dense 

forests, 300–700 m. 

Notes: This species was recently described from 

Barail Wildlife Sanctuary, Cachar District, Assam by 

Dey et al. and was known only from two locations 

in the sanctuary (Kress et al. 2010). The present 

collection from the Kane Wildlife Sanctuary (West 

Siang District) establishes northern extension of the 

species and its first record for the state of Arunachal 

Pradesh. During the survey, only 10–15 plants were 

observed in the field. 


2097



Image 4. Larsenianthus assamensis S.Dey, Mood & S. 

Choudhury 

© S.S. Dash 

5. Plectocomia himalayana Griff. in Calcutta J . 

Nat. Hist. 5: 100.1845; Karthik et al., Fl. Ind. Enum. 

Monocot. 21. 1989; Govaerts & J. Dransf., World 

Checklist Palms 180. 2005. (Arecaceae) 


Kumey District: Miri to Yangtey, S.S. Dash 

31341(ARUN). 

Scandent shrubs. Stems up to 20m long, ascending. 

Leaf sheaths tomentose, densely spiny; spines straight, 

arranged in wavy manner, oblique at mouth. Petioles 

very short, often clasping to stem. Leaves 2–3.5 m 

long; pinnae linear-lanceolate, narrowed to a long 

filiform cirrate apex; rachis flattened, tomentose, 

lower part sometimes spiny, upper part heavily armed 

with recurved spines (grapnels). Male rachis zigzag; 

bracteoles minute; inflorescences axillary; peduncles 

drooping, covered with densely overlapping floral 

bracts broadly ovate or rhombic, 4–5 cm long, apex 

acuminate; calyx tubular, finely tomentose outside, 

apex acuminate. Fruits globose, spherical, reddishbrown 

on maturity. 

Flowering & Fruiting: August–March. 

Ecology: Common in dense subtropical forests, 

500–2000 m. 

Notes: This species is distributed from Nepal to 

China (Yunnan). In India it was known to occur in 

Sikkim. The present collection from Kurung Kumey 

District forms the basis for the first report of its 

distribution in Arunachal Pradesh. Vegetatively, the 

species is easily confused with the scandent species 

of Calamus in wild, but can be differentiated by the 

presence of sharp spines on wavy lamellae, long 

filiform leaf tips, drooping inflorescence and rachilla 

Image 5. Plectocomia himalayana Griff. 

© S.S. Dash 

often hidden by broad bracts. Traditionally the pith of 

this species is used as fodder and the stem fiber is used 

for making houses and baskets by the Nishi tribe. 

6. Tricarpelema glanduliferum (J. Joseph & R.S. 

Rao) R.S. Rao in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 59 (Suppl.): 

II(III). 1980; Karthik. et al. Fl. Ind. Enum. Monocot. 

31. 1989; Faden in Novon 17: 167. 2007. Aneilema 

glanduliferum J. Joseph & R.S. Rao in J. Indian Bot. 

Soc. 47: 367. 1969. (Commelinaceae) 


Kumey District: near Palin, S.S. Dash 31334 

(ARUN). 

Herbs. Stems up to 85cm high, puberulous or 

glabrous. Leaves lanceolate, 11–17 x 1–5 cm, upper 

surface papillose-hispid, hispid only on veins beneath, 

finely acuminate at apex, hispid-ciliate at margins, 

narrowed to very short petiole-like base; sheaths 

widely cylindric, 2.2–3 cm long; upper leaves almost 

overlapping. Inflorescence 5–17.5 cm long, densely 

glandular-pubescent, terminal; bracteoles leaving 

scars; flowers borne near ends of branches; pedicels 

1–1.5 cm long. Flowers pale mauve to bright blue. 

2098 




© S.S. Dash 

Image 6. Tricarpelema glanduliferum (J. Joseph & R.S. Rao) 

R.S. Rao 

Sepals oblong-elliptic, margins scarious, apex hooded, 

4–5 x 3 mm, glandular-pubescent. Petals obovate, 

rounded, c. 6 x 5 mm. Ovary narrowly ellipsoid, c. 3 

x l mm, tapering upwards into style, glabrous; style c. 

9mm long, filiform, twisted at apex. Fruiting branch 

stout, upward curving, each bearing single capsule. 

Capsule segments narrowly oblanceolate. 

Flowering & Fruiting: July–October. 

Ecology: Scattered along river banks or stream 

sides, 700–1800 m. 

Notes: Tricarpelema glanduliferum (J. Joseph 

& R.S. Rao) R.S. Rao is known to occur in India 

(Arunachal Pradesh) and Vietnam. This species 

was described from Kameng District of Arunachal 

Pradesh. Tricarpelema glanduliferum is very similar 

to Tricarpelema giganteum (Hassk.) H. Hara which 

occurs commonly in Eastern Himalaya. However, 

the former species can be differentiated from the 

latter by the presence of multicellular glandular hairs 

in inflorescence and pedicels. Due to their close 

morphological similarity, either of the species is often 

overlooked by the collectors, unless both the species 

are in flowering condition. The present collection of 

this rare species made on 08 September 2009 from 

Arunachal Pradesh after a lapse of 46 years after type 

collection from an area other than the type locality also 

confirms occurrence of this species in India. 

REFERENCES 

Biswas, K.P. (1966). Plants of Darjeeling and the Sikkim 

Himalayas.Government Press, Calcutta, 540pp, 

Hajra, P.K. & V. Mudgal (1997). Diversity in Hotspots - An 

Overview. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 1-12pp 

Kress, W.J., J.D. Mood, M. Sabu, L.M. Prince, S. Dey & E. 

Sanoj (2010). Larsenianthus, a new Asian genus of Gingers 

(Zingiberaceae) with four species. PhytoKeys 1: 15–32. 

Kumar, S. & P.V. Sane (2003). Legumes of South Asia. Royal 

Botanic Gardens, Kew, p.176. 

Rodger, W.A., H.S. Panwar & V.B. Mathur (2000). 

Biogeographical Classification of India in Wildlife Protected 

Area Network in India: A Review (Executive Summary). 

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun, 49pp. 

Takhtajan, A. (1969). Flowering Plants, Origin and Dispersal. 

Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 310pp. 


2099

JoTT No t e 3(9): 2100–2103 

New distributional record of Gentiana 

tetrasepala Biswas (Gentianales: 

Gentianaceae) from the Valley of 

Flowers National Park, Garhwal 

Himalaya 

C.S. Rana 1 , V. Rana 2 & M.P.S. Bisht 3 

1 

State Medicinal Plants Board Uttarakhand, Dehradun, 

Uttarakhand 248006, India, 

2,3 

Department of Geology, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar 

(Garhwal), Uttarakhand 246174, India 

Email: 1 drcsir@gmail.com (corresponding author), 

2 

virendrarana3@yahoo.co.in, 3 mpbisht@gmail.com 

Endemic plants are more prone to extinction for 

various reasons as they are habitat specific. Because 

of unstable habitats, in a small area with a limited 

population they are extra stressed. Therefore, such 

endemics must be prioritized for conservation efforts 

(Rawat 2009). Considering this, we have been trying 

to locate the populations of alpine endemics in the 

Garhwal Himalaya and succeeded in rediscovering 

Arenaria curvifolia Majumdar after 121 years (Rawat 

& Rana 2007) and Dicranostigma lactucoides Hk. f. et 

Thoms. after 150 years (Rawat et al. 2009). After our 

recent floristic survey in relation to glacial recession 

and the upward shift of the vegetation at the alpine 




Editor: K.S. Negi 


Ms # o2572 

Received 15 September 2010 

Final received 29 April 2011 


Citation: Rana, C.S., V. Rana & M.P.S. Bisht (2011). New distributional 

record of Gentiana tetrasepala Biswas (Gentianales: Gentianaceae) 

from the Valley of Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of 


meadows of the Valley of Flowers 

National Park (VoFNP) (Image 

1), we report here the recollection 

of Gentiana tetrasepala Biswas 

along with the causes of recent threats and the high 

need of conservation. 

Gentiana tetrasepala was described by Biswas 

in 1938 on the basis of specimens collected by J.F. 

Duthie (No. 3166 CAL) from Ralam Valley (Kumaon 

Garhwal) on 26 August 1884. Since then the species 

was never recorded leading to the general assumption 

that the species had either become extinct or is not 

a distinct and taxonomically valid species (Garg 

1987). Chowdhery & Murti (2000) mentioned this 

species among the red taxa as per IUCN’s criteria of 

red taxa (IUCN 1994). It was placed under the ‘IK’ 

(insufficiently known) category as per the Indian 

Red Data Book (Nayar & Shastry 1987). Rawat 

(2009) suggested that it be placed under the category 

‘I’ (indeterminate). This species has a restricted 

geographical range (one small population in the alpine 

zone of VoFNP, Chamoli District, Uttarakhand). It has 

a very habitat-specific occurrence and seems partially 

affected by the recent upward shifting of the vegetation 

due to global warming and regional climatic variations. 

More recently, Rawat (2009) re-discovered this species 

from Madhu Ganga Valley in Kedarnath (4700m) in 

Rudarprayag District after a long gap of 123 years. 

Our specimen (CSR-GUH 19587) collected from 

Kunth Khal (3800m) (Image 2) above Bhyundar Ganga 

(Garhwal Himalaya) in August 2009 suggests a wider 

range and protection in a World Heritage Site (VoFNP) 

unlike the population recorded by Rawat (2009) in a 

highly disturbed site. The voucher specimens are 

© Dr. C.S. Rana 

Copyright: © C.S. Rana, V. Rana & M.P.S. Bisht 2011. Creative 

Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use 

of this article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and 

distribution by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of 

publication. 

Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to Dr. G.S. Rawat, 

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun for going through the manuscript and 

constructive criticism and to Dr. R.C. Sundriyal, Director Herbal Research 

& Development Institute, Mandal-Gopeshwar, Chamoli for providing 

laboratory facilities. 


2100 

Image 1. Wide view of Valley of Flowers National Park 


New record of Gentiana tetrasepala 

C.S. Rana et al. 

© Dr. C.S. Rana © Dr. D.S. Rawat 

Image 3. Gentiana tetrasepala Biswas 

Image 2. Kunth Khal (Habitat of Gentiana tetrasepala) 

deposited at the Herbarium of Garhwal University 

(GUH), Srinagar, Garhwal and Pantanagar University 

Herbarium (PUH) (441/2) (Image 3). The present 

collection outside the type locality (Barjikang Pass in 

Ralam Valley of Kumaon Garhwal) indicates a wider 

range of distribution, though it is still an endemic of 

the Uttarakhand Himalaya. The noticeable threats to 

its survival (i) and potential threats (ii, iii) are: 

(i) Invasion of timberline species i.e. Selinum 

vaginatum (Edgew.) C.B. Clarke, Solidago virgaurea 

L., Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo, Geranium 

wallichianum D. Don ex Sweet, Picrorhiza kurrooa 

Royle ex Benth., Potentilla atrosanguinea Lodd. ex 

Lehm, Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims.) C.B. Clarke, 

Malaxis cylindrostachya O. Kuntze, Meconopsis 

aculeata Royle, Saxifraga stenophylla Royle, and 

Stellaria decumbens Edgew. towards permanent 

snowline (Rana et al. 2010). 

(ii) Inevitable replacement of habitat in unstable 

reducing glacial cover and snow covers. 

(iii) Global warming and regional climate change 

induced upward shift of sub-alpine flora which produce 

habitat replacement. 

Korner (1999) strongly suggested a similar 

consequential stress on alpine vegetation. Global 

warming and micro-climatic changes are known to 

induce upward range shift (some times downward) 

of the plant species (Grabher et al. 1994; Grace et 

al. 2002; Parmesan & Yohe 2003; Dubey et al. 2003; 

Lenior et al. 2008; Xu et al. 2009; Rana et al. 2010). 

If, the aforesaid reference trends are applied to only 

the well known protected population (habitat) of G. 

tetrasepala it will certainly disappear within the next 

few decades. The reason being that it is an obligatory 

seeder (annual) and is restricted to open high elevation 

terrain and it exhibits fast responses to climatic 

variation i.e. upward shift of the alpine plant species 

(Rana et al. 2010). G. tetrasepala occupies sparsely 

vegetated stable slopes where ample open spaces are 

available for seeds to reach the soil level and germinate 

(Rawat 2009). However, rising temperatures, longer 

season length, and increased N 2 

supply alone or in 

combination will open the alpine terrain for invaders 

from lower elevations and create pressure for an upward 

shift of alpine plant species towards the snowline 

(Rana et al. 2010). In such cases the existing habitat 

will allow other species from the lower alpine slopes 

to occupy available spaces making it a close vegetated 

slope. Consequently, G. tetrasepala will be eliminated 

due to unavailable open spaces at existing altitudes 

(Rawat 2009). Simultaneously, an upward shift is also 

possible in this terrain where the area is meadow and it 

is likely that soil will be available there even after half 

a century due to the recent disappearance of glacial 

mass, volume, area and length (Mehta et al. 2011). 

The area where a population is located in the debris 

slide zone was earlier a grazing land of local livestock, 

which is now conserved. These few hundred plants 

of the species protected from anthropogenic pressure 

are at risk from upwards shifting of the alpine plant 

species (Grabher et al. 1994; Grace et al. 2002; Dubey 

et al. 2003; Parmesan & Yohe 2003; Lenoir et al. 2008; 


2101



Image 4. Map showing current distribution record of Gentiana tetrasepala 

Xu et al. 2009; Rana et al. 2010). 

Considering a single extant population of few 

hundred individuals, the annual nature of the species, 

the severity of unpredictable climate and the stress 

posed by the upward shift of sub-alpine flora due to 

the recent climatic and glacial variations, its status 

must be reassessed as it is threatened. The present 

habitat of G. tetrasepala has provided an opportunity 

for its conservation but at the same time further 

studies need to be carried out with concerns of recent 

environmental changes and habitat replacement in the 

Valley of Flowers National Park. 

Gentiana tetrasepala Biswas in Hk. f. Ic. Plant 4: 

ser.5.t. 3359. 1938; Garg, Gentianaceae of Northwest 

Himalaya, 107, 1987; Rawat, Nat. Acad. Sci. Lett. 

169-172. 2009. 

A tiny, glabrous, annual, alpine herb, 0.8–3 

cm across. Root slender, filiform, branched. Stem 

branched at base; diffuse, 0.5–1 cm long, ascending in 

flowering, prostrate in fruit, glabrous, thin, greenish. 

Leaves radical 2-3 pairs, leaves of lowermost pair 

rounded to obovate-spathulate, cauline leaves obovate 

to pandurate, 2-5 x 1.5–3 mm; elliptic-lanceolate, 

entire, mucronate, recurved, glabrous, 1.5–2.0 x 2–4 

mm, sessile. Flowers solitary, terminal on branches, 

pedicellate, 4-merous, 2–4 mm long, greenish. 

Calyx lobes four, 2–4 mm long, green, tube 2–2.5 

mm, constricted at the upper end, lobes spreading, 

dissimilar, reflexed in fruit, ovate to lanceolate, 1–1.5 

mm long, margins scarcely cartilaginous, entire, 

glabrous, acute. Corolla dull-white, shorter than calyx 

but slightly exceeding calyx tube, elliptic, 2–3.5 

mm long, 4 lobed, lobes erect, very small, scarcely 

exceeding 0.5mm, entire, obtuse or rounded, plicae 

broadly triangular, slightly smaller than corolla lobes, 

incised or bidentate, acute. Stamens four, very small, 

inserted on the middle of corolla tube, filaments as long 

as or shorter than anther, filiform, 0.5–1 mm; anther 

2102 



ovate-oblong, included in corolla tube. Ovary elliptic 

or obovate, 1–1.5 x 2–3 mm, shortly stipitate, with 

orange-yellow nectariferous ring at base; style short, 

slender; stigma with two partially circinate lobes. 

Fruit a capsule with 3–7 mm long stipe, exserted of 

corolla tube at maturity, 3x4 mm, obovate, opening 

halfway down only, halves reflexed. Seeds brown, 

ovate-oblong, 1x0.75 mm, 15–25 per capsule. 

Flowering and fruiting: July–October. 

References 

Chowdhery, H.J & S.K. Murti (2000). Plant Diversity 

and Conservation in India - An Overview. Bishen Singh 

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, 303pp. 

Dubey, B.R., J, Yadav, R. Singh & Chaturvedi (2003). 

Upward shift of Himalayan Pine in Western Himalaya, 

India. Current Science 85: 1135–1136. 

Garg, S. (1987). Gentianaceae of Northwest Himalaya: A 

Revision. Today and Tomorrow’s Printing & Publication, 

New Delhi, 342pp. 

Grabher, G., M. Gottfried & H. Pauli (1994). Climate effects 

on mountain plants. Nature 369: 448. 

Grace, J., F. Berninger & L. Nagy (2002). Impact of climate 

change on the tree line. Annals of Botany 90: 537-544. 

IUCN (1994). Red list categories. Prepared by the IUCN 

Species Survival Commission. ICUN, Gland, Switzerland. 

Korner, C. (1999). Alpine Plant Life. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 

Lenoir, J., J.C. Gegout, P.A. Marquet, P. Ruffray & H. 


Brisse (2008). A significant upward shift in plant species 

optimum elevation during the 20 th century. Science 320: 

1768-1771. 

Mehta, M., D.P. Dobhal & M.P.S. Bisht (2011). Change of 

Tipra glacier in the Garhwal Himalaya, India, between 

1962 and 2008. Progress in Physical Geography DOI No: 

10.1177/0309133311411760.Page No. 1-18. 

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Shastry (1987). Red Data Book of 

Indian Plants. Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, 

367pp. 

Parmesan, C. & G.A. Yohe (2003). Globally coherent 

fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural 

systems. Nature 421: 37–42. 

Rana, C.S., V. Rana & M.P.S. Bisht (2010). An unusual 

composition of the plant species towards zone of ablation 

(Tipra glacier), Garhwal Himalaya. Current Science 99: 

574–577. 

Rawat, D.S., H. Singh & C.S. Rana (2009). New distributional 

records of Dicranostigma lactucoides and Dipcadi 

serotianum from Uttaranchal. Journal of Economic and 

Taxonomic Botany 33: 32–34. 

Rawat, D.S. & C.S. Rana (2007). Arenaria curvifolia Majumdar 

(Caryophyllaceae): an endangered and endemic Himalayan 

herb rediscovered. Current Science 92: 1486–1487. 

Rawat, D.S. (2009). A presumed extinct endemic alpine herb 

Gentiana tetrasepala rediscovered after 123 years: will it 

survive National Academy Science Letters 32: 169–172. 

Xu, J., G.R. Edward, A. Shrestha, M. Eriksson X. Yang, 

Y. Wang & A. Wilkes (2009). The melting Himalayas: 

cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity 

and livelihoods. Conservation Biology 23: 520-530. 


2103

JoTT No t e 3(9): 2104–2107 

New site record of Ichthyophis 

kodaguensis Wilkinson et al., 2007 

(Amphibia: Ichthyophiidae) in the 

Western Ghats, India 

Gopalakrishna Bhatta 1 , K.P. Dinesh 2 , 

P. Prashanth 3 & R. Srinivasa 4 

1 

Department of Biology, BASE Educational Services Pvt. Ltd, 

Basavanagudi, Bangaluru, Karnataka 560004, India 

2 

Western Ghats Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, 

Calicut, Kerala 673006, India 

3 

Agumbe Rainforest Research Station, Agumbe, Karnataka 

577411, India 

4 

Alva’s Pre-University College, Moodabidri, Karnataka 575002, 

India 

Email: 1 gkbmanipura@gmail.com (corresponding author), 

2 

dineshcafe@gmail.com, 3 prashanth.arrs@gmail.com, 

4 

srinivaszoology@gmail.com 

The Caecilian amphibian Ichthyophis kodaguensis 

was recently described by Wilkinson, Gower, 

Govindappa and Venkatachalaiah (2007) on the basis 

of seven specimens in the collection of the Bombay 

Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai. Out of 

seven, six of the type specimens were collected from 

Venkidds Valley Estate (12.26193 0 N & 75.689246 0 E), 

Kodagu, Karnataka State, India in 2002 and for the 

other type material the collection locality is not 

precise, but mentioned was the Western Ghats region 




Editor: K.V. Gururaja 


Ms # o2729 

Received 17 March 2011 



Citation: Bhatta, G., K.P. Dinesh, P. Prashanth & R. Srinivasa (2011). New 

site record of Ichthyophis kodaguensis Wilkinson et al., 2007 (Amphibia: 

Ichthyophiidae) in the Western Ghats, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 

3(9): 2104–2107. 

Copyright: © Gopalakrishna Bhatta, K.P. Dinesh, P. Prashanth & R. 

Srinivasa 2011. Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. 

JoTT allows unrestricted use of this article in any medium for non-profit 

purposes, reproduction and distribution by providing adequate credit to 


Acknowledgements: GB is grateful to the Directors, BASE, Bengaluru 

for their unstinting support. DKP is thankful to the Officer-in-Charge, ZSI, 

Kozhikode for encouragement and PP to the Director, ARRS, Agumbe, 

for the encouragement. We are highly indebted to Manipal University, 

Manipal for the technical support. 


of Karnataka and Kerala between 

2001 and 2003 (Wilkinson et al. 

2007). Based on a single collection 

of I. kodaguensis in 2006 February 

Molur & Molur (2011) reported this species from 

Rainforest Retreat, Coorg, which is 30km north of type 

locality. The description of I. kodaguensis increased 

the striped species of Ichthyophis in the Western Ghats 

to four in number with I. beddomei (Peters), I. tricolor 

(Annandale) and I. longicephalus (Pillai) being the 

others. Availability of specimens in the museum for 

the study of caecilians is always challenging for the 

researchers (Gower et al. 2011). All the striped forms 

of Ichthyophis available in the Western Ghats are 

known by a good number of specimens except for I. 

longicephalus which has only two specimens in the 

museum and that too in a poor state of preservation 

(Pillai & Ravichandran 2005; Wilkinson et al. 2007). 

For any further taxonomic and distributional details 

of these striped forms of Ichthyophis we suggest to refer 

to Bhatta (1998), Pillai & Ravichandran (2005) and 

Wilkinson et al. (2007). Against this backdrop a new 

report of the described species from new geographical 

locations adds more into the extended precise range 

and gives a better understanding of metric and meristic 

variability within the species. 

On 18 June 2006, during the search for the 

secretive limbless amphibians on a good rainy day 

in the abandoned mixed orchard, predominantly with 

coffee plantations at Basarekattae (13.34602 0 N & 

75.356092 0 E) (Fig. 1), Koppa Taluk, Chickmagalur 

District, Karnataka State, we encountered three egg 

clutches of which one was with a striped mother. In 

the nearby area we got two more striped forms which 

were identified as Ichthyophis beddomei and one 

individual of Gegeneophis carnosus. The external 

appearance and the colour pattern of the caring parent 

superficially resembled I. beddomei but with traceable 

differences. 

We made further samplings on 25 th June 2006, a 

rainy day, for detailed studies from the adjacent coffee 

plantation which was 200m from our earlier study site. 

During this search we encountered four Gegeneophis 

carnosus, one striped form of Ichthyophis and an egg 

clutch without a caring parent. The striped form of 

Ichthyophis was collected for further studies. 

Both collection habitats were from less attended 

2104 


Record of Ichthyophis kodaguensis 

G. Bhatta et al. 

Figure 1. Distribution details of Ichthyophis kodaguensis in Western Ghats 

coffee plantations with good canopy and perennial 

source of water with humus rich black soil supporting 

a good earthworm population. 

Meristic and metric data of the two above specimens 

collected did not fit into the key provided by Pillai 

& Ravichandran (2005); but matched the recent key 

provided by Wilkinson et al. (2007) for I. kodaguensis 

(Image 1). Hence we confirmed the identity as I. 

kodaguensis, with the following diagnostic characters 

of Wilkinson et al. (2007); an Ichthyophis having a 

total length ranging from 232 to 265 mm (Table 1), 

with narrow lateral yellow stripes extending from close 

to eye to level of vent, broken across collars, weakly 

indicated on lower jaw; body uniformly dark chestnut 

brown above and paler lilac grey-brown below; body 

sub-cylindrical, dorsolaterally compressed, tapering 

towards the vent with a small terminal cap; sub 

terminal snout projecting slightly beyond the mouth; 

eyes surrounded by a narrow whitish rim; tentacular 

aperture close to eye (1.6–2.0 mm) than naris (2.8–3.0 

mm), visible dorsally and more clear in lateral view; 

teeth small, bicuspid with strongly recurved apices and 

the dentaries are slightly larger than others; annular 

counts range 307 and 309; in life dorsally uniform dark 

chestnut brown, snout anterior to eyes are slightly paler 

in colour (Image 1), ventrally fleshy brown, in lateral 

position narrow longitudinal stripes of metallic yellow 

with irregular wavy margins, width of the stripe narrow 

down both anteriorly towards head and posteriorly at 

the vent; anteriorly yellow lateral stripe appears as a 

distinct spot on the first collar and latter tapers along 

the upper jaw fading out at the level of eye, but weakly 

indicated in the lower jaw merging with the whitish 

lip border; posteriorly, stripes terminate quite abruptly 


2105



© G. Bhatta 

Image 1. Ichthyophis kodaguensis in life from Basarekattae, Western Ghats 

Table 1. Morphometric and meristic details of Ichthyophis kodaguensis from new locality and type locality, Western Ghats. 

Reg No. 

ZSI/WGRC/ 

V/A/645A 

ZSI/WGRC/ 

V/A/645B 

4179* 4180* 4181* 4182* 4183* 4184* 4185* 

Total length 265 232 267 269 247 262 274 268 158 

Head length 8.0 7.0 5.3 8.3 8.0 8.4 9.0 - 5.9 

Head width at jaw angle 7.8 6.4 7.5 7.4 7.3 6.7 7.8 - 5.3 

Distance between nostrils 2.0 1.6 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 - 1.6 

Distance between tentacles 6.0 5.0 5.7 5.2 5.2 5.0 5.3 - 3.9 

Distance between tentacle and snout tip 4.5 4.0 4.5 3.3 3.6 3.5 4.3 - 3.2 

Distance between tentacle and jaw angle 4.0 3.6 4.7 4.5 4.6 4.6 5.1 - 3.5 

Distance between tentacle and nostril 3.0 2.8 2.9 2.6 2.5 2.7 2.5 - 1.9 

Distance from eye to tentacle 2.0 1.6 1.9 2.0 1.7 1.7 2.0 - 1.3 

Total number of primary annuli 307 309 295 278 292 306 305 299 284 

Tail folds 7 7 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 

Number of premaxillary-maxillary teeth 48 46 48 43 45 42 49 48 38 

Number of vomeropalatine teeth 47 48 50 43 47 44 50 52 41 

Number of dentary teeth 44 43 40 42 38 39 43 44 33 

Number of splenial teeth 28 27 26 25 26 28 31 30 - 

* data from Wilkinson et al. 2007 

2106 



on anterior margin of first complete annulus anterior 

to vent. 

The morphological and morphometric data provided 

from the new locality for I. kodaguensis adds more 

into the variability in meristic and metric data within 

the species. Wilkinson et al. (2007) collected several 

specimens of the species from an agricultural habitat 

in a single day; Molur & Molur (2011) reported this 

species from organic cardamom and coffee plantations 

in Coorg; notably for our collection habitat preference 

was in areca orchard/coffee plantations, which further 

aid in understanding the biology of the species. Also 

our observation for I. kodaguensis extends the range 

of distribution to about 125km aerially north of type 

locality without much difference in elevation. The 

materials studied are deposited in the collection of the 

Zoological Survey of India, WGRC, Kozhikode. 

References 


Bhatta, G. (1998). A field guide to caecilians of the Western 

Ghats, India. Journal of Biosciences 23(1): 73–85. 

Gower, D.J., D.S. Mauroa, V. Giri, G. Bhatta, V. Govindappa, 

R. Kotharambath, O.V. Oommen, F.A. Fatiha, J.A. 

Mackenzie-Doddsa, R.A. Nussbaumf, S.D. Biju, Y.S. 

Shoucheh & M. Wilkinsona (2011). Molecular systematics 

of caeciliid caecilians (Amphibia: Gymnophiona) of 

the Western Ghats, India. Molecular Phylogenetics and 

Evolution 59(2011): 698–707 

Molur, S. & P. Molur (2011). A new record of Ichthyophis 

kodaguensis. Frog leg 16: 21–23. 

Pillai, R.S. & M.S. Ravichandran (2005). Gymnophiona 

(Amphibia) of India, A taxonomic study. Records of the 

Zoological Survey of India, Occasional Paper 172: 1–26. 

Wilkinson, M., D.J. Gower, V. Govindappa & G. 

Venkatachalaiah (2007). A new species of Ichthyophis 

(Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) from 

Karnataka, India. Herpetologica 63(4): 511–518. 


2107

JoTT No t e 3(9): 2108 

Extension of the known distribution 

of the genus Herdonia Walker 

(Lepidoptera: Thyrididae) to the Yeoor 

Hills, Maharashtra, India 

Dinesh Vigneshwar Valke 

17/34 Vijaynagari Annex, Ghodbunder Road, Thane, 

Maharashtra 400601, India 

Email: dinesh.valke@gmail.com 

The Thyridid genus Herdonia Walker occurs 

from Papua New Guinea (Watson & Whalley 1986) 

northwards to China (Hampson 1892) and westwards to 

the Kumaon Himalaya in the Indian state of Uttarakhand 

(Smetacek 2008). In India, three species belonging to 

the genus are known to inhabit a narrow belt along the 

Himalaya and in northeastern India. 

On 19 June 2011, a single specimen of this moth was 

photographed in Yeoor Hills, Maharashtra (19.243197 0 N 

& 72.935463 0 E, elevation 100m) along a trail in a 

semievergreen forest in a part of the Sanjay Gandhi 

National Park. It was resting on the upper side of a leaf 

of a low growing plant during the daytime in the manner 

characteristic of the genus (Image 1). The moth settles 

with the wings outspread and the forelegs and midlegs 

extended, so that it rests at an angle of roughly 60 0 to the 

substrate, with the anal angle of the hind wing and the 

anal angle of the forewing resting against the substrate 

while the costae of the forewings are held at an angle of 

roughly 60 0 between the verso surfaces. 




Editor: Peter Smetacek 


Ms # o2913 

Received 13 August 2011 


Citation: Valke, D.V. (2011). Extension of the known distribution of the 

genus Herdonia Walker (Lepidoptera: Thyrididae) to the Yeoor Hills, 

Maharashtra, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3(9): 2108. 

Copyright: © Dinesh Vigneshwar Valke 2011. Creative Commons 

Attribution 3.0 Unported License. JoTT allows unrestricted use of this 

article in any medium for non-profit purposes, reproduction and distribution 

by providing adequate credit to the authors and the source of publication. 

Acknowledgements: I thank Ryan Brookes, Mahad, Maharashtra, India 

for identifying the specimen from the photo, and Peter Smetacek, Bhimtal, 

Uttarakhand, India for guiding me in documenting this sighting. 


Many of the members of this 

family are local species, suggesting 

that they require particular 

conditions in order to colonise an 

area. In the Himalaya, members of this genus are usually 

found in forested areas with heavy rainfall. They are 

on the wing very briefly during the year and are never 

found in large numbers. 

The present record represents a major extension 

© Dinesh Valke 

Image 1. Herdonia near thaiensis at Yeoor Hills, Sanjay 

Gandhi National Park, Maharashtra. 

of the known range of the genus, from the Himalayan 

foothills to the northern Western Ghats. The specimen 

photographed is placed near Herdonia thaiensis Inoue, 

although it is not possible to place it with certainty at the 

species level until at least one specimen is examined. 

Since obtaining a specimen will entail special 

permissions from various protected areas authorities, 

which, as an individual it will be difficult for the author 

to obtain and by which time the flying season will 

certainly be over, the present report is intended to draw 

the attention of future workers to the presence of this 

elusive genus in the region. 

REFERENCES 

Hampson, G.F. (1892). Fauna of British India including 

Ceylon and Burma - Moths Vol.1. Dr. W. Junk, The Hague, 

23+527pp. 

Smetacek, P. (2008). Moths recorded from different elevations 

in Nainital District, Kumaon Himalaya, India. Bionotes 

10(1): 5–15. 

Watson, A. & P.E.S. Whalley (1983). The Dictionary of 

Butterflies and Moths in Colour. Peerage Books, London, 

14+296pp. 

2108 

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | September 2011 | 3(9): 2108

Dr. K.S. Negi, Nainital, India 

Dr. K.A.I. Nekaris, Oxford, UK 

Dr. Heok Hee Ng, Singapore 

Dr. Boris P. Nikolov, Sofia, Bulgaria 

Dr. Shinsuki Okawara, Kanazawa, Japan 

Dr. Albert Orr, Nathan, Australia 

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Dr. Larry M. Page, Gainesville, USA 

Dr. Malcolm Pearch, Kent, UK 

Dr. Richard S. Peigler, San Antonio, USA 

Dr. Rohan Pethiyagoda, Sydney, Australia 

Mr. J. Praveen, Bengaluru, India 

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Dr. Muhammad Ather Rafi, Islamabad, Pakistan 

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Dr. Sekar Raju, Suzhou, China 

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Dr (Mrs). R. Ramanibai, Chennai, India 

Dr. M.K. Vasudeva Rao, Pune, India 

Dr. Robert Raven, Queensland, Australia 

Dr. K. Ravikumar, Bengaluru, India 

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Dr. Anjum N. Rizvi, Dehra Dun, India 

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Prof. K.K. Sharma, Jammu, India 

Dr. R.M. Sharma, Jabalpur, India 

Dr. Arun P. Singh, Jorhat, India 

Dr. Lala A.K. Singh, Bhubaneswar, India 

Prof. Willem H. De Smet, Wilrijk, Belgium 

Mr. Peter Smetacek, Nainital, India 

Dr. Humphrey Smith, Coventry, UK 

Dr. Hema Somanathan, Trivandrum, India 

Dr. C. Srinivasulu, Hyderabad, India 

Dr. Ulrike Streicher, Danang, Vietnam 

Dr. K.A. Subramanian, Pune, India 

Mr. K.S. Gopi Sundar, New Delhi, India 

Dr. P.M. Sureshan, Patna, India 

Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan, Dehradun, India 

Dr. R.K. Verma, Jabalpur, India 

Dr. W. Vishwanath, Manipur, India 

Dr. Gernot Vogel, Heidelberg, Germany 

Dr. Ted J. Wassenberg, Cleveland, Australia 

Dr. Stephen C. Weeks, Akron, USA 

Prof. Yehudah L. Werner, Jerusalem, Israel 

Mr. Nikhil Whitaker, Mamallapuram, India 

Dr. Hui Xiao, Chaoyang, China 

Dr. April Yoder, Little Rock, USA 

English Editors 

Mrs. Mira Bhojwani, Pune, India 

Dr. Fred Pluthero, Toronto, Canada 

Journal of Threatened Taxa is indexed/abstracted 

in Zoological Records, BIOSIS, CAB Abstracts, 

Index Fungorum, Bibliography of Systematic Mycology, 

EBSCO and Google Scholar.

Jo u r n a l o f Th r e a t e n e d Ta x a 


September 2011 | Vol. 3 | No. 9 | Pages 2033–2108 

Date of Publication 26 September 2011 (online & print) 

Essay 

Strategic planning for invertebrate species 

conservation - how effective is it 

-- T.R. New, Pp. 2033–2044 

Communications 

Key to the larval stages of common Odonata of 

Hindu Kush Himalaya, with short notes on habitats 

and ecology 

-- Hasko Nesemann, Ram Devi Tachamo Shah & Deep 

Narayan Shah, Pp, 2045–2060 

Reproductive ecology of Shorea roxburghii G. Don 

(Dipterocarpaceae), an Endangered semievergreen 

tree species of peninsular India 

-- A.J. Solomon Raju, K. Venkata Ramana & P. Hareesh 

Chandra, Pp. 2061–2070 

CEPF Western Ghats Special Series 

Reproductive biology of Puntius denisonii, an 

endemic and threatened aquarium fish of the 

Western Ghats and its implications for conservation 

-- Simmy Solomon, M.R. Ramprasanth, Fibin Baby, 

Benno Pereira, Josin Tharian, Anvar Ali & Rajeev 

Raghavan, Pp. 2071–2077 

Osteobrama bhimensis (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae): 

a junior synonym of O. vigorsii 

-- Shrikant S. Jadhav, Mandar Paingankar & Neelesh 

Dahanukar, Pp. 2078–2084 

Short Communications 

Badis singenensis, a new fish species (Teleostei: 

Badidae) from Singen River, Arunachal Pradesh, 

northeastern India 

-- K. Geetakumari & Kento Kadu, Pp. 2085–2089 

Distribution of the Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps 

(Gruiformes: Otididae) in Gujarat State, India 

-- Sandeep B. Munjpara, B. Jethva & C.N. Pandey, 

Pp. 2090–2094 

Notes 

Distribution of six little known plant species from 

Arunachal Pradesh, India 

-- S.S. Dash & A.A. Mao, Pp. 2095–2099 

New distributional record of Gentiana tetrasepala 

Biswas (Gentianales: Gentianaceae) from the Valley 

of Flowers National Park, Garhwal Himalaya 

-- C.S. Rana, V. Rana & M.P.S. Bisht, Pp. 2100–2103 

New site record of Ichthyophis kodaguensis 

Wilkinson et al., 2007 (Amphibia: Ichthyophiidae) in 

the Western Ghats, India 

-- Gopalakrishna Bhatta, K.P. Dinesh, P. Prashanth & 

R. Srinivasa, Pp. 2104–2107 

Extension of the known distribution of the genus 

Herdonia Walker (Lepidoptera: Thyrididae) to the 

Yeoor Hills, Maharashtra, India 

-- Dinesh Vigneshwar Valke, P. 2108 

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