bridging the gap between secondary education ... - International Unit

BRIDGING THE GAP BETWEEN SECONDARY
EDUCATION, HIGHER EDUCATION, AND THE
WORLD OF WORK
HE Dr. Thuwayba Ahmed Al Barwani
Undersecretary for Social Affairs
Sultanate of Oman
1. Introduction
No longer is the world debating on the importance of education as a pre-requisite for social and economic development,
and nobody now questions the relationship between high academic attainment and economic rewards
that accrue as a result of that attainment. The former President of the United States Bill Clinton once said “We are
living in a world where what you earn is a function of what you can learn. (US Dept. of Educ., 1995)
Research has repeatedly shown that investment in education at all levels is the most valuable and most secure
investment any nation could make. It is an investment for the future survival and sustainable development of
society. (The World Bank, 1997)
Since 1993 with the establishment of the International Commission on Education for the 21 st Century when Jacques
Delors chaired the commission to reflect on the future of education in the wake of globalization; and to formulate
suggestions and recommendations that would guide nations, governments of the world began to put education
reforms as a priority on their development agenda. The commission urged governments (especially in developing
countries) to look at education as “the principal means available to foster a deeper and harmonious form of human
development and thereby reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression and war (UNESCO, 1995).
In recent years, renewed commitments for reform gained momentum and the Dakar Framework for Action (2000)
gave further guidance to nations, as countries responded positively to the need for urgent education reform. The
Framework talks of education as a “Fundamental Human Right and that it is the key to sustainable development
and peace and stability within and among countries” (UNESCO 2001, P. 9) and thus an indispensable means for
effective participation in societies and economies of the 21st Century which are affected by rapid globalization.
In short, it is expected that the reform will bring about changes that will not only make education more responsive
to the growing social and economic demands, but also to be able to instill in the students the values and
skills that are necessary for their personal survival and the survival of their societies.
The developed world on the other hand had started its reforms in education almost a decade prior to the commission’s
work. Major reforms were witnessed in the United States as a result of the report of the National
Commission on Excellence in Education “Nation at risk: The imperative for education reform” (1983) which sent
warning bells and alarm waves to policy makers with regards to the urgency for reforms in American Education.
This was followed by “America 2000: An Education Strategy” prepared by the US Department of Education,
whereby educational goals were identified and national campaigns in support for new direction in education
were launched. In Britain, the National Curriculum of 1988 similarly called for the “Re-organization and
Reconsideration of British Education”
whereby vocational training and work skills were prominent in the reforms. Similarly, in Japan reforms took on
a more economic stance whereby schools were geared to collaborate more directly to economic development
goals. (Alsulayti, 2002)
350

The Arab Gulf Cooperation Council States (AGCC), like many other countries of the world put high priority to education
and this is witnessed in budget allocations to education, which far exceed many countries of similar economic
status. An analysis of budget allocations for education reveals that industrial countries like Belgium, Great
Britain, and the Netherlands spend 4.9% to 8.3% of their GNP on education. The AGCC states spend around 3.1%
to 5.8%, which means in other words that some of the Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait spend more
on education than some of the countries of the European Union (Alsulayti, 2002). However, while one acknowledges
progress that has been made so far, one notes that the progress has mostly focused on the quantitative development
of education. Quality issues however, continue to present challenges in these countries.
Both economic and educational systems in AGCC countries are challenged to find solutions to glaring issues like:
- High dependence on foreign labour
- Fragile oil-based economies or rentier economies that are subject to severe insecurities as
a result of fluctuating oil prices
- Unemployment or rather un-employability of secondary school and university graduates
- Social stigma attached to technical and vocational education.
- Lack of involvement of other partners and stakeholders in the education process
- Incompatibility between large budgetary allocations for education compared to its outcomes
- Lack of a solid infrastructure for a “learning society”
- Lack of a proper environment for creativity and personal initiatives
- Lack of cooperation and coordination between national and regional structures
Education reform in Oman started with the convening of the conference on 2020 vision for Oman’s economy
whose outcome document was presented to the government in 1995. This vision looked at sustainable development
of Oman’s economy, and gave great emphasis to human resource development which was considered
to be the vital element for a sustainable development within a macro economic framework. The schools were
therefore seen as necessary focus of reform. The school reform was envisioned to cover the school curriculum,
school buildings, quality of teachers, school administration etc. And that was coupled with the enhancement of
the relationship between the production of well developed graduates who can operate and survive in a diversified,
dynamic, and globalized economy. (Ministry of Development, 1995) The government of Oman has since
invested generous funds in the basic education initiative and the reform process is continuing. Anecdotal evidence
available so far is reassuring, though confirmation of that will have to wait for the results of a major evaluation
study expected to take place next year.
1.1 Why reform in secondary education
Professor Bill Mulford (In UNESCO, 2001) argues that changes in the society, the economy, the work place, and
the learner, demand that we take stock of what is happening and reconsider the kind of education we provide to
our youth.
Secondary education is no longer just a desired level of education, but it has now become a basic or an essential
level for economic growth to take place. The Dakar Framework UNESCO 2000 stated that “No country can
be expected to develop into a modern and open economy without having a large portion of its population completing
secondary school” (In UNESCO, 2001).
As societies move away from industrial economies and towards knowledge-based economies, the need for
unskilled labour is now shrinking and is being rapidly replaced by technical skills, and generic skills such as adapt-
351

ability, communication skills, problem solving skills, creativity, entrepreneurship and self-employment skills.
These new demands require that we give high priority to secondary education, and at the same time redefine the
present objectives to suit the requirements of the 21st Century. Different countries of the world have responded
to these challenges in a variety of programs and initiatives. Most of them share a number of common elements
and these can be summarized as follows:
●
●
●
●
A shift towards vocational skills and a more direct response to labour market requirements
Look at the learners as an adolescent who is in transition from childhood to adulthood and therefore
his physical, emotional, and psychological needs are addressed
Offer greater flexibility in program structure, streaming practices and selections
Provide life skills
The AGCC states have also faced these challenges by introducing a number of experimental programs aimed at
developing secondary education. These reform efforts, or rather innovations, are seen in the form of comprehensive
secondary schools, which implement the credit hour system. These kinds of schools are seen mainly in
Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The objectives of these schools are: - (1) To prepare students for an active and productive
life, (2) To offer specialization tracks, (3) To give students a chance to choose preferred subjects and
activities (4) To recognize and accommodate individual differences and capabilities.
Another type of innovation is the form of “Modern Secondary Schools” and the special feature of these schools is
to give students a choice of specialization from the following programs: Literary and Islamic Program,
Administrative and Social Science Program, and the Natural Science Program. These schools were intended to: (1)
introduce new programs and teaching methods, (2) offer an overall academic program that prepares the student
for university education (3) offer a flexible system to prepare students for work (4) recognize individual differences.
In 1999, the State of Qatar adopted a comprehensive strategy for secondary education which aims at discarding
the traditional system and embarks on a system that offers specialization for grade 12 students. These specializations
are: (1) Literary and Social Sciences (2) Technology and Natural Sciences (3) Economics and Administrative
Sciences. Most of these programs have not been evaluated and have so far been sporadic and in many instances
cosmetic.
1.2 Why reform in secondary education in Oman
Secondary schools in Oman have for a long time implemented a traditional two-stream system where students
are given a choice of either Arts or Science stream when they enter their 2nd year of secondary school. Until
1988/1989 with the introduction of the two-term system at the first and second year, Oman was implementing
the traditional one-year academic system where the final examination accumulated all that a student learnt
throughout the year. The new system was introduced to the final year of secondary school in 1989/1990
(Ministry of Education, 2001). With this system came the introduction of formative evaluation that not only recognized
class work but also provided feedback to students, teachers, and parents. Little substantive changes were
introduced with regard to the curriculum and teaching methods. Nevertheless, field research done to gauge teachers
and students opinion of this new system compared to the traditional system indicated positive results in favor
of the innovation (Eissan, 1990).
As a result of the government’s genuine commitment to reform its system of education, and in keeping with the
basic education reforms that are already in place, the contemplated reforms in secondary education seems to be
the natural next step. It is to be noted here that a key factor in formulating the genuine commitment to reform the
Omani system of education is the fact that the Ministry of Education has long known and recognized its potential
of becoming a key contributor to Oman’s future stability and prosperity. The need to reform secondary edu-
352

cation is also highlighted by several related research findings that are indicative of such need. Research done in
Oman has indicated that our secondary schools do not adequately respond to the needs of the society. An example
of such research is a survey conducted by the Shura Council where a sample of 150 research participants
were asked their opinions regarding different elements of the present system of education. When asked whether
they thought that our secondary school system responds to the needs of the society, 35.3% said no, and 44% said
to some extent.
Some of the reasons given are:
1. The inability of the secondary school graduates to be absorbed in the labour market
2. Secondary school graduates are not well prepared for university education
3. A traditional way of teaching that relies heavily on rote-learning and does not utilize self learning strategies
4. Heavy emphasis is placed on theory and theoretical learning with no practicum
5. The system does not follow recent advances in science and technology
6. Failure to develop the students’ English language skills - highly evident in students’ persistent weakness in the
English language
7. Preference given to quantity rather that quality in teaching and learning, especially in subjects such as geography
and physics for the third year students
8. Overall weakness in the scientific level of secondary school graduates
9. Teachers are not periodically refreshed in their particular subjects
10. Teachers are constantly overburdened by procedural and administrative issues, and secondary school teachers
are constantly being changed or replaced
11. The secondary school certificate exams are difficult and different
12. A prevalent attitude of forcing the student to learn instead of raising his/her interest in learning. Therefore,
education becomes a frustrating rather than an interesting experience
13. Little or no freedom for the student to choose between the scientific and the literary sections
14. Taught subjects are too lengthy compared to the length of the academic year
15. Shortage in instructional media, and the inability to keep up with the advances in educational technology
16. Weakness in applying the rules and regulations
Being a Gulf country, Oman faces similar challenges as those that confront other AGCC states. However, Oman
has some other challenges that seem to be specific to it. The most important of these challenges are summarized
as follows:
- An unusual population distribution - Census statistics show that those under 18 years of age comprise 60%
of the total Omani population (Ministry of National Economy, 2000)
- Inability of the labour market to absorb graduates of secondary education. Analysis of the labour market
situation in Oman, studies on Omanization; together with the 2001 seminar on the employment of the
Omani manpower, have all shown that only a small percentage of secondary school graduates have been
absorbed by the labour market, while until the end of 2001 expatriates continue to dominate the private
sector’s labour market with their participation rates reaching 89.8% (Ministry of National Economy, 2001).
- Inability of the existing higher education institutions to absorb secondary school graduates. Analyses of
secondary school students statistics provided by the Ministry of Education and coupled with the absorption
capacity of higher education institutions have all shown that the existing institutions, both government
and private (including scholarships abroad), absorbed only 44% of the total number of students who graduated
in 2000/2001 academic year, and that this number represents only 12.6% of the total population of
353

18-24 age group. (Ministry of Education, 2001)
- High cost of higher education: Higher education institutions carry a considerable burden in order to correct
short falls in education provision at the secondary level. This is evidenced in the government spending
per student that reaches over Omani Rials 5,000. (Approx.$14400.00) The consequences of students
inadequate preparation is manifested in student’s inability to comply with high level academic requirements
such as study skills, research skills, language skills, and more importantly the right attitude to learn.
This has necessitated the introduction of the foundation program, tutorials, prolonged English language
programs, etc. (World Bank, 2000)
- The employer bears high cost of training: Because secondary school graduates do not possess any work
skills when they graduate, the employer has to bear direct costs of training or bear the indirect cost of supporting
training programs by contributing specified amounts towards vocational training
- Work-type entrapment of secondary school graduates: Most employed secondary school graduates are
trapped in intermittent low paying jobs that provide no economic security or opportunity for personal
development. This has led to employees’ dissatisfaction, low productivity, and high turnover of Omani
manpower.
- A large number of secondary school students who did not pass are unable to be absorbed in the labour
force: The number of these students increases annually and their cumulative total pauses a danger of
becoming a social and political time bomb.
The aforementioned inconsistencies seem to indicate that our secondary school program needs a thorough investigation
and the issues presented above need to be resolved in order for our secondary schools to be in a position
to bear the burden of the responsibility that is entrusted to it.
This paper therefore, is an attempt to address these challenges in the context of Oman’s vision of its socio-economic
development, its position in the world, and its urgent need to resolve some of the issues that confront
educators as they embark on the reform process. Specifically, this paper will look at the labour market and try
to identify possible explanations as to why secondary school graduates do not get absorbed in the labour market
despite our heavy dependence on the expatriate labour force. What role does the secondary school program
have in preparing our youth for work and life outside the school The paper will also look at student admission
at higher education institutions and will attempt to identify possible explanations as to why secondary school
graduates who do get admission in higher education institutions also have difficulty in coping with academic
demands of higher education. What role does the secondary school have in preparing our youth as thinkers, scientists,
and leaders of tomorrow
Based on the aforementioned questions the paper will explore models and practices that could contribute some
solutions to the challenges that confront us today.
2. Manpower Development and Labour Market Demands
A look at the present secondary school system in Oman reveals a number of assumptions regarding the role of
secondary schools. The one single role that seems to be reinforced more than others is “Preparation for admission
to higher education institutions”. This is because our system offers only academic subjects, which suggests
that our students are a homogeneous group who all want and can get admission into higher education institutions,
and that those who do not will automatically be absorbed in the labour market which is in keeping with
the Omanization policy. This assumption is reflected in the subjects offered which give little or no recognition to
individual differences, personal choice, career preparation, skills, or vocational training.
354

Analyses of Ministry of Higher Education statistics shows that even though all students are prepared for higher
education institutions, less than half of them actually get admitted into higher education. A look at 2002 statistics
shows that out of a total of almost 34,000 students who passed in secondary school certificate examination, only
41.6% were admitted in higher education and vocational training programs; leaving almost 60% of successful
students without an opportunity for training. These graduates therefore head to the labour market.
Further analysis of these statistics shows that as the number of secondary school graduates increases, the less is
the chance for further education and training. Statistics of 2000 and 2001 seem to illustrate this point when a total
of 27,419 graduated, 45.9% found places in higher education institutions. This percentage decreases as the number
of graduates increases as shown by statistics of 2001 and 2002 (see table I)
Table1. Distribution of students passing the secondary school certificate
Categories 2000 2001 2002 (end of August)
Total number passing secondary school certificate 27,037 32,211 33,972
Total number admitted to Higher and Vocational Education 12,419 13,335 14,138
(45.9%) (41.4%) (41.6%)
Total number expected to enter the labour market 14,618 18,876 19,834
Source: Ministry of National Economy, 2002
Projections done by the Ministry of Higher Education seem to indicate that the situation will be even more serious
towards the end of this planning period 2005/2006 where the percentage of those admitted in higher education
institutions will not exceed 37.6%.
Analysis of the Work Force Survey of 1996 shows that secondary school graduates constitute 18.9% of the total
workforce. Only 15.5% of secondary school graduates are employed leaving 35.3% unemployed youth. With an
increasing number of students graduating each year and with limited opportunities in the job market (in the public
and private sectors), one assumes that the cumulative number of unemployed youth who are not absorbed by
the labour market will gradually increase.
355

Table 2: The Omani Workforce distributed according to level of education
Type of Education Total Work Force (%) Employed% Unemployed%
Preparatory or Less 69.8 71.8 60.3
Secondary 18.9 15.5 35.3
Intermediate and Technical Colleges 7.0 7.8 3.1
University 4.3 4.9 1.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: Ministry of National Economy, 2000
This table shows that the bulk (69.8%) of total Omani workforce possesses preparatory or a level of education
that is less than that. This indicates among; other things that the jobs occupied by this group of Omanis would
most likely be low paying and low status jobs like messengers, security men, gardeners, cleaners, etc.
The numbers that we have discussed so far have only been for students who pass the secondary school certificate.
With a failure rate of 21.8% annually one could extrapolate that our secondary schools produce an additional
21.8% job seekers (see table 3).
Table 3: Secondary School Certificate Results (2001-2002)
Type of school
Registered
Approved
Appeared
Passed
Failed
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
Public schools
Science
Arts
Adult Center
Science
Arts
Private Schools
Science
Arts
Total
8,179 8,286 7,947 8,066 6,617 7,627 1,562 659
5849 6774 5726 6597 4787 6295 1060 479
1317 2928 823 2277 615 2,122 702 806
2620 3869 1836 3212 1487 3118 1133 751
64 24 63 24 61 21 3 3
7 7 9 7 6 7 3 -
18,038 21,888 16,404 20,183 13,575 19,189 4,463 2,698
Source: Ministry of Education, 2002
Table 3 clearly shows the increasing number of registered, passed, and failed students in secondary school certificate
examination. The failed students, who can neither be accepted in higher education institutions nor the job
market, present a potential risk as they are prone to revert to socially unacceptable behaviors that may have serious
repercussions. This group of expels, together with those who passed but cannot find something to do, needs
to be seriously considered while we look at options for secondary school of the 21st Century.
Analysis of labour market statistics shows that while the number of Omani males and females who enter the
labour market is gradually increasing, the total number cannot be compared with the expatriate workforce. Table
4 shows the growth of Omani workforce between the years 1993 to 1999.
356

Table 4: Omani Workforce and the Percentage of Male/Female Economic Participation (1993-1999)
Years % Percentage of Raw Participation Workforce (* by Thousands)
Males Females Total Males Females Total
1993 32.9 3.2 18.4 248.9 23.5 272.4
1996 32.2 5.1 19.0 264.4 40.3 304.7
1997 35.8 5.6 21.0 299.0 45.6 344.6
1998 36.7 5.9 21.5 314.7 48.6 363.3
1999 37.7 6.1 22.1 330.8 51.6 382.4
Source: Ministry of National Economy (1999)
A further look at this table also shows that females are at a disadvantage as their participating rate reaches only
6.1% in 1999.
Recent statistics from the Ministry of National Economy (Ministry of National Economy, 2002) shows that expatriates
constitute 530.000 workers in the private sector workforce, while the Omani males and females contribute
only 60,487, thus making a mere 11.4% of the total workforce.
Tables 5 bellow shows that the expatriate workforce continues to increase despite the increase of both male and
female Omani nationals. The table further shows that females contribute only 1.8% of the total private sector
workforce.
Source: Ministry of National Economy, 2001
Table 5: Private Sector Employment (1999-2001)
2001 2000 1999
Omanis total 60,487 55,671 50,660
Males 49,584 45,623 41,910
Females 10,903 10,048 8,750
Expatriates total 530,000 495,000 475,000
Total 590,487 550,671 525,660
A deeper look at the Expatriate labour force reveals that of the total number of expatriates in the labor market,
45,000 of them possess secondary school certificates while the majority would have below secondary school certificates
(see table 6).
Table 6: Expatriates employment in the Private Sector by level of Education
Total Number by level of education 2000 2001 2002 (end of August)
All levels of education 494,699 529,998 539,659
Secondary school level (only) 45,808 46,705 45,665
Ministry of National Economy, 2002
The picture in the Public Sector is more encouraging; however, the potential for growth in this sector is limited
due to limitations in job creation. Table 7 shows Omani and Expatriate Employment trends in the public sector.
357

Table 7: Omani and Expatriate Employees in the Public Sector*
(1999-2001)
SECTOR 2001 2000 1999
Civil Service Total 88,000 85,000 83,000
Omanis 68,000 64,000 60,00
Expatriates 20,000 21,000 23,000
Diwan of Royal Court Total 19,000 18,000 18,000
Omanis 13,000 12,000 12,000
Expatriates 6,000 6,000 6,000
Public Cooperation Total 8,000 8,000 8,000
Omanis 6,000 6,000 5,000
Expatriates 2,000 2,000 3,000
Total Omanis 87,000 82,000 77,000
Total Expatriates 28,000 29,000 32,000
Total Public sector workforce 115,000 111,000 109,000
Source: Ministry of National Economy, 2001 - * Does not include Armed Forces, Royal Omani Police, and personnel
of other security organs.
Analysis of table 7 shows that the number of Omanis employed in the public sector exceed that of expatriates
though expatriates still contribute almost a third to the public sector workforce. It is important to note here that
the majority of the expatriates who work in the public sector are employed in highly paid, prestigious professions
like medical doctors, university and college professors, consultants, experts etc...
A look at the distribution of the labour force by occupation (see table 8) shows that most of the expatriates
employed in Oman work in the occupational category of artisans (33.3% of the total expatriate employees), followed
by services (20.9%). Recent statistics have shown some improvement though expatriates continue to dominate
these work categories (Ministry of National Economy, 2000).
Source: Ministry of National Economy, 1993
Table 8: Percentage distribution of the labour force
Occupation 1993
% Omani % Expatriate
Legal Experts, Senior Civil Servants and Directors 4.6 2.1
Specialists 7.6 10.4
Technicians and Assistant Specialists 16.8 3.5
Services 20.6 20.9
Skilled Agricultural laborers 8.6 1.3
Professionals, Artisans 4.9 33.3
Machine Operators 9.7 9.9
Marginal Occupations 14.1 15.2
Other unspecified occupations 1.3 0.4
Total 100 100
The above discussion seems to indicate that the reason for the inability of the labour market to absorb secondary
school graduates is not based on the unavailability of jobs, nor is it based on the level of education required by
358

the labour market. Rather, it is based on the skills, attitudes, and experience required by the labour market, and
which seem to be provided by the expatriate workforce and not by our secondary school graduates.
A thorough look at the options offered to our students in terms of subjects taught, method of teaching, method of
evaluation, all seem to confirm that these factors have contributed to the weak profile of the Omani secondary
school graduate, and his/her lowered performance in the labour market. This weak profile seems to have resulted
in the employers’ lack of confidence in the Omani labour force. Despite government intervention in baring
expatriates from working in specified occupations, the turnover rate of Omanis in these occupations has been
high and their productivity has been low.
It is to be stressed here that the repercussions of this would undoubtedly be slow economic growth, low foreign
investment, and high youth unemployment coupled with new social challenges that might follow...
3. Higher Education Institutions and the Academic demands
The most apparent objective of secondary education in Oman has consistently been the preparation of students
for admission in higher education institutions.
This objective reflects a number of underlying assumptions:
1. All students enter higher education institutions
2. There is only one type of student ... The one who is able to pass the secondary school certificate
examination, which is based on the achievement of subject matter taught in the final year of the
secondary cycle
3. All students want and can pursue higher education.
4. The secondary school certificate examination is the only reliable measure of a student’s ability.
5. It is not the school responsibility to equip the students with social skills and develop their sense
of social responsibility.
6. It is not the school responsibility to raise the students’ awareness of issues that would help them
move smoothly from adolescence to adulthood
If these assumptions were correct, one would expect that the group of students who do get admission in higher
education institutions would be able to perform at an academic standard that is consistent with expectations of
the receiving institution. Research done at the Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), Colleges of Education, and the
College of Technology, all seem to be telling a different story.
Students’ admission into higher education institutions seems to be related to an issue that is at once philosophical
and economical at the same time. It is also both a quantitative and a qualitative issue; hence, a look into the
issue of students’ absorption in higher education institutions is warranted.
3.1 The absorption capacity of Higher Education Institutions
The absorption capacity is normally based on the government’s ability and willingness to invest in higher education.
This position is mainly guided by the philosophical argument of whether or not higher education is a right
of every student who passes the secondary school certificate examination. When this position is adopted, the government
makes available higher education opportunities for all successful students who wish to pursue higher
education. A look at the number of students graduating from secondary schools and the absorption of these students
in higher education institutions shows that in 2001/2002 only 44% of the graduating students could be
absorbed by the private and public higher education institutions including scholarships abroad. Table 9 below
shows the absorption capacity of all higher education institutions in the Sultanate.
359

Table 9: Number of students admitted to higher Education Institutions 2000-2002
Institution/scholarship 2000/2001 2001/2002
Sultan Qaboos University 2,038 2,231
Colleges of Education 1,997 2,000
Law and Shariya College 128 170
Scholarships and Special grants abroad 157 330
Accounting Diploma (SQU) 575 454
Technical Colleges 2,088 2,204
Health Institutes 694 694
Institute of Banking and Financial Studies 90 116
Private Institutes (NVQ Program) 567 780
Govt. Scholarships in Private Colleges 1,500 1,700
P.D.O scholarships 30 27
Institute of Islamic Jurisprudence 59 50
Institute of Tourism - 217
Total 9,923 10,973
Source: Ministry of National Economy, 2002
Statistics provided by the Ministry of Higher Education show that for the academic year 2002/2003, if the situation
remains as it is today, the higher education institutions will absorb only 10,917 students. This number makes
only 42% of those who have passed. It is further predicted that if the situation persists and the numbers who graduate
increases, only 39% of those who pass will be absorbed by the higher education institutions in 2002/2004.
By the end of the 6 th year plan (2005/2006), only 37.6% of the passing students will be absorbed.
Following the analysis of this data, one could safely conclude that the absorption capacity is restricted by the economic
situation in Oman, together with the government’s position regarding the philosophy of selective higher
education. For Oman, therefore, the issue of quality would seem to take precedence over quantity. Increasingly
larger number of students will continue to compete for a small number of places available in Higher Education
institutions. Under these circumstances, one would assume that only the very best of secondary school graduates
actually find their way to higher education institutions.
3.2 Secondary school certificate results as a criterion for admission in higher education institutions.
The only criterion used to determine whether a student qualifies for admission is the secondary school certificate
examination results. This examination is set on the basis of subjects learnt in the final year. Through the
years, the examination has been criticized for being information-based and that it does not test higher-level cognitive
skills. Students are prepared for an examination that emphasizes memorization of facts rather than problem
solving and analytical skills. Research done in developing countries has revealed that secondary exit examination
results have poor predictive validity, and students’ marks are not necessarily reliable predictors of their university
or later job/income success (UNESCO, 2001).
A study conducted at Sultan Qaboos University (1997) to assess the performance of students has indicated that
their performance at SQU fails to match that at the secondary school as determined by the secondary school
examination results. Results further indicated that the correlations between secondary school certificate results
and college GPA were not significant (Alshahwarzi, 1991). A similar study to investigate the validity of the claim
that secondary school certificate grades are not good predictors of success at the university (1993) has confirmed
that the secondary school certificate examination is not the sole predictor of university grades. Findings seem to
suggest that other variables both cognitive and non-cognitive may be contributing factors to student success at the
university (Ibrahim, 1993)
360

The questions raised by these investigations lead one to wonder whether the reason could be because the students
were not adequately prepared at the secondary level, or that the expectations at higher education institutions
are much higher than the level at which students exit from the secondary school.
Further investigations done at the university to determine the specific skills that negatively impact on students’
achievement at the university have shown that the most important factor as perceived by faculty members is the
weakness of the students’ previous preparation at the secondary school. This factor had the highest mean of 4.14
and standard deviation 0.96. It was followed by students’ weakness in self-learning skills, lack of internal motivation
to learn skills, lack of self-reliance, a student’s inability to manage his time, weakness in English language,
and the students’ inability to properly take notes in class (Albarwani, 1993).
Table 10: Factors that negatively influence student performance at Sultan Qaboos University
as perceived by faculty members
FACTORS MEAN SD
Weakness in academic preparation at the secondary school 4.14 0.96
Weakness in self learning skills 4.02 1.00
Lack of achievement motivation 3.98 1.10
Lack of self reliance and independence 3.94 1.21
Lack of time management skills 3.82 1.03
Lack of interest and motivation in the area of specialization 3.79 1.21
Low English language proficiency 3.64 1.30
Lack of Notes-Taking Skills during Lectures 3.62 1.19
Lack of exposure to academic requirements of university study 3.60 1.20
Lack of appreciation of the importance of what they are learning at the University 3.57 1.07
Table 10 shows ten highest rated skills that hinder student performance at the university. Faculty at Sultan
Qaboos University believe that these skills aught to be part of the students secondary school preparation. A look
at the students’ opinion reveals that the negative factors shows a completely different picture with high priority
given to course content, method of teaching, and evaluation. The result of this study seem to show that the student
is faced with tremendous pressure in coping with academic demands of university study, and has difficulty
in making a smooth transition from secondary school to university.
In another Study conducted at SQU (Albarawani, 1997), Faculty were given a list of 34 skills and were asked to
rate them based on two scales- importance and availability. On the importance scale the results show 76.5% of
the postulated skills having high ratings with “interest and motivation to learn” taking the first priority. This was
followed by high-level cognitive skills such as logical organization of information, application, synthesis, critical
thinking. Regularity in doing assignment and class attendance was also rated high on the degree of importance.
At the lower end were skills such as the “ability to memorize and recall information”, and “adjustment to university
environment”. See table 11
361

Table 11: Basic skills for university study rated according to degree of importance as perceived by
faculty members
Rank Skills Average Std. dev
1 Interest and motivation to learn 4.70 .63
2 Ability to organize ideas logically 4.49 .86
3 Regularity in doing assignments 4.49 .72
4 Ability to apply knowledge 4.46 .80
5 Ability to synthesize and integrate elements of knowledge 4.45 .73
6 Ability for critical thinking 4.42 .77
7 Punctuality and regularity in class attendance 4.41 .88
8 Realization that responsibility for academic achievement lies with students 4.41 .75
9 Proper pre-university preparation in subject-matter 4.37 .91
10 Ability for written communication 4.35 .76
When faculty member were asked to rank these skills according to their availability among Sultan Qaboos
University students, the results showed high-level cognitive skills as being the least available. Table12 shows
some of the least available skills and attitudes
Table 12: Basic skills for university study ranked according to degree of unavailability in students
as perceived by faculty members
Rank Skills Average Std. dev
1 Extent of outside reading 1.80 .93
2 Ability to read fast with concentration 1.96 .89
3 Ability to locate and use additional information other than that provided in class 2.05 .89
4 Frequency in using the library 2.05 .97
5 Ability to think inductively 2.21 .89
6 Ability for critical thinking 2.25 .89
7 Ability to think deductively 2.29 .89
8 Ability to take notes during lectures 2.30 1.08
9 Ability to use the library 2.39 .98
10 Ability for written communication 2.41 .97
11 Ability for objective discussion 2.42 .95
12 Ability to summarize information 2.43 .87
13 Ability to synthesize and integrate elements of knowledge 2.47 .86
14 Time management and planning 2.50 .95
15 Ability to apply knowledge and skills 2.51 .87
Source: Albarawani, 1997
One notes here that the least available skills and attitudes are those that involve high-level cognitive skills. It is
of particular interest to see that the only cognitive skill that was judged as available among the students was “The
ability to memorize and recall information”. The rest of the available skills were related to discipline, respect,
observance of rules and regulations, punctuality etc. Further inspection of the results show that this situation holds
true for the students of all colleges.
In order to solve the existing discrepancy between what is essential and what is available, the concerned
researchers proposed an introduction of a “study skills course” to be offered to first year students. This course was
362

intended to inculcate in newly admitted students the skills and attitudes that are needed in university study. It
was seen that the skills to be emphasized would be high-level cognitive skills together with verbal and written
communication skills. The above-mentioned research work has not only identified the gap, but has also proposed
solutions - albeit temporary solutions to compensate the inadequate skills among our students.
Similar compensatory solutions and remedial programs have been initiated at the University and other higher
education institutions. The “foundation year” concept was one such initiative in Sultan Qaboos University, which
turned out to be heavily dominated by the English Language program. Prior to the opening of the University a
number of studies were conducted by the SQU foundation committee to determine the level at which students
exit the secondary school level. Results of these studies have shown a gap between the levels at which the university
was expected to operate and the reality of students’ capability when they finish secondary school (SQU
University Project, 1983).
It was realized very early in the planning stage that a compensatory English Language program for the new
entrants was inevitable if the university where to maintain high standards, with time this program became one of
the major budgetary challenges and a source of students’ contention. English Language proficiency tests used to
stream students have consistently shown that the majority of the students rank at “Band I” which is the lowest
level of proficiency. The English Language course developed therefore from being a program meant to improve
English language proficiency for one or two semesters to becoming a full-blown program that tackled besides language
proficiency, other skills such as note taking, summarizing information, presentation skills, group work etc.
This led to a prolonged program that added to the overall cost per student.
From the date of its inception, the university was declared to be an institution of higher learning that would
address itself to the needs of Oman according to the highest modern international standards. From the outset, the
university declared that it would not compromise quality and would take all measures to ensure that the graduates
of this university were ready to take leadership roles in the development of modern Oman (SQU University
Project, 1983)). As a result of the rigorous academic demands, students admitted to the University had to undergo
an extensive adjustment period for which a number of students were unable to comply and subsequently fell
between the cracks. This was manifested in repeated failure, withdrawals, low GPAs upon graduation, and delays
in graduation thus adding to the overall government spending.
The World Bank report on the “Cost Effectiveness Study for the Education Sector” (2000) has indicated that a
major portion of the solution to the education cost related problems lies within the realm of secondary education.
The report pointed out that improvements in quality of secondary education could eliminate or reduce the
need for a foundation year at both private colleges and Sultan Qaboos University thus cutting costs and making
the university more efficient in fulfilling its mission, and in providing its students with a more enjoyable higher
learning experience.
4. Bridging the gap between secondary education and the world of work
Now that the gap has been identified, how can it be bridged What changes need to be implemented in order
to make secondary education a true preparation for work What kind of program would ensure that our students
possess the skills necessary to enable them to occupy the jobs currently taken by expatriates In developing
and/or reforming education, many countries have encountered and addressed this issue by introducing a strong
vocational component to the secondary school curriculum.
This normally comes in many different forms; prevalent among them is offering students courses in careers, work
attitude and work ethic, followed by a subsequent placement in industrial and commercial firms, where they get
first hand experience in real work environment.
Successful programs have been implemented in countries like Australia, Canada, United States, and Britain. The
success of such programs in these countries is ensured by the existence of a huge industrial sector, which works
in partnership with schools. Other countries have opted to establish training centers, which have workshops that
give students real work experience. These training centers are normally set up, financed, and managed by the private
sector and schools pay fees for their students to use these centers. A successful example of this kind of programs
can be seen in the BOCES program in New York State, and the Chicago School-to-Work Program.
363

Despite the difficulties accompanying the designing of national curricula that has a major vocational and technical
component, countries have increasingly realized the potential of having activities that go beyond the boundaries
of the school.
It has long been established that the traditional approach to vocational studies has not been successful despite
huge investments in this area. Among the important reasons for the failure is the inability of schools to offer a
proper work-training environment. Lack of technical expertise, costly equipments, costly maintenance and
replacement of equipments, have been some of the major impediments. Another major problem has been the
schools’ inability to keep abreast of fast changing developments in industry and technology. It is realized now
that in order for the vocational component to succeed, it must involve other partners, particularly the stakeholders
who will later be called upon to employ the graduates of these programs.
Another important feature of the work related curriculum is the assurance of choice and flexibility. The following
section gives an idea of the range of approaches used to realize this objective:
Whole year activities: These involve simulations or role-playing activities that expose the students to careers and
job prospects, and deal with important issues such as efficiency, work ethic, accountability etc.
Career fairs: Career fairs include inviting representatives from various professions and industries for various work
related discussions with the students.
Work shadowing: Work shadowing schemes are designed to provide the students with the opportunity to explore
an intended career or a field of interest through spending time in the world of work under the guidance and supervision
of a member of a firm or profession throughout a typical workday. The students Learn from the host’s experience
and advice, and make valuable connections in the field.
Enterprise activities: The school plans business ventures and involves students to take responsibility in managing
these ventures.
Making the curriculum relevant: This is done by offering applied courses and courses that link subjects taught in
school to industry.
Industrial placement: Students take placement in industry and firms where they are treated like employees with
specific responsibilities and tasks
Visits: Where students are carefully briefed and a real context for the visit is provided. These visits provide the
exposure, scope, and depth that the students need.
Development of personal and social skills: This component introduces interpersonal and other essential skills
like decision making, working in groups, communicating, problem solving, etc (Henderson and Knutton, 1991)
Employability Skills: These are generic skills, attitudes, and Behaviors that employers look for in new recruits. The
skills are integrated and used in varying combinations. These include personal management skills, teamwork,
positive attitudes and behaviors, responsibility, adaptability, accountability, etc.
Implementing a combination of these activities be they school based, work based, or connecting the two spheres,
ensures that students are prepared and equipped with skills and competencies necessary to meet employers’ performance
standards not only for entry-level jobs, but also for career advancement.
4.1 Life skills:
Life Skills is another component that is considered essential in order to prepare our students for adulthood, regardless
of the pathways that they may choose to follow (UNESCO, 2001).
It is recognized now that acquisition of knowledge is not sufficient to prepare adolescents to cope with life issues
and to make choices that could have important impact on their health and present and future life as citizens. The
364

Dakar Framework (2000) identified life skills as being a program which covers skills for living, family life education,
citizenship, preventive and health education, parental education, and a number of other topics that can be
included under this component. It is important to note that such topics need to be developed in collaboration
with other important participants and contributors including the students themselves.
4.2 Community involvement:
Community involvement activities have been recognized to be an essential element in the student’s personal and
social development. These activities are normally organized around the community surrounding the school. In
many countries, community service is regarded as a graduation requirement and it is expected to be fulfilled at
the student own time (during holidays, weekends, etc.). This component enables the students’ to connect with
their own communities and to contribute in solving some of the ailments of the society. Programs normally
include eradication of illiteracy, volunteering in centers and homes for the elderly and people with special needs,
teaching younger children in disadvantaged families, volunteering in NGOs and many other related activities.
These programs have been very successful in developing students’ personality, maturity, sense of responsibility, and
in many instances help direct the students to careers of their choice. Students are normally given the opportunity to
select activities that are most attractive to them, and they are expected to participate in it on volunteer basis. The
school usually organizes these activities with NGOs and community leaders. A framework is ordinarily agreed upon
between the parties involved and the student is required to present a report upon completion of the activities. Under
these circumstances, the receiving organization takes responsibility of supervision and evaluation.
5 . Bridging the gap between Secondary Education and Higher Education
It was established earlier that a gap exists between subjects taught and the methods used to teach these subjects,
and the academic requirements at higher education institutions. What then can be done to bridge this gap What
kind of education is required in order to prepare our students for academic work in higher education
The answer to this question evidently lies in exposing the students to the high-level cognitive skills that are essential
and required by higher education. The following are some of the solutions that have been found to produce
good results:
Study Skills program: This is normally either presented as a stand-alone program or integrated into subjects
taught. Skills that are reinforced are self-learning, life long learning, research skills, time management skills, critical
thinking skills etc. These components have been seen to be most effective when they are woven into the curriculum
rather than tackling them as stand-alone subjects.
English Language Proficiency. This program ensures students acquisition in reading comprehension skills, writing
skills, oral skills, communication skills, academic reading, leisure reading, presentation skills etc., at a level
that is proficient enough to enable them to successfully accomplish their academic work.
Information Technology: This program ensures that the student possesses adequate knowledge of IT and has the
skills required to comfortably use it in his studies. Knowledge and skills of IT are two components that have been
found to be essential to both groups of students; the one that joins the workforce and the one that opts for higher
education.
Evaluation: The approach to evaluation including final examinations changes in favor of a more flexible and task
oriented approach. Pen and paper tests alone no longer serve the purpose. Other tests including personality, proficiency,
and skills performance tests are used as criteria for selection and streaming of students in specific groupings
and tasks. In this form of evaluation, the student is perceived as a total human being who has been exposed
to a variety of experiences and to this effect, the evaluation procedure reflects the new student that has emerged.
College preparatory courses: this approach recognizes individual differences by offering excelling students an
opportunity to take college credits while they are still in secondary schools. It serves higher education by reducing
study time for these students when they are admitted, and also serves to orient the student to academic
requirements. To be successful this system requires flexibility in admission and registration procedures as well
as a strong coordination between the schools and higher education institutions.
365

6. Conclusion
Whatever the format of secondary education that will be agreed upon, the present researcher believes that there
are some important parameters that need to be established. These parameters call for a paradigm shift from
“Instruction” to “Learning” and from the “Sellers’ market” to the “buyers’ market” (UNESCO, 2001). This shift also
calls for a solid and sustained collaboration between education and the community. New partnerships would
therefore need to be established, nurtured, and maintained. For effective implementation of we need to ensure
the following:-
1. To consider secondary education as a “preparation for life” and therefore should cover a wider spectrum of
courses.
2. Secondary education of academic/vocational nature should address not only the human resource requirements
of the society, but also the students’ developmental needs and aspirations.
3. Secondary education must provide a flexible system with varied options so that students can exit and re-enter
in keeping with the life long learning philosophy
4. Retraining of the existing teaching staff and administrators and redefining/restructuring teacher preparation
programs in keeping with the new requirements
5. Secondary education is the minimum requirement for survival in today’s society and should therefore be
open for universal access
6. Secondary education must pay special attention to learners as members of the society, community service
should therefore constitute an important part of their graduation requirements
7. Secondary education must provide students with counseling services such as career counseling, psychological
counseling, etc.
8. High level thinking skills should be taught, reinforced, and rewarded
9. Information Technology (IT) should be integrated in all the subjects of the curriculum
10. Higher education institutions must use other methods/instruments of evaluation to complement the results of
the secondary school certificate examination currently used as the sole criterion for admission
11. Mastery of the English language should be a requirement, and subjects such as mathematics and science
should be taught in English
12. Practical and vocationally oriented subjects should be taught in collaboration with industry, business, and
commerce
13. The stakeholders should be involved in identifying the best ways of teaching the skills as well as monitor their
implementation
14. The stakeholders should be involved in identifying competency levels required
15. Options given should ensure that equal opportunities are provided for male and female students
16. The colleges of education and the University will have to change the way they prepare teachers in keeping
with the new requirements. Both in-service and pre-service programs have to be developed to serve this purpose.
The preparation of teachers has to start as soon as possible as this is a long term process
17. Both the University and the Colleges of Education have to introduce new specializations which would
respond to the services required by the school (School Counseling, Career Guidance, Health Education, Life
Skills etc.).
366

18. Information technology (IT) should be an integral part of all subjects taught across the various specialty areas.
This study was not set out to answer all questions related to secondary education, the questions are many and
the answers are not easy. While it is recognized that we need to consider both long term and short term solutions,
both would require willingness to take surgical as well as comprehensive measures that would change the
overall concepts of secondary education as it exists today. The Ministry of Education would have to count on the
collaboration of expertise in different fields and from different agencies both within the country and abroad.
Similarly, the Ministry has to ensure the availability of funds that could readily be invested in infrastructure, training,
curriculum development, and evaluation.
A look at how different counties of the world have tackled secondary school education reform and learning from
their experiences may be a good approach to deepening and strengthening our own ideas. Examples of models
that work are available and we should be ready to learn from best practices.
It is important to note that a uniquely Omani model will need to be developed. This model would respond to
unique challenges that confront Oman while it ensures that it has taken advantage of the world of experience and
expertise that exists in countries that have preceded us. UNESCO’s framework for secondary education for the
21st Century has given us the guidelines we need to proceed with the reform process.
We are now at a crossroad and change is inevitable. The government of Oman represented by the Ministry of
Education has recognized the importance of a gradual process. A process that is characteristic of Oman. One that
is minutely calculated, carefully planned and preceded by scientific research, experimentation, evaluation, and
guided by consultations.
We should always remember that the vision of His Majesty Sultan Qaboos Bin Said regarding a continually progressing
education for Oman and the Omanis could and should be realized. Sustained efforts to critically evaluate,
enhance, and modernize our educational system would undoubtedly be our way to realize that vision.
REFERENCES
1) Al Barwani Thuwayba A., Yahya, Ali M. Ibrahim Ali M, Factors which negatively impact on student achievement
at the University, in Studies in University, Education, Field studies and Sultan Qaboos University Vol
1993. Educational Research Center, SQU 1993.
2) Al Barwani Thuwayba A, Ali M. Yahya, Ibrahim Ali M Basic Skills and attitudes for University study as perceived
by faculty members at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in series of A Science Educational and
Psychological Studies. Vol 2, December 1997
3) Al - Muaaily Abdallah A. and Al Mansour Abdul Aziz M. Secondary Education in the Gulf States (Reality
and Aspirations.) Paper. Presented at the National Symposium on referring Secondary Education, Muscat 1-
3 April 2002.
4) Al Silayti, Hamad Education and Human Resource Development in AGCC Countries : An Analytical Study.
The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies, U.A.E, 2002 ( in Arabic)
5) Al Shahwarzi, J.F Ghufaili, Al Jabri A.M and Y.S Factors that influence the success of students in Sultan
Qaboos University, College of Science, SQU 1991
6) Barr B. Robert and Tagg John From Teaching to Learning - A new paradigm for Undergraduate Education
Changes November/December 1995
7) Eissan, Salha Two Term School System Unpublished paper, College of Education, Sultan Qaboos University,
1990 ( in Arabic )
367

8) Henderson Jenny & Knutton Stephen The World of Work: Curriculum Models School Organization Vol
11, No.3 1991.
9) Hugue Anwarul, Country Report, Bangladesh, in International Expert Meeting on General Secondary
Education in the Twenty First Century: Trends, Challenges and Priorities, UNESCO, Beijing 21-25 May 2001
10) Ibrahim M Ali, Yahya M Ali, Al Barwani Thuwayba A study of Omani Secondary School Certificate
Examination as a predictor of Academic Performance at Sultan Qaboos University Educational Research
Center, 1993
11) International Commission on Education for the 21 st Century, Report of the Commission Preliminary
Synthesis UNESCO, Paris, 1995.
12) Jawdat Saadeh, Creative thinking skills among students at Sultan Qaboos University, Psychological and
Educational series, SQU, December 1996.
13) Ministry of Development 2020 Vision for Oman’s Economy: Towards a Better Economic Future, June 1995.
14) Ministry of Education, Statistical Year Book Issue # 32, Muscat, 2001.
15) Ministry of National Economy, Statistical Year Book 2000
16) Ministry of National Economy Facts and Figures 2001, July 2002.
17) Ministry of National Economy, unpublished statistics 2002.
18) Oesterreich Heather, The Technical, Cultural and Political Factors in College Preparation, Programs for
Urban and Minority Youth, Eric (EDO -00-7) Number 158, Nov 2000.
19) Seminar on Employment of National Labour Force, Concluding remarks, 6-9
October, Saham, 22-24, Ibri 2001 ( in Arabic)
20) Shura council Roles and Needs of the Partners in the Process of referring Secondary Education. Paper
Presented at the National Symposium on Referring Secondary Education, Muscat 1-3 April 2002.
21) Sultan Qaboos University Project First Progress Report 1983
21) US department of Education, US Department of Labor, School to Work
Opportunities, Washington DC.
23) UNESCO, International Expert Meeting on General Secondary Education in the 21 st Century: Trends,
Challenges and Priorities: Beijing, 2001.
24) World Bank, World Development Report, New York, N Y Oxford University Press, 1997.
25) World Bank Cost Effectiveness Study for the Education Sector, 2000
368