Examination of Firearms Review: 2007 to 2010 - Interpol

16th International Forensic
Science Symposium
Interpol – Lyon
5 th - 8 th October 2010
Review Papers
Edited by Dr. Niamh Nic Daéid
Centre for Forensic Science, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, UK
I

Table of contents
PREFACE
Mrs. Dominique Saint-Dizier,Ministere de l’Interieur, France.
Chairman of the Organising Committee
CRIMINALISTICS 1
Technical co-ordinator :- Prof. Kimmo Himberg,
National Institute of Forensic Science, Finland.
Examination of Firearms 2-47
Examination of Marks 48-86
Examination of Glass 87-112
Examination of Paint 113-181
Examination of Fibres and textiles 182-200
Forensic Geology 201-220
HUMAN IDENTIFICATION 221
Technical co-ordinator :- Mr Kevin O’ Sullivan,
Forensic Science Service, UK.
Fingermarks and Other Impressions Left by the 222-319
Human Body
Biological evidence 320-345
Examination of Questioned documents/Handwriting 346-377
MEDIA EVIDENCE 378
Technical co-ordinator :- Dr. Peter Pfefferli,
Forensic Science Institute Zurich Switzerland.
Audio Analysis 379-396
Digital Analysis 397-418
CHEMICAL EVIDENCE 419
Technical co-ordinator :- Dr. Niamh Nic Daeid,
Centre for Forensic Science, University of Strathclyde, Scotland, UK.
Fire cause and fire debris analysis 420-452
Analysis and Detection of Explosives and Explosives
Residues 453-523
Hazardous materials 524-556
Environmental forensics
DRUGS AND TOXICOLOGY 608
Technical co-ordinator :- Mr. Nelson Santos,
Drug Enforcement Agency, USA.
Toxicology 609-734
Drugs 735-834
II

Preface
Forensic Science is playing an increasingly key role in investigations at the
National level as well as in International police cooperation. For years,
INTERPOL has understood the importance of the contribution of forensic
science and the tri-annual International Interpol Forensic Science Sympoium
organizes its 16 th conference this year.
Its purpose remains the same : to bring together senior managers from
member states, and to provide a forum to facilitate :
− the presentation of advances made in scientific methods over the
previous three (3) years, and to provide a look into future forensic
needs and advances;
− the exchange of information which will enhance scientific methods in
criminal investigation and the administration of justice;
− the discussion of problem areas encountered by member states and
the possible provision of solutions; and
− the exchange and pooling of ideas for future progress.
The symposium Proceedings on this CD concentrate on the Review Papers
prepared by the Coordinating Laboratories, which highlight and summarise
advances in the various evidence types. The various evidence areas are
grouped into five (5) major areas:
Criminalistics
Firearms;
Toolmarks;
Paint and glass;
Fibres;
Forensic geology.
Human Identification
Fingerprints.
Biological evidence;
Document examination / Handwriting;
Media Evidence
Audio Visual;
Digital evidence;
Chemical evidence
Fire investigation;
Explosives;
Hazardous materials;
III

Drugs and Toxicology
Drugs; and
Toxicology;
As within the previous conferences, together with these main contributions,
three (3) thematic panels will be held during this 16 th meeting on the topics of
‘Environmental Crime’, ‘Biometrics and Forensic Identification’, and ‘Forensic
Science : Effectiveness and Efficiency’.
IIFSS is only possible with the support of Interpol and the General Secretary,
Ronald Noble. Interpol staff coordinated all aspects of Interpol’s involvement
from the meeting announcements to registration, the meeting venue and
publication of the proceedings of the meeting.
To make IIFSS 2010 possible it took significant effort by the Organising
Committee, each Coordinating Laboratory and the review paper authors.
The Organising Committee especially thanks Mr Simon Dzidrovski, Mrs Kim
Legg and Mr Antonio Farelo from Interpol who act as the principle contact
person for the Organising Committee.
This CD would also not be possible without the work of Dr Niamh Nic Daéid
who edits the submitted papers and prepares the proceedings.
Mrs Dominique Saint-Dizier
Chair
IFSS Organising Committee
IV

CRIMINALISTICS
1

Examination of Firearms
Review: 2007 to 2010
Sébastien Charles PhD, Jan De Ceuster PhD,
Patrick De Smet PhD, Bart Nys PhD
INCC-NICC
Chaussée de Vilvorde 100
B-1120 Brussels
Belgium
Author responsible for correspondence: Sébastien Charles
2

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
 INTRODUCTION
 5
2.
 FIREARMS
–
BALLISTICS
 5
2.1
 Firearms
Identification
 5
2.1.1
 Validation
studies
and
statistical
foundations
 5
2.1.2
 Parameters
that
affect
the
identification
process
 7
2.1.3
 Identifications
based
on
unusual
markings
 9
2.1.4
 Proficiency
testing
 10
2.1.5
 Instrumental
methods
 11
2.1.6
 Court
rulings
 14
2.2
 Firearms
&
ammunition
miscellaneous
reports
 16
2.2.1
 Firearms
 16
2.2.2
 Ammunition
 16
2.2.3
 Recovery
of
obliterated
serial
numbers
 16
2.3
 Legislation
and
other
efforts
 17
2.3.1
 Microstamping
 17
2.3.2
 Glock
EBIS
barrel
 18
2.3.3
 Bore
lapping
 18
2.4
 Shooting
Incident
Reconstruction
 19
2.4.1
 Research
 19
2.4.2
 Case
reports
 20
2.4.3
 Trace
analysis
 20
2.5
 Wound
Ballistics
 21
2.5.1
 Statistics
 21
2.5.2
 Case
reports
 23
2.5.3
 Research
 25
2.6
 Training
Material
&
Books
 27
3
 FIREARMS
–
CHEMISTRY
 27
3.1
 Inorganic
GSR
 27
3.1.1
 Lead‐free
ammunition
 27
3.1.2
 Trends
and
comparisons
 28
3.1.3
 Non‐GSR
sources
of
GSR‐like
particles
 28
3.1.4
 Interpretation
of
analysis
results
and
the
application
of
Bayesian
principles
 29
3.1.5
 Quality
 31
3.2
 Estimation
of
shooting
distance
and
bullet
hole
characterization
 32
3.2.1
 General
considerations
 32
3.2.2
 Colour
tests
 32
3.2.3
 Development
of
analytical
techniques
 34
3.3
 Organic
GSR
 34
3

3.3.1
 Screening
of
gun
propellant
powder
components
 35
3.3.2
 Instrumental
methods
 35
3.4
 Book
review
 36
4.





REFERENCES
 37
4

1. Introduction
This review paper covers advances in scientific methods applied to Firearms
reported since the 15 th Interpol Forensic Science Symposium in October 2007. A
literature search was conducted covering articles published in the main forensic
journals since mid-2007. Two domains are distinguished: Ballistics and
Chemistry.
2. Firearms – Ballistics
2.1 Firearms Identification
In their report of 2009, the National Academy of Science made 13
recommendations in regard to “Strengthening Forensic Science in the United
States: A Path Forward.” (1) While those recommendations are very general,
some of them relate to the discipline of firearms and tool marks identification. The
Association of Firearms and Tool Marks Examiners (AFTE) has taken a stand on
the issues and recommendations raised by NAS (2). Also the National
Association of Criminal Defence Lawyers (NACDL) was preparing a position in
the previously mentioned NAS report. NACDL raises seven areas of concern to
which AFTE was given the opportunity to comment on their draft positioning
paper (3).
2.1.1 Validation studies and statistical foundations
It has always been a desire to strengthen the scientific foundations of firearms
identification so as to increase its acceptance in court.
Buckelton et al. have considered the experimental design for acquiring relevant
data to address the issue of comparing consecutively manufactured tools and
firearms (4). This is interesting as comparing consecutively manufactured tools
and firearms constitute the closest situation that one could encounter in known
non matches. The authors pinpoint some criticisms to this method: 1/ most
studies of consecutively manufactured tools use pristine substrate and optimal
conditions; 2/ the test is seldom blind. The authors make suggestions for test
designs to get more realistic results.
One such study about consecutively manufactured extractors was published by
Lyons (5). The author collected ten extractors from Caspian Arms. These were
consecutively assembled in a Colt 1911A1 pistol. After that the pistol was fired
with each of the extractors in place. The cartridge cases were collected and intercompared.
It was demonstrated that there were enough individual characteristics
to distinguish between the consecutively manufactured extractors. However, it
was also noted that sub-class characteristics carried over from extractor to
extractor. A test was set up consisting of multiple sets with 2 knowns and 1
5

questioned. The sets were then distributed to volunteering examiners and the
results collected. The error rate got as low as 1.2%.
Hamby and Thorpe have also organised an experiment involving the
identification of 617 different Glock pistols (6). Part of the experiment was to
determine if an automated IBIS system has the ability to evaluate test fired
cartridge cases to each other and to the exclusion of other like-type cartridge
cases. It was found that none of the 617 test samples were associated to one
another. In this research project, examination of the fired cartridge cases against
each other, validated that each was identifiable and unique. This research
supports the concept of individualizing fired cartridge cases to the firearm that
fired them and should be of value in supporting the criteria for identification for
firearm identification.
Uchiyama created a test involving one hundred rounds with several brands of
ammunition (7). The reproducibility of the markings was assessed using a home
made image retrieval and identification system. Also, the extent of agreement
was critically evaluated and described using a quantitative CMS technique. The
author fired different brands of ammunition, also frangible bullets. To start with,
the author observed a great variation in the shape of the land impression for
different brands of ammunition. Examiners may potentially eliminate bullets from
different brands of ammunition in the early stage of comparison if he/she has no
prior knowledge of this variability. Secondly a prominent marking on one of the
land impressions was observed to shift from shot to shot. This was possibly
explained due to differences in bullet velocity and / or diameter. Identification
between bullets from different manufacturers was generally difficult. As for the
cartridge cases: the size of the primer’s areas of contact with the breech face and
firing pin was different among each brand of ammunition but were consistent
within the same make of ammunition. The number of parallel striations on
primers decreased with successive firing.
A comparable study was done by Gouwe, Hamby and Norris (8). This study was
conducted to determine if the toolmarks on fired cartridge cases would change
significantly during the firing of 10000 rounds from a Glock .40 S&W calibre
pistol. Examination revealed that all 10000 cases could be identified to each
other. Besides evaluating the comparisons using traditional pattern matching, the
authors have also applied the CMS technique. Both provided the same results,
however it is the opinion of the authors that CMS has the potential to provide the
examiner with additional resources in today’s legal climate.
Another massive study involved the identification of bullets fired from 10
consecutively rifled 9 mm Ruger pistol barrels (9). 240 test sets were made and
sent out to different forensic laboratories. 507 qualified participants returned their
answering sheet. After elimination of some unusable items, all of the remaining
7597 unknown fired bullets were correctly identified to the provided known
6

ullets. Although one would expect bullets fired from consecutively rifled barrels
to display subclass characteristics, these were not an issue.
Neel and Wells published a comprehensive statistical analysis of striated tool
mark examinations (10). The purpose of the paper was to quantify the difference
between Known Matches (KM) and Known Non-Matches (KNM). Over 4000
striated toolmark comparisons were examined for their Total Matching Lines
(TML), Percent Matching Lines (%ML) and the size and frequency of various
CMS runs. It was interesting that the TML did not always equal the number of
matching striae tabulated into CMS groupings. It was concluded that TML and
%ML are no good criteria for identification. Another point of interest was
determining the mathematical difference between the most conservative 2D and
3D KM to the best 2D and 3D KNM. The next step was to calculate whether or
not these differences are statistically significant. Through Z-test calculations the
authors evaluated the null hypothesis at the 99% confidence level that there is no
statistically significant difference between the probabilities of, for example, a 2-5x
CMS run in a 2D KM and a 1-6x CMS run in a 2D KNM. The null hypothesis was
rejected at all times in favour of the alternative hypothesis. Furthermore, a
discussion is given of what the “practical impossibility” would mean from a
statistical point of view. The research demonstrates that not only can KM and
KNM be differentiated on a microscope, but they can be differentiated statistically
by comparing the probabilities of CMS run sizes.
An identification is based on the comparison of specific regions of similarity and
is sometimes under built by the criterion of the presence of a specific number of
consecutively matching striae as a way to reduce the level of subjectivity. Howitt
et al. have published a technical note on the calculation of the theoretical
significance of matched bullets (11). This publication assesses the statistical
likelihood of a particular correspondence of striae. The calculations are based on
the resolution of striae that could be discerned through a typical comparison
microscope. Consequently the method takes into account apparent differences in
width of stria to attribute more uniqueness to them. Through statistical
calculations of the probabilities for finding random sequences of line pairs, the
authors come at the total probabilities of matching striation patterns. There is a
close match between these theoretical results and the empirical results from Al
Biasotti from the late 1950’s. The calculations thus provide a firm theoretical
basis for the concept of CMS (consecutive matching striae), that was introduced
by the latter.
2.1.2 Parameters that affect the identification process
A recent publication by Justine Davis goes in depth on primer cup properties and
how they affect identification (12). Issues related to ammunition include the
cartridge case material, the amount and type of propellant used and the primer
cup hardness. The author discusses in great detail the physical properties of
metals and the Hardness factor. A research project was set up to determine how
7

these properties affect breech face marks. Seven different types of 9 mm Luger
cartridges and four different firearms were used with four different breech face
manufacturer marks. Hardness of the primer was determined both before and
after firing. It was concluded that nickel plating added to the hardness of the
primer cups and hardness significantly increased after the firing process. Fired
cartridge cases were then compared to a breech face cast. The results
demonstrated notable and consistent differences in marks on the primer cup.
Overall, both nickel plated and brass primer cups of similar hardness values were
obtaining marks similarly. It was noted though that primer cups with hardness
values greater than the others were acquiring marks significantly different.
Hardest and softest primers do not always behave in opposite manners and
other variables are likely playing a part in the way cartridge cases are marking.
Rayer has examined the effects of molybdenum disulfide coating on the
formation of striations on fired bullets. Due to the sheen of the bullets, inhibiting
reflective light during microscopic examination, there was a decreased capacity
to identify two consecutive bullets fired from the same barrel (13).
A second and third part of an extensive study on the effects of fire damage on
the ability to make identifications was published. In the second part (14)
Marsanopoli, Gerber and Dandridge determined whether a firearm will retain
sufficient individual microscopic markings to allow an identification to be made
after it had been subjected to a fire. The emphasis of this part lies on the
cartridge cases. It remains possible to identify ammunition components that have
been fired from a gun prior to it being subjected to a fire to those from the same
firearms post-fire. However, there are many factors that will affect the potential
for identification, including heat intensity, changes to the surface of the firearm,
rust formation, pitting of the breech and water damage. Different areas of the
cartridge cases will have to be used to make successful identifications. In the
third part of their study (15), the authors compare burned firearms and
ammunition components to determine if they retain identifiable individual
microscopic characteristics. A first scenario simulated the case were bullets were
recovered from a burned victim. They could be identified to each other and to
reference bullets from the firearm pre-burn. However, if the firearm was burned
too, many additional microscopic striae will be present on the post-burn test fires
making it impossible to identify them to the bullets recovered from the carcass. It
was worse for bullets that were placed in the car seats or on the floor of the truck.
Post-burn, they did not have sufficient agreement of individual characteristics to
identify them as having been fired from the same firearm nor was it possible to
identify them back to the original test fires. The last scenario involved cartridge
cases where it was found that individual markings are not always retained to
enable positive identifications. Fire debris can sometimes conceal markings. A
short case report on a fire damaged shotgun shell was published by Sarıbey and
Hannam (16).
8

A classic example of subclass characteristics was reported on by Rivera (17).
The author demonstrates clear subclass agreement in breech face markings of
two different Smith & Wesson SW40VE Sigma Pistols. However, the pistols do
produce distinctive shear patterns that could be used to differentiate between
them.
Uchiyama studied the variation of markings on primers of cartridge cases fired by
different .25 Semi-Automatic pistols (18). The study was undertaken to examine
if one would be able to identify the make and model of the firearm, based on
firing pin indentation and firing aperture differences. Large variations were
observed, even for the same make and model of firearm. It was found that it
would be difficult to predict the probable make of firearm from the average pin
impression diameter and eccentricity, and from the firing pin aperture markings.
Sarıbay, Hannam and Tarımcı (19) investigated whether or not class and
individual characteristics of a firearm change over time and during extensive
firing. They looked particularly at five Turkish pistols. It was found that there were
slight changes in some of the individual and class characteristics; however, this
was not statistically significant and did not affect the ability of the firearms
examiner to match the first fired case to the last fired case for each firearm
tested.
2.1.3 Identifications based on unusual markings
Jay Stuart examined the usefulness of bullet cannelures to link a scene bullet to
a suspect box of ammunition (20). Three boxes of 50 Winchester cartridges were
purchased for comparison. Two boxes were from the same lot whereas the other
is from a different lot. Comparisons were conducted to determine the number of
different knurled cannelures present in each box and if there were different
knurled cannelures, could they be found in different boxes. It was observed that
each of the three boxes contained cannelures made by four different knurling
tools. Bullets were compared intra-box and inter-box. In addressing the
hypothesis “knurled cannelures contain sufficient individual characteristics
necessary for a positive identification to a specific tool”, it is clear that the
Winchester bullets do indeed possess the individual characteristics necessary for
comparison. With regard to the hypothesis “Bullets can be linked to a specific box
or lot of ammunition through comparison”, the key word is specific. While it is true
that bullet cannelures are identifiable, there are between 7500 and 84000 other
boxes from a single production year in the market that could contain other bullets
with matching cannelures.
Clow suggest a method for the production of test specimens for the comparison
of bullet seating marks (21). Sometimes an examiner is asked if it is possible to
identify a bullet back to a cartridge case. Indeed, as the bullet is seated, a
striated mark can be produced on the bearing surface starting at the base and
running to the point at which travel into the cartridge case ends. Some brands
consistently produce these marks whereas others don’t. But obviously these
9

marks have a tendency to be over marked as the bullet makes its way down the
barrel during firing. The questioned cartridge case should be placed on base
down on the pad of leather or rubber to prevent damage to the toolmarks
imparted during the previous firing event. A reload bullet must be placed nose
first into the cartridge case. The bullet can now be tapped into the cartridge case.
After indexing, use an inertia bullet puller to extract the bullet from the cartridge
case. Bennett wrote a case report on identifying a bullet to a cartridge case (22).
Striae can originate from case mouth burrs but it will depend on the relative
hardness of bullet jacket versus cartridge case material if markings are
transferred. Also Barnes produced a case report on the same subject (23). In a
presumably cover-up murder case, it became necessary to evaluate cartridge
case mouth crimp impressions on fired bullets. The easiest way was to compare
castings from the inside of the case mouth directly to the fired bullets. In a case
report, Clow looks at identifying bullets and cartridge cases to a single unknown
firearm using magazine marks (24). Upon examination of cartridge cases and
bullets from a homicide scene, it became apparent that both bear gross
markings. The markings on the cartridge case were determined to be magazine
markings. They were very distinct and identifiable and some cartridge cases
even had multiple markings. At the stage were the bullets were compared, it was
noted that the gross markings on bullets and cartridge cases could be positively
inter-compared. Also the sequence of the multiple markings was in good
correspondence, leading to the conclusion that both bullets and cartridge cases
could be identified to the same gun.
Siso and Kasachesko too report on identifiable magazine marks on the base of
cartridge cases, fired from a FN HP pistol (25). It was discovered that the
markings originate from the back top area of the magazine. The striated mark’s
appearance depends directly on the shape and inside surface at the rear of that
area. Also, the method of loading has an influence on the appearance of the
markings.
Koffman and Hocherman introduce class and individual chamber impression
markings on cartridge cases fired by FN1910/1922 pistols (26). These
characteristics, produced during the discharge process, can be found in three
areas on the forward section of the rim. As class characteristics they can assist
the firearms examiner to identify the type of firearm used. As individual
characteristics they can be used as an excellent source for microscopic
comparison examinations.
2.1.4 Proficiency testing
ENFSI send round a 2 nd edition of their proficiency test. The FAID2009,
distributed early 2010, consisted of 10 sets of bullets and cartridge cases. Each
set consisted of 2 known reference elements and third questioned element that
had to be compared to the references. The proficiency test was made from
castings (see also reference (55)).
10

Collaborative Testing Services, Inc. remains well known as provider for
interlaboratory tests. Tests can be ordered from their website and reports from
past tests can be downloaded there too (27).
2.1.5 Instrumental methods
i. Automation and 2D/3D Imaging
In the last years, there has been a noticeable increase on the market of
companies that offer automated systems to aid the examiner in his comparisons
with the vast amount of exhibits in the open case file. At the annual meeting of
the ENFSI Expert Working Group on Firearms, and for the first time to our
knowledge, were present no less than 6 manufacturers/providers of Automated
Ballistic Imaging Systems: Forensic Technology Inc., Laboratory Imaging s.r.o.,
Papillon ZAO, Pyramidal Technologies, SBC and ScannBI Technology. They
were given the opportunity to present and expose their products.
In their March 2008 report, the National Academy of Sciences assesses the
feasibility, accuracy, and technical capability of a national ballistics database
(28). An executive summary of the extensive report is available free of charge.
The main goal of the report was to study ballistics imaging technologies.
However, three concerns were raised as to the scientific validity of firearms
identification: 1/ whether or not the validity of the fundamental assumptions of
uniqueness and reproducibility of firearm related toolmarks has been
demonstrated; 2/ whether additional general research on the uniqueness and
reproducibility of firearm related toolmarks should be done; and 3/ whether
conclusions drawn in firearms identifications should be stated to imply the
presence of a firm statistical basis. The Committee for the Advancement of the
Science of Firearm and Tool Mark Identification of the Association of Firearms
and Tool Marks Examiners (AFTE) has responded to those three concerns (29).
Brinck has compared the performance of IBIS and BulletTRAX-3D Technology
using .45 bullets (both jacketed and lead) fired through 10 consecutively rifled
barrels (30). The study assessed the ability of both systems to correctly identify a
hit and also where in the correlation list that hit lies. Also the quality of the images
was assessed. As for the jacketed bullets both systems perform very well with
the BulletTRAX-3D being slightly better. However, for the lead bullets, the IBISsystem
could only correlate 30% of the hits in the first 20 positions whereas the
BulletTRAX-3D correlates 100%. It was found that the image quality was greatly
increased when the 3D images were compared. Also for the inter-composition
comparisons, the BulletTRAX-3D demonstrated to be much more successful in
finding the correct correlations.
11

In (31) Sakarya et al. discuss the use of photometric stereo for reconstruction of
3D cartridge case surfaces. In this paper the 3D information is obtained from
multiple 2D images which are acquired using a specially designed set-up. The
authors further describe the radiometrical calibration, photometric stereo, and
surface fitting methods used for translating the 2D information into a 3D surface.
The resulting method is low cost (as compared to e.g. laser interferometry or
profilometry) and not time-consuming. Unfortunately, no comparison of the
accuracy of this method, nor its relevance for performing real-life visual or
automated matching in case work or database searching is included.
Recent advances in 3D tomography techniques have resulted in multiple authors
examining the use of these methods for studying incidents in which ballistic
projectiles were involved. In (32) the use of cone-beam computed tomography
(CBCT) is compared to multi-slice computed tomography MSCT/MDCT. The
authors conclude that CBCT can be an important diagnostic tool for the
evaluation of gunshot injuries, especially for detecting structural hard-tissue
damage around or nearby projectiles, and for determining the precise location of
a projectile in a body. Thali et al. (33) applied 3D MSCT in a case concerning an
illegal lynx shooting and argue that it is a suitable and promising new technique
for veterinary pathology. Puentes et al. (34) used 3D MSCT in a non-fatal case
where a man was shot in a multiple aggressor situation. They used this method
to accurately determine the bullet’s trajectory. In (35) a CT scanner is used to
analyze the cavities and the fragmentation and dispersal pattern of the projectiles
that occurred after discharging a firearm in commercially purchased ballistic
glycerine soap blocks. The authors argue that this method offers a fast and
accurate analysis that also avoids issues such as e.g., the possible drying or
shape alteration of a block that can occur when using a traditional examination
process.
De Smet et al. (36) discuss the use of both traditional optical and 3D measuring
techniques to investigate if the initial seating depth of the primer has an impact
on the variability of the marks found on the breech face.
They conclude that for the circumstances under which they tested (i) no clear
impact on the primer striation patterns could be found, but that (ii) differences in
the firing pin impressions could be noted. In this work 3D measuring did not yield
important additional information for arriving at these conclusions.
Song and Vorburger continue their earlier work on topography measurement
techniques. In (37) they propose a new “profile difference” parameter for
measurement and comparison of 2D and 3D surface topologies. They also
studied the topography decays and the impact of the electro-forming technique
used by the National Institute of Standards (NIST) to produce their standard
reference material (38). They conclude that for the 256 casings under
consideration it can be expected that they are replicated with a proposed
CCFmax correlation rate of higher than 95%.
12

Chu et al. realized a pilot study for automated topography and correlation based
bullet signature identification. They examined 48 bullets fired from six different
barrel manufacturers. First, they classified these bullets into groups based on the
LEA (land engraved area) width class characteristic. Next, they used the crosscorrelation
function to determine the effective correlation area, and extracted
each 2D bullet profile signature. The list of top ranking database candidates of
bullets fired from the same model firearm was then obtained based on the crosscorrelation
maximum values. They report a 9.3 % higher accuracy rate compared
to a currently used commercial system (39), and conclude that by following the
proposed sequence of methods the correlation results can thus be improved.
In (40), Xie et al. also present 3D topography methods for bullet marks and
characteristics extraction. They extend their proposed methods with a variety of
2D and 3D visualization graphics that can help firearm examiners in their work.
Xiao-ning et al. discuss a certain relationship between texture features and the
erosion and wear images in the artillery chamber as observed during the useful
life of a gun (41). More specifically, the relationship between the texture features
and the total round number is studied using an improved algorithm based on the
Differential Box Count method.
In (42) the authors discuss the impact of using different illumination wavelengths
(400 nm - 700 nm) on the quality of the obtained projectile images. The authors
conclude that longer wavelengths yield better images which are important as
high quality images are needed for accurate comparison and identification.
Feng et al. present their work (43) on the scale invariant feature transform (SIFT)
and graph transformation matching for building stitched mosaics of cartridge
case images. In the fusion stage they apply an additional algorithm to smooth the
seems between images.
Ghani et al. discuss the use of geometric imaging moments for firearm
identification (44). They analyzed 747 cartridge case images captured from five
different pistols using 48 initial features which were analyzed using a MANOVA
test. Using correlation analysis they further reduced this high dimension of
features into 11 significant features after which cross-validation under
discriminant analysis results in 96.7% of the images being classified correctly. Ali
et al. propose novel computer vision based methods for automatically scoring
shooting targets (45). They report a resulting bullet count accuracy of 98.3% for
the proposed algorithm after testing on 100 target images with a varying number
of bullets hit.
For building an automatic system for firearm identification, Thumwarin discusses
the use of Fourier coefficients of cartridge case primers with a polar coordinate
system, a finite impulse response system and Fisher's linear discriminant
function to identify the gun (46,47).
13

Li et al. also use the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) for analyzing the line-scan
imaging technique of projectiles (48). In (49) the line-scan technique is compared
with laser depth proofing and photonic 3D topography.
Blechko and Darker et al. discuss the ability of lay and experienced operators,
and an automated vision method to detect an individual carrying a (concealed)
firearm in simulated CCTV footage (closed circuit television); see e.g. (50,51,52).
They conclude that although several issues remain to be investigated or
improved further: (i) a human observation inspired method would most likely be
the most successful automated method, (ii) a combined automated and human
approach may offer potential for realizing the given detection task in real-life, and
(iii), the decision making process whether a person is carrying a concealed
firearm appears to be linked to the emotional state of the observed person.
Chu et al. studied striation densities in images obtained for six lands of 48 bullets
fired from 12 gun barrels of six manufactures (53). They conclude that their
statistical results show a strong support for a relationship between identification
rate and striation density. The authors offer that their method can thus provide a
quantitative criterion to assess whether sufficient striae are present in order to
achieve reliable bullet identification.
ii. Equipment
Katterwe et al. introduce comparison scanning electron microscopy in forensic
science and demonstrate the applications for firearms (and tool mark) examiners
(54). The comparison VP-SEM (Variable Pressure – Scanning Electron
Microscopy) consists of two separate SEM that are linked so that an image of the
second can be displayed alongside an image of the first. Due to its high
resolution and depth of field, the system allows for detailed comparison of
specimens. Examples are manifold: cartridge cases and bullets but also cut
adhesive tapes and other applications. Samples can be either conductive or nonconductive.
As it comes to harmonising results from proficiency tests, it is important that all
participants are looking at the exact same samples. For this reason an advanced
casting technique was developed by Koch and Katterwe (55). In their article they
present the “3D-mass-produced casting procedure”, including the construction
and manufacturing of the used devices.
2.1.6 Court rulings
Particularly the firearms and tool marks examiners in the USA are regularly
challenged in court to defend the scientific principles of the discipline. The
Defense will often motion for a Frye or Daubert hearing to exclude the evidence.
The Scientific Working Group Firearms (SWGGUN) is keeping track of these
14

court rulings on their website (56). The following trials may be of interest to
firearms examiners:
� State of Maryland v. Henry Wittingham # 08-1682X, December 30, 2009;
Circuit Court of Prince George’s County, Maryland (Judge Nicholas E.
Rattal)
� State of Ohio v. Demonte Merriweather # 514703, October 30, 2009;
Court of Common Pleas (Judge Jose A. Villanueva)
� U.S. v. Tavon Mouzone # WDQ-08-086, October 29, 2009; U.S. District
Court for the District of Maryland (Judge Paul W. Grimm)
� State of California v. Earl Eugene Rose, No FVA 010494, September 2,
2009, Superior Court of California, County of San Bernardino (Judge
Michael A. Smith)
� U.S. v. Joseph Thomas #2008 CF1 25845, September 4, 2009, Superior
Court of the District of Columbia (Judge Herbert B. Dixon)
� U.S. v. Donald Scott Taylor, Case # 2:07-CR-01244 WJ, September 30,
2009, District Court of New Mexico (Judge William Johnson)
� U.S. v. Willie Gayden, Criminal Case #2006 CF1-27899, June 26, 2009,
Superior Court of the District of Columbia (Judge Michael L. Rankin)
� State of Indiana v. Desmond Turner, #49G02-0606-MR-101336, June 17,
2009, Marion Superior Court (Judge Robert R. Altice)
� State of Alaska v. Derrick Wren, Case #3AN-03-10649CR, May 1, 2009,
Superior Court, Third Judicial District at Anchorage (Judge Michael
Spaan)
� State of Ohio v. Eashawn Anderson, Case #CR509503, March 25, 2009,
State of Ohio, County of Cuyahoga, Court of Common Pleas (Judge
Michael J. Russo)
� Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Steven Carl Colegrove, CP-08-CR-
0000785-2007, January 15, 2009, Court of Common Pleas, Bradford
County, PA (Judge Maureen T. Beirne)
� U.S. v. Chaz Glynn, Case # 06 CR 580(JSR), September 2, 2008 and
U.S. v. Damian Brown, Case # 05 CR 538, June 30, 2008, District Court of
New York, Southern District (Judge Jed S. Rakoff)
� U.S. v. Troy Worsley, 2003 FEL 6856, June 2, 2008 and U.S. v. Kevin
Edwards Case #F-516-01, Superior Court of the District of Columbia
(Judge Neal E. Kravitz)
� State of Washington v. Tony Smith, No. 03-1-00045-7 KNT, August 15,
2008, State Superior Court for King County (Judge George T. Mattson)
� U.S. v. Ronald English, Criminal #2007 CF1 16618, March 12, 2008,
Superior District Court of the District of Columbia (Judge Geoffrey M.
Alprin)
� State of Connecticut v. Robert A. Legnani #AC 26840, February 5, 2008,
Superior Court of New Britain, Connecticut (Judge J. Cronan)
� U.S. v. Khalid Barnes, Criminal #S9-04-CR. 186, April 2, 2008, Southern
District of New York (Judge Stephen C. Robinson)
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� Maryland v. Monti M. Fleming, Criminal Case #06-46624, February 13,
2008, Circuit Court of Howard County (Judge Louis A. Becker)
2.2 Firearms & ammunition miscellaneous reports
2.2.1 Firearms
Thomas Warlow has written an extensive manuscript on the criminal use of
improvised and re-activated firearms in Great Britain and Northern Ireland (57). It
shows that after introduction of a firearm ban, criminals find other ways to import
firearms and distribute them on the market. The converted and re-activated
firearms show very distinct markings although some of them have smooth bores,
resulting in the recovery of unrifled bullets at the crime scene. As time went by,
the re-activation techniques became more and more professional.
Hannam publishes on the firearm trends in England & Wales (58). The
information was obtained from the National Firearms Forensic Intelligence
Database (NFFID) and covers the time period 2003-2008. It was concluded that
21% of the annual submissions, were converted weapons. The makes, models
and modes of conversion of these weapons are described in detail. Yilmaz et al.
report on handmade guns in Trabzon, Turkey (59). Although very similar in look
to commercially available weapons, these guns are constructed from cheap
materials and are not safe for firing.
Sarıbay, Hannam and Tarımcı investigated the legal status of modified shotguns
in Turkey (60). Over the period 2006 to 2008 11% of all seized shotguns were
converted. According to Turkish law these are either considered as a pistol or as
a nonstandard shotgun.
2.2.2 Ammunition
Bailey has developed a classification system and identification key for .177
calibre pellets (61), based on a five-class characteristics criterion: pellet head
shape, skirt type, pellet length, weight, markings and other observations. This is
not an absolute pellet identification system; however, it provides possible product
identification of some pellets for the investigator. Also, the system can eliminate
numerous pellet brands.
2.2.3 Recovery of obliterated serial numbers
It can be a challenge to recover laser engraved serial numbers that have been
obliterated. This is true because the underlying principle is different from a
stamped serial number. Da Silva and dos Santos (62) present a case report on
an aluminium alloy pistol. The trick is to polish carefully and slowly and to capture
subsequent images with a camera. One of the major drawbacks of this method is
that it is time consuming. Klees looked into the possibility of using SEM and X-
16

ay mapping to restore or detect obliterated laser-etched firearm markings (63). It
was concluded that the use of SEM and X-ray mapping as a non-destructive
method to restore or detect totally obliterated laser-etched markings was
ineffective.
A paper by Wightman and Matthew (64) looks at the application of Fry’s reagent
to recover erased marks from steel. The novelty of this publication is that it looks
into the effect of the original stamp force on the ability to recover erased marks.
The applied force is important since this controls the degree of underlying
deformation as well as the depth of penetration. Recovery of erased marks is
difficult where low applied force has occurred. In the present study marks could
still be recovered 1.25 mm below the impression. Also the authors have noted a
degrading effect of the Fry’s reagent in function of storage time. Nowadays more
applications use high strength aluminium alloy. When engraved marks are
obliterated from such substrates, current techniques prove unsatisfactory. Bong
and Kuppuswamy have investigated what etching techniques are better in these
situations (65). It appeared that either 1/ immersion in 10% aq. phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) and 2/ alternate swabbing of 60% HCl and 40% NaOH were both quite
effective.
2.3 Legislation and other efforts
2.3.1 Microstamping
In the past years, a lot of debate has been going on regarding microstamping of
codes or serial numbers on firearm parts, more specifically the working surfaces
such as the firing pin, that are transferred to the cartridge case during the
discharge of the gun. With the AB 1471 Crime Gun Identification Act of 2007,
microstamping became legislation for the state of California. Equivalently,
Assembly Bill AB 09818 passed New York legislature. In those states and as of
January 1, 2010 semi-automatic pistols need to be equipped with a microscopic
array of characters that identify the make, model, and serial number of the pistol.
It appears that serious testing by qualified firearms examiners was negated. In
an open letter to the AFTE membership, Lucien C. Haag comments on the false
claims that were made regarding his early study of the microstamping technology
(66).
In 2008, Beddow, Howitt, Tulleners and Giusto published an extensive study on
the durability and legibility of micro-markings from firing pins (67). This second
generation of micro-engraved firing pin contains three different encoding formats:
1/ the original alphanumeric code on the face of the firing pin, 2/ either a gear
code or a dot code, and 3/ a radial bar code that extends down the side of the
pin. Overall the alphanumeric characters and the gear code structures proved to
be capable of withstanding repeated firing; however some degradation was seen
with specific firearms. A determination of what constitutes an acceptable lifespan
for these characters needs to be developed. The dot code structure was
determined to be unsuitable. The radial bar code structure exhibited varying
17

degrees of degradation with specific occurrences of complete obliteration. The
transfer rate of the micro-markings was clearly dependent on the brand of
ammunition. Also, the encoding structures on the firing pin can be damaged or
obliterated with relative ease.
2.3.2 Glock EBIS barrel
It is usually extremely time-consuming and not always possible to identify bullets
that have been fired through polygonal barrels. As many such firearms, e.g.
Glock pistols are used by law enforcement, this has triggered a research project
to enhance the identification capabilities. One of Glock’s attempts was the
Enhanced Bullet Identification System (EBIS). Martinez did an extensive study
looking into the durability of the EBIS barrel markings after 250 – 10000 rounds
(68). The EBIS signature imparts gross lines down the length of the barrel on the
lands of the rifling, like a barcode. Results of the study show that these gross
lines endure but that there was a disparity with the finer lines that reduce the
chance of identifying Glock bullets by a sufficient correspondence of individual
characteristics.
2.3.3 Bore lapping
In a feasibility study, Northcutt wanted to determine if modification of polygonally
rifled Glock barrels using Permatex valve-grinding compound 34A would facilitate
the forensic identification of fired bullets (69). Indeed it was found that
modification increases the number of reproducible individual markings present on
fired bullets and allow for identifications even after 900 shots were fired. As a
side note, the accuracy and muzzle velocity of modified barrels were compared
to the unmodified barrels. No significant differences were observed.
Haag et al. have examined a series of bore-lapping compounds to study their
effect on firearms identification (70). Although these compounds were developed
to improve the exterior ballistic performance of firearms, they were generally
found to alter the bearing surfaces within the firearm’s bore to the extent that pretreatment
and post-treatment bullets could not be identified to each other in all
cases. However, “new” patterns of striae occurred on the land impression that
are sufficiently persistent that post-treatment bullets could be identified among
themselves and often possessed striae patterns that were more pronounced than
those on pre-treatment bullets. Such treatments will not be obvious from an
inspection or casting of the bore nor is SEM-EDX (Scanning Electron Microscopy
– Energy Dispersive X-ray microanalysis) analysis of the bore’s surface likely to
detect residues from such treatment methods.
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2.4 Shooting Incident Reconstruction
2.4.1 Research
For those individuals that are doing trajectory reconstructions, it is interesting to
know how accurate and precise the measurements of the angles are. Michael
Haag summarises data that was collected over many years (71). As for the
precision it was concluded that 6 degrees would yield a confidence level of 99%.
Equivalently for the accuracy it was concluded that 5.1 degrees yields a
confidence level of 99%. The author furthermore talks about the newest
technique which is 3D laser scanning of the crime scene.
Haag et al. have also published an extensive study regarding ejection patterning
from a series of pistols (72). The article discusses standard protocols for testing
as well as the effects the firearm’s mechanism, pitch, rotation, and motion have
on the final rest locations of fired cartridge casings. Typically pointing the muzzle
of a firearm downward will move the pattern of casings forward of the firearm’s
location, while pointing the muzzle upward may increase or reduce the rearward
component of a pattern. Also motion has a tremendous influence as it adds an
extra moving vector component to the ejected case. It was concluded that
ejection patterning can give an estimation of the shooter’s position but it is not a
high-resolution tool. Preferably ejection patterning is coupled with other aspects
of shooting reconstruction to increase the accuracy of the placement of the
firearm.
Haag reports on muzzle flash duration and the factors dictating its presence or
absence (73). It was observed that contemporary handguns and ammunition can
produce noticeable and visible muzzle flash particularly when discharged in low
light conditions. The duration of the visible discharges can be very short (far less
than 1/60 of a second). This is substantially less than the time duration of a
spontaneous blinking of the eyes; consequently it is quite possible that a witness
who spontaneously blinked at the instant a firearm was discharged would not see
the muzzle flash.
Tsach et al. have developed a model to estimate projectile impact velocity on
metal sheet targets from the shape of the target hole (74). Experiments were
performed with the 5.56 mm calibre fired from a M-16A1 assault rifle. A paper by
Rezos et al. gives insight in the maximum burial depth that hidden firearms could
still be recovered using a basic all-metal detector (75). It appears that the size of
the weapon and surface area were the two variables that affected maximum
depth of detection. The maximum depth for detection was 40 cm or less although
with high settings and for the largest firearms, one could detect up to 55 cm.
19

2.4.2 Case reports
Bresson and Franck (76) report on a long distance shooting for which they
determined the shooting distance in a somewhat particular way. In their
experiment they fired bullets at different velocities to a concrete plate. The bullet
damage was consequently compared to the damage observed on the crime
scene bullet. The damage was quantified by length and diameter. The velocity
that was calculated from these experiments was used to extrapolate to the
shooting distance. The greatest degree of uncertainty in this method arises from
the lack of information of the muzzle velocity. Hu et al. present a case report
where SEM/EDX was used to reconstruct the shooting trajectory. It demonstrates
the evidential value of trace analysis (77).
2.4.3 Trace analysis
Wehner et al. (78) have investigated the possibility of associating bullets found at
the crime scene to specific trajectories in the body of a gunshot victim. They
investigate heart- and liver-specific cell material on the bullets. The method is
particularly useful in the case of expanding bullets where the insides of those
bullets can be swabbed.
Goddard et al. use advanced methods to examine latent fingerprints on brass
surfaces (79). As brass is a very common material in ammunition, this can be of
interest. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is used to visualize corrosion of the
metal on a nanometre scale. The method shows in detail the corrosion
mechanism between the fingerprint deposit and the metal after heat treatment of
the latter. Also Bond has done quite some work on fingerprint evidence. In a
publication he goes into depth on the visualization of latent fingerprint corrosion
of metallic surfaces (80). It was established that the salts in the fingerprint
residue corrode the metal surface to produce an image of the fingerprint that is
both durable and resistant to cleaning of the metal. The author proposes a heat
treatment to enhance the durability of the fingerprint. Also cartridge cases need
to be heated additionally after discharge. The return, however, is low as cartridge
cases tend to lose some of the fingerprint evidence during loading and ejection.
For these types of evidence, the author suggests an electrostatic enhancement
technique so the conducting powder adheres better to the corroded areas. The
same author has continued this work in another publication (81). Here is
presented a case report in which the author recovers an old latent fingerprint on
a brass cartridge case. It demonstrates that novel techniques can visualize
fingerprints where cyanoacrylate fuming can fail to do so. Edmiston and Johnson
propose an optimal sequence for chemical development of latent prints on
cartridge casings and shotgun shells (82).
Gashi et al. have examined, using infrared video evidence, the temperature
developed during discharge of 9 mm cartridge cases (83). It was concluded that
20

it should not affect any DNA residues left on the case. In other words: DNA
sampling of spent cartridge cases is encouraged.
2.5 Wound Ballistics
Over the last three years quite a number of articles have been published on the
subject of injuries caused by firearms. Also a few reviews were written containing
statistical information regarding firearm related deaths: are they homicides,
suicides or rather accidents, what type of firearms are used, how many gunshot
wounds were inflicted… Although this statistical information is perhaps not
directly related to the technical field of ballistics, it can be interesting background
information for those who are regularly examining firearm fatalities.
2.5.1 Statistics
Solarino, Nicoletti and Di Vella (84) discuss the situation between the years 1988
and 2003 in the city of Bari in the South of Italy. In this area of the country, nonnatural
deaths are mainly caused by firearms. The data that is collected in this
review paper is from the autopsy reports from 717 firearm-related deaths: 634
homicides (88.4%), 82 suicides (11.5%) and 1 accidental. It appears that most of
the victims were males (93 %) with an average age of 25.6 years (females have
an average age of 31.3 years). The average age of a male committing suicide is
40.3 years. Only one female suicide case was reported. Pistols were the most
frequently used firearm (46% for both homicides and suicides). Together with the
revolvers they account for 54% of the homicides and 48% of the suicides. The
most commonly used calibres for homicides are the 7.65 mm and the 9 mm. The
9 mm is also the main calibre for suicides. In homicides multiple gunshot wounds
are usually reported (65.2% of the homicide cases). 4.8% of the suicide cases
involved two gunshot wounds but no more than that. Two of those cases involved
entrance wounds in the limbs. In homicides most wounds are inflicted to the head
(23.6%), the chest (20.9%), the back of the trunk (16.9%) and the abdomen
(10.6%). In suicides the percentage of entrance wounds in the head is much
higher (67.4%). Interesting is the anatomical distribution to the head (right
temple: 46.5%; left temple 23.3%), mouth (10.3%) and middle forehead (10.3%).
There is also a direct relation between the location of the entrance wound and
the type of firearm used: handgun to the temples, shotgun to the chest, abdomen
or mouth. The review paper further discusses reasons and motives for suicides
and homicides and compares with other types of homicide and also with
information from other countries.
Verzeletti, Astorri and De Ferrari (85) prepared a comparable study in 2009 on
the situation in Northern Italy between the years 1994 and 2006. In this period
164 fatalities were identified as being firearm-related. From this number 59
(35.9%) were homicides and 99 (60.4%) were suicides. 3.7% were accidents.
This is a different situation from the South of Italy (see reference (84)). Undoubtly
the demographic situation plays an important role. Most suicides seem to take
21

place in winter and spring but for homicides there is no specific monthly
predominance. As it pertains to the gender, 72.9% of the homicide victims were
male and in the suicide group 92.9% were males. The mean age of a homicide
victim was 37.9 years and for a suicide victim was 47.2 years. Those ages are
somewhat higher than what was observed in Bari. As for the type of firearms,
single action weapons accounted for 68.3% of all deaths whereas multiple action
guns only played a role in 30.5% of the cases. Most of the injuries (suicide and
homicide) are located on the head (38.6%), the chest (29.3%), the neck (13.4%),
the abdomen (9.3%) and the limbs (9.3%). In suicide cases the anatomical
distribution is as follows: right temple (34.4%), the precordium (20 %), the neck
(16.7%) and the mouth (7.8%). Multiple wounds (25.2% of the cases) are more
common for homicides (57.9%) then for suicides (6%). The authors have also
compared to a previous study in the same geographical area. Apart from a rise in
the number of suicides, the other data stayed relatively equivalent. A series of
sketches nicely illustrates the distribution of the entrance wounds in the cases of
homicide, suicide or accident. As a side note it is interesting to observe the
toxicological results on the victims. The authors furthermore compare the
situation in Brescia to other areas in Italy and on the international level. One
should carefully take into account all cultural and regulatory aspects to be able to
compare different situations but a clear correlation is demonstrated between
social factors, poverty, crime and drug use on the one hand and access to
firearms on the other hand. Gill and Pasquale-Styles give statistical information
regarding firearm deaths by law enforcement over a 4-year period in New York
City (86). Byard et al. compare the characteristic features of paediatric firearm
fatalities between Australia and the United States (87).
Another study by Balci, Canogullari and Ulupinar (88) presents the
characteristics of gunshot suicides. In gunshot fatalities, to determine whether
the cause of death originated by suicide the following information is particularly
valuable: the shooting distance, firearm discharge residues on the hand, the
number and localisation of entrance wounds. The statistical analysis
demonstrates a significant age difference for people committing suicide by
firearm (29.2 ± 12.8 years) and other means (39.7 ± 17.8 years). The percentage
of gunshot suicides decreases as age increases. The percentage of short
firearms is quite comparable to the previously cited studies. The authors
observed a relatively high number of suicides (27.7%) with a shooting distance
from intermediate range around arm reaching distance. A detailed table shows
the relation to the anatomical position of the entrance wounds and the firearm
that was used (either short or long barrelled). 6.1% of the cases showed multiple
entrance wounds. It appeared that the victims were all soldiers with their rifles set
to automatic. The authors conclude that access to weapons plays an important
role in the prevalence of the gunshot suicides.
Also Lorin de la Grandmaison, Fermanian, Aegerter and Durigon have published
a retrospective study, this one regarding the use of long firearms (89). This study
has especially focused on the usefulness of the projectile trajectory as an
22

indicator of homicide vs. suicide. In depth statistical analysis was performed on
correlation between homicide/suicide and gender, age, number of shots, range of
fire and direction of the projectiles. Furthermore, the article contains a number of
references to e.g. location of the firearm after suicide or for discriminating
between suicidal or homicidal injuries. Those references can be of interest for
those examining suicides by firearm. Although all of the above studies were not
inter-compared in-depth, information regarding age, gender, number of shots,
range of fire and location of the entrance wounds is consistent.
Firearms legislation has clearly an influence on the suicide by firearm rate.
Sarma, Griffin and Kola (90) discuss the situation in Ireland as it comes to access
to firearms by people suffering from mental illnesses. Over a period of 23 years
(1980-2003) a total of 725 firearm-assisted suicides occurred. Male victims of
suicides were statistically more likely to have used a firearm than female victims.
Most of these suicides occurred between the ages of 15 and 44. Also firearmsassisted
suicides are more common for residents of rural areas. The international
experience is that restrictive policies on firearms ownership and access can lead
to decreases in levels of gun-related deaths and injuries. Compulsory safe
storage reduces access to firearms by both criminal elements and members of
the certificate-holders immediate family.
Continuing their analysis of homicides and suicides in Bexar County (TX), Molina
et al. (91) presented a long-period study of the trend of firearms usage in
homicide and suicide focussing on the calibre of the used firearm. About 60% of
the homicides and suicides are committed by firearms - mostly hand guns.
Although there is a steady decline in the use of firearms in homicides (and
homicides in general) since 1994, the use of firearms in suicides remains more or
less a constant. Regarding the calibre of the handgun used, there is an increase
in the use of medium and large calibre weapons, both in homicide and - to a
lesser extent - in suicide cases. This probably reflects the availability of these
types of weapons on the market for homicides, while suicides are mostly
committed with a weapon already in possession by the shooter, which does
therefore not immediately reflect market trends. Hejna and Šafr published some
data regarding presence / absence of shots through clothing in firearm suicide
cases (92). It was concluded that only in 9% the clothing was removed by the
victim (e.g. shots through the chest).
2.5.2 Case reports
Besides the review papers cited above, a great number of case reports regarding
gunshot wounds were published. Frank et al. (93) report on vole captive bolt
devices, which are special mouse traps that belong to the spring guns. The
ammunition is the 9 x 17 cartridge. The vole is killed by a high-pressure gas jet.
In this paper, the authors discuss accidental hand injuries which range from soft
tissue damage to the separation of a hand.
23

Simic et al. report on the characteristics of head wounds, inflicted by captive-bolt
gun, that are used for humane slaughtering (94). The authors compared
experimental studies with results from autopsies of (usually) suicide victims. The
wounds typically consist of a central round defect of the skin and underlying
tissue. The edges of the wound entrance are flat and smooth. In the close
proximity of the skin defects there are two symmetrically arranged eccentric oval
zones of blackening. If the device was put at an angle with respect to the skin, it
could be that the skin was only cut semi-circularly. In these cases, the blackened
zones tend to have a wider and paler appearance.
Chowaniec et al. (95) present a case of a fatal gunshot from rubber projectiles. In
this case, the ammunition being used by the police officers was 12 x 70
cartridges containing different rubber objects: 6 mm balls and a 34 x 14mm sluglike
projectile. These types of projectiles were also recovered from the deceased
that showed a severe injury to the heart. During a ballistic test the event was
reconstructed with the so called Rój and Chrabąszcz cartridges that were also
used on the scene of the crime. It was concluded that this ammunition, when
fired from a short distance, can account for the observed woundings.
Fracasso, Löhrer and Karger (96) describe a case where a woman self-inflicted a
wound with an 8 mm Blank pistol in an attempt to simulate a criminal offence. A
typical near-contact entrance wound was observed as was a large stellate exit
wound.
Hagemeier, Schyma and Madea (97) report a homicide and suicide by stud gun
case, which is an explosive, cartridge-activated anaesthetisation device. At
autopsy the characteristic signs of bolt shot injuries were identified: a round,
punched defect of the skin and the cranial bone, bone fragments in the bold shot
canal as well as a destruction zone longer than the depth of bolt penetration in
the brain. Typically such devices have powder exhausts that lead to a radialsymmetrical
powder dispersal that can be found around the entrance wound. The
device in the present case, however, had no such powder exhausts.
Two cases of suicide by unmodified blank pistols are discussed in a case report
by Buyuk et al. (98). The authors have observed two cases where a shot being
fired at close contact range caused gas (and bone) to penetrate into the body.
The entrance wounds are relatively big and irregular and surrounded by soot.
The extensive wound cavity is filled with powder particles and soot. The victims
died of brain haemorrhage and brain tissue damage.
Hejna and Šafr (99) published a case report on suicide by zip gun or improvised
firearm. After first been overlooked by the investigators, a gunshot wound was
discovered during the victim’s autopsy and a 7.65 mm bullet was recovered from
the head. A subsequent re-investigation of the crime scene pointed to a device
that was used by the victim as an improvised firearm.
24

Another case report was published by Cunliffe and Denton (100). A victim was
found dead with an atypical gunshot wound of the head. At the first examination
of the crime scene, the gun was overlooked and the hypothesis was homicide.
As no rifling marks were found on the bullet that was removed from the skull, a
further police investigation was requested. A home made gun was discovered,
which consisted of a 2-inch length of pipe, a 1 ¾ inch connector, an air hose
nozzle and a 2-inch nail. A .38 Special cartridge case was found embedded
within the pipe.
Linert et al. report on an unusual case of suicide employing a shotgun barrel, a
shotgun shell and a BB (101). The case serves as another example of the
importance of cooperation between scene investigators and forensic
pathologists. A review of suicidal firearm cases using unconventional means
and/or firearms is also presented.
Üzün et al. examined fatalities caused by spherical bullets fired from blank
cartridge guns in Istanbul, Turkey (102). 59 fatalities had been reported where
blank firearms were used that appeared to have been easily modified. It was
possible to successfully fire 4 or 5 mm diameter objects.
As for regular firearms, Lepik et al. (103) compared the injuries caused by
Tokarev, Makarov and Glock 19 pistols at variable firing distances. In their study
they also compare between cloth targets (cotton and synthetic) and human skin
from autopsy material. At a shooting distance 25 cm clear soot deposit was
visible. This pattern gradually disappeared from distances of 50 cm and higher.
On the skin starting from a distance of 25 cm (Glock) and 50 cm (Tokarev and
Makarov), no more soot was macroscopically observable. Also the authors have
investigated microscopically the penetration of gunpowder residue particles in the
skin, which is clearly depending on the firing distance and the shape of the
individual powder grains.
Kuchta and Klug (104) report on a rare case where a patient had several selfinflicted
gunshot wounds to the head without fatal end. Three bullets were
recovered from undeep entrance wounds. The gun that was used was a Second
World War 7.65 mm Luger handgun. The ammunition being used was
degenerated after storage of 50 years.
2.5.3 Research
Frank has continued his analysis of vole captive bolt devices together with a few
other co-workers. In a research article (105) they measure the actual pressures
that these devices release. It appears that the pressure in the explosion chamber
goes up to 1100 bar and that the flow velocity of the gas jet was up to 2000 m/s.
There is an inverse ratio between the maximum impact force of the blast wave
and the distance to the muzzle. The force was up to 11500 N for the contact shot
distance leading to an energy density far beyond what is required for skin
penetration. For completeness, Frank has taken this another step further and
25

measured the ballistic parameters of the 9 x 17 mm cartridge that is commonly
used for such devices (106).
In two different articles, Ogunc et al. (107) and Saribey et al. (108) examine the
wounding potential of modified blank ammunition. Blank weapons are fairly
accessible (Blank pistols costing only 10% of "real" guns can be purchased by
over 18-year olds without any license) in Turkey and were seized in great
numbers in modified condition. The authors discuss the modification process:
either replacement of the original obstructed barrel with a smooth one, in which
cases the firing of live ammunition becomes possible or the removal of the
obstruction (restraint piece) in which case only modified blank ammunition can be
discharged. In the latter case, the ammunition is adapted as follows: removal of
plastic wad and replacement with a lead or steal sphere (shotgun pellets or ball
bearings). The wounding potential was examined using ballistic gelatine and
ballistic candle blocks, coated with a skin stimulant and different clothing
simulants. In all cases, penetration occurs, it being deeper for the steel (mean:
8.608 cm) than for the lead spheres (mean: 6.434 cm) (bare skin situations). It
can be expected that fatal injuries can occur if such firearms are discharged from
a close distance. These modified blank guns are more and more being
encountered in criminal activities.
As for wound ballistic testing, gelatine is a long established and reliable tissue
simulant. The projectile penetrating the gelatine transfers energy and causes
radial cracks according to the temporary cavity. Gelatine can be an ideal way to
study the behaviour of air rifle pellets, as was done by Wightman and his
colleagues (109). They have investigated the influence of quite a few parameters
on the behaviour of the pellets: comparing 1/ different gels, 2/ different gel
concentrations, 3/ different delivery powers, 4/ pellet shape, 5/ firing range. They
have furthermore examined the effect of bone: damage to the bone was not
observed but the pellets suffer important deformation. Computed tomography
allows examination of bone and pellet damage in situ in 3D. In ballistics gelatine,
the crack length is a function of the energy spent. Schyma used colour contrast
(acryl paint) to render the fissures more visible (110). It was concluded that doing
so, the measurements were more reproducible and the curve of the wound
profile typically shifts by 1 cm to the entry.
Frank et al. examined the trauma potential and ballistic parameters of cal. 9 mm
P.A. dummy launchers (111). These are typically used for dog training: a hard
foam dummy is launched for the dog to retrieve. It was concluded that for two
projectiles (1/ the complete foam dummy and 2/ the aluminium mounting sleeve
separately), the energy densities were 0.069 J/mm² and 0.282 J/mm² and thus
high enough to cause relevant injuries.
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2.6 Training Material & Books
Since 2008, the NFSTC put a firearms examiner training course on line (112).
This course was made in collaboration with AFTE members and based on the
AFTE training manual. Also recently released to the press was a new edition of
Modern Scientific Evidence: The Law and Science of Expert Testimony. A
chapter of this book is dedicated to Firearms and Toolmark Identification (113).
Brian J. Heard published the second edition of his book entitled “Handbook of
Firearms and Ballistics – Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence” (114).
3 Firearms – Chemistry
During discharge from a firearm, primer and gunpowder residues as well as
metal particles from the projectile and the cartridge case are escaping from the
muzzle and other openings of the firearm. These residues are referred as primer
residue, firearm discharge residue or gunshot residue (GSR).
3.1 Inorganic GSR
Scanning Electron Microscopy – Energy Dispersive X-ray microanalyses
(SEM/EDX) still is the method of choice for the identification of inorganic GSR on
samples. This technique is well adapted to the detection of small particles
containing heavy metals such a lead, barium and antimony coming from primer
with a "conventional" composition.
3.1.1 Lead-free ammunition
However more and more primers do not contain one (or more) of these three
elements. Because of the "uncharacteristic" composition of the residues,
analysis of these types of ammunition by SEM/EDX will often be falsely negative.
Fortunately, in reality the "memory effect" of the gun produces sufficient
"contaminating" classic particles to make a good identification still possible. The
use of special tagging compounds and metals in the cartridge is nevertheless
highly recommended. Automatic analysis system parameters must be adapted
since standard runs will miss these particles or yield inconclusive results. Taking
note of these considerations, Martiny et al. (115) performed a thorough
characterisation of the gunshot residues produced from Brazilian lead-free
ammunition by SEM/EDX analysis. The "CleanRange" lead-free ammunition
made by Brazilian CBC was originally developed considering health issues with
lead-containing classic ammunition, for instance when used in police shooting
ranges. They have since made their entry in the general population of
ammunition used in Brazil. In fact, at this moment two generations of lead-free
CBC ammunitions are now available. The first generation, mostly used in
Europe, is almost exclusively made of strontium, together with smaller amounts
of sodium, potassium and iron. The morphology is mostly consistent with GSR
27

(spherical particles). The second generation, mostly used in the USA, contains
no Strontium, only aluminium, silicon and potassium, and its morphology is not
consistent with that of typical GSR particles – most particles being irregularly
shaped without any particular morphology. This is in contradiction with other
lead-free potassium-based primers from e.g. Winchester and Remington, which
do produce spherical particles.
Other occupational and environmental particles show the same elements and
morphologies as these types of primers, and can be detected on e.g. automobile
electricians, motor repair automechanics and petrol station attendants. Finally,
also problems occur for the shooting distance determination, as the regular
chemographic tests using rhodizonate do not react with the compounds in the
primer or, as is the case for the modified Griess test, will also react with other
nitro-compounds and hence can not be considered conclusive.
3.1.2 Trends and comparisons
Molina et al. (116) conducted an investigation of GSR testing results in suicide
cases with analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission
Spectrometry (ICP-AES) and SEM/EDX. In this follow-up article on SEM/EDX
analysis of suicide victims (117), in which a total of 116 cases of undisputed
suicide by firearm were analysed, bulk analyses on 102 cases show a
comparable result: only 50% of the samples tests positive. The authors conclude
therefore that GSR analysis (by SEM/EDX or ICP-AES) can not be used to
determine whether a person has shot a firearm, since a negative result does not
signify that the person was not in contact with a shooting incident. Furthermore,
GSR can not be used to distinguish whether a gunshot wound is self-inflicted or
not. A positive result can be helpful, however, especially if used in concert with
other information of the individual case. As a final observation, there is no
significant difference between the performance of the SEM/EDX and bulk
analysis techniques. Both tests have their benefits and deficiencies.
3.1.3 Non-GSR sources of GSR-like particles
Since a number of years concern has existed about GSR-like particles originating
from a non-ballistic origin, which could lead to false-positive interpretation of the
analysis results. A number of publications have already treated particles
produced by car breaking systems and after the use of fireworks. These particles
do not originate from the use of primers. Two publications, however, treated the
characterisation of particles which arise after the non-ballistic use of primer
compounds.
Kinder and Provost (118) discuss a case where in a homicide, the suspect's
defence was built around the fact that he has contact with Hilti primer-based nailguns.
Although this type of equipment indeed uses a form of cartridges to drive
the nail, the primer from a nail-gun cartridge was found to contain only lead and
28

arium - no antimony. This precludes true three-component characteristic
particles from originating from the small-calibre cartridges used in this type of Hilti
nail-guns.
Berk (119) addresses yet another non-ballistic source of GSR-like particles: car
airbag inflation systems. Airbags may use primer materials in the deployment
system, which may give rise to characteristic three-component GSR particles
being emitted when the bag is ruptured. However, because materials are used in
the airbag mechanisms that are normally not found in a firearm, the "GSR"
particles will most of the time contain from trace amounts to large quantities of
elements normally not encountered in true GSR particles. Moreover, because of
the other materials present in an airbag, the overall population of particles on the
samples will to a large extent be composed of GSR-inconsistent particles, giving
away the non-ballistic origin of the particle deposits. The author concludes that
the peculiar composition of these particles, both individually and as a population,
ensures that it is normally possible to distinguish this population from true GSR -
especially if the analyst is made aware that airbag material may have been
involved in the case.
3.1.4 Interpretation of analysis results and the application of Bayesian principles
In a number of forensic disciplines, like DNA, fibres and mark-evidence, the
application of Bayes’ Law for interpreting the analysis results in the context of the
case at hand is already well established. Now, also in the GSR field voices are
speaking up to implement these principles to give an added value to the purely
analytical report that is often emitted after the analysis of GSR samples is
completed. Biedermann et al. (120) offer a rigorous discussion of the principles
involved and their implementation in the GSR field, based on statistical models
developed by Cardinetti et al. (121). They also show how Bayesian Networks, a
mathematical modelling technique originating from artificial intelligence research,
may be used to model the several factors involved in the calculation of the
likelihood ratio. The authors conclude that the Bayesian Law and Bayesian
Networks serve as powerful tools to put the GSR analysis results in the
perspective of the case context. The problem remains, however, that the
numerical values to be assigned to the different parameters in the model need to
be estimated and extracted from experimental data – an area of research that is
to be further developed before these models can be reliably put to practical use.
In this context a number of publications have appeared that further this part of
development.
Brożek-Mucha compared the difference in composition and morphology between
airborne GSR and particles inside the cartridge case (122). In this study the
composition and morphology of GSR particles originating from four brands of
ammunition was compared. They represent three types of primer mixtures
containing either mercury fulminate, lead styphnate or azide and an all-organic
detonator. It is observed that GSR particles formed inside the case have not only
29

a different shape, but may also show a different composition from the particles
which were air-borne. Primers containing low-melting point metals like tin may
produce particles which solidify after hitting the substrate (the surface of the
cartridge case), although sometimes tin is present in the air-borne particles, but
absent in the case particles. This suggests that tin in these particles originates
not from the primer itself but from the bullet jacket. Thus, in the interpretation of
the GSR analysis results not only the primer composition needs to be taken into
account, but also the materials used in the manufacture of the bullet and jacket
and the gun itself play an important role. Evidently, linking the composition of
airborne GSR to the GSR in the cartridge case sometimes requires that
laboratory experiments be performed under controlled conditions. This can of
course only be done if the ballistic elements are present.
In a second study, she investigated whether the GSR particle composition varies
in different locations around the firearm/shooter (123). In this study, a Luger 9
mm ammunition was fired from a pistol and samples collected from the shooter
(hands, sleeves, front and back of the upper clothing) and the target at 50 cm. In
a separate experiment, particles were collected from cotton targets, placed at five
different distances up to one meter from the shooter. Trying to model the
dispersion behaviour of the particles both in the shooting direction and in the
opposite direction, links to the behaviour of the particles using the physical
properties of dimension and density of the several types of particles were made.
The author concludes that it is possible to observe differences in the composition
of particles found on the hands of the shooter and on his clothing: the first
originate from the ejection port of the gun, while the latter are partly coming from
back-draft turbulence as the gaseous stream that follows the bullet through the
barrel emerges from the muzzle and is distributed in all directions by the
turbulent expansion in the air. The particles on the clothing of the shooter would
therefore resemble more the particles found on a nearby target and contain more
material coming from the bullet base, while the case/ejection port/hand samples
would be constituted solely of material coming from the primer.
Finally, Rijnders et al. (124) performed a comparable study using four types of
ammunition (two classic, one titanium-zinc and one titanium-zinc doped with
gadolinium) of the same calibre (9 mm) and one pistol. Samples were acquired
from seven positions in and around the firearm, simulating both the shooter
(clothing and hands), the target, and the gun/case internals. The particles were
analysed by SEM/EDX and classified into 16 particle classes, specially designed
for these experiments. Next, a statistical approach was used to calculate
Pearson correlation coefficients. Using these statistics, a number of conclusions
can be drawn: it is possible to distinguish between different ammunition types
(from the set of chosen ammunition), internal samples from barrel and chamber
correlate badly with external samples (hands, target, case) – an explanation for
this may be found in the memory effect of the gun, while a good correlation can
be seen in the samples of the shooters’ hand and victim. Also, according to this
study, the results from the case samples correlated badly with the other samples,
30

indicating that care must be taken when comparing samples taken from the
suspects or victims and cartridge cases. This, of course is true on a purely
quantitative level – it is clear that the elemental composition of the particles is still
in agreement.
3.1.5 Quality
Due to international requirements (e.g. ENFSI) or national legislations, Quality
assurance is more and more implemented in GSR laboratories, with a crucial
step consisting of the accreditation of the analysis method following the ISO
17025 norm. In reference (125) are discussed the type of documents that have to
be prepared for this accreditation. Repeatability, reproducibility, robustness and
interlaboratory tests are illustrated using an example of validation framework.
Some Quality assurance considerations are also discussed when a new
SEM/EDX equipment has to be acquired; on-site demonstration tests and
selection criteria are proposed.
Besides instrumental validation, other topics have to be examined for complete
validation of GSR identification using SEM/EDX. Kopina (126) present a
validation study including i) the characterization of GSR (composition and
morphology) coming from 83 different ammunitions, ii) the effectiveness of
sampling using different types of adhesives, and iii) the influence of time and
activity after shooting. As a result of this validation, the load factor (amount of
consistent particles per square millimetre of analysed sample) is introduced with
a discriminating threshold value in order to distinguish background from potential
discharge samples. Four classes are defined for each hand sample: unique and
consistent, consistent, hand background, and contaminated (using a control
sample).
Proficiency tests are conducted every 2-3 years. They are organised by the
ENFSI Expert Working Group "Firearms" and consist of the detection by
SEM/EDX of 100 three-element particles (lead, barium and antimony) distributed
in four size classes (0.5 µm, 0.8 µm, 1.2 µm and 2.4 µm). Two proficiency tests
were conducted during the period of interest (GSR2008 and GSR2010). The
results have been (GSR2008) or will be (GSR2010) discussed during dedicated
workshops. Moreover, the results of the GSR2005 proficiency test were
published (127). Compared to the previous test (GSR2003 (128)), more
laboratories participated and about one fourth of them were non-European
laboratories (mostly USA). The comparison of the z-scores of the two tests
revealed an improvement of the detection capability of the laboratories. Moreover
the results are on average better for the laboratories that took part in the two
series, leading to the conclusion that a continuous participation in the proficiency
test program contributes to an improvement in the individual performances.
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3.2 Estimation of shooting distance and bullet hole characterization
3.2.1 General considerations
The greatest part of GSR produced by a shooting is projected on the target
(object or victim) if this target is close enough to the shooter. The diameter and
the density of the GSR particle deposition pattern will help to determine the firing
distance. Moreover, the rotating bullet will usually produce a wipe ring around the
entrance hole. The presence or not of a wipe ring will help to state on the nature
of the bullet hole (entrance or exit).
When the nature of a wound is questionable (entrance or exit wound), some
research groups recommend to look at the presence of textile fibres (coming
from the victim’s clothing) since in case of an exit wound, textile fibres should be
absent. However Vennemann et al. (129) demonstrated that the presence of
textile fibres is not a suitable criterion to determine the nature of a wound since
the presence of textile fibres both from the entrance and exit holes could be
stated; moreover the density of the fibres along the bullet path seems to be
dependent of the length of this path and of the size of the temporary cavity.
3.2.2 Colour tests
Colour tests are usually needed to determine the firing distance and the nature of
bullet holes since the GSR pattern can be invisible due to lack of contrast
(especially for dark fabrics). Distance determination using colour tests are
essentially based on visual examination with the use of test firings at known
distance for comparison. The use of the same weapon and the same ammunition
is crucial since it will strongly affect the GSR pattern. This has already been
pointed out in many references. Another illustration of the influence of weapon
and ammunition is brought in reference (103).
The colour test of choice for the estimation of shooting distance and bullet hole
characterization is still the sodium rhodizonate test, specially sensitive to lead.
For instance a positive test with sodium rhodizonate is indicative of an entrance
hole. Bailey et al. (130) evaluated the limit of detectability, determined to be
approximately 160 ng Pb/cm². The test was positive for 35 different .22 calibre
ammunition with a shooting distance of 7.6 m, indicating a strong robustness of
the sodium rhodizonate test. In another study, Bailey et al. (131) tested 70 holes
due to air gun pellets, presumably less sensitive to the sodium rhodizonate test
since the wipe rings do not contain cartridge components such as primer
residues. About 60% of the pellet holes yielded a positive reaction for lead.
Haag (132) performed a study on ricochet marks. SEM/EDX was used in
conjunction with sodium rhodizonate and dithiooxamide (a colour test used for
the detection of copper). The use of SEM/EDX enhanced the initial information
obtained from the colour test by giving additional information that can help in
32

shooting incident reconstruction. Using a similar strategy in the particular case of
a victim shot in the head, the examination of hairs using SEM/EDX can give
information about the firing distance since at close distance GSR particles were
found in the inner surfaces of the cuticle (133).
Lead Check® swabs – a commercial test based on the sodium rhodizonate test
and developed at first for in field detection of high concentrations of lead in paint
and building materials – have been tested for crime scene application (134). The
swabs were applied on different materials (for effectiveness) and with different
metals (for selectiveness). It was shown that the test performed equally well,
compared to the traditional sodium rhodizonate test. In the same manner two
other commercial tests for lead and copper have been tested: Plumbtesmo® test
(designed for lead deposits in motor vehicles tailpipes) and Cuprotesmo® test
(designed for detection of copper on surfaces) (135). It was shown that i) the
Plumbtesmo® test performed as well as or even better than the sodium
rhodizonate test, and ii) the Cupresmo® test and dithiooxamide had comparable
performances. The facility of use makes these tests well adapted for in field
analysis.
The examination of histological sections can also give an idea about the firing
distance: In reference (136), the histological sections were stained using sodium
rhodizonate in order to count and measure the GSR particles in the epidermal
and subepidermal layers. A relation between firing distance and the size of
particles could be pointed out.
Some procedures using the sodium rhodizonate test recommend the application
of a 15% acetic solution onto a piece of filter paper that is then pressed against
the area of interest (transfer method). The transport of an acetic solution can be
problematic (e.g. travel by air) when the tests have to be performed in the field.
Lau (137) suggest the replacement of 15% acetic acid by commercial vinegar
available from any supermarket. However if lead around the bullet hole is
correctly detected using this reagent, the lead cloud (for distance determination)
around the hole may not be detected.
The Griess test is a colour test sensitive to nitrites. It is routinely used in many
forensic laboratories but is not as developed as the sodium rhodizonate test
since it suffers from some limitations. Lau (138) tested different formulations and
replaced successfully the desensitized photographic paper usually used for
transfer medium by blotter paper.
Colour tests usually necessitate transfer techniques rather than direct pattern
development since the contrast could not be high enough for dark fabrics.
Consequently the lack of precision of the colour tests can be due to the loss of
GSR during the transfer, causing an overestimation of the distance of firing when
comparing with test firings. In order to minimize this issue, De Forest et al. (139)
propose a direct detection of GSR based on the property of lead (and antimony)
33

fluorescence in an acidic media at low temperature. In contrast, Vinokurov et al.
(140) examined the possibility of a contamination of the victim’s clothing,
inducing a negative bias, for instance when the victim falls on the contaminated
surface between her and the shooter. However it was found that the transfer is
quite low and misinterpretation can thus only occur for relatively long distances (>
1 m) when few GSR are visualized in the vicinity of the hole.
3.2.3 Development of analytical techniques
Beside visual examination intrinsically subject to lack of precision, analytical
methods are developed to improve the accuracy of the results. Cagliano-Candela
et al. (141) used atomic absorption spectroscopy to quantify lead concentration
around bullet holes. A linear relationship was found between the firing distance
and the logarithm of lead amount in the outer ring around the hole.
In a similar approach, Sharma and Lahiri (142) used FTIR microscopy for
distance determination (7-30 cm) based on the concentration of nitroglycerine.
Reid et al. (143) took a look at the sampling dilemma: whether to use swabs or
stubs for GSR analysis by SEM/EDX. In a statistical analysis of the results of
using stubs and alcohol-imbibed swabs to collect GSR from hands, authors show
that the adhesive stub method is definitely better suited for collection of this
particulate material.
Souza Sarkis J. et al. (144) Further developed the use of sector field ICP-MS to
analyse lead, barium and antimony levels on test shooters and controls in a
study carried out using .38 revolver, and 9mm and .40 calibre pistols. Realising
that absolute quantification and recovery studies are of no use, the authors use
ternary plots to show a presence of the trace elements that can lead to
identification of GSR on shooters’ hands.
Finally, Rosenberg et al. (145) determined the detection time frame of inorganic
GSR by a preliminary field test using LASER-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
(LIBS). Although LIBS is a bulk analysis technique for inorganic materials, it can
be used, according to the authors, as a presumptive and inexpensive field test,
after which the SEM/EDX technique would complement it with its high specificity
for characteristic GSR particles. The authors claim that up to 5 days after firing, a
significant barium signal can still be measured on the hands of test shooters who
had been living normal lives, including hand washing and other day to day
activities.
3.3 Organic GSR
Next to the inorganic components of GSR, also the organic part of the residues is
more and more being studied for use in routine investigations. Where in the past
predominantly chromatographic techniques were developed (both in liquid and
34

gaseous state), we see now a diversification into other, ultra-modern, techniques
such as LASER Spectroscopy and DESI probes.
3.3.1 Screening of gun propellant powder components
NIST (146) has produced a Standard Reference Material with known
concentrations of nitroglycerin, (N-nitroso)diphenylamine and ethylcentralite. This
material can be used to validate analysis methods in an accreditation effort of
forensic laboratories, or as a proficiency standard. NIST is currently developing
two more standards aimed at the determination of trace amounts of high
explosives. One is developed for calibration of detection equipment as used in
airport security, and the other for measurements associated with remediation of
contaminated soil.
Haag et al. (147) have investigated the new Blackhorn 209 propellant, a novel
formulation that is a substitute for black powder in muzzle-loading firearms. It
provides bullet speeds slightly higher than the equivalent modern black powder
formulations, but leaves mildly corrosive residues in the bore of the firearm and in
the cartridge cases. This new powder is unlikely to turn up in many cases due to
high cost and narrow application, but may turn up in cases involving gun bursts
and pipe bombs
3.3.2 Instrumental methods
A number of techniques have been used to detect organic residues in different
applications and varying substrates. Among them, Solid Phase Micro-Extraction
(SPME) is used in combination with GC or Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS).
Weyermann et al. (148) used GC-MS analysis after SPME sampling of fired 9
mm cartridge cases. They were able to identify thirty two organic volatile
compounds, some of which could be traced until up to 32 hours after the shot.
The problem is that, as work in this area is very original, the exact origin of most
of these compounds is still unknown. The study shows further that the largest
problem involved with the use of SPME is the reproducibility of the
measurements of nanogram-range quantities of material. Joshi et al. (149), on
the other hand, successfully used SPME and Ion Mobility Spectrometry for the
detection of odour signatures of smokeless powders. Besides being an
instrumental alternative to canines for the detection of compounds used in homemade
explosive devices, their method detects also components for which the
dogs are not useful. For instance, 2-ethyl hexanol and 2,4-DNT were detected by
canines, while diphenyl amine (DPA) and ethylcentralite (EC) were not of interest
to them. As IMS instruments are readily available, e.g.. in airports, where they
are used for detection of illicit substances, these results therefore complement
the canine detection by instrumental techniques.
All these techniques have in common that the analytes are being sampled and
concentrated on a carrier substrate prior to analysis. On the other hand,
35

Scherperel et al. (150) show a method for extraction and characterisation of
smokeless powder additives (methylcentralite (MC), EC and DPA) using tandem
mass spectrometry (nESI-MS), without the use of chromatographic separation
methods. From seven types of gun powder in unburned form, only two could not
be distinguished based on physical appearance of the unburned grain, solubility
in methanol and the nESI-MS technique. Samples from the burned powder were
used to successfully identify low levels of EC using Collision-Induced
Dissociation (CID)-MS/MS. The authors conclude that nESI-MS has great
potential for application in GSR analysis.
Zhao et al. (151) demonstrate the applicability of Desorption ElectroSpray
Ionisation (DESI)-MS/MS spectrometry, applied directly on the surface to be
sampled, for the detection of stabilizers (MC, EC, DPA). The DESI sampler can
even be applied directly on the human skin and the analysis carried out using a
portable MS/MS - making this potentially a field-operation technique.
Contamination of the surface by milk, soft drinks and dust does not influence the
measurements. Other surfaces were also tested, such as glass, rubber and
leather gloves, towel, cotton and hair. As far as sensitivity and persistence are
concerned, MC could still reliably be detected for up to 12 h after the shooting,
and it could still be detected after 6 hand washings.
3.4 Book review
Adlard (152) in a review of a book by Wallace “Chemical Analysis of Firearms,
Ammunition and Gunshot Residue”, describes the collective knowledge and
experience gathered by the scientists at the Northern Ireland Forensic Science
laboratory. The book compiles the results obtained using the diverse instruments
available for the analysis of GSR and, to a lesser extent, explosives.
36

4. References
1. National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Identifying the Needs of
the Forensic Sciences Community; Committee on Applied and Theoretical
Statistics. Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path
Forward. The National Academies Press; 2009. An executive summary can
be downloaded free of charge:
http://ag.ca.gov/meetings/tf/pdf/2009_NAS_report.pdf
2. AFTE Committee for the Advancement of the Science of Firearm &
Toolmark Identification. The Response of the Association of Firearm and
Tool Mark Examiners to the February 2009 National Academy of Science
Report “Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path
Forward.” June 22, 2009. AFTE Journal 2009; 41 (3):204-208
3. AFTE Committee for the Advancement of the Science of Firearm &
Toolmark Identification. AFTE Response to the NACDL Task Force on the
Future of Forensic Science. AFTE Journal 2010; 42 (2):102-107
4. Buckleton J, Triggs C, Taroni F, Champod C, Wevers G. Experimental
Design for Acquiring Relevant Data to Address the Issue of Comparing
Consecutively Manufactured Tools and Firearms. Science & Justice 2008;
48 (4):178-181
5. Lyons DJ. The Identification of Consecutively Manufactured Extractors.
AFTE Journal 2009; 41 (3):246-256
6. Hamby J, Thorpe J. The Examination, Evaluation and Identification of 9mm
Cartridge Cases Fired from 617 Different GLOCK Model 17 & 19
Semiautomatic Pistols. AFTE Journal 2009; 41 (4):310-324
7. Uchiyama T. Toolmark Reproducibility on Fired Bullets and Expended
Cartridge Cases. AFTE Journal 2008; 40 (1):3-46
8. Gouwe J, Hamby JE, Norris SA. Comparison of 10,000 Consecutively Fired
Cartridge Cases from a Model 22 Glock .40 S&W Caliber Semiautomatic
Pistol. AFTE Journal 2008; 40 (1):57-63
9. Hamby JE, Brundage DJ, Thorpe JW. The Identification of Bullets Fired
from 10 Consecutively Rifled 9mm Ruger Pistol Barrels: A Research Project
Involving 507 Participants from 20 Countries. AFTE Journal 2009; 41
(2):99-110
10. Neel M, Wells M. A Comprehensive Statistical Analysis of Striated Tool
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14. Marsanopoli JE, Gerber KA, Dandridge WA. The Effects of Fire Damage on
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30. Brinck TB. Comparing the Performance of IBIS and BulletTRAX-3D
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Gunshot Residue”. Chromatographia 2008; 68 (9/10):882
47

Examination of Marks
Review: 2007 to 2010
Nadav Levin, MSc
Head, Toolmarks and Materials Laboratory
Division of Identification and Forensic Science (DIFS)
Israel National Police Headquarters
Jerusalem 91906, Israel
E-mail: simanim@police.gov.il (Lab),
Nadav.levin@gmsil.com (Privet)
48

Table of Contents
1.
 INTRODUCTION
 51
2
 FOOTWEAR
AND
TIRE‐TREAD
IMPRESSIONS
 51
2.1
 Detection
and
Recording
 52
2.1.1
 Photography
and
Image
Processing
 52
2.1.2
 Lifting
and
Casting
 54
2.1.3
 Shoeprints
in
Blood
 55
2.1.4
 Chemical
Enhancement
 57
2.1.6
 Shoeprints
and
Tire‐tracks
in
Snow
 57
2.1.6
 Imprints
on
Miscellaneous
Surfaces
 58
2.2
 Manufacturing
Processes
and
Outsoles
Design
 58
2.3
 Tire
Tracks
 59
2.4
 Test
Impressions
 59
2.5
 The
Evidential
Value
of
Shoeprints
Examination
 60
2.6
 Databases,
Reference
Collections
and
Automated
Classification
 61
2.7
 Miscellaneous
 63
3.
 TOOLMARKS
 63
3.1
 Casting
and
Reproduction
Methods
 64
3.2
 Observation
and
Imaging
Methods
 65
3.3
 Marks
Produces
by
Various
Types
of
Tools
 66
3.4
 Examination
of
Consecutively­Manufactured
Tools
 68
3.5
 The
Examination
of
Stabbing
and
Cutting
Marks
 69
3.6
 Evidential
Value
of
Toolmark
Examination
 70
3.7
 Miscellaneous
Issues
 72
4.
 PHYSICAL
MATCH
 73
5.
 RESTORATION
OF
OBLITERATED
MARKS
 75
5.1
 Steel
surfaces
 75
5.2
 Aluminium
alloy
surfaces
 76
5.3
 Laser
engraved
marks
 77
5.4
 X­Ray
Radiography
 77
49

6.
 REFERENCES
 78
50

1. Introduction
The examinations of contact marks and related topics covered in this review are
among some of the core issues of forensic science. Although these types of
evidence may sometimes have the highest evidential values in definitely linking
suspects to scenes of crime, the techniques used are usually straightforward and
simple. This review covers advances in scientific methods applied to the forensic
examination of various marks, since the Interpol 15 th International Forensic
Science Symposium (IFSS) in October 2007 (1).
This paper is based mainly on a literature review, derived from the UK Forensic
Science Service (FSS) FORS database (Forensic Bibliography Database), which
covers articles published in the principle forensic science journals and other
relevant sources over the review period (2). This has been supplemented by a
search of the Internet for articles related to the forensic examination of marks,
using, for instance, the Google Scholar search engine (3). Manuals and standard
operating procedures of various forensic science laboratories, many of which are
relevant to this Review, may also be found on the Web, for instance – the Virginia
Department of Forensic Science (VA-DFS) ones (4). Since one of the purposes of
this Review is to provide a wide updated background for practitioners in these
fields, some publicly-available Internet references are also listed below.
2 Footwear and Tire-Tread Impressions
Footwear impressions may be considered, apparently, as one of the most
common types of evidence, and are found, virtually, in every scene of crime. As a
significant form of physical evidence, impressions left behind at the crime scene
may provide valuable information on where the crime occurred and the direction
the suspect travelled while committing the crime. This information may place the
suspect at the crime scene or eliminate him as having been there. A general
review of this field was published by Smith (5), covering both the class and
accidental characteristics found in shoeprints, and the evidential value of the
examinations’ outcome. Although general in nature, this article provides a good
starting point for novice in this area.
The Scientific Working Group on Shoeprint and Tire Tread Evidence
(SWGTREAD) continues its effort for setting professional guidelines for the
collection, preservation and examination of footwear and tire tread impression
evidence (6). The Group’s new Internet web-page provides a vast amount of
information, including some recently-approved guides:
• Guide for Casework Documentation (September 2008),
• Guide for the Chemical Enhancement of Bloody Footwear and Tire
Impression Evidence (September 2008),
• Terminology Used for Forensic Footwear and Tire Impression Evidence
(March 2009).
These guides, along with the previously-published ones, may be downloaded freeof-charge
from the SWGTREAD web-page. In addition, a “Daubert Resource Kit”,
51

dealing with the presentation of shoeprint evidence in court, may also be provided
by this Group.
Useful guides, regarding various aspects of the photography of footwear marks,
are also found at the Scientific Working Group on Imaging Technology (SWGIT)
web-page (7). Among these guides are:
• Field Photography Equipment and Supporting Infrastructure (2009,
updated version),
• Guidelines for Image Processing (2010, updated version),
• General Guidelines for Photographing Tire Impressions (2010, updated
version),
• General Guidelines for Photographing Footwear Impressions (2010,
updated version).
The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) Expert Working
Group Marks (EWGM), established in 1995, also runs an active web-page (8).
One of the remarkable features of this web-page is its “Wanted Page”, enabling
the exchange of information regarding unknown shoeprints. Since the beginning of
2008, more than 150 queries were submitted by shoeprint examiners from all over
the globe, many of which were successfully answered by other peers. In addition,
this Group’s newsletter, “Information Bulletin for Shoeprint/Toolmark Examiners”
(IBSTE) is also posted on this web-page.
The Virginia Department of Forensic Science (VA-DFS) has prepared a
procedures manual of various laboratory methods for footwear and tire tread
impressions, as well as a training manual for experts in this field (4). These
documents, as other VA-DFS manuals, are available on the Internet.
The Home Office Scientific Development Branch (HOSDB, UK) Fingerprint and
Footwear Forensics (FFF) group produced special edition newsletters (9, 10),
dedicated to the recovery and imaging of footwear marks. These newsletters
comprise comprehensive and practical guidelines for many aspects of lifting
techniques and chemical enhancement methods for shoeprints found on various
surfaces.
2.1 Detection and Recording
2.1.1 Photography and Image Processing
Footwear impressions can be photographed (on film or digitally) or scanned. The
standard methods for shoeprint photography are covered in numerous articles,
including the SWGTREAD and the SWGIT guides (6, 7).
Blitzer and his colleagues (11) conducted a comprehensive study regarding the
effects of the photographic technology on the examination quality of footwear
impressions. The purpose of their study was to determine how footwear
impression examiners respond to different photographic methods employed. The
researchers used both resolution standard targets and inked shoeprints for the
52

purpose of this study. Examiners having at least some experience with footwear
impressions analysis were involved. Images were taken using a high quality (14
megapixels) digital camera and a medium quality (6 megapixels) one, a 35mm film
camera and a 120 format film camera. Digital images were taken in the “zero
compression” JPEG format. The conclusions of this study were as follows:
• Both digital cameras of 6- or 14- megapixels are satisfactory substitutes
for the 35mm film camera for most regular shoeprint cases,
• In those special cases where higher resolution is required, a 120 format
film camera is recommended,
• There is not yet a simple and suitable digital solution for life-sized prints.
Chung (12) describes a method of photographic enhancement of difficult-tocapture
two-dimensional (2D) prints by the combined effect of overhead soft box
lighting and the Tilt-Shift lens (perspective control lens) presented earlier by this
author (13). This combined method was tested on different types of impressions,
on different substrates, and was found to be superior over traditional photographic
methods.
Brown and et al (14) examined the forensic application of high dynamic-range
(HDR) photography. These authors used Photoshop CS4 and Photomatrix Pro 3
software for combining several (3 – 5) images taken in different exposures,
resulting in high-quality 32-bit images. One of the examples presented in this
article was of a shoeprint. Combining multiple exposures of a 3-dimentional (3D)
shoeprint into a single HDR image allows observing a detailed print. This method
is also useful for capturing prints on a multicolor background (like wallpaper,
magazine cover, etc.)
The 2010 HOSDB newsletter mentioned above (10) contains, among other useful
and practical information, a best practice guide for the imaging of footwear marks,
including recommendations for optimum imaging techniques for various types of
marks and surfaces.
Buck and her colleagues (15) used a high resolution 3D optical scanner for
recording footwear impressions and tire tracks in snow. Their results proved that
non-destructive 3D optical surface scanning is a suitable method for the
documentation of impressions in snow. The 3D models of the scanned
impressions in snow displayed a high accuracy including all the fine details.
Casting footwear impressions in snow has always been a difficult assignment for
forensic identification specialists, and the 3D optical surface scanning is
apparently an accurate and efficient new method for documenting impressions in
snow without contact. Effective results can be achieved even in different kinds of
snow and under various meteorological conditions. The method is also suitable for
impressions in soil, sand or other materials
Polynomial Texture Maps (PTMs) are a simple representation for images of
functions instead of just images of color values. In a conventional image, each
pixel contains static red, green or blue values. In a PTM, each pixel contains a
simple function that specifies the red, green or blue values of that pixel as a
53

function of two independent parameters, specifying the direction of a point light
source. PTMs are typically produced with a digital camera by photographing an
object multiple times with lighting direction varying between images. Even a lowend
digital camera provides enough resolution to produce good PTMs, and almost
any light source can be used, such as a light bulb, LED or a flash. Hamiel and
Yoshida (16) applied this imaging technique for shoeprints and other impression
evidence, including the use of a portable unit for field studies. The PTM images
were compared to conventional sidelight and casting techniques. The application
of this technology could be more cost-effective than conventional methods and
provide higher-quality data. Results of the evaluation reveal that PTM technology
can successfully be used in the forensic field and has the potential to produce
better resolved images for the comparison of known shoe soles or tire treads to
crime scene impressions. Specific results indicated that PTM images and
enhancements improved the visibility of detail in some of the impressions under
analysis when compared to traditional photography techniques, including
improvement of the visualization of texture within a shoe or tire impression. PTM
technology thus gives the examiner the best opportunity for visualizing unique
characteristics in impression evidence. PTM technology also has the advantage of
being cheaper to operate than traditional sidelight and casting techniques.
In a recent report by Prokoski (17), 2D infrared (IR) imaging was demonstrated to
produce images of footwear impressions under dim light and under total darkness
conditions. It was also shown to produce detailed images of athletic shoe sole
patterns without controlled lighting. 3D IR imaging was also demonstrated to
produce dimensionally accurate 3D digital models of footwear and footwear
impressions simply and fast. The primary advantage of IR imaging over visible
light imaging for footwear evidence is that it produces more consistent feature
details under conditions of uncontrolled lighting. Feature contrast in IR images can
generally be enhanced by air flow over the features, which differentially heats or
cools portions of the features.
Since digital photography is becoming more and more common for capturing
shoeprint images, readily-available image enhancement enables the shoeprint
expert observing details on the shoe-mark that were initially barely visible. Wiesner
and her colleagues (18) presented two Collaborative Testing Services (CTS)
proficiency tests (04-533 and 07-533), where challenging shoeprints were
examined. The prints were made on surfaces with noisy backgrounds that
interfered with the prints. The image processing method presented in this paper,
namely color channel separation and image enhancement, reduced the
background significantly, and improved the visibility of the shoeprints.
2.1.2 Lifting and Casting
Following photography or scanning, shoeprints found on various surfaces are
usually lifted or cast, according to their nature. Recently published SWGTREAD
guides cover this area (6). Footwear impression examiners usually use
transparency lifts to compare size, design and accidental characteristics between
known shoes and questioned impressions. In certain cases, the examiner may
have to separate the lifting film from the cover sheet. In a case reported by Adair
54

(19), which involved “Lightning Lift” transparency lifts (by Lightning Powder
Company, USA), such a separation resulted in the apparent reversal of the
orientation of certain elements of the outsole, indicating that the adhesive and
impression had been transferred from the thinner lifting sheet to the thicker cover
sheet. Tests with other “Lightning Lift” transparencies from previous casework
revealed the same phenomenon of transference of the image and adhesive.
Awareness of this phenomenon, and its implications for the interpretation of
footwear impression evidence collected using such transparencies, are advised.
Examiners may sometimes be faced with footwear marks found on various types
of substrates. A murder case where a partial print was found on a coffee
polystyrene cup was presented by Bekiempis (20). Numerous methods for
recovering the print from the polystyrene surface were tested. The most successful
one was using a dental stone cast, while Forensic Sil silicone rubber (Loci
Forensic Products, The Netherlands) gave also very good results. It is highly
recommended by this author always to take good quality photographs of the prints
prior to the application of casting or enhancing methods.
Isomark (UK) offers a novel product, Foot-Print, for taking 3D footwear
impressions – silicone rubber in a dispensing gun (21). According to the
manufacturer, typical curing times for the Foot-Print are between 3 and 10
minutes. This product is also suitable for shoeprints in snow, where the curing time
may reach a maximum of 20 minutes in freezing temperatures.
A new device for scanning gelatine lifters, GLScan, was introduced by BVDA (The
Netherlands) (22). The device, based on a line-scan camera, has a resolution of
1046dpi, higher than any available digital camera, and it also offers evenly
illuminated images, image enhancement software, ease of operation and high
throughput. According to this manufacturer, scanning a gelatine lifter 18x36cm in
size takes about 2.5 minutes.
2.1.3 Shoeprints in Blood
The recovery of footwear impressions in blood is similar, in most cases, to the
recovery of fingerprints in blood, and indeed many of the relevant references cover
both these areas of interest. This section will focus mainly on those articles
referring to shoeprints.
As mentioned above, SWGTREAD has published a comprehensive guide for the
chemical enhancement of bloody footwear and tire impression evidence in the field
and in the laboratory (6), including a list of appropriate reagents and instructions
on their application.
Cullen et al (23) have recently published an extensive article, describing the
results of a controlled experiment, where about 50 identifiable shoeprints in blood,
deposited on various substrates, were buried in soil for up to four-week time.
About 60% of the prints were visible when excavated, although poor recovery
rates and loss of impressions were observed on substrates buried for more than
two weeks. Chemical enhancement methods were then applied to the prints, and
55

more than 70% of the prints provided adequate visible impressions that were
identifiable to the original ones. The most effective methods for the enhancement
and retrieval of impressions were leucocrystal violet (LCV) and Bluestar. This
study concluded that a significant amount of blood-contaminated footwear
impressions can be recovered from buried substrates, provided that careful
excavation methodology and suitable enhancement techniques are utilized.
Methods for the chemical enhancement of footwear marks in blood are also
discussed in the 2008 HOSDB newsletter mentioned above (9). This article
recommends the application of protein stains (like Acid Violet 17) as a speculative
search tool for bloody footwear marks on non-porous flooring surfaces, provided
the conditions are suitable.
Farrugia and his colleagues (24) are about to publish an article regarding the
chemical enhancement of shoeprints in blood, recovered from fabric surfaces
using alginate casting materials. Since bloody footwear impressions are found
sometimes on colorful fabrics, the in-situ enhancement provides in such instances
less-than-desired results. In order to overcome these limitations, this study
examined the lifting of the marks by using alginate casting materials followed by
chemical enhancement by the Acid Black 1 (Amido Black) and LCV reagents.
These authors recommend the use of Amido Black for this purpose, due to the
safety issues involved when using LCV.
Footwear impressions in blood deteriorate over time, even when indoors or
sheltered from adverse environmental conditions. Morgan-Smith et al (25) tested
the influence of aging of shoeprints in blood on their enhancement using various
methods. These researchers used three distinctly different shoe sole pattern styles
for creating test impressions and added fine damage features to each sole in order
to assist the evaluation of the results. Shoeprints were placed on several surfaces,
including linoleum, varnish wood and paper, and aged for up to 16 weeks in
various environments. The prints were then treated with six different chemical
reagents for blood enhancement. Results showed that, of the methods compared,
ninhydrin was the best reagent for treating aged impressions on paper substrates.
However, on wooden and linoleum surfaces, amido black was the reagent of
choice. This study also demonstrated that shoeprints in blood do deteriorate over
time, especially outdoors, and that impressions on paper showed the least
deterioration.
Gorn et al (26) presented a case where footwear impressions in blood were found
at a homicide scene involving a smoldering fire. This case initiated a study aimed
at the specificity of LCV for distinguishing blood from other liquids that were found
on the scene. As the results showed, LCV is highly specific to blood, and none of
the other tested substances, apart from blood, gave positive results with it. It is
important to note that the reaction of LCV with blood occurs within one minute.
Gelatine lifters (gel lifters) are not considered, usually, as the preferred method of
choice for lifting impressions in blood. Nevertheless, Svejderud and Lundqvist (27)
presented a case where such lifters were successfully applied for collecting
footprints from wooden floor tiles. The relevant footprint was first lifted using black
56

gel lifter, followed by a white one. When the lifters where taken to the authors’
laboratory and photographed, the photographer noticed by coincidence that
although the prints on the gel lifters were quite poor, there were distinct prints on
the transparent protective plastic sheet of each of these lifters. Interestingly, the
second (white) lifter showed a better print than the first (black) one, probably due
to the removal of interfering background by the first.
2.1.4 Chemical Enhancement
The HOSDB 2008 newsletter mentioned above (9) contains also a summary of
methods for enhancement of shoeprints made of various substrates. The methods
tested in this study were those routinely used for latent fingerprints development. It
is interesting to note that a powder suspension was very effective on most
contaminants, and was the single most effective process on 50% of the tested
contaminants.
McNeil and Knaap (28) compared the performances of the bromophenol blue
(BPB) indicator with those of potassium thiocyanate for the enhancement of dust
footwear impressions. These authors found that BPB performed better than
potassium thiocyanate on most shoeprints tested.
2.1.6 Shoeprints and Tire-tracks in Snow
Taking casts of shoeprints or tire-tracks in snow is more challenging than other 3D
impressions, due the nature of this substrate. The commonly-used dental stone is
not applicable for snow impressions due to its exothermic reaction while curing.
Numerous methods were published over the years for such cases. One of these
methods was to use molten pure sulphur, which is well studied and documented.
There are, however, several limitations in using this method: It requires additional
equipment (a stove and a melting pot) not usually carried as a part of an evidence
collection kit, a respirator is needed due to the hazardous sulphur dioxide fumes
produced, and the produced sulphur casts tend to be brittle. In order to overcome
some of these limitations, Wolfe (29) studied the use of sulphur cement for casting
snow impressions. Sulphur cement is a silica-filled modified sulphur mixture, which
is melted, cooled and poured in the same manner as pure sulphur, but has higher
strength and stability. Validation studies showed that sulphur cement could rapidly
and reliably preserve snow impression evidence with detail comparable to that of
pure sulphur or dental stone casts. Based on this study, sulphur cement proved to
be safer and of higher strength for casting snow impressions, as a substitute for
pure sulphur.
In order to overcome the disadvantages of dental stone for casting impressions in
snow, Adair and Shaw (30) proposed a dry-casting method. When applying this
method, these authors used a commercial flour sifter to sift the dry dental stone
powder onto the impression in fine layers, followed by cold water spraying (using a
plastic spray bottle). The dry-casting method is remarkable for several reasons:
First, the method uses materials commonly carried by crime scene investigators,
namely dental stone and water. Second, flour sifters are inexpensive and simple to
57

use. The technique is not adversely affected by cold temperatures and works well
on a variety of snow pack conditions. More important, however, is the quality of the
final cast when compared to the application of dental stone by pouring.
Understanding the medium of snow and how its properties may influence the
success of casting methods can assist the investigator in choosing techniques that
offer the best chance for successfully casting track impressions. Additionally, snow
conditions may change rapidly because of the influence of solar heat, wind,
additional precipitation, contaminants, and combinations thereof. Adair and his
colleagues (31) discussed the various snow types and present recommendations
for the appropriate casting methods best suited for the characteristics of the
snowpack.
2.1.6 Imprints on Miscellaneous Surfaces
Chochol and Swietek (32) present three murder cases of partial shoeprints
detected on a human body. In two of the cases, the prints were photographed
during the autopsies and compare to suspects’ shoes. In the third case, no
suspect shoe was available, so only the brand of such a shoe had to be
determined. These authors showed that it is sometimes possible to perform
shoeprint analyses even on such difficult surfaces as human skin. However, it
should be emphasised that most often partial prints are found, and only limited
class characteristics can be identified. Such footwear impression may also be
used for reconstructing the incident, placing the perpetrator in relation to the
victim, and so on.
An uncommon case of finding a break pedal pad impression, of a vehicle involved
in a fatal accident, on the shoe outsole of one of the suspects, is reported by White
(33). In the case reported, both of the occupants of a vehicle that was involved in a
fatal collision denied being the driver. The author reported that impression found
on the outsole of one of the suspects matched, by class characteristics, the
pattern of the vehicle’s break pedal pad. Based on these findings, among others,
that suspect was convicted.
2.2 Manufacturing Processes and Outsoles Design
As in most areas of forensic comparisons, understanding of manufacturing
processes is essential for shoeprint examinations. Good sources of information for
this aspect are the footwear industry newsletters, like the SATRA Bulletin. In the
Review period, several articles have been published in this Bulletin regarding the
manufacturing of moulded boots, of injection-moulded soles and of leather soles
(34 - 36). Although the addressees of these articles are mainly members of the
footwear industry, forensic scientists dealing with shoeprint comparison may gain
great benefits from them as well.
The individualization of footwear and tires rests mainly upon the knowledge that
accidental marks formed during the use, or abuse, are unique. Thus,
manufacturing defects, mistakenly identified as unique wear damage, may lead
the examiner to the wrong conclusions. Adair (37) describes a case of new,
58

unused, deck shoes of poor manufacturing quality presenting manufacturing
defects resembling in shape wear accidental defects. This example supplements
previously published articles calling for caution in this respect. Although such
cases may be rare, inexperienced examiners should be aware of the potential for
manufacturing defects, especially when examining inexpensive footwear. Here,
again, knowledge of the manufacturing processes involved is essential.
Knowledge regarding the thread design of footwear outsoles is also crucial for
shoeprint identification. Adair (38) also reports a case where shoeprints in blood
were found in an assault scene. The impressions were comprised primarily of a
“double-helix” style pattern travelling lateral-medialy across the outsole. Some
“arms” of the double-helix pattern were incomplete, which suggested that one arm
might be slightly higher than the other. Initial search of outsole databases was
negative. The outsole pattern was eventually identified as a Nike Jordan B’2rue
brand shoe. The shoe pattern is remarkable in that one arm of the double-helix
design is slightly elevated above the other. This design is relevant to footwear
examiners since the impressions created by new shoes will appear quite different
than impressions created by heavily worn shoes. In a new, relatively unworn state,
the impressions created by this shoe will have only one arm of the double-helix
present in 2D impression. As the shoe wears, the pattern will begin to resemble
the double helix pattern.
2.3 Tire Tracks
Bodziak (39) published a comprehensive, well-written, sourcebook on the recovery
and the forensic examination of tire track evidence. This book covers all aspects of
tire impression examinations, from the design and manufacturing of tires, through
the examinations at the scene and the documentation of the tire tracks there, to
the examination at the lab and presentation in court. The book also includes
information regarding tire tread databases, like the Tread Design Guide (by Tire
Guides Inc., USA) and others.
The recording of known test impressions from a suspect vehicle was discussed by
several authors. Nause and Soulier (40) presented a simple and effective
technique, based on the use of spray-on cooking oil, black fingerprint powder, and
safety film, for the recording of tire impressions. This approach was found to be
user-friendly, used easily obtainable materials, and gave excellent results.
LeMay and colleagues (41) studied the effect of tire pressure and cargo weight on
the width of tire track impressions. These authors made test impressions of tires
with various air pressures and different weights of cargo in the vehicle in order to
determine whether the width of a tire impression changes based on those
variables. The results obtained suggest, not surprisingly, that the width of the
contact patch varies according to tire pressure and weight of cargo.
2.4 Test Impressions
Preparing the right test impression, from the suspect’s footwear, is sometimes the
basis for successful identification. Examiners occasionally find it necessary to
59

make 3D test impressions of footwear when they are comparing the footwear to
photographs of 3D crime scene impressions or to castings of these impressions.
There are several products available for such use. Some are polymers that require
mixing and hardening, and others are foam products that do not render fine detail.
A new product, Bubber (Delta, Sweden), was recently tested by LeMay (42) and
was found to be very easy to use and superior to other commonly-used products.
It rendered very fine detail that could be photographed and cast with dental stone.
This product may be used for preparing 3D test impressions from tires as well.
2.5 The Evidential Value of Shoeprints Examination
As discussed earlier in this Review, the identification of shoeprints is derived from
individual characteristics found both in the suspects’ shoe outsole and in the crime
scene impressions. In other, more frequent, cases, where no individual features
can be identified, the examination conclusion is of the form “the examined
footwear could have left the questioned impression from the crime scene”. In such
cases, the evidential value of the results is often misunderstood and undervalued.
LeMay (43) has recently discussed this issue, stressing the argument that even
when only class characteristics (like outsole design, actual size and wear) are
found, it is highly inclusive in nature, and must be treated as valuable evidence.
Footwear impressions found at a scene are simply too far beyond coincidental to
be dismissed. The example presented in this article is of a Nike athletic shoe,
which was distributed in the USA in numbers exceeding 280,000 pairs (of this
specific outsole thread design). That is less than 0.2% of all shoe pairs distributed
annually in the USA at that time (44), while not yet taking into account the shoe
size and wear.
It should be mentioned at this point that popular footwear brands, like Nike, suffer
from counterfeits of their products, thus the distribution figures presented by these
firms do not necessarily represent the actual share of any given outsole design in
the footwear population. A paper by Wisbey (45), which focused on the Nike Air
Force One sneakers, highlights some of the methods that assist the shoeprint
examiners assessing likelihood that a submitted sneaker may be counterfeit.
Petraco and et al (46) applied statistical techniques used in facial pattern
recognition, to a minimal set of information collected from accidental patterns in
five pairs of similar footwear (all of the same make, model and size), in order to
assess the evidential value of individual characteristics. In order to maximize the
amount of potential similarity between patterns, these authors only used the
coordinate locations of accidental marks to characterize the entire pattern. It was
found that in 20–30 dimensional principal component (PC) space (99.5% variance
retained), patterns from the same shoe, even at different points in time, tended to
cluster closer to each other than patterns from different shoes. This study is
intended to be a starting point for future research into building statistical models on
the formation and evolution of accidental patterns.
The Bayesian approach, advocated in the last decades by many forensic scientists
for the application in various disciplines, has not yet been fully studied for footwear
60

impression analysis. Biedermann and co-authors (47) discuss shortly the
implementation of this approach into shoeprint examinations, and deal with
feasible and defensible strategies for eliciting reasonable prior probabilities for
footwear marks compared to DNA stains analysis.
The range of conclusions, attributed to a given set of shoeprints, was presented by
Jonasson (48). In the course of the ENFSI EWGM 2 nd Collaborative Shoeprint
Test, participants were supplied with images of two footwear impressions, one on
floor tiles and the other – on a curtain, and images of a pair of relatively unused
tennis shoes and their test prints, and were asked to compare the prints with the
shoes images. The conclusions reached by the participating experts ranged from
elimination to identification, for the same given set of exhibits. This study
demonstrates again, as did previous ones, the subjective nature of footwear
impressions analysis. Based on the results of this test, a third one is being planned
for distribution this year.
2.6 Databases, Reference Collections and Automated Classification
With the numbers of both footwear outsole designs as well as shoeprints
documented at crime scenes rapidly increasing, the need for computerized mean
of keeping these records is becoming more and more crucial in forensic
laboratories. Bowen and Schneider (49) have published a review on various
commercially-available forensic databases, including those for shoeprints and tire
tread designs.
In addition to the ENFSI EWGM “Wanted Page” mentioned earlier, Hamm (50)
also presented the Foster & Freeman (UK) footwear and tire tread databases,
including the Crimeshoe.com program. This “pay-per-match” program (customers
only pay when a positive identification of the pattern in question have been found)
enables law enforcement agencies and forensic science laboratories to submit
queries regarding unknown outsole pattern, and receive a comprehensive report
when such a pattern is identified in the database.
The National Footwear Reference Collection (NFRC) has been launched recently
in the UK (51), as the result of collaboration between the National Policing
Improvement Agency (NPIA) and Bluestar Software Ltd. (UK), the latter having
designed and built the database of footwear patterns. This new, web-based
application service is hosted by the West Yorkshire Police on the secure Criminal
Justice Extranet (CJX) and is freely available to police forces. Basically, the NFRC
is a system for the identification of a particular footwear pattern using 14
nationally-agreed descriptors of the different elements making up the design of the
tread pattern. This allows police forces to identify footwear impressions recovered
from crime scenes rapidly and easily.
The potential of a spatial-temporal method for analysis of forensic shoeprint data,
collected at the Larger London Metropolitan Area (the Bigfoot database), was
examined by Lin et al (52). The large volume of shoeprint evidence recovered at
crime scenes (about 10,000 annually) was imported into a geographic information
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system (GIS), and a spatial-temporal algorithm developed for this project. The
results show that by using distance and time constraints interactively, the number
of candidate shoeprints that can implicate one or few suspects can be
substantially reduced. The study concludes that the use of space-time and other
ancillary information within a geographic information system can be quite helpful
for forensic investigation.
Many authors have recently proposed systems for automated recognition,
classification and retrieval of shoeprint patterns. Al-Garni and Hamiane (53)
developed an efficient automatic shoeprint retrieval system based on Hu’s moment
invariants. The performance of this algorithm is not significantly affected by
decreasing the image resolution. It is also shown that the optimal performance of
the proposed method is attained for rotated images. However, as stated by the
authors, this system is suitable only for comparing suspect outsole patterns, and
not partial shoeprints.
Dardi et al (54) presented an image retrieval algorithm which combines the
information of the phase of the Fourier transform of the shoe mark images with the
power spectral density of the Fourier transform calculated on their Mahalanobis
map. Different from other published studies, the algorithm performance here is
tested on real shoe marks from crime scenes. The proposed method is compared
with other studies and some preprocessing operators are also introduced and
selected to reduce noise and enhance the matching probability.
Pavlou and Allinson (55) developed an automated system for shoe model
identification from outsole impressions taken directly from the suspect's shoes that
can provide timely information while a suspect is in custody. The underlying
methodology is based on large numbers of localized features located using
maximally stable extermal region (MSER) feature detectors. These features are
transformed into robust scale invariant feature transform (SIFT) descriptors with
the ranked correspondence between footwear patterns obtained through the
application of modified constrained spectral correspondence methods. The
effectiveness of this approach is illustrated for a reference dataset of 374 different
shoe model patterns, from which 87% first-rank performance and 92% top-eight
rank performance are achieved. These authors were also involved in the
development of the Immersive Forensics Ltd. (UK) Latent Image Markup and
Analysis (LIMA) system, designed to provide a unified and intuitive environment
for the treatment of forensic images, including shoeprint and tire track impressions
(56).
A technique for automatic shoeprint matching, using multiresolution Gabor feature
map, was presented by Patil and Kulkarni (57). Gabor transform has been used to
extract genuine textural features in a shoeprint image. The proposed technique is
invariant to variations in intensity and rotation, and performs better compared to
results obtained using power spectral density (PSD) features for full print images
with rotation, intensity and mixed attacks at all the ranks. Performance of the
algorithm has been evaluated in terms of recognition rate and cumulative match
score for full prints and partial prints. The method was found to be robust to
Gaussian white noise and salt–pepper noise.
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Other articles in this area of automatic shoeprint recognition, published outside the
forensic science arena, were only available in abstract form. Among these worth
mentioning are studies by Gueham and his colleagues (58-60), regarding
automatic recognition of partial shoeprints using a correlation filter classifier and
Fourier-Mellin transform, and automatic classification of partial shoeprints using
advanced correlation filters for use in forensic science.
2.7 Miscellaneous
The issue of footwear size distribution, and even the size of a specific shoe, may
also be important. An article by Turner (61), in the SATRA Bulletin, explains the
different sizing scales and the nomenclature used by the footwear industry in this
aspect.
Identifying the make and model of footwear recovered from crime scenes is indeed
a standard police technique. Taking it a step forward, Tonkin and his colleague
(62, 63) demonstrated how this information could be used in the profiling of
offender characteristics. Their findings demonstrate the value of footwear evidence
as a prospective tool in the proactive search for offenders, which contrasts with the
current use of footwear evidence in police investigations. Currently, the value of
footwear evidence relies on the a priori identification of a suspect from whom to
take an impression for comparison purposes. This, of course, limits the value of
footwear evidence. However, the studied technique overcomes these limitations
by allowing footwear evidence to help the police in their search for an unknown
offender.
Various materials adhering to the surface of footwear, or found inside it, are a
potentially fruitful source of information for forensic reconstruction. Morgan and her
colleagues (64) present a case where a soil sample was found on the suspect’s
footwear, and compared with soil samples from the body burial site and from a
suspect vehicle. It is interesting to mention that these authors also studied the
persistence of soil residues on the shoes following machine wash, and found that
even though the footwear looked clean, such residues were recovered from their
inner part.
Riding and his colleagues (65) studied the changes in pollen assemblages on
footwear that had been worn at different sites. This study shows that when mixing
occurs from wearing footwear at different sites, the pollen/spore content of the
boots etc. dominantly reflects that of the last site.
3. Toolmarks
From a practical point of view, the field of toolmark examinations (namely the
examination of marks produces by surfaces other than firearms) is, in a way, the
“poor family-member” of firearm identification. Many of the professional groups, as
well as published articles, are dedicated mainly to firearm examinations, and
toolmarks are referred to matter-of-factly. Since firearm issues are covered by
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another review in this Symposium, this section of my Review will focus mainly on
those aspects more relevant to toolmarks per-se.
A general review of the procedures involved in firearm and toolmark identification
and the validity of the results was published by Bunch and his colleagues (66).
Following a description of the multi-level examinations performed by the examiner,
the scientific foundation of this field and the way conclusions are being drawn,
these authors concluded that the firearm-toolmark discipline is both highly valuable
and highly reliable in its traditional methods. However, additional research is very
beneficial and, depending on its purpose and design, would tend to better address
potential error, identify manufacturing methods that are suspect for comparison
purposes, and further develop machine systems and perhaps probabilistic models.
The Scientific Working Group for Firearms and Toolmarks (SWGGUN) has
recently published guidelines covering several aspects of firearm and toolmark
examinations, like criteria for identification, training and quality assurance (67),
which are relevant for toolmark examinations. These guidelines, like other
SWGGUN documents, are publically-available on the Internet. On the light of
recent challenges on the admissibility of various scientific evidence types in court,
SWGGUN maintains an admissibility resources kit (ARK), assisting firearm and
toolmark examiners prepare better for court appearances and face Frye, Daubert
and other similar challenges.
3.1 Casting and Reproduction Methods
Many cases of toolmark examinations involve the need for duplicating the
impression marks, found at the scene of crime, in order to facilitate their
examination at the laboratory. Several materials had been proposed for this
purpose, like silicone rubber and dental stone.
Today, various suppliers of metallographic, dental and crime scene investigation
products are offering silicone rubbers in easy-to-operate dispensers (dispensing
guns), so avoiding the need for mixing the base with the hardener manually.
Among these may be mentioned, for instance, the Forensic Sil (by Loci Forensic
Products, The Netherlands), the Isomark products (UK), the Struers RepliSet
(Denmark) and the AccuTrans (USA). These dispensing guns (AccuTrans) were
evaluated by Watkins and Brown (68) and by Naccarato and Perersen (69), who
found them to be both practical and accurate for most toolmark applications.
Yo and his colleagues (70) compared five commercially-available casting
materials, including four types of silicone rubber and dental stone, and evaluated
their performance. Class and unique characteristics of the surface in question (a
Canadian two-dollar coin – “Toonie”) and on the casts were examined visually.
Their results demonstrated clearly that all tested silicone rubbers outperformed the
dental stone for this purpose. Despite some minor differences found between the
silicone rubbers, no definite recommendation is given regarding any of these
products.
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Preparation of the appropriate toolmarks standards, using the suspect’s tool, is an
issue as well. Toolmark test exemplars are usually produced by applying a tool's
working surface to a piece of soft metal such as lead, since the lead will replicate
the microscopic grooves of the tool surface without altering them. An alternative
material for the preparation of such marks was presented by Petraco and coauthors
(71), who proposed using commercially-available jewelry modeling waxes
for this purpose. The replicas obtained are accurate, precise, highly detailed, and
1:1 negative copies of the exemplar tool’s working surface. They reveal in fine
detail the class characteristics, wear patterns, damage, and accidental markings
present on a tool’s surface.
Proficiency test samples are required to be identical, so each and every participant
is analyzing or testing a similar sample. In order to produce test samples for the
ENFSI Expert Working Group Firearms and Gunshot Residue (EWG FA-GSR), a
procedure for a “mass-production” casting method for complex 3D objects (like
bullets, cartridge cases etc.) was developed by Koch and Katterwe (72).
Preparation of the test samples includes two stages: making the moulds (“negative
casting”) of transparent silicone rubber (Elastosil by Wacker) followed by casting
the samples into these moulds (“positive casting”). A detailed graphic description
of the procedure is included in the article. Using this approach, it is possible to
undertake proficiency testing in the field of firearm and toolmarks simultaneously,
with identical samples for each participant.
3.2 Observation and Imaging Methods
The use of 3D imaging technologies for the potential application in forensic firearm
and toolmark identification was evaluated by Bolton-King and her co-authors (73).
A review of state-of-the-art profiling systems is provided, and particular attention is
paid to the application of 3D imaging and recording technology to firearm
identification. Each technology tested uses a different technique or scientific
principle to capture topographic data, such as focus-variation microscopy, confocal
microscopy, point laser profilometry and vertical scanning interferometry. In order
to establish the capabilities and limitations of each technology qualitatively,
standard reference samples were used and a set of specific operational criteria
was devised for successful application in this field. The reference standard
included the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 'Standard
Bullet' in order to ensure that the evaluation represented the practical examination
of ballistic samples. Based on this research, it was concluded that focus-variation
microscopy is potentially the most useful approach for forensic examinations, in
terms of functionality and 3D imaging performance.
Ahvenainen et al (74) employed scanning white-light interferometry (SWLI) for
comparing toolmarks produced by diagonal cutters on copper wires. There results
suggest that SWLI may be applied as a quantitative method for forensic toolmark
study through its high-resolution digital 3D profiles.
The high depth-of-field required sometimes for toolmark examination (especially
on rough and un-even surfaces), and the high magnification needed, led to several
attempts for using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for that purpose. Randich
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et al (75) discuss the advantages of using the SEM for examining deep-seated
marks, and review the various imaging capabilities of this instrument. In order to
show the usefulness of the proposed approach, SEM and conventional optical
microscopy were used to examine firing-pin impressions in 9mm cartridge cases,
and the power of the SEM was demonstrated.
Katterwe and his colleagues (76) also describe the use of a comparison-SEM for
forensic applications, and present the “next generation” of such instruments – the
comparison variable-pressure SEM (VP-SEM). The conventional comparison SEM
comprises of two SEMs linked together trough a mutual control system, so that the
two instruments are synchronized electronically into a single video screen. The
comparison VP-SEM overcomes one of the limitations of the conventional SEM,
which is the need for conducting samples, thus enabling the relatively simple (but
quite expensive, NL) examinations of non-conductive specimens (made of plastic,
wood etc.).
In his previously-mentioned report, Prokoski (17) also studied the application of an
infrared (IR) imaging system for examining and matching of toolmarks created by
screwdrivers. The resulting marks were imaged using an IR camera with 640x512
detector array and 3X optics and also a visible light 2592x1944 CCD camera. The
IR images produced more consistent striations than the visible light images. The
study goal was to demonstrate whether IR was superior to visible light imaging
with respect to accuracy of match for 20 toolmarks against the database of 200
marks. The method for matching striations was a comparison of “barcode”
representations of "cut-lines" through the toolmark perpendicular to the direction of
the mark. As a result, each of the 20 IR secondary marks was correctly matched to
the primary mark made by the same tool.
3.3 Marks Produces by Various Types of Tools
Since the evidential value of toolmark examinations rests on the “uniqueness” of
the mark producing surface, knowledge of the manufacturing processes of various
types of tools is an essential part in these examinations.
Lang and Klees (77), while discussing the broader issue of forensic drill bit
examinations, including use indicators, swarf (cuttings) composition, etc., deal also
with the toolmarks left by these items. Two types of marks may be encountered
when drilling: marks on the work piece (especially in partially-drilled holes), and
those found on the remaining swarf. The reproducibility of toolmarks on certain
types of swarf is presented, and the application of these examinations in
improvised explosive devices (IEDs) cases is demonstrated.
Marking stamps (punches) are used for producing imprints, usually on metal
surfaces. Comparing such marks with the suspect stamps may have important
value in cases like forgeries of vehicle chassis and engine numbers. Weimar and
his colleagues (78) describe in detail the manufacturing processes involved in the
production of these punched, and the implications of each method on the expected
toolmarks produced. These authors conclude that the punches produced by the
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three manufacturing processes examined show identifying characteristics
immediately after the production. In some cases it cannot be decided if such
characteristics are identifying or class characteristics, e.g. in the case of
impressions in the indentation edge if only one punch is available from a
production series. Punches produced by milling and cold forming exhibit fine and
complex structures (milling grooves, striation marks and wave-like structures
transferred from the die-head) which are not identifying characteristics because
they appear on several surfaces of punches produced in one consecutive series.
Drug packaging is often being submitted for examination in forensic science
laboratories. Most common examinations in such cases are fingerprints or even
physical match, but toolmarks or manufacturing process marks may also be
examined. Dutton (79) presented a case where morphine tablets packaging (foilbacked
plastic blister packs), found in the possession of two separate suspects,
were linked together by using both manufacturing marks and physical match.
Firearm examiners are also faced, from time to time, with marks originating from
surfaces other than firearms per-se. Haag (80) discuss an old-argued question of
linking cast bullets to the mould that made them. Earlier published works had
raised the issues of carry-over and subclass characteristics on bullets from
consecutively manufactured bullet moulds. Based on the findings of the current
study, the presence of unique damage or obvious individual characteristics can
allow an accurate association of cast bullets to their mould.
Other manufacturing marks on pieces of ammunition, this time – the headstamp
impressions on cartridge cases, were studied by Tidrick and co-authors (81). In
contrast to previous research, that has shown that bunter toolmarks, which are
transferred to each headstamp, are unique and persist for a considerable part of
the production run, this article suggest that bunter toolmark examinations are not
particularly useful for associating or disassociating cartridge cases. According to
the results obtained, at least two different bunter tools were represented in a box
of ammunition and, within a box, a bunter tool may be represented by as few as
one or two cartridges. Often, boxes from the same lot feature common bunter
toolmarks, but identical bunter toolmarks were found in boxes of ammunition from
different lot numbers. Also, identical bunter toolmarks were found in boxes of
ammunition bought in different locations.
Miller (82) reports a case in which it was confirmed that an axe blade was
responsible for producing the marks evident on a damaged door. The application
of the blade at the time the toolmarks were made was determined, and a jig was
specially designed to assist in reproducing the toolmarks as closely as possible to
the manner in which they were produced when the offense was committed.
Consideration is given to the types of toolmarks, tool action, and comparison
techniques employed.
Burda and her co-authors (83) examined cable ties of different make and sizes,
and found that these items may bear manufacturing-processes marks (mould
details, ejection pins details, etc.) that can be used for comparison between
suspect and known ties.
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3.4 Examination of Consecutively-Manufactured Tools
One of the ways of demonstrating the uniqueness of toolmarks is by studying the
marks produced by consecutively-manufactured tools or firearms. Buckleton and
his colleagues (84) suggested an experimental design for acquiring relevant data
for addressing this issue. The authors accept the fundamental soundness of this
approach, and do not suggest that previous work was unsound, but urge the
toolmarks examiners’ community to adopt several modifications in the
experimental procedure: “Blinding” the test, distribute the exhibits to the examiners
randomly, and publish all the results . The proposed experimental design is a lot
more time consuming than the usual experiment, however these authors feel that
many of the minor faults in current experiments would be eliminated by this
approach.
An example for an empirical study for the validation of toolmarks examination was
published by Giroux (85). Five consecutively-manufactured flat-bladed
screwdrivers were acquired from the manufacturer, and toolmarks were produced
on sheet-lead test material, in a uniform manner, using both sides of each tool.
The test samples were then randomly divided into test-sets (kits) and examined by
eight qualified toolmarks examiners (each received, randomly, one known mark
and 10 questioned ones). As published, there were no mis-identifications in this
study – 0% false positive error rate (0/51). However, there was one mis-elimination
– 3.4% false negative error rate (1/29). This mis-elimination calls for attention to
the topic of elimination criteria, especially when the questioned tool is not available
for examination.
Another study regarding the toolmarks produced by consecutively-manufactured
screwdriver tips was conducted by Chumbley, Faden and co-authors (86-88), as
part of a project on the development of a non-destructive optical profilometry
method for toolmark examination. The profiles obtained were compared and
statistically evaluated using an algorithm developed for comparing twodimensional
images of toolmarks. According to these authors, their results
demonstrate that screwdriver tips are unique in surface profile, not only from tip to
tip, but from side to side of each tip as well.
As part of research into the validation of this analysis, initiated by relevant US
court decisions (including, for instance, Ramirez vs. State of Florida, No. 66,992,
1989), Lancon (89) examined marks made in bone using ten consecutively
manufactured knives. The test cuts in the bone (pig ribs) and the reference cuts
were all recorded using silicone-based casting material (Microsil®), and compared
using a comparison microscope. Eventually, all of the blades could be matched to
their corresponding cuts. Representatives of the best known non-match (KNM)
comparisons were photomicrographed for further reference. According to the test
results, bone is a suitable material for accepting toolmarks, and consecutively
manufactured knife blades can be differentiated using conventional techniques
used by firearm and toolmark examiners.
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3.5 The Examination of Stabbing and Cutting Marks
Many of the studies, conducted in the Review period in the field of identification
and comparison of marks, deal with stabbing, cutting or sawing marks to the
human body. Saville et al (90) studied saw marks on bone using a VP-SEM
(Environmental SEM – ESEM, FEI, The Netherlands) and found three levels of
striations on the kerf walls and floors, each one attributed to a different area of the
cutting saw motion. Two of these striation levels (Types A and B), visible using
stereomicroscopy, are the result of the pushing and pulling of the saw, and they
can provide class characteristics of the saw (its width, the number of teeth per inch
- TPI, etc.). According to these authors, the third group of striae (Type C),
observed here for the first time, are produced by each individual tooth, and may be
used for individualising the specific saw that had left them. The “uniqueness” of
these Type C striations is discussed in the article, and the conclusion drawn by
these authors is that they are unique, based on the results of a limited blind test.
The observation of these Type C striations is only possible by using the ESEM,
due to this instrument high magnification and depth-of-field and its ability to deal
with non-conductive and wet samples.
VP-SEM for the analysis of saw marks in bone was employed also by Freas (91).
This author compared the images obtained using light microscopy with those
obtained using the VP-SEM, and studied the wear-related changes in the kerf wall
and their impact on the interpretation of saw marks in bone. Sequences of 30 cuts
in bone were produced using crosscut saw and hacksaw, revealing patterns of
progressive loss of fine details of kerf wall morphology with increasing saw blade
wear, because of the rounding of sharp points and edges. Nevertheless,
diagnostic kerf wall features used to establish class characteristics persist despite
these wear-related changes. Statistical analysis of wear-related changes, based
on striae width and density, was found to be unsuccessful, suggesting these
patterns are not readily quantifiable. According to this study, despite the scanning
electron microscope’s superior imaging capabilities, it provided only few practical
and methodological gains over the traditional light microscopy.
Marciniak (92) examined the degree of modification of saw-mark characteristics of
dismembered skeletal remains exposed to an outdoor fire of limited duration. The
study material consisted of 36 adult pig hind limbs which had been dismembered
in a fleshed condition. Six different handsaws and six power saws were used, with
three limbs dismembered by each saw type prior to exposure to fire. According to
the results obtained, exposure to fire influences the visibility and identifiability of
the saw-mark striations, but it is still possible to identify the class of saw used on
the basis of the characteristic marks present on the cremated bones.
Bailey and his colleagues (93) studied the kerf marks made by several types of
hand- and mechanical-saws, in order to assess the ability of microscopic
measurements of the kerf mark width to differentiate the tools that produced them.
Their results suggest that this phenomenon may be used as an effective measure
for eliminating some saw blades.
Using the SEM, Lynn and Fairgrieve (94) studied the trauma to mammalian long
bones by axes and hatchets. It was found that striations were present on the
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smooth impact sites of fleshed and defleshed bones, contradicting the findings
previously published results. The consistently smooth impact sites and rough
fracture surfaces may be useful features in the characterization and reconstruction
of axe and hatchet wounds.
Wong (95) searched for the most appropriate method of preserving and examining
tool marks on cartilage and bone. Guillotine paper cutter was used to cut the
cartilage specimens, while a fire axe was used to chop the bones. Ten different
combinations of preservatives and storage conditions were also compared. Casts
of the tool-marked surfaces, made before preservation, served as a baseline for
comparison. The casts made after preservation were subjected to microscopic
examination, compared to the pre-preservation casts, and scored to evaluate the
performance of the preservatives in their respective storage conditions. The
results obtained suggested that most aqueous solutions stored in a cold
environment were good at preserving the finer accidental tool mark characteristics.
It was concluded that the optimal method involved the immersion of the samples in
a 0.9% NaCl saline solution, frozen storage, air-drying after removal from storage,
and casting with rubber-base polysulfide dental impression material (COE-FLEX
®) for identification work.
The dynamics of knife punctures in cervical vertebra and in tire rubber was studied
by Locke (96). In the course of a murder investigation, a cervical vertebra of the
victim was examined. It was shown that toolmarks present on the cervical vertebra
of the victim had been made by one edge of the swedge of the suspect knife - a
finding that led to further research into the dynamics of a knife puncture. This
research showed that the characteristic “Y” tear observed in a tire puncture is
more than a tear, being two cuts made by the left and right edges of the back of a
wide-blade knife.
Bearing in mind the paucity of articles in the area of toolmarks on bone, Fred
Tulleners of the University of California Davis has reprinted a 1947 article by
Thomas and Gallent (97) regarding the identification of the weapon used in a
murder case. By comparing the toolmarks made by the axe (found in the
possession of the suspect) with the marks made by the weapon on the skull of the
victim it was determined that the axe had been used to commit the offence.
Interestingly, the 1947 includes even statistical evaluation of the results. Other
articles dealing with the characterization of trauma caused by various types of
tools were found to be outside the scope of this Review.
3.6 Evidential Value of Toolmark Examination
Toolmark (as well as firearms identification) examinations have gone through the
same scrutiny as other classic identification areas. The way forensic scientists are
taking the “leap of faith” (98), stating that a questioned mark was made by a
specific known tool (with the exclusion of all others), drew a lot of criticism, mainly
from non-forensic-scientists (99-101, and others). In her commentary on Nichols
(102) extensive article, Schwartz (103) argued again that the AFTE Theory of
Identification is not a valid one, since it is based on the limited experience of each
examiner, that proficiency tests are usually easier and less complicated than
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casework samples, and that the lack of statistical data (unlike DNA analysis)
undermines the evidential value of the examination. In addition, Schwartz claims
that there are no enough studies regarding the differentiation between subclass
and individual characteristics.
In other articles, addressed to defence attorneys, Schwartz (104, 105) suggests a
line of questioning for cross examination of firearm and toolmark experts in court.
These articles are useful reading material for any forensic scientist in the field of
toolmarks examination, in particular when preparing for a court testimony.
As mentioned earlier, differentiating between known matches (KM) and known
non-matches (KNM) is particularly important because of the legal challenges that
examiners may face in court. Neel and Wells (106) performed a study in order to
quantify the difference between KM and KNM, for better understanding of these
definitions. Various toolmark sources were used, including two- and threedimensional
toolmarks. More than 4,000 striated toolmark comparisons were
examined for their Total Matching Lines (TML), Percent Matching Lines (%ML),
and Consecutively Matching Striae (CMS). The results obtained show that 2D and
3D KM and KNM are statistically distinguishable from one another.
Bachrach et al (107) report the application of confocal microscopy and white-light
interferometry for the acquisition of 3D (topographical) data of a considerable
number of striated toolmarks created under controlled conditions on a variety of
media. Toolmarks were produced using screwdrivers and tongue-and-groove
pliers. The obtained toolmarks were then evaluated using algorithms, and the
distributions of the degree of similarity values obtained from the comparison of
known matching and nonmatching pairs of marks were analysed using established
statistical technique. Empirical error rates were calculated as a metric of tool mark
individuality, where a low empirical error rate is indicative of high specificity and
repeatability. While it is not possible to prove uniqueness statistically (98), the
results of this study provide support for the concept that toolmarks contain
measurable features that exhibit a high degree of individuality.
During the aforementioned study, Chumbley et al (88) compared the results
obtained by using computerized analysis with those of toolmarks and firearms
examiners. During the 2008 AFTE Training Seminar, volunteers were solicited into
participating in the examination of the same toolmarks earlier evaluated by the
algorithm. The AFTE volunteers were asked to compare those samples that were
found to be most difficult for the computerised algorithm, but still no false positive
results were reported by any of the AFTE volunteers. They did, however reported
some false negative results, mainly in a specific pair of samples, probably due to
the fact that the tools were not available for examination. These finding are in
agreement with other reported studies (85, for instance).
An interesting study regarding the calculation of the theoretical significance of
matched bullets, but having impact on toolmark analysis as well, was published by
Howitt and co-authors (108). These authors present the derivation of the formulae
for calculating the probability for the correspondence of the impression marks on a
subject bullet to a random distribution of a similar number of marks on a suspect
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ullet of the same type. This involves the subdivision of the impression marks into
a series of individual lines with width equals to the separation distance at which a
misalignment of striations between the bullets is indistinguishable. This distance
depends on the microscopic resolution limits and the visual acuity of the examiner.
Calculated probabilities for finding pairs and triplets of consecutively matching
striations on non-matching bullets, by an examiner with normal eyesight using a
microscope at 40X magnification, gives values that are in good agreement with the
empirical probabilities determined in the 1950s, and when determined for larger
consecutive sequences indicate that they are very unlikely to occur. These
formulae can be used to calculate the probabilities for the random occurrence of
any sequence of striations, providing a means by which the significance of a
specific match between any two bullets can be justified quantitatively.
The error rates of any given scientific evidence form today a substantial element in
the admissibility of this evidence in court. Murphy (109) addressed this issue in a
presentation available at the SWGGUN Admissibility Resource Kit (ARK), based
on the Collaborative Testing Services (CTS) firearm and toolmark examination
tests (1992-2005). Despite the views expressed by the tests’ provider, CTS, that
“CTS Summary Reports should not be used to determine forensic science
discipline error rates…” (110), Murphy analyses the data anonymously published
in the CTS final reports and presented the calculated false-positive and falsenegative
rates, as well as the sensitivity and the specificity of both firearm
identification and toolmarks examination. The calculated error rate for the
toolmarks proficiency tests are as follows: False positive (wrong identification) rate
– 1.7%, false negative (wrong exclusion) rate – 1.6%, sensitivity (the ability to
detect the right identification) – 90.6% and specificity (the ability to detect the right
exclusion) – 57.9%. Since one of the objections for using the CTS reports for error
rates evaluation is that not all of the participants of these tests are qualified
experts, Murphy presents also the error rates when the trainees removed, and find
them to be even lower.
3.7 Miscellaneous Issues
Swanepoel (111) presented an interesting and rarely-published case where unique
dual-impression encountered during the comparison of a stolen hydraulic pump
and the base plate from which the pump was allegedly stolen. There was an
agreement of class characteristics and sufficient agreement of individual
characteristics which were of such significance that it could be concluded that the
hydraulic pump and the base plate were at one time connected to each other.
The forensic analysis of knot evidence is an uncommon examination type.
Nevertheless, Chisnall published several articles in this field, dealing with the
strength and limitations of such analysis, with tying anomalies and their
significance in analysing knot evidence and with tying habits (112-114). This
author describes how properly preserved and analysed knot evidence can offer
corroborating information, indicate leads to other sources of evidence. A survey of
562 volunteers, conducted by Chisnall, revealed that only a minority ties
noteworthy anomalies that differ from the common trend. Finding these rare
anomalies in crime scenes might have significant evidential value. If similar
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anomalies can be found in suspect samples, the link between the suspect and the
case knots is stronger. In addition, the study shows that right-handed subjects
tended to tie S-twisting hitches more often than Z-twisting hitches (S- and Ztwisting
refer to the direction of one strand over the other) while left-handed ones
demonstrated S tying less frequently and even tied Z knots more often in some
situations.
Desiderio and Chin (115) stress the need for a more synergistic approach for
toolmark examinations, and are discussing the important role that trace evidence
(like physical match, paint or DNA) plays during the examination of toolmarkrelated
evidence. In order to illustrate the significance of the relationship between
trace evidence and toolmarks, being complementary to each other, various case
related studies are presented.
4. Physical Match
Physical match, namely linking two or more objects by the morphology of fractured
or torn surfaces, is usually viewed as one of the strongest ways for establishing
common origin. The evidential value of such physical matches, and their
admissibility in court, seem to be taken for granted, considering the limited number
of articles published during the Review period in this discipline.
Christensen and Sylvester (116) conducted a validation study for the reliability of
physically matching fragments of bone and other mineral-based biological
materials such as shells and teeth. Participants with varying education, training
and experience were asked to complete a matching exercise consisting of
intentionally fragmented specimens. Success rates were very high - the positive
association (correct match) rate was 0.925, while the non-association (overlooked
match) rate was 0.075, and negative associations (incorrect matches) occurred at
a rate of just 0.001. Results also indicate that participants with more education and
related experience tended to have higher positive association rates, although not
significant statistically. Experienced osteologists, however, completed the
matching exercise in significantly less time. Low error rates among both
experienced and inexperienced individuals support the reliability and validity of
performing physical matches of these materials, and suggest that performance
may also be related to an individual's aptitude for spatial tasks or other factors.
In a series of publications, De-Smet and his colleagues (117, 118) presented two
dimensions (2D) and three dimensions (3D) fracture matching of snap-off cutter
blades, using numerical algorithms and surface area based reliability evaluations.
Like other researchers, these authors used controlled breaking conditions, using a
materials testing machine, for producing the test samples. The use of a
commercial white-light profilometer system for obtaining 2D and 3D image surface
scans of multiple fractured objects is discussed, and the results showed that this
approach performs quite well, confirming all matches in the test-set and passing a
blind test. The conclusions of this project were that 3D profilometry can aid in
developing more objective methods for examining fracture matching surfaces, that
evaluation of automated methods parameters may be a required step towards
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proper probability based fracture match reasoning and reporting, but also that
automated methods should not be used or applied blindly.
In a yet-unpublished report, following Tsach et al (119), Yekutieli et al (120)
demonstrated a prototype system used for physical matching in 2D. The system
has two main functions: One is to assist forensic experts in performing physical
matching in an objective manner, and the second - collecting statistics and build
confidence levels regarding physical matches. The probability distribution
functions (PDFs) of matching error values, for correct matches and for nonmatches
were estimated. This analysis was applied for different fracture line
lengths and three different materials. Eventually, these authors were able to
calculate error rates much more reliably than previous estimates. With the results
of this research, an expert can express his findings in a more numerical way, and
the Daubert criteria for a potential or known error rate can be fulfilled. Surprisingly,
statistical results were much lower than initially expected, probably because these
authors used only the 2D fracture lines and not any additional information
commonly used in fracture match comparison, such as the 3D nature of some
fractures or any existing texture and graphic patterns on the surface or outer
border of the pieces to be compared.
As experience shows, the nature of the broken or the torn object can influence the
results of the match. When examining the torn edges of plastic tapes, differences
between the tape ends are sometimes observed, due to plastic deformation.
Weimar (121) studied this phenomenon, and developed a method of overcoming it
by heat treating the torn ends. According to this author, heat treatment of the
examined PVC tapes made it easier to find corresponding tear edges, and the
conclusiveness of the found match was increased. Because the vast amount of
available different tapes, it is recommended to test the influence of heat treatment
on tapes encountered in each case, while taking into consideration other types of
evidences that might be influence by such treatment (fingerprints, DNA etc.).
This type of evidence is extremely useful in the investigation of road accidents,
especially in Hit-and-Run ones. Christophe and Daniels (122) presented a case of
matching a wood chip found at the scene with a wooden pallet that had been on
the back of the suspect's pick-up truck. The authors used Adobe Photoshop CS2
software for superimposing the images of the two exhibits. Based on their
examination of the surface contours of both items, a positive identification of the
suspect’s vehicle with the accident scene was established.
Other application of physical match may be in question document examination.
Guscott (123) study a case of analysing several threat letters, one of which aimed
at the local police department. Forensic document examination of the initial threat
letter established a link between the multiple cases in the neighbourhood. This
particular case involved multiple aspects of forensic document examination,
including handwriting identification, indented writing, the discovery of an ink defect
in the printing process of a notepad and a crease in another notebook, and a
physical match that proved the connection between the different cases. The
results of the forensic document examinations proved vital in securing a
conviction.
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Another case of document examination involving physical match was presented by
Brown and Sin-David (124), dealing with the remains of the late Israeli astronaut,
Colonel Ilan Ramon, crew notebook, found in NASA’s Space Shuttle Columbia
crash site. One of the methods applied while studying these exhibits was
physically matching torn pieces of paper found in deferent locations. It should be
noted in this case that the remains had undergone traumatic conditions and tears
of the notebook pages did not show perfect physical matches as expected for
paper torn under laboratory conditions.
5. Restoration of Obliterated Marks
Visualization of obliterated serial numbers, in chassis and engine of vehicles, in
firearms frames and in other objects, may provide important forensic evidence
during criminal investigations, when stolen items have their serial numbers
obliterated in an attempt to conceal their identity or origin. Several articles have
been published during this Review period, regarding methods dealing with this
issue. In addition, updated information and procedures may now be found on the
Internet (4, for example).
The methods applied for such examinations may be divided usually into two
groups (125): Non-destructive methods (like magnetic particles, Eddy current or xray
radiography), and destructive methods (like chemical and electrochemical
etching or thermal annealing). The appropriate method, or combination of
methods, suitable for each surface, is dependent mainly on the surface
composition and manufacturing history, on the marking methods and on the
obliteration process. Many metallurgical tests may be required for each type of
exhibit, for determining the proper procedure to be used.
Weber and Weimar (126) proposed an approach for numerically simulating the
marking process, thus reducing the number of actual metallographic experiments
needed for developing a method for the marking restoration. The finite element
method (FEM) simulation results were compared with actual metallographic
experiments, with comparable results. These authors showed that the FEM
simulation of the marking process is possible, and that the results of such
simulations can be applied to metallographic examinations.
Collaborative Testing Services (CTS) has just recently distributed their first
proficiency test on the restoration of obliterated marks (Test No. 10-525). The final
report, available over the Internet, includes a list of methods used by the
participating laboratories (127). It is interesting to see that many laboratories used
the magnetic particles method, prior to, or instead of, using chemical etching.
5.1 Steel surfaces
One of the most active groups in research in this field is led by Prof. Kuppuswamy,
at the School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Following the work by
Zaili, Kuppuswamy and Harun (128), reviewed in our previous Review (1), Yin and
Kuppuswamy (129) studied several common reagents for the restoration of
75

obliterated marks on medium carbon steel. The 2009 study have revealed that
Fry’s reagent, comprising of cupric chloride (CuCl2), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and
water, provided the necessary contrast and was concluded to be the most
sensitive of the tested reagents. The same reagent was recommended by earlier
workers for revealing strain lines in steel surfaces. Earlier, another reagent
containing copper sulphate (CuSO4), water, concentrated ammonium hydroxide
(NH3OH) and concentrated HCl was proved to be more sensitive for restoring
erased marks on low carbon steel (128).
Great minds probably think alike, since similar results, regarding the effectiveness
of the Fry’s reagent, were also reported by Wightman and Matthew (130). These
authors have also developed an etching paste, for use on steel surfaces (131).
Their proposed paste is based on a mixture of alumina powder and the Fry’s
reagent. The paste proved to be as effective as liquid in most cases, and often
gave even better results. The paste is thixotropic, making it much easier to use,
particularly with irregular shapes or on site. Coverage is good as vibration allows
the paste to flow and give an even cover. Apart from cases where erasure has
occurred by metal burrs filling the indentation, the paste gave as good a recovery
as the liquid etch, and often it appeared to give better recovery. According to these
authors, the ease of using the paste gives it distinct advantages over the liquid
reagent. It seems, however, to this Reviewer (NL) that an apparent drawback of
such paste is that it is not translucent, so the restored marks are not visible during
the process, unlike when using the liquid reagent.
Kamila and Colleagues (132) demonstrated the application of visual and
microscopic, non-chemical, methods for the successful restoration of an
obliterated serial number on a .38 calibre revolver submitted for examination. The
conclusion rightly drowns by these authors is that visual and microscopic
examinations, in tandem with other methods or independently, should always be
applied in such cases.
5.2 Aluminium alloy surfaces
A recent work by Bong and Kuppuswamy (133) assessed the etching technique
for the restoration of obliterated engraved marks on high-strength aluminium alloy
(AA7010) surfaces. The aluminium surfaces were engraved mechanically with
identification marks before the marks were erased by removal of the metal to
different levels up to and below the depth of engraving. Five different
metallographic reagents were then tested on the obliterated surfaces by etching.
According to these authors, the most effective methods for the restoration of the
obliterated marks were: (1) immersion in 10% aqueous phosphoric acid, and (2)
alternate swabbing of 60% hydrochloric acid (HCl) and 40% sodium hydroxide
(NaOH). Both procedures could also show the marks obliterated by overengraving
and centre-punching. Notably, alternate swabbing of HCl and NaOH
proved to be the common reagent for restoration on pure aluminium surfaces as
well as on its alloys, providing support for the findings of previous studies. These
findings are relevant because of the increasing use of high-strength aluminium
alloys in car and firearm manufacturing.
76

In a previous work, Baharum et al (134) studied the characteristics of restoration of
obliterated engraved marks on aluminium surfaces by etching techniques, and
found also that the alternate swabbing of HCl and NaOH the most sensitive one
for these metal surfaces. This reagent was able to restore marks in the above
plates erased down to 0.04mm below the bottom of the engraving. The marks also
presented excellent contrast with the background. This reagent was further
experimented with similar aluminium surfaces, but of relatively greater thickness of
1.5mm. These authors noticed that the recovery depth increased slightly to
0.06mm, suggesting the dependence of recovery depth on the thickness of the
sheet metal. Further, the depth of restoration decreased in cases where the
original number was erased and over-engraved. These results are similar to those
of steel surfaces reported earlier.
Peeler et al (135) also used a combination of acid etchant (HCl, 60% v/v in water)
followed by an alkali one (NaOH, 40% w/V in water) for the restoration of
obliterated numbers on aluminium alloy motorcycle frames. These authors
recommendation is to repeat the acid-alkali cycle till the desired restoration is
achieved. This method was successfully applied in casework. The safety issues of
using strong corrosive acidic and alkali reagents are also discussed.
5.3 Laser engraved marks
A case of recovering obliterated laser engraved serial numbers in firearms frames,
made of aluminium alloy, was presented by da-Silva and dos-Santos (136).
According to this article, the traditional recovering methods of using acid etching
generally fail in such cases, since the marking the serial numbers by laser
engraving does not necessarily imply a deep permanent deformation of the
crystalline array. The method applied here was manual relief polishing, coupled
with reflected light stereomicroscopy and digital video photography. The manual
polishing is a critical stage of the method, since the strength and the velocity of the
process is closely related to the success of the method.
Klees (125), while trying to pursuit novel methods for this field of investigation,
studied the application of scanning electron microscopy, combined with energy
dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX, SEM/EDS) for restoring obliterated
laser-engraved serial numbers on firearms. His experiments included both
secondary electron (SEI) and backscattered electron (BEI) imaging, and x-ray
mapping. The results presented in this work were not promising, and SEM/EDS
was found to be ineffective for restoration of obliterated laser-engraved serial
numbers.
5.4 X-Ray Radiography
Jeon and et al (137) describe the examination of vehicle license plated, where the
original markings had been erased by hammering-off and new figures were
embossed. For revealing the original marking on the plates, these authors used
non-destructive x-ray radiography, followed by computerized image processing. It
proved to be an efficient way for visualizing the hidden original figures on
aluminium plates.
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6. References
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86

Examination of Glass
Review: 2007 to 2010
Jodi Blakely Webb, M.S.
Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory
Quantico, Virginia USA 22135
Jodi.webb@ic.fbi.gov
87

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
 INTRODUCTION
 89
2.
 OVERVIEW
 89
2.1
 United
States
National
Academy
of
Sciences
report,
“Strengthening

Forensic
Science
in
the
United
States:

A
Path
Forward.”
 90
2.2
 Conferences
and
Symposia
 92
3.
 MANUFACTURING
NEWS
AND
TRENDS
 97
4.
 GLASS
EXAMINATIONS
 98
5.
 TRANSFER
AND
PERSISTENCE
 102
6.
 STATISTICS
 103
7.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 105
8.
 REFERENCES
 105
88

1. Introduction
This review covers relevant publications in the field of forensic glass analysis
since the last report, presented at the 15 th Interpol Forensic Science Symposium
in October 2007. Included in this report are pertinent journal publications and
highlights from forensic meetings and symposia.
Additional developments in the glass manufacturing industry should also be of
interest to the forensic community. Glass manufacturing is a dynamic industry
encompassing the research, development, and production of flat, container,
optical, and specialty glasses. It employs a large body of researchers constantly
developing, strengthening, enhancing, and streamlining specific processes and
products. Significant changes and trends in research, development, and
manufacturing that directly affect the results of forensic glass analysis, especially
regarding product distribution, composition, and thermal history will be
highlighted in this report.
2. Overview
Noteworthy work in the field of forensic glass analysis in the last three years
includes continued work with elemental analysis, multivariate statistics, and
interpretation. In addition to the forensic literature, articles important to forensic
glass analysis have been published in the following journals: Analytical
Chemistry; Analytica Chimica Acta; Applied Spectroscopy Reviews; American
Ceramic Society Bulletin; Archaeometry; Chemometrics and Intelligent
Laboratory Systems; Emerging Ceramics and Glass Technology; Intelligence
Data Analysis; Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry; Science; Science and
Technology; and X-Ray Spectrometry. The American Mineralogist (1) stated that
in response to requests from the Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and
Ireland, The Mineral Society of America, The Mineral Association of Canada, and
Société Française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie, it would start publishing
a series of papers dealing with amorphous materials such as glass, to include
topics on properties, structure, and durability. A new manufacturing journal, the
International Journal of Applied Glass Science, published its inaugural issue in
March 2010 themed: “Modern Aspects of Non-Crystalline Solids.” This promises
to be an informative and valuable addition to the arsenal of glass manufacturing
information.
Additional resources are available on the World Wide Web. Several websites
offer information on product supply, manufacture and distribution that may aid the
glass analyst. Some of these are listed here:
The Glass Association of North America (GANA) is an association serving flat
glass manufacturers, fabricators, and glazing contractors
(www.glasswebsite.com).
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The Glass Manufacturing Industry Council (GMIC) is devoted to research on how
to strengthen glass (www.gmic.org).
The International Collaboration on Glass Mechanics promotes cooperation
among scientists and engineers active in areas of glass mechanics (www.glassfracture.org).
The National Glass Association (NGA) promotes education, workmanship, ethics,
and safety in the architectural, automotive, and window and door glass industries.
The NGA acts as a clearinghouse for industry information (www.glass.org).
Additionally, the website www.glassmagazine.com promotes itself as, “the official
magazine” of the National Glass Association, and provides subscribers glass
industry news, trends, glass industry statistics, and supplier resource guides.
The website www.glassonweb.com serves as a source of information on flat
glass.
Finally, the web service www.glassfiles.com is dedicated to collecting and
distributing educational information on the global architectural and automotive
glass industries.
2.1 United States National Academy of Sciences report, “Strengthening
Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward.”
In the last three years, much of the emphasis in the forensic community has been
on interpretation, standardization and reporting, at least partially a result of the
United States National Academy of Sciences (NAS) report, “Strengthening
Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward.” Although the report did
not contain specific criticisms of forensic glass analysis, it did include criticisms of
and recommendations for the trace evidence discipline in general (2).
Nevertheless, reaction to the report reaffirms the need to improve the quality of
all forensic science disciplines.
The NAS report has had a serious impact on the United States forensic science
community, specifically because of extensive and mostly negative media
coverage. The forensic community is responding. In May, 2009 Acting Director
of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives of the United States
Department of Justice Kenneth Melson addressed the US Congress. In general,
Mr. Melson argued that the forensic community welcomed the NAS report as a
positive contribution to the forensic community, but cautioned the public that the
report should not undermine the use of forensics in general or offer judgments on
cases currently in the judicial system (3). The Office of Science and Technology
of the President of the United States has developed a subcommittee on forensic
90

science. The goal of this committee is to establish clear, national goals and
standards for forensic science, working in the areas of Education and Ethics;
Standards, Practices, and Protocols; Research and Development; Accreditation
and Certification; and Outreach.
In addition to national efforts, individual organizations have also responded to the
NAS report. An article by Budowle et al. (4) entitled “A Perspective on Errors,
Bias and Interpretation in the Forensic Sciences and Direction for Continuing
Advancement” offers a response from the United States Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI). The authors attempt to clarify the issue of error, namely
measurement error versus human error, and bias. They also provide a list of
additional recommendations for advancing the forensic sciences, including
developing strategic plans and initiatives for discipline-specific research needs,
publishing research needs and validation criteria, developing national databases
on reference materials for better assessment of the weight of the evidence, and
defining proper language for conveying the meaning of an association.
Moreover, the NAS report seems to have had a far-reaching influence; forensic
scientists worldwide have begun responding to the criticisms outlined in the
report. For example, twenty-two European Union forensic scientists met in
August, 2009 in Wiesbaden, Germany to discuss the implications and potential
impact of the NAS report to Europeans. An introspective summary report was
generated in which the participants maintain that forensic science in Europe is
“seen to be well ahead” of the United States, but still could work towards
improvements in reporting and transparency (5).
Much of the criticism from the NAS report addressed the overall lack of reporting
standards. In January, 2009, the Scientific Working Group for Materials Analysis
(SWGMAT) published an Expert Reporting Guideline (6). This document
describes the minimum elements that should be included in a forensic report of
examination to satisfy the requirements of the American Society of Crime
Laboratory Directors Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB)-International
– Supplemental Requirements, ISO/IEC International Standard 17025, and
United States Federal Rules of Evidence. It also details exactly the type of
information the NAS would like to see in a forensic report of evidence. It should
be noted that this guideline was published prior to the release of even the draft
version of the NAS report (February, 2009), but was not mentioned therein, nor
was it mentioned in the final version of the report, released in September of 2009
(7).
In a presentation at the 2009 American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS)
meeting, Becker discussed the accreditation of the German Bundeskriminalamt
(BKA) to the ISO 17025 and 17020 standards (8). He advocated aspiring to
these or similar standards. Accreditation to these standards will help insure a
high level of quality and transparency in reporting. Many laboratories worldwide
are adopting these rigorous standards.
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The NAS report will undoubtedly have other more sweeping effects than those
that have already occurred. As forensic examiners discuss the findings of the
NAS, many are looking critically at the underlying science of what they do (9).
With respect to glass, Bottrell (10) provides a comprehensive report on the
background information forensic glass examiners draw upon when interpreting
their data. This lays the foundation for forensic glass examinations and its
discrimination potential, and can be used by scientists and legal professionals
alike. Data interpretation focuses on current practices of the FBI Laboratory and
is not meant to represent interpretation practices worldwide. Additional research
will be done in the areas of validation and data interpretation. While no results
have yet been released, the United States National Institute for Justice (NIJ) is
supporting an Elemental Analysis of Forensic Evidence Working Group (11) that
is looking into appropriate statistical schemes for interpreting trace evidence
results, including those for glass analyses. Their success could mitigate many of
the criticisms in the NAS report.
2.2 Conferences and Symposia
During the last three years, many forums were held that reported on the current
status of the glass industry and various technologies that impact forensic glass
analysis. Additionally, meetings in the areas of glass and ceramics research and
fractography offer information that should not be overlooked by glass analysts.
2.2.1 American Ceramic Society (ACS)
In 2007, the ACS published the proceedings of the Fifth Conference on the
Fractography of Glasses and Ceramics held in Rochester, New York (USA) in
2006 (12). Topics of interest to the forensic glass analyst include: the fracture
process; contact damage; fracture patterns of impact resistant glasses; and
analysis of projectile damage through bulletproof glasses. The sixth conference
is scheduled for 2011 in Jacksonville, Florida (13).
2.2.2 AAFS
In the last three years, the AAFS held their annual meetings in Washington, DC
in 2008; Denver, Colorado in 2009; and Seattle, Washington in 2010. Several
new or novel techniques seldom used in forensics were described for the
elemental analysis of glass. The NAS report, its fallout, and subsequent
recommendations were discussed extensively at the 2010 meeting.
Sampson et al. (14) presented a report about the potential use of ion beam
analysis for discriminating glass fragments. The authors argue the advantages
of ion beam analysis as being non-destructive, little sample preparation, and
92

higher sensitivity than x-ray fluorescence. Scarcity in forensic laboratories,
however, may hinder its general acceptance.
Van Es et al. (15) discussed a likelihood ratio approach using multivariate glass
data analyzed via laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
(LA-ICP-MS). Van Es also presented a comparison between the Bayesian
approach and a “fall-off-the-cliff” approach using confidence intervals. Both type
I and type II errors were demonstrably lower when calculating a likelihood ratio.
Martinez et al. (16) demonstrated the potential for yet another technique for the
elemental analysis of glass, using infrared microprobe analysis with diamond
attenuated total reflection. Use of this technique will require the development of
specialized spectral databases.
Almirall, Perez and Barnett (17) showed that Laser Induced Breakdown
Spectroscopy (LIBS) can readily discriminate vehicle versus container glass.
This continues their previous work demonstrating that LIBS has comparable
results to other, more established elemental analysis techniques for glass.
Gardner and Broach (18) also presented a study on the reliability and
discriminating capabilities of LIBS. And Cahoon and Almirall (19) continued to
advocate the reliability and cost-efficiency of LIBS.
2.2.3 Asian Forensic Sciences Network (AFSN)
A new group conceived in 2008, the AFSN, held its inaugural meeting in 2009.
This network will serve as the collective representation for the forensic science
community in Asia. Currently there is a Trace Evidence Working Group with
about 8 members (20). They have yet to produce any publications regarding
glass.
2.2.4 Australian and New Zealand Forensic Science Society Inc. (ANZFSS)
The ANZFSS held its 19 th International Symposium in Melbourne, Australia in
October, 2008. The symposium was titled “Domestic Crime to International
Terror.” This organization holds symposia every two years. The 20 th
International Symposium will be held in Sydney, Australia in September, 2010
(21).
Wong et al. (22) produced a study on the effects different types of projectiles
have on glass backscatter. Results showed that an increase in the velocity of a
projectile had an exponential increase in the total number of backscattered
fragments. While this seems intuitive, these results contradict previous studies
(23, 24). Additionally, the authors designed a statistical model for estimating the
number of expected fragments given the velocity, hardness and profile of a
projectile.
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It is empirically understood by most glass analysts that the distribution of
refractive index (RI) values of recovered glass fragments is commonly wider than
those of the control glass values. Newton (25) discussed possible explanations
for this phenomenon.
Smith et al. presented case studies touting the value of the analysis scheme of
RI and LA-ICP-MS for forensic glass comparisons (26).
2.2.5 European Ceramics Society and European Structural Integrity Society
The European Ceramics Society and European Structural Integrity Society
organized a conference in September, 2008 at the Institute of Materials
Research, Stara Lesna, Slovakia, entitled the 3 rd International Conference
“Fractography of Advanced Ceramics.” Similar to its American counterpart, this
conference focused on damage mechanisms and fracture processes. The next
such meeting is scheduled for 2012 (27).
2.2.6 European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI)
The European Academy of Forensic Sciences (EAFS) of the ENFSI meets every
three years and held their fifth meeting in Glasgow, Scotland in 2009. There,
Zadora (28, 29) presented his continuing work on forensic glass interpretation.
The European Paint and Glass (EPG) Working Group of the ENFSI meets
annually. Their three meetings were held in Lisbon, Portugal in 2007; Delft, The
Netherlands in 2008; and St. Gallen, Switzerland in 2009. The EPG offers yearly
proficiency tests and collaborative exercises in glass. Best practice guidelines
are drafted and available to members on their website. Annual meetings provide
an abundance of research presentations and interesting case studies.
Weis (30) presented several case studies touting the discriminating power of LA-
ICP-MS versus the Foster and Freeman, Ltd. Glass Refractive Index Measuring
(GRIM) system. In every case but one, LA-ICP-MS was able to distinguish
glasses that were indistinguishable by RI. In that one instance, RI was able to
distinguish between two glasses that were chemically indistinguishable. Thus,
Weis concluded that the combination of LA-ICP-MS and RI determination leads
to excellent discrimination and classification.
In an interesting case where glass fragments were too small to see and recover
using traditional microscopic methods, Sjåstad (31) used scanning electron
microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to detect and
analyze glass fragments found on stolen banknotes. Glass fragments less than
0.5mm were found on these banknotes and were consistent with broken glass
from the scene of a large, violent bank robbery.
A poster presented by Lauper (32) compared ramp rates for RI analysis using the
GRIM system and found that 4˚/min was the optimal rate. The authors also
94

caution about the environmental sensitivity, namely fluctuating precision with
temperature, humidity, etc., of the GRIM. The authors correctly indicate that if all
fragments from a given case are analyzed on the same day users may be able to
avoid problems associated with extensive instrument drift.
Krieghoff (33) discussed his experiences with the new LUCIA RI: Refractive
Index Measurement System as compared to the GRIM system.
Zadora (34) describes the application of Bayesian nets to continuous data. A
Bayesian net is a graphical model used to show whether two sets of data, RI of
glass in this case, could share a similar source.
In Delft and St. Gallen, Zadora (35, 36) demonstrated software (calcuLatoR)
used to calculate a likelihood ratio using univariate (RI) data. While this offers
the glass analyst a simple solution to the difficulty of calculating a likelihood ratio,
analysts should not use this program without a thorough understanding of the
variables used and underlying assumptions of the method.
Zadora and Neocleous (37) compared various methods of databasing univariate
data for within-object variability and their effects on likelihood ratio determinations.
Most forensic laboratories use in-house databases to test within- and betweenobject
variability. These are generally constructed using a relatively small
sample set, usually from case work, to represent a larger object or objects.
While databases of this kind may not necessarily represent the exact population
of broken glass for a given case, the authors concluded that databases
generated in this fashion are appropriate to use for likelihood ratio calculations.
Dätwyler, Fehr and Ivo (38) used total reflection x-ray fluorescence (TXRF) for
elemental analysis of glass. While this technique allows for detection limits in the
parts per billion (ppb) range for many elements, the precision is strongly
dependent on appropriate sample preparation. Samples prepared in
suspensions varied less than powdered glass samples placed directly on a
sample holder.
Additionally, the EPG commenced publishing an annual newsletter. In the 2009
edition, Becker (39) edited and published “The forensic analysis of float-glass
characterization of glasses from international sources.” Originally presented by
Wilfried Stoecklein at the 1997 Trace Evidence Symposium in San Antonio,
Texas (USA), the proceedings from that conference, while often discussed, were
never published. The work carried out by the BKA in forensic glass analysis in
the 1990’s is reported therein.
2.2.6 NIJ Symposia
In August 2007, the US NIJ and the FBI Laboratory sponsored a symposium
entitled “Making the Case with Trace Evidence” in Clearwater, Florida (USA), an
95

internationally attended event, with representatives from 17 countries and
approximately 350 attendees (40). The conference was important to the forensic
science community because the last symposium of its kind focusing on trace
evidence was in San Antonio, Texas (USA), in 1997. In the glass field, several
papers were presented emphasizing the value of elemental analysis (41);
specifically LA-ICP-MS (42, 43). Additionally, many workshops were given,
offering training and fostering discussion. In particular, the workshop entitled
Advanced Elemental Analysis of Trace Evidence Examinations, dealt with topics
in forensic glass analysis. This event was so successful and well-received that it
is slated to be held biannually.
The second Trace Evidence Symposium was held in 2009 (44). Where the 2007
symposium agenda was fairly generalized, the 2009 Trace Evidence Symposium
offered more workshops and specialized topics, supplying analysts with further
training opportunities. Workshops on glass included The Use of Multivariate
Statistics in Trace Evidence Investigations, Advanced Elemental Analysis,
Physical Match Theory, Standardized Test Methods and Insuring Quality in the
Trace Laboratory, and Report Writing. This offered yet another opportunity to
focus on responding to the NAS report, both refuting some of the findings and
challenging forensic scientists to improve.
2.2.7 SWGMAT
The SWGMAT met in conjunction with the 2007 Trace Evidence Symposium and
separately in Fredericksburg, Virginia (USA) in 2008 and 2010. The SWGMAT is
very much focused on producing best practice guidelines for trace evidence
analysts. Once again, interpretation, standardization and reporting were heavily
debated. Some case studies were presented.
A presentation by Eyring (45) showed the use of a microspectrophotometer for
the objective determination of the color of glass fragments. The size required for
optimal analysis is larger than most recovered glass samples. Therefore, use of
this technique is not likely to be widespread.
As mentioned previously, the SWGMAT published the “Expert Reporting
Guideline” governing how glass analysts should write reports (46). Additionally, it
was reported (47) that the Glass Sub-Group of the SWGMAT is drafting guidance
for interpretation of results, and meeting admissibility requirements in courts.
The 2010 SWGMAT meeting concentrated primarily on building and defining
significance scales for trace evidence interpretation, but no guidelines on the
subject have been issued to date. A new Interpretation Sub-Group was formed
that will strive for some consistency across disciplines.
A transfer and persistence study by Green and Sheedy (48) found that the
uppers of the shoes have the greatest potential for particle recovery as they
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etained the largest number of glass fragments. The authors advocate collecting
debris from the uppers separately from the bottoms of shoes. In every test, glass
fragments were recovered from people near the breaking glass who were not
involved with the breaking. Even though the same tool was used for each
experiment and the breaking strength was roughly consistent throughout, the
amount of recovered glass was different for each experiment.
3. Manufacturing News and Trends
Glass continues to be a large, dynamic enterprise which boasts ongoing
research and development for standard use glass (e.g. automotive, architectural,
container) and developing uses (e.g. solar energy, nuclear waste disposition).
Development continues in the areas of coatings, glass strength, and thermal
efficiency. Rising fuel costs are causing an increase in the cost of raw materials,
resulting in an increase (“single digit percentage”) in glass prices, including
vehicle glass (49). The high cost of fuel coupled with legislation limiting carbon
emissions may drive the glass industry to different batch compositions. For
example, the use of lithium-containing feldspars is being studied because they
have the potential to reduce the need for limestone while lowering melting
temperatures and energy costs (50).
Although North America remains a major producer of raw materials, glassmaking
in North America is decreasing. China has become the dominant producer of flat
glass (51). China is also the world’s largest producer of fiberglass, producing
37% of the total global output in 2008 and exporting 1.085 million tons. In the
same year, China produced 50 million square meters of Low-E glass, and
imported 47 million square meters more (52). This has implications in the
interpretation of glass; in particular, frequency of occurrence statistics. For
example, the frequency of a particular RI value will likely change and narrow to
reflect a larger percentage of glass being built in the same location from similar
raw materials. Conversely, in some countries with dire economic conditions it is
still more economical for glass manufacturers to use raw materials from local
deposits and produce glass for limited distribution. Local deposits, however, may
contain more impurities that can compromise the quality of the glass, but may
impart a more unique chemical signature and physical appearance (53, 54).
Nevertheless, the glass manufacturing industry is undergoing increasing
consolidation into several large companies, with smaller companies being bought
out. Belron, US, the parent company of Safelite has purchased Cindy Rowe and
Diamond Triumph (55). PPG closed several plants in North America and sold its
automotive glass and services business to Kohlberg & Company, LLC. PPG’s
remaining glass operations were re-branded “Pittsburgh Glass Works,” or PGW.
PGW will focus on specialty glass for the solar energy market. PGW is heavily
investing in upgrading and improving their remaining plants (56).
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Several new glass products were introduced in the last three years. In 2008,
Saint-Gobain, in partnership with the Saazs Institute, began producing Planilum,
a light emitting glass. Planilum consists of four layers of tin-doped indium oxide
conducting glass, containing an ionized plasma gas (57). In 2009, Vitro
Cristalglass began producing a “self-cleaning” glass called “Ecopure.” This glass
is coated with a hydrophobic coating that boosts visibility during rain, and
destroys organic contaminants on its surface. The make-up of this coating is
proprietary, and was not reported (58). Also, Owens Corning is increasing by
40% the production of “Advanex” - a composite material using bundles of
continuous filament glass fiber combined into a single strand (59).
The glass manufacturing industry continues to invest significant resources into
basic research. For example, Ponsich et al. model glass manufacturing with an
emphasis on the description of the furnaces (60). And Hedges et al. offer
numerical evidence for the existence of the hypothetical and controversial glass
phase transition (61).
4. Glass Examinations
4.1 Fractography
Failure analysis of brittle materials continues to be a widely studied field.
Although abundant research exists on fractography of glass, new literature
continues to be published. Forensic glass analysts should be familiar with
fracture mechanics when reconstructing broken glass objects.
The Handbook of Glass Fractography by R.C. Ropp (62) has well-written
information about glass making, history, composition, processes, strength, and
end use. The author has twenty years of experience as an expert witness,
mostly in civil litigation where the expert is not necessarily constrained by
accreditation guidelines. Nevertheless, Ropp imparts his knowledge and
perspectives to the reader through a number of interesting cases.
Overend, De Gactano and Haldimann (63) provide an overview of the mechanics
of glass fracture under loading stresses that is intended for use by the consulting
engineer who conducts forensic investigations of glass failure. Increasing use of
glass panels in non-traditional areas such as floors, roofs and staircases where
large loads are common make this important to civil as well as criminal litigation.
Natanail and Duse (64) published a short study on the damage, hardness, and
physical defects of float glass in the Annals of Danube Adria Association for
Automation and Manufacturing (DAAAM). The authors test the strength of float
glass by simulating defects that may be caused during- or post-manufacturing.
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4.2 Optical Measurements
There have been no significant technical advances in the instrumentation used
for refractive index determination. However, LUCIA Forensic has developed a
new system for automatically determining the refractive index of small glass
particles: the LUCIA RI: Refractive Index Measurement System. LUCIA Forensic
hopes to compete with the Foster and Freeman, Ltd. Glass Refractive Index
Measuring System (GRIM). The LUCIA RI: Refractive Index Measurement
System is comparable to GRIM and represents no breakthroughs in technology,
but is lower in cost and has the ability to measure more glass edges
simultaneously. Currently this system is only available in Europe.
Koons and Garvin (in press) compare the discrimination potential of eight
commonly used match criterion for RI comparison of flat glass fragments. RI
determinations were performed with a GRIM, applying the “bootstrapping”
method for sample selection and statistical evaluations (65). This work was
presented at the 2009 AAFS and EPG meetings (66, 67). Glass analysts will
have a better understanding of the error potential of their chosen criteria as this
study determines type I error rates for each different match criteria, using
different numbers of control measurements. Adequate characterization of control
glasses (10 measurements or more) gives low type I error rates. Once again,
these data show that RI is generally not normally distributed and the analyst is
cautioned in choosing a criterion with an assumption of normality. More work
addressing type I error rates for elemental data and type II error rates for RI and
elemental data is planned. Work of this kind directly addresses admissibility
issues and criticisms in the NAS report regarding the lack of known error rates in
many forensic disciplines.
Newton and Buckleton (68) show that glass fragment edge morphology affects
the results of RI measurements using the GRIM system. Edge count values
decrease with poor edge morphology. As edge count values decrease, the
variation in RI increases. Experienced users of the GRIM systems are familiar
with this occurrence and often instigate an arbitrary cutoff value of 10 as
recommended by Foster and Freeman, Ltd in the original GRIM manual (69).
Newton and Buckleton opine that poor edge morphology may be one explanation
for the wider distribution of RI values for recovered fragments (70). They
suggest a minimum edge count value of 30. Although this higher edge count
value may limit the number of recovered fragments acceptable for measurement,
the precision of the resulting RI data will likely increase.
Brown et al. attempt to classify mineral wool fibers and glass fibers from World
Trade Center dust, using classic methods of RI and SEM-EDS (71). The SEM-
EDS data of a single mineral wool fiber was fairly consistent, whereas the
variation in elemental composition among fibers within a single product was
widely variable. As with other work on mineral wool, some classification is
possible, but several manufacturers’ products overlap using these techniques.
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Another paper revisiting older topics is by Pawluk-Kołc, Zięba-Palus and
Parczewski (72) who examined the classification and discrimination potential of
annealing and change in RI.
4.3 Elemental Composition
Significant work continues on the elemental analysis of glass for comparison and
classification purposes. LA-ICP-MS continues to be the recommended method
of elemental analysis with many advocating the combination of RI and LA-ICP-
MS as the most discriminating analysis scheme to date (73, 74). The method of
LIBS is touted as a cheaper, non-destructive alternative with multi-element
capability as has been documented in numerous studies. Two newer and novel
techniques, time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) and
synchrotron radiation x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (SR-XRF), have shown
good discrimination capabilities, but with the high associated cost and limited
availability of these techniques it is doubtful that either will become the new
standard.
May and Watling (75) studied the RI and elemental variation (by LA-ICP-MS) of
glass containers from a single manufacturing plant, produced over time. The
discrimination capability of the analytical techniques and interpretation protocols
were established. They confirm (as previous studies have also) that the variation
of RI between and within bottles renders this examination technique of limited
discrimination potential when used by itself. Also, the statistical method chosen
for the evaluation of RI is dependent upon end use, i.e., whether RI values are
used as a screen prior to elemental analysis or as the sole analytical technique
used to discriminate fragments. While it is expected that many bottles will be
chemically indistinguishable, LA-ICP-MS data showed that the elemental
assemblage within a single bottle was uniform and specific enough to distinguish
between most glass bottles packaged within a single crate. Even though it is not
possible to discriminate between all bottles, this method provides significant
improvement over RI alone.
Van Elteren, Tennent and Šelih (76) study the potential of using LA-ICP-MS to
analyze ancient/historic glasses for archaeometric investigations. Unlike modern
glass, these samples are inherently inhomogeneous with widely ranging
compositions. For this reason, the normal method of using matrix-matched
external standards is not appropriate. To overcome some of these issues, the
authors use a raster method for sample introduction as opposed to crater
sampling, and a mathematically formulated “sum normalization calibration
technique”. This technique shows promise for its application to the analysis of
unknown or inhomogeneous glass types in forensics, but further study would be
required.
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Additional scientists working in the field of Archaeology and Art History use SEM-
EDS and LA-ICP-MS to help determine the origin and differentiation of ancient
glass. Dussubieux et al. (77) and van der Linden et al. (78) validate the
usefulness of quantitative trace element analysis in the study of glass. Work of
this kind is analogous to forensic science in that it is also reconstructing past
events and speaks to the general acceptability of the techniques.
Scientists working in the earth sciences also contribute to the validation of LA-
ICP-MS. Similar to the work of forensic scientists, Gagnon et al. (79) discuss the
use of an internal standard for quantitative analysis of unknown silicate materials.
Naes et al. (80) compare the well-tested methods of LA-ICP-MS and micro X-ray
fluorescence spectroscopy (µXRF) to the newer LIBS method for the analysis of
automotive glass. LA-ICP-MS is still superior in accuracy, precision, sensitivity,
and discriminating potential. Regardless, with the high cost and relative
complexity of operation of LA-ICP-MS, LIBS may be a viable alternative. The
authors developed an optimal analytical scheme designed to eliminate Type I
errors and reduce Type II errors.
Bridge et al. (81) conducted another assessment of LIBS versus LA-ICP-MS
using different glass types to compare their discrimination potentials. The
samples were also examined by RI. Glass samples compared included
automotive side and rear windows, headlamps, and mirrors; and brown glass
bottles. As determined from other studies (82), the combination of LA-ICP-MS
and RI gives the best discrimination (98.8%) over the scheme of LIBS plus RI
(87.2%). The side-mirrors were particularly problematic when analyzed by LIBS.
Roderiguez-Celis et al. (83) explore the potential of LIBS for identifying glass
fragments according to their spectral “fingerprints,” study long-term reproducibility,
and report optimal sampling conditions. LIBS has advantages of little sample
prep, good throughput, and simultaneous, multielement analysis. While LIBS
has low absolute detection limits, LIBS is hampered by poor precision, poor
relative detection limits, and matrix and spectral interferences. Rather than
obtaining detailed chemical composition data, the authors seek to establish that
each glass source has a unique spectral “fingerprint” that may be obtained using
statistical correlation models. An unknown glass is identified by correlating its
spectra to a database. The spectra are then compared against each other to
determine if they could have originated from the same source. The authors seek
to demonstrate that LIBS may be a viable and more cost effective alternative to
LA-ICP-MS.
Barnett, Cahoon and Almirall (84) continue the work by Florida International
University on LIBS and work toward establishing best possible instrumental
conditions and validation. They characterize the influence of the irradiation
wavelength and determine the best lens-to-sample distance for each wavelength
used in order to optimize precision.
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Columbaros et al. (85) use TOF-SIMS to evaluate the elemental variation across
and through a sheet of glass, particularly the non-float surface. TOF-SIMS offers
the potential for analyzing glass fragments as small as tens of microns across.
As with RI, there is measurable variation with TOF-SIMS analysis between the
surface and bulk. This supports the practice of avoiding surface fragments when
conducting RI analyses. Results show that evaluating the non-float surface is not
straightforward, and certainly not representative of the bulk. The authors
recommend that when techniques such as SIMS are used, which operate to
depths measured in nanometers, extra caution should be used to avoid type I
errors and suggest eroding the surface to expose the bulk.
Nakanishi et al. (86) explore the use of synchrotron radiation high-energy X-ray
fluorescence (SR-XRF) spectrometry for the nondestructive discrimination of
glass. SR-XRF offers the advantage of extremely low detection limits for some
elements, but those values had not yet been quantified. This study was
undertaken to discover the lower limits of detection for elements found to be
discriminating for glass. Detection at the pictogram (pg) level was possible for
Ba, Ce and Sm, and at the 10-pg level for Sr, Zr, Sn and Hf. The elements Ca,
Mn, Fe and Sn were not used as they had unacceptably high relative standard
deviations (greater than 10%). In general, however, satisfactory discrimination
was achieved and the technique was determined to be effective for a
nondestructive analysis of trace amounts of heavy elements contained in a
minute sample. Currently, this instrumentation is not readily available to forensic
laboratories.
A feasibility study by Bell, Nawrocki and Morris (87) uses cathodoluminescence
(CL) spectroscopy to discriminate between different glass sources. Using this
method in conjunction with RI analysis, all window and container glasses of the
sample set were differentiated as were six out of ten headlamps. Inter- and intrasample
variation of several NIST reference glass standards was determined.
The reference glasses were readily distinguishable by this method, but some
intra-sample variation was observed. Although non-destructive, fairly
inexpensive and easy to operate, CL is hampered by lack of standards and
databases, and relatively low spectral resolution. Also, the relatively limited
forensic applications of CL make it unlikely that CL will become standard in
forensic laboratories. This work was also presented by Barron and Bell (88) at
the 2008 AAFS meeting in Washington, D.C.
5. Transfer and Persistence
There were relatively few published studies on the transfer and persistence of
glass during the reporting period. Those that were published were targeted to a
particular environment in hopes of establishing relative populations for likelihood
ratio calculations. In general, these studies reaffirmed other recent studies
indicating that most of the clothing in the general population is free from glass
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fragments unless having been in recent contact with broken glass. Analysts
calculating a likelihood ratio should use the most appropriate data from a relevant
population, for their particular case. These newer studies should supplant older
studies, such as the Pearson, May and Dabbs (89) study, which is often used for
calculating a likelihood ratio, but out of date.
Brożek-Mucha (90) examined the persistence of glass on clothing from 35
different experiments, using various types of multiple-glazed windows. The
number of fragments recovered from the clothing of the breaker and
accompanying people depended on the distance from the window, time between
event and recovery, the retentive properties of the clothing, and the kind of glass
broken. Background levels were also studied. Whilst targeted specifically for
likelihood ratio calculations in Poland, this study confirms the findings of other
recent transfer and persistence studies: most clothing in the general population is
free of glass.
Nic Daeid, McColl and Ballany (91) determined background levels of glass on
fleece jackets commonly worn in Scotland. The sample set was selected from
individuals who work in law enforcement, either in a forensic laboratory or
regularly processing crime scenes. Contrary to the aforementioned Brożek-
Mucha study, about 14% of the jackets in this sample set had glass on them. RI
values from the recovered fragments indicated that the glass was from multiple
sources. Information about the proximity of the individuals to recently broken
glass and laundering information about the garments was also reported. These
data may account for the relatively high percentage of recovered glass.
6. Statistics
Statistical evaluations of glass data were numerous in the reporting period, with
the Bayesian method being the most published approach for determining the
weight of the evidence. Zadora in particular was prolific in his publications and
presentations advocating the use of Bayesian statistics for forensic glass
analysis. The previously mentioned Koons and Garvin (92) publication takes a
frequentist approach.
Zadora (93) assessed the efficiency of three methods – the likelihood ratio,
support vector machines, and naïve Bayes classifiers – for the classification of
glass objects using RI values and SEM-EDS data. RI values for both pre- and
post-laboratory annealing were shown to have better discriminating capability
than pre-annealed RI values alone. Although the likelihood ratio model was not
the best performer, Zadora still advocated its use as being easier to interpret and
having fewer associated assumptions. The classification of automotive versus
architectural glasses is particularly problematic as the analytical scheme used
does not discriminate enough for accurate categorization.
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Continuing the work of Curran et al. (94), Campbell and Curran (95) introduce a
“permutation testing approach” to the interpretation of elemental analysis data
from glass evidence. In previous work, the authors suggested using Hotelling’s
T 2 to evaluate multivariate data that may be used in a Bayesian calculation.
Criticisms of this approach are addressed; namely, the assumption of normality,
and the relatively large sample size not necessarily available to the forensic
scientist. The authors had some success removing these constraints using a
shrinkage estimator. The reader is directed to regard this as a “pre-screening”
tool and not for interpretation for the courts.
Zadora and Neocleous (96) and Zadora (97) employ a Bayesian approach for
classification of glass fragments into use-type categories using RI and SEM-EDS
data. Support vector machines, naïve Bayes classifiers, and Bayesian networks
were again assessed as well as the performance of the likelihood ratio models
when considering between- and within-object variability. A model that takes both
into consideration performs better than a model using between-object variability
only. The accuracy of the classification is highly dependent upon glass type, but
in general, the combination of SEM-EDS and change in RI values with annealing
increased anywhere from 3% to greater than 10% over SEM-EDS and preannealing
RI data alone. Caution should be taken when using this type of data
alone for classification purposes as the values for several glass types (e.g.
architectural and automotive) tend to overlap. Classification based on preannealed
RI values alone should not be attempted. Likelihood ratios from these
data are usually close to one, giving very limited support to either the
prosecution’s or defense’s hypothesis.
Jensen and Shen (98) explore the use of statistical feature selection as an aid to
Bayesian analysis of glass. In fact, they aim to remove the need for expert
knowledge in feature selection and advocate univariate data analysis for
likelihood ratio calculations. While the use of automated feature techniques may
be of use in evidence evaluation, it is unadvisable to rely on statistical modeling
of a likelihood ratio without sufficient knowledge of the underlying analytical data.
Zadora and Ramos (99) study the influence of adequate population databases
for likelihood ratio calculations. Databases assessed are based on RI and SEM-
EDS data. This study was also presented at the 2009 EFS meeting in Glasgow,
Scotland (100) and the 15 th Annual meeting of the EPG in St. Gallen, Switzerland
(101).
This concludes the Glass Report for 2010. Future papers and presentations will
be summarized in the next report.
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7. Acknowledgements
The assistance of Maureen Bottrell and David Korejwo in reviewing the literature
and editing this manuscript is gratefully acknowledged.
Names of commercial manufacturers are provided for identification purposes only,
and inclusion does not imply endorsement of the manufacturer, or its products or
services by the FBI. The views expressed are those of the author's and do not
necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the FBI or the U.S. Government.
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77. Dussubieux L, Kusimba CM, Gogte V, Kusimba SB, Gratuze B, Oka R. The
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79. Gagnon JE, Fryer BJ, Samson IM, Williams-Jones AE. Quantitative
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112

Examination of Paint
Review: 2007 to 2010
Maureen J. Bradley, Ph.D. 1,2
Andria Hobbs Mehltretter, MS 1
Diana M. Wright, Ph.D. 1
1 Federal Bureau of Investigation
Laboratory Division
2501 Investigation Parkway
Quantico, VA 22135
2 Author responsible for correspondence.
113

1.
 INTRODUCTION
 117
2.
 AUTOMOTIVE
COATINGS
 117
2.1
 Automotive
Industry
 119
2.1.1
 Alfa
Romeo
 120
2.1.2
 Audi
 120
2.1.3
 BMW
 120
2.1.4
 Brilliance
China
 121
2.1.5
 BYD
 121
2.1.6
 Chrysler
 121
2.1.7
 Daimler
 122
2.1.8
 Fiat
 122
2.1.9
 Ford
 122
2.1.10
 General
Motors
(GM)
 122
2.1.11
 Hyundai
 124
2.1.12
 Honda
 124
2.1.13
 Isuzu
 124
2.1.14
 Kia
 125
2.1.15
 Mazda
 125
2.1.16
 Mercedes
Benz
 125
2.1.17
 Mini
 125
2.1.18
 Mitsubishi
 125
2.1.19
 Nissan
 126
2.1.20
 Porsche
 126
2.1.21
 Opel
 126
2.1.22





Saab
 126
2.1.23
 Scion
 126
2.1.24
 Subaru
 126
2.1.25
 Suzuki
 126
2.1.26





Tata
 127
2.1.27
 Think
 127
2.1.28
 Toyota
 127
2.1.29
 Volkswagen
 128
2.1.30
 Volvo
 128
2.2
 Automotive
Colour
Popularity
 128
2.3
 Decorative
Film
Laminates
 128
3.
 PIGMENTS
 128
4.
 ADDITIVES
 130
5.
 ARCHITECTURAL
PAINTS
 130
6.
 MARINE
AND
PROTECTIVE
COATINGS
 131
7.
 THE
NATIONAL
ACADEMIES’
REPORT
ON
FORENSIC
SCIENCE
(NAS
REPORT)
 132
114

8.
 FORENSIC
PAINT
STUDIES
AND
SIGNIFICANCE
ASSESSMENTS
 133
9.
 STUDIES
REGARDING
AUTOMOTIVE
FINISHES
AND
REFINISHES
 135
10.
 SPECTROSCOPIC
METHODS
 136
11.
 ELEMENTAL
ANALYSIS
 137
12.
 MASS
SPECTROMETRY
TECHNIQUES
 139
13.
 ART
AND
CONSERVATION
APPLICATIONS
 139
14.
 FOURIER
TRANSFORM
INFRARED
SPECTROSCOPY
(FTIR)
 140
15.
 RAMAN
SPECTROSCOPY
 141
16.
 FLUORESCENCE
SPECTROSCOPY
 143
17.
 TERAHERTZ
SPECTROSCOPY
 144
18.
 X‐RAY
BASED
TECHNIQUES
 144
19.
 NUCLEAR
MAGNETIC
RESONANCE
(NMR)
 146
20.
 LASER
INDUCED
BREAKDOWN
SPECTROSCOPY
(LIBS)
 146
21.
 LASER
ABLATION
INDUCTIVELY
COUPLED
PLASMA
–
MASS
SPECTROMETRY
(LA‐
ICP‐MS)
 147
22.
 GAS
CHROMATOGRAPHY
 147
23.
 CAPILLARY
ELECTROPHORESIS
(CE)
 149
24.
 LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY
(LC)
 149
25.
 MATRIX‐ASSISTED
LASER
DESORPTION
IONIZATION
‐
TIME
OF
FLIGHT
MASS
SPECTROMETRY
(MALDI‐TOF)
 149
26.
 INFUSION
MASS
SPECTROMETRY
 150
115

27.
 IMAGING
(TOMOGRAPHY)
 150
28.
 DETERMINATION
OF
MATERIALS
AND
ARTISTIC
TECHNIQUES
 150
29.
 CONSERVATION,
DEGRADATION
AND
FORGERY
DETECTION
 150
30.
 REFERENCES
 151
116

1. Introduction
This is a review of the paints and coatings literature that has been published
between September, 2007 and July, 2010 and it is divided into three sections.
The first section addresses innovations and changes in the paint and coatings
industry. By having knowledge of, and staying apprised of the changes in
coatings formulations and the coatings industry, the forensic paint examiner will
be better equipped to assess the significance of an association in comparative
examinations. Further, with regard to the automotive industry, this knowledge
can aid in determining the potential manufacturer, model, and model year(s) of
evidentiary paint samples.
2. Automotive Coatings
Published in 2008, Automotive Paints and Coatings, edited by Steitberger and
Dössel, is an excellent reference.[1] This is a revised and expanded version of
Fettis’ edition of the same name that was published in 1996. Contributing
authors provide their expertise related to all aspects of a typical automotive
original equipment manufacturer (OEM) paint system. Historical and up-to-date
information regarding substrate pretreatment, electrocoats, primer surfacers,
basecoats, and clearcoats are covered in depth. In addition, topics such as inline
repair and coatings for plastic parts to include paint, molded in color, and foil
technology are covered.
A number of innovations have been developed for application in automotive
coatings. Some of the technology has already been implemented by the
automotive industry within this review period
As reported in the 2007 paint literature review, Volkswagen plants in Spain and
Mexico are utilizing DuPont EcoConcept technology. EcoConcept is a patented
finishing system that eliminates one complete coating layer, the primer surfacer,
and combines it into a single environmentally-compliant water-based basecoat.
As a result, both a spray booth and a curing oven are eliminated from the
automobile production line. In 2008, German paint manufacturer Bollig &
Kemper signed a licensing agreement for DuPont’sEcoConcept. Under this
agreement, the Cologne-based paint maker will manufacture and sell waterbased
basecoats for use in the EcoConcept process in automotive manufacturing
plants in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.[2] A contact with DuPont stated
that French automaker PSA Peugeot Citroen has been using EcoConcept since
mid-2009 at their Poissy, France plant. Future use will be at the VW
Chattanooga, TN plant beginning in early 2011 and several other VW plants in
China, Brazil, and Europe possibly later that year.[3]
Ford paint shops in India, Romania, Mexico, and China are in the process of
converting their lines to Ford’s exclusive 3-Wet paint technology. This
technology allows three layers of paint to be applied to the vehicle without the
117

necessity of drying steps in between. The paint shops are more efficient,
smaller, and use less energy. Further, the paints are high-solids; therefore,
compared to previous formulations, less paint is needed to cover the vehicle.
The technology was launched in 2008 at Ford’s Avon Lake, OH assembly plant
which makes the Econoline van.[4;5] Contacts at Ford Motor Company confirm
that the Cuautitlan, Mexico plant, which makes the Fiesta, began to use the
process in April, 2010. Further, Ford expects to use the 3-Wet process at its
Wayne, MI assembly plant for the new Ford Focus in December, 2010 and at the
Louisville, KY assembly plant when a new product is launched in October,
2011.[6]
PPG Industries won a 2010 Automotive News PACE award for their Super High
Power Electrocoat. This innovation offers a more uniform coating than traditional
electrocoats, thereby reducing usage by up to one quarter. It was reported that
PPG and Toyota have launched this “super-high-throw electrocoat” at 11 plants
in North America and Europe.[7] Contacts within PPG stated that it was actually
10, not 11, plants that began conversion to this process in 2008. The plants are
in Baja, Mexico, the UK, two plants in Georgetown, KY, two plants in Cambridge,
Ontario, Canada, two plants in Princeton, IN, and the passenger and truck
NUMMI plants in Fremont, CA which have since closed. According to PPG, there
is nothing that chemically distinguishes this coating from traditional ecoats.
Rather, the innovation is attributable to the film thickness distribution of the
product when comparing the inside versus the outside surface of the vehicle.[8]
During this review period, both Henkel and PPG developed alternatives to
traditional zinc-phosphate pretreatments that reduce energy consumption and
waste. PPG earned one of R&D’s 100 Awards from R&D Magazine for their
Zircobond ® pretreatment. The material utilizes zirconium and a proprietary blend
of additives in place of zinc phosphate.[9] It has the same anti-corrosion and
paint adhesion properties as zinc phosphate but reduces the sludge byproduct by
at least 80 percent. Further, it does not generate environmentally-regulated
heavy metals such as zinc, nickel, and manganese.[10] It can also be used in
existing pretreatment lines. CAMI, a joint venture of Suzuki Motor Corporation
and General Motors, began using Zircobond ® at their Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada
plant in January, 2008.
Henkel’s Bonderite ® TecTalis coating is also a non-phosphate conversion
coating. It differs from the traditional zinc phosphate process in that it has fewer
process steps and the baths do not need to be heated. After several trials at its
Twin Cities manufacturing plant in St. Paul, MN, Ford started using the Henkel
product on the Ford Ranger.[11-13] Kögel Fahrzeugwerke, one of the major
manufacturers of semi-trailers in Europe, also began using TecTalis in early
2008.[14]
Henkel has developed a water-based automotive deposition coating that set new
industry precedent by displacing both conventional metal pretreatment and the
118

electrocoat process for an entire automotive vehicle body. Their Aquence 930
coating is an epoxy-acrylic urethane coating that performs similar to cathodic ecoat
and zinc phosphate pretreatment in automotive manufacturer cyclic
corrosion tests. Further, Henkel was awarded a 2010 Automotive News PACE
award for its new Aquence Co-Cure coating process. The process layers the
Aquence autodeposition coating with a powder or liquid top coat and “co-cures”
them together in a single bake cycle. The first dedicated commercial Co-Cure
line was installed at Valley Towing Products in Lodi, CA which specializes in the
manufacture of trailer hitches.[15]
DSM Powder Coating Resins (Zolle, The Netherlands) has developed a
corrosion-protective primer for steel that does not require a phosphate
pretreatment. In addition to reducing production space and the necessity of
handling and disposing of hazardous phosphate chemicals, Uralac ® Corres is
comprised of 100% solids and therefore, solvent-free.[16]
Santos et al. report on two alternatives to the conventional electrodeposition
primer. One, Grancoat ZE, is an organic, zinc-rich silicate applied at a thickness
of 4 µm. The other, Granocoat X, is a very thin (near 2µm) water-based primer
filled with graphite. The authors found that these two products were suitable
alternatives to current electrodeposition primers. Of interest, they also used the
Bonderite ® pretreatment discussed previously.[17]
Schaeffer and coauthors have developed an alternative to solvent-based 2K
polyurethane systems. Solvent-based 2K polyurethanes are the most common
urethane coating utilized in automotive applications. The formulations they
studied utilize aliphatic rather than aromatic diisocyanates. The latter are
susceptible to photo degradation. Further, the coatings are UV-cured and
contain no hindered amine light stabilizers (HALs). The new formulations were
tested according to strict automotive coating standards and they outperformed
traditional 2K systems.[18]
2.1 Automotive Industry
The automotive industry is in constant flux. Each year, vehicle manufacturers
phase out different makes and models and introduce new ones. They
consolidate production to certain assembly plants, cease production at others to
either retool the facility to accommodate the manufacture of different models, or
close the assembly plant altogether. Since the last review period, even more
significant changes have occurred within the automotive industry. Many were
prompted by the economic downturn that began in 2008, which particularly
affected the automotive industry. What follows is a summary of assembly plant
changes, assembly plant closures, new models, new manufacturers, dissolution
and formulation of new partnerships, and discontinued models that occurred
during this review period. The information is listed by vehicle manufacturer.
119

The majority of the information was obtained from Automotive News, which is a
weekly publication. As such, some of the projections (e.g. model year available)
may not be accurate or may not have come to fruition. Where possible, most of
the information reported herein was confirmed via internet searches or through
industry contacts.
One trend that has remained steady regardless of the global economy is that car
production in China is growing four times faster than the rest of the world. In a
study published in 2008, it states that Chinese vehicle production more than
doubled over the period from 2001-2005.[19] It was also reported that all major
multinational producers of automotive coatings are active in China, supplying
leading international automotive manufacturers, which have been setting up and
acquiring plants in that country.[20]
2.1.1 Alfa Romeo
Alfa Romeo reported its new Giulietta hatchback will go on sale in Europe in
spring, 2010. It replaces the 147, which launched in 2000.[21]
2.1.2 Audi
In February, 2009, Karmann stopped building the Audi A4 Cabriolet convertible,
which had been assembled at their plant in Rheine, Germany. Karmann later
filed for bankruptcy in April 2009.[22] In 2010, Audi began production of a fuelefficient
premium small car, the A1. It will be available as a 2011 model in
Europe and will be assembled at Audi’s Brussels factory.[21]
2.1.3 BMW
The last Z4 coupes and roadsters were built at BMW’s Spartanburg, SC plant in
late August, 2008. The second-generation Z4, beginning model year 2009, are
built at BMW’s Regensburg, Germany plant.[23] In December, 2008, BMW
reported that the $750 million expansion of their Spartanburg, SC factory is
proceeding on time and on budget. Production of the X3 crossover, currently
built at contract assembler Magna Steyr’s factory in Graz, Austria will move to
Spartanburg upon completion of the expansion. It is expected to begin
production in early 2011.[23] The Dürr Group, based in Stuttgart, Germany, is
responsible for the remodel and expansion of the paint shop at the factory. The
production capacity is expected to increase from 160,000 to 240,000 units by
2012. The paint shop, built by Dürr in 1996 will be expanded by 28,000 square
meters or 80%. It will include dip-coating and drying, where RoDip (a rotation
dipping process) will be used. Most recently Dürr expanded and modernized the
paint shop at the BMW site in Oxford, England where the Mini is produced.[24]
In June, 2009, the Spartanburg plant reported that about 75 percent of its
production is exported to global markets.[25]
In April, 2010, contacts at the BMW Spartanburg, SC plant relayed the following
information regarding the integrated paint process (IPP II), currently being
implemented at the plant: color codes M475, M354, and U300 (Black Sapphire
120

metallic, Titanium Silver metallic, and Alpine white, respectively) have been
running in limited quantities since the beginning of 2010. WA76 (Deep Sea Blue
metallic) went into production in limited quantities in March, 2010. Colors WA68
(Platinum Grey) and U668 (Black II) will be going into production later in 2010.
The IPP II process, which replaces the primer surfacer with a wet on wet dual
base coat, is running concurrently with the traditional painting operation. With
the exception of WA68, the other five color codes are available on each of the
vehicles manufactured at the Spartanburg plant, the X3, X5, X6, and X6 hybrid.
Color code WA68 is available on the X5 only.[26]
BMW’s 5-series Gran Turisimo and the X1 crossover debuted in 2010.[27]
2.1.4 Brilliance China
In April, 2010, Brilliance China halted exports to Europe after its BS4 and BS6
sedans failed to gain a foothold. Combined sales of the two mid-sized sedans
were only 502 units.[28]
2.1.5 BYD
The F3 Dual Mode, or F3DM for short, is Chinese automaker BYD’s first plug-in
hybrid. In 2008 BYD reported that they sell gasoline cars to more than 20
countries, mainly Russia and countries in the Middle East, Africa, and South
America. At that time, they planned to continue to export conventional gasoline
cars to developing countries and new-energy cars such as plug-in hybrids and
electric cars to Europe and the United States in 2010 or 2011. At first, BYD’s
cars will target mainly corporate or institutional clients such as taxis and courier
companies in the US and Europe.[29] The F3 compact was the top-selling car in
China in 2009. It plans to launch two cars in Europe in 2011.[30]
2.1.6 Chrysler
Chrysler LLC closed its St. Louis South plant (Fenton, MO) indefinitely in late
October, 2008. The plant built the Chrysler Town & Country, Dodge Caravan,
and export-only Chrysler Voyager. Chrysler will still build minivans in Windsor,
Ontario, Canada.[31] Chrysler LLC’s Newark, DE plant closed in December,
2008. The Chrysler Aspen and Dodge Durango were produced at this plant.[32]
Chrysler plans for the Durango to return in MY2012 on a shared platform with the
Jeep Grand Cherokee. No plans to keep the Aspen were reported.
In mid-2009, Chrysler announced their plan for the following plant closures: St.
Louis North, Fenton, MO (Dodge Ram – product ends December, 2009); Conner
Avenue Assembly Plant, Detroit, MI (Dodge Viper) closing December, 2009;
Sterling Heights, MI (Dodge Avenger, Chrysler Sebring, and Sebring convertible
– product ends December, 2010.[33] In a conflicting report, Chrysler Group
stated that they will continue making and selling the Dodge Viper through
2010.[34]
121

2.1.7 Daimler
In August, 2009, Daimler had not confirmed reports that it may develop a new
generation Smart ForFour with the French automaker Renault. The last ForFour
was based on the Mitsubishi Colt and was produced at the Renault NedCar plant
in Born, Netherlands. Due to low sales, Daimler stopped building the ForFour in
2006 after only two years of production.[35]
2.1.8 Fiat
Fiat Group will stop making cars at its Termini Imerese plant in Sicily, Italy in
2011.[36]
Chrysler Group has announced it will retool its Toluca production plant in Mexico
to start production of the compact Fiat 500 in December, 2010. The company
plans to produce 130,000 vehicles in 2011, half of which will be sold as Fiat
models in the US. The rest will be produced for the Latin American market,
particularly Brazil.[37]
2.1.9 Ford
In November, 2008, Ford Motor’s Michigan Truck plant in Wayne, MI ended
production of the Ford Expedition and Lincoln Navigator. In late March, 2009, the
SUVs began production at the Kentucky Truck plant in Louisville, KY.[38;39] In
spring, 2009, Ford halted production of the Mercury Sable sedan and the Ford
Taurus X (crossover) at its Chicago, IL assembly plant.[40;41]
Ford announced that the Ford Explorer Sport Trac pickup and Mercury
Mountaineer SUV will be discontinued in 2010 when the Explorer, currently
produced at the Louisville, KY plant will be moved to Ford’s Chicago plant in late
2010. The Louisville plant will be retooled to build small cars for Ford.[42] In late
2011, Ford plans to start assembly of the next generation of the Kuga crossover
vehicle in Louisville, KY. Production would include US as well as European-
model Kugas for export. The Kuga crossover is currently manufactured in
Germany for sale in Europe.[43]
Ford began building the Ford Fiesta in late April, 2010 in Cuautitlan, Mexico. The
plant had been down since the end of 2008 for changeover.[44] As reported
previously in the Automotive Coatings section, a contact at Ford Motor Company
confirms that this plant utilizes Ford’s 3-Wet paint technology.[6]
As was also reported in the Automotive Coatings section, Ford Motor Company
began using Henkel’s Bonderite ® TecTalis coating as an alternative to zinc
phosphate at their Twin Cities manufacturing plant in St. Paul, MN in 2008.[13]
2.1.10 General Motors (GM)
GM’s expected sale of Saturn to Penske Automotive Group was canceled on
September 30, 2009. Within 24 hours, GM built the last Outlook crossover, Aura
sedan, and Vue small crossover at its Lansing Delta plant in Delta Township, MI,
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its Fairfax plant in Kansas City, KS, and its plant in Ramos Arizpe, Mexico,
respectively.[45]
Also in 2009, GM ended production of their Pontiac line.[46] The last Pontiac
Torrent crossover was built at the CAMI Automotive Inc. plant in Ingersoll,
Ontario, Canada in May, 2009. CAMI Automotive Inc. was a General Motors-
Suzuki joint venture.[47] GM closed its Wilmington, DE plant in late July, 2009
where it built the Pontiac Solstice.[48] The last Pontiac Vibe was built in August,
2009 at the New United Motor Manufacturing Inc. (NUMMI) plant in Fremont, CA.
NUMMI opened in 1984 as a joint venture between GM and Toyota Motor
Corporation.[49] GM’s Orion Township, MI plant built its last Pontiac G6 in
November, 2009. The plant is being retooled to begin building a new small car in
2011.[50] GM said it will stop building the Pontiac G6 GXP sedan and coupe at
the end of MY 2009 as well as the Chevrolet Impala SS and Cobalt SS sedans
and the Cadillac STS-V.[51]
GM also reported that it will no longer make the Chevrolet Trailblazer, GMC
Envoy, or Saab 9-7X, which were assembled at the Moraine, OH plant. As a
result, that plant closed in December, 2008. GM also ended production at Line 1
of its Janesville, WI plant in December, 2008 which produced the Chevrolet
Tahoe and Suburban, as well as the GMC Yukon and Yukon XL. Production of
these SUVs will be moved to the Arlington, TX plant.[32] General Motor’s
Oshawa, Ontario, Canada truck plant built its last truck in May, 2009 and closed.
The plant had built the GMC Sierra and Chevrolet Silverado 1500 extended and
crew cab pickups.[52]
GM’s Spring Hill, TN plant closed in late 2009; it is a former Saturn assembly
plant.[53] The plant continued to build the Chevrolet Traverse until late
November, 2009.[54] GM moved production to its Delta Township, MI plant in
early March, 2010. The GMC Acadia and Buick Enclave are also built at the
Delta Township plant.[55]
In April, 2010, GM announced the official end to the Hummer. A plan to sell the
commercial Hummer to Chinese company Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial
Machinery Co. fell through in February, 2010. Production of the Hummer H3
SUV and H3T pickup at the Shreveport, LA plant ceased in January,
2010.[56;57]
At the end of June, 2010, the Chevrolet Cobalt ended its production run of nearly
six years at the Lordstown, OH plant.[58] GM began building its GMC Terrain in
August, 2009 at their CAMI automotive plant in Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada where
the Chevrolet Equinox is also built.[59] GM will build its Chervolet Volt at its
Detroit-Hamtramck, MI plant. Pre-production was expected to begin in March
2010.[60] GM will build its redesigned Chevrolet Aveo (MY2011) small car at its
plant in Orion Township, MI. The current Aveo is built in South Korea.[61]
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The Chevrolet Cruze will replace the Cobalt in the US in 2010. It went on sale in
South Korea in 2008 as the Daewoo Lacetti Premiere. Exports from the South
Korean factory to Europe and Australia began in early 2009. In Australia, it is the
Holden JG Cruze. Local production of the Cruze at Holden’s Elizabeth, South
Australia plant is expected to begin in March, 2011. Production of the North
American version is expected to begin in mid-June, 2010 at GM’s Lordstown, OH
plant.[49,62:63]
2.1.11 Hyundai
The Equus luxury sedan debuted in South Korea in 1999. A second-generation
model went on sale there in March, 2009 and in the People’s Republic of China
in August, 2009. Hyundai plans to bring it to the US in August, 2010.[64]
Production of the Hyundai Entourage minivan began in April, 2006 and ended in
the summer of 2009 due to low sales. It was produced at Kia’s Sohari plant in
South Korea alongside the Kia Sedona.[65] Hyundai’s 2010 sports car, the
Genesis coupe, went on sale in the US in February, 2009. Built at the Ulsan,
South Korea plant, it was released in October, 2008 for the Korean market.[66]
2.1.12 Honda
Honda manufacturing in Lincoln, AL began building the Honda Ridgeline in
February, 2009. The pick-up had been built in Honda Motor Co.’s Alliston,
Ontario, Canada plant.[67] In December, 2009, Honda’s Alliston Ontario plant
began building the 2010 Acura ZDX, a mid-side luxury crossover. The plant also
produces the Acura MDX and Honda Civic.[68]
Honda began building its 2009 Honda Accord V-6 at its Lincoln plant in July,
2009. It had been built at the Marysville, OH plant. The V-6 Accord is the first
car to be built at the plant which also builds the Odyssey minivan, Pilot
crossover, and Ridgeline pickup. The Honda Accord V-4 will continue to be built
at the Marysville plant.[69]
Honda’s Greensburg, IN plant began producing the Civic in October, 2008. With
this plant online, the East Liberty, OH plant will increase production of the CR-V.
About 40 percent of the CR-Vs sold in the US in the first nine months of 2008
were built at the East Liberty plant; the remainder were imported from Japan and
Mexico.[70] Honda introduced the Accord Crosstour in model year 2010 and
deleted the S2000 sports car from its lineup.[71] Honda began building the 2010
Accord Crosstour in November, 2009 at the East Liberty plant, which also builds
the CR-V and Element.[72]
2.1.13 Isuzu
Once a lucrative light-duty vehicle in the US, Isuzu announced in 2008 that it was
pulling out of the US passenger vehicle market in February, 2009.[73] Isuzu
Motors America stopped delivering new vehicles to dealerships in North America
in late January, 2009.[74]
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2.1.14 Kia
Korean automaker Kia is replacing its best selling Spectra with its first coupe, the
Forte. The Forte debuted in South Korea in August, 2008.[75] It went on sale in
the US in June, 2009.[76] The youth-oriented five-door hatchback, Soul, went on
sale in February, 2009.[77] In 2009, Kia announced plans to cease production of
their Sedona (Carnival) minivan in 2011.[65] Kia built a $1 billion assembly plant
in West Point, GA, its first in North America, which will produce the 2011 model
year Sorrento compact SUV.[78]
2.1.15 Mazda
The Mazda2 has been on sale in Europe and Japan since 2007; in Japan it is
known as the Demio. It is expected to launch in the US in fall 2010.[79]
2.1.16 Mercedes Benz
In June, 2009, the last Mercedes-Benz CLK convertible was produced by
Karmann in Osnabrück, Germany. Karmann filed for bankruptcy in April
2009.[22;80]
The first European hybrid, the Mercedes Benz S400 Blue Hybrid sedan went on
sale in August, 2009; the ML450 SUV hybrid was launched in late 2009. The
GLK compact SUV debuted in 2009 and the SLS AMG coupe was expected to
debut in 2010.[27]
In September, 2009, Daimler AG pulled the Sprinter from the Dodge lineup and
moved the diesel-powered van to Mercedes. Dodge dealers began selling the
Dodge-badged Sprinters in the US in 2003. Everywhere else in the world the
Sprinter has been marketed under the Mercedes-Benz brand. The Sprinter is
assembled at a plant in Ladson, SC.[81]
2.1.17 Mini
Mini has added a four-door SUV to its lineup, the Countryman. It will be
available in model year 2011.[21]
2.1.18 Mitsubishi
Mitsubishi did not renew a contract with Chrysler and therefore, 2010 will be the
last model year for the Mitsubishi Raider (rebadged Dodge Dakota).[82] Chrysler
Group’s Warren Truck plant in Detroit, MI built the last Mitsubishi Raider in June,
2009.[83]
In late 2008, the CEO of Mitsubishi expressed a desire to halt Galant production
in the US. In its place, he proposed production of small cars suitable for export
at the company’s unprofitable factory in Normal, IL. Mitsubishi is also
considering moving production of the Lancer small sedan and Outlander
crossover to this plant; these models are sold globally.[84]
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Under an agreement announced in early March, 2010, Mitsubishi will produce
approximately 100,000 electric vehicles for French carmaker PSA/Peugeot
Citroen. Mitsubishi will build the four-seat electric cars at its plant in Mizushima,
Japan. The PSA models are based on Mitsubishi’s ultra compact i-MiEV which is
on sale to fleets in Japan and is expected to be on sale to private buyers by
June, 2010. The cars for PSA will get different body styling and interiors and will
have different handling and suspension. PSA plans to have approximately half of
the vehicles sold under each of its brands, Peugeot and Citroen.[85]
2.1.19 Nissan
In 2009, Nissan moved production of their Quest minivan out of Canton, MS back
to Japan. This allows for increased production of the Altima at the Canton
plant.[69] Nissan will begin selling its Juke, a compact crossover, in Japan in
summer, 2010 and in the US and Europe in the fall, 2010.[86] The Juke is made
at Nissan’s Oppama, Japan and Sunderland, UK plants.
2.1.20 Porsche
Porsche’s Panamera 4-door sedan debuted in calendar year 2009.[27]
2.1.21 Opel
Opel plans to build low-priced cars at GM’s plant in the northern Russian city of
St. Petersburg. GM opened the $300 million plant in November, 2008 and
currently builds the Opel Antara and Chevrolet Captiva SUVs.[87]
In late November, 2009, GM stated that it plans to keep all four of its Opel
factories in Germany open under a $4.92 billion restructuring plan.[88] Opel’s
Antwerp, Belgium plant will be closed and production of the Astra HB3 will move
to Bochum, Germany. The Bochum plant will also have exclusive production of
the new Zafira.[89]
2.1.22Saab
After the sale of Saab to Swedish company Koenigsegg Group AB fell through, a
small Dutch producer of luxury sports cars, Spyker, purchased Saab from GM in
January, 2010.[90;91]
2.1.23 Scion
The iQ went on sale in Japan and Europe as a Toyota during the fourth quarter
of 2008.[92]
2.1.24 Subaru
Subaru added production of their Outback wagon to their Lafayette, IN plant.
The Legacy and Tribeca SUV are also produced at this plant.[93]
2.1.25 Suzuki
Suzuki ended production at the CAMI Automotive Inc. Ingersoll, Ontario plant in
June 2009. CAMI, a joint venture with GM, made only four Suzuki XL7s in 2009.
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The XL7 was the largest vehicle made by Suzuki and the only model
manufactured in North America.[94] In December, 2009, Suzuki sold its 50
percent stake in the plant to GM.[95]
Suzuki builds its mid-sized Kizashi sedan in Sagara, Japan alongside its SX4
subcompact car. It went on sale in Japan in October, 2009, in North America in
December, 2009, and in Australia in May, 2010.[96]
2.1.26Tata
In 2009, Tata Motors (India) rolled out its tiny Nano. The Nano retails for about
100,000 rupee ($2000 USD).[97]
2.1.27 Think
In January, 2010, electric-vehicle maker THINK North America announced it will
build a manufacturing facility in Elkhart, IN and build approximately 20,000 cars
per year through 2013. The THINK City will have recyclable plastic parts and a
recyclable interior. It is expected to go on sale in the US in the first quarter of
2011. The first cars to be sold in the US will be built in Finland until production
begins in the US in 2011.[98] The THINK City was the first highway-capable
electric vehicle certified to European safety standards. It has been on sale in
Europe since December, 2008.[99]
2.1.28 Toyota
In 2008, Toyota launched the RAV4 built at its new plant in Woodstock, Ontario,
Canada.[100] The Toyota Sai, Toyota’s first hybrid sedan, went on sale in Japan
in October, 2009.[101]
In 2009, Toyota ended production of the Corolla and Tacoma pickups at the
NUMMI plant in Fremont, CA. NUMMI was a joint venture between Toyota and
GM. The plant opened in 1984. Toyota will shift production of the Tacoma to its
truck factory in San Antonio, TX. NUMMI’s output of the Corolla will be replaced
by cars from Japan and Cambridge, Ontario, Canada.[102] Toyota also
consolidated all production of its Tundra truck to San Antonio.[69]
Toyota’s plan to build a $1.3 billion Prius factory in Blue Springs, MS stalled in
2008 due to the economic recession.[103] In June, 2010, Toyota announced
plans to resume construction on the plant and begin producing the Corolla there
by the end of 2011. This plan would move production of the Corolla back to
North America from Japan.
The 2010 Toyota Highlander crossover began production at the Toyota Motor
Manufacturing plant in Princeton, IN in October, 2009. Toyota also makes its
Sequoia SUV and Sienna minivan there.[104] It continues to import Highlanders
produced at their Kyushu, Japan plant.[105]
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Toyota owns 8.7 percent stock in Fuji Heavy Industries, Subaru’s parent
company. As such, in February, 2007, Subaru of Indiana (Lafayette, IN) began
producing the Toyota Camry.[93;106]
2.1.29 Volkswagen
Chrysler assembles the Routan for VW at its Windsor, Ontario, Canada minivan
plant alongside the Chrysler Town and Country and Dodge Grand Caravan.[107]
In early 2010, Volkswagen will begin global marketing for the Amarok, a compact
pickup truck built in Argentina.[108]
2.1.30 Volvo
Swedish brand Volvo debuted its XC60 crossover in calendar year 2010.[27] It
has also introduced the S60, a four-door coupe. The company says it plans
yearly global sales of the new S60 to be about 90,000.[21]
2.2 Automotive Colour Popularity
According to annual automotive colour popularity data compiled by paint
suppliers DuPont and PPG, silver, black, and white continue to be the most
popular colors; blue and red round out the top five. Depending on the country or
continent (e.g., North America, Europe, or Asia), the rankings of the top five
colors fluctuate somewhat.[109;110]
2.3 Decorative Film Laminates
The automotive industry is the largest user of decorative film laminates. Poole of
Soliant (Lancaster, SC) provided an excellent overview of how decorative film
laminates are utilized in pressure sensitive decals, extrusion lamination, in-mold
decorating, thermoforming, and insert injection molding.[111] Suppliers that
specialize in certain parts do not have to worry about a paint match because
different suppliers can use the same paint film. Uses such as a chromeappearing
decorative film can provide the look of a metal chrome bumper without
the environmental concerns of chrome-plating. Further, the reduced weight of
the vehicle when a film substitutes for metal translates to higher fuel efficiency.
Soliant’s Fluorex ® Paintfilm was selected for the 2008 Jeep Wrangler Sahara
front and rear bumper program. The paint film is supplied as a thick sheet
laminate for thermoforming. Fluorex ® provides a high-gloss Class A finish with
outstanding stone and chip resistance, weather resistance, and enhances impact
resistance.[112]
3. Pigments
Pigment manufacturers have brought a number of innovative products to market
in the last three years. Silberline (Tamaqua, PA) introduced several new metallic
effect pigments for automotive coatings. The Platinum Silver product series
provides a wide range of metallic effects from bright silver to chromatic. The
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newest edition to the Sparkle Silver Ultra ® line is SSU 6656, which is highly
polished, extremely bright and lenticular in shape (convex on both sides).[113]
Sun Chemical (Parsippany, NJ) launched a new portfolio of metallic pigments
called SunMetallics ® . It is a line of non-leafing aluminum flake pigments for use
in solvent-borne coating applications. The product line includes corn flakeshaped
and silver dollar-shaped pigments over a broad particle size range.
SunChemical also introduced another effect pigment product line, SunGem ® . In
addition to high chroma color, excellent opacity, and a combination of
pearlescent and metallic character, it has unique magnetic properties that allow
for the ability to control pigment placement.[114] Further, SunChemical recently
launched Polymer Encapsulated Aluminum Pigments. They were first introduced
in China for use in consumer electronics, automotive trim, and other single coat
applications that require a high level of acidic and base resistance. They are
designed to maintain the brilliance and gloss of the base pigments while the
polymer encapsulation protects them from exposure to acid or basic materials.
Further, by insulating the pigments, their conductivity is reduced, a plus for use in
consumer electronics.[115]
In 2009, BASF launched Glacier Frost White effect pigment which is the
newest generation of synthetic mica coated with titanium dioxide. Since the
pigment’s substrate does not contain impurities, the result is a very clean color.
According to BASF, “…it has been referred to as the ‘whitest white’ pearlescent
pigment in today’s market”.[114] BASF has also introduced Paliocrom ® Brilliant
Orange, an iron-coated aluminum pigment. It has high chromaticity, excellent
hiding power, and inherent sparkle. According to BASF, “…it has been
especially well received by the automotive community and is currently offered in
new red, orange, and gold color stylings”.[115]
Ciba (now part of BASF) introduced XYMARA Fireball, which combines the
lightfastness of a typical quinacridone pigment with the luster of a mid-range
metallic or pearlescent pigment. Prior to this, formulators would have to utilize a
transparent high performance red with a weather resistant effect pigment.[116]
Ciba has also introduced a line of pearlescent pigments that are coated glass
flakes. This line is marketed under XYMARA Nordic.[117]
Heubach GmbH (Langelsheim, Germany) has expanded its line of high
performance pigments to include Monolite ® Yellow 113901 (PY139), Monolite ®
Red 325401/325402 (PR 254) and Monolite ® Red 312201 (PR 112).[116]
Shiomi and coauthors developed a pearlescent pigment in which synthetic mica
is coated with iron oxide and then titanium dioxide. The pigment had
approximately twice the chroma value as compared to current commercially
available pigments. Although developed for the cosmetics industry, this pigment
does have application in automotive coatings and molded plastics.[118]
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BASF introduced a new automotive coating, Liquid Metal, at the Geneva Motor
Show held March, 2010. The water-borne basecoat used physical vapor
deposited aluminum to achieve its unique effect. Rather than painted, the
automobile appears to be made of chrome. It was demonstrated on the F 800
Mercedes-Benz as Alubeam paint, and on a Hyundai concept car, the iflow.[119;120]
BASF also introduced their Sicotan ® , Sicopal ® , and Lumogen ®
pigments at the Geneva Motor Show on the Hyundai concept car, the i-flow.
These pigments are a range of infrared-transparent and infrared-reflecting
pigments. They were utilized in a number of applications in the car interior and
resulted in cooler plastic surfaces of the dashboard, steering wheel, and center
console.[119]
Frischmann describes the lightfastness, excellent weatherability, and exceptional
temperature resistance of Heubach GmbH’s line of HEUCODUR ® IR pigments.
These infrared-reflective complex inorganic pigments offer a wide range of color
shades from yellow to black and can be utilized in architectural coatings, as well
as both interior and exterior automotive applications. Utilizing these pigments in
automotive paint or molded plastic reduces heat build up and extends the life of
the polymeric matrix.[121] Banerjee provides a brief overview of the principles of
heat reflection by traditional infrared-reflective pigments, such as titanium
dioxide, carbon black, and C.I. Pigment Black 30.[122]
4. Additives
Each year Paints and Coatings Industry (pci) magazine compiles an Additives
(Guide) Handbook. It is a comprehensive list that includes definitions and
examples in a format that is easily understood regardless of the readers’ paint
experience. The 2010 Additives Handbook is available on-line at no charge from
the www.pci.com website.[123]
A comprehensive review of hydroxyphenyl-s-triazine (HPT)-based ultraviolet
absorbers (UVAs) and their current applications in coatings for plastics and
wood, as well as powder coatings, is provided by Schaller and coauthors.[124]
In their research, Lowry and coauthors demonstrated that nearly complete UV
protection can be achieved in clear coats utilizing ZnO nano-particles.[125]
5. Architectural Paints
Hollow latex particles (HLPs) are a new class of raw material which combine the
binding function of the conventional latex binder with the pigment functions of
traditional light-scattering pigments such as titanium dioxide.[126] HLPs can be
the sole binder in a paint and allow for a significant reduction in titanium dioxide
usage. Paints made with HLPs offer properties comparable to those made from
conventional binders and pigments with the added benefit of lowering raw
material costs. At this point of development, HLPs have low gloss potential, so
they are limited to flat paints.
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6. Marine and Protective Coatings
In their article “Anticorrosive coatings: a review” Sorensen and coauthors provide
an excellent description of the utility and composition of anticorrosive coating
systems.[127] This reference is particularly helpful to the forensic paint examiner
because these types of coatings are not routinely encountered in case work. The
authors’ review includes approximately 350 references as well as comprehensive
descriptions and examples of the binders and pigments utilized in these coatings.
In addition, protective mechanisms of barrier, sacrificial, and inhibitive coatings
are described in detail.
In their research, Naderi and Attar evaluated the effectiveness of zinc aluminum
phosphate in comparison with zinc phosphate as an inhibitive pigment.[128]
Modification of the cationic constituent resulted in superior performance as
compared to zinc phosphate.
Silicone-organic resin systems, particularly silicone-epoxy resins, have
established a market segment in the protective coatings industry. Compared to
the industry standard of three- to four-coat 2K urethane systems, silicone-epoxy
hybrid technology offers reduction in VOCs, elimination of isocyanate health
effects, and improved durability against weathering, corrosion, and chemical
attack.[129;130]
Antifouling coatings are used to prevent organisms such as barnacles from
growing on a ship’s surfaces, which can increase fuel consumption by as much
as 40%. In addition to fuel savings, a reduction in millions of tons of CO2 and
SO2 emissions can also be realized.[131] Currently, cuprous oxide (Cu2O) is the
antifoulant most widely used. Organic biocides are also applied to supplement
the antifouling effect. As copper prices continue to rise, marine coatings
companies have launched a number of new products that are more
environmentally friendly and increase fuel efficiency. International Paint
introduced Intersleek ® 900, a biocide-free fluoropolymer foul release coating in
2007. They have since introduced a number of high volume solids (78-80%)
primers.[132] Hempel (Kongens Lyngby, Denmark) has introduced Hempasil X3
which uses hydrogel silicone to prevent fouling on a vessel’s hull.[133] The
water absorbent hydrogel forms a polymeric network over the surface such that
organisms perceive the hull as a liquid, not as a solid surface. As a result, the
organisms do not try to latch on.[134] Nippon Paint Marine Coatings, Co.
(Nagata-Ku, Japan) has developed a marine paint that contains a proprietary
polymer compound that turns to a gel when it comes into contact with water. The
resulting smooth surface causes a significant reduction in drag.[135]
Sherwin-Williams Industrial and Marine coatings has introduced SeaGuard 6200,
a high solids (80%) epoxy that is free of heavy metals.[131;134] Researchers in
Denmark are also evaluating the potential use of peroxides of magnesium,
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calcium, strontium, and zinc as active ingredients in antifouling coatings.
Hydrogen peroxide and highly water-soluble ions would form when the coating is
exposed to water, with the hydrogen peroxide then serving as the biocide.[136]
The next section in this paint literature review discusses forensic paint analysis in
the traditional sense, in that the topics include frequency of occurrence studies,
discrimination by various analytical techniques, and the conclusions that can be
drawn from each.
7. The National Academies’ Report on Forensic Science (NAS Report)
Arguably the most significant development that occurred during this review
period was issuance of the report “Strengthening Forensic Science in the United
States: A Path Forward” by the National Academies based in Washington,
DC.[137] This organization assembled a panel of subject matter experts to
review the status of forensic science in America through the use of interviews
and research by the panel’s sub-groups. Paint analysis was one of the areas
studied and discussed in the final report.
The major recommendation for paint examinations was repeated for all
disciplines. Overall, the panel stressed the need for better standardization of
definitions across laboratories in report writing, interpretation of results, and
significance assessments. The need to include sources of uncertainty was also
stated. The basic recommendation seems to suggest that forensic scientists
should seek the development of laboratory reports in which the findings would be
clear and thorough without the need for testimony to interpret the results. To that
end, the Bundeskriminalamt, the FBI Laboratory, and several state laboratories in
North America have begun to include an interpretation of results section in their
reports of examinations. For example, the BKA and the FBI Laboratory’s Paint
group have each developed associative scales that are included for interpretation
of their reports. These models were based in part on presentations and
discussions with Christopher Bommarito of the Michigan State Police Laboratory
system in Lansing, Michigan.
Further, the Scientific Working Group for Materials Analysis (SWGMAT) has
formed a working group to determine if a standard format for interpretation
assessments can be developed to encompass the various sub-disciplines that
are part of trace evidence analysis (e.g., fibers, glass, hair, paint, and tape). If a
single format is approved, SWGMAT members would determine if an
interpretation of results guideline for trace evidence analysis could be issued, or
whether an interpretation section would be added to the guidelines published by
each sub-discipline.
Other recommendations relevant to forensic paint analysis from the NAS report
included the need for laboratory accreditation, annual discipline-specific
proficiency testing, and certification of individual trace evidence examiners by an
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independent accrediting organization. Several accrediting bodies for forensic
laboratories exist in North America and Europe. Most of these entities have
adapted their accreditation criteria to embody the ISO/IEC 17025 standard for
certification, the main standard used by testing and calibration laboratories. The
European Paint and Glass group conducts annual collaborative exercises in paint
analysis, and several independent proficiency test providers exist in North
America.
Also, since the last review, the ability to attain individual certification in the United
States has become more readily available to paint examiners. As an example,
the American Board of Criminalistics (ABC) offers certification in several
specialized disciplines, such as trace evidence. Specifically, the ABC’s offerings
now include a specific paints and polymers certificate, available to anyone who
meets the acceptance criteria to achieve and maintain this certification.
The biggest challenge to paint examinations remains the foundation upon which
conclusions are based. Uncertainty and significance assessments are often cited
as necessary and yet are not able to be designed as all encompassing for
interpretative use. Yet, some have been conducted during this review period. It
seems logical, therefore, to begin discussion of analytical applications with these
studies as they pertain to the forensic analysis of paint, the significance of the
results, and how researchers are attempting to apply statistics to these analyses.
8. Forensic Paint Studies and Significance Assessments
Prior to issuance of the NAS report, at least four studies regarding the
significance of forensic paint examinations were underway by researchers in
Europe and the United States. Two of these studies attempted to describe the
significance of automotive paint analysis, and two involved analysis of
architectural paints. All of this work was presented at the Trace Evidence
Symposium entitled: Interpretation of Trace Evidence: The Present and Future,
which was held in Clearwater, Florida in 2009, and is available on-line at
http://projects.nfstc.org/trace/2009/index.htm.
The first of the automotive paint studies was reported on by Louissa Marsh,
where random samples of road debris were analyzed for the purpose of
determining how common automotive paint chips would be on a road
surface.[138] This study demonstrated that within the UK, there was a greater
than 74% chance that paint chips exist on roadways. However, the frequency of
occurrence was found to be only 7% for automotive paint chips. Similarly, in a
separate study, no automotive paint was observed amongst the 1,253 paint chips
recovered from 100 items of random clothing that were processed for debris.
Parent and Howard of the Texas Department of Public Safety Crime Laboratory
co-authored the second automotive paint study, in which 500 automotive paint
samples were collected from damaged areas of vehicle hoods (bonnets) during
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the summer of 2007, and analyzed in order to determine if any random matches
were possible.[139] Model years ranged from 1979 to 2007 with some years in
the early 1980s not represented and the median model year calculated to be
MY2000. The majority of the vehicles were manufactured in North America by
Chrysler, Ford, or General Motors, the latter of which accounted for the greatest
number of vehicles sampled (~160). In total, 20 of the 500 samples were not
able to be discriminated. However, 393 were differentiated based on physical
characteristics alone. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis
discriminated 80 additional samples and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) further distinguished 7 samples. The 20 remaining
samples equated to 14 indistinguishable sample pairs, which yielded a
discrimination value of 99.99%. The authors also reported that within these 14
sample pairs, two pairs contained vehicles assembled at plants in different
states. Of the remaining sixteen samples, both samples within each of the twelve
pairs were collected off of vehicles assembled at the same plant.
Regarding the architectural paint comparison studies, the discriminating power of
visual and microscopic techniques in conjunction with FTIR was also
demonstrated in the study presented by Wright et al. [140] Over 950 architectural
paints were randomly collected across the United States and Canada.
Approximately half of these samples contained a surface color observed to be
white or off-white. In order to best determine the discriminating power of the
analytical scheme, FTIR was utilized on the surface layer of the approximately
200 white samples prior to side-by-side macroscopic and microscopic
comparisons of the top layers. This approach enabled the authors to report a
discriminating power of 99.99% for the combination of these techniques.
Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
(SEM/EDS) and Py-GC/MS were also utilized in this study with additional sample
discrimination, such that only 11 pairs remained undifferentiated at the
conclusion of the study. However, the greatest significance of this work was that
the samples contained within each of the 11 pairs were later found to be nonrandom.
Each paint sample within a pair shared a common origin in that it was
collected from the same source (e.g., building or structure) as the other
sample(s) within that same pair.
The last of the four paint significance studies presented at the Trace Evidence
Symposium was authored by Massonnet.[141] In this work, a market study of
commercially available red architectural paint was conducted in order to
determine the significance of results in which two similarly colored, yet chemically
different red paints were used to vandalize two public buildings on different days
using the same general method of application of paint to the building surfaces.
Traces of a visually similar red paint were also observed on a subject’s shoes,
which were supplied to the author for comparison. The analytical data was
collected using FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. Through the use of a Bayesian
approach to data interpretation, the author compared the collected data to 28 red
paint samples with the same color code and determined that the data strongly
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supported a conclusion that the red paint on the shoes and the red paint applied
to one of the buildings for the purposes of defacing its surface contained the
same observed and measured characteristics.
Two articles were published by Zadora and coauthors that described ongoing
efforts to determine the significance of paint transfer evidence using likelihood
ratios. One study utilized data generated by FTIR analysis and the other
employed Py-GC/MS results. [142;143] Stable isotope analysis of white paints
was another application of likelihood ratios described by Farmer et al. In this
study, isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) was used to analyze 13 C, 18 O, and
2 H isotopic compositions originating from paint binders.[144]
Further discussion of significance assessments were reported in Science and
Justice in 2010 as abstracts of presentations given at the 5 th Triennial
Conference of the European Academy of Forensic Science held in Glasgow,
Scotland in September 2009.[145] A number of presentations addressed the
need to provide context to report conclusions. Use of Bayesian statistics,
likelihood ratios, and development of a unified ordinal scale to describe levels of
conclusions were presented.
As a final note to the discussion of significance, paint examiners routinely review
trade journals and consult with experts from the coatings industry in order to
guide critical thinking as to the probative value of an examination request or the
appropriate interpretation of analytical findings. In this regard, educating the
paint and coatings industry about forensic paint examinations can be as critical
as the reverse. To that end, Mike Eyring, formerly of the Arizona Department of
Public Safety, wrote a review of several forensic paint cases that highlight how
forensic paint examinations are conducted and how they can be used within the
context of criminal investigations.[146]
9. Studies regarding automotive finishes and refinishes
Research on the performance of coated galvanized steel was reported on by
Santos et al. in which waterborne and solvent borne basecoats were compared
on primed and pre-primed steel sheets in order to study effects on
adhesion.[147] In general, the waterborne finishes showed better adhesion
results over the solvent borne coatings. Not surprisingly, the use of primers also
promoted better adhesion. Other results included comparison of the differences
noted between electrogalvanized, hot dip galvanized, and galvannealed steel for
these adhesion tests.
Three papers were published during this review period that discussed analysis or
development of systems used in automotive refinishes. In the first, automotive
body fillers were characterized in order to better assess discrimination of these
materials in casework.[148] Thirty-three samples of body filler and spot putties
were analyzed using light microscopy, FTIR, SEM/EDS, and Py-GC. Overall, 19
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of the 33 samples were able to be differentiated with the authors concluding that
SEM/EDS offered the best discrimination capability.
The two remaining papers discussed clearcoat refinish systems and were
published by members of the Akzo Nobel Car Refinish group in the Netherlands.
The first paper discussed the interaction of the basecoat and clearcoats within a
refinish system and made several observations based on testing done using
FTIR and SEM/EDS.[149] The authors describe evidence of strong interaction
between the clearcoat with the basecoat. They suggest that the data revealed
isocyanurate crosslinker in polyurethane clearcoats penetrated to a large extent
into the basecoat, even to the point of being detected at the basecoat/substrate
interface. The authors discussed the improved mechanical properties of the
basecoat observed in this system as attributable to an in-situ crosslinking of the
basecoat binder, where the Tg and crosslink density of the basecoat increased.
When the interaction of the basecoat to a UV-clearcoat was studied, the
interaction appeared to be much less between the two layers due to the high
cure rate. The authors state that the curing process used prevented diffusion of
the crosslinker into the basecoat. Lastly, they noted that stabilizers such as
hindered amine light stabilizers (HALs) and UVAs also diffused into the basecoat
thereby providing better weathering protection.
The second paper, authored by some of the members of this same research
group, reported on the development of a waterborne UVA curable clearcoat
refinish, concluding in part that the coating under development demonstrated
good gloss retention even after two years of exposure in environmental
conditions common to Florida.[150]
10. Spectroscopic Methods
Scientists at the Leibniz Institute of Surface Modification published work on the
use of near infrared spectroscopy to monitor polymer coat curing via UV light and
the resulting coating thickness in-line during production. The precision of the
measurement was determined to be less than 1 micrometer at best. [151]
Comparative studies of small samples of automotive coatings using visible
microspectrometry were also reported on by researchers in Poland. [152;153]
In another study, paint cross sections were characterized by Joseph, et al. using
mapping and linear imaging capabilities with attenuated total reflectance (ATR)
microscopy.[154] In this work, two different FTIR microscopy systems were
studied: one with a conventional DTGS detector; and, one with FTIR mapping
capabilities using a novel integrated system with raster scanning in ATR mode.
The latter system was found to provide a better signal-to-noise ratio with shorter
acquisition time when compared to the conventional system. The authors state
that this newly developed system has features of particular benefit to the
identification and spatial locality of thin organic layers within a paint cross section
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as well as to low concentration organic components of mixtures that contain both
inorganic and organic moieties.
A further forensic application was reported by Szafarska and coauthors in which
ATR-FTIR was used to analyze paint the authors applied to polyester and fabric
matrices. [155] Applying a series of normalization and subtraction steps to the
collected IR data, the authors determined that this approach would be an
acceptable alternative to physically removing paint from a substrate for analysis.
In a study employing the use of synchrotron radiation, eighteen titanium dioxide
(TiO2) pigments in rutile form were examined along with fragments of seven
types of white automotive paints. Results indicated detection of elements such
as niobium, which is indicative of the sulfuric acid preparation method of the TiO2
pigment. Aluminum and silicon could not be effectively excited and therefore
detected with the described high-energy synchrotron radiation X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) analytical scheme. They were, however, observed by SEM/EDS. For the
white automotive paints, detection of trace amounts of heavy elements was used
to discriminate samples that were indistinguishable by color measurement of the
white basecoat.[156]
Uses of Raman spectroscopy with respect to modern forensic applications was
reported by Otieno-Alego.[157] Also, the combined techniques of µ-Raman and
µ-XRF were applied to multilayer paint chips using a single spectrometer.[158]
The use of confocal Raman microscopy to monitor the distribution of melamine in
a polyester-melamine coil coating as well as for depth profiling of these coatings
was reported on by Zhang and coauthors.[159;160] This same group of
researchers also reported on the use of step-scan photoacoustic FTIR for the
latter application.[161]
Lastly, for consideration in potential sourcing of raw materials, researchers in
Pakistan described synthesis of ultramarine blue pigment from kaolin mined in
the Swat valley region of that country. Analysis of the end product was
accomplished using UV-vis, FTIR, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis.[162]
11. Elemental Analysis
Applications in the area of elemental analysis of paint samples included
spectrometric techniques such as particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE), XRF,
SEM/EDS, XRD, and laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). In one
article, PIXE, XRD, and backscatter capabilities associated most commonly with
SEM/EDS applications were used in tandem to simultaneously acquire data on
pigments and binder matrices in paint layers.[163] With this research, the
authors were attempting to resolve the problem of estimating the pigment/binder
ratio present in paint, which is often complicated in SEM/EDS by the presence of
carbon and oxygen in both entities. Their resolution involved a three-step
process: determine the pigment identities and concentrations via micro-XRD and
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PIXE, respectively, determine the total elemental composition of the paint matrix
to include the pigment and binder via backscatter imaging, and then subtract the
carbon and oxygen content of the pigments from the whole in order to calculate
the contribution from the binder alone. The authors cite that the advantage of
this approach is the ability to analyze the same area of detail within one
experimental set-up scheme.
EDXRF was also used in conjunction with digital imaging and chemometrics to
determine the weatherproofing classification level and durability of 17 varnishes
and 10 paints subjected to accelerated weathering tests as part of a quality
assurance test plan.[164]
A portable XRD/XRF instrument design was discussed by Pifferi et al. for
nondestructive analysis. Its features include the ability to acquire data using both
techniques simultaneously for qualitative and quantitative work in a nondestructive
mode.[165] Nakai and coauthors have published results of
experiments conducted on the capability of SEM/EDS when coupled with a
transition edge sensor (TES) microcalorimeter to analyze white automotive
paint.[166] Samples were prepared as would be typical for SEM analysis in that
chips were embedded in a resin, polished to reveal the layer structure at the
surface of the mold, and coated with carbon. Acceleration voltages were the
same for both the TES and traditional solid state detector (SSD) at 15 KeV.
Beam currents were also comparable. Data acquisition time for the TES was
300 live seconds as compared to 100 seconds for the SSD. The authors report
that the TES detector as used in this work was able to resolve titanium
interferences on the barium signal in the white primer layer, which also contained
a detectable signal for sulfur. It was reported that this detection system also
provided a better estimate of the ratio of lead to tin in the electrocoat layer.
Additional research regarding elemental analysis of paint layers utilized direct
sampling of acrylics for analysis by graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometry (GFAAS), as well as the detection of bromine in industrial paints by
inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), where it can exist as a
flame retardant.[167;168]
Lastly, the use of LIBS to monitor application of paints and coatings to metal
substrates has been reported on by Kim et al.[169] In this report, a compact
LIBS system was described for use in identifying eleven different yellow OEM
paints that were developed to be undifferentiated by the human eye. In this
manner, different applications would all appear to be of a uniform color. In this
example, the color was the yellow recognized as belonging to the Caterpillar, Inc.
heavy-machinery company. The ability to differentiate between urethane, epoxy,
and alkyd formulations provided resolution in two cases of paint failure, which
were able to be readily diagnosed at field sites using this technology.
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12. Mass Spectrometry Techniques
Pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) was the most
common mass spectrometric technique reported on for paint analysis since the
last review. As a means of better understanding its capabilities and results,
Wampler and coauthors published two review articles in PCI (Paint and Coatings
Industry) magazine. The first describes a simple way to identify polymers based
on the collected pyrogram data for a polymeric sample.[170] The on-line version
of this article also contains a table that summarizes pyrolyzate peaks for 100
polymeric materials. The second article specifically discusses coatings analysis
via Py-GC/MS.[171] Examples of the anticipated pyrolyzates obtained for
common materials such as acrylics, epoxies, and architectural paint formulations
are given.
Researchers in Poland published four papers described the utility of Py-GC/MS
for automotive paint layer analysis [172-175] and one discussed the study of
spray paint on plasters.[176]
A study involving the use of laser desorption mass spectrometry (LDMS) was
also reported during this review period. Mukai and collaborators studied blue
copper phthalocyanine pigments used in automotive coatings, furthering previous
work in which LDMS has been demonstrated to be effective in the identification
of these types of organic pigments.[177] As was reported in the 2007 paint
review article, this technique is advantageous in forensic and conservation
applications because it can be applied nondestructively to small samples in order
to provide fast results with relatively low detection. Another advantage is the
capability of LDMS to simultaneously detect inorganic and organic pigments at
low concentrations within a binder matrix.
13. Art and Conservation Applications
Although forensic paint examiners rarely examine artworks, methodology and
research in the practice of art conservation is quite relevant, as some of the
analytical requirements and goals are the same: small sample sizes with minimal
damage to the material being analyzed. Similarly, the requisite interpretation
skills are common to both disciplines. In this review period, the publications
generated in art conservation and analysis surpassed that of forensic sciencespecific
research articles. However, the information gained from these studies is
applicable across both fields. Therefore, relevant artwork publications are
reviewed here, inasmuch as many could be of interest to forensic scientists.
As with forensic work, methods of analysis pertaining to art conservation and
analysis range from simple microscopical and microchemical examinations to
highly specialized instrumentation. These latter techniques have greater limits of
detection, significantly reduced or almost negligible sample size requirements,
and improved sensitivity and resolution. Further, it has been observed that many
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of the more current studies involved analysis of artwork by multiple techniques in
conjunction, providing a greater amount of complementary information on a
single item than was previously possible.
This portion of the review will therefore describe key publications covering the
range of art and archaeological materials analysis from primarily single-technique
examinations to analysis by multiple techniques in combination. Singletechnique
analysis will be broken down into spectroscopic techniques (FTIR,
Raman, fluorescence), X-Ray-based techniques (SEM/EDS, XRF, XRD, PIXE),
laser-based atomic techniques (LA-ICP/MS, LIBS), and separation techniques
(GC/MS, CE).
14. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
With regard to FTIR analyses, two primary trends were noted in this review
period: analysis in reflectance mode and the use of multivariate statistics to aid in
data analysis. In fact, some research incorporated both trends. In Rosi et al.,
the strengths and limitations of reflectance mid-FTIR chemometric models for
binder identification were discussed, including how principal components
analysis (PCA) can be used as a data analysis tool.[178] Navas and coauthors
combined diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS)
with PCA to compare transmission FTIR to DRIFTS and found that the intensity
was improved in DRIFTS, making it more suitable for purposes of identification
and characterization of pigments.[179]
Several additional publications considering multivariate statistics were of note.
One included FTIR-ATR analysis of reference standards of polymeric resins to
evaluate multivariate statistics (hierarchical clustering, PCA, Linear Discriminant
Analysis (LDA).[180] LDA provided the best resolution for separating similar
resins. Gruchow and coauthors primarily investigated transmission FTIR
comparing univariate with multivariate statistics, demonstrating the usefulness of
cluster analysis and PCA.[181] Schäning et al. tried to facilitate classification of
organic pigments by partial least-squares discriminate analysis and concluded
that the “…application of the classification models to FTIR spectra of unknown
paint samples gained very similar results as obtained from experts.”[182]
Another example of the application of statistics to analytical datasets acquired in
paint examinations was reported by Latour et al.[183] In this study, diffuse
reflectance spectra of pigment mixtures were simulated from a database of
absorption and scattering coefficients of reference pigments typical of those used
in works of art.
Regarding additional reflectance studies, Poli and coworkers used mid-IR FORS
to analyze a work of art without sampling.[184] A simple method for enhancing
signals in sub-optimal conditions was successfully applied, and spectral
corrections were evaluated for comparing the reflectance spectra with reference
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transmission spectra. Bacci and coauthors created a database of reflectance
spectra in the NIR region and applied it in the analysis of a painting.[185]
In their study, Vagnini et al. also examined FT-NIR, but for the non-invasive
identification of natural polymers and resins.[186] Limitations of the technique
included difficulty assigning bands, making it less-specific than mid-IR. Further,
the technique is unable to distinguish single components in a mixture. Data
treatment was found to be crucial.
In two separate papers, Kendix et al. utilized far-infrared spectroscopy in the
analysis of inorganic pigments.[187;188] FIR has the advantage when inorganic
compounds are not active in the MIR. In this region of the electromagnetic
spectrum, FIR technique also has an advantage over Raman when fluorescence
interferes with Raman signals.
Rizzo reported on using ATR-FTIR microscopy to analyze paint cross-sections,
with complementary techniques still able to be applied to the same samples.[189]
Historically, ATR on cross-sections has been difficult, but this study describes a
crystal of optimized geometry and a viewing capability feature.
Cotte and coauthors described synchrotron-based FTIR and reviews recent
applications of the technique in the field of cultural heritage.[190]
In their work, Delaney et al. concluded that shortwave IR and luminescence
imaging spectroscopy in combination proved useful in identifying and mapping
primary colorants in artwork, specifically one of Picasso’s paintings. When XRF
was also utilized in site specific in situ analysis, assignment to individual
pigments was further improved.[191]
The use of mid-FTIR reflectance spectroscopy was studied in situ via fiber optic
technology to monitor and evaluate the cleaning process applied to artwork in
real time.[192] Results indicated that both inorganic and organic contaminants, in
the form of calcium oxalate and a terpenic varnish thought to have been added to
the painting at a later date as a protective coating, were successfully removed
from the painting surface using the cleaning process employed. Results were
verified via a benchtop FTIR system as well as through the use of GC/MS
analysis of the cotton swabs used to remove the varnish coating and degradation
products from the surface. Use of the reported in situ approach allowed for a
non-invasive aspect to be added to the process of monitoring these critical
cleaning treatments within the field of conservation and restoration.
15. Raman Spectroscopy
Over the past two decades, Raman analysis has increased significantly in its
application to art and other cultural heritage. During this review period, several
articles were published that include general information and reviews on
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application of the technique to works of art.[193-197] Further, the Journal of
Raman Spectroscopy has a special issue entitled “Raman Spectrometry in Art
and Archaeology III,” Volume 89, number 4, December 2007, pertinent articles
from which have been included in this review.
One focus of recent Raman studies was surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy
(SERS). Chen and coauthors reviewed the technique to include the principle,
instrumentation, and its use in art and archaeology.[198] Wustholz et al. studied
the utility of SERS to analyze dyes. They highlight recent work and future
challenges.[199] In their work, Whitney and coworkers applied the technique to
red dyes and their mixtures, and Brosseau et al. reported the first SERS study of
multiple artists’ materials, including organic pigments (both synthetic and
natural).[200-202] Van Elslande and coauthors also applied the technique to
organic pigments.[203] Lau et al. applied the technique in a different way by
analyzing natural resins.[204] As opposed to normal Raman, SERS was able to
overcome interference from fluorescence in extremely small natural resin
samples.
Multivariate statistics was also found to be useful for Raman studies. In two
separate publications, Nevin et al. utilized Raman and PCA to analyze
proteinaceous binding media, a material which is typically problematic for Raman
analysis.[205;206]
Organic pigments were the focus of multiple Raman publications during this
review period. Lutzenburger and Stege noted that there are approximately 100
synthetic organic pigments used in artists’ paints today.[207] A comprehensive
and efficient sampling and analysis strategy was suggested, with attention to the
practical strengths and limitations of the technique. Case studies were
discussed, and for the organic pigments identified, the history of their use was
also discussed. These authors collaborated with Schulte and others to study
synthetic pigment identification by using both dispersive and FT-Raman on 23
pigments.[208] Different excitation wavelengths were required to avoid
fluorescence and heating of the artifacts. In many cases it was possible to
identify both organic pigments and the main inorganic pigments or fillers.
Discrimination power varied within different pigment classes and complementary
chromatographic methods were recommended. Papliaka and coauthors used
Raman and FTIR in combination to characterize the materials of a contemporary
painting and to investigate the stability of synthetic pigments in a widely used
contemporary binding medium for conservation purposes.[209] Red organic
colorants were the focus of Schmidt’s and Trentelman’s study, and yellow
organic pigments were analyzed by Ropret et al. and Colombini and Kaifas.[210-
212] In the latter study, the authors also looked at orange organic pigments, as
well as pigments found in automotive paints.
Correia and coauthors took a different approach by examining inorganic
pigments and extenders and, in combination with other analytical techniques,
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found Raman effective at establishing one artist’s palette.[213] Acquaviva, et al.
utilized Raman as well as excimer laser techniques in order to study yellow
pigments in egg yolk tempura.[214] Colomban also used Raman scattering to
study colors produced on pottery and glass using metal nanoparticles.[215]
Vandenabeele and coauthors compared the performance of five mobile Raman
instruments through evaluation of spectral resolution, wavelength calibration, and
the ability to focus through a varnish layer. The study has the potential to
facilitate a better definition of the requirements for the design of a future mobile
instrument.[216] Articles were also published that discussed case studies of
Raman spectroscopy to answer questions about specific works of art (Hernanz
2008, Baraldi 2009).[217;218]
Both organic and inorganic pigments used in pre-mixed architectural paints from
the first half of the twentieth century were discussed by Gautier, et al. with
respect to their dual use by artists such as Picasso. Raman, XRF, and FTIR
were used to analyze Ripolin ® , a commercially available brand of architectural
paints which were manufactured in Europe in the late nineteenth century for
architectural and marine applications. A major finding in this study was observed
with Raman and confirmed by PLM, in that carbon black as opposed to ivory or
bone black was used in the black Ripolin ® paint. Other findings included the
observation that lead carbonate, as well as common pigments such as vermilion,
cadmium red or yellow, emerald green, or cobalt violets, were not present in the
Ripolin ® paint, whereas it is common in tubes of traditional artists’ paints. Lastly,
the authors reported that these architectural paint formulations always create
secondary and tertiary colors from combinations of primary colors rather than the
addition of other mediums to achieve the desired effect.[219]
Perez-Pueyo and coworkers in Spain described the issues encountered in
Raman spectral interpretation due to the presence of intense fluorescence
background signals. They proposed a morphology-based automated baseline
correction and applied the concept to the analysis of artistic pigments. The
authors concluded that this approach successfully removed fluorescence-related
interferences while retaining the line shapes and positions of the Raman bands
of interest.[220]
In a separate study, Perez-Pueyo and coworkers identified artistic pigments
using a fuzzy approach as applied to data acquired via Raman spectroscopy.
The authors describe fuzzy logic as “a mathematical technique that follows the
guidelines of the human reasoning mechanism for decision making with its ability
to work from approximate data and find precise solutions.”[221]
16. Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Confocal microfluorescence spectroscopy was used by Claro et al. for the
analysis of red lake pigments in binding media, and a database was
developed.[222] The technique was subsequently applied to artwork
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samples.[223] Emission and excitation spectra were both acquired, and the
results obtained were in agreement with information from other currently used
techniques.
Fluorescence excitation-emission spectroscopy (also called total emission
spectroscopy) was employed by Nevin et al. for the differentiation of proteinbased
binding media and in a subsequent study to evaluate the effect visible light
and inorganic pigments have on the fluorescent properties of protein-based
binding media.[224;225] In the former study, time-resolved fluorescence
spectroscopy and imaging was also employed. In the latter, it was found that
pigments can have a significant effect on the chemistry and observation of the
fluorescence of binding media. Nevin et al. subsequently reported that
synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy (SFS) could aid in the assessment of
fluorescence as a function of pigment concentration.[226]
In SFS, a fluorescence emission intensity spectrum is obtained by varying both
the excitation and emission wavelengths simultaneously at a constant offset
between excitation and emission monochromators. In 2008, Nevin and
coauthors applied the technique in a novel way to nondestructively distinguish
protein-based binding media. PCA was used, since small variations in spectra
can correlate with particular chemical phenomena.[227] In 2009, Nevin et al.
also used SFS with multivariate analysis on selected organic painting materials
representing binding media and stated that the technique could also be used for
analysis of colorants and dyes.[228]
17. Terahertz spectroscopy
A technique that is fairly new to the analysis of art is terahertz spectroscopy. In
contrast to the IR region, the terahertz region (500 to 20 cm -1 ) provides
information on the motions of entire molecules and functional groups. Fukunaga
and coauthors developed a database of over 100 organic and inorganic
pigments, natural resins, and synthetic polymers, and found that the technique
can distinguish pigments, binders, and their mixtures.[229] This technique has
been used to analyze organic binding media and to analyze hidden layers
embedded in paintings. [230-232]
18. X-Ray Based Techniques
Many articles for the various X-Ray based techniques were also applications and
case studies. These included SEM/EDS;[233;234] XRD;[235-239] XRF;[240-
247] and combinations of X-Ray techniques.[248-251]
For these techniques combined with Raman spectroscopy, refer to the following:
SEM/EDS;[252] XRF;[253-258] and, both XRF and SEM/EDS.[259;260]
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XRD and Raman spectroscopy were combined by Brostoff et al. to identify
synthetic organic pigments in powder samples, paint layer systems, and
commercial artists’ paints. For the first time, XRD is demonstrated to be effective
for the specific identification of synthetic organic pigment mixtures in acrylics and
alkyds, but not in oil based paints.[261]
Portable instrumentation was emphasized in multiple articles, most regarding
portable XRF. Desnica et al. and Vasquez-Calvo and coauthors used the
portable XRF device for screening purposes for subsequent laboratory
analysis.[262;263] Further, Hocquet, Uhlir, and Buzanich and their respective
coauthors designed new instruments and applied them in the field.[264-266] Abe
and coauthors used portable XRF and portable XRD in conjunction with one
another, and Giononcelli et al. introduced a newly designed combined portable
XRF and portable XRD instrument.[267;268] The latter instrument demonstrated
the possibility of identifying main crystalline phases in relatively short times.
Bonizzoni and coauthors compared three different portable XRF systems in the
characterization of pigments.[269] Van der Snickt and coauthors examined
synthetic dyes and pigments in a large number of paintings by portable XRF in
order to exploit the advantages of the technique, and Roldán applied portable
XRF to pigments on rock art.[270;271] Finally, Bonizzoni et al. performed in situ
analyses of paintings using XRF with visible reflectance spectroscopy.[272]
PIXE was used by Grassi and coworkers to identify the elemental composition of
a painting, and PIXE was combined with Rutherford Backscattering (RBS) by
Salomon et al. to take advantages of the strengths of each technique.[273;274]
PIXE is a non-destructive technique with high sensitivity down to trace element
concentrations and can be implemented at atmospheric pressure; however, it is
unable to provide depth information. RBS, on the other hand, can provide depth
detail but cannot be readily implemented in air. Mendes and coauthors
combined PIXE with Raman to study pigments and degradation products.[275]
Lastly, Shaaban et al. used PIXE in combination with optical microscopy to study
ancient Egyptian pigments.[276]
Synchrotron-based techniques were also studied and reported on during this
review period. However, due to a lack of availability to most practitioners, it will
only be briefly mentioned here. D’Acapito et al. provided a technical overview of
the instrumentation available on the GILDA beamline at the European
Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), specifically X-Ray absorption
spectroscopy and diffraction.[277] With regards to paintings, the beamline is
used to study the degradation of pigments. XRD using synchrotron radiation was
investigated by Sánchez del Río et al. and Welcomme et al., and XRF using
synchrotron was reported on by Dik and coauthors and in two papers by Calza et
al.[278-282] Some combination of the synchrotron versions of FTIR, X-ray
absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy (XANES), XRD, and XRF were also
used by several research groups.[283-289]
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Micro XRD analysis was discussed for pigment analysis by Nel and coauthors in
proceedings from the AICCM National Conference in Brisbane, Australia in 2007.
In this work, the authors observed that the technique can complement other nondestructive,
non-invasive, and in-situ technologies, but was best applied to art
and artifacts where the pigments were pure, mixing of pigments was minimal, or
where the pigments within a mixture did not have significant differences in their
absorption coefficients.[290]
Van der Snickt and coworkers describe a combined micro-XRD and micro-
Raman mobile device (PRAXIS) and compared the PRAXIS results to those
obtained from synchrotron micro-XRD. The latter technique was required to
show the presence of lead white in an illuminated manuscript. The authors also
mention that despite all the information obtained from the aforementioned
techniques, a supplementary organic method would also have been helpful in
identifying some remaining unidentified components.[291] Herrera et al. did in
fact combine multiple analytical techniques, including organic and inorganic
analysis methods, in combination with synchrotron XRF and XRD, for the
analysis of paintings.[292] A novel approach was taken by Ferreira and
coauthors in the use of synchrotron X-Ray microtomography to obtain threedimensional
data, thereby allowing for the reconstruction of sample surface
morphology.[293]
19. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
One article was found during the review period that used NMR for paint analysis.
In the article, Presciutti et al. used a compact and mobile NMR sensor to
measure the thickness of paint layers in situ and to investigate binder aging. The
work claimed to be the first step towards characterizing the three-dimensional
morphology of different layers in paintings without contact.[294]
20. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)
In 2007, Giakoumaki and coauthors published a review article outlining the basic
physical principles and analytical features of LIBS, with a description of the
instrumentation and technology, examples of LIBS use (including a section on
pigments), and future prospects.[295]
Osticioli and coauthors set out to determine the best working conditions for LIBS
to remove the least amount of material during analysis while achieving the best
quality in spectral response.[296] The optimized conditions were applied to a
real painting, in which most of the inorganic pigments were identified. A
significant limitation, however, was the alteration of pigments with regards to
discoloration and darkening. This work was furthered in a study by the same
lead author in which the effects of light exposure on egg white and egg yolk films
was evaluated.[297]
146

Natural versus artificial ultramarine blue pigments were differentiated by the
presence of calcite in the former using LIBS, pulsed Raman spectroscopy,
principal components analysis, and light microscopy in another paper by Osticioli,
et al. [298] Several other combined LIBS and Raman studies were also carried
out that demonstrated the efficiency of and complementary information resulting
from the use of the techniques both in a single instrument setup [299-301] and as
stand-alone technique.[302]
21. Laser ablation inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA-
ICP-MS)
LA-ICP-MS was reviewed by Giussani and coworkers in which the main issues
relating to cultural heritage are discussed, followed by a description of the
features, advantages, and drawbacks of LA-ICP-MS. Pigments are briefly
mentioned.[303]
LA-ICP-MS was combined with SEM/EDS and Raman by Resano et al. to
characterize pigments in rock art. LA provided the most relevant data for
associating samples and was capable of providing spatially resolved (both
laterally and in depth) quantitative multielement information for elements present
in a wide concentration range.[304]
Arnold and coauthors used LA-ICP-MS for sourcing of materials and compared
the results to instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Similar data was
obtained but LA-ICP-MS was preferred due to its ease, smaller analytical
investment, and near non-destructiveness. LA also determined some elements
that INAA could not.[305]
22. Gas Chromatography
GC was used in combination with different sample preparation techniques and
detectors for the analysis of various organic components used in cultural
heritage.
Derivatizing reagents and GC/MS were used by Caruso et al. for the analysis of
the varnish (fatty acids) and the glue (proteinaceous amino acids) on a musical
instrument and also by Echard and coauthors for the analysis of varnishes on
three ancient musical instruments.[306;307] For a general review of the
characterization of varnishes on musical instruments, refer to [286]. Edwards
and coauthors used Raman spectroscopy to pinpoint areas for GC/MS analysis
of varnishes on ancient Egyptian sarcophagal fragments, while Singer and
McGuigan used GC/MS to analyze fatty acids, amino acids, and natural resins in
paints.[308;309] Gautier and Colombini attempted to determine the
proteinaceous binder composition in wall paintings by purifying proteins through
the removal of inorganic salts that impair the determination of the protein via
amino acid analysis.[310]
147

Bonaduce and coauthors used derivatization and GC/MS for the analysis of
sugars in plant gums in mural paintings. The result was one peak for each
compound, providing simple and highly reproducible chromatograms. A decision
scheme for gum identification and the PCA analysis of the relative sugar
percentage contents of reference samples were employed in the identification of
unknowns.[311]
Sutherland discussed products formed from reactions of alcohols with a
quaternary ammonium derivatization reagent to aid in interpreting data obtained
through the use of that reagent. Although the formation of multiple reaction
products is undesirable, the reagent has the advantage of giving very
characteristic fragmentation patterns with EI MS.[312]
Pyrolysis GC/MS was applied by Frade and coauthors to analyze lacquers from
Asia. Py-GC/MS was previously established to be the only technique capable of
distinguishing lacquers, films of which are insoluble and have complex structures.
This article represented a new method to identify the three kinds of Asian
lacquers using their characteristic m/z 104 and 108 mass chromatogram
profiles.[313]
Both derivatization and pyrolysis were used with GC/MS in several additional
studies. Doménech-Carbó et al. analyzed PVA resins in two separate studies.
The first used online silylation Py-GC/MS to characterize the resins, and the new
method led to the unambiguous identification of PVA. In this study, the authors
stated that they thought repeatability was improved as compared to conventional
Py-GC/MS.[314] In the second study, Doménech-Carbó evaluated the
plasticizers in PVA emulsions as potential carbon sources of
microorganisms.[315] Silva and coauthors analyzed PVA paints for plasticizer
content and evaluated the additives (surfactants, coalescing agents, defoamers,
freeze-thaw agents, and thickeners).[316;317] In their work, He Ling et al.
analyzed Chinese binding media to gain knowledge on the materials used in
Chinese artworks. Fingerprint ions for the various types were determined.[318]
Ketone resins used as varnishes were unambiguously identified by Doménech-
Carbó and coauthors. Compared to conventional Py-GC/MS, the online silylation
Py-GC/MS method increased structural information obtained for the materials
studied.[319;320]
Another study by Menke and coauthors applied direct temperature-resolved
mass spectrometry (DTMS) to the detection of four different organic pigment
classes: azo, quinacridone, dioxazine, and phthalocynanine in a variety of 35
reference samples as well as an artist’s specific paint samples. The authors
concluded that the technique provided the best results when used in the negative
ion mode using chemical ionization for the majority of the synthetic organic
pigments that were studied. They discussed that the limited fragmentation
provided a stronger and more readily detectable molecular ion pattern which
148

could be distinguished from lower mass-to-charge (m/z) species typically
generated from other constituents in paint formulations.[321] Lastly, Kirby et al.
reported on the use of laser desorption mass spectrometry for synthetic organic
pigments as employed in works of art.[322]
23. Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
Compared to GC, CE requires simpler sample pretreatment (does not require
derivatization) but the separation efficiency and detection sensitivity is not as
good. Two separate studies describe these differences. To demonstrate how
CE can be used successfully, Kaml and Kenndler described using CE for the
analysis of natural organic binding media.[323] Findeisen and coauthors
analyzed diterpenoic acids used in coatings and varnishes.[324]
24. Liquid Chromatography (LC)
The final separation technique applied to paint analysis was liquid
chromatography. Checa-Moreno et al. used HPLC with a diode array detector
(DAD) to identify proteinaceous binders. In such an application, traditional
means of identification are prone to difficulty. Therefore, SIMCA (soft
independent modeling of class analogy) was evaluated and compared to the
more traditional strategies.[325] In their research, Leo and coauthors used nano
LC-MS/MS with ESI to further apply proteomic strategies to the identification of
proteins in paintings.[326]
25. Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization - time of flight mass
spectrometry (MALDI-TOF)
Researchers have demonstrated that MALDI-TOF can be utilized in paint
analyses. Kuckova and coauthors identified proteinaceous binders in very small
samples and discussed how MALDI-TOF can distinguish among main binder
classes, is a relative speedy technique, and has low cost following the purchase
of the MS.[327] Soltzberg et al. used the technique in both positive and negative
modes to characterize dyes and pigments. The technique provided a convenient
and versatile method for such a purpose.[328]
In two separate publications, Hoogland and Boon combined MALDI with nano-
ESI-MS to analyze poly(ethylene glycol) additives in acrylic artists’ paints. In the
Method development and application of the technique to paints in described in
the two papers. In some instances, the authors assert that it was possible to
suggest a specific brand of paint.[329;330]
149

26. Infusion Mass Spectrometry
A final mass spectrometry technique investigated was infusion mass
spectrometry.[331] This technique involves simple hydrolysis and extraction as a
sample preparation technique that does not involve a derivatization step,
followed by direct introduction to the MS. In this artwork application, drying oils,
used as binding media and varnishes, were characterized.
27. Imaging (Tomography)
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a technique for obtaining sub-surface
images of translucent or opaque materials at a resolution equivalent to a lowpower
microscope. It is similar to ultrasound and can penetrate up to several
millimeters to provide cross-sectional images. Targowski et al. provide an
overview of the technique and describes an instrument especially designed for
art diagnostics.[332] Liang and coauthors report progress on optimizing and
designing an OCT instrument for in situ use in museums.[333] Adler et al.
discuss the technique further and claim that it is well suited for analyzing artwork
where a surface layer obscures details of interest.[334] In two separate papers,
Latour and coauthors use the technique to obtain pigment information and
demonstrate how the technique can be applied to wood varnishes.[335;336]
Computed Tomography (CT), another imaging technique traditionally used in
medical diagnostics, was shown to be applicable to artwork analysis by providing
morphological and physical information on the inner structure of artworks.[337]
Its use with radiography was discussed.
28. Determination of Materials and Artistic Techniques
A variety of the techniques described thus far were used to evaluate the
materials and/or techniques of various artists, collections, or geographic
locations.[338-344] Furthermore, a variety of substrates were analyzed,
including alabaster[345], archaeological pastes[346], drawings and illuminated
manuscripts [347;348], pottery or stoneware[349-352], religious items[353;354],
rocks[355], tiles [356], and walls[357-364].
29. Conservation, Degradation and Forgery Detection
A range of the aforementioned techniques were also used in various
combinations in order to study degradation/aging processes in painting
materials.[297;365-369] Since this has little practical application for forensic
paint analyses, the appropriate references are merely listed. For a thorough
discussion on the various techniques available for materials conservation,
including paints, consult Analytical Techniques in Materials Conservation.[370]
Further, Applied Physics A published a special issue entitled “Science and
Technology of Cultural Heritage Materials: Art Conservation and Restoration,”
Volume 92, number 1, July 2008 that may be of interest.
150

A review by Dawson discusses the basic materials used in the creation of art as
well as how these components degrade.[371] This article provides an excellent
foundation for understanding conservation and restoration. For a comprehensive
review of the most recent advances in the identification and determination of
organic compounds present in art and art conservation materials, consult
Doménech-Carbó’s article.[365]
Laser technology, specifically, appears to be well established for conservation of
cultural heritage. In his book, Lasers in preservation of cultural heritage, Fotakis
et al. describe the principles and applications of lasers in cultural heritage.[372]
Further, several journal articles provide similar information.[373-376]
Ultraviolet fluorescence spectroscopy was reported on by Thoury et al., where
varnishes were studied in situ on prepared samples as well as works of art.[377]
The process of teaching scientists and non-science conservators how to conduct
non-destructive, low-cost analyses was described by Brasuel and coauthors.
Using three different experimental models, the authors describe how students
use reflectance and UV-vis spectroscopies to detect forgeries in artwork and
estimate year of origin. They are also introduced to multivariate calibration, and
assessment of the organic components of mixtures versus pure materials via Py-
GC/MS data acquisition.[378]
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This is the FBI Laboratory’s publication number 10-27.
Names of commercial manufacturers are provided for identification purposes
only, and inclusion does not imply endorsement of the manufacturer, or its
products or services by the FBI. The views expressed are those of the authors’
and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the FBI or the US
Government.
181

Examination of Fibres and Textiles
Review: 2007 to 2010
Ray Palmer
Principal Forensic Scientist (Fibres)
The Forensic Science Service Ltd, UK
Email: ray.palmer@fss.pnn.police.uk
182

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
 184
2.
GENERAL
 184
3.
CASE
REPORTS
 185
4.
TEXTILE/
FIBRE
DAMAGE
 189
5.
EVIDENCE
COLLECTION
 190
6.
SIGNIFICANCE
OF
EVIDENCE
 190
7.
ANALYSIS
 192
8.
THE
TEXTILE
INDUSTRY
 196
9.
THE
FUTURE
 196
10.
SUMMARY
 196
11.
REFERENCES
 197
183

1. Introduction
This report catalogues the research, advances and application of scientific
methodology relating to the forensic examination of fibres since the 15 th
INTERPOL Forensic Science Symposium held in October 2007. This report
primarily consists of a literature review of published articles in forensic science
journals and the proceedings of various working groups between May 2007
and July 2010. It also contains references from other sources such as the
internet. This report should therefore be considered a ‘follow-on’ from that
produced by the author [1] in 2007.
2. General
The European Fibre Group (EFG) of the European Network of Forensic
Science Institutes (ENFSI) and the Fibre subgroup of the Scientific Working
Group for Materials Analysis (SWGMAT) led by the FBI, continue to be the
main organisations promoting and developing this evidence type worldwide.
Many of the citations in this document originate from the activities of these
groups and/ or their members.
The EFG remains committed to disseminating best practice and over the last
3 years has continued its program of themed ‘development’ workshops, aimed
at court reporting practitioners with less than 3 years experience. The 2008
workshop was held at the ‘Spiritka’ facility in Prague, where the topics
covered were identification, comparison and interpretation. The next
workshop is planned for spring 2011, with the theme to be decided.
The planned production by the EFG of a document outlining the best use of
fibre evidence in terrorist cases is now complete and the official launch of the
“Fibre and Textile Evidence in Terrorist Cases - A guide for investigators.” will
take place at the 16th International Forensic Science Symposium, ICPO-
Interpol General Secretariat, Lyon, 2010. This document is not intended as a
proscriptive laboratory or scenes of crime ‘manual’, but rather as a source of
reference for investigators of the ways in which the forensic examination of
fibres and textile materials can be applied to specific areas in the
investigations of terrorist casework, counter-terrorism initiatives and other
major crime investigations.
The information contained in this document represents a pan-European
collaboration of operational practitioners in this evidence type in direct
response to the challenges presently faced by law enforcement agencies
throughout the world. In addition, the revisions to the EFG Fibre Examination
Guidelines document (originally published in 1998) is almost complete.
Similarly, in 2008, the SWGMAT Fibre Sub-Group worked on revising the
Fibre Analysis Guideline, and began to put together an admissibility package.
The admissibility package will discuss the underlying science behind fibre
analysis, with the goal of providing a contained summary used to explain in
courts of law what forensic fibre analysis is. In 2009, SWGMAT published an
Expert Reporting Guideline. This document describes the minimum elements
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that should be included in a forensic report of examination to satisfy the
requirements of the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors
Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB)-International – Supplemental
Requirements, ISO/IEC International Standard 17025, and United States
Federal Rules of Evidence. In 2010, the Fibre Sub-Group finalised changes
on four chapters of the Fibre Analysis Guideline and submitted them to
SWGMAT for voting. These documents were approved and should be
published shortly. The Fibre Sub-Group is continuing to consider admissibility
guidance, and has begun discussion of data interpretation.
Colleagues in the EFG and SWGMAT continue to collaborate and
representatives from each organisation attend the annual meeting of teach
group. A summary of the background to the formation of the EFG and other
ENFSI working groups is provided by Becker [2]
The recent report of the US National Academy Committee on identifying the
needs of the forensic science community [3] highlighted the need for better
funding and a more unified plan for developing forensic science research in
the US. Whilst there is a temptation to regard the conclusions of this report as
irrelevant from a European perspective, the fact remains that many members
of European working groups are finding it harder to plan, fund and carry out
research due to the present economic climate and the increasing demands on
their time. Despite this, over the past three years our knowledge base
continues to advance, and in particular (see ‘case studies’), it is gratifying to
see the added value that fibre evidence has provided in ‘holistic’ approaches
to major complex enquires. The need to continue the promotion of the ‘added
value’ of fibres (and other trace evidence) has been well argued by Robertson
and Roux [4].
3. Case reports
Over the past three years there have been numerous instances where fibre
evidence has proved crucial in the investigation of complex major inquiries [5-
18], very often in providing an investigative steer through the provision of
intelligence and/ or added value to other evidence types employed.
Through the advent of TV shows such as ‘CSI’, criminals (and the population
generally) are much more aware of the potential evidence which may be
gathered from a crime scene. This so-called ‘CSI effect’ has resulted in many
instances where those involved in the commission of a crime have taken
active steps to remove trace evidence relating to their activities. Hutchinson
[5] reported on a case where the victim of a homicide had been transported to
a deposition site in a car belonging to one of the perpetrators. The
perpetrators then donned personal protective equipment as used by scenes of
crime personnel, and used UV light and tape lift techniques (as seen on TV) in
an attempt to remove any potential trace evidence from the victim. Despite
their attempts, significant fibre evidence linking the deceased to the vehicle
was ultimately recovered.
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The following case studies [6-8] show that (contrary to expectation) significant
fibre evidence can be recovered from victims of homicide deposited in an
aquatic environment and that this can be used as a powerful intelligence tool
providing an investigative steer to the investigative team;
Palmer [6] detailed the circumstances of the ‘Suffolk Serial Killings’, when the
naked bodies of five young women were discovered in various locations on
the outskirts of the town of Ipswich in England in December 2006. Two of
these women were recovered from a river after immersion for a number of
weeks, whilst the remaining three had been deposited in woodland and
exposed to a combination of heavy rainfall and wind. Despite the adverse
conditions to which the bodies of these women had been exposed,
combinations of fibre collectives common to all of the victims were identified in
debris recovered from their bodies. Fibres were recovered from the hair of the
two women immersed in water, using a modified palynological technique.
Using fibres as an intelligence tool, sources for these fibre collectives were
eventually identified within the home environment of a suspect, Steve
WRIGHT, who was subsequently found guilty of all five murders.
Sulkava [7] described a double homicide where there was a five year gap
between recovery of the victims who had both been deposited in an aquatic
environment (the first in the sea, the second in a lake). Using a combination
tape lifting, vacuuming, combing and washing and filtration of debris of the
clothing of the second victim, fibre and other trace evidence was recovered
which was to prove crucial in the conviction of the suspect.
De Wael [8] reported on a case involving the abduction and murder of two
young girls, whose bodies were found in a drainage canal three weeks after
their disappearance and subjected to fast flowing water during this period.
The address of the prime suspect in the case was searched and a number of
items of clothing interest were recovered, however, these had been washed.
Despite this, painstaking examinations were not only able to demonstrate a
two way primary transfer between the victims and the suspect, but also a
secondary transfer of fibres to the victims, from the duvet covers belonging to
the girlfriend of the suspect, via the suspect himself. The majority of fibres
were recovered from ‘concealed’ areas of the garments in question (e.g.
seams on inside surfaces). At trial, the suspect was found guilty and
sentenced to life imprisonment.
Shaw [9] presented a case study on a series of rapes which occurred over a
three year period in the state of Illinois, USA. In each case, the perpetrator
entered the home of a single woman, bound the victim and after sexually
assaulting them, forced them to bathe. The head and wrists of one of the
victims were bound with duct tape. Examination of the duct tape revealed the
presence of two distinct fibre collectives, however, nothing further of
significance was found on any of the other victims. Following a report of an
attempted break- in, the suspect, a policeman, was arrested. A balaclava and
jacket found in the suspects home were found to be sources for the fibre
collectives on the duct tape used to bind one of the victims. The suspect was
subsequently found guilty at trial.
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Palmer [10] described a case where various parts of a dismembered body
had been discovered in countryside over a large geographical area. The
majority of these body parts had been placed in plastic sacks and wrapped in
duct tape. Analysis of the adhesive side of the duct tapes revealed a collective
of blue flock fibres, as well as green polyester and cotton fibres common to
each of the body part wrappings. Having provided the investigative team
intelligence in terms of the likely sources for the collectives, sources were
found in the victims home – indicating this was where the body parts had
been wrapped. This address was now occupied by a business associate, who
had been claiming to be the deceased in order to gain access to his assets. At
trial, the suspect pled guilty to murder.
A presentation by Bennett et al [11] described the investigation of a murder
case in which the only trace evidence found as a result of the examination of
the scene, was a number of coarse, dark fibres which were stuck to the soles
of the victim's shoes. Nine of the fibres were grey polypropylene, 12 were blue
polypropylene, and 50 were black polyester. These fibres were found to
originate from the carpet of the suspect's vehicle, with almost all other
possible sources of the fibres being eliminated. At trial, the main issue was
the persistence of the fibres on the soles of the victim's shoes. Tests were
carried out in order to investigate the factors affecting the transfer and
persistence of carpet fibres to shoe soles. The case illustrates not only how
data from transfer and persistence studies on shoes formed a vital part of the
prosecution's case, but also the importance of industrial enquiries in these
circumstances.
Schwetz [12] presented the details of a case involving the abduction and
murder of a young girl in 1987. The prime suspect in this case was released
without charge. 20 years later the case was re-opened and a number of fibre
collectives were identified on the victims clothing. A search was carried out in
the suspects environment a sources for the collectives were found on blanket
and bed linen found in the suspects flat. In addition, fibres matching those of
the victims anorak were found. At trial, the suspect was subsequently found
guilty. This case exemplifies that meaningful evidence can be obtained even
where there are significant periods of time between the offence taking place
and an examination being carried out. It also exemplifies the intelligence value
of fibres in identifying places and items of interest.
Krauss et al [13] reported on an investigation of a case in which a woman was
found hanging in her garage resulted in the medical examiner concluding that
the manner of death was suicide. However, tape lifts from the victim's hands
and clothing, and from the scene and other locations were subsequently
examined for fibre evidence. Based on the discovery and examination of
greyish-blue polyester fibres and grey viscose fibres recovered from the
scene, it was concluded that the victim had come into contact with a garment
from an unknown person. A match was found with corresponding fibres from
an item of clothing found in the home of the victim's estranged husband. This
evidence resulted in this individual's conviction for the murder of his estranged
wife.
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Suzuki et al [14] described the investigation of a murder case the suspect
stated that he had found the victim's body when he broke into the crime scene
in order to commit theft. Consequently, the crime scene was reconstructed in
accordance with the suspect's confession, and the suspect's behaviour was
simulated according to the confession. In order to assess the reliability of the
suspect's statement, the distribution and number of characteristic fibres
collected in the simulations and during the actual investigation were compared
which revealed a significant difference in the numbers of fibres found at each
area of the victim's body, the mattress, and the blankets. The difference in the
number of fibres found close to the victim's head was particularly significant.
The findings were presented as evidence in court and the defendant was
subsequently found guilty of murder.
Sulkava [15] reported on a murder case where unusually the target fibres in
question, were blue denim. The victim in this case was a hermit who
possessed no clothing containing fibres of this type. The unusual
circumstances of this case are discussed as is the role of the fibre evidence in
combination with other evidence types in securing a conviction. The case
illustrates the context sensitivity of forensic casework and how a fibre type
normally considered of no evidential value proved crucial in the investigation.
It is interesting and gratifying to note that in each of the above cases of
homicide, the fibre evidence was used early on in the investigation as an
intelligence tool - exemplifying their value as a primary application tool, rather
than a ‘last ditch’ possibility (as is often perceived by some investigators).
Fibre evidence continues to be used routinely in the investigation of a number
of cases involving motor vehicles, where there is dubiety over who was driving
the vehicle in question. In order to correctly identify who was driving at the
time of a traffic accident or vehicle theft, as many seats as possible from the
vehicle(s) should be examined for fibre traces.
Majdic [16] described a case illustrating the importance of determining the
relative distribution of fibres from target garments on each of the seats of a
vehicle. The case clearly demonstrates it is not sufficient to consider only the
fibre findings from the driver's seat in order to answer the specific question
and emphasises the problems encountered through poor submission strategy
resulting from attempts to cut costs/ corners.
Whilst the distribution of fibres transferred to vehicle seats can be helpful in
identifying the putative driver, the use of examinations for fibre plastic fusions
remains the method of choice for this type of investigation. Schaich [17] and
Irwin [18] presented case studies exemplifying the power of this approach in
unequivocally identifying the driver of a vehicle at the time of the collision. The
presentation by Irwin [18] was particularly interesting, in that it illustrated how
approaches using blood distribution in these circumstances can produce the
wrong result.
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4. Textile/ fibre damage
Was-Gubala [19] studied the colour changes in several types of textiles due to
the long-term effects of exposure to laundry detergents. A 14-day study was
carried out using blue, red, and grey/black cotton, wool, acrylic and polyester
textiles. Colour changes were assessed visually by comparing the textile
samples with the untreated (control) material. Fluorescence microscopy (UV
excitation filter) was used to monitor the kinetics of the changes in the colour
of the fibres. The changes observed are assessed from the perspective of
both a fibre analysis expert and the average user/consumer of the products
involved.
Dillinger [20] presented the results of a study to determine the damage
characteristics of dog bites on clothing. This study formed an important part of
the prosecution case in the investigation of a homicide involving a sword.
A presentation by Bennett [21] advocated a more holistic approach to fabric
damage examination and presented a number of case examples in Australia
where they had found this approach to be beneficial.
Canetta et al [22] assessed the application of atomic force microscopy (AFM)
to the examination of nanoscopic morphological changes in the surfaces of
fabrics for the first time. The study material consisted of cotton, woollen, and
viscose textile fibres exposed to burial in different types of soil and immersion
in water (sea and freshwater) for various lengths of time. Examination of the
resulting AFM images allowed the surface texture parameters of the
environmentally stressed fabrics to be measured as a function of the
exposure time. The finest details of the fabric surfaces could also be
visualised, allowing the detrimental effects of the imposed environmental
conditions to be distinguished. This work shows that AFM is potentially a very
useful tool for the forensic examination of textile fibres for distinguishing
between different environmental exposures and forced damage to fibres.
De Wael, and Van Vaerenbergh [23] described a case where the charred
remains of a Molotov cocktail were submitted to the laboratory for
examination. The fibres and textiles laboratory was required to examine the
textile remnants in order to determine the original colour and characteristics of
the material. In this paper they demonstrate how a combination of
microscopy, microspectrophotometry and hot-stage microscopy allowed
examiners to determine the original colour of the fabric and the type of fabric
involved.
Hess [24] reported on a case where it was required to determine whether an
injured party had attempted self immolation or was the victim of an accident.
The various factors affecting the combustion of textiles, including propagation
rates are discussed. These factors, taken into consideration along with testing
of garments and solvents in question, enabled the investigation to conclude
that the injuries were self inflicted.
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Many of these cases have produced learning points for future investigations
and/ or been the drivers for further research.
5. Evidence collection
De Wael et al [25] compared five commercially available adhesive tapes in
terms of fibre uptake and saturation, recovery, and ease of analysis. Based on
the results obtained, a high-tack adhesive tape was selected for forensic fibre
sampling two different micro trace kits, the first of which is mainly used for the
sampling of vehicles and the second of which is a 1:1 tape lifting kit for the
recovery of fibres from cadavers.
Whilst tape lifting remains the main method of fibre recovery, Allen et al [26]
described the use of a commercially available plastic rod with electrostatic
properties, which can be used to recover fibres from surfaces inaccessible to/
or unsuitable for tape lifts (e.g. knife clasps, gun barrel, plastic bags). The
electrostatic properties of the rods, and the recovery rate are assessed in this
study.
6. Significance of evidence
Whilst there can be no doubt that the development of new analytical
techniques and methodologies are an extremely important aspect of fibre
evidence, even the most sensitive discriminating analytical technique is
rendered ineffective if its results cannot be applied to answer specific case
work related questions. In Europe at least, simply reporting the results of fibre
analysis in terms of ‘match’ / ‘non –match’ is becoming less and less
acceptable and there is now the requirement to place these within the context
of the circumstances peculiar to a specific case.
Over the last three years, work has continued to provide data which assists
the practitioner (and the courts) in evaluating the results of analysis. Much of
this work has been driven through questions posed in operational casework.
Palmer and Burch [27] performed a combined investigation into the transfer
and retention properties and fibre population study of the skin of living
subjects. Fibres were transferred to the bare arms of living subjects and their
persistence determined at intervals up to 24h, during which normal daily
activity was undertaken. Decay curves showed an initial rapid loss followed by
an apparently exponential decay. No target fibres remained after 24 h. The
length distribution showed a shift towards shorter fibre lengths and the
differential shedding results for a polyester/cotton mixture showed a small
bias towards the retention of cotton. The population of coloured fibres on bare
skin was classified according to perceived colour, length, generic class and
presence or absence of delustrant. The study indicated that perception of skin
as a non-retentive surface may be over simplistic.
A study by Chewning et al [28] was undertaken to examine the persistence of
fibres on the interior and exterior surfaces of ski masks during transportation
to the FBI Laboratory and during evidence processing in order to assess the
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case for separate examinations of the interior and exterior of a mask. To this
end, ski masks (n = 20) were each seeded with 50 test fibres on either the
interior or exterior only. The masks were subsequently packaged, shipped,
and processed according to standard procedures before the final recovery
locations of the fibres were documented. The results obtained suggested that
11 (55%) of the ski masks showed evidence of test-fibre transfer redistribution
at some point during the study, although the number of fibres transferred only
ranged from one to three. The study concluded that the probability that a fibre
will be recovered from the same side on which it was deposited is higher than
the probability that it will be recovered from the opposite side, but an examiner
cannot conclude with certainty that fibres recovered in the laboratory from the
interior or exterior of an item of evidence were originally deposited on that
side. In many cases, processing of all the surfaces together may be
acceptable.
In another transfer and persistence study, De Wael and Gason [29]
investigated the properties of microfibres as relatively little research has been
carried out into this aspect of these fibres and further data was required in
order to assist the interpretation of fibre findings associated with a murder
case. The results obtained show that large amounts of microfibres can be
transferred, although the degree of transference depends on the nature of the
contact and the structure of the microfibre garment.
Coyle and Jones [30] surveyed the use of flock in the interior of a number of
motor vehicles. All vehicles had samples of flocked material in their interiors.
Flocked material was found on the window channels, window frames, door
edges and in glove compartments or central console compartments. The front
seats of these vehicles were examined for loose flock fibres. All vehicles had
flock fibres present on the front seats. In the majority of vehicles, flock
originating from material in the vehicle's interior was present on the front seats
of the vehicle. The number of flock fibres present on the front seats varied
greatly from car to car but did not appear to be dependant on the type of seat
fabric or on which areas in the car were flocked. The potential for these to be
transferred to an occupant and the importance of taping the clothing of a
suspect, where a link to a vehicle is in question, is discussed. In a follow up
study [31], the authors performed a target fibre study to determine how likely it
is that a particular flock fibres from a vehicle is likely to be encountered
through chance. As with previous studies using other fibre targets, the authors
concluded an adventitious match was highly unlikely.
Dillinger [32] used a casework example is used to illustrate the investigative
benefits of examining textile labels on items of clothing in order to obtain
useful information with regard to clothing evidence. Such labels allow the
manufacturer to provide exact details regarding the production and sales time
period of the garments to which they were fitted. Also, the examination of
textile labels allows investigators to reach conclusions relating to the
authenticity of clothing, production figures, year of production, and possibly,
the point of sale. Dillinger [33] also reported on new technical aspects relating
to video imaging of textile materials and demonstrated how various factors
associated with this method could lead to erroneous conclusions regarding
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the nature of the garment in question being drawn. The need for caution in its
application and an appreciation of the factors affecting the technology are
emphasised in intelligence led casework.
7. Analysis
Due to the prevailing economic climate, now more than ever purchase of new
instrumentation and adoption of new methods of analysis are dependent upon
demonstrable improvements in time, resources and/ or increased
discrimination before uptake is justified in terms of cost. Nevertheless, over
the past three years research in this area has continued.
Biermann [34] carried out a study to determine the variation in blue and red
cotton fibres using light and fluorescence microscopy, UV/Vis
microspectrophotometry with particular attention being paid to the recurrence
of certain spectral patterns. The importance of spectral information in the UV
range is re-emphasised, as is the importance of colour in the forensic
comparison of cotton fibres. The author demonstrated that the combination of
tests employed can give a high power of discrimination, (DP c. 0.98)
enhancing the evidential value of red and blue cotton fibres in fibre transfer
cases.
Similar results were obtained in a study of non-denim blue cotton fibres by
Palmer et al [35] to determine the degree of discrimination obtained between
non-denim blue cotton fibres using visible-UV range MSP alone. The
discriminating power of visible range MSP was calculated to be 0.89 for 'midblue'
garments and 0.87 for 'dark blue' garments. Extending MSP into the UV
range increased discrimination by 7%, giving a discriminating power of 0.96
for both mid and dark blue cotton fibres, which was similar to that reported by
Biermann [34]. The implications of this study for casework are discussed and
a revised analytical pathway for the comparison of this fibre type/colour
combination using MSP as a primary screening tool is proposed.
Research into the application of Raman spectroscopy to the forensic
examination of textile fibres has continued since the last review, with
members of the European Fibre Group being the most active in this area [36-
38]. Despite this research, adoption of this technique into the majority of
operational laboratories is still poor, possibly because it has still to
demonstrate substantial advantages over the combination of existing
techniques and in many respects has been shown to be complimentary;
Massonett and Buzzini [36] compared Raman spectroscopy against
microscopy, UV-Vis MSP and TLC in the discrimination of acrylic, cotton and
wool fibres. The results of their study showed that in the majority of cases
microscopy and UV Vis MSP provided the greatest discrimination and that the
optimal analytical sequence varies with the fibre type/ colour combination
(according to the discrimination power).
Coyle et al [37] investigated the use of Raman spectroscopy in the subclassification
of cellulosic fibres. Whilst it was possible to distinguish the
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polymeric backbone of colourless fibres, the dye present in coloured fibres of
this type obscured this detail, rendering the technique unsuitable for this
purpose in the vast majority of cases.
Lepot et al [38] outlined five casework examples in which Raman
spectroscopy was found to be a good complementary method to
microspectrophotometry (MSP). They found that whilst absorption spectra in
the visible range may occasionally be characteristic of a certain dye, this
could be subsequently identified unambiguously by Raman spectroscopy
using a spectral library. In other cases, comparing the Raman spectra of
reference fibres and suspect fibres resulted in an improvement in the power of
discrimination. It was concluded that Raman spectroscopy is a powerful
method applicable to routine fibre analysis after optical microscopic and MSP
analyses and concurs with the findings of Massonnett et al [36].
Vann et al [39] demonstrated the ability of Raman microspectroscopy to
distinguish between rutile and anatase forms of titanium dioxide, an inorganic
pigment, and to make quantitative measurements of titanium loading in fibres.
Among the issues affecting the validity of the Raman measurements are the
spatial heterogeneity of titanium dioxide in the fibre, the polarisation of the
laser beam, and the polarising properties of the actual fibre. Levels of titanium
dioxide in single, delustered polyamide fibres ranged from 0 to 7.1% titanium
dioxide. Scrambling the polarisation of the laser minimised fibre polarisation
and orientation effects.
Zieba Palus et al [40] evaluated the application of the new combined micro-
Raman and micro-XRF spectrometer to the analysis of multi-layer paint chips,
contemporary inks, plastics, and fibres. The results obtained show that the
apparatus has real advantages and could prove useful in the identification of
examined materials after modifications such as the addition of an extra laser
and reducing the spot size of the X-ray beam.
As fibre and textile evidence is often encountered in forensic casework, it is
important that the forensic fibre examiner is familiar with the different types of
fibres - common and rare - on the market. This may prove challenging
because the textile market is always changing, with new fibres, finishes,
colours and shapes being produced. Akrap et al [41] examined the properties
of aramid fibres, a high-performance fibre type not commonly encountered in
forensic casework.
Dines and McEvoy [42] evaluated method of fibre cross sectioning involved
"threading" some of the fibres through a thin section of a shirt button and
fixing them in place with superglue. The shirt button could then be affixed to a
microscope slide and polished down to a very thin layer. This method was
said to be fast, applicable to all fibre types and provide good fibre orientation,
but was less suitable for short individual fibres. A second published method
involved using a pipette tip as opposed to a button. This method was
investigated and a variation based on combining the two methods proved
effective and far easier than the current method, based on cellulose acetate
slides.
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Morgan et al [43] studied the statistical validity of discrimination between
various polymer classes and dyed textile fibres, visualisation of significant
differences between groups of spectra discrimination, and tracking of spectral
changes with environmental changes. Fibres and associated spectra
contained in the database, combined with validated software, are useful for
fibre comparisons in casework and for quality control and the training of
analysts. This paper describes the application of linear discriminant analysis
to a database containing more than 5,000 UV/visible absorbance and
fluorescence spectra.
Abendshien et al [44] Reported on the development of the FBI Forensic
Automotive Carpet Fibre Identification Database (FACID). At present, FACID
contains more than 700 automotive carpet samples from private vehicles and
vehicle manufacturers. Questioned carpet-type fibres can be searched by
microscopic characteristics, fibre type, and/or colour information in order to
determine whether or not a particular type of vehicle was involved in the
commission of a crime. FACID can also be searched by vehicle make, model,
year, and/or colour in order to determine the carpet samples available for
comparison.
Ali et al [45] this study, a natural dye extracted from Eucalyptus camaldulensis
was used to colour cotton fabric by direct dyeing under a range of different
conditions. The aim of this work was to compare the fastness properties of
dyeing by different dyeing techniques. This dye shows fairly good saturation
on cotton and has medium-to-good fastness properties.
Morgan et al [46] assessed whether forensic fibre discrimination could be
improved by extracting the dye from the fibre prior to trace analysis by a highresolution
separation technique. Methods developed for the extraction of
unknown dyes from fibres, were based on three capillary electrophoresis (CE)
procedures for dyes from six classes of textile dyes. CE with diode array
detection is useful for the analysis of longer-length fibres, but a more sensitive
and selective method, such as CE/mass spectrometry (MS) is required for the
analysis of the small amount of dye (2-200 ng) associated with forensically
relevant fibre samples. The analytical approach was destructive, but only an
extremely small sample (approx. 2 mm of a single 15-um diameter fibre) was
required. CE/MS analysis was found to be capable of separating extracted
dye components and providing semi-quantitative estimates of dye amounts
whilst providing qualitative information for the identification of dyes.
Eng and Bhagwandin [47] investigated the effect of metamerism in the
generation of different UV-visible spectra. Metameric samples of blue textile
fibres, created using different colouring agents or different relative
concentrations of the colouring agents, were examined in order to
demonstrate their differentiation based on their spectra between 350 and 800
nm using UV-visible microspectrophotometry. It was found that some of the
metameric samples intersected at three or more loci, but some did not
intersect at all. In the intersecting spectra, there was no correlation between
either the dye chemistries of the relative component concentrations.
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Gallo and Almirall [48] applied microwave digestion inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and laser ablation inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to the forensic elemental analysis of
cotton fibres with the aim of improved discrimination. A cotton standard
reference material was used to validate these methods, giving good accuracy
with typically

8. The textile industry
The present worldwide economic climate means that more than ever, the
textile industry is in a state of flux, with availability and price or raw materials,
increased costs of labour, transportation etc. influencing the industry. Despite
this, all predictions are that the industry will expand, particularly in Asia and
China. By far the most useful tool in monitoring developments in the textile
industry (including the development and/ or emergence of new fibre types) is
the internet. To this end, the URL’s listed in the reference section [51-60] are
useful, but by no means exhaustive.
9. The future
From the case studies presented over the past three years, it is gratifying to
see examples of where fibre evidence has been used extremely effectively in
conjunction with other evidence types. Over the last few years fibre
examinations have continued to demonstrate their value as a powerful
intelligence tool in large complex enquiries, providing invaluable investigative
steers.
Practitioners, investigators and members of the judiciary need to consider a
more holistic approach in the application of forensic science to the
investigation of major crime. There has been a tendency for many to take a
blinkered approach, rather than pausing to consider, “what question am I
trying to answer?”, “What is the best way of doing this?” The future success of
fibre examinations is not solely in developments in our understanding of the
mechanisms of fibre transfer, or in the development of more discriminating
means of analysis, but in an acknowledgement of how this evidence type can
provide added value in combination with other evidence types.
It has often been said that DNA evidence can provide the “who?” part of the
equation, whilst fibres the “how?” and “when?” Whatever the accuracy of this
statement, the truth of the matter is that proper case assessment and
examination strategy planning, are the key to the future success and
development of not only fibre evidence, but to forensic science as a whole.
The EFG and SWGMAT will continue to be key in promoting and embedding
this philosophy.
10. Summary
Despite the pressures on practitioners, the considerable amount of work
relating to the forensic examination of fibres and textile materials over the last
three years, continues not only to demonstrate a willingness to develop this
evidence type, but also to address the cogent issues facing them.
In the previous 2007 report [1], the author wrote “With the increased threat of
terrorism, law enforcement agencies are continually looking to forensic
science for the provision of intelligence in these (often) complex investigations
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- not only to identify the perpetrators of a specific attack, but also in preventing
future incidents.”
The ENFSI European Fibre Group has risen to the challenge and it is hoped
that the “Fibre and Textile Evidence in Terrorist Cases - A guide for
investigators.” document will become a useful aid in casework examination
and strategy setting, not only in cases of terrorism, but in cases of major crime
generally.
11. References
1. Palmer, R. The Forensic Examination of Fibres - A Review: 2004 to 2007.
Proceedings 15th International Forensic Science Symposium Interpol,
Lyon; 2007; October; P6-24.
2. Becker, S. Development of Trace Evidence in Europe. Proceedings Trace
Evidence Symposium, Clearwater Beach Florida; 2007; August; P1-11.
3. Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A path forward. The
National Academy of Sciences, 2009.
4. Robertson, J., Roux, C. Trace Evidence: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow?
Science and Justice; 2010; V50; P18-22.
5. Hutchinson W. The CSI effect – a casework example. Proceedings of the
16 th European Fibres Group Meeting, Budapest, Hungary: June 2008
6. Palmer R. The Suffolk serial killings. Proceedings of the 16 th European
Fibres Group Meeting, Budapest, Hungary: June 2008
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66. http://www.ivc-ev.de/HTDOCS/index.html
67. http://www.trevira.de/
Thanks go to Martin McEvoy for the assistance in carrying out the literature
search.
200

Forensic Geology
Review: 2007 to 2009
Ritsuko SUGITA, PhD 1) 2) , Hiroaki YOSHIDA, PhD 1) ,
and Hirofumi FUKUSHIMA, PhD 3)
1) Trace Evidence Section, National Research Institute of Police Science,
2) Identification Division, National Police Agency,
3) National Research Institute of Police Science
Corresponding author: Ritsuko Sugita
National Research Institute of Police Science
6-3-1 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa-shi
Chiba 277-0882, Japan
201

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
 INTRODUCTION
 203
2.
 NETWORKING
AND
MEETINGS
 203
3.
 BOOKS
 204
4.
 ANALYSIS
OF
SOIL,
SEDIMENT,
AND
ROCK
EVIDENCE
 204
5.
 BIOLOGICAL
MATERIALS
 207
6.
 TAPHONOMY
AND
SOIL
 207
7.
 SEARCH
OF
CLANDESTINE
GRAVES
AND
MISSING
PERSON
 208
8.
 EDUCATION
 209
9.
 DATABASE
AND
EVALUATION
 209
10.
 CASE
REPORT
 209
11.
 MISCELLANEOUS
 210
12.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 210
13.
 REFERENCES
 211
202

1. Introduction
This review article covers developments and topics in the field of forensic
geology during the period from 2007 to 2009. The title of this review is “Forensic
Geology,” but the review is not restricted in narrow definition of “geology”; it
includes a wider meaning (1). Some practitioners have preferred to use the term
“forensic geosciences” in recent years instead of “forensic geology.” This change
in designation may indicate that more people of the field of geology and its
related sciences are being noticed and getting involved in the science for
criminal investigations. In this review, papers on environmental forensics have
not been included.
2. Networking and Meetings
Networking was accelerated rapidly in the period between 2007 and 2009. The
most significant movement was the establishment of GIN (Geoforensic
International Network), which is a worldwide network of forensic geoscientists.
Further, the international working group of forensic geology was agreed upon by
IUGS-GEM (International Union of Geological Sciences – Geosciences for
Environmental Management) in 2009 (2, 3). Dr. Donnelly had enthusiastically led
forensic geoscientists around the world to build a network. Before the
establishment of an international group, a key network of geoforensics was
begun in the United Kingdom (GIMI: Geoforensics and Information Management
for crime Investigation). There are also two ongoing projects in the UK. One is
the SoilFit (Integration of Soil Fingerprinting Techniques for Forensic
Applications) project (4), which is being carried out to investigate the potential of
advanced analytical methods in providing soil forensic intelligence to police
investigations. It is being carried out by a multi-disciplinary group of experts of
the UK academic and law enforcement organizations. As part of this project, the
group has examined various problems related to soil as both intelligence and
evidence in a forensic context, such as establishment of a statistical framework,
assessment of the variability of soil, and development of a geographic search
tool. The other ongoing project is the SoilFUN (5) (Soil Forensic University
Network), which was begun as a daughter project of the SoilFit project, based on
the collaboration of universities and institutes in the UK. Morrison et al. (6) have
reported the preliminary results of this project. A large number of undergraduate
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students enrolled in forensic science courses are learning how to apply their
skills in a forensic context.
The Second International Conference on Environmental and Criminal Forensics
was held in November 2007 at Edinburgh (7). The conference included seven
sessions, namely “environmental soil forensics,” “criminal soil forensics,”
“geoforensics,” “geostatics, databases, and geographical information systems,”
“biological and chemical analytical diagnostics,” “forensic taphonomy,” and
“communications and advocacy” with a public lecture “the global way forward” by
Dr. Robertson, and 31 presentations from the conference were published as a
book titled “Criminal and Environmental Forensics” in 2009 (8). The third
conference is planned in November 2010 in California, USA. FGG, the Forensic
Geoscience Group of the Geological Society, held a meeting “Geoscientific
Equipment and Techniques at Crime Scenes” in 2008 (9). In the annual
meetings of the Geological Society of America (GSA), presentations on forensic
geology were included every year (10). The topics cover a broad range of topics
related to forensic geology, including education, analytical methods, and case
reports.
3. Books
In addition to the book of Ritz et al. (8) introduced in the former section, at least
three titles were published in the review period. Pye (11) published a book on
this issue titled “Geological and Soil Evidence: Forensic Applications” in 2007. It
describes the types of geological evidence, the techniques applied, and the
evaluation of the obtained results for people not familiar to geology and for
geologists who have little experience of forensic application. Ruffell and
McKinley (12) released a book titled “Geoforensics” aiming “to show how various
geoscience techniques are used in forensic investigations.” Tibbett and Carter
(13) edited “Soil Analysis in Forensic Taphonomy: Chemical and Biological
Effects of Buried Human Remains,” which is the first book on the chemistry and
biology of soil related to the decomposition of human remains.
4. Analysis of soil, sediment, and rock evidence
Color examination is one of the fundamental methods of forensic soil
examination. Sand and dune sediments from the beaches of Portugal were
204

analyzed using spectrophotometer, and the results were compared (14, 15, 16).
A unique attempt of color analysis was reported by Marumo (17) using
computerized image analysis software.
Morphological features of grains using an optical microscopes and/or a scanning
electron microscope (SEM) were discussed by several researchers. The quartz
grain surface was observed by SEM and examined to determine whether the
surface texture changes at a car fire temperature by Morgan et al. (18). Millette
et al. (19) examined coke and coal particles by observing them under both an
optical microscope and an SEM in combination with an energy dispersive X-ray
(EDX) analyzer. The analysis of the chemistry of light minerals in soil by an
SEM-EDX system was reported by Aoki and Oikawa (20) to discriminate soil and
an automated SEM-EDX to analyze grain chemistry; the shapes were described
by Pirrie et al. (21, 22). Schwandt (23) presented a soil grain analysis using
optical microscopes and digital x-ray maps, which could also provide information
about the bulk chemistry of the sample by manipulation. The elemental data of
feldspars sampled at the beaches of a prefecture obtained by an X-ray analyzer
attached to an SEM was plotted on a mineralogical triangle diagram; the
samples were successfully discriminated by the geological backland (24). The
trace amount of soil and the smear of soil on cloth were examined by a
variable-pressure SEM-EDX; and was considered useful for the screening of a
forensic soil examination (25).
Isphording(26) stressed the importance of heavy minerals even if the amount of
these minerals in the soil was small because the types and their chemistry
reflected their crystallizing conditions. Biotite and its weathered material are very
common in immature surface soil in granitic rock regions. Their chemical
composition reflected the composition of other heavy minerals stated by
Isphording (26); this finding was considered to be useful information for forensic
soil investigation (27, 28). Bowen (29) stated some principles of forensic soil
comparisons and described the use of additional information such as
morphology, chemistry, and isotopes of mineral grains to individualize soil
samples.
The use of cathodoluminescence was described to screen and discriminate
mineral grains (30). Infrared (IR) spectrometry has long been used for providing
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the compositional and structural information of various types of substance,
including minerals before the wide usage of X-ray diffractometry (XRD). It has
been revisited and examined as a rapid identification method for mineral species
in forensic evidence by Weiger et al. (31). Newly developed analytical
techniques such as confocal Raman, laser induced breakdown spectrometry,
and laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrometry were introduced and
compared to analytical methods currently applied to forensic geology by Walker
(32).
Pye and his co-researchers continuously improved an analytical procedure by
inductively coupled plasma (ICP)–atomic emission spectrometry (AES) and
mass spectrometry (MS) as already mentioned in the last review (1). Pye et al.
(33) assessed compositional differences between different size fractions and
different samples. The method was also applied to develop a searchable
database by Pye and Blott (34).
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) is a significantly developing field of
forensic chemical analysis, and a network was recently established in the
forensic community (35, 36). The application of IRMS analysis to determine the
origin of carbonate rocks related to a crime was reported by Roelofse and
Horstmann (37).
The magnetic susceptibility of beach and dune sediments was measured for
forensic application (15, 16). A unique application of magnetics used in the case
of a car accident related to soil was reported (38) in which analytical results were
obtained from the evidence and samples of two suspected origins, where the
pedological features were very similar and were compared for discrimination.
The work flow proposed by Graves (39) in 1979 was modified as a simple and
easy-to-learn method (40). Iconology was introduced in addition to mineralogical,
micropalaeontological, and petrographical studies to link a suspect to the crime
in a simulation case work (41). A study utilizing X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
(XRF), total organic carbon content, and ion chromatograph were performed to
distinguish and estimate a region by Nagahama et al. (42) in a volcanic soil area.
Melo et al. (43) applied a sequential extraction analysis for a forensic soil
examination using various instrumental analyses such as ICP-AES, XRD, and
visible ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Molina et al. (44) and Reyes et al. (45)
206

examined the application of petrographical, mineralogical, and chemical
analyses for characterizing soil for forensic purposes.
The organic components of soil have not been considered to a great extent as
compared to the physical and elemental composition of soil. Bommarito et al.
(46) applied high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ion
chromatography to discriminate soil evidence.
5. Biological materials
The importance of palynology was eagerly discussed in many articles during last
period of review (1). Wiltshire (47) stated the requirement to a forensic
palynologist. Nesterona et al. (48) reported cases using pollen in urban surface
soil, which often changed by construction, for forensic investigation. The
preliminary result of a unique attempt utilizing testate amoebae for the
discrimination of soil was reported by Swindles and Ruffell (49). Testate
amoebae was recovered from dried sediments on clothing 10 years after the
case. Microfossil has been used frequently for environmental or age estimations
in conventional geology. It is applied to discriminate concrete (50) in combination
with a mineralogical examination. The plant wax in soil was examined by Mayes
et al. (51) for the forensic discrimination using GCMS.
Sensabaugh (52) overviewed the present state of microbial community profiling
utilizing a DNA analysis in soil and discussed the challenges to overcome for
forensic application. The spatial variation of bacterial DNA profiles was
examined by Heath and Saunders (53) for a forensic soil comparison on soil
samples obtained from three different ecosystems. As a result, small-scale
variability can be a problem, but the precise location can be identified. Meyers
and Foran (54) reported that bacterial DNA profiling may be useful although
variables, especially the time difference, should be considered on the basis of
the study on bacterial DNA in soil over a one-year period. Mcdonald et al. (55)
examined the bacterial, archaeal, and fungal DNA in air-dried soil and found that
fungal DNA was less altered than bacterial and archaeal DNA.
6. Taphonomy and soil
The number of papers on taphonomy with respect to soil environment has
207

increased during this review period and includes the book edited by Tibbett and
Carter (13). Carter et al. (56) reviewed the formation and ecosystem of gravesoil.
Microbial activities and the chemistry of soil around a buried cadaver were
studied (57, 58). Prangnell and McGowan (59) applied a soil temperature
calculation method used in civil engineering to estimate the temperature of the
burial site. The effects of the state of the buried tissue were studied. Stokes et al.
(60), including changes in the chemistry and microbial activities in soil.
7. Search of clandestine graves and missing person
Searching clandestine graves by geophysical, geographical, and geochemical
methods are now discussed eagerly. Ruffell and McKinley (61) spared a large
volume to these issues in their book.
Jervis et al. (62, 63) presented the result of an experimental survey on simulated
clandestine graves considering ground water and soil data obtained by the
electrical resistivity survey method. The result of the comparison of GPR and
electron resistivity tomography (ERT) for the forensic search of clandestine
graves was reported by Pringle et al. (64, 65).
The effectiveness of the combination of geophysical and geochemical (including
hydrochemistry) as well as the role of geoscientists in the search was described
(66–69). Harrison and Donnelly (69) described the effectiveness, limitation, and
devices of a geophysical survey, and the usefulness of hydrochemical and
geochemical examinations. McKunley et al. (68) recommended the application
of spatial methodology, including geophysical information system (GIS), GPR,
hydrochemistry, and cadaver dogs to a forensic search. Parker et al. (70)
reviewed the search of freshwater bodies using seismic waves, compressed
high intensity radar (CHIRPS), side scan sonar, GPR, magnetometers, and other
techniques for forensic purposes. An experiment to detect a clandestine grave
using the difference in vegetation was also reported by Watson and Forbes (71).
The examination of the use of nynhidrin to detect gravesoil was also presented
(72, 73).
The significance of this topic is that there are many case reports on this topic as
compared to the other type of issues related to forensic geology. Ruffell et al.
(74) reported a false-positive case of the application of ground penetrating radar
208

and victim recover dogs to search for a suspected location as a “grave” of a
missing person with a discussion. Ruffell et al. (75) described a search for
historical mass graves using historical and anecdotal information, aerial
photographs, GPR, and metal detectors. Congram (76) reported the prospection
and excavation of a clandestine burial in Costa Rica utilizing a conventional
search such as the slumping and different plant growth and by improvising a
conventional archaeological excavation method. Billinger (77) introduced the
case of the utilization of GPR for the location of a potential human burial under
concrete.
8. Education
Forensic geology was introduced at different levels of education, including high
school (78–81). In Colombia, “Ibero-American course on forensic geology” was
conducted to assimilate geological methods for forensic investigations (82, 83).
9. Database and evaluation
Attempts to create a database for forensic purposes were reported. Pye and
Blott (84) gathered existing data from their past examinations of elemental
analyses in England and Wales to create a searchable database. The SoilFUN
(4, 6) aims to produce analytical data on urban soils, which are relatively little
known as compared to non-urban soils. Bergslein and Hovey (85) reported a
progress on a project to establish a database on the soil in western New York
using XRF and XRD. The difficulties and requirements were discussed by Aitken
(86) to determine the likelihood ratio of the obtained data sets of the chemical
analyses for a forensic soil examination. A geostatistical method was proposed
to utilize spatial databases for solving an intelligence problem by Lark and
Rawlins (87).
10. Case report
Cases related to geology and crimes are not only geological materials as trace
evidence (88), but as objects of mining fraud cases (89). Criminal cases and
fraud cases of mines, gems, and art were introduced to determine how geology
can help in solving crimes by Murray (90). He also introduced a new and
traditional microscopy technique applied to forensic geology. An experiment was
209

eported to prove a continuous gas leakage from an underground gas pipe by
the color of soil derived from the redox state of iron (91). Schneck (92) presented
case studies in which a broad range of materials were involved.
11. Miscellaneous
Seismology is one of the very important fields of geosciences, but it is not
considerably valued in the field of forensic science. It can provide the time, the
scale of explosion, and additional information of an incident by using its network
to help forensic investigation (93). Information on the persistence of grains was
provided through case works (94) and experiments (95). The advantages and
disadvantages of spatial sampling were discussed by McKinley and Ruffell (96).
The trace evidence concentrator system was introduced for the separation and
concentration of trace evidence from the soil by Smucker and Siegel (97). The
system used a hydropneumatic elutriation method for a rapid examination.
A review on the forensic sediment analysis was written by Morgan and Bull (98).
The difficulties of communication are not the problem exclusive to forensic
geology but of any occasion when specialists and non-specialists wish to share
knowledge. Donnelly (99) reported on this issue with some case work and Rold
(100) discussed the difference between geology and forensic geology. The
status of forensic geology in Russian Federation was described in two reports
(101, 102). Stam and Murray (103) compared the situation of the USA and the
UK. Molina (104) reported the history of forensic geology in Colombia.
There were also several papers written about the forensic geoscience for
geologists, who were not involved in forensic science (105, 106).
12. Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Dr. Dawson and Dr. Donnelly for providing us with information
about the networking. The members of GIN also offered us a considerable
amount of useful information. Dr Suzuki assisted us throughout the reviewing
process.
210

13. References
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%20regional%20groups/Forensic/FGG%20Poster%202010.pdf.
3 IUGS-GEM Forensic Geology. http://forensic.iugs-gem.org/.
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5 SoilFUN. http://www.macaulay.ac.uk/forensics/soilfun/.
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211

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220

HUMAN IDENTIFICATION
221

Fingermarks and Other Impressions Left by the
Human Body
Review :2007 – 2010
Andy Becue, PhD, Nicole Egli, PhD,
Christophe Champod, PhD, Pierre A. Margot, PhD
Corresponding author:
Prof. C. Champod
Ecole de Sciences Criminelles / Institut de Police Scientifique
Faculté de Droit et des Sciences Criminelles
Quartier Sorge / Batochime
Université de Lausanne
CH-1015 Lausanne-Dorigny, Switzerland
e-mail: Christophe.Champod@unil.ch
http://www.unil.ch/esc
222

ABSTRACT
The purpose of this paper is to review the scientific literature from August 2007
to July 2010. The review is focused on more than 420 published papers. The
review will not cover information coming from international meetings available
only in abstract form.
Fingermarks constitute an important chapter with coverage of the identification
process as well as detection techniques on various surfaces. We note that the
research has been very dense both at exploring and understanding current
detection methods as well as bringing groundbreaking techniques to increase
the number of marks detected from various objects.
The recent report from the US National Research Council (NRC) is a milestone
that has promoted a critical discussion on the state of forensic science and its
associated research. We can expect a surge of interest in research in relation to
cognitive aspect of mark and print comparison, establishment of relevant
forensic error rates and statistical modelling of the selectivity of marks’
attributes.
Other biometric means of forensic identification such as footmarks or earmarks
are also covered in the report. Compared to previous years, we noted a
decrease in the number of submission in these areas. No doubt that the NRC
report has set the seed for further investigation of these fields as well.
We invite the reader to use two levels of reading for the report: a summary level
and a more detailed level. In each subsequent section, if the number of papers
published in a given area is large, the subsection will start with a quick summary
(in italics) followed by a more detailed analysis of the research at hand.
Copyright ©, registered ® and trademark logos were not included in the current
text for better legibility.
223

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
 INTRODUCTION
 225
2
 FINGERMARKS
 228
2.1
 Friction
ridge
skin
individualization
process
 228
2.1.1
 Automated
fingerprint
identification
systems
 228
2.1.2
 Papillary
skin
features
 231
2.1.3
 The
individualization
process
and
the
judicial
system
 238
2.2
 Fingermark
composition,
detection
and
visualization
 243
2.2.1
 Composition,
aging,
and
persistence
of
fingermarks
 244
2.2.2
 Amino
acid
reagents
 247
2.2.3
 Cyanoacrylate
fuming
 251
2.2.4
 Oil
red
O
(ORO)
&
Physical
developer
(PD)
 253
2.2.5
 Dry
micron‐sized
powders
and
powder
suspensions
 254
2.2.6
 Nanoparticles
(nanopowders
and
nanocomposites)
 257
2.2.7
 Antibody
/
Antigen
recognition
 259
2.2.8
 Detection
of
fingermarks
on
thermal
paper
 260
2.2.9
 Detection
of
fingermarks
on
metal
and
cartridge
cases
 261
2.2.10
 Detection
of
fingermarks
on
tapes/adhesives
 263
2.2.11
 Detection
of
fingermarks
on
items
collected
from
arson
scenes
 265
2.2.12
 Blood
marks
‐
Fingermarks
in
blood
and
detection
of
bloodstains
 268
2.2.13
 Fingermark
detection
and
DNA
or
biological
fluid
analysis
 269
2.2.14
 CBRNE‐related
evidence
(Chemical,
Biological,
Radiological,
Nuclear,
and
Explosive)
 270
2.2.15
 Detection
and
lifting
of
fingermarks
on
skin
 274
2.2.16
 Miscellaneous
detection
techniques
 275
2.3
 Forensic
light
sources,
photography
and
digital/chemical
imaging
 279
2.3.1
 Alternative
light
sources
(ALS)
 279
2.3.2
 Photography
 280
2.3.3
 Chemical
imaging
using
Fourier
transform
infrared
(FTIR)
and
Raman
 281
2.3.4
 Miscellaneous
imaging
techniques
 284
3
 MISCELLANEOUS
 287
3.1
 Knuckles
 288
3.2
 Barefoot
impressions
 288
3.3
 Ears
and
earmarks
 289
3.4
 Lip
marks
 290
4
 CRIME
SCENES
AND
CASE
STUDIES
 291
5
 REFERENCES
 294
224

1 Introduction
This paper offers a review of the publication regarding marks left by the human body
with an emphasis on fingermarks. It will cover the scientific literature from August
2007 to July 2010. Because of the amount of material covered, this report does not
intend to be a thorough critical review (unless it was felt required) but merely a point
of focus and organisation of the available material. The material reviewed primarily
originates from peer-reviewed journals and published books although non-reviewed
electronic sources may at some points be used. Proceedings of colloquies will be
used only when available in the form of full paper conference proceedings. More than
420 references are covered here and, of course, we run the risk of having missed
important material. In advance, we apologise to any author(s) or organisation(s)
whose contribution(s) should have been mentioned. We also would like to thank
individuals, peer groups and organisations that kept us informed of current
developments and initiatives in the areas covered in this report.
It is now customary to start our review by referring to the review by Brettell et al. in
Analytical Chemistry (1) that contains also in some sections material that is in relation
to the present topic. It can be complemented by (2), dealing with fingerprint detection
techniques.
A major scholarly publication in forensic science has been edited by Moenssens and
Jamieson. This Wiley Encyclopedia of Forensic Science offers a range of papers in
relation to fingerprints and human marks and the individualisation process: A
discussion on individualisation is presented in (3). Aitken (4) presents different
probabilistic tools used in forensic science (relative frequency, discriminating power,
significance probabilities, likelihood ratio, and Bayesian networks). The author also
discusses errors, e.g. the prosecutor’s fallacy, as well as a history of the different
statistical tools used. Koehler (5) discusses how evidence is presented and
understood in court. The author explains that a ‘match’ only indicates that no
distinguishing characteristics were found between evidentiary marking and potential
source, but does not indicate the evidentiary strength of this absence of distinction.
Different ways of presenting statistical evidence are discussed as well as different
misunderstandings of these statistics that can arise from the jury as well as the
expert. More generally, Moenssens (6) discusses all demonstrative evidence (of
which fingerprint evidence is a part if charting is used), and the necessity that the
probative effect outweigh the prejudicial impact for the evidence to be admissible.
One chapter is on observer effects in forensic science (7). Identification of human
remains, including the use of fingerprints and techniques for obtaining fingerprints
from decomposed, mummified or burnt bodies is the subject of a further chapter (8).
Concerning fingerprints more generally, the anatomy of hands and feet as well as
morphogenesis (9), comparison and identification of friction ridge skin (10), an
overview of AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems) (11) detection (12,
13) and interpretational issues in the fingerprint domain (14) are included. Two
chapters concern footprints: One is very general and includes shoe sole impressions
(15), while the second concentrates on footprints of bare feet, feet in socks, and
impressions inside of shoes (16). Ear marks and comparisons are treated in one
225

chapter (17). Finally, a chapter on the photography of marks, impressions and
documents is included (18) in this Encyclopedia.
The field of biometrics is closely related to the topics under review. It is an impossible
exercise to incorporate in this review all the scientific work carried out in this area.
However a major Encyclopaedia has been published at Springer Verlag (19). An
overview of the forensic applications (20) along with specific chapters on fingerprints
(21-24), the Universal Latent Workstation (ULW) (25), cognitive processing in
fingerprint recognition (26), earprints (27) and footprints (28) are covered in this
Encyclopedia.
A biometric handbook (29) offers also a good overview of the challenges in
biometrics with one dedicated chapter on the relationships between forensic science
and biometry (30). Another handbook but on forensic science (31) brings an overview
chapter on fingerprints with specific emphasis on the situation in the UK (32).
The forensic science landscape will certainly change after the publication of the US
National Research Council of the National Academies (33). The report highlights
some major causes of concern with regards to impression evidence (including friction
ridge skin), to name a few: disparate training schemes, large subjectivity in the
comparison protocol, recent cases of misattributions, evidence of cognitive bias and
reporting practices that are tainted by a myth of infallibility. There is an urgent need to
deal with some of the issues and ultimately increase transparency and accountability.
The recent conference by the chairman of the committee, Judge H. T. Edwards,
gives a very specific picture of the current situation with regards to the NRC report
(34). An element of warning though: the report deals essentially with the state of
affairs in the USA and does not necessarily reflect the situation in other countries.
We can expect more contributions attempting to make explicit the complex set of
psychological and cognitive processes involved in the identification process. The
recent paper by Busey and Parada is a good example (35). Likewise, it is expected
that the amount of statistical research devoted to these fields will still increase. The
forthcoming paper by Neumann et al. (36) should provide the statistical foundation to
the operational assessment tool developed by the Forensic Science Service in the
UK.
The NRC report received a very important press coverage including the most
prestigious scientific journals such as Nature (37, 38) or Science (39). Professional
organisations have reacted to the NRC report. We will retain here for example the
statement by SWGFAST (Scientific Working Group on Friction Ridge Analysis, Study
and Technology) (40). The IAI (International Association for Identification) also
published a reaction to the NRC report. Here, the different recommendations in the
report are reviewed from the association's point of view (41). The IAI furthermore
sent a memo to its members, stating its support to many of the recommendations
included in the report, cautioning against asserting “100% infallibility (zero error rate)”
also advising its members not to state “their conclusions in absolute terms when
dealing with population issues” (42). During the 2010 IAI conference in Spokane, the
membership, following the recommandation of the Standardisation II committee,
approved to rescind Resolution 1979-7 and Resolution 1980-5 (that prohibited
examiners from providing less than certain testimony) and adopt a resolution
acknowledging the recent progresses in fingerprint statistics: “The use of
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mathematically based models to assess the associative value of the evidence may
provide a scientifically sound basis for supporting the examiner’s opinion.” (43) That
finally opens the possibility for fingerprint examiners to report strengths of evidence
spanning over the whole spectrum of support in favour (or not) of an association that
the observed features may bring.
The NRC report stressed the lack of a structured research programme that underpins
the identification process. We can only concur with this analysis; the resources
attributed to research in the forensic identification disciplines outside DNA are indeed
limited (this scarcity is somewhat due paradoxically to operational successes and
proficiency, e.g. fingerprint evidence). Such research efforts (some are mentioned in
this report) constitute the best response to future challenges.
A framework decision of the council of the European Union requiring its members to
ensure forensic laboratory accreditation according to EN ISO/IEC 17025 applies to
laboratory activities resulting in DNA-profiles or dactyloscopic data has been
published (44). This highlights the requirement to standardise forensic laboratory
work.
It is expected that the NRC report will also impact on how impression evidence, and
fingerprint evidence in particular, is received in courts, especially in the US. A few
fingerprint cases retain our attention here: In Langill, the court although retaining
admissibility insisted on the need of contemporaneous case notes associated with
the comparison process (45). In the case against Brian Rose, fingerprint evidence
has been challenged, initially ruled inadmissible (46) and finally accepted by the court
(47) even in the light of the NRC report. Both of these cases highlighted two
important issues for the latent print community: documentation and error rate. The
days of claims of 100% certainty in this area are counted. The case against J. Hull is
a good example of this trend (48) (see the transcripts of the Frye-Mack hearing). In
that case the judge accepted fingerprint evidence even though the experts did not
ascertain that they could identify the defendant to the exclusion of all others. They
merely put their evidence in the context of the limited relevant population. A
commentary on this Frye-Mack hearing is presented by Bush (49).
Finally the disputed identifications associated with the case of H.M Advocate v McKie
are under review by a judicial inquiry (named the Scottish Fingerprint Inquiry). The
associated report is due in the fall of 2010. All the documents used by the Inquiry can
be found online: http://www.thefingerprintinquiryscotland.org.uk/.
Another major contribution is the Fingerprint Sourcebook elaborated under funding
by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ). It is published in stages at
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/pubs-sum/225320.htm. Currently five chapters have
been put online. They deal with the history of fingerprints (50), the recording of prints
(51), the fingerprint classification systems (52), the documentation of friction ridge
impressions (53) and quality assurance (54).
A special issue of Law, Probability & Risk presents a good overview of various
arguments currently present in the fingerprint domain (55-60). Its content will be
covered in detail in this report. Fingerprint comparison and DNA analysis are aptly
juxtaposed in a recent book by Lynch et al. (61).
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A few general works on human identification have been published during the review
period. A history of personal identification, focusing on anthropometry, fingerprinting
and DNA from the angle of racism and the different concepts and uses of race in
identification is presented (62). Another historical review, but centred on the increase
in the use of biometrics, is proposed by Maguire (63). The forensic use of marks left
by papillary surfaces as a means of human identification is often traced back to
Henry Faulds. Recent historical research has shown that a French chemist, Paul-
Jean Coulier, suggested its use as early as 1863 (64). He made use of iodine fuming
to detect surface alterations on questioned documents. Concurrently he observed the
detection of latent fingermarks. At that point he proposed them as a means to identify
the forger of the document.
2 Fingermarks
2.1 Friction ridge skin individualization process
This section starts with publications on AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification
Systems). Here, in particular, collaborations between countries (the Prüm treaty
implementation), the reduction of the number of candidates to match finely through
database indexing or filtering, and tests on different automated systems are
presented, as well as studies on the interaction between the human fingerprint
examiner and the automated system.
The second part concerns fingerprint characteristics; studies concerning level I, II
and III details (including frequencies of various characteristics, sex differences,
studies aiming at estimating probabilities of random correspondence, improvements
in matching rates) are presented here, as well as works on morphogenesis,
influences on fingerprints, and the biological use of ridges. As far as possible, studies
are presented by decreasing generality. Finally, the section on the individualization
process and the judicial system presents first general works on considerations
concerning individualisation, then errors, studies on bias, and discussions on the
validity of fingerprint comparison and debates as well as studies concerning ACE-V.
2.1.1 Automated fingerprint identification systems
A general paper on fingerprint matching (65) and one on palmprint
matching (66) have been published.
Precisions concerning the implementation of the Prüm treaty are available
(67-70). Two articles pertaining to the US-VISIT programme are integrated
into this review (71, 72). The connectivity of systems is treated in (73), (74)
and (75). Two trials involving several system providers are published,
where the second investigates the usefulness of integrating extended
fingerprint features (76, 77). Database filtering, indexing and clustering
has been treated in the following articles: (78), (79), (80), (81), (82) and
(83). The interaction between humans and automated systems is finally
discussed and researched (84-86), including the use of expert
assessments for improving the system (87). Image compression is the
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subject of several articles (88-91) and (92) analyses a risk in image
enhancement.
The incorporation of the Prüm treaty is defined as follows: a decentralised system will
be used, where each nation has its database, and the contact points of other nations
will have access to reference data (67). A detailed description of how this data is to
be exchanged (format, communication channels) is provided (68). Estimated daily
maximum throughputs for the different countries (for different search modalities) are
available (69). Good practice for such searches is proposed (70); e.g. to start with the
most relevant searches, and to grade the importance between crime types.
An overview of past work on fingerprint quality in US-VISIT is presented (72). A
performance improvement by using two fingers and two stages (rather than
increasing the number of fingers used to ten) for US-VISIT has been proposed. This
two-stage process is compared to a two-stage process including two fingers and the
face (71). The two-stage process for fingerprints consists first in a minutiae-based
matcher and second on a texture-based matcher. The detection probability is
increased with respect to minutiae based matching both by using minutia matching
and face and minutiae and texture matching, but more so for the second option.
The challenge of the increasing use of data interchange has been thematised.
Discussions of both data interchange between countries (73) and between states,
cities and federal government (74) have been published. This second reference also
includes a historical overview and discusses connectivity between systems, which is
opposed to interoperability (74). The interoperability between systems from different
vendors and related challenges are described and investigated (75); in particular, the
reduction of information in standard-compliant minutiae templates (as opposed to the
proprietary format) significantly increased error rates in the different systems used, in
a test carried out on a total of 4041 index fingers.
A comparison between different systems has been carried out (76). The different
technology providers who participated in the trial were Motorola, Inc., Sonda
Technologies, Ltd., NEC Corporation, Peoplespot, Inc., SPEX Forensics, Inc.,
Cogent, Inc., L1 Identity Solutions and BioMG, Ltd. Each technology provider
submitted a software development kit (SDK), and the submission of research
algorithms was encouraged for the study. The test set consisted of 835 marks and
their ten-print mates, showing sufficient information to result in an identification
conclusion. Two background databases were also used, one containing 5000 records
and one containing 10000 records (50000 and 100000 fingerprints). The rank 1 and
rank 10 identification rates are reported, as well as other measures. Particularly
interesting is the fact that both the original images at 1000 dpi and the same images
downsampled to 500 dpi were used. Most software development kits showed an
increase in performance when 1000 dpi images were used (as opposed to 500 dpi);
this improvement was not huge, however. Also, while some hits were gained with the
increase in resolution, some others were lost. A related short communication has
also been published (93).
Database filtering, indexing and clustering has been treated in the following articles:
(78) and (79) use singular points for database filtering; indexing is proposed by (80),
(81) and (82), and finally database clustering is the subject of (83). The specialised
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literature is so abundant in this area that we cannot hope for exhaustiveness here,
but it was felt important to provide some entries dealing with this subject, especially
when the research work proposed has the potential for a change in practice in the
short term.
Matching performance is examined when plain as well as rolled impressions are
used, and different fusion techniques are investigated, at feature, score, and rank
level (79). Boosted max fusion at score level performed best; here, a rank-1
identification rate of 83% was obtained, which compares favourably to the rank-1
identification rates of 57.8% for plain and 70.4% for rolled impressions.
The NIST engaged in collaboration a range of AFIS providers and parties in the
definition of a new exchange format adding an extended set of fingerprint features:
dots, incipient ridges, ridge edge protrusions and pores. All relevant documents are
available on http://fingerprint.nist.gov/standard/cdeffs/. The new standard ANSI/NIST-
ITL 1-2010 (now in draft version 0.4) will replace the ANSI/NIST-ITL 1-2007 and
ANSI/NIST-ITL 2-2008 standards that address the interchange of fingerprint, facial,
and SMT data).
The use of this extended feature set has been the subject of a preliminary report
(77). The participating organizations of this trial are SAGEM, NEC, Cogent, Sonda
and Warwick. The number of marks used was 1114, and here, the mates had not
been found using an AFIS search. The different features of the marks used were:
image only; annotated region of interest (ROI); ROI, pattern class and quality map;
minutiae with ridge counts; extended features; extended features with skeleton; and
minutiae with ridge counts but without the image. Human markup was used for the
marks, while automated feature extraction was used for the 100000 (ten-print)
records used as a background database. When extended features are added,
performance is improved only for a subset of participants.
Kwan and co-workers propose to incorporate expert feedback into AFIS (87).
Relevance feedback is proposed as an add-on module to automated systems. The
examiners decisions (‘positive’, when the impressions are judged similar, or
‘negative’ otherwise) are used to transform the input space. When the examiner is
faced with a list of possible matches, the positive match declared will be used to
decrease the distance (or increase the score) by a certain amount, while a negative
declared will do the opposite. A new comparison will then be mapped onto a
semantic space created on the basis of the transformed distance (or score) matrix; in
this way, the short-listed results will be increasingly similar with respect to the
examiners assessment.
The use of large, computerized databases may lead to the discovery of impressions
that come from different fingers that show more similarity than what was expected
before the use of AFIS searches. This is the subject of an article by Dror and
Mnookin (84). In particular, the authors consider that the way fingerprint conclusions
are arrived at (in particular the sufficiency requirements for an individualisation)
should change with the use of AFIS. They also discuss the possible introduction of
bias through the candidate list and the associated scores. The interaction between
the examiner and the automated system is also the subject of an article by Wertheim
(86). The different necessary steps for a successful search in an AFIS were followed
on a set of 1368 images of marks. These steps were formatting (proper orientation
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and scaling of marks), encoding (annotating minutiae and singular points in the
universal latent workstation (ULW)), and comparison (submitting encoded searches
to various databases and examining the candidates proposed, identifying one of the
candidates if warranted). Failures occurred at all levels; however in the comparison,
only false negatives were observed. At least some of these false negatives were
caught by a blind verifier; the rate of individual examiner false negative errors was
14%. Furthermore, almost half (7 out of 15) of the examiners missed one or more
individualisations in this way, which shows that false negatives may happen more
frequently than previously thought.
Davis and Hufnagel have investigated the personal perception of NAFIS, before and
after its implementation. The study was carried out on a small sample of fingerprint
experts and younger fingerprint technicians (not yet having expert status). The
organisational, role, task and process level changes, as expected or perceived by the
fingerprint examiners, are exposed (85).
Wireless transmission of fingerprints for operational purposes requires the images to
be compressed; experiments have been carried out to determine the optimum form
of compression, allowing realistic transmission times without compromising AFIS
searches (or storing of the fingerprints in AFIS) (88). Image compression is also the
subject of two further articles, where a proposed algorithm is compared to the
compression algorithm used by the FBI (89, 90). Lossy compression standards, as
well as evidence acquired and used in a digital format in general and image
processing in this context, are criticised by Cherry and Imwinkelried (91). The
probability of creating a false minutia (leading possibly to a false positive) is
computed by estimating the probability of creating a square of pixels of the width of
ridge, with grey values that are within 10 of the grey value of a ridge (for an 8-bit
scale; for a 16-bit scale a difference of 2560 is used) by using an innocent image
processing method. This probability is vanishingly small (92).
2.1.2 Papillary skin features
Both genetic (94) and environmental (95) factors influencing the
development of friction ridge skin have been investigated, and a review
presented (96). How ridges are linked to mechanoreceptor response is
treated in (97),(98), and (99). Links between general characteristics of
fingerprints and gender identity disorders (100), schizophrenia (101) as
well as intelligence (102) have been investigated.
Finger number and general pattern allow the distinction between two
populations in the same country (103). Gender differences in general
characteristics of fingerprints, mostly ridge densities, are reported for a
large number of different populations (104-111); these data show that
while such differences are rather easily interpretable for a single
population, the values diverge between different populations and
therefore, gender discrimination is less easily applicable when it is
unknown which population the donor comes from. The selectivity of handshape
is shown in a biometric context (112). Creases are the subject of
two publications showing their usefulness: While (113) demonstrates
selectivity, Zhou et al. (114) furthermore investigate the permanence of
creases qualitatively. Two studies use AFIS in the context of fingerprint
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individualization (115, 116). Several generative models for fingerprint
individuality have been proposed (117-124). The addition of ridge points to
minutiae has been evaluated with respect to matching performance (125,
126), and minutiae frequencies have been presented (127). An operational
trial on an evaluative model has been carried out (128). Finally, twin
studies show that twins’ fingerprints are closer than randomly chosen
ones, but distinguishable (129, 130).
With respect to level III features, several studies concern their integration
into the matching process (77, 131-137), one study assesses fingerprint
examiners’ opinions on such features, and one study concerns the
reproducibility of pore areas (138). Distortion has been qualitatively
evaluated (139) and quantitatively modelled (140), and a different type of
artefacts appearing in marks is discussed (141).
Morphogenesis
In order to gain a better understanding of the genetic modes of dermatoglyph
inheritance, the dermatoglyphic traits after population admixture have been studied.
The populations studied are Liujia Han, Kam and offspring of intermarried Kam and
Liujia Han couples (China). Such marriages were not culturally permitted until
recently. In particular it is observed that some traits either increase with respect to
either of the parent populations (finger ridge counts and the whorl pattern) or
decrease with respect to these parent populations (the frequency of arch patterns).
These observations allow to suggest genetic pathways of the transmittal of these
dermatoglyphic traits (94). A review of studies concerning the ontogeny of friction
ridges is presented, concluding that these studies explain how the embryonic
stresses and tensions result in the uniqueness of friction ridges (96). A study carried
out using a sample of Dutch adults, identified through records of urban births during
1943-1947, showed that environmental factors (war, famine) influence the difference
in ridge count between the first and the fifth digit (95).
Biological studies
The influence of papillary ridges on Slowly Adapting type I (SA-I) mechanoreceptors
in encoding edge discontinuities has been investigated; three necessary criteria of
the lever-arm functionality are subjected to finite-element analysis. This results in
discounting the lever-arm model, and a revised functionality is proposed (97). The
function of ridges with respect to mechanoreceptors (spectral selection and
amplification) is investigated using a biomimetic tactile sensor by Scheibert et al.
(98). Here, the mechanoreceptors investigated are Pacinian corpuscules. In reaction
to this article, Dahiya and Gori, while acknowledging the added insight gained by this
study, highlight the fact that skin structure is more complex than the model used by
Scheibert et al., and that therefore their study cannot conclusively answer all
questions relating to the effect of skin structure on receptor responses (99).
Links between fingerprints and other characteristics
Several studies aiming at establishing links between psychological and physical
attributes (e.g., fingerprints) have been published (100-102). These links are at most
statistical and must be interpreted prudently.
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Studies on general characteristics
A study on two populations (two cities in the same country) using a classification and
regression tree algorithm is presented (103); here, the goal is to use only finger
number and general pattern for the prediction of a population that an individual
belongs to. The classification is expected to be correct, when using all ten fingers,
90.8% of the time if all ten general patterns of the individual are left loops or whorls
with only the right ridge count, and 98.4% if all general patterns of the individual are
whorls with two ridge counts.
Frequencies of various dermatoglyphic measures for males and females of Kavalan
(one of the Taiwan aboriginal populations) are reported by Chen et al. (104). These
include general patterns, identical patterns on the corresponding fingers of the right
and left hand, corresponding patterns on all fingers of one hand and on both hands,
ridge counts, atd angle, tPD, palmar interdigital, thenar and hypothenar patterns,
different combinations of palmar interdigital, thenar and hypothenar patterns on left
and right corresponding hands, angles and simian line on palms.
Ridge density in a sample of Spanish Caucasians is also reported (105). Ridge
densities of 16/25 mm 2 or less in the radial area considered are more likely to be of
male origin when using equal priors, while ridge densities of 17/25mm 2 or more are
more likely to be of female origin; for the ulnar area these numbers are of 14/25mm 2
or less for males and 17/25mm 2 or more for females. Sex-differences in an Indian
population are reported by Nayak et al. (106) ; here, a mean ridge count of 12/25mm 2
or less is more likely to be of male origin while a greater ridge count is more likely to
be of female origin. Ridge densities for a South-Indian population are reported by
Gungadin (107), where 13/25mm 2 or less are more likely if the impression is of male
origin, while 14/25mm 2 or more are more likely if the impression is of female origin.
Nayak et al. also report on ridge densities for Chinese and Malaysian populations
(108, 109) ; here, in the Chinese population, a ridge density of less than 12/25mm 2 is
more likely to be of male origin while ridge densities above 13/25mm 2 are more likely
to be of female origin. In Malaysian subjects, it is a ridge density of 11/25mm 2 or less
that is more likely to be of male origin, and a fingerprint with a ridge density of more
than 13/25mm 2 is more likely to be of female origin. The relationship between ridge
density and stature has however not been investigated. Furthermore, fingerprint
classification and gender distribution was studied in a South Indian population (110),
and no difference by sex between general patterns was highlighted in this study. The
reason for the observed difference between sexes as to ridge density is the object of
a letter to the editor (111). Data in relation to the general pattern present in the feet
have also been published (142). Duta (112) shows the selectivity of the hand-shape
as a biometric.
Creases
An automated extraction and comparison procedure for palmar flexion creases,
carried out on a sample of 100 palms with 10 images of each one, achieves a
genuine acceptance rate of 100%, for a false acceptance rate of 0.0045% (113),
thereby illustrating the selectivity of this characteristic. Crease detection has been
investigated by Zhou and co-workers (114), with particular application to the
fingerprints of elderly people. The stability of creases is investigated, and matching
based on creases and minutiae carried out. Also, the creases are used to remove
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spurious minutiae around the crease, within a distance of 5 pixels. The combined use
of minutiae and creases diminishes error rates in matching with respect to matching
based exclusively on minutiae, but only for the database of elderly people. On a
general population database this improvement is only very small.
Level II detail
The best way of analysing data in the form of match scores from a fingerprint
matcher has been the object of two articles (143, 144). ROC (receiver operating
characteristic) curves are compared to likelihood ratios (LR). Here, a LR above one
yields the classification result that two impressions belong to the same person and a
LR below one that they belong to different persons. For obtaining LRs, the within-and
between-finger variabilities are modelled using gamma- and normal distributions. The
likelihood ratio method outperforms ROC curves, but the performance of the two
methods is similar when large numbers of minutiae are available (143). However, an
analysis of four different matching systems shows that there is no definitive
underlying distribution function for match and non-match scores. Nonparametric
analyses on the discrete distribution functions of the four sets of scores (issued from
the four different systems) are presented, and take the form of ROC curves (144).
Note that while Srihari and Srinivasan (143) privilege LRs over ROC curves for
performance reasons, Wu and Wilson (144) use ROC curves in the nonparametric
approach. This second approach is, according to these authors, the proper way of
analysing such data, due to differences in the distributions obtained when different
matchers are used on one hand and the fact that the data is discrete (or can be
transformed to discrete data) on the other hand.
A study on the variability of minutiae in a Spanish population is presented by
Gutierrez and al. (127). The authors studied in particular the total count of the
minutiae, the count of each different type (where combined minutia types were used),
both in the whole fingerprint and in the centre (defined as a circle with a radius of 18
ridges) and periphery separately. The frequencies of the different minutia types are
given. Also, the number of minutiae on the fingerprint is compared between male and
female subjects. Differences are observed for the whole fingerprint, when the general
pattern is whorl or loop, and differences are significant for all general patterns in the
peripheral region, males having more minutiae than females. In the central area,
none of the differences observed between male and female subjects are significant.
Zhu and co-workers (123) use minutiae location and orientation in a generative
model. This work and related ones has been reviewed also by Dass et al. (23). Here,
a joint distribution is proposed, where minutiae locations are modelled by a bivariate
normal mixture, and orientations by a Von-Mises distribution. A different approach,
also using the model of Zhu et al. (123) as a basis, integrates image quality by
adding a model for errors in minutiae detection and localisation (124). An internal
report gives an overview of models for fingerprint individuality (145), proposing a
classification of models into grid, fixed probability, ridge-based, relative
measurement, and generative models. Generative models for birthdays, height and
fingerprints are described (117). The fingerprint generative model includes minutiae
locations and directions, as well as ridge lengths and the location and direction of
ridge points, where one ridge point is selected in medium ridges and two ridge points
for long ridges (none for short ridges). The parameters of the model are then
estimated on the basis of data (100 fingerprints and 8 impressions from each
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fingerprint, FVC2002 DB1), and the model is used to compute a probability of
random correspondence given the number of minutiae and ridge points in the
reference and query images, as well as the number or correspondences between the
two. This model is further described by Su and Srihari (118) : a mixture of bivariate
Gaussian distributions is used for minutiae location, von Mises distributions are used
for minutiae orientation and the ridge lengths are considered to be distributed
uniformly. Ridge points are described by the distance from the minutia, the direction
between the minutia and the ridge point as well as the orientation of the ridge point.
The distance of ridge points to minutiae is modelled using a one-dimensional
Gaussian distribution. The model, with a computation of specific random
correspondence probabilities, is the subject of (119).
Chen and Moon carry out an investigation of discriminative power using minutiae
data (location, direction). Minutiae location is modelled using a uniform (spatial)
distribution, and a Von Mises distribution is used for the differences between
orientations of two compared minutiae. First, the model for locations is compared to
observed values (obtained on different available fingerprint databases), and second
the model for both locations and directions is compared to known nonmatchcomparisons.
The ‘score’ is constituted of matching pairs of minutiae between the
(nonmatching) impressions. Good correspondence between the model and
observations are shown (121). However, in a following paper, the authors show that
the location of minutiae is not distributed according to complete spatial randomness,
invalidating this first model (122), and the authors propose to model the minutiae
locations using a quantitative stochastic model. The results obtained are again
compared to observed data as well as to the first model, and an improvement (better
correspondence to empirical data) is observed.
The neighbourhood of minutiae is analysed by Hsu and Martin. The locations of
minutiae are shown to be non-random (a preference of four inter-ridge distances is
observed). The relative minutiae orientations and positions are distributed nonisotropically.
Probabilities for various numbers of minutiae and numbers of nearest
neighbours are given. For example, the probability for 12 minutiae is inferior to 10 -30 .
The authors also show that manually annotated minutiae yield results that differ from
those obtained on automatically extracted minutiae (120).
Ridge points are described in (125), and their use for improving fingerprint matching
is assessed using a modified version of the Bozorth and k-minutiae matchers.
Minutiae types and orientations, as well as ridge types (defined using the ridge points
described in (125)) are used in order to compute a PRC (probability of random
correspondence) for fingerprints by Fang and co-workers (126).
Two studies using AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System) in the context
of fingerprint identification have been carried out. One makes use of AFIS scores to
determine the validity of fingerprint identification (115). Comparing mated inked
prints, and using a logistic regression classifier, a threshold is used to declare a
match. When this threshold is set to a probability of 0.5, the classification error is of
2.4 ± 0.1 %. When marks acquired by research assistants were used in a second
experiment, this classification error was of 4.5 ± 0.4%. In the third experiment, where
marks from a NIST database were used (NIST Special Database 27), a classification
error of 5.4 ± 1.0% was obtained (115).
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The second study aims at obtaining likelihood ratios from AFIS scores in the context
of 1:1, mark-to-print comparisons. Here, a within- and between-finger variability are
modelled, based on the characteristics of the mark and the suspects’ fingerprint
examined. All computations are conditioned by the number of minutiae that are in
agreement between the mark and the print (116). Two donors were used for the
establishment and testing of this model. The rates of misleading evidence in favour of
the prosecution (LRs above one when the impressions compared come from different
fingers) for donor 1 (donor 2) are of 0.3% (5.2%), 0.3 (3.2%), 0.3% (0.8%), 0.0%
(0.2%), and 0.0% (0.3%) for 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 minutiae respectively, while for these
same numbers of minutiae, the rates of misleading evidence in favour of the defence
are of 0.7% (2.1%), 0.3% (0.3%), 0.3% (0.6%), 1.2% (0.00%), and 0.1% (0.00%).
The background database used to extract the between finger variability consists only
of images from the same finger number and general pattern as that of the finger that
left the mark. An operational trial using a model to evaluate cases has been
presented (128).
Twin studies
A trial has been carried out on a new set of 227 pairs of identical (188 pairs) and
fraternal (39 pairs) twins’ fingerprints. Prints were acquired using a Smiths-Heimann
scanner and processed using Cogent software. First, the probability that level 1 on
the same finger of a pair of identical twins matches was computed and is of 66.71%
(46.41% for fraternal twins). The MINDTCT algorithm was used for the extraction of
minutiae and the Bozorth matcher for the computation of match scores. Distributions
of scores are compared for twin-to-twin, twin-to-nontwin and genuine matches (where
two impressions from the same finger are compared). These distributions all differ
significantly. Error rates are also compared between non-twins, fraternal and identical
twins ; these are 3.33%, 4.88% and 5.09%, respectively (129). Another study of twins
(298 twin-pairs, 42 of which are fraternal twins) also shows that twins’ fingerprints are
more likely to show the same general pattern for a given finger (56.92% for identical
twins, 39.44% for fraternal twins and 31.76% for non-twins. Using the MINDTCT and
Bozorth algorithms, the equal error rate for twins obtained is 6.17%, and 2.91% for
non-twins. Testing of the distributions of match scores shows that the distribution for
twins is different than that for comparisons between impressions from the same
finger. The distribution for fraternal twins does not differ from that of identical twins,
and the statistical test used does not formally show a difference between the
distribution for twins and non-twins; it is concluded however that the similarity of
fingerprints of twins is different from the similarity between arbitrary fingers (130).
Level III detail
A survey among practitioners has been carried out in order to clarify the definition
and potential value of level III features. Disagreements in definition could largely be
attributed to the wording or misunderstandings in the questions, but large differences
were observed among examiners concerning the expected reproducibility of level III
features, as well as their discriminative value (146).
A large trial on level III features has been carried out, using pores, ridge contours and
edge features. Matching capabilities are improved slightly by integrating level III
features in addition to level II features (136), using the Bozorth matcher. A short
overview of this trial has also been published (137).
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A doctoral thesis (131) investigates additional features for use in fingerprint
comparison, including ridge skeletons, pores, dots and incipient ridges. The matching
performance of algorithms is improved by the addition of these features. When
matching is performed in mark to inked print tasks (at 500 dpi) the improvement is
largest for the worst images, and for ridge skeletons. These effects are attributed to
the resolution of the images, which is small for the extraction of pores, in particular.
When the comparisons are carried out between livescans, the improvement is
greatest for the smallest areas used. In a second part, a fingerprint individuality
model is proposed, incorporating minutiae locations and directions, ridge period and
curvature as well as pore spacing. This model is an extension of one of the models
presented above (123). The current model is fitted to five major fingerprint classes
(whorl, left and right loop, arch and tented arch). Minutiae are clustered according to
position and orientation, then position is modelled using a bivariate Gaussian
distribution for each cluster, and the orientation by a Von-Mises distribution. The
ridge period is modelled using a Gaussian mixture, and ridge curvature is modelled
using a Poisson mixture. Finally, pore spacings along the ridge are modelled using a
Gaussian distribution. Estimation of the model parameters follows, and the model is
validated against empirical data. In the last part of the thesis, a touchless 3D
fingerprint acquisition device is presented. In particular, the interoperability between
these 3D images with legacy rolled prints is achieved through an algorithm
constructing rolled-equivalent images from the 3D representations acquired by the
sensor, and another to enhance the acquired images. The work carried out during
this thesis is also the object of several articles (132-134).
The usefulness of integrating level III features into the matching process is also
shown by Vatsa et al. (147), Zhao et al. (148, 149) and Jain et al. (135). In this last
reference, ridge edges as well as pores are used, in a hierarchical approach (level II
is matched, and then level III features are used). Matching results are improved using
this approach, also for images classified as being of low quality. But Indovina and
Hicklin (cited above, under Automated Systems) only find an improvement for some
of the systems tested, therefore highlighting that level III is not always useful in the
matching stage (77).
Pore area reproducibility has been measured on marks developed using ninhydrin
and cyanoacrylate. Ten marks developed using ninhydrin and 50 marks developed
using cyanoacrylate were used. The results show that pore area is not reproducible
(138), indeed, the % coefficient of variance is between 38.5% of the mean and
81.9%.
Distortion
The deformation of the skin under distortion conditions is observed experimentally by
Maceo (139). First, the anatomy of the hand is described in a detailed fashion,
describing the elements that are relevant to distortion. Then, the effects of vertical
and horizontal sheering stresses and torque are examined, first on stills from videos
and second on developed impressions. The two fingers used present different
general patterns (loop and whorl) and differences are analysed qualitatively. This
article is richly illustrated with commented images. A model for skin distortion in a
biometric setting is proposed by Maltoni and Cappelli (140) (as well as its use for
generating fingerprints and a discussion of the use of distortion to detect fake
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fingerprints). Butterflies (merging, overlapping or misalignment of two sections of
ridge skin) are discussed by Pierce and Turnidge (141), who present examples of
such merged impressions, and discuss how to detect their presence and interpret
artefacts due to this kind of distorsion.
2.1.3 The individualization process and the judicial system
General considerations of the individualisation process are presented in
(150) and (151). Errors are mentioned in several contributions (152-155);
the definition of erroneous exclusions is discussed in (156). The influence
of different evidence types (including fingerprint evidence) on verdicts is
studied in (157). A change in the interpretation of fingerprint
individualisation conclusion is apparent in (158, 159) and discussed in
(160); these conclusions are, according to these publications, considered
opinions (rather than facts). Bias is the subject of several publications
(161-171); here (162), (163) and (165) present study results, and those of
(162) and (163) show in part similar effects, while the third study has been
criticised (166, 167). The validity of fingerprint individualization (i.e., the
correctness of results) as well as the definition of ACE-V and whether or
not it is scientific are all questioned (56, 58-60, 172-178) (criticised in
(179))(180). Kaye makes interesting points on uniqueness and
individualization (181, 182). Two articles spell out the ACE-V process
(183, 184), while one study tests the validity of conclusions resulting from
the process (185), and one other tests the validity of conclusions on
laypeople (186). Finally, Cooney (187) inventories latent print training.
Koehler (188) shows shortcomings of current proficiency tests for
computing error rates and proposes solutions. Koppl (189) analyses the
relative cost of errors and systematic blind verification for felony cases
going to trial, and advocates blind verification.
A decision theoretical approach is proposed for the identification sciences in general.
The problem of how to come to a definitive decision (inclusion, exclusion,
inconclusive) using probabilities and utilities is described and elegantly solved (150).
The increase in the number of fingerprints (in the sense of the number of people on
earth increasing, and not solely of the increase in database sizes) and the possible
problems arising from this increase is the object of an article by Cherry and
Imwinkelried (151). The ‘return’ to the use of the Henry system is also advocated by
these authors (151), in particular they consider necessary to use the general pattern
information of neighbouring fingers for identifications of marks (if a mark is found in
conjunction with neighbouring marks that are highly likely to come from neighbouring
fingers).
A book with a part on fingerprints has been published (152). A perjury case, as well
as a few errors are included. For the perjury, the case of New York State fingerprint
examiners who identified marks that were lifted in the booking room as having come
from burglary scenes between 1982 and 1992 is reported. The error in the Rick
Jackson case is also reported, (two fingerprint examiners identified a print to
Jackson, and two others, who were called upon by the defence, found an exclusion),
as well as the Cowans and Mayfield cases. A large number of erroneous
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identifications is reported in Michele Triplett’s fingerprint dictionary under “erroneous
identifications and faulty evidence (not confirmed)” (153). Here problems with the
LAPD fingerprint unit are mentioned, as well as the case of a fingerprint examiner
from Seminole County, Florida (also mentioned in (152) and (189)). Only secondary
sources are available for some of these problematic cases, for the LAPD this is the
Los Angeles Times (154), and for the Houston crime laboratory the Houston
Chronicle (155). Although some of these errors remain unconfirmed, recent events
tend to show that profound problems concerning more than one case (LAPD
laboratory and the Seminole county examiner) persist and are difficult to handle;
therefore, appropriate reactions to such events should be foreseen. The results of the
CTS test of 2010 (190) support this conclusion.
A discussion of erroneous exclusions, taking into account the fact that there are
lower thresholds applied to exclusions (a single discrepancy that cannot be
explained) than to identifications is proposed; the author emphasizes that the way
false negatives are viewed depends on the individual. Also, the author discusses the
applicability of the logic of hypothesis testing, and type I and II errors, directly to
fingerprint conclusions. He proposes to rather view ACE-V as ternary predicate logic
(which states that an outcome of -1, 0 or +1 is possible) (156).
In order to address the question of how different evidence types will affect jury
verdicts, a questionnaire was given to jurors (n=233) and students (n=383); the first
question addressed the perceived accuracy of the evidence, where fingerprints were
rated as being slightly less accurate than DNA by both populations. The remainder of
studies is carried out with students only. The participants received a case scenario
(either a rape or a homicide) including different evidence types that were either
incriminating or exculpatory. Incriminating DNA, fingerprint or victim testimony
resulted in 100% of guilty verdicts, while hair analysis and eyewitness testimony lead
to 92% and 75% of guilty verdicts, respectively. For the murder scenario,
incriminating DNA evidence is the only evidence type leading to 100% of guilty
verdicts. Hair analysis yields 83% of guilty verdicts, while fingerprint evidence leads
to 67% of guilty verdicts. Victim testimony and eyewitness testimony lead to 55% and
60% of guilty verdicts, respectively. The results when the evidence is exculpatory are
particularly interesting: in the rape scenario, the percentages of guilty verdicts remain
at 15% (DNA), 70% (hair), 67% (fingerprint), 27% (victim testimony) and 54%
(eyewitness testimony), while these numbers are of 36% (DNA), 25% (hair), 46%
(fingerprint), 64% (victim testimony) and 27% (eyewitness testimony) in the murder
scenario. In this first study, only the location for DNA (and hair) was given; it was said
that the DNA was from semen found on the victim for the rape case, under the
victim’s fingernails and on her clothing in the murder case, while hair evidence was
found on the victim in the rape and the murder case. A second study addressed the
fact that this might have had an influence; this study was carried out with a student
sample. Now, for all evidence types, the location of the evidence was given. Also,
only a probability of guilt was asked for; the results are the following mean
assessments of guilt : 65.2 (DNA), 55.71 (blood type), 48.00 (fingerprint), 43.15 (hair
fibre) and 36.74 (eyewitness testimony). From a verification question, which asked
whether each evidence type matched, it appeared that a part of the sample where
only blood type was given as incriminating evidence considered DNA to be matching.
In the third study reported, different elements related only to DNA evidence were
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tested (whether pre-trial beliefs regarding DNA, the reliability of the laboratory, or the
style of cross-examination influenced the verdict (157)).
Starting from dictionary definitions of the words ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’, Leo
develops arguments in relation to different court cases where the use of the word
‘subjective’ was important, according to this analysis (191).
An important change occurs in the argument about fingerprint identification: it is
being more and more considered an opinion, based on the specialists judgement,
rather than fact (158-160).
Bias
Review papers in the subject of cognitive bias are now available (26, 192, 193). A
short summary of the research contributions made during the reviewing period is
given hereinafter.
Whitman and Koppl (161) discusses biasing effects of the justice system and the
integration of forensic services with the police, as well as reaction possibilities. This
article also discusses ‘verification shopping’, which consists in searching for
someone who will verify the original conclusions. Dror and Rosenthal describe two
previously published studies and carry out a meta-analysis, reuniting the effects of
bias observed in those two studies; the effect size thus obtained is quite large and
with a p-value of 0.015 would generally be considered to be significant (162). Bias in
verification has been tested for both experts (n=43) and novices (n=86). Three
groups were created for both the experts and the novices. The first group carried out
comparisons without any information (control), the second group received the
comparisons and had answers provided that were stated to have been given by a
fingerprint examiner trained to competency (low bias group); in the third group, the
answers provided were said to come from prominent and internationally recognized
expert (high bias group). For experts, there was a significant increase in inconclusive
opinions in the low and high bias groups with respect to the control group. This
increase is larger for the three different source trials than for the three same source
trials (only one of the same source trials produced inconclusive opinions). One trial
lead to an increase in the relative frequency of experts’ conclusion towards the bias
prompt; in this trial the ground truth was different source, and the bias prompt was
inconclusive. For novices, there were more inconclusive conclusions for the different
source trials than for the same source trials, but there were not more inconclusive
opinions in the bias groups with respect to the control group. There was, for novices,
an increase in the relative percentage of responses in agreement with the bias
prompt in the bias groups with respect to the control group (163).
Dror analyses the sources of biases that are represented by the four idols of Francis
Bacon, in order to improve forensic science by identifying such vulnerabilities (164).
A study has been carried out with 70 fingerprint examiners, in a way resembling
verification, and declared as an experiment. Examiners were in two groups, high and
low emotional context (an allegation of murder and one of forgery). This study did not
find any bias effects (165). The study has been criticised concerning both
experimental flaws and problems with the interpretation of the data (166, 167). The
authors react to both of these criticisms (168, 169).
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Busey and Loftus discuss bias in eyewitness testimony and fingerprint comparison
contexts, based on past research (170).
Charlton et al. explore the satisfaction in doing fingerprint comparisons through
interviews with 13 experienced fingerprint examiners. In particular, they highlight the
job satisfaction which is related to the sense of pride the examiners have with respect
to their skills, and also satisfaction with crime solving. Finding a match is described
as a buzz, a really good feeling, and examiners like to see cases through to
conclusion; there is a need for closure (171).
Discussions on validity of fingerprint comparisons and ACE-V
A special issue of Law, Probability & Risk, which appeared in 2008, is anchored
around the ACE-V process. After an introduction (55), the validity (interpreted as both
validity and reliability here) of the ACE-V method is discussed. This discussion
includes proposals to carry out testing for validity. Perhaps most importantly and
contrary to the current evolution of evaluation procedures, they propose the use of a
numerical standard for evaluation (without defining it), but also, alternatively, a
‘training and experience’ standard (56). The use of a numerical standard is also
defended in (194), as a safeguard, and to protect the infallibility of fingerprint
evidence. The reaction by Champod (57) to the article by Haber and Haber (56)
clarifies that ACE-V is just a protocol, which is general to the forensic comparison
sciences ; it does not insure reliability. A discussion of the usefulness of statistical
models, specifying the selectivity of fingerprint features, is presented, along with a
call for transparency including the spelling out of the ACE-V protocol. Cole (58), also
in reaction to the Haber’s article (56), denies ACE-V the status of a methodology and
discusses the irrelevance of the scientificity of the approach, highlighting the
importance of validation (and reliability). Mnookin (59) estimates that indeed,
research is necessary but that fingerprints could be used in court without the actually
unfeasible testing Haber and Haber require “so long as the fingerprint community has
done as much as it reasonably can do to establish the validity of its approach and the
accuracy of its practitioners’ conclusions”. She considers particularly problematic that
such feasible research has not been carried out by the fingerprint community. Haber
and Haber react to these articles, and the arguments presented therein (60). They
are also the authors of a book which describes the forensic use of fingerprints, how
fingerprint work is carried out, revises court-related issues, error rates and accuracy,
bias, training issues and finally fingerprint testimony (172). A book review by Bono
has just been published (195).
Cole emphasizes that it is the validity of the process that needs to be considered
(173). Here, the author argues that expert testimony (not expert evidence) needs to
be thought about, and that “evidentiary claims stand along a continuum of
trustworthiness” rather than being clearly separable into reliable and unreliable
evidence. In particular, rather than considering admissibility of evidence, according to
the author, attention should be paid to over- or under-claiming during testimony. He
then analyses fingerprint testimonies of 34 case transcripts (173), focussing on the
“source attribution moments”. These were then divided into Process Statements (the
mark was identified/matched to the inked impression), Source Attribution Statements
(the defendant made the print/defendant could be the only source) and Identity
Statements (the fingerprint was one and the same with the mark). It is considered
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that Process Statements do not really attribute the mark to a source; it is only stated
that the two impressions match, but how often this could happen in a population is
not assessed. Source Attribution Statements are considered to represent overclaiming,
while Identity Statements, which were less frequent in the 34 cases
reviewed, go against the principle that no two impressions could be identical. In a
later article, the same author argues that fingerprint individualization evidence
satisfies neither the Daubert nor the Frye admissibility standard (196). Mnookin (174)
argues that testing is needed to assess the scientific validity of a method, rather than
explanations of the premises and the methods used. She considers that to know how
a method works is less important than knowing that it works. An argument against
the usefulness of uniqueness and the lack of necessity for individualisation
conclusions in the legal system is presented in (175). A different approach to
uniqueness, individualization and identification is used by Kaye (181), who discusses
general and special uniqueness as well as ‘local’ and ‘universal’ individualizations.
The same author argues that very small probabilities of fortuitous correspondence
can reasonably be considered negligible (182). The author links this argument to the
way that all science works today: Some inductions which, according to both laws of
probability and Popper's writings, cannot be absolutely proven as true are,
necessarily, considered as such. This directly responds to Saks and Koehler, who
criticise the “uniqueness fallacy” which can occur when the frequency of occurrence
is smaller than the number of objects that exist (e.g. f*n

Furthermore, the authors propose to consider the premises of fingerprint
individualisation (persistence, unicity and classifiability) as a theory, hypotheses that
have not been falsified through testing to date and therefore, being supported by
evidence, have gained the status of theory (184). ACE-V, as applied by fingerprint
examiners in a laboratory, has been tested in order to assess the accuracy,
precision, reproducibility, repeatability and biasability of conclusions. Overall, three
erroneous identifications (out of 720 comparisons) were observed but were attributed
to transcription errors. Two of these were submitted in the course of the study to
verification and were not verified, while the third erroneous identification was resubmitted
to the same analyst, who did not repeat the error. Erroneous exclusions
were more prevalent and less likely to be caught in verification. Also, divergences
appeared between definitive exclusions (identification/exclusion) and inconclusive /
no value conclusions. In particular, some comparisons resulted in ‘identification’
decisions from some examiners, and in ‘inconclusive’ decisions from others (185).
Accuracy in fingerprint comparison has been tested using laypeople (186) ; it is
shown that some fingers are more easily discriminated than others.
Whether written training programs exist, whether they adhere to SWGFAST
guidelines, whether the interpretation of these guidelines is consistent, and whether a
difference exists between ASCLD/LAB accredited agencies and non-accredited
agencies concerning the training standards has been investigated by the means of a
survey (187). Out of 168 surveys sent out to members selected from the 2007
International Association for Identification directory, 75 were returned. 75% of the
respondents claimed having a written training program, and 72% claimed adhering to
SWGFAST guidelines. Five follow-up questions were used to determine whether
these agencies actually did follow the guidelines, and, based on these follow-up
questions, only 25% do. As to the consensus in the interpretation of the guidelines, it
exists in 7 out of 11 categories tested; the four categories where no consensus was
apparent are degree requirements, the duration of the training program and of
supervised case review, and the existence of a written pass or fail policy. There was
a significant difference between accredited and non-accredited laboratories on a
majority of the points examined, and the hypothesis that there is no difference
between these two types of laboratories was therefore rejected.
The shortcomings of current proficiency tests for estimating error rates and a way to
obtain error rates for fingerprints through proficiency tests is discussed in (188).
An argument for several verifications, including an economic perspective has also
been presented (189).
2.2 Fingermark composition, detection and visualization
This chapter is structured as follows: the first section is dedicated to the composition
and evolution of the fingermark residue under various environmental conditions. It is
followed by the presentation of the recent developments in fingermark detection, the
scientific contributions being classified according to the technique, the context, or the
substrates.
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The following contributions constitute recent reviews that can serve as good starting
points for readers not accustomed to the range of methods available in the field:
detection of latent fingermarks (197-199), forensic chemistry (200), and forensic
science (1).
When summarizing the experimental studies published these last three years, we
chose to focus on the “fingermark sampling” protocols, if described by the authors.
This encompasses the nature of the secretions that were used (i.e., natural/nonenriched,
eccrine-rich, or sebum-rich), the total number of donors and fingermarks,
the time between the deposition of the fingermarks and the processing of the
samples, and if depletion series were considered. A great versatility has been
observed among the contributors, with protocols close or far-off realistic conditions
(not necessarily casework-like). This emphasizes the fact that the sampling protocol
is a key-element to be aptly chosen since it will influence the possibility to compare
experimental results between researchers and to operationally implement a new
technique. In this context, the recent publication by Terry Kent may constitute a step
forward in the standardization of the sampling protocols (201). In this contribution,
some sampling protocols and testing methods were discussed (e.g., effect of
grooming, use of split fingermarks and of depletion series, timescale, substrates,
donors, and performance evaluation). Another study, proposed by Croxton et al.,
could provide a quantitative proof of the lipid over-representation in “groomed”
fingermarks compared to natural ones (202). In a third study, an original concept has
been presented to empirically quantify the differences in contrast between the ridges
(of a fingermark) and the valleys (generally: the underlying substrate) (203). The socalled
“relative contrast index” could help in assessing the actual efficiency of a
tested technique, and simultaneously provide a documentable and objective way of
measuring contrast enhancement that could be used to perform comparative studies.
In this context, Vanderwee et al. performed a literature survey of ca. 45 published
papers and reported the information that could be found in the manuscripts in terms
of visual assessment, scoring protocols, side-by-side comparison, or development
time (non-exhaustive list of reported parameters) (204). It would be interesting to see
if the forensic science research community will follow these advices and propositions
in the coming years.
2.2.1 Composition, aging, and persistence of fingermarks
Attempts to correlate the chemical composition of latent fingermarks with
the age of the individuals who have left them were published (205, 206),
both concluding that it is possible to estimate the age of an unknown
individual by analyzing the infrared spectra of marks. In another study, the
analysis of the amino acid composition of latent fingermarks was used as
a witness of a genetic disease (207). Finally, the composition in amino
acids and lipids between natural and sebum-rich fingermarks was
compared using GC-MS (202).
The persistence of fingermarks under wet conditions has been
investigated by various authors (208-210). If all emphasized the
successful processing of wetted substrates to detect latent fingermarks,
their conclusions differed about the techniques to be applied in such
situation. Finally, photo- and thermal-degradation of eccrine secretion
components has been studied (211).
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Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to determine if changes in
fingermark composition could be correlated with the age of the person that has left
the mark (205). For this study, latent fingermarks deposited on tin plates by 78
individuals aging from four to 68 years were considered. Analyses were performed
24 hours after deposition for children (0-19 years), and 48 hours after deposition for
adults (20-70 years). The results showed that a combination of constituents could be
found, whose composition linearly changes with age, with a significant shift around
puberty. A linear model of age as a function of the FTIR spectrum has been
proposed, with a root mean square error of calibration of less than four years. This
linear model shows an inflection at the age of 25. If two linear models were
constructed (i.e., for people

In the context of standardization of the fingermark sampling protocols, the study
proposed by Croxton et al. showed that lipids are logically over represented in
“groomed” fingermarks (i.e., when the donors are asked to rub their fingers on their
face or hair prior the deposition of fingermarks) compared to natural marks (202).
Eighteen donors were asked to leave “natural” fingermarks and sebum-rich ones on
a non-porous substrate. All the fingermarks were immediately analysed using gas
chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). On average, fatty acid
content could be over represented by a ratio of 4:1, squalene by a ratio of 16:1, and
the total sebaceous mass by a ratio of 6:1, compared to natural marks. This over
representation in lipids could seriously compromise the validity of some published
results. It should be noted that the amino acid composition remained significantly
similar between the two kinds of fingermarks. Moreover, the relative abundance of
amino acids was consistent with previously published studies (212), with serine as
the most abundant amino acid followed by glycine, alanine and aspartic acid. Finally,
no correlation between the total amount of fatty acids and of amino acids was
observed in both kinds of fingermarks. This result seems logical since these
chemicals are secreted by different glands.
Soltyszewski et al. studied the effect of water on the recovery of fingermarks and
DNA profiling (209). For this study, 456 sebum-rich fingermarks were left by eight
donors, on glass (10 seconds of contact time, medium pressure). Additionally, four
different kinds of water (i.e., river, sea, tap, and distilled), two temperature conditions
(i.e., 5 and 20°C), and six immersion times (from one day to 42 days) were
considered. The samples were then dried, processed by three fingermark detection
techniques (i.e., aluminium and ferromagnetic powders, and cyanoacrylate), then
swabbed for DNA profiling. Fingermarks were successfully retrieved for items being
submerged in water for up to six weeks, with high success rates for one to seven
days of immersion. Ferromagnetic powder and cyanoacrylate fuming showed to be
more effective than aluminium powder. The quality of the fingermarks nevertheless
decreased as the immersion times increased, and as the water temperature rose
from 5°C to 20°C. Finally, no DNA profile could be obtained regardless of the tested
conditions.
Kerr et al. investigated the effect of water immersion on the efficiency of the
commonly used fingermark detection techniques (208). For this study, non-enriched
fingermarks were left on glass before being immersed in different water baths (i.e.,
cold, 50°C, or soapy) for varying times (i.e., five seconds and one minute). It should
be noted that the fingermark aging time (i.e., the time left between the deposition of
the marks and their wetting) has not been specified by the authors. We assume that
the freshly deposited marks were immediately rinsed after their deposition. Nine
fingermark detection techniques were compared (i.e., aluminium and gold powders,
small particle reagent – SPR, eosin blue, erythrosine B, physical developer - PD,
gentian violet, sudan black, and cyanoacrylate fuming) according to their ability to
reproduce ridge details. As a conclusion, the authors recommend to first air dry
wetted glass samples vertically, before processing them with either aluminium or gold
powder. If vertical drying is impossible, they recommend using SPR while the
samples are still wet. It should be noted that cyanoacrylate fuming gave poor results
on the dried samples, which is in contradiction with the above-described study (209).
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Wood & James investigated the persistence of latent fingermarks left on white paper
and uPVC plastic immersed in different kinds of water (i.e., river, rain, and tap) or in
an accelerant (i.e., unleaded petrol) (210). For this study, freshly-deposited sebumrich
fingermarks from one donor were used. The items were immersed in the different
liquids for varying times (i.e., one hour, 24 hours and one week) before being dried
and processed with commonly used fingermark detection techniques (i.e., magnetic
powder, iodine fuming, ninhydrin, cyanoacrylate, SPR, PD, oil red O - ORO). On
paper, the latent fingermarks were found to persist for over a week when immersed
in water with successful application of magnetic powder, PD and ORO. After one
week, identifiable marks were obtained only with ORO. Logically, ninhydrin gave poor
results regardless of the immersion times due to the amino acids solubility in water. A
more pronounced detrimental effect has been observed for the items immersed in the
accelerant, with identifiable marks detected only for a 24-hour immersion time, using
ninhydrin. On plastic, marks were easily detected after a water immersion for over a
week, using all the compared techniques (with the notable exception of iodine
fuming). The detrimental effect of the accelerant has been less than for the paper,
with successful detection for all immersion times and techniques (except iodine
fuming). Among the tested techniques, the authors recommend the use of ORO and
SPR to detect fingermarks on porous and non-porous substrates, respectively.
To study the effect of sunlight exposure and temperature on eccrine secretions,
aqueous standard solutions of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine,
ornithine, serine, threonine, urea, and lactic acid were prepared (211). The photodegradation
study was performed as follows: the standards were deposited on Teflon
disks and steel coupons, then allowed to dry overnight in the dark before being
exposed to a 200–500 Watt Xe⁄HgXe arc lamp for varying times (up to ca. 3h40),
corresponding to sunlight exposure times ranging from 0 to 56 days. The thermaldegradation
study was performed by depositing the standards on galvanized steel,
then allowing them to dry overnight in the dark before being exposed to temperatures
ranging from 50 to 150°C using a heat gun. Mass spectrometry was used to analyse
the samples afterwards. No notable photo-degradation of the amino acids and urea
was observed for both substrates, even after 56 days of sunlight exposure. Lactic
acid however quickly underwent degradation (already after two days), leading to the
generation of pyruvic acid which subsequently also underwent degradation. A
substantial thermal degradation of the amino acids and urea occurred for
temperatures above 100°C. For lactic acid, the thermal degradation started between
50 and 100°C (along with pyruvic acid generation and subsequent degradation).
2.2.2 Amino acid reagents
The use of amino acid sensitive reagents still constitutes the method of
choice to detect latent fingermarks on porous substrates. Even if such
reagents have been known for a long time (199) and are widely used in
casework, two major contributions have somewhat renewed the subject.
First, the development of an amino acid standard obtained by printing a
pattern using a modified inkjet printer (213), and a collaborative test
carried out using this standard (214). Second, a thorough study detailing
the intimate mechanisms of the reaction of amino acids with ninhydrin,
1,8-diazafluoren-9-one (DFO) and 1,2-indanedione/zinc (215). Besides
these contributions, the use of promising ninhydrin analogues has been
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investigated (216-218), as well as the effect of pressure and sweat on the
quality of ninhydrin-processed fingermarks (219). An alternative to the use
of a temperature- and humidity-controlled development cupboard has also
been proposed (220). Concerning DFO, Schwarz and Beisel proposed a
new formulation, said to be more robust against the formation of two
phases (221). The studies on 1,2-indanedione were mainly focused on the
optimization of the formulations and of the development procedures (222-
224). Finally, lawsone (225) and isatin (226) were proposed as new
promising amino acid reagents, while pDMAC was proved to actually react
with amino acids, and not with urea as it was thought for long (227).
Ninhydrin and analogues
A computational study, initiated by Petraco et al. (see Interpol report 2004-2007) on
the reaction mechanisms between ninhydrin (and analogues) and amino acids, has
been pursued (216). According to their conclusions, some analogues could constitute
promising substitutes for ninhydrin and should be synthesized for experimental tests.
Following their research on a one-stage “ninhydrin / metal salt” premix formulation
behaving like a dual reagent (i.e., leading to both coloured and luminescent
fingermarks), Almog et al. showed that the use of commercially available ninhydrin
analogues led to better results (217). By mixing 5-methoxyninhydrin (MN) or 5methylthioninhydrin
(MTN) with zinc or cadmium salts, coloured fingermarks could be
obtained (MN: orange with zinc, and pink with cadmium; MTN: pink with zinc, and red
with cadmium) and observed in luminescence at room temperature, without the use
of liquid nitrogen. The “MTN ⁄ ZnCl2” gave the best results, with fluorescence intensity
comparable to the one of 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one (DFO), but with a much stronger
visible colour. If classified according to the colour, the different reagents were ranked
as follows: MTN/ZnCl2 ≅ MN/ZnCl2 > Ninhydrin/ZnCl2 > DFO. If the classification is
made according to the fluorescence intensity at room temperature: MTN/ZnCl2 =
DFO ≥ MN/ZnCl2 >> Ninhydrin/ZnCl2.
Jasuja et al. investigated the effect of various parameters that occur during the
deposition of a fingermark on the efficiency of the subsequent ninhydrin process
(219). For this study, thirty individuals (among which five were considered as good
sweat donors, and five as bad sweat donors) aged from 20 to 25 years left latent
eccrine marks on white paper following different conditions: conventional situation
(no specific pressure, no induced sweat), with pressure (i.e., 50 g, 100 g, 150 g, and
200 g), and with induced sweat production before deposition using a polyethylene
bag around the hand (i.e., for 30 to 180 seconds). Less than 24 hours later, all the
fingermarks were processed using ninhydrin. Linear relations were established
between the quality of the developed marks and the pressure intensity, under the
studied conditions. As the induced sweating time increases, the quality of the marks
increased as well for all types of donors (mixed, good and bad donors). An induced
sweating time of 120 seconds produced the same quality of development of the
fingermarks, irrespective of the donor quality. In case of good sweat donors,
smudging of the fingermarks could occur when the pressure applied and induced
sweating time exceeded 200 g and 180 seconds, respectively. On the contrary, in the
case of the bad donors, greater pressure and induced sweating times definitely
resulted in marks of better quality.
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The successful modification of a commercial bubble jet printer so that the cartridges
are filled with amino acid standard solutions has been proposed as an alternative to
the deposition of fingermarks from fingertips (213). By doing so, one gets rid of the
variability induced by actual fingermarks when comparing two techniques (even if
split fingermarks are considered). The pattern to be printed contains a scanned
fingerprint and halftone printed gray scale fields. This method is quite reproducible
with a standard deviation of 7% calculated after having printed 126 patterns using 21
different cartridges (the method of calculation relies on the weight of the cartridges
before and after the printing, so that the quantity of deposited amino acids can be
evaluated). This method will not completely replace actual fingermarks (that should
be considered before any casework application) but could be useful at the beginning
of the comparison process between different detection techniques. A collaborative
test has been carried out using this method to assess the efficiency of ninhydrin and
DFO processes as used in different laboratories (214). Concerning ninhydrin, the
results emphasized the role played by humidity during the development on the
sensitivity of the method.
A thorough mechanistic study has been conducted on DFO, ninhydrin, and 1,2indanedione
(with and without zinc chloride) (215). It has been known for long that
these reagents may produce varied results in different geographic areas, on different
paper substrates, or under different environmental conditions, but no explanation of
such different behaviours was actually reported. For this study, aqueous solutions of
the nine major amino acids contained in a secretion residue (i.e., serine, glycine,
ornithine, alanine, threonine, histidine, valine, leucine, and lysine) were deposited as
spots on three kinds of porous substrates (i.e., ashless filter paper, 10% recycled
copy paper, and cellulose-coated TLC plates), before being processed by the abovecited
techniques. Absorption and luminescence spectra were finally recorded and
analyzed. One of the most important observation made by the authors is the role
played by water (moisture) in the successful reaction of 1,2-indanedione with amino
acids. The role of zinc chloride has also been investigated as it seems to act as a
catalyst, bypassing the need for high level of moisture for 1,2-indanedione to react.
Almog et al. are currently working on analogues for ninhydrin and 1,2-indanedione,
bearing thiol groups (-SH) in their chemical structure (218). The aim is to artificially
enrich latent residue with thiols so that they could constitute efficient anchoring sites
for metal nanoparticles. This research is still in its preliminary stage, but it illustrates
quite well the current trend consisting in using nanoparticles as new efficient
reagents to detect fingermarks (as further developed in section 2.2.6).
Schwarz & Hermanowski proposed an alternative to the use of a development
cupboard (with controlled levels of humidity and temperature) to develop ninhydrinprocessed
items (220). The use of a saturated aqueous salt solution in place of water
vapors could help developing fingermarks even if the item is left in a classical bench
cupboard, at room temperature. They observed that after two or three days, the
development was optimal with no background staining. A prolonged exposition time
could lead to some unwanted background staining, according to the nature of the salt
(e.g., sodium chloride or potassium citrate).
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1,8-diazafluoren-9-one (DFO)
Schwarz and Beisel noticed that different DFO solutions prepared according to the
same formulation showed different propensities to form two phases, and secondly,
that unstable solutions lead to inferior detection results (221). A more robust
formulation containing only HFE-7100, acetic acid, ethyl acetate, methanol and DFO
(as a prerequisite) was therefore proposed. Petroleum ether, chloroform and
dichloromethane were excluded, because of health and safety issues. The polarity of
the solution is sufficiently important to avoid the formation of two phases, but is not
sufficiently important to make inks run. The following development conditions were
recommended: two immersions with a drying time in between, and then 40 minutes
at 110°C.
1,2-Indanedione
The use of 1,2-indanedione as a competitive replacement of DFO (and ninhydrin)
has been seriously considered after the publication of Stoilovic et al., who proposed a
one-stage premix formulation containing ZnCl2 (Ind-Zn) (228). This formulation
seems now to be widely accepted. Only few works were published since 2007,
consisting mainly in minor optimizations of the formulation to enhance both colour
and luminescence of the developed fingermarks. It has indeed been noticed by
various people that 1,2-indanedione may perform inconsistently among laboratories
worldwide.
In an attempt to enhance the results obtained with the formulation published by
Stoilovic et al.(228), Russel et al. proposed to increase the amount of zinc chloride,
to dip the documents twice in the solution, and to increase the heating time from 10
seconds to 30 seconds (222). Bicknell & Ramotowski performed a thorough study
about the effect of laboratory humidity (% RH), moisture content of the paper,
temperature, and zinc chloride concentration (223). They showed that there exists a
correlation between the moisture content of the paper on which the prints are
deposited and the % RH of the air, having for consequence that the development
conditions have to be adapted accordingly. They also observed that increasing the
quantity of ZnCl2 improved the results up to a maximum limit above which the
efficiency begins to decrease. Finally, they showed that Ind-Zn was superior in colour
and fluorescence intensity compared to DFO, even for 11-year-old marks.
If several studies illustrated the superiority of Ind-Zn compared to DFO, it is not the
case with the comparative study performed by Sears et al. in the United Kingdom
(224). When comparing various formulations of Ind-Zn with the DFO formulation
recommended by the Home Office (HOSDB), they concluded that DFO develops
more fluorescent fingermarks of high quality than does the Ind-Zn solution. This was
verified on a majority of the tested substrates, especially on two-day-old fingermarks.
Nevertheless, the difference in luminescence tended to equalize (even to reverse) as
the marks aged (14-day-old ones). It should be noted that, similarly to the
observations made by the other authors, increasing the amount of ZnCl2 in the
working formulation has a positive effect on the quality of the detected fingermarks.
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Other reagents
Lawsone (2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone) is a new amino acid reagent that has been
proposed by Jelly et al. to detect fingermarks on porous substrates (225). The
reaction of lawsone with latent secretions leads to purple-brown marks that are also
luminescent. However, only preliminary results on filter paper were presented, and
further research is required to assess the quality of this reagent compared with 1,2indanedione
or DFO.
Isatin (1H-indole-2,3-dione) is structurally similar to ninhydrin or 1,2-indanedione and
has consequently been proposed as a new amino acid reagent able to detect latent
fingermarks (226). For this study, six donors were asked to leave fingermarks on
white paper. The marks were aged during two days before being processed. The
composition of the working solution, the development conditions, and the use of
metal salts (i.e. zinc acetate, zinc chloride, and zinc nitrate) in the working solution or
as post-treatments were studied. The authors concluded that a 0.05% (w/v) of isatin
in 12.5% (v/v) acetone, 87.5% (v/v) dioxane and carbonate buffer gave the most
intense luminescence, but with a less intensely coloured product. The development
conditions were similar to those recommended for 1,2-indanedione, the samples
being heated at 180°C for 10 s. The samples could subsequently be post-treated by
dipping them in an ethanolic zinc chloride solution, and reheating them at 180°C for
10 s. When compared with DFO and 1,2-indanedione/zinc on half-cut fingermarks,
isatin consistently showed lower luminescence intensity and greater unwanted
background luminescence. When compared with ninhydrin, isatin consistently gave
no coloured fingermarks. These results illustrate the fact that further research is still
required before proposing isatin as an alternative to the classical amino acid
reagents.
Para-dimethylaminocinnamaldehyde (pDMAC) has for long been considered as a
reagent able to detect latent fingermarks by targeting urea contained in the
secretions. A recent study performed by Lee et al. tends to prove that pDMAC is not
reacting with urea but rather with amino acids (227). When compared with classical
amino acid reagents to detect fingermarks on thermal papers, such as ninhydrin and
DFO, pDMAC was shown to be far less effective in terms of colour and
luminescence. Consequently, its use is not recommended.
2.2.3 Cyanoacrylate fuming
The possibility to rejuvenate old fingermarks to improve the cyanoacrylate
fuming process has been investigated, and led to the conclusions that the
items should be exposed to either acetic acid (229) or methylamine
vapours (230). The role played by the environmental pH on the
morphology and length of the polymer chains has also been investigated
(231). An attempt to optimize the fuming time when processing
fingermarks on skin failed in determining optimal conditions (232). Finally,
a detrimental effect of cyanoacrylate fuming has been observed if the
items (latex/nitrile gloves or duct tapes) have to be subsequently
processed by powder suspensions (233).
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Wargacki et al. proposed two studies about the understanding of the cyanoacrylate
fuming mechanisms. Using mass accumulation and molecular weight analysis, they
first showed that carboxylate moieties (coming from lactic acid or amino acids) seem
to be the primary initiator of the polymerization process and constitute better initiators
than primary amines (231). They also showed that the influence of the pH occurs at
the latter stages of the polymerization process (not in the initiating step). Indeed, a
basic environment will inhibit the polymerization chain termination, leading to the
formation of long chains with high molecular weight at long exposure times, while an
acidic environment will promote the termination process and the formation of shortchained
polymers. They also showed that, contrary to what is believed, water does
not constitute the primary initiator and does not create the long-chained polymers
that are visible on a fumed fingermark. In another study, Wargacki et al. studied the
aging process and the possibility to rejuvenate aged fingermarks (229). The
decreased quality observed for aged fingermarks seems to be due to a loss of
initiators as a consequence of the erosion and degradation processes induced by the
loss of water. Exposing latent eccrine fingermarks to vapors of acetic acid (to provide
polymerization initiators) or ammonia (to bring the pH to basic values) for several
minutes constitute two efficient enhancement processes able to rejuvenate old
fingermarks and improve the growth of polymers on the ridges. Acetic acid is
somewhat preferred compared to ammonia, given its higher efficiency and its lower
toxicity.
Similarly to Wargacki et al., McLaren et al. tried to rejuvenate old fingermarks to
improve the quality of development once fumed with cyanoacrylate (230). They
observed a minor positive effect due to the use of acetic acid and water vapours,
whereas a more consistent effect was observed with ammonia. They nevertheless
noticed that the donor plays a great role in the rejuvenating capabilities when using
these chemicals. As an alternative, they recommend the exposition of old/dry
fingermarks to vapours of a 10% w/v aqueous methylamine solution, for one hour. In
this case, the role played by the donor seems not to be as pronounced as that of
ammonia and acetic acid. It should be noted that, contrary to acetic acid and
ammonia, some cases of excessive polymer formation across the ridges were
observed with methylamine (leading to a degradation of the mark instead of an
improvement). Additionally, health and safety issues were identified and should be
investigated.
King studied the effect of the fuming time when trying to recover latent fingermarks
on skin using cyanoacrylate (232). This question arose from contradictory
observations published in the literature, in which optimal fuming times can vary from
a few minutes to more than an hour. Using pig skin (previously washed, dried, and
warmed at room temperature) on which fresh and sebaceous latent fingermarks from
a unique donor were deposited, King set the fuming times between 10 minutes to
125 minutes. It should be noted that the fuming chamber was quite rudimentary, with
no control of humidity or of the heating temperature. Once fumed, the fingermarks
were powdered using a black magnetic powder and their quality rated. The author
failed to find a significant relationship between the quality of the developed
fingermarks and the fuming times.
The influence of cyanoacrylate fuming prior to a subsequent processing of tapes and
gloves with powder suspension has been investigated (233). For this study, one
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donor was asked to deposit fingermarks on four kinds of tapes (i.e., red and gray
duct tapes, masking tape, and Scotch tape), two donors wore two kinds of gloves
(i.e., latex and nitrile) for a variable amount of time (not specified in the article) before
removing them, and worn nitrile gloves were processed after having been removed
from trash (unknown donors). One hour after fingermark deposition, the samples
were either processed by the sequence “cyanoacrylate fuming – black powder
suspension (BPS)”, either by BPS only. A detrimental effect caused by cyanoacrylate
fuming was observed, since no ridge details could be obtained by BPS if the items
were first processed with cyanoacrylate.
2.2.4 Oil red O (ORO) & Physical developer (PD)
When considering wetted porous items, PD and ORO constitute the two
techniques of choice available to the forensic scientists. A comparison
study between ORO and PD led to the conclusion that ORO performs
better on fresh marks (up to four weeks) and PD on aged ones (more than
one month) (234). Another study showed that ORO outperforms PD on
sebum-rich marks, but that both techniques perform equally on natural
marks (235). The following processing sequence was recommended:
“ORO first, followed by PD”. In another study, a commercial PD
formulation was shown to be as efficient as a “home-made” one (236).
Oil red O is quite a recent technique (first proposed in 2004) based on a lysochrome,
staining the lipid fraction of latent secretion. This technique is usually proposed in
competition (or in complement) with PD to detect fingermarks on porous substrates,
especially if they have been wetted. Salama et al. performed an extensive
comparison between both reagents, on various porous substrates (234). They
concluded that both techniques are complementary, with the age of the latent
fingermarks playing a key role. ORO is efficient on fresh fingermarks up to four
weeks. For older marks, PD is preferred. Since it is generally difficult to assess the
age of the marks to be detected, it is thus recommended to apply these techniques in
sequence. On wet substrates, PD followed by ORO gave excellent results.
Nevertheless, it is recommended to apply ORO first, followed by PD. This sequence
is governed by the fact that PD could severely deteriorate a substrate on some
occasions (e.g., blackening of the surface), annihilating subsequent attempts to
process the item for fingermarks.
When comparing ORO with PD, Wood and James studied the role played by the
substrates and the liquid into which they are immersed (235). For this study, one
donor was asked to deposit two kinds of fingermarks (i.e., natural/ungroomed ones
and sebum-rich ones) on four different papers (i.e., standard print, high-quality print,
lined and card). The marks were then left for one hour before being immersed in four
different liquids (i.e., tap, rain and river water, and un-leaded petrol) for times ranging
from one hour to one week. After the immersion, the samples were dried and cut in
half, each half being processed either by ORO or by PD. Both techniques were
unable to detect any mark on the samples immersed in the petrol, for all the
conditions tested (certainly due to solubilisation of the fingermark lipid components).
When the samples were immersed in water, ORO outperformed PD for all immersion
times and paper types, when loaded marks were to be detected. In this case, after
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one day of immersion, PD failed in detecting identifiable marks (contrarily to ORO).
For natural marks, both techniques performed equally (in few cases, PD even
developed better marks than ORO). This could be explained by the fact that PD
targets more constituents than ORO (which only stains lipids). Finally, no difference
was observed between the three kinds of water that were used. Additionally, the role
played by the paper type is minor, at the exception of the card for which only natural
marks of low quality were obtained.
The efficiency of a commercially available PD processing kit (brand: Sirchie
Fingerprint Laboratories) and a “home-made” PD solution have been compared on
different porous substrates (236). It has been concluded that both the commercial
and the non-commercial solutions were competitive and acting equally in terms of
fingermark quality (contrast and clarity), the commercial formulation being somewhat
more sensitive when less secretions are to be detected. Nevertheless, a drawback of
the commercial solution could arise if one wants to enhance the results using
potassium iodide (KI) to darken the background (if it contains starch) while lightening
the marks. Indeed, such post-treatment must be photographed while the substrate is
submerged in the solution. Given that the tested commercial PD solution was
opaque, the resulting contrast was considerably reduced.
2.2.5 Dry micron-sized powders and powder suspensions
Some contributions were dedicated to the traditional, dry and micron-sized
powders. It is possible to cite the works performed on skin (237) and fruits
or vegetables (238), as well as the propositions of new powders based on
phosphorescent compounds (239), on banana peel activated carbon
(240), or on dye-doped silicate clay powder (241). Most of the publications
were dedicated to powder suspensions (SPRs), used to detect marks on
wetted non-porous substrates. Comparison studies were conducted
between commercially-available SPRs (242-245), as well as between SPR
and vacuum metal deposition (246). Original research led to the
proposition of a luminescent SPR (247), and the relation between the
smoothness of a surface and its processing using SPR has been
investigated (248). Finally, it was observed that wiping an SPR-processed
surface with a paper towel makes new marks appear (249).
Trapecar et al. illustrated the efficiency of some fingerprint powders (especially the
Swedish Black powder) to successfully detect fingermarks on skin (237) and fruits or
vegetables (238), compared to chemical techniques such as cyanoacrylate fuming
and ruthenium tetroxyde. For both studies, non-enriched fingermarks from several
donors were left by prolonged contact with the items (several seconds), and were
aged from 15 to 45 minutes for living bodies, from 15 to 180 minutes for dead bodies,
and from hours to two days for fruits and vegetables, before being processed.
Liu et al. proposed a new phosphorescent powder based on a europium-doped
strontium aluminate. This phosphorescent powder could be of a first interest in the
case of fluorescent or multicoloured substrates that generally lead to an unwanted
decrease of the resulting contrast when using traditional luminescent powders (239).
For this study, fresh and aged fingermarks (up to two-month-old marks) from different
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donors were left on various substrates (i.e., non-porous, semi-porous and porous).
The advantages are various: strong phosphor / afterglow effect that lasts longer than
the fluorescence of the substrate, no specific device needed since the substrates are
excited under UV light for two minutes before being observed in the dark, efficiency
on non-porous and semi-porous surfaces (as well as some porous ones, such as
wood or fabric) as well as on cyanoacrylate fumed fingermarks, and possibility to be
lifted. According to the authors, there are no toxicity issues with this kind of powder.
Nevertheless, since the samples have to be irradiated under long UV for two
minutes, detrimental effects on DNA could occur.
Mopoung & Thongcharoen proposed a new powder to be dusted on latent
fingermarks, based of banana peel activated carbon mixed with sodium acetate
(20%), mineral oil (2%), and methylene blue (0.2%) (240). When compared with a
commercially-available black carbon powder, the authors observed that the
commercial powder adhered better on the ridges, but that background staining was
less when using the banana peel-based powder. For this study, very fresh, sebumrich
fingermarks were left by one donor on glass.
Chen et al. incorporated cationic dyes (i.e., rhodamine 6G and methylene blue) into
silicate clay powder that was subsequently rendered hydrophobic by chemical
functionalization (241). The clay was eventually ground, to be dusted on fresh latent
fingermarks left on glass slides. This preliminary study led to good results in terms of
ridge details and little background staining. The authors assumed that better results
could be obtained if the powder size distribution was optimized (for example, by
grinding it more finely, to microscaled sizes or below), as well as the dye-loading
step. Additionally, the attachment of biolabeling agents may help in targeting some
specific components of the latent secretion.
Powder suspensions (or small particle reagents – SPRs) remain one of the well
adapted solutions for non-porous substrates that have been wetted. In this domain,
Jasuja et al. proposed an alternative to the classical black and white SPRs by
combining zinc carbonate (white) with different kinds of luminescent dyes (i.e.,
rhodamine B, rhodamine 6G, acridine orange, anthracene, cyano blue, and basic
yellow) (247). Excellent results were obtained when using rhodamine 6G, rhodamine
B and cyano blue (other dyes led to non-luminescent marks) and after 30 to 60
seconds immersion in the working solution. It should however be noted that almost
ideal conditions were tested with fresh marks (detected immediately after deposition,
or after 24 to 96 hours immersion in water) on smooth non-porous surfaces (e.g.,
glass, aluminium, polyethylene). Rhodamine 6G and B being classified as suspected
carcinogens, the cyano blue-based SPR is recommended.
Cohen & Cohen reported quite an original method to improve the number of latent
marks that could be detected on smooth non-porous surfaces (e.g., metal, glass,
plastic, aluminium) after application of a molybdenum sulphide-based SPR (MoS2)
(249). According to the authors, a thorough wiping of the surface using paper towel
after the SPR treatment, initially done to remove dried SPR residues, led to the
visualisation of several unobserved fingermarks. As a consequence of the wiping, the
background turned yellowish-brown while the marks appeared as grey patterns.
Three major observations were also made: (1) The stronger the wiping, the better the
marks, (2) sebum-rich marks give better results than eccrine-rich ones, and (3) if the
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same paper towel is used on an un-treated surface, new fingermarks can readily be
detected. The lifting of the marks was however impossible and all marks have to be
photographed in situ. Further research is underway to elucidate the chemical and
physical underlying mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon.
Two commercially available white powder suspensions (WPS) were tested (i.e.,
Wetwop and Wet Powder) in comparison with a “home-made” titanium dioxide-based
formula (242, 243). Tests were performed with depleted series of one-day-old
fingermarks left on some non-porous surfaces (e.g., various coloured plastic bags
and black plastic-based car cowlings), before being immersed for six hours in water,
dried (from two to eight days), and eventually processed. The results showed that all
three WPS formulations led to similar results, with a slight preference for Wetwop for
the least amount of background staining left after rinsing. On the same basis, the
authors further compared the Wetwop SPR formulation with vacuum metal deposition
(VMD) to detect fingermarks on wetted non-porous surfaces (246). The same kinds
of substrates were used, and the fingermark deposition procedure was kept
unchanged (except that drying times were of two to 28 days). Fingermarks were cut
in halves and processed separately with the two techniques. Both techniques gave a
large percentage of potentially identifiable marks across all substrates and ages (at
the exception of the car cowling for which Wetwop outperformed VMD). Given that
VMD requires extremely costly equipment and is a labor-intensive technique
compared to powder suspensions, Wetwop is recommended to be applied when
dealing with wetted non-porous surfaces. For those possessing a VMD machine,
Wetwop could still be applied subsequently, in a sequence.
Since several researches observed variations in the effectiveness of commercially
available powder suspensions (in terms of ridge quality and background staining),
Jones et al. compared four WPS formulas (i.e., TiO2 grade RG-15 - StanChem, Wet
Powder white – Kjell Carlsson Innovation, Wetwop white – Armor Forensics, and
Adhesive side Powder light - Sirchie) (244). The WPS formulas were applied on
black insulating tape and the obtained results were analytically characterized using
electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The particle size
distribution was quite similar for all brands (diameter range: 200-500 nm) and did not
seem to play a role in the difference of effectiveness. On the other hand, the coating
of the particles varies between the WPS formulations (in terms of morphology and
chemical composition), and is more likely to explain the difference of performance
observed between the different brands (245). In the same context, Jones et al. used
atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy to investigate the
smoothness of surfaces classified as non-porous (i.e., formica, polyethylene, and
unplasticised polyvinyl chloride) (248). They subsequently tried to correlate these
analytical measures with the effectiveness of iron oxide powder suspension to detect
fingermarks on those substrates (18-hour-old sebum-rich marks were used). They
showed that both average roughness and topographical feature shape are important
factors to consider for the processing of latent fingermarks.
A detrimental effect of cyanoacrylate fuming has been observed if the items
(latex/nitrile gloves or duct tapes) have to be subsequently processed by black
powder suspension (233), as described in the “Cyanoacrylate fuming” section.
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2.2.6 Nanoparticles (nanopowders and nanocomposites)
The use of nanoparticles certainly constitutes one of the major
contributions in forensic science research these last years, with a sharp
increase in number of scientific publications related to their integration in
security documents, paints, inks, and most importantly new reagents to
detect latent fingermarks (197, 250, 251). Numerous publications were
consequently dedicated to the development of new methods based on
gold nanoparticles (252-255), silica nanoparticles (256-259) (260),
quantum dots (261-267), aluminium oxide (268), zinc oxide (269),
phosphorescent compounds (270), titanium dioxide (244), and
nanoparticles functionalized with antibody/antigen complexes (271, 272).
The use of metal nanoparticles (e.g., gold and quantum dots) to detect
latent fingermarks has been reviewed by Choi et al. (273). Nevertheless,
most of the proposed techniques are still under development and have not
yet succeeded in replacing classical reagents. It is certainly only a
question of time before some of these new efficient nanoparticle-based
detection techniques are integrated in casework. An overview of different
kinds of nanoparticles is also presented in (274).
Gold nanoparticles
Works on gold nanoparticles were mainly driven by a readiness to enhance
multimetal deposition (MMD), a method based on the use of colloidal gold to detect
fingermarks on a wide range of substrates (275). First, the single-metal deposition
technique (SMD), based on a simplified MMD process, has been optimized and is
strongly recommended as a replacement for MMD (252). A luminescent version of
the MMD has also been proposed, into which the silver coating has been replaced by
a zinc oxide deposition step (253). This luminescent alternative is however still under
development and cannot readily be applied in casework. Gao et al. proposed a one
step MMD-like process to detect fingermarks, using glucose-capped gold
nanoparticles and operating in a wider range of pH (254). On the contrary to what the
authors claim, the mechanism looks more like a “gold-based SPR”, especially when it
is said that it is working with blueish colloidal solution (this colour being a
consequence of nanoparticles aggregation). Other authors trapped glutamatecapped
gold nanoparticles in a lipophilic and cationic polymer (i.e., chitosan) to
detect fingermarks after several hours of immersion (255). In this case, the way the
fingermarks look like probably results from oil-enriched fingermarks. Extreme caution
should be taken regarding the results.
Quantum dots
Quantum dots (QDs) are extremely luminescent nanoparticles, of one to 10 nm of
diameter, which can be functionalized and solubilized in either aqueous solution or
organic solvents. It is possible to identify three ways of integrating QDs in the
detection of latent secretions: (1) as a dry powder, (2) as an aqueous solution, (3)
embedded in a polymer that covalently binds to the secretion. Cadmium sulfide
(CdS) encapsulated in a biopolymeric chitosan matrix has been used as a dusting
powder for detecting fresh marks on aluminium foil (261). Luminescent fingermarks
were obtained, but the use of dried cadmium-based nanoparticles as a dusting
powder implies serious health and safety issues. Water soluble cadmium selenide
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(CdSe) QDs were synthesized and used to detect fresh marks on the adhesive
surface of tape and promising results were obtained (262). Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
QDs, synthesised in aqueous solution, were used to detect blood fingermarks on
various nonporous surfaces such as aluminium foil, black polyethylene, glass or
transparent polypropylene (265). A comparison with acid yellow 7, one of the best
blood reagents for non-porous substrates, showed that the QDs were superior to acid
yellow 7 on aluminium and equally effective for the other substrates. The immersion
of a sample in an aqueous CdTe solution has also been proposed to detect
fingermarks on non-porous substrates (263, 264). Several hours of immersion were
however necessary, which constitutes too long a time. The embedment of QDs in a
polyamidoamine dendrimer (PAMAM) has been successfully applied to enhance the
contrast of fumed fingermarks on non-porous surfaces (266, 267). Nevertheless, an
immersion time of several hours is required which is still much too long. As can be
seen, the use of QDs to detect fingermarks currently remains a research topic and no
casework uses of QDs have been reported yet. Some issues remain to be addressed
before routine application, like the toxicity of cadmium and improved targeting of
secretion residues by functionalization of the QD outer surface.
Silica nanoparticles
Silica nanoparticles constitute another kind of promising nanocomposites to detect
fingermarks since a great freedom is offered in terms of outer functionalization and
dye-doping. The use of luminescent silica nanoparticles for forensic purposes
somewhat still remains at the pilot study stage. Theaker et al. recently reported
entrapment of a variety of coloured and fluorescent dyes including basic red 28,
basic yellow 40, fluorescein, methylene blue, oxazine perchlorate, rhodamine B,
rhodamine 6G and thiazole orange within silica particles (256). The resulting doped
nanoparticles were used in aqueous suspensions to detect fingermarks. The process
is very similar to that described for small particle reagents. Micron-size particles also
were used as dusting agents. Both fresh (20-minute-old) and aged fingermarks (40day-old)
showed good definition after development. Liu et al. entrapped an europiumbased
dye inside silica nanoparticles and further powdered the obtained
nanocomposites to detect fresh and six-day-old latent fingermarks on various
substrates (e.g., plastic bag, rubber glove, coloured paper, and green leaf) (257).
Silica nanoparticles doped with carbon black have also been used as a fingerprint
powder to detect fingermarks on glass and metal surfaces, before being lifted using a
lifting tape (258-260). The originality of this work lies in the fact that the dusted marks
were further imaged using surface assisted laser desorption / ionisation - time of
flight - mass spectrometry (SALDI-TOF-MS). By doing this, it has been possible to
differentiate fingermarks left by smokers (or drug users) from fingermarks left by nonsmokers,
the silica nanoparticles performing as effective ionisation / desorption
agents for the analysis of the drugs and metabolites contained in the secretion
residue.
Other nanoparticles
Sodhi & Kaur chose to coat aluminium oxide nanoparticles with two different
molecules: Lucifer Y (a fluorescent dye) and a natural hydrophobic substance (268).
Their aim was to obtain a “nanopowder” to be dusted on substrates and
characterized by an enhanced ability to detect fingermarks through lipophilic
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interactions. According to the authors, this nanopowder detects fingermarks on a
wide range of surfaces (i.e., porous and non-porous, as well as white and
multicoloured). It is particularly suitable for detecting fingermarks on glossy items, or
on moist and sticky surfaces.
Choi et al considered the use of ZnO nano-sized particles to be dusted or applied as
small particle reagents (SPR) (269). Processed fingermarks were characterized by a
visible fluorescence when illuminated with a long-range UV light source. ZnO-based
SPR gave good results for all the tested surfaces (i.e., glass, polyethylene,
aluminium), while dry dusting led to some background staining on polyethylene
surface. When compared with conventional commercial powders, ZnO particles were
less luminescent but showed excellent ridge detail, with minimum background
staining. The authors also tried to dope the powder using lithium ions, to enhance the
visible luminescence, but this did not significantly improve the results.
Cheng et al. considered the use of two phosphorescent, surface-functionalized
nanoparticles (i.e., doped LaF3 and ZnS) to detect trace biomaterials, such as the
ones contained in fingermarks (270). The functionalization was such that the
nanoparticles were water-soluble and functionalized with carboxylic groups (i.e. –
COOH) to target amine groups from the latent secretions. Positive results were
obtained for fresh fingermarks left on four tested substrates (i.e., aluminium, plastic,
glass, and quartz). The detection procedure consisted in putting the substrates in
contact with the nanoparticle solution for two hours.
Finally, a new trend consists in functionalizing nanoparticles with biomolecules to
take benefit of the highly selective antibody / antigen recognition process within the
fingermark detection mechanism (271, 272). This strategy is further detailed in the
next point.
As described in the previous section, Jones et al. compared four brands of nanosized
titanium dioxide to be used as powder suspensions on black insulating tapes
(244).
2.2.7 Antibody / Antigen recognition
The use of antibodies constitutes a new and efficient approach to
specifically target the secretion residue. We can distinguish methods using
a direct antibody / antigen labelling procedure to target naturally secreted
proteins (276, 277), from those using biofunctionalized nanoparticles to
target drug metabolites present in the secretion (271, 272, 278).
Hazarika et al. functionalized magnetic nanoparticles with a variety of antibodies to
detect a range of drugs (i.e., THC from marijuana and methadone) or drug
metabolites (of methadone and cocaine) in fingermarks left on glass slides (271, 272,
278). The procedure requires the substrate to be in contact with the nanoparticles for
15 to 30 minutes. One advantage of their method is that a magnet can be used to
remove the excess of (magnetic) nanoparticles (the unbound ones). The remaining
nanoparticles were fluorescently tagged before observation. Positive results were
obtained for the four drugs and metabolites tested, with visible third-level details such
as pores.
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Reinholz chose to target albumin, a protein constituting ca. 60% of the serum-protein
volume and secreted by the eccrine sweat glands (277). More precisely, given that
an “anti-human whole serum” was used, the whole serum constituents were actually
targeted, and not specifically the albumin. Fingermarks were left on five porous
substrates (i.e., white and manila envelopes, recycled paper, post-it, and
nitrocellulose), and aged from 15 to 130 days under artificial and natural light. Once
processed, purple fingermark ridges could be observed on a more or less clearer
background (depending on the substrate), with visible third-level details. It should be
noted that the detected marks progressively fade with time. Finally, the integration of
this technique in the existing detection sequences was assessed. A DFO-processed
fingermark (fresh mark on white paper) gave more details once subsequently
processed with the albumin recognition technique. However, when applied after
ninhydrin, the visible mark vanished and no detail could be further observed. Finally,
this procedure gave equivalent results when applied after physical developer. The
described procedure seems promising. Nevertheless, it is extremely time-consuming
and labour-intensive, with several blocking/staining and rinsing baths.
Drapel et al. identified and targeted three proteins present in the secretion residue
and implicated in the skin regeneration process (i.e., keratin, cathepsin, and
dermcidin) (276). Using a chromophoric enhancement process, positive results were
obtained on fingermarks left on PVDF (a substrate commonly used in biology to fix
proteins), but also on paper. Further research is currently performed, especially to
decrease the time required by the procedure (several hours) and to introduce
luminescent markers.
2.2.8 Detection of fingermarks on thermal paper
Some techniques specifically developed for thermal papers were
described or renewed: incorporation of polyvinylpyrrolidones in a ninhydrin
solution to avoid the darkening of the substrate (279), dry-application of
1,2-indanedione (280), use of heat and steam (281, 282), iodine fuming
(283), or vacuum metal deposition (282). The use of pDMAC to detect
marks on thermal papers was also assessed (227), with the conclusion
that classical amino acid reagents are better choices.
In the previous report (284), we mentioned the “solution G3” as a powerful posttreatment
for ninhydrin- and DFO-processed thermal papers whose reactive layer
could have darkened due to the polar solvents contained in the reagent solutions
(285). Recently, Schwarz & Klenke proposed a modified ninhydrin formulation
containing polyvinylpyrrolidones (PVP) (279). The introduction of PVP in the working
solution prevents the darkening of the thermal layer, and allows a one-step detection
of fingermarks which readily appear in clear contrast with the background. PVP being
nontoxic and reasonably priced, it could constitute a promising alternative to the
existing two-steps discolouration procedure. One drawback of the currently proposed
formulation is the ratio of polar solvent (compared to non-polar ones) that could
cause ink running in particular cases. Further research is still undergoing, especially
about the possibility to include PVP in DFO or 1,2-indanedione working solutions.
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The application of an amino acid reagent by “dry contact” with the thermal paper has
been known for years. This technique simply consists in placing the substrate to be
processed between two impregnated treatment papers, with no heat treatment (to
avoid the substrate darkening). Recently, the use of 1,2-indanedione/ZnCl2 (Ind/Zn)
has been proven compatible with this application protocol (280). Natural, nonenriched,
fingermarks were left by one to four donors on unprinted and printed
thermal papers (from supermarkets), and were processed between one and seven
days after deposition. The use of an acetic acid-free Ind/Zn solution, with HFE-7100
as the solvent carrier, gave the best results when the samples were left for 48 hours
in contact with the treatment papers. It should be noted that HFE-7100 can be
replaced by petroleum ether, but the quality of the developed fingermarks could
decrease.
The use of heat to detect fingermarks on thermal paper is one of the oldest methods.
This technique is still used, as described by Scott who used a portable hair dryer
combined with the application of steam during the heating process (281).
Following their study about pDMAC, Lee et al. assessed the possibility of using this
reagent to detect fingermarks on thermal papers (227). After having processed
realistic depleted series of fingermarks on three kinds of thermal papers, they
concluded that the best procedure to detect fingermarks on thermal paper consists in
pre-dipping the sample into ethanol (warning: any text present on the substrate will
be definitely lost) before using a classical amino acid reagent, such as DFO.
Iodine is known to temporarily stain fresh latent fingermarks on a wide range of
substrates. Recently, Jasuja & Singh announced that the use of iodine on thermal
papers could lead to a permanent dyeing of the marks (brown / green colour), with
marks up to one-year-old successfully detected (283). Their hypothesis was that
iodine molecules trapped in the latent sebaceous secretions could promote the
oxidation of the leuco-dyes molecules contained in the thermal paper layers.
According to the authors, sebaceous marks react more intensely than eccrine ones.
Vacuum metal deposition (VMD) or steam – by placing the sample in an incubator for
ca. five minutes – were used to detect sebum-rich latent fingermarks, up to threeweek-old,
on thermal paper (282). Both techniques offer the advantage of not
causing a darkening of the thermal paper, as it can be observed with classical
chemical methods containing polar solvents.
2.2.9 Detection of fingermarks on metal and cartridge cases
In the context of fingermark detection on metal (and therefore, cartridges),
John W. Bond is certainly the major contributor of these last three years,
with several publications describing the metal corrosion effect caused by
latent secretions (286-293). Besides these works, a statistical study
showed that the rate of recovery of fingermarks on firearms and cartridges
(using cyanoacrylate and dye) was actually lower than expected (294),
and another study aimed at determining the best sequence to be applied
on brass and nickel cartridge casings (295), without success.
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The metal corrosion effect
The metal corrosion effect is based on the discolouration of metal surface through
the action of an oxydizing element, more particularly the ionic salts contained in
latent secretions. When a metal surface bearing latent fingermarks is heated up to
400-600°C, the marks become visible as a consequence of the metal corrosion
induced by sodium chloride, in particular (287). The corrosion can also take place in
air at room temperature, several days after fingermarks were deposited (287).
Ambient humidity and oxygen are required for the corrosion to occur (292), as well as
heat to obtain good ridge resolution. The success of the technique described by
Bond et al. relies more on the composition of the metal (especially in terms of
thermodynamic consideration, such as the redox potential) and on the quantity of
salts in the secretion, rather than on the age of the fingermarks. Moreover, an
effective (and therefore destructive) removal of the fingermark deposits from the
surface is required before the corroded region could be processed. To this purpose, it
was determined that immersing the sample in warm soapy water while rubbing with a
tissue constituted the best technique so far to remove all traces on brass without
affecting the properties of the metal surface (293). Once corroded, the marks are
durable and resist any further cleaning attempt. This technique seems particularly
suitable for samples found in arson scene or contaminated by paint (e.g., spray
painting above fingermarks) (287).
Preliminary tests were performed on brass, copper, steel and aluminium disks using
non-enriched fingermarks, aged from less than five minutes to seven days, left by 40
donors (287). For copper, temperatures should not exceed 400°C to avoid oxide
flaking. On steel, fingermarks were of blue/dark appearance, certainly due to a
chemical reaction with the metal (passivation or blueing). On aluminium, no
fingermark could be detected, certainly due to the easiness of surface autopassivation
preventing the corrosion to take place. In a second time, ten metal
surfaces (i.e., aluminium, copper, gold, lead, magnesium, nickel, silver, tin, titanium,
and zinc) and ten metal alloys were processed and compared (286). No heat was
used, but the fingermarks (left by 40 donors) were aged at room temperature for ten
days before being washed using water and a detergent. Spontaneous corrosion led
to the observation of well-resolved fingermarks on some substrates (e.g., Ni, Sn, Pb,
Cu, Ag and Au). The presence of chloride ions in eccrine sweat led to the formation
of metal halide complexes, which enhanced the degree of noble metal corrosion
(e.g., gold or silver). Finally, metal alloys containing more than 40% copper gave
satisfactory results, with a good contrast level between the corroded and noncorroded
parts, and the presence of third-level details (286).
An enhancement procedure, based on electrostatic attraction, was also described
(287-289, 291). This technique relies on: (1) the possibility to apply an electric
potential (i.e., 2.5 kV) to metal objects, and (2) the preferential adherence of
conductive carbon powder (10 µm, adsorbed on spherical beads) to the corroded
parts of a metal surface (the corrosion occurring naturally with time due to the
presence of fingermarks on the surface, as described above). This technique
nevertheless requires washing the samples before they are processed, using water
and acetone, to remove the remaining fingermark residue (and only leave the
corroded part). The detection of fingermarks was successful for brass and copper
disks, but failed for steel and aluminium. It should be noted that the authors
compared this technique with small particle reagent (SPR), but after having cleaned
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all the samples. SPR logically failed in detecting fingermarks due to this destructive
treatment. The comparison would have been more meaningful by applying SPR
without having thoroughly cleaned the samples first.
When applied on fired brass cartridge cases, the metal-corrosion technique gave
some positive results, but almost none, certainly due to the physical abrasion and
increased temperature that occurred during the shot (287). The author also published
a casework performed on four 14-year-old discharged brass shell casing found at a
crime scene (290). During the investigation, cyanoacrylate fuming combined with dye
staining have been applied without success. In this casework, the author decided to
heat the casings up to 700°C to remove the cyanoacrylate deposit and to induce the
corrosive reaction between the brass surface and any fingermark that could be
present on it. The application of the electrostatic enhancement (2.5 kV), described
above, led to the observation of some ridges.
Other techniques
Edmiston & Johnson investigated the best sequence to be applied for detecting latent
fingermarks on brass and nickel cartridge casings (295). The study has been
performed on fired cartridges that were first cleaned, before fresh fingermarks were
left by four donors and immediately processed (ten casings per tested sequence). It
was concluded that the best-so-far sequence to be applied on brass cartridges was
“Cyanoacrylate - Powder - Acidified Hydrogen Peroxide - Rhodamine 6G”, and for
nickel cartridges “Cyanoacrylate - Rhodamine 6G - Acidified Hydrogen Peroxide -
Powder”. During a “realistic test”, cartridges manipulated by bare hands were shot,
and processed according to the two sequences described above. As a result, no
identifiable marks were detected on the brass casings, and two potentially identifiable
marks were detected on the nickel casings. The authors concluded that the
sequence proposed for brass casings may not be optimal, given the experimental
differences between the first (fresh fingermarks deposited on clean fired casings) and
second part (older fingermarks deposited before the shot) of the study. Further
studies are thus required.
A statistical study showed that the rate of useable fingermarks detected on firearms,
cartridges, or magazines processed by cyanoacrylate fuming followed by dye
staining was quite low (294). The data provided by the Minneapolis Police
Department Crime Laboratory covered a period of one year (from September 2006 to
September 2007), representing a total of 3,436 items. Twelve percent of all firearms
and twelve percent of all magazines led to useable fingermarks (35 and 19 marks,
respectively). No fingermarks were useable on unfired cartridges, and only one mark
was useable on a discharged cartridge casing (however, the mark is believed to have
been left after the shot).
2.2.10 Detection of fingermarks on tapes/adhesives
The use of Un-du followed by the application of Wetwop was determined
as being the best-so-far sequence to separate stuck adhesives and to
subsequently detect latent marks (296). As an alternative to Un-du,
submersing stuck adhesives in liquid nitrogen for 30 seconds could help in
separating them (297). It was also observed that freezing adhesives
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efore powdering them (while still cold) could help in detecting latent
fingermarks (298). Finally, a comparative study was performed between
four commercially available white powder suspensions (244).
Molina tested the effectiveness of Un-du to separate stuck adhesives, and its effect
on the subsequent detection techniques (i.e., gentian violet, Sticky-side Powder, and
Wetwop) (296). Fingermarks were left on eight brands of adhesives and one selfadhesive
stamp, which were further stuck on white paper and ironed for 2-3 minutes
to induce immediate adhesion. Un-du was subsequently applied before the samples
were processed. The results showed that excessive amount of Un-du could cause
detrimental effects on the adhesive backings. All attempts provided latent
development, but the best results were obtained by combining Un-du with Wetwop, if
the latter was rinsed immediately after its application to avoid severe and irreversible
background staining (this procedure could be repeated if required).
The use of cold to help in detecting fingermarks on adhesives has been studied by
Cramer & Glass (298). The study consisted in freezing (5.5°C) four types of
adhesives (i.e., duct, clear packing, scotch and electrical tapes) bearing fingermarks
for one to 120 minutes before being dusted immediately with black or magnetic
powder. Successful detection was obtained in each case. Nevertheless, it seems that
the operator was not experienced with fingermark powdering (according to the
authors), leading to difficulty in evaluating the results at the beginning of the
experiment, and no comparisons were made between frozen and non-frozen
samples to really assess the role played by the freezing of the samples.
Bergeron conducted a study about the use of liquid nitrogen to separate adhesive
tapes that have stuck together (297). Considering 20 different brands of tape, the
author succeeded in separating stuck adhesives after having submersed the tapes
for 30 seconds in liquid nitrogen, followed by the detection of latent fingermarks using
Sticky-Side Powder once the adhesives were brought back to room temperature. It
should be noted that some difficulties could be encountered with some adhesives
(e.g., no separation or breaking of the adhesive into pieces). The author also studied
the effect of environmental conditions (e.g., heat, rain, humidity) with samples aged
up to 36 days. When the samples were protected from extreme conditions (e.g., kept
in laboratory), successful results could be obtained, even after 36 days.
Nevertheless, when subjected to outdoor environments, the likelihood of finding
latent marks was poor after a few days. Another interesting observation was made: a
mirror image of a mark could be detected on the opposite adhesive side (i.e., the one
that was stuck on the fingermark). This should be kept in mind.
As described in a previous section, Jones et al. reported an analytical study in which
they compared different white powder suspensions (i.e., TiO2 grade RG-15 -
StanChem, Wet Powder white – Kjell Carlsson Innovation, Wetwop white – Armor
Forensics, and Adhesive side Powder light - Sirchie) used to detect fingermarks on
black insulating tape, and tried to explain the differences of quality in terms of
chemical coating (244).
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2.2.11 Detection of fingermarks on items collected from arson scenes
Several authors assessed the possibility to detect fingermarks in arson
scenes (299 pp. 12-31, 2009] #483). The conclusions were quite
encouraging since many concluded with the fact that fingermarks are quite
resistant to elevated temperatures and could be retrieved if the adequate
procedure is followed (i.e., soot removal process and detection
techniques). Physical developer and black powder suspension were
identified as being the most suitable techniques to be applied on porous
and non-porous substrates, respectively (299 pp. 12-31, 2009] #483). On
paper, DFO was recommended for exposure temperatures below 100°C,
and physical developer above 100 °C (300).
With respect to marks in blood, protein stains were shown to be still
efficient up to 200 °C, on the contrary to heme reagents (such as LCV)
(301 pp. 64-82, 2009] #577). Acid black 1 and acid violet 17 were
recommended for porous and non-porous substrates, respectively. Tests
performed with bloodstains in an apartment-like structure showed that
luminol, fluorescein, and Bluestar were still efficient in less burned areas
(302), but failed to detect blood marks in the most burned area.
Some authors observed that fingermarks on paper could become naturally
fluorescent once exposed to 160-180 °C (300, 303). Below or above these
temperature ranges, this self-fluorescence could no longer be observed.
Silicone casting and Absorene (a commercial product) were both
recommended as soot removal techniques (299 pp. 12-31, 2009] #483,
301 pp. 64-82, 2009] #577), as well as air-sprayed liquid latex (304, 305).
Bradshaw et al. conducted a study about the recovery of fingermarks from arson
scenes, and more particularly: the range of temperatures and exposure times at
which latent fingermarks could survive, the soot removal process, and the efficiency
of the fingermark detection techniques (299 pp. 12-31, 2009] #483). Various
substrates, representative of what can be found in household equipment, were used
(e.g., paper, ceramic, metal, smooth melamine). On each substrate, several donors
were asked to deposit depletion series of “natural” fingermarks (the marks were not
artificially enriched with sebum by rubbing the fingers on the face, for example).
Eighteen hours after deposition, the fingermarks were exposed at 100 to 300 °C in a
laboratory oven (for one to seven hours), at 400 to 600 °C in a high-temperature
furnace (same time interval), or directly put in a simulated fire that was extinguished
with water (the temperature reached up to 900 °C). The authors demonstrated that
fingermarks can still be detected after a prolonged exposure at 200°C using most of
the current detection techniques (i.e., DFO, ninhydrin, physical developer - PD, dry
powders and powder suspensions, cyanoacrylate, and vacuum metal deposition -
VMD). Above this temperature, the detection of latent fingermarks is still possible, but
the range of techniques that can be applied is limited to cyanoacrylate (if the
substrate has not been wetted) and VMD. In most of the cases, the most suitable
techniques to be applied on porous and non-porous surfaces were physical
developer and black powder suspension, respectively. The authors do not
recommend to re-humidify the fingermarks (e.g., by breathing on it) before applying
powders, since it was found to have a detrimental effect on several marks. If soot has
to be removed prior to the processing of the surface, the authors recommend lifting
tapes, silicone casting and Absorene (a commercial product used for cleaning
paper). Washing with 4% sodium hydroxide gave good results but should be used in
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combination with a mechanical technique, such as lifting tape. Washing under water,
ultrasonic bath, or use of organic solvents (e.g., chloroform or xylene) are not
recommended since they induce damage to latent fingermarks. It should finally be
noted that the soot can make fingermarks already visible. A careful examination
should therefore precede any further treatment (soot removal or application of a
fingermark detection technique).
The possibility to recover fingermarks on paper exposed to elevated temperatures
was also conducted (300). Five donors deposited non-enriched fingermarks on white
paper. The marks were allowed to age from one hour to one month before being
heated to temperatures ranging from 50 °C to 200 °C, for 10 to 320 minutes. 200 °C
has been chosen as maximum temperature since paper auto-ignites at ca. 233 °C.
DFO, ninhydrin and physical developer were further applied when attempting to
detect latent fingermarks. The results showed that some fingermarks were readily
visible after the heating process, especially at 150°C and 200°C. Moreover, the
marks subjected to 150 °C were naturally fluorescent when excited at 473 to 548 nm
and observed using a 549 nm filter (no fluorescence was however observed for the
substrates exposed to 50, 100, and 200 °C). Successful results were obtained with
the chemical methods for exposure conditions up to 200 °C for ca. five or six hours.
DFO is the recommended technique for exposure temperatures below 100°C, and
physical developer above 100 °C. The substrate could also be processed with PD
subsequently to DFO. If the substrates have been wetted during the extinguishing of
the fire, PD is to be applied whatever the exposure temperature.
The natural fluorescence of fingermarks on paper exposed to elevated temperature
has been further studied by the same team (303). Three kinds of fingermarks (i.e.,
eccrine, sebaceous, and “natural”/ungroomed) on white and filter papers were
exposed to temperatures ranging from 110 °C to 190 °C, for 20 minutes. It was found
that eccrine sweat was most subjected to fluorescence between 130 to 180 °C, with
a maximum intensity obtained for the 160-180 °C range. It is hypothesized that
thermal degradation of some amino acids could be at the origin of the observed
luminescence. Sodium chloride and urea also fluoresced upon exposure to elevated
temperature. Optimal observation conditions were determined as being: excitation
source of 352 to 509 nm, combined with an observation filter of 510 nm.
Considering the effect of fire on fingermarks in blood, Moore et al. showed that some
of the commonly used protein stains (i.e., acid black 1, acid yellow 7, and acid violet
17) continue to be efficient in detecting marks in blood for exposure of the
fingermarks up to 200°C, while heme-specific reagents (such as LCV) stopped giving
positive results between 100 and 150°C (301 pp. 64-82, 2009] #577). Various
substrates were considered (e.g., paper, cotton fabric, ceramic tile, smooth
melamine, metal) and defibrinated horse blood was used to create depletion series of
blood fingermarks. Eighteen hours after deposition, the fingermarks were exposed to
100 to 300 °C in a laboratory oven, and to 400 to 600 °C in a high-temperature
furnace, for one to eight hours. Commonly used detection techniques were tested,
specific for blood or not (i.e., acid black 1, acid violet 17, acid yellow 7, DFO,
Leucocrystal violet - LCV, PD, VMD, cyanoacrylate with dye, solvent black 3, and
powder suspensions). The recommended techniques are acid black 1 and acid violet
17 for the processing of porous and non-porous surfaces, respectively. Interestingly,
above 200°C, it is still possible to detect some marks but it becomes impossible to
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know if the mark was originally made of blood or not (due to a baking effect). Vacuum
metal deposition has been shown to detect fingermarks up to 900°C on the ceramic
tiles. Cotton fabric proved to be a very difficult surface, with none of the techniques
giving ridge details. On this substrate, only acid yellow 7 gave luminescent spots
above 150°C, even if it is commonly not recommended to be used on porous
surfaces. In terms of soot removal techniques, their conclusions were similar to the
above-described study, with silicone casting and Absorene. Contrary to classical
latent marks, the use of lifting tape is not recommended since blood deposits could
be lifted off.
The effect of fire exposure on bloodstains (and the subsequent chemical
enhancement and DNA profiling) has been studied by Tontarksi et al. (302). An
apartment-like structure was built, various bloodstains and marks were placed on
walls or furniture, before arson was ignited (i.e., sofa fire) with burning developed for
ca. 45 minutes, to be eventually extinguished using water. Once the place cooled,
changes in the previously applied bloodstain patterns were documented, chemical
enhancement techniques were used (i.e., luminol, fluorescein, and Bluestar), and
samples were collected for DNA analysis. During the fire, temperatures from 146 °C
up to 923 °C were recorded in different areas of the apartment. In the most burned
area, the chemical reagents gave negative results and no bloodstains could be
observed using white light. Nevertheless, in less burned areas, bloodstain patterns
were observed using a bright light and positive results were obtained with all the
chemical enhancement techniques. Nevertheless, fluorescein is recommended to be
applied first, since it requires less reagent to give a positive observable result
(compared to luminol and Bluestar). Hemastix tests were conducted to assess the
presence of blood, and gave positive results on stains visible with a bright light. It
was sometimes necessary to remove the soot to obtain a positive result (done by
wiping with 70% isopropanol or distilled water). As to DNA profiling, the results were
primarily positive, except for some samples exposed to high temperatures and/or
close to the ignition source (for measured temperatures above 845 °C, no DNA
profile was obtained). The authors also showed that none of the chemical
enhancement reagents interfered with the ability to obtain a DNA profile. The authors
recommended trying to obtain DNA profiles even for stains that yield negative results
after chemical screening tests for blood. This is especially true for the samples close
to the fuel source that yield DNA profiles suitable for comparison despite negative
indicative tests.
Liquid latex was air-sprayed on an arson scene to remove the excess of soot
resulting from the fire, before processing the surfaces to detect latent blood marks
supposedly lying beneath (304). The procedure consisted in spraying a thin layer of
latex, letting it dry for five to ten minutes, peeling it off once dry, and examining the
surfaces for latent marks using an alternative light source. On painted doors or
glossy surfaces, 90% of soot was removed by following this method, allowing the
observation of the underlying fingermarks or bloodstains. On untreated woods and
wallpapers, the rate of removal dropped to 80 and 70%, respectively. In some cases,
the soot acted like a fingerprint powder and remained on the fingermark after the
peeling of the latex. This method could be considered as an inexpensive alternative
to sodium hydroxide washings, which could be destructive on some marks (such as
blood marks, for example). Nevertheless, further experiments on the effect of such
treatment on the subsequent chemical detection methods have to be carried out.
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Spraying of liquid latex was also used by Clutter et al. who assessed its efficiency in
removing soot on glass and drywall board (wallboard) and its effect on a subsequent
ninhydrin treatment to detect fingermarks (305). Latent marks and blood spatters
were deposited on both substrates before being almost immediately placed near a
controlled burn (ca. 500 °C, high level of soot). The items were then removed so that
no water was poured on them. After the items cooled, latex was sprayed, let dry and
peeled off. Ninhydrin was then sprayed on the wallboard, while the glass was
powdered using black and magna powders. If soot made some fingermarks already
visible before any soot removal attempt, ninhydrin and powders failed in detecting
new marks after the application of latex to remove soot. It should be noted that
ninhydrin was not tested on wallboard to confirm that this technique is suitable to
detect fingermarks on this kind of substrate.
2.2.12 Blood marks - Fingermarks in blood and detection of bloodstains
Few studies were dedicated to the detection of marks in blood, certainly
reflecting the quality of the currently available detection techniques. The
effect of fire exposure on blood marks has however been studied by
various authors (301 pp. 64-82, 2009] #577, 302, 306). An original study
aimed at optimizing the deposition procedure of fingermarks in blood
(307). Finally, a new method to lift blood marks from difficult substrates
(like garments) has been proposed (308).
The influence of the deposition procedure on the ridge quality of blood marks has
been investigated (307). The conclusions of this study could be of a first interest
when conducting a study on blood detection techniques. To perform this trial, the
author took into account several parameters such as the deposition pressure, the
quantity of blood on the finger, the drying time before the deposition, or the
orientation of the surface. This study showed that more marks of evidential value
could be obtained when small amounts of blood were loaded on the finger (i.e., 10 to
20 µL), and allowed to dry before being left on a vertical surface (glossy white poster
board was used in this study) with some increased pressure. It should be noted that
air temperature, airflow, blood and skin temperatures also affected the drying times
and the resulting ridge details. The author also observed that negative marks (white
ridges and bloody inter-ridges) could be obtained when first removing the excess of
blood on the finger, then allowing the blood on ridges to dry before pressing the
finger on the surface (the blood trapped in the inter-ridge furrows remaining wet). It
has also been shown that the mechanism of formation of negative marks is not
related with the pressure that would force the blood off the friction ridges and into the
furrows during deposition, as it is commonly thought.
The effect of fire exposure on blood marks (and the subsequent chemical
enhancement and DNA profiling techniques) has been studied by various authors
(301 pp. 64-82, 2009] #577, 302, 306). These works are detailed in the “Detection of
fingermarks on items collected from arson scenes” section.
The strong chemical affinity of TiO2 for blood has been known for several years (it
has especially been used to detect blood marks on non-porous substrates (309)).
Recently, lifting strips containing titanium dioxide (TiO2) were successfully applied to
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lift blood fingermarks from several porous or non-porous substrates (308). In this
study, lifting strips were made by fixing different chemical products (conventionally
used in blood detection techniques) to a nylon membrane: titanium dioxide, Kodak
Photo-Flo, 5-sulfosalicylic acid, Liqui-Nox, polymers, and water. Bloody impressions
were left on six substrates (i.e., three non-porous - aluminium, black plastic, and
metal, two semi-porous - black leather and wood, and one porous - cotton), and were
aged from one hour to six months before being lifted and processed. The lifting strips
successfully lifted blood impressions from all six substrates up to one month after
their deposition, with visible identifiable ridge details (except for the stained wood for
which ridge details were observed for up to one-week-old marks only). An advantage
of these lifting strips is that the lifted mark can be further processed using the
conventional blood detection techniques.
2.2.13 Fingermark detection and DNA or biological fluid analysis
The interactions between fingermark detection techniques and DNA
recovery/profiling are always of a first interest when both evidence types
are to be retrieved. On this subject, it has previously been shown that
most of the fingermark detection techniques have no detrimental effect on
the DNA profiling (310-312), at the exception of shortwave UV light, DAB,
or physical developer (12). Nevertheless, the quantity of DNA seriously
drops after the application of fingermark detection techniques. Finally, it
seems that no correlation exists between the ability of an individual to be a
good fingermark donor (i.e., donation status) and the quantity of DNA that
can be recovered from his fingermarks (i.e., shedder status) (313).
Sewell et al. investigated the effect of ninhydrin and 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one (DFO) on
the recovery of DNA profiles recovered from fingermarks on paper (311). For this
study, fresh sebum-loaded fingermarks from two donors were deposited on filter and
office papers, glossy magazines, white card and newspaper. Two commerciallyavailable
DNA profiling techniques were compared: QIAmp DNA mini kit and DNeasy
plant mini kit (both from QIAGEN). A significant increase in DNA recovery has been
observed by using the DNeasy kit as compared to the QIAamp kit, for all treatments
and all paper types. This study also showed that the largest amounts of DNA were
recovered from the magazines, on the contrary to white and office papers that
interfered with the recovery process. Almost no DNA was recovered from the office
paper, and no profile could be obtained. Full profiles were however obtained for
traces on filter paper, magazines and newspapers. These observations were similar
to previous studies on this topic (310, 312). Finally, a decrease of 60% in DNA
recovery was observed after the application of fingermark detection techniques,
especially on the filter paper and magazines. Nonetheless, these treatments were not
shown to interfere with the PCR amplification and DNA profiling steps.
Dominick et al. investigated the possible relationship between the fingermark
donation ability of an individual and his DNA shedder status (313). For this study,
eight donors were asked to deposit ten series of seven successively deposited
fingermarks (i.e., without recharging the fingertips with secretions) on glass. For
DNA, they were asked to hold a tube for several seconds. Fingermarks were
processed using aluminium powder and ranked according to their quality. DNA was
swabbed from the tubes before being extracted and amplified. No relationship was
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found between the fingermark donation status and the DNA shedder status. The level
of ridge details on a fingermark is consequently not correlated with the subsequent
DNA profiling tests.
2.2.14 CBRNE-related evidence (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and
Explosive)
Research on CBRNE-contaminated evidence has seriously increased
during these last three years. Most of the researches were dedicated to
the effect of the contaminant, and of the decontamination procedures, on
the subsequent detection of latent fingermarks. In the case of chemical
contamination, if items were contaminated with acid chemical vapours, the
use of volatile organic bases could help in improving the cyanoacrylate
fuming process (314). In the case of biological contamination, the use of
formaldehyde vapours during the decontamination procedure could be
detrimental for some amino-acid reagents (315). No adverse effects were
however observed if irradiation is used to decontaminate the items (316).
Finally, bacterial activity showed almost no detrimental effect on the latent
and blood fingermarks left on porous and non-porous substrates
(variations were however obtained for adhesives) (317). In the case of
irradiation, fingermarks could still be detected on glass and aluminium
after high doses of irradiation (even if glass could become optically
degraded) (318). However, detrimental effects induced to the substrate
itself (especially for plastic and paper items) could hamper the fingermark
detection processing. Nevertheless, up to 100 kGy, it has been shown that
the processing of latent fingermarks using common detection techniques
is still possible. In another study, some chemical and physical
decontamination procedures were shown to be highly detrimental on the
subsequent recovery of latent fingermarks on documents (319). In such
cases, it is either recommended not to decontaminate the documents
(even after the recovery of fingermarks), or to proceed to the
decontamination after the recovery of fingermarks. Explosive
contaminations could be located and identified on latent fingermarks using
analytical tools such as Raman chemical imaging (320), or Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (321, 322). Fingermarks on post-blast
devices could still be detected using either cyanoacrylate fuming (323), or
reflected UV imaging (RUVIS) (324).
Chemical contamination
The exposure of evidence to hydrochloric acid (HCl) vapours or chlorine (from a
chemical weapon or from methamphetamine laboratories) could result in an
acidification of the secretion residue, causing detrimental effects on some fingermark
detection mechanisms (such as cyanoacrylate polymerization or ninhydrin).
McDonald et al. assessed the efficiency of a basic pretreatment (using volatile bases)
prior to the application of detection techniques (314). Fingermarks on glass slides
and standard photocopy paper were considered. They observed that exposure to
high level of acid vapors could indeed lead to an inhibition of the cyanoacrylate
polymerization and to a modification of the ninhydrin reaction mechanism (leading to
light pink-red marks instead of dark purple). Exposure of the evidence to
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triethylamine and ethanolamine vapors prior to cyanoacrylate fuming leads to much
more effective fingermark detection. Nevertheless, an increase of the background
staining has been observed, especially if the evidence has not been exposed to acid
environment prior to the basic pretreatment. Physical enhancement techniques (e.g.,
powder dusting or small particle reagents) could successfully be applied on the
acidified substrates without any pretreatment step, but there is a risk that increased
background staining occurs.
Biological contamination
Hoile et al. proposed to modify a decontamination protocol based on the use of
formaldehyde, which acts like a biocidal/sporicidal agent and which is generally used
in the case of biological contaminations (e.g., anthrax spores) (315). When dealing
with an item suspected to have been contaminated with biological agents, a common
decontamination procedure consists in using formaldehyde vapour for six to 12
hours. This treatment results in the destruction of the spores, but also to a
degradation of the amino acids present in the latent residue. Hoile et al. studied the
effect of this decontamination procedure on some commonly used fingermark
detection techniques (i.e., ninhydrin, DFO, 1,2-indanedione, physical developer,
cyanoacrylate, and powders). For this study, fingermarks were left on glass and
paper substrates, which were put in contact with formaldehyde vapors from 10
minutes to 12 hours. If cyanoacrylate fuming, powdering, and physical developer
continued to be successfully applied after the decontamination procedure, this was
not the case with ninhydrin, DFO, and 1,2-indanedione which failed to detect latent
marks. Hoile et al. revised the decontamination procedure by reducing the
concentration of formaldehyde and the exposure time (i.e., 40 minutes instead of six
to 12 hours), which resulted in 66%, 33%, and 8% successful recovery rates for
ninhydrin, DFO, and 1,2-indanedione, respectively.
The impact of bacterial agents on the efficiency of the classical fingermark detection
techniques has been studied by Wilkinson et al. (317). For this study, various porous,
non-porous and adhesive substrates were considered (e.g., plastic, glass, cardboard,
metal, paper, tapes) on which latent and blood fingermarks were left. A high number
of fingermarks (ca. 400) from eight donors were used, and were aged for one to
seven days prior being exposed to the bacterial agents. The samples were
contaminated with bacterial cultures for 24 to 48 hours, before being processed with
classical fingermark detection reagents (i.e., DFO, ninhydrin, amido black, Hungarian
red, leucomalachite green, powder suspension, cyanoacrylate fuming, and dry
powders). The authors observed no effect of the bacterial exposure for porous
exhibits (100% trace recovery), and a minor effect on nonporous substrates (97%
trace recovery for cyanoacrylate). Blood reagents reacted quite well, with a rate of
recovery between 86 and 97%. Only the adhesive items showed varied results. In
addition to these observations, the bacterial exposure time (from 24 hours to 48
hours) and the age of the fingermarks (from one to seven days) seemed to have no
effect on the recovery rates.
Hoile et al. investigated the use of gamma irradiation (25 to 40 kGy using cobalt-60
as irradiation source) to decontaminate spore-contaminated evidence, and its effect
on the subsequent fingermark detection techniques, as well as on the recovery of
human DNA (316). Different substrates were considered (i.e., paper, cardboard,
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glass, and plastic) on which fingermarks from three donors were left. After having
been exposed to irradiation doses from 200 Gy to 5 kGy, the items were processed
using common detection techniques (i.e., ninhydrin, DFO, 1,2-indanedione, physical
developer, cyanoacrylate and dry powders). Preliminary tests on microbial colonies
showed that a gamma dose of more than 3 kGy should be used to decontaminate
evidence. As observed by Colella et al. (318), glass underwent some discolouration
(browning) above 1 kGy without interfering with the quality of the fingermark
detection process. No adverse effect due to irradiation (in terms of ridge details) was
observed for the processing of the porous and non-porous substrates, even for a 40
kGy irradiation dose. This observation is in agreement with the results obtained by
Colella et al.. About DNA profiling, the quantity of DNA recovered could be affected
by the irradiation process, but the possibility to recover human DNA from paper, post
gamma irradiation, is not excluded even up to 50 kGy doses (more severe
degradation occurs above this value).
Radiation
Colella et al. investigated the possibility to recover latent fingermarks from evidence
that was exposed to ionizing radiation (318). Common surfaces were considered
(i.e., aluminium, glass, office paper, and plastic), on which fresh and good
fingermarks were left, before being irradiated to doses from 1 to 1000 kGy (which
constitutes significantly higher exposure doses compared to the electron beam
irradiation used to sanitize mail). A cobalt-60 ionization source was placed at one, 10
and 100 mm of the substrates, and exposure times ranged from 24 hours to seven
days. Common detection techniques were considered (i.e., cyanoacrylate with dye,
black powder, ninhydrin, DFO, 1,2-indanedione, and physical developer). It was
concluded that radiolysis had a considerable effect on the quality of the developed
fingermarks, at the exception of marks on glass and aluminium which showed no
influence due to the ionization process. With respect to glass, the irradiation caused
an optical degradation of the substrate which became deep brown as the ionizing
dose increased. Nevertheless, this effect had no impact on the detection of
fingermarks (the only detrimental effect would be in terms of reduced contrast). For
the other substrates, the irradiation caused physiochemical and mechanical damage
in the inner structure of the material (e.g., plastics) especially for doses above 100
kGy. This resulted in unwanted polymerization sites or background fluorescence, in a
degradation of the substrate mechanical properties preventing them to be properly
processed (e.g., paper), or in a chemical modification of the secretion residue making
them less prone to react. Nevertheless, up to 100 kGy, it has been shown that the
processing of latent fingermarks using common detection techniques is still possible.
Parkinson et al. investigated the efficiency of two decontamination procedures used
in case of irradiated documents, and their impact on fingermark detection techniques
and ink analysis (319). Three irradiation sources were used (i.e., cesium-137,
americium-241, and strontium-90) to contaminate paper samples that were
subsequently processed for fingermark detection (using DFO, ninhydrin, 1,2indanedione,
and physical developer). After the detection of fingermarks, the
substrates were decontaminated by following a physical process (scraping of the
surface with a scalpel followed by the use of a pencil eraser) or a chemical one
(immersion of the evidence from 0 to 30 minutes in a sonication bath containing
water or cyclohexane, and DEZ-1 - a complexing agent used as a decontaminant).
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The use of DEZ-1 allowed a decontamination rate of 97% for both solvents (water or
cyclohexane), but total decontamination could not be reached since a radiation level
of 10 times the background level always remained (even at higher concentration of
DEZ-1, and for longer sonication times). The optimized concentration of DEZ-1 has
been evaluated at 2 % for an immersion time of five minutes. Increasing these
parameters does not improve the decontamination rate but induces a degradation of
the paper structure. The physical method was unsuccessful in decontaminating the
cesium-137 and strontium-85 isotopes, with only 1.2% and 0.2% decontamination
rates, respectively. However, it proved to be highly successful in removing the solid
contaminating isotopes (yellowcakes), with 99% decontamination rates compared to

the contaminated fingertips on an aluminium-coated microscope slide. The imaging
was performed by comparing the spectra obtained from the scanned fingermarks
with the reference spectra of the targeted explosives, using Pearson's crosscorrelation.
In this preliminary study, it was possible to locate and identify explosives
from contaminated fingermarks. The consideration of realistic surfaces and the effect
of fingermark detection techniques (such as cyanoacrylate) on the subsequent
identification of explosives have to be investigated in further experiments.
Attenuated total reflection – Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) was used to
locate and identify explosive particles in latent fingermarks (321). Fingertips were first
contaminated with explosives (i.e., TNT, trinitrobenzene, or ammonium nitrate) by
touching a glass slide on which explosive powder was spread. Excessive powder
was brushed away, until no more powder was visible by the naked eye, and the
fingers were pressed on stainless steel (this substrate is transparent in the infrared
region) as well as on a more realistic substrate (i.e., metal lid from a jar). The
procedure consisted in locating (explosive) particles (as small as 20 µm) and
comparing their FTIR spectrum with an infrared spectral library. It should be noted
that sweat residue could interfere with the resulting FTIR spectrum. Similarly to this
work, the use of RDX-containing solution were used to contaminate fingertips before
they were pressed on aluminium coated slides, and further analyzed using ordinary
FTIR (322).
The use of a reflective ultraviolet imaging system (RUVIS) is reported to locate
fingermarks on post-blast material (324). The author stated that people generally look
for fingermarks on tape and batteries (used to set up the explosive device), but not
necessarily on the device itself, assuming that the heat of explosion had a strong
detrimental effect on fingermarks. In this experiment, explosive devices were
designed using C4, nitromethane and gasoline, a bag and plastic bottles. Following
the blast in open air, pieces of the explosive device were collected and observed
using a RUVIS. A single fingermark – further identified to the designer of the
explosive devices - was found on a non-porous surface (a remaining piece of a
plastic bottle). The advantage of RUVIS is that the resulting contrast is not dependent
on the colour of the substrate. Moreover, this technique can be used on-site if
explosive devices have to be destroyed in place, without a subsequent laboratory
examination capability (e.g., Irak).
2.2.15 Detection and lifting of fingermarks on skin
The detection of marks on skin has been investigated through different
environmental parameters (325) and by comparing several fingermark
detection techniques (237, 325). Swedish Black, Magnetic Jet Black
powder, or RTX spraying are recommended for use in this context (237).
The lifting of unprocessed marks from skin should be done by using
Transparent Instant lifter (237), whereas powdered marks should be lifted
by using silicone casting material (325) or white gelatin lifter (326).
Four fingerprint powders (i.e., Magnetic Jet Black, Magnetic Silver, Silver Special,
and Swedish Black) and two chemical methods (i.e., cyanoacrylate fuming and
ruthenium tetroxyde - RTX) were compared to assess their ability to detect
fingermarks on skin (237). The marks were either processed directly on skin, or lifted
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prior to being processed. It should also be noted that very fresh marks were
considered (i.e., 45 min on living subjects and up to 180 min on dead bodies). Best
results were obtained with Swedish Black and Magnetic Jet Black powders, as well
as with RTX spraying. The authors failed to develop quality marks with
cyanoacrylate, certainly due to the condensation that was formed on the dead
bodies.
Four fingerprint powders (i.e., granular black, Lightning grey, white powder, and
Magnetic Jet Black) were tested to detect fresh and sebum-enriched fingermarks
deposited on pig skin (325). The Magnetic Jet Black powder was determined as
being the most suitable powder to use on fresh marks. The author also studied the
effect of time and skin temperature on the rate of success of fingermark detection.
However, given that only one mark per temperature value was considered and that
the pig skin began to putrefy after 43 hours, serious discrepancies were observed
between results. Consequently, the conclusions of this study (i.e., 43h and 48°C as
maximal values beyond which no identifiable fingermarks were recovered) should be
considered with caution.
Four different lifters (Transparent Instant Lifter, Mipofilm for microtrace, Fuji glossy
paper and silver plate.) were used for the transfer of untreated fingermarks from the
skin before being processed (237). Best results were obtained using the Transparent
Instant lifter.
Five different lifting methods (i.e., white instant lifter, white gelatin, black gelatin,
silicone casting material, and transparent adhesive tape) were compared to
determine which one was the best to lift powdered fingermarks on skin of living
bodies, using Swedish Black powder (326). Silicone casting material and white
gelatin have given the best results, on the contrary to white instant lifter and
transparent adhesive tape which gave the poorest results.
Baran compared three different lifting materials (i.e., Mastercraft Silicone, AccuTrans,
and Zhermack High Definition) to collect powdered fingermarks (using Magnetic Jet
Black) on pig skin (325). The clear Mastercraft silicone casting material constituted
an efficient solution in that context.
2.2.16 Miscellaneous detection techniques
This section reports all the fingermark detection techniques that were
proposed in the literature during these last three years and which do not fit
in the previous sections. Some of those deal with emerging reagents or
procedures, pending further research before considering a casework
application. Briefly, we can cite: use of a powder-based fire extinguisher to
detect fingermarks on non-porous surfaces (327, 328), application of heat
on paper leading to naturally luminescent fingermarks (303, 329, 330),
polymerization of volatile sulphur nitride on various substrates (331, 332),
application of a hydrophobic and luminescent gel on non-porous items
leading to luminescent fingermarks (333), tests of new luminescent
chemical reagents (334, 335), determination of the best procedures to
detect oil-contaminated fingermarks or fingermarks left on oily substrates
(336), successful detection of fingermarks on snakes to fight against
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animal smuggling (337), determination of the best procedures to detect
marks on untreated plywood surfaces (338) or on a petroleum jelly jar
(339).
Dean reported the use of dry powder coming from a fire extinguisher to detect latent
fingermarks on metal, plastic, glass and melamine substrates (327). Such powder is
composed of ammonium sulphate, monoammonium phosphate, attapulgite clay,
potassium aluminium silicate, silicon dioxide, methyl hydrogen polysiloxane, and
colour pigment. The procedure consisted in spraying for a few seconds the
substrates using a fire extinguisher with a rubber hose extension, then puffing away
the excess of powders using an air stream and eventually photographing the visible
fingermarks. The obtained marks are extremely labile and the use of any means to
enhance the result (such as a brush) would degrade the marks. Lifting of the marks
also seems to be a difficult task: tape lift or gel lifter should be applied directly on the
mark and lifted straight up (no attempt should be made to remove air bubbles).
Apparently, fresh marks from six donors were used, but no comparisons with
classical detection techniques were illustrated to assess the actual quality of drypowdered
fingermarks (obtained using a fire extinguisher). Nevertheless, the author
indicates that his method could be used in the case of a complicated crime scene for
which traditional methods would be too expensive or time-consuming (328).
The thermal development (i.e., detection of latent fingermarks on untreated
substrates, using heat only) has been known since 1940s but has never been really
applied for casework. It has recently been revisited by some authors (303, 329, 330).
Brown et al. observed that a short heating (i.e., 10 seconds) of paper substrates at
300 °C led to UV-fluorescent (but invisible) fingermarks, which become visible (but no
longer luminescent) after longer exposition (i.e., 20 seconds) (329). The marks were
characterized by dark brown ridges on light brown background. Excessive heat led to
a loss of the ridge details and contrast as the papers turned black and combusted.
For this experiment, sebum- and eccrine-rich fingermarks from ten donors were left
on various paper substrates, and aged for 48 hours before being processed. Optimal
observation conditions were determined as being 505 nm for the excitation source,
and 549 nm for the observation filter. The heat source also seemed to play a major
role as the heat should be precisely monitored. Under these conditions, the use of an
oven or a furnace set at 300 °C is recommended, rather that a hot air gun which
gives uneven heat distribution and can only process a small area at a time. Direct
contact heating (e.g., by using a heat press or a domestic metal iron) are not
recommended since such apparatus failed in detecting fingermarks due to a quick
background colouration. Nevertheless, in a further study, these authors reinvestigated
the direct contact heating and refined it by using a coated, non-metallic
or ceramic surface (i.e., a commercial hair straightener) set at ca. 230°C (330). By
following this procedure, they produced superior results compared that what was
obtained using hot air, since they succeeded in obtaining both visible and
luminescent marks (which was impossible to obtain using hot air). The effect of heat
on the chemical techniques commonly used to detect fingermarks on paper was also
investigated. Using depletion series (of assumedly fresh fingermarks), thermal
development was compared with ninhydrin and both techniques were shown to be
equally sensitive. In an attempt to place thermal development in a sequence, it was
determined that it should be placed before DFO and ninhydrin, and strictly up to the
fluorescent stage only (short heating time). Further work is still required to study the
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effect of heat on DNA. During their work on evidence recovered from arson scenes,
Dominick et al. investigated the effect of heat on the natural fluorescence of
fingermarks on paper (303). They observed that eccrine sweat was most subjected to
fluorescence between 130 to 180 °C, with a maximum intensity obtained for the 160-
180 °C range. Optimal observation conditions were determined as being 352-509 nm
for the excitation source, and 510 nm for the observation filter. It should be noted that
Brown et al. (329) concluded that heating at lower temperature (i.e., below 200 °C)
for longer durations did not yield successful fingermark detection, which seems to be
in contradiction with Dominick's observations. It certainly emphasizes the fact that
thermal development is still not entirely understood and that further researches are
required. For example, according to Brown et al., the luminescence arises from the
degradation of the substrate, while Dominick et al. speculated that it is the result of
the chemical degradation of the secretion residue due to heat.
Volatile sulphur nitride (S2N2) is reported to form a dark blue polymer on fingermarks,
allowing their visualization after two or three hours of exposure (331, 332). Once
processed, the fingermarks remain visible for several days before the polymer
hydrolyzes (if exposed to air). The method is said to be successful on a great variety
of substrates: porous (e.g., paper), non-porous (e.g., glass, plastic wrap, metal),
cotton, fired cartridges, wetted substrates, washed with organic solvents, or heated
up to 500 °C for several hours. Nevertheless, the production of S2N2 from S4N4
seems to be a time-consuming operation requiring adapted laboratory equipment.
Safety considerations have also to be kept in mind, given that those chemicals are
sensitive to friction. The use of an adapted sealed vessel is also necessary to
process fingermarks, due to health and safety issues related with the use of sulphur
nitride. Besides the detection of fingermarks, it should be noted that S2N2 is also able
to detect traces of inkjet inks (e.g., traces transferred from a printed paper to an
envelope, by contact).
Kwak et al. reported the use of a solid, highly fluorescent, and hydrophobic polymer
gel able to detect marks by direct contact with a non-porous surface bearing latent
marks (333). The detection process is based on the increase of the polymer
fluorescence (more than ten times the initial level) when oily components (from the
latent secretion) diffuse into the gel film, through close contact. Once transferred into
the film, the mark can be imaged using UV light. The film can be subsequently rinsed
by using acetone, which has for effect to “erase” the transferred mark and reinitialize
the film for further detection.
Plater et al. proposed new fingermark detection reagents. First, N-alkyl- and N-arylsubstituted
benzimidazole-2-carboxyaldehydes were tested (334). When these
reagents are solubilised in dichloromethane, fingermarks on a silica plate were
detected by immersion, followed by a two-minute-development at 60-100 °C. Upon
excitation at 254 nm, ridge details could be observed. In another study, 3,7dibromophenothiazin-5-ium
perbromide was tested as an amino-acid reagent leading
to a red-coloured product (335). When this compound is dissolved in a 2butanol:pyridine
(100:0.5 v/v) mixture, fingermarks on a silica plate were detected by
immersion, followed by a five-to-ten-minute-development at 100 °C. Fingermark
ridges appear pink or pale red, in visible light.
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A Master Thesis aimed at determining the best ways to detect fingermarks
contaminated with oil or deposited on greasy/waxy surfaces was published (336).
Three types of oil were considered: edible soybean oil, engine oil, and diesel fuel.
RUVIS was determined as being the most suitable optical method for detecting
marks on glass. After optical detection, the samples were frozen using liquid
nitrogen, and kept at -20 °C, before being cyanoacrylate-fumed (and observed using
RUVIS again). The most suitable subsequent treatments (following cyanoacrylate
fuming) depend on the kinds of substrates and oils: black powder dusting (followed
by adhesive lifting) for glass, aluminium, and galvanized iron surfaces; Basic Yellow
40 staining for glass and aluminium surfaces (this can be followed by black powder
dusting and lifting); magnetic powder followed by Tex-Lift (a special glue used to lift
powdered fingermarks from rough surfaces - manufacturer: SPEX Forensics) for
plastic oil container. It should be noted that Sudan Black, which has been
successfully tested by the HOSDB (Home Office Scientific Development Branch) for
such specific oil-contaminated fingermarks, has not been considered in this work.
In the context of illegal animal smuggling, the possibility to detect fingermarks on the
skin of reptiles has been investigated (337), the aim being to link the animal with a
smuggler. Using 48 reptiles of different kinds, fresh sebaceous fingermarks were
deposited then powdered using a black or white commercial powder. On frozen dead
reptiles, fresh sebum-rich fingermarks were deposited then cyanoacrylate-fumed,
and subsequently dye-stained. The authors showed that it was possible to detect
fingermarks on reptile skin, with some limitations (besides casework conditions,
instead of fresh sebum-rich marks): it can be difficult to detect marks on some
reptiles with smaller scales or rough-textured skin. The author suggested the
possibility to swab the reptile skin to collect DNA samples.
A thorough study has been conducted about the most suitable techniques to detect
fingermarks on untreated plywood surfaces (338). For this study, three donors (good,
average, and poor) were asked to deposit fingermarks on an untreated plywood
surface. The fingermarks were aged (i.e., from one day to 28 days) before being
processed by 13 commonly used detection techniques (e.g., powders, ninhydrin, 1,2indanedione,
cyanoacrylate). Ninhydrin and physical developer (PD) succeeded in
detecting 28-day-old fingermarks. Iodine fuming followed by 7,8-benzoflavone
succeeded in detecting one- and three-day-old marks. It was however less efficient
than silver nitrate, able to detect one- to 14-day-old marks if UV exposure
immediately follows the silver nitrate processing, to minimize unwanted background
staining. Nevertheless, on a simulated casework example, it appeared that PD
applied as a single method (i.e., not integrated in a sequence with ninhydrin or silver
nitrate) gave the best results in terms of mark recovery rates for untreated plywood
surfaces. If the result of a PD process is too weak, the use of bleach could help
enhance the results by darkening the existing marks.
When facing a sexual assault case, it is possible that a petroleum jelly jar has to be
processed. Given that such non-porous items (side and lid of the jar) can be
contaminated with semi-solid petroleum jelly medium, a study investigated the
possibility to optimize a detection sequence, as well as casting methods (339). For
this study, one donor was asked to rub his fingertips on petroleum jelly before
depositing fingermarks on jars (side, lid, and label). The fresh marks were processed
according to eight different sequences, using five common detection techniques (i.e.,
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cyanoacrylate fuming, sudan black, magnetic powder, ninhydrin, and physical
developer). Different casting materials were also tested, as well as two storage
conditions (i.e., room temperature and freezer). The best method consisted in
processing the item at room temperature, according to the following sequence: first
photographing visible prints using oblique light, then casting with Mikrosil before
applying sudan black (this method will colour the underlying label, making the
fingermark appear as white ridges on a darker background).
2.3 Forensic light sources, photography and digital/chemical imaging
2.3.1 Alternative light sources (ALS)
Nd-YAG laser (340) and, for the first time, LED arrays (341) were
proposed as alternatives to the commonly used alternative light sources
based on xenon arc or quartz halogen lamps. The use of an ultraviolet
emitting light source combined with a specific digital recording was also
described (324, 342). Finally, the forensic application of infrared imaging
was discussed (343).
Lin et al. discussed the forensic application of infrared imaging (343). A digital
camera able to record infrared light combined with a filter blocking all wavelengths
below 930 nm has been used to capture bloodstains (dilution series), inks on fabric,
tire marks, gunshot residue, and charred document on dark background. Even if this
technique has not been applied to detect fingermarks, it could be interesting to note
that bloodstains were shown to absorb the near-IR light, and could be detected up to
1/4 dilution when using white light, and up to 1/8 dilution when using an IR light
source.
Following their studies on the use of a Nd-YAG laser in the ultraviolet region to detect
sebum-rich fingermarks (284), Akiba et al. reported that a 280 nm excitation source is
optimal to visualize fluorescent marks on white paper, with emission peaks at 330
and 440 nm (340). Under continuous excitation, the fluorescence at 330 nm
decreases while the one at 440 nm increases. It should be noted that this technique
seems to be successful on sebum-rich marks, but gives poor results on eccrine-rich
ones.
Besides the conventional ALS based on xenon arc lamps or quartz-halogen lamps
with filters, Takatsu et al. proposed an alternative based on LED arrays (341). LED
arrays present two major advantages: (1) the lower cost compared to traditional ALS,
and (2) the uniformity of the emitted light throughout the illuminated area. One of the
biggest disadvantages is certainly the output power of an individual LED that is
insufficient to detect weakly luminescent marks. To overcome this problem, arrays of
several LED units were considered (i.e., 50 x 60 mm arrays composed of 90 LED).
Nevertheless, the illumination intensities of LED arrays are still weaker by a
proportion of 1:7 to 1:9 compared to a xenon arc lamp such as the Polilight. The
authors tested two kinds of LED arrays (i.e., blue and green) on dye-stained
cyanoacrylate-fumed fingermarks left on plastic, and on metal-complexed ninhydrinprocessed
fingermarks left on paper. Well-contrasted images were obtained, making
of LED-based excitation systems an attractive alternative for those for which
conventional ALS are too expensive.
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The use of reflected ultraviolet (such as RUVIS) is recommended as an efficient
optical method allowing the detection of marks before any chemical treatment or in
specific occasions (e.g., bitemarks or post-blast evidence) (324). However, one of the
difficulties inherent to this technique is the photographic recording of the detected
marks since reflected ultraviolet is invisible to the eye. Sanfilippo et al. discussed this
issue and gave an overview of the advantages related with the use of reflected UV,
as well as some experimental recommendations for a successful digital recording
(342). First, they recommended to replace old camera loaded with panchromatic
films with a recent digital camera able to record in the ultraviolet region (without the
need of a light intensifier) and equipped with a “live-view” system, such as the Fujifilm
FinePix S-3 Pro UVIR or IS-Pro. The sensitivity of the current sensors is sometimes
better in the infrared region than in the near-ultraviolet light. To circumvent this
problem (that could cause an unwanted loss of contrast), the use of highly efficient
filters able to block all non-UV radiations (i.e., visible and infrared radiations up to
1,100 nm) is recommended in replacement of the classical barrier filters (which might
let pass some near-infrared light). The authors cite, for example, the Baader Venus
filters. A less efficient alternative could consist in stacking two classical barrier filters,
as a way to maximize the blocking of all non-UV radiations. Finally, the light source
used to illuminate the evidence has a major role to play, since a pure near-ultraviolet
light is preferred to an incandescent light (that emits near-infrared light as well).
2.3.2 Photography
When facing multicoloured backgrounds, full benefit should be taken from
digital imaging functions, such as high dynamic range (HDR) (344) or the
Black & White adjustment function included in the Adobe Photoshop
software (345). When dealing with fingermarks left on rear-view mirrors, it
could be necessary to remove the back reflective layer before attempting
to capture the marks (346). Finally, a discussion about the image quality is
proposed (347).
The issues related to the digital recording of cyanoacrylate-processed fingermarks
found on the interior of rear-view mirrors (i.e., inside vehicles) has been addressed
(346). Indeed, due to the double reflection effect caused by such mirrors, ridge
patterns may be split into two overlapping ones, creating fuzzy areas reducing the
overall quality of the mark (even using coaxial lighting). To overcome this problem,
the author proposed to remove the reflective layer at the back of the mirror by using a
paint remover and cleaning abrasive metal oxide.
Day proposed a tutorial explaining the advantages of using high dynamic range
(HDR) images to extend the luminance of some fingermark images (344). An HDR
image is built through the fusion of different photographs of the same scene but
taken with different exposure times. Such operations are now easily achieved in
some commercially available imaging software, such as Adobe Photoshop. This
technique could be of interest in the case of scenes with strong differences between
dark and bright regions, or presenting difficult contrast conditions (e.g., powdered
mark on a soda can or ninhydrin-processed fingermark on a pink paper). HDR
processing allows producing ridge detail of greater quality and contrast compared to
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normally exposed images subsequently processed with standard digital
modifications.
When speaking about fingermarks (or about reference fingerprints), the image quality
is of a first importance if it is defined as the apparent visibility of the existing ridges
and ridge details. This subject is discussed by Smith in an article whose aim is to
encourage the readers to think about such issues (347).
A tutorial was dedicated to the use of a function named “Black & White adjustment”
(B&W), included in the Adobe Photoshop CS3 software (and later), to enhance
images of fingermarks left on multicoloured substrates (345). The B&W option
provides the ability to work on a monochromatic representation of an image while still
having the full access to the individual colour channels. Compared to the “channel
mixer” function, which works on three colour channels (i.e., red, green, blue), the
B&W option allows to work on six colour channels (i.e., red, green, blue, cyan,
magenta, yellow), providing fine image tuning capabilities such as multicoloured
background removal.
2.3.3 Chemical imaging using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman
FTIR
Vibrational spectroscopic techniques, such as Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) or Raman, represent a non-invasive way to investigate the
chemical composition of latent fingermarks left on non-porous (348, 349)
or on difficult substrates (350, 351), as well as to monitor the presence of
exogenous substances, such as cosmetics (352), drugs (352-356) or
explosives (320-322, 353, 357). But they could also be used to image
superimposed fingermarks (357). Nevertheless, the sensitivity of these
spectroscopy-based methods (to image fingermarks or to identify
contaminants) strongly depends on the differentiation between the
spectrum of the material from the spectral response of the substrate and
of the secretion. Moreover, the issues related to the size of the imaged
area, the difficulty to localize a mark on an entire item prior to any imaging
attempt, and to the scanning time still constitute limiting aspects that are
not always sufficiently emphasized in the contributions.
The conjunction of attenuated total reflection microscopy with Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) provided the possibility to image gelatine-lifted
(untreated) fingermarks to study the chemical composition of various components
contained in adult fingermarks (348, 349). The advantage of ATR-FTIR, compared to
conventional FTIR, mainly lies in the possibility to reduce the interference of the
substrate (the gel lifter in this case) that could cover and hinder the spectral features
of the latent secretions. In a first study, sebum-rich fingermarks were left on various
substrates (e.g., door handle, mug handle, curved glass surface, computer screen)
before being lifted using two commercial gel lifters (i.e., BVDA Gelatine Lifter and
Dycem Gel Print Lifter) and analysed by ATR-FTIR. Imaging of sebaceous-rich
regions of the lifted-fingermarks showed that the gels could spectrally dominate and
hinder the latent secretion spectra, making difficult the investigation of the chemical
composition of the fingermarks. By changing the angle of incidence, the interference
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from the gel could be decreased and ridges could be visualized. The authors
recommended the BVDA Gelatine Lifter to be used on this kind of imaging. In a
second range of experiments, the authors imaged fingermarks left on non-porous
surfaces and heterogeneously contaminated with cosmetic and drugs, by following
the same procedure (352). Fingermarks were obtained by either rubbing the donor's
head which had previously been treated with cosmetics, or by first touching drug
powder (i.e., gamma-hydroxybutyrate - GHB) before depositing, lifting, and imaging
the marks. They finally tried to image cosmetic-contaminated marks on fabric (cotton
and polyester) and imaging them directly (without lifting them). Even though it was
not possible to reconstruct the pattern of the fingermarks, the cosmetic products left
on the clothes were successfully identified. The equipment allowed imaging an area
of a size of 2.5 x 3.6 mm² (348) or 4.3 × 5.9 mm² (352), with a total scanning time of
ca. 100 seconds per image.
Other studies investigated the use of FTIR to image latent fingermarks contaminated
with explosives (321, 322), as already described in the “CBRNE-related evidence”
section.
Ordinary reflectance FTIR was chosen to image processed fingermarks left on
“difficult” surfaces, that is, containing illustrations or text that render the visualization
difficult (e.g., polymer banknotes, papers, masking tapes, or aluminium drink cans)
(350). An image area up to 4.48 x 4.48 cm² could be scanned through mosaics, in a
few hours. One of the key-points of the study consisted in a systematic optimization
of the settings (e.g., spectral resolution or number of scans) so that the collection
time and the file-size were reduced without compromising the spatial resolution and
the quality of the final fingermark images. For this study, sebum-rich fingermarks
were left on various substrates before being processed by cyanoacrylate fumes or
amino-acid reagents (i.e., ninhydrin, DFO, or 1,2-indanedione), then imaged by FTIR.
Cyanoacrylate-fumed fingermarks on non-porous substrates yielded good results,
especially when imaging the frequency slice within the 1750–1800 cm -1 range. On
the contrary, the attempts to image ninhydrin-processed fingermarks on paper failed
in giving positive results due to the swamping effect of the cellulose constituents of
the paper. Moreover, the amount of product formed in fingermarks developed by
ninhydrin or DFO must be less than or equal to the original number of amino acid
molecules, whereas cyanoacrylate development of fingermarks has the advantage of
amplification (which is of a first interest during the imaging step). The authors did not
use ATR-FTIR, which may have enhanced the results, because “ATR imaging of an
area as large as a fingermark was not technically feasible at the time of writing”
(citing the authors).
FTIR was used to locate and identify exogenous substances contained in latent
fingermarks (e.g., caffeine, cocaine, paracetamol) through comparison with pure
product libraries (353). For this study, sebum-rich fingertips were put in contact with
the powder of interest (the excess of powder being brushed away from the finger),
before being pressed on either a metal oxide-coated glass slide (Kevley
Technologies) for reflection experiments, or on a silicon window for transmission
experiments. Full fingermark images were obtained by scanning an overall area of
1.12 × 1.12 cm, which took ca. 1h20. Different library searching algorithms were
tested and compared, when trying to identify the exogenous materials.
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The use of FTIR has also been proposed to detect superimposed or contaminated
marks on reflective substrates (e.g., door knob, knife blade, or handle) (357). For this
study, aluminium-coated glass substrates were used to image all the samples, and
three scenarios were considered: (1) latent marks left by unwashed hands, (2)
superimposition of two marks left by two differently-washed hands, and (3) latent
marks left by hands having touched RDX powder. The authors observed that sebumrich
features formed continuous patterns along the friction ridges, while protein-rich
material was deposited as flakes along the ridges, producing a speckled pattern. The
second scenario illustrated that morphological information obtained through imaging
was similar to what could be obtained by chemical development followed by optical
imaging, but that additional information could also be linked with the intrinsic
chemical composition of the secretions. This allowed distinguishing two different
marks that were optically similar in appearance. The third scenario consisted in the
spatial localization of material without the need to sweep the entire area (to be further
analyzed). No precise information was given on the time required to image a sample,
or on the scanning size (even if sequential moving of the sample allows extending
the scanned area to the required size).
Maynard et al. conducted a thorough study about the chemical imaging of latent
fingermarks in the near-infrared region (NIR) (351). For this study, sebum-rich latent
fingermarks were left on several substrates (eight porous: cardboard, cheques,
newsprint, and five coloured office papers – four semi-porous: white and coloured
glossy inkjet paper, soft drink labels, and Australian banknotes – three non-porous:
clear polyethylene bags, orange recycled polyethylene garbage bags, and glass
microscope slides). The marks were allowed to age for one day, one week, two
weeks, and one month, before being processed by conventional detection
techniques. The absorption and luminescence properties of the treated marks were
then examined over the spectral range 650–1100 nm, using a Condor Macroscopic
Chemical Imaging System. Under these wavelengths, some fingermark detection
reagents were characterized by NIR absorption (e.g., ninhydrin, iodine/benzoflavone,
physical developer, powdering) or emission (e.g., 1,8-diazafluoren-9-one, ninhydrin
with/without metal salt post-treatment, 1,-2 indanedione, genipin, cyanoacrylate
stained with NIR dyes, dye-coated metal nanoparticles), resulting in a good contrast
between the marks and some difficult substrates (e.g., highly luminescent). It should
be noted that most of the good results were obtained on the fresh mark sets,
especially the NIR absorption imaging.
Raman
West & Went applied Raman spectroscopy to the detection and identification of
exogenous materials present in fingermarks after those were powdered and lifted
(354, 355). This study is thus not directly related with imaging of the ridge patterns,
but more on the identification of exogenous materials in fingermarks. In a first study,
the authors used commercially available analgesic powders, as well as GHB, to
contaminate fingertips by contact, before leaving fingermarks on glass slides (total of
100 marks from one donor) (354). In another study, fingertips were contaminated
with seized drugs (i.e., ecstasy, cocaine, ketamine, and amphetamine) before being
powdered, lifted, and imaged (total of 70 marks from one donor) (355). Those marks
were further processed with aluminium or magnetic iron powder, then lifted using
lifting tape or hinge lifter, and imaged by Raman spectroscopy. If the application of
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fingermark detection powders prior to the Raman analysis did not interfere with the
detection and identification of the contaminants, it however increased the time taken
to locate the exogenous material due to the physical presence of more material
within the fingermark (four to five fold increase of time). Special care should be taken
when choosing the lifting tapes since interfering Raman bands coming from the lift
are to be avoided. Successful imaging of the sample through transparent evidence
bags was performed, meaning that the items do not have to be removed from such
bags to be examined. This consequently reduces contamination risks, and allows
preserving the chain of evidence.
Emmons et al. used Raman chemical imaging to detect and identify explosives (as
trace contaminants) in contaminated fingermarks (320), as described in the “CBRNErelated
evidence” section.
Raman spectral mapping was used on tape-lifted fingertips to extract chemical
information about sebum or contamination drug particles (356). For this study, one
donor was asked to rub his fingers on his forehead, or to touch drug mixtures
(containing ibuprofen, arginine and sodium bicarbonate for a first one, and sucrose
and aspartame for a second one), before a Scotch tape was applied directly on his
fingertips to lift a fingermark. These tapes were further imaged by Raman. Scanned
areas were of 200 x 200 µm² for sebum-rich marks, and of 400 x 400 µm² for the
drug-contaminated samples, which is too small to image a whole ridge pattern but
sufficient to identify the contaminants. Advanced multivariate data analysis of the
spectra was however necessary to overcome the overwhelming contribution of the
tape on the spectra, and to be able to identify the trace components (sebum or drug).
2.3.4 Miscellaneous imaging techniques
Several other techniques were developed with a common aim: imaging the
ridge patterns according to chemical or physico-chemical behaviour.
However, these techniques are still seldom used compared to FTIR and
Raman, mainly due to (1) the scanned area being too small to image a
whole ridge pattern, (2) labor-intensive methods requiring too specific
equipment. Therefore, most of the contributions constitute only preliminary
studies that may be further investigated before considering casework
application. These imaging techniques, briefly described below, are based
on: scanning electrochemical microscope (358-361), electrochromic
enhancement (362), tomography (363), surface roughness and refractive
index (364), mass spectrometry (365), time-resolved luminescence (366),
MALDI-ToF-MS (367), ToF-SIMS (368), scanning probe microscopy (369),
MALDI-MS (370), and SALDI-ToF-MS (258-260).
Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) was used to analyse latent fingermarks left on
glass slides (369). The scanned area was 40 x 40 µm², which is insufficient to image
a whole fingermark. The authors proposed the use of the “step-and-scan” mode that
permits to enlarge the scanned area by generating a mosaic composed of 40 images
of 70 x 70 µm². Nevertheless, this is still insufficient to distinguish ridge patterns.
Attempts to analyse superimposed fingermarks was also illustrated.
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Zhang et al. showed that it was possible to chemically image multimetal deposition
(MMD)-enhanced fingermarks using a scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM)
(358-360). This method is based on the measurement of the redox activity on a
localized area through to the solubilisation of silver. Since silver is preferentially
reduced on the gold nanoparticles, themselves located on papillary ridges, it was
possible to visualize the ridge details by scanning fingermarks processed by MMD.
This method could help visualizing classical MMD results on dark or patterned
substrates. Alternatively, SECM can also be used on silver-stained or benzoquinonetagged
fingermarks (361). However, SECM imaging needs to be optimized to enlarge
the scanning area and to reduce the time required to perform a scan before it could
be applied in casework.
Full-field swept-source optical coherence tomography was applied to image latent
fingermarks left on semi-reflecting glass (363). This technique provides information
about tomography as well as topography of the marks. According to the authors, the
detection of very poor quality marks as well as old ones, buried beneath dust layers,
is possible. Reconstructed ridge details are however not as clear as it should be, and
the scanned area is smaller than the size of a single fingermark.
The application of desorption electrospray ionization - mass spectroscopy (DESI-MS)
was described (365). A solvent was electro-sprayed on the surface bearing the
sample to be analyzed, generating secondary scattered droplets that are further
evaporated and analyzed by MS for each point of the surface (spatial resolution: 150
µm, scanned area: 19.2 x 14.8 mm²). This method gives chemical information,
associated with the ridge pattern of the fingermark. For this study, fingertips were
contaminated with drugs and explosives in solution, before being pressed on glass,
paper and plastic. Good ridge details were obtained, also on tape-lifted marks that
were analyzed by the same technique.
Time-resolved luminescence imaging of cyanoacrylate-fumed fingermarks stained
with an europium-based dye could be used to circumvent the problems caused by
luminescent substrates (366). This technique took benefit of the long-lived europiumbased
dye luminescence (micro- to milli-seconds) compared to the short-lived
background luminescence (nanoseconds). The recording of the image has to take
place a short time after the excitation source has been shut down. As a result, the
unwanted background luminescence (or security features) is no more visible, and
fingermarks can be visualized with a good contrast. Illustrations are given for latent
fingermarks left on aluminium foil and plastic with security features.
A diffractive glossmeter sensor is presented as a new imaging technique to visualize
latent fingermarks left on glossy, curved objects (364). This technique gives
information about the local gloss of the ridges, depending on the local surface
roughness and refractive index. By rotating the item (i.e., a ballpoint pen in this case)
in front of the light source, it was possible to analyze the reflected light coming from
the scanned area. As a result, latent fingermarks were imaged and coloured
according to the strength of light reflection.
Time-of-flight - secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was applied to image
and analyze drug-contaminated fingermarks (368). For this study, washed fingertips
were contaminated with drug powder (i.e., amphetamine, methamphetamine, and
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ecstasy) before being pressed on four different substrates (i.e., steel, aluminium,
brass and glass). Secondary ions mass spectra were recorded from a 500 x 500 µm²
area, and further coloured according to the emission intensity of particular ions. This
window size was insufficient to image a ridge pattern, but sufficient to detect and
identify the contaminants.
Matrix assisted laser desorption / ionisation - mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS) was
used to image the endogenous lipids present in latent fingermarks, as well as their
degradation products as the marks aged (370). For this study, sebum-rich and
eccrine-rich fingermarks were left on pre-coated aluminium sheets (thin-layer
chromatography plates from which the silica coating was scraped off with acetone).
Ageing of the fingermarks was simulated by placing the samples at 4 °C, 37 °C and
60 °C for seven days before being processed (i.e., spray-coated with a matrix) then
imaged. This technique permitted to scan an area of 150 x 150 µm² that can be
extended to the size of a fingermark (ca. 1.7 x 2.0 cm²) through mosaics, in ca. 44
minutes. The advantage of chemical imaging being the possibility to visualize specific
compounds according to their distribution in the sample, many endogenous lipids
were observed (e.g., cholesterol, palmitoleic acid, stearic acid, or oleic acids). Aged
fingermarks were imaged by retrieving the oleic acid and its degradation products.
The authors showed that the matrix used to coat the fingermarks prior to their
imaging can be eventually removed, while keeping the ability to detect the
fingermarks using magnetic powder (on aluminium and glass).
Surface assisted laser desorption / ionisation - time of flight - mass spectrometry
(SALDI-ToF-MS) was used to image fingermarks from smokers, and more
particularly by retrieving the peaks related to nicotine and cotinine (258, 259) or
drugs (260). This study has been described in the “Nanoparticles (nanopowder and
nanocomposites)” section.
Beresford & Hillman proposed a method based on the selective deposition of an
electrochromic polymer (i.e., polyaniline) to image fingermarks left on a metallic
surface (i.e., stainless steel) (362). The technique is based on the fact that the
electrochemical deposition process is inhibited by the latent secretion (that masks the
underlying metallic surface), leading to a negative image of the latent fingermarks.
Sebaceous and eccrine fingermarks were left on stainless steel, aged from two hours
to 39 days, before being processed and imaged (extraction of images from a filmed
electrochemical process). It should be noted that even if this technique led to welldefined
ridge details, a major drawback is to be reported: if the electrochemical
deposition is too important, the polymer can overfill the grooves between fingerprint
ridges, resulting in polymer growth extending across the ridges, modifying thus the
third level details from the ridge borders.
An attempt to perform chemical imaging on fingermarks detected using sputtered
gold and matrix assisted laser desorption / ionization – time of flight - mass
spectrometry (MALDI-ToF-MS) was presented (367). If sputtered gold hits the
secretion matrix, it is supposed that it prevents the gold aggregation, favouring the
formation of gold nanoparticles of smaller sizes and pseudospherical shapes. On
another hand, if gold hits the substrate (e.g., the grooves between the ridges), gold
nanoparticles of irregular shape and larger size are created. Both kinds of gold
nanoparticles exhibit different absorption bands in the visible region, leading to a
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visible contrast (this principle is highly similar to vacuum metal deposition). Chemical
information was obtained through the MALDI-ToF-MS equipment. For this study,
highly sebum-rich fingermarks from one donor were used by pressing the fingertip for
ten seconds on a substrate. Contaminated fingermarks were also obtained by putting
the fingertip in contact with drug powder for 20 seconds before pressing it on a
substrate. Finally, experiments were conducted on superimposed fingermarks by
artificially enriching each fingermark with a specific lipid (i.e., stearic acid for the first
one and oleic acid for the second one). Unfortunately, these protocols are far from
being realistic and degrade therefore the quality of the observations made.
3 Miscellaneous
Survival and transfer of bacteria has been tested on three biometric readers
(Recognition Systems HandKey III, Crossmatch Verifier 300 LC and TechSphere VP-
II S). Two strains of bacteria were tested independently of each other: Escherichia
coli and Staphylococcus aureus. For the survivability test, a known concentration of
bacteria was applied to the devices (after sterilization) and recovered by a single
touch with a finger covered with a sterile finger cot after 5, 20, 40 and 60 minutes.
For the transferability test, the device was touched 50 times with a finger, and
contamination of the device occurred prior to touch number 11. The survivability
study shows that at five minutes past contamination, 15% of the Staphilococcus
aureus remain on the fingerprint reader (and 20% and 40 % for the vein and hand
geometry readers, respectively); after 20 minutes, the survival rate was almost zero.
For Escherichia coli, the percent survival after five minutes is 28% for the fingerprint
reader (it is 40 and 50% for the hand geometry and vein readers, respectively).
Again, after 20 minutes, the survival rate approaches zero. The number of cells
transferred decreases over successive touches; most of the bacteria are transferred
within the first ten touches (371)
The relationship between oiliness, humidity, elasticity of the skin and image quality
has been investigated using 190 individuals, 6 impressions per individuals and 9
fingerprint sensors (4 capacitance, 4 optical and 1 thermal). The skin moisture,
oiliness and elasticity were measured with a Triplesense device. While differences
appear between the different sensor technologies, the relationship between skin
moisture, oiliness and elasticity and image quality is not linear (372).
The important factors in fingerprint scanners with respect to image quality (quality
being defined with respect to the accuracy of automated fingerprint recognition) have
been investigated. The main quality parameters defined by the FBI are used, and
images are acquired and then degraded with respect to each of these parameters.
No significant drop in performance (with respect to the ideal case) was observed
when all parameters were set to the IAFIS IQS minimum requirements (but
acquisition area is not defined); The PIV IQS requirement for the acquisition area
allows a drop in performance when the minimal requirement is used. The three most
critical parameters are acquisition area, output resolution, and geometric accuracy.
When these three parameters were degraded simultaneously, the drop in
performance was larger than the sum of the individual performance drops. (373)
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Saijo et al. propose ultrasound imaging of fingerprints for medical purposes. The
proposed method allows obtaining clear 3D images of the finger surface, but also of
the rear surface of the fingerprint (dermal papillae), in vivo (374).
Causin et al. (375) present the analysis of latex gloves using thermogravimetric
analysis. This yielded a discriminating power of 99.5%.
Stature estimation from hands and phalanges is described by Habib and Kamal
(376); these estimations show a good mean correspondence to stature. Right and left
hand and foot lengths are investigated for a North Indian population. In particular, the
goal is to be able to infer the size of a missing member for identifying the deceased;
indeed, these measures are correlated and regression equations are proposed,
where, for example, the right foot length is predicted from the right hand length and
breadth (377). In the same context of identification of human remains, a sex
difference of the index to ring finger ratio is found (on 300 subjects of south Indian
origin); this ratio is larger for females (378).
Packaging of objects for the protection of different kinds of marks, including
fingermarks is described by Tietze and Heer (379); for porous surfaces, paper bags
or cardboard boxes should be used, for nonporous surfaces friction should be
avoided; generally again cardboard is privileged, but plastic containers are also
mentioned (for example for weapons, that are also the object of special attention in
this article).
The organization and fitting out of forensic laboratories has been analysed, and a
basis for the conception of such laboratories has been presented. This concept is
based on several modules that can be assembled according to the needs of a given
laboratory. It emphasizes rationalisation, for example through shortening the
distances to be covered in particular working sequences (380).
3.1 Knuckles
Both the inside and the outside of knuckles has been investigated for their use in
biometric identification. The inside of knuckles, obtained from images of the whole
palms, has been used by Nanni and Lumini. An equal error rate of a minimum of 0.3
is obtained for one knuckle, and when both knuckles from middle and ring fingers,
the equal error rate obtained in the best scenario is of zero, but obtained on 72 users
only (and 10 images of the right hand for each user) (381). The outside of knuckles
has been investigated by Kumar and Ravikanth (382), as well as Zhang et al. (383) ;
they demonstrate that finger knuckles can be used to distinguish same-source from
different-source acquisitions in a biometric setting. Whether or not this discrimination
could be achieved when marks (if such marks did occur) are compared to reference
material is not the subject of these articles, and therefore remains unknown; however
these are promising biometrics that could help in source attributions.
3.2 Barefoot impressions
An overview of research on barefoot impressions has been proposed (384). Maltais
and Yamashita (385) present an operational trial where nine marks from bare feet
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and ninety inked impressions were sent to 15 specialists. There was one erroneous
exclusion (but the examiner requested better standards). Also, current Canadian
criteria do not allow positive identification of barefoot impressions ; therefore, several
inked prints could be included for a given mark. Several examiners therefore included
inked impressions other than that of the foot that had left the mark.
A study on an Indian subpopulation who customarily walks barefoot reports different
measures, such as the frequency of the relative lengths of toes, the presence and
number of humps in the ball line, creases, and the flatfoot condition (386).
Stature and weight estimations based on footprint measurements have been
reported in different studies. Krishan (387) estimates stature from various measures
carried out on 2080 footprints from a Gujjar population (an ethnic group from North
India). Stature is also estimated from a different Indian subpopulation, and it is
highlighted that the relationship between foot length / breath and stature diverges
between populations (388). Finally, Kanchan et al. also estimated stature from foot
measurements, based on a sample of 200 subjects belonging to a North Indian
population (389), a follow-up from previous work (390).
The relationship between footprints and weight has also been studied. Here, 50
volunteers (again from the Gujjar population) left footprints normally, and carrying
5kg and 20kg additional weight (391). This kind of estimation is less precise than the
estimation of stature from footprints.
Gait dynamics are the subject of (392). Measures of footprints left both on a flat
surface and on sand are analysed, as well as the pressure of different foot regions,
impulses, velocity and 3D kinematics. Finally, the footprint depth in different foot
regions is correlated with body mass, functional leg length, foot type, velocity,
pressure and impulse. Interestingly, body mass is not significantly correlated with
footprint depth, in any of the considered regions. When stepwise regression is used
by foot region, pressure, leg length, velocity and impulses are the only variables that
appear (392).
3.3 Ears and earmarks
The ear is receiving attention from both biometric and forensic perspectives. The
advances in the use of ear image in biometric systems are covered by Hurley et al.
(393) as well as in another review (394). Attarchi et al. (395) propose a new
mechanism for biometric recognition. Some entries of the Encyclopedia of Biometrics
(396-398) are also dealing with the biometric analysis of ear marks and shapes.
Ear length and breadth, as well as a classification of the type of ear (long and narrow,
short and broad, long and broad), position of the ear with respect to the head,
whether the ear is vertical or oblique, and the ear lobe types (free, attached, absent)
have been investigated on a sample of Kanyakuja Brahmin male subjects (399).
While this data, which is collected from direct measurements and from photographs
of the ears, cannot be directly applied to casework, variation is shown in these
different measures. However, the frequencies of the different classes are reported
separately.
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The efficiency of 20 observers to associate ear photographs has been shown by
Asirdizer et al. on a database of 120 ear images. The error rate reported varies
between right and left ear and lies between 12% and 15% (400).
An investigation of the analysis of DNA obtained from earmarks shows that DNA can
be obtained from these marks, but also that a large number of non-donor alleles are
obtained. Full donor profiles were obtained from 10 swabs of ears. However, out of
these 10 analyses, 6 were contaminated with non-donor alleles, the source of some
of which is not identifiable (401).
Automated ear identification is proposed and has been tested on two databases; one
containing four images per person of 77 persons and one containing six images for
each of 17 persons. On these databases, recognition rates of 90.50 and 95.05% are
obtained, using 2 and 3 images for training, respectively; in the second database,
when 4 images were used for training, the recognition rate is of 97.05% (402).
Using pairwise comparison of 700 ears by measuring 12 distances between
landmarks defined on the ear and computing the Euclidean distances between these
measures, it is demonstrated that there is variation between different ears. The
measures were taken directly on the ear, not on impressions, and 3 of the
measurements are depths. The repeatability of measurements was tested on 20 ears
(from 20 volunteers) by repeating the measures 10 times. An intra-pair distance of
0.251 was therefore defined. All distances for comparisons between different ears
from males (350 ears) were above this distance, while for female subjects, out of
61075 paired combinations, 21 pairs of right ears and 26 pairs of left ears yielded
distances that were inferior to this limit. Comparisons between the right and the left
ear for all volunteers were also carried out and only few of these comparisons yielded
distances smaller than the within-variability threshold (1 male or 0.3% and 7 females
or 2%). For the pairs of ears with distances below the threshold, images were
superimposed; the pairs could be distinguished on this basis (403).
Measurements carried out on ears (left and right, 414 individuals) showed symmetry
between left and right ear for height and width. A difference between males and
females was observed for the mean axis of the pinna, and a decline in anti-helical
take-off angle was observed with increasing age for male and female Caucasians
(but not for the Afro-Caribbean or Indian subcontinent ethnic groups). Length and
width of ear increased for all ethnic groups with age. Also, volunteers from India had
the longest ears, followed by Caucasians and Afro-Caribbeans ; the relationship is
only significant for males (404). Differences between males and females as well as
between age groups (linear distances, areas and symmetry increase with age, while
sagittal angles of the auricle and width to length ratios decrease with age) was also
found in a study on 843 volunteers (405).
3.4 Lip marks
A historical review of lip print studies, a description of the anatomical aspects of lips,
the different classifications of lip prints, methods of recording lip prints (including
latent marks), and problems with the comparison of lip prints are presented by
Caldas et al. (406). The problems in the comparison are essentially linked to the
intravariability of such impressions, due to the mobility of the lips, and various
290

pathological conditions that render impossible this comparison. In the same article,
the study of palatal rugae is also reviewed in the same way. A study on the patterns
of lip-prints of 966 Saudi subjects, including 13 identical twins, has been carried out.
They were then classified according to the Renaud classification system, which was
slightly modified. No two patterns were found to be identical, including in the identical
twins (although twins showed some similarity in the groove types). Detailed
frequencies of the different classes of lip patterns are reported, by sex and for each
of six regions of the lips (407). Direct measurement of the lips of 532 male and 386
female subjects has been used to investigate the variability between the dimensions
of the mouth and lips of male and female subjects, and the age-related differences. A
relatively large number of measures were carried out in the course of this study; it
was shown that all volumes and the total lip area, as well as mouth and philtrum
widths and total lip heights were larger for men than for women. The vermillion height
to mouth width ratio is larger for girls than for boys and for women than for men, but
larger for adolescent boys than for girls. All measurements significantly changed with
age, and there were significant interactions between age and sex (408).
The development of lipmarks left with lipstick on human skin has been investigated.
A single type of protective lipstick has been used in this study, applied to a mould
which was used to leave marks on the skin of 40 deceased individuals, on the right
side of the neck and the anterior region of the forearm. Observation using a UV light
source, dusting using REDescent Fluorescent Latent Prints Powder and Nile Red
and observation under UV were used. Development was carried out 15 minutes after
having left the lip mark. Observation under UV allowed locating the lip marks. Of the
two reagents tested, REDescent Fluorescent Latent Prints Powder developed all
marks, but not Nile Red (409).
Barbaro et al. investigated DNA typing from lipstick prints on skin. The sample
consisted of four women, who kissed the face of one man, once with light protective
and once with long-lasting lipstick. Overall eight swabs were collected. Analyses
were carried out both using Identifiler and Minifiler kits. Better recovery was obtained
from light protective lipstick than from long-lasting; however generally a mixture
between the female and male components was obtained, but both cases where only
the male component was present and cases where only the female component was
present were observed. In particular, the profile of one of the women never appeared
(410).
Note also that lips have been suggested as a biometric modality as well (411).
4 Crime scenes and case studies
Reported case studies were dealing with: indented fingermarks under
paint (412), the voluntary deposition of a toemark on falsified checks to
mislead the investigation (413), skin removal and conservation (414), the
role played (or not) by the deprivation level on the recovery of fingermarks
and DNA (415), voluntary incorporation of “fingermarks” on some CD
brands (416), fingermarks on a window frame that resisted a washing step
(417), processing of a self-adhesive stamp using heat, Wetwop and
ninhydrin (418), fingermarks on foldable items (419), fingermarks found on
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the floor after a bank robbery (420), and processing of corpses in bad
state (421-424), crime scene processing (425), loss of fingerprint
characteristics due to a cancer treatment (426), and the identification of a
deceased individual through occupational marks (427).
The burglary of a clubhouse led to the detection of several fingermarks and palm
impressions from the point of entry and other disturbed items (412). More particularly,
a left palm and left little finger marks were recovered from an internal kitchen door
and identified to an individual who claimed he had not been in this clubhouse for at
least four years. In fact, it appeared that these marks were indented in the former
paint coat (when it was not dry yet), and despite the fact that this kitchen door had
been painted white 18 months ago and washed several times since, the marks were
still visible and could be dusted / lifted due to the indented ridges.
During an investigation on counterfeit checks, unusually large “fingermarks” were
found on the front of eight checks (413). As a conclusion, it appeared that these
marks were actually corresponding to the right toe of the suspect, who left them to
mislead the investigation.
The observation of a blood impression (i.e., fingers and palm) on the thigh of a dead
body has been followed by the removal of the piece of skin. The difficulties related
with its conservation were discussed (414).
A study has been performed to determine if there exists a relationship between the
deprivation level of a neighbourhood in which a crime was committed and the
recovery of fingermarks and DNA by crime scene examiners (CSEs) (415). Burglary
and auto crime data for Northamptonshire (U.K.) during a three-year period has been
used (ca. 25,000 crime activities). No statistically significant relationship was found
between the deprivation level and the time spent on crime scene or the recovery of
fingermarks from the crime scene. However, a statistically significant relationship has
been found for DNA recovery, which is more frequently recovered from less deprived
neighbourhoods. The authors emitted the hypothesis that in less deprived areas, the
victims are more forensically aware and are, therefore, more able to articulate to the
CSEs which items from the scene may be of importance in the subsequent
investigation.
Two strictly identical fingermarks were discovered on two different CDs, processed in
the frame of two different crime cases (416). The explanation was that these marks
were left by the music production company as part of their brand, and are thus
digitally included on the CDs during the manufacturing process.
The same fingermark has been detected and lifted within the frame of two different
burglary cases, which took place at the same apartment - but days after (417). The
mark was initially lifted from the interior side of a kitchen window in an apartment.
The damaged window frame has then been superficially cleaned by a repairman
(apparently, it was sufficient to make the mark becoming latent again, but not to
erase it), and the same fingermark has thus been dusted and lifted as another
burglary took place at the same apartment, days after.
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The use of heat (using a hair drier and tweezers) to remove self-adhesive stamps
from an envelope was used to further process the sticky side of the stamp but also
the paper underneath the stamp (418). The use of Wetwop on the stamp gave no
results, but the processing of the envelope with ninhydrin led to the detection of a
mark lying initially beneath the stamp. It then appeared that the mark was transferred
from the stamp (after it had touched the palm of the suspect) to the paper, giving a
mirror image of the print.
Three cases related to the detection of fingermarks on foldable or torn substrates
have been reported (419). In one case, folding the ninhydrin-processed substrate
allowed to join two fingermark halves, that was subsequently inserted as a whole in
an AFIS search. In a second case, a torn paper sheet was reassembled to infer the
cutting dynamics performed by the suspect. The last case was about the transfer of
secretion residue that occurred between two paper substrates put in contact, which
led to the detection of a pair of mirrored fingermarks.
The report of a bank robbery for which the suspect entered the bank from the roof,
through the attic, down to a back room was made (420). When dusting the floor,
using black powder to detect footmarks, the author found a very well-defined
handmark (palm and fingers) left on the floor when the suspect supposedly crawled
around the room.
Four case reports were related with corpses' identification. First, latex has been used
to obtain a negative copy of damaged fingertips belonging to corpses in a bad state
of preservation (e.g., mummy and carbonization) (421). Fingertips were first brushed
with ether to remove the grease from the skin, before a thin layer (ca. 0.5 mm) of
liquid latex was spread on the finger using a wooden rounded rod. Once dried (ca.
after 10 minutes), the latex film was removed and placed over a finger-shaped
support previously soaked in latex, to be finally used in a fingerprinting identification
procedure (e.g., inked or photographed). It should be recalled that the record
constitutes a negative picture of the original print, and will have to be reversed in
colour and shape before using it for identification. The only restriction imposed by the
latex technique is that the mummified or charred fingertip must not be previously
treated with sodium hydroxide, because it prevents the rubber from vulcanizing. A
second case reported the use of black powder on the skin (i.e., fingertips and palms)
detached from a cadaver in bad state of conservation (422). The use of black powder
had for effect to darken the ridges and to create a visual contrast enabling the
photography of the skin, and its use as reference material. This solution has been
chosen because an inking process would have caused detrimental effects on the
fragile skin. Finally, the identification of 60-year-old mummified remains (i.e., forearm
and hand) using fingerprints and DNA was reported (423). Fingertips were
rejuvenated by rehydration, before being moulded with silicone rubber, then casted to
create positive impressions of each fingertip. The identification of a badly
decomposed body is the subject of (424). A possible name of the deceased was
available, and ten-print records of this person were on file. One of these ten-print
records showed clear pore details in the palmprints. Only three level II characteristics
were found to be in agreement, however, a lot of pore detail was visible on both
impressions and allowed the identification. In a further approach, the skin was
cleaned, and three more minutiae could be matched to characteristics present on the
exemplar.
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How to proceed on crime scenes for the preservation and further analysis of
fingerprints and DNA has been described by Lauer (425)
The loss of fingerprint characteristics due to the use of Capecitabine (a treatment for
breast cancer) is reported by Garcia-Saenz and co-workers (426).
A case where occupational marks were used for individualisation has been
presented. In this case, unusual symmetrical skin lesions were present on the hands
and the ankle joints of an unknown deceased individual. Based on these lesions, it
was concluded that the deceased was a coconut tree or coconut palm tree climber;
this allowed identifying the person (427).
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319

Biological Evidence
Review 2007 – 2010
Reinier J. Verduijn
University van Amsterdam (UvA)
320

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
 ABSTRACT
 323
2.
 BIOLOGICAL
TRACE
EVIDENCE
 323
2.1
 Introduction
 323
2.2
 Biological
traces
 323
2.3
 Detection
of
traces
 324
2.3.1
 Fluorescence
spectroscopy
 324
2.3.2
 Raman
spectroscopy
 325
2.3.3
 XRF
 325
2.4
 Recovery
of
traces
 326
3.
 EVIDENCE
IDENTIFICATION
 326
3.1
 Introduction
 326
3.2
 Blood
 327
3.2.1
 Current
confirmatory
techniques
 327
3.2.2
 Emerging
and
future
techniques
 328
3.3
 Semen
 329
3.3.1
 Current
confirmatory
techniques
 329
3.3.2
 Emerging
and
future
techniques
 329
3.4
 Other
body
fluids
 330
3.4.1
 Saliva
 330
3.4.2
 Vaginal
fluid
 331
3.4.3
 Urine
 331
3.4.4
 Sweat
 331
3.5
 RNA
as
a
tool
for
evidence
identification
 331
3.5.1
 mRNA
 331
3.5.2
 MicroRNA
 332
4.
 EVIDENCE
INDIVIDUALIZATION
 332
4.1
 Introduction
 332
4.2
 DNA
typing
 332
4.3
 Epigenetics
 333
4.4
 Short
Tandem
Repeats
 333
4.5
 Single
Nucleotide
Polymorphisms
 334
4.6
 Polymerase
Chain
Reaction
 334
321

5.
 PRESENT
CHALLENGES
 336
5.1
 Quality
Control
 336
5.2
 Low
Copy
Number
 337
6.
 FUTURE
DEVELOPMENTS
 338
6.1
 Introduction
 338
6.2
 Mini‐STRs
 339
6.3
 Deep
sequencing
 339
6.4
 Alternative
DNA
amplification
methods
 340
6.5
 Mobile
technologies
 340
7.
 REFERENCES
 341
322

1. Abstract
This review focuses on the discovery, recovery, identification and individualization of
biological material important in forensic investigations. Several techniques will be
discussed that are currently applicable in the field of forensic biology. Furthermore
new techniques and developments that might become applicable to the field of
forensic biology in the near future will be discussed. The aim of this review is to give
a summary of new developments since Fourney et al 1 published a review in Interpol’s
Forensic Science Review (2007). The first chapter will deal with the discovery and
recovery of biological trace material at the crime scene. The second chapter
concerns individualization of the traces and focuses mainly on the biological
approach to identifying body fluids, where ribonucleic acid (RNA) will play an
increasingly prominent role. The last chapter deals with the individualization of crime
scene samples based on the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) content. The principal
topics this review covers are divided into: Trace evidence discovery and recovery;
Identification of blood, semen, and other body fluids; Individualization based on the
genetic fingerprint, epigenetic markers, short tandem repeats (STRs), single
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and present challenges (e.g. Quality Control).
Furthermore some techniques will be presented that could become valuable in future
forensic biological examinations. As in any review a selection had to be made on
many of the scientific topics papers that are relevant to the forensic scientist.
Therefore not all topics that are relevant to forensic biology have been dealt with.
Topics that relevant to forensic biology and are more than worth to be covered in
future reviews include Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs), mtDNA analysis, and
nonhuman biological traces (e.g. microbial forensics).
2. Biological trace evidence
2.1 Introduction
Crime scene investigation is the first and a crucial step in forensic casework. The
time an investigating team can spend at a crime scene is limited due to
environmental factors, for example after a drive-by shooting a road must be screened
for evidence as soon as possible so it can be re-opened for the public in order to
prevent a chaos. After the road is re-opened any remaining traces will be destroyed,
thus an investigating team has only one opportunity to collect the evidence. It is
therefore essential that techniques are being developed that can give immediate
results to aid the investigating team on how they should proceed. Such techniques
should for example aim at the detection and identification of biological traces.
2.2 Biological traces
Presumably when we think of biological traces found at a crime scene, blood comes
to mind first. Besides blood, there are many more biological traces that are
interesting for forensic examinations (e.g. skin cells, semen, and hairs). This review
focuses on the identification of five different body fluids being: blood, semen, saliva,
vaginal fluid, and urine. Because body fluids all serve a different function and can be
323

present in different criminal cases they are of importance for forensic examinations.
For example blood is responsible for the transportation of oxygen throughout the
body, when someone is stabbed blood can be spilled from the body. The blood could
be transferred to the perpetrator’s clothing during a struggle, if the perpetrator throws
his clothing in a nearby trashcan the DNA from the blood can reveal that this clothing
contains blood from the victim. If then skin cells can be retrieved from the inside of
the clothing that have been shed by the perpetrator the DNA from these cells can be
used for the individualization process of a possible suspect.
2.3 Detection of traces
Some biological traces are readily visible, while others can only be detected with
special equipment. The techniques that are commonly used in today's practice are
presumptive in nature, meaning that they only give an indication on the nature of the
trace but are not confirmatory. Although such tests can give a valuable investigative
lead, there is always a need for immediate confirmation to positively identify the
nature of the stain. Preferably tests should be non-destructive to assure that the
sample is preserved. For example, the more DNA can be collected from a sample the
more easy it is to obtain full typing results using conventional DNA typing methods.
Virkler and Lednev 2 propose to use fluorescence spectroscopy and/or Raman
spectroscopy for the detection of traces.
2.3.1 Fluorescence spectroscopy
In fluorescence spectroscopy, radiation (e.g. ultraviolet light) is absorbed by an
analyte (e.g. nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids). The analyte will in return emit light
with a specific longer wavelength. Because many different analytes are found in body
fluids they all have a certain emission spectrum (Figure 1). If this were to be
developed in a handheld instrument it would become possible to quickly scan a large
region of stained material. The technique is very sensitive and moreover such an
instrument would be able to identify different body fluids.
Figure
1.
The
fluorescence
emission
spectra
of
semen
(—),
skin
oil
(‐ ͵͵ ‐ ͵͵ ),
blood
(‐
‐
‐),
saliva
(‐ ͵ ‐ ͵ ),
and
urine
(———)
excited
at
260
nm
(by
Virkler
and
Lednev 2 )
324

2.3.2 Raman spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy uses near infrared light for excitation. Although this technique
requires sample preparation (the required amount can be as low as picograms or
femtoliters), the sample (e.g. swab) can still be used for laboratory DNA testing. The
result of Raman spectroscopy is a Raman spectrum (Figure 2), which provides a
vibrational signature of the sampled material. A portable Raman spectrometer is
already available 3 .
Figure
2.
Raman
spectra,
with
785‐nm
excitation
(by
Virkler
and
Lednev 2 )
2.3.3 XRF
Besides fluorescence spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) is a presumptive test worth mentioning. Originally XRF was designed for
elemental analysis during planetary exploration, though it can also be used to detect
blood due to the presence of iron in haemoglobin, and semen due to the presence of
zinc. This technique is particularly valuable because it is non-destructive compared to
other screening techniques.
325

2.4 Recovery of traces
After being detected biological traces have to be recovered for subsequent laboratory
analysis. The three most commonly used methods for sampling exhibits are: cutting,
swabbing, and taping. The use of adhesive tape has several advantages compared
to the other collection methods: it has the ability to collect shed epithelial (skin) cells
from crime scene items such as the inside of a glove, combined with a reduced
collection of PCR inhibitors (e.g. clothing dyes); furthermore the inside and outside
can be sampled separately, thus avoiding surface-to-surface contamination and
consequently reducing the risk of obtaining mixtures with possibly irrelevant DNA
sources. Barash et al 4 have examined four different types of tapes, and determined
which type of tape can be used for collecting biological material while in addition also
assures that subsequent DNA analysis can be performed. They have been able to
identify adhesive tapes that meet these requirements. Although the use of adhesive
tapes for the collection of biological material has its benefits, special care should be
taken when using them on the outside of a case item. Toothman et al 5 describe that
the presence of dust in the evidentiary item can be a significant contamination source
in forensic investigations, due to the fact that the human DNA component in the dust
can be sufficient to interfere with the STR analysis. On the other hand dust can also
be a useful source of biological evidence. For example to obtain DNA profiles from
inhabitants within a defined location 5 .
3. Evidence identification
3.1 Introduction
After being detected and recovered, biological traces have to be identified. This
chapter will focus on the biological approach to identify five different body fluids:
blood, semen, saliva, vaginal fluid, and urine. As mentioned before the human body
contains different body fluids, which all serve a different function. As mentioned
before blood is responsible for the transportation of oxygen throughout the body. The
review article by Virkler and Lednev 2 provides the framework for this section. They
discuss the current techniques as well as the new emerging techniques. This review
will focus on confirmatory tests that can be applied at the crime scene.
A distinction can be made between different body fluids based on their component
makeup. This principle is the general idea for the identification of body fluids. In Table
1 a summary is given of some fluid specific components. Even though some
components are fluid specific, there are others which are not. For example prostate
specific antigen (PSA) is a protein produced by the cells of the prostate gland, and
therefore is present in semen, but can also be found in for example breast milk and
vaginal fluid, be it in a much lower concentration 6 . Proving its presence of PSA is
therefore presumptive, whilst proving the presence in combination with other
components could be confirmatory.
326

Table 1. Composition of body fluids (by Virkler and Lednev 2 )
Blood Semen
-Acid
Saliva Vaginal fluid Urine Sweat
-Hemoglobin phosphatase
-Prostate-specific
-Amylase -Acid phosphatase -Urea -Urea
-Fibrinogen antigen -Lysozyme -Lactic acid -Creatinine -Lactic acid
-Erythrocytes -Spermatozoa -Mucin
-Buccal epithelial
-Citric acid -Uric acid -Chloride
-Albumin -Choline
cells -Urea -Chlorine
-Tamm-
Horsfall
-Sodium
-Glucose -Spermine -Thiocyanate -Vaginal peptidase glycoprotein -Potassium
-Glycogenated
-
-Immunoglobulins -Semenogelin -Potassium epithelial cells
Immunoglobulins
3.2 Blood
-Zinc -Bicarbonate -Acetic acid
-Citric acid -Phosphorus -Pyridine
-Lactic acid -Glucose
-
-Squalene
-Fructose Immunoglobulins -Immunoglobulins
-Urea
-Ascorbic acid
-Immunoglobulins
3.2.1 Current confirmatory techniques
In today's forensic practice potential bloodstains that have been discovered at the
scene of the crime are in first instance screened with presumptive tests like the
Kastle-Meyer (KM). This presumptive blood tests meets practically all requirements
that a diagnostic test should have: sensitive, high specificity, quick, simple, and safe.
The tests that can be subsequently used for the confirmatory identification of blood
are amongst others: the microscope test, spectroscopic tests, and immunological
tests 2 .
The microscope test involves the counting of visualized blood cells, this can be
expanded by the use of a scanning electron microscope (SEM) which is able to show
the morphology of the cells present in the stain. An energy dispersive X-ray (EDX)
can also be used to show the elemental composition of the stain.
Spectroscopic tests, such as UV-vis(ible) absorption, determine if haemoglobin and
its derivatives are present in the stain, which can confirm the presence of blood in a
stain 2 . Spectroscopic tests can yield a positive result when blood is present in very
dilute amounts. Nevertheless this technique also has its limitations and
disadvantages, for example results can be interfered by: the exposure to sunlight,
heating, and rust.
A disadvantage of both tests mentioned above is the lack of species specificity. A
positive result means that we are dealing with blood, which can be from a human
being but also from any other animals. To show if the blood in a stain is human For
example the Rapid Stain Identification test (RSID) can be used. The test is specific
327

for human blood by using antibodies that are specific for the human specific and
blood specific protein glycophorin A 7 .
3.2.2 Emerging and future techniques
New techniques which are developed for the detection of blood are aiming on the
identification of the body fluid, and are species specific as well. Most of the new
techniques deal with RNA analysis. The DNA from a cell’s nucleus is transcribed into
messenger RNA (mRNA), which in turn is translated into proteins. The proteins in a
cell determine its function, and therefore the protein makeup together with the RNAs
in a cell can disclose the tissue or fluid type we are dealing with. Because of the rapid
developments in DNA technology, the step towards the use of RNA technology is
straightforward. In 2004, Alvarez et al 8 revealed a method to isolate RNA and DNA
simultaneously from the same stain extract. This makes it possible to yield
information about the nature of the stain using RNA analysis, while DNA analysis of
the same extract can be used to individualize the sample. Juusola and Ballantyne 9 in
2005 proposed a multiplex reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)
to identify different body fluids (blood, saliva, semen, and vaginal fluid). The RNA
tests to identify aimed at the genes for beta spectrin (SPTB) and porphobilinogendeaminase
(PBGD). Haas et al 10 found that positive results could be obtained from
stains that were up to 15 months old. Menstrual blood was detected by the presence
of the matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7) and MMP-11, Both proteinases are absent
from circulatory blood and menstrual-free vaginal swabs 11,12 . Zubakov et al 13 in 2008,
analyzed gene expression in aged bloodstains in order to find stable RNA markers,
which are highly expressed in blood, and have low expression in other fluids. They
concluded with nine possible markers 13 (CASP1, AMICA1, C1QR1, ALOX5APm
AQP9, C5R1, NCF2, MNDA, and ARHGAP26). Although all of the markers were able
to differentiate blood from semen samples, none of them could differentiate blood
from vaginal fluid because of the complex nature of vaginal secretions. In 2009,
Zubakov et al 14 used the nine markers mentioned above on old bloodstains, and
proved their effectiveness in freshly dried blood samples, and stains up to at least 16
years old. Because the age of crime scene sample can vary to a great extent it needs
to be proven that mRNAs intended for forensic use can be amplified successfully
under a wide range of sample conditions including aged samples.
Besides mRNA, microRNA (miRNA) can also be used for body fluid identification.
MiRNAs are non-protein coding molecules with important regulatory functions; many
have tissue specific expression patterns 15 . They are on average 22 nucleotides long
and have a stem-loop secondary structure, making them less prone to the
degradation process compared to mRNA. In 2009 Hanson et al 16 were the first to use
miRNAs for forensic body fluid identifications. Although no truly body fluid specific
candidates were identified (in the sense of being present in one body fluid and
completely absent in the other body fluids). They concluded that miR-451 and
miR-16 could be used to differentiate blood from semen, saliva, and vaginal fluid 16 .
cDNA can be produced from all RNA species within a sample, including mRNAs and
other small noncoding RNAs 16 . One advantage is, that when the miRNAs are
insufficient to identify the body fluid, mRNAs can be used from the same RT reaction
to help identify the body fluid. Furthermore the production of cDNA from total RNA
uses less genetic material from evidentiary samples, which is crucial when there is
little genetic material present. In this case 1ng of total RNA from blood, saliva, vaginal
fluid, and menstrual blood extracts and 5ng of total RNA from semen extracts were
328

used in the RT reaction. The expression of miRNAs was subsequently examined
using a SYBR Green real time PCR assay. Unfortunately this procedure cannot be
multiplexed and has to be performed in a separate reaction for every miRNA 16 .
Nonetheless attempts could be made to develop multiplex reactions using multiple
dyes. Zubakov et al 15 in 2010 reported three miRNAs (miR-20a, miR-106a, and
miR-185) that have high expression levels in circulatory blood relative to semen,
saliva and vaginal fluid. They used the TaqMan MicroRNA Reverse Transcription
assay, which is species specific, however there are miRNAs which do appear in other
species (e.g. non-human primates). Of the three miRNAs mentioned above only
miR-106a is human specific.
3.3 Semen
3.3.1 Current confirmatory techniques
The tests that can be used for the identification of semen are the microscope test,
immunological tests, and electrophoretic methods 2 .
The microscope test can be used for the detection of semen. The microscopic
detection of sperm cells gives a direct identification of semen. Another advantage of
the microscope test is the possibility to show the presence of semen in a mixture with
blood and vaginal fluid. Unfortunately not all males have sperm cells in their
ejaculate, meaning that the absence of sperm cells does not mean there is no
semen. The absence of sperm cells can be explained by azoospermicity of the donor
due to natural causes or by vasectomy. To be able to identify semen without sperm
cells other techniques have been developed. An example is the use of prostate
specific antigen (PSA), as mentioned in the introduction, for the identification of
semen. Semen of azoospermic males will still contain this protein which is present in
the seminal plasma 6 . PSA can be detected in semen which is 10 6 times diluted 2 . Due
to its extreme sensitivity other body fluids (e.g. breast milk and vaginal fluid) that also
contain PSA but in much lower concentrations, can produce a false positive result. In
addition PSA can give a false positive reaction on male urine 17 .
Semen can also be detected using a lateral flow immunochromatographic strip test.
This test is a part of the Rapid Stain Identification test (RSID TM ) and is developed to
detect the presence of semenogelin. The detection limit of this test is 2.5nL of human
semen, and takes about 10 minutes to give a result. While it gives no positive result
when tested on blood, saliva, vaginal fluid, and urine.
3.3.2 Emerging and future techniques
Like with blood, the newly developed techniques are aiming at identification and are
species specific as well. Most of these new techniques deal with RNA. As mentioned
before Alvarez et al 8 revealed a method to isolate RNA and DNA simultaneously from
the same bloodstain extract. This method can also be applied to semen samples.
Naturally the RT-PCR method described by Juusola and Ballantyne in 2005 also
applies to semen. Juusola and Ballantyne 9 used the semen specific markers PRM1
and protamine 2 (PRM2). Less than 200 pg of input RNA was needed for a positive
result with both genes. The specificity of these genes for semen has been shown,
because they were not detected in saliva, blood, menstrual blood, and vaginal fluid 9 .
Accordingly Fleming and Harbison 11 mention that PRM1 and PRM2 have been found
in ejaculated spermatozoa and dried semen stains, while being absent in blood,
329

sperm-free vaginal swabs and saliva. Sakurada et al 18 used the PRM2 gene together
with the semenogelin 1 (SEMG1) to show the presence of semen in a stain. Both
genes are being expressed in semen, however also 2 out of 5 urine samples showed
some expression, but this is presumably caused by semen contamination of the
urine.
The same as with blood microRNAs can be used for semen identification. Hanson et
al 16 reported two miRNAs (miR-135b and miR-10b) that can be used to differentiate
semen from blood, saliva, and vaginal fluid. Zubakov et al 15 reported five miRNAs
(miR-135a, miR-10a, miR-507, miR-891a, and miR-943) that have high expression
levels in semen relative to blood, saliva and vaginal fluid. Of these miRNAs only
miR-891a is human specific.
3.4 Other body fluids
Although other body fluids such as saliva, urine and vaginal fluid are encountered
less frequent than blood and semen in forensic practice the unambiguous
identification of these fluids can be of great value in certain forensic cases. The
traditional method for identifying saliva is based on the detection of the alpha
amylase enzyme. The classic test for urine is based on the detection of urea an
organic compound that concentrates in urine. Both the amaylse test and the urea test
are relatively insensitive and not specific for the body fluid of interest. At present
there is no specific and sensitive presumptive test to screen for the presence of
vaginal secretions. The coming availability of specific RNA tests for the identification
of these body fluids will therefore be of great value for the forensic identification of
these body fluids.
3.4.1 Saliva
The genes that can be used to identify saliva are statherin (STATH) and HTN3 12,18 .
Both genes were not detected in blood, semen, and vaginal fluid. The HTN1 gene
was also detected by the HTN3 primer and therefore showed some false positive
results in semen 2 . Zubakov et al 13 concluded with five possible markers for saliva 13
(SPRR3, SPRR1A, KRT4, KRT6A, and KRT13) SPRR3 and SPRR1A show no
detectable expression in semen, and the remaining three (KRT4, KRT6A, and
KRT13) show vast over-expression in saliva compared to semen. However the
markers could not differentiate saliva from vaginal fluid, due to the complex nature of
vaginal fluid. In addition, the markers could at least be identified in 6 months old
stains. Furthermore Zubakov et al 13 remarked that tissue identification should not
only be based on the presence of certain body fluid markers, but also on the absence
of the other body fluid markers. In 2009 Hanson et al 16 were the first to use miRNAs
for forensic body fluid identifications. For the differentiation of saliva from blood,
semen, and vaginal fluid they concluded that miR205 and miR658 could be used 16 .
Besides a molecular biology approach saliva can be identified using a lateral flow
immunochromatographic strip test. This test is a part of the Rapid Stain Identification
test (RSID TM ) and is developed to detect the presence of salivary α-amylase. The
detection limit of this test is 1µL of human saliva, and takes about 10 minutes to give
a result.
330

3.4.2 Vaginal fluid
The genes that can be used to identify vaginal fluid are human beta-defensin 1
(HBD-1) and mucin 4 (MUC4). A positive result is also observed in menstrual blood,
but not in circulatory blood, semen, and saliva. Menstrual blood can be differentiated
from circulatory blood and menstrual free vaginal swabs by using the gene matrix
metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11) 11 . For the differentiation of vaginal fluid from blood,
semen, and saliva miR124a and miR372 can be used 16 , although the miR372
concentration is only slightly higher in vaginal fluid compared to other body fluids.
3.4.3 Urine
Until now no genes have been described that are truly specific to urine. Nevertheless
Nakazono et al 19 described a method to show the presence of human urine. They
identified human urine by detecting five 17-ketosteroid conjugates with electrospray
ionization liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (ESI-LC-MS). At the same time
they used diafiltration to purify DNA from the sample and full DNA profiles could be
successfully obtained using capillary electrophoresis. Remarkable however, is that
male urine contains less DNA than female urine.
Urine can also be identified using the Rapid Stain Identification test (RSID TM ) and is
developed to detect the presence of the urine specific Tamm-Horsfall protein (TPH).
The detection limit of this test is 5µL of human urine, and takes about 15 minutes to
give a result.
3.4.4 Sweat
Until now no genes have been described that are truly specific to sweat.
Nevertheless one study showed that it is possible to identify sweat using the G-81
monoclonal antibody and an ELISA technique 2 .
3.5 RNA as a tool for evidence identification
Most emerging techniques used for body fluid identification, discussed above, are
dealing with RNA. Unlike DNA, the transcript, RNA has not been extensively used in
forensic science. The potential of RNA so far has been underestimated. RNA was
notorious for its allegedly rapid post-mortem and in vitro decay, making it less useful
in forensic investigations. However nowadays new RNA technologies are developed
and several studies show that RNA can be detected after a long time 14,20 .
Nevertheless the environmental conditions play a major role. The review by Bauer 21
in 2007, described three examinations RNA could be used for. First diagnosis of the
cause of death, second determination of the age of wounds and injuries, and last
identification of body fluids. The main problem with these examinations are the
unpredictable conditions forensic stains are exposed to. In order for RNA to be useful
in crime scene investigations it is necessary to know more about the degradation
process, furthermore it is important to know what storage conditions are preferred for
crime scene samples. Both aspects will be discussed below for mRNA and
microRNA.
3.5.1 mRNA
Setzer et al 20 performed a study to gain insight into the process of body fluid specific
RNA degradation. The mRNA genes used for this study were: PBGD and SPTB for
331

lood; HTN3 and STATH for saliva; PRM1 and PRM2 for semen; MUC4 for vaginal
fluid; and S15 as housekeeping gene. Samples that were exposed to the natural
outside environment exhibited dramatically reduced recovery compared to room
temperature and light exposed samples. UV- and luminescent light did not have an
impact on the recovery values of RNA from blood and saliva samples. Semen
samples exhibited increased RNA recovery. It is speculated that the light treatment
enhances RNA isolation from spermatozoa by facilitating the disruption of cellular
integrity. Vaginal samples however exhibited a significant reduction in RNA recovery
upon treatment with UV, but not luminescent light. This might be caused by
germicidal actions, as a vaginal swab is expected to contain microbial communities
from the female reproductive tract. More research can be expected, unravelling the
molecular basis of mRNA degradation, including whether the 5’ end, the 3’ poly-Atail,
or the intervening sequences are specifically degraded or whether nucleolytic
damage is randomly distributed.
3.5.2 MicroRNA
As discussed above, RNA degradation is promoted by environmental factors (e.g. UV
light, moisture, and heat) 15 . This degradation will negatively affect the detection of
RNA. To reduce this negative effect, miRNAs can be used instead of mRNA,
because of their shorter amplicon length 16 . Zubakov et al 15 , published that blood and
semen samples aged for 1 year under lab conditions (relatively constant humidity
and ambient temperature, no UV exposure, dust free, etc.) still contained a
detectable amount of miRNAs. It seemed that the aging had no negative effect on the
absolute level of miRNAs that could be detected. Furthermore the effect of
environmental factors on miRNA still needs to be investigated. Although it can be
expected that miRNA degradation is influenced by the same environmental factors as
mRNA.
4. Evidence individualization
4.1 Introduction
After samples are collected and have shown to be of value for further examination
(by e.g. identity testing) the individualization process begins. Individualization is used
to prove with a certain amount of confidence that the evidence originates from the
suspect or another individual, thereby linking the biological trace evidence to its
donor.
4.2 DNA typing
Base sequence variations in the human genome can be used for DNA typing, which
is also known as DNA identification analysis, identity testing, DNA testing, genetic
fingerprinting, genotyping, or DNA profiling. DNA as a tool for the individualization of
biological samples was introduced by Sir Alec Jeffreys in 1985 22 . Every human
(except identical twins), each possesses a unique genotype, furthermore the DNA of
an individual is identical whether it is extracted from buccal cells, white blood cells, or
spermatozoa (note that each spermatozoa contain only half of the DNA due to
meiosis). These principles of individual uniqueness and identical DNA structure within
332

all tissues of the same body provide the basis for DNA profiling 23 . DNA typing has
completely pushed away conventional genetic typing methods such as blood group
typing and analysis of polymorphic enzymes. Forensic DNA typing can be used to
identify a suspect and to show someone's innocence. DNA typing methods can also
be used to prove kinship in civil cases and for the identification of individuals after a
mass disaster (flight accidents).
4.3 Epigenetics
Besides variations in the genotype, there are the so called epigenetic variations.
Epigenetics is to some degree responsible for phenotypic alterations 24 . Most
phenotypic alterations are caused by the genetics of an individual, but how does
epigenetics work when we know that the base sequence of the DNA is not altered?
The expression of certain genes may be increased by or inhibited through
biochemical modifications of the DNA and histones 25 , the proteins around which the
DNA coils that are crucial for DNA compacting into chromatin. Neither the gene
structure nor the nucleotide sequence is modified. The process of biochemical DNA
modification involves methylation of DNA molecules in many sites and acetylation,
phosphorylation, methylation and ubiquitination of histones 24 . Such epigenetic
modifications, so-called epigenetic markers, appear progressively throughout an
individual’s life and with increasing frequency as the individual ages. They are the
unexpected explanation to the phenotypic variations observed during aging. They
probably also explain some of the phenotypic differences observed among
monozygotic twins. A case study by Bach 24 revealed that about one third of identical
twin pairs show differences in DNA methylation patterns. Furthermore nothing
indicates today that epigenetic markers are transmitted beyond a limited number of
generations.
4.4 Short Tandem Repeats
Of all the DNA in a cell approximately 2% is coding for heritable traits, while the other
98% is ‘non coding’ 26 . Genetic mapping and sequencing studies have led to the
discovery of highly variable regions 27 in the non-coding part of DNA between different
individuals. These hypervariable regions, often termed minisatellites 22 and
microsatellites (or short tandem repeats - STRs), are generically known as VNTRs
(Variable Number Tandem Repeats) and are found at many sites throughout the
genome. Each VNTR contains a defined sequence of nucleotides which is repeated
a number of times in a tandem fashion, for example TCAT TCAT TCAT TCAT, the
greater the number of repeats, the longer the VNTR. The number of tandem repeats
in any particular minisatellite or microsatellite varies from one person to another. This
is exploited in identifying individuals on the basis of their DNA profile. The size of the
fragments identified will depend on the number of repeats that each microsatellite
contains, and the pattern (a series of peaks 28 ) obtained after capillary electrophoresis
(CE) is characteristic of the profiled individual 29 , except for identical twins, although
they might be distinguished when examining epigenetic markers 24 .
Fourney, DesRoches and Buckle 1 discussed the developments in STR technology
until 2007 and mentioned the usage of Y-STRs when examining genetic genealogy.
In the following three years new developments occurred and some will be discussed
333

here. Y-STRs are obtained by profiling the male sex chromosome, unfortunately
when female offspring are under investigation this genetic genealogy on the basis of
Y-STR profiling cannot be performed (note that only males have a Y chromosome).
However the X-chromosome men transmit to their daughters is the single Xchromosome
they received from their mother. Bobillo et al 30 in 2008 tried to show the
applicability of X-STRs in two cases which were unable to be solved by conventional
typing approaches. They used ten X-STR loci (DXS8378, DXS9898, DXS7133,
GATA31E08, GATA172D05, DXS7423, DXS6809, DXS7132, DXS9902, and
DXS6789) and were able to obtain results that did/didn’t support kinship claims.
Aquino et al 31 in 2009 compared an autosomal STR kit (using 15 STRs), with those
supplemented by an X-chromosome STR hexaplex (DXS7133, DXS7424, DXS8378,
DXS6807, DXS7423, and DXS8377) in kinship cases where putative paternal
grandmothers or half sisters were genotyped in the absence of the alleged father. In
this study, the likelihood ratios (LR) calculated with the autosomal STR kit were
around a 100. While in combination with the X-STR hexaplex the LR increased 6,500
times 31 , proving its potential in complex genetic genealogy cases. Of course
supplemental autosomal STR loci can also be used to improve resolving complex
kinship cases 32 .
4.5 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms
Another genetic marker that can be used for identifying individuals besides the STR
is the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Approximately 85% of human genomic
variation is based on SNPs, meaning there is an abundance available for identity
testing. Nevertheless not all SNPs are the same, some can be used for identity
testing while others are useful AIMs 33 . Identity testing requires SNPs to have high
heterozygosity and low population heterogeneity 34 . As the name already infers SNPs
have only one nucleotide that needs to be detected, therefore the amplicon length is
reduced and is in the range of 50bp. The short amplicon length is important when
degraded material is under investigation, where the higher molecular weight STR
markers can to amplify, while the SNP markers may still provide valuable information.
In addition SNPs have a low mutation rate, which makes them useful for paternity
testing and complex kinship cases. Furthermore stutter peaks do not occur in SNP
analysis 33 . However due to the fact that most SNPs are bi-allelic 35 they are less
informative for identity testing than an STR locus. On the other hand non-binary
SNPs (e.g. tri-allelic or tetra-allelic) are suited for the detection of a second DNA
source in a sample, a DNA mixture in a ratio up to 1:8 can be recognized by the
presence of three alleles on one locus, unexpected peak height ratios, and uncalled
peaks above the detection threshold 33 . To reach a discrimination power that is equal
to 12-16 STRs a large battery of approximately 45-65 bi-allelic SNPs is required. A
new alternative to PCR has been developed to detect SNPs 36 . This technique, rolling
circle amplification (RCA), will be discussed below in the future development section.
Until now little attempts have been made to develop forensic SNP multiplexes.
Nevertheless SNPs could become implemented universally 34 .
4.6 Polymerase Chain Reaction
Isolated DNA can be present in limited quantities in evidential material. In order to
assure enough material is available for analysis the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
334

can be used. PCR is a cyclic process in which target DNA, for example an STR, is
being duplicated in vitro. The PCR process was developed in 1985 37 . PCR is widely
used in DNA profiling in circumstances where there are only minute quantities of
starting material. One cycle of the PCR process consists of denaturation of the DNA,
binding of the primers, and elongation of the new DNA strands 38 . Because this cycle
can be repeated multiple times the concentration of DNA will increase exponentially.
The amount of amplicons (target DNA sequences) after a certain amount of PCR
cycles can be defined by 2 n – (2n+2), where n is the number of cycles. In forensic
cases somewhere between 28 and 34 cycles are used 28 . When the amplification
process is finished the PCR mixture will almost exclusively consist of amplicons,
therefore only the amplicons will be visible during further analysis. Every PCR
process requires at least two primers, one on each site of the target DNA. By
selecting suitable primers, highly variable regions or STRs can be amplified from very
small amounts of DNA. However the complementary primer sequence has to be very
specific, to ensure that only the target DNA is amplified. Furthermore PCR primers for
STR loci have to bind as close as possible to the tandem repeat to decrease the
amplicon length, because a shorter template STR has more chance of surviving
degradation, and therefore increasing DNA profiling success. Current PCR
techniques are able to amplify multiple STRs at the same time (this process is called
multiplexing), meaning that only a small amount of DNA is needed and consumed for
DNA typing (for more information on multiplexing readers should refer to Budowle
and van Daal 34 ).
In forensic investigations typically at least ten different loci are examined 26,28 ,
including amelogenin for sex determination. The loci that are examined are the same
in every sample. All loci have their own specific code, for example D21S11, FGA and
TH01. Every locus (singular of loci) has its own set of DNA-features, if all the features
of the different loci are found it is said to be a full DNA-profile. The information from a
DNA-profile is used to decide, whether any two samples of DNA are from the same
individual or not 29 . The usage of the same standard set of loci by different countries
provides the ability to compare a DNA-profile with different DNA databases on an
international level. The Interpol standard set of loci (ISSOL) currently preferred is
given in Table 2. Recently a DNA match in an unsolved murder, which occurred in
the Netherlands in 1996, has led to the arrest of a German man. The DNA profiles
were exchanged on the basis of the Treaty of Prüm. The Netherlands is affiliated with
the Treaty of Prüm, which has now been transposed into European Union legislation.
Because of this, DNA profiles of different countries can be compared on a daily basis.
The Netherlands can compare DNA profiles with Germany, Austria, Spain,
Luxembourg, Slovenia, Finland, and France. This has already led to a total of 1103
international matches, of which 629 occurred in 2009.
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Table 2. The Interpol Standard Set of Loci (ISSOL), identical with the European Standard
Set (ESS), is recommended by the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes
(ENFSI).
Supplier
Locus NGM TM
Applied-Biosystems Promega
SGM Plus Profiler Plus
D21S11 X X
Profiler
X
Plus
FGA X X X
VWA X X X
THO1 X X
D3S1358 X X X
D8S1179 X X X
D18S51 X X X
Amelogenin X X X
X
Identifiler
Power-Plex 16 & 17
X
Power-Plex
X
16 & 17
X X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X X
D1S1656* X X
X
D2S441* X
D10S1248* X
D12S391* X X
D22S1045* X X
Additional Loci
TPOX CSF1P0 D13S317 D7S820 D5S818 D16S53
9
336
X
X
D2S1338 D19S433
Penta D Penta E FES F13A1 F13B SE33 CD4 GABA
* Following new recommendations by the European Network of Forensic Science Institutes the
ISSOL was expanded in 2010 from the existing seven to twelve markers 39 .
5. Present challenges
5.1 Quality Control
A consistent high quality of forensic science disciplines is of vital importance for
criminal proceedings. Judges need to work with the evidence that is presented to
them: it has to be valid and reliable which makes the implementation of
comprehensive quality control procedures necessary. The report by the ‘Committee
on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community’ 40 shows that the
quality between different forensic science disciplines varies greatly mainly due to
absence of solid scientific research (proving validity of the different techniques),

quantifiable measures of reliability and accuracy, quantifiable measures of
uncertainty in the conclusions, and the lack of research on observer bias and sources
of human error. DNA analysis however has proven to give consistent results, with a
high degree of certainty, sufficient to demonstrate the connection between evidence
and a specific individual or source. In this respect the stochastic effects observed
during PCR and especially Low Copy Number typing (LCN) can complicate the
procedure. To make no mistakes, or have a zero error rate is practically impossible.
Therefore it should be a good scientific practice to show the limits of a specific
method and to address for example the impact of potential bias. Thompson 41 gives
an example of a blind procedure, preventing observer bias, in forensic DNA profile
interpretations. He first argues that “the widespread failure to adopt blind procedures
for making DNA interpretations sets the stage for target shifting”. In which target
shifting means that examiners change their interpretation on the basis of the
available reference profiles from suspects which they know are likely to match.
Thompson 41 proposes to prevent this by sequential unmasking, in which the features
of the contested material are observed first. After this the examiner has to point out
which DNA profiles could contribute to this material. Only after that he can continue
his investigation, comparing the reference samples with the contested material.
As the DNA technology is advancing, the statistical part becomes more and more
important. Hedman et al 42 proposed a statistical model for unbiased quality control of
forensic DNA profiles (e.g. capillary electrophoresis electropherograms). The
measure proposed is the forensic DNA profile index (FI). Where the total peak height
of the capillary electrophoresis electropherograms (e.g. the sum of the heights of the
observed STR peaks given in relative fluorescent units (rfu)) together with the mean
local balance (e.g. the mean of intra-locus balances or discrepancies between peak
heights within a heterozygous STR marker), and the Shannon entropy (e.g.
discrepancies, or inter-locus balance, between the sum of the peak heights between
the markers) 42 are combined. The FI can be used to ensure the overall quality of
DNA profiling within a laboratory.
5.2 Low Copy Number
In order to analyze samples that contain less than 200 pg of template DNA 28,43 (in
literature referred to as low template DNA (LTDNA) or touch DNA) LCN can be used.
There are several variants of the LCN technique, the most basic (the variant with 34
PCR cycles, a replication strategy with two or more replications, and a validated
interpretation methodology) is used in the Netherlands, the UK and in New
Zealand 44 . LCN uses STRs to produce a DNA profile. In comparison to the
conventional STR methods applied in normal casework LCN uses methodologies to
increase DNA detection sensitivity. For example modifications to the PCR (e.g. other
primers) and/or post-PCR manipulations 34,28,43,45 .
The increase in detection sensitivity gives a concomitant increased risk of
contamination. For example more sensitivity of detecting DNA, enhances the chance
to find not only the DNA profile of the perpetrator, but also the DNA profile of other
persons 46 (whose cells were present on e.g. the victim due to casual contact 28 ).
Furthermore stochastic effects are also more likely to occur. Stochastic effects are
heterozygote peak imbalance, allele or locus drop-out, and stutter (for more
337

information on stochastic effects readers should refer to Butler and Hill 47 ). To prevent
stochastic effects several measures can be taken: (i) prevent contamination of the
samples 28 (e.g. by instructing and training crime scene investigators, police, and
forensic laboratory personnel), (ii) replicating the LCN analyses (reproducibility of
alleles in replicates is the basis for reliable results), and (iii) improving the recovery,
extraction, and PCR 34,48,49,50 (e.g. increasing the efficiency of recovery and yield from
a collection device could make LCN unnecessary, because sufficient material is
obtained to successfully undertake conventional STR analysis). Furthermore it is
important to decide, before collecting samples, if samples should be considered for
subsequent LCN typing in order to prevent contamination. Police forces should be
made aware of the limitations the LCN procedure has. Of course contamination must
also be prevented during ‘normal’ sample collection. Caddy et al 28 report that until
then (2008) there is no standardization in interpretation amongst all LCN providers.
Furthermore the success rate of LCN typing is not yet available. The main reason for
this lies in a lack of agreement on what constitutes a success 28 (is it a full DNA
profile? or is it a particular number of ‘clear’ peaks in the capillary electrophoresis
electropherogram?). Caddy et al further mention that as a matter of best scientific
practice a DNA quantification step should be implemented before the actual (LCN)
DNA analyses. The quantification step can be used to reveal the presence of
possible PCR inhibitors, and can be used to reduce the chances of generating over
amplification of the PCR products. The importance of validation of LCN typing
methods has been made clear in a number of papers 28,43,44,47,51,52 including
interpretation of LCN mixed profiles 44,47,52 . Caddy et al propose that LCN-produced
DNA profiles should always be reported to the jury with the caveats that: the nature of
the starting material maybe unknown; that the time of DNA transfer cannot be
inferred; and that the opportunity for secondary transfer is increased in comparison to
conventional DNA profiling 28 .
6. Future developments
6.1 Introduction
The use of DNA in forensic science began 20-25 years ago. Since then various
techniques have been developed and implemented. It can be assumed that no
dramatic changes in current techniques will be developed, but that merely
refinements will be made, although forensic scientists should be aware that they
have to do anything in their power to embrace new technologies that will benefit
society for example by their ability to analyze more challenging samples 34 . An
example of a refinement is in the forensic DNA databases that currently contain DNA
profiles with STRs (there are >8 million reference profiles in the CODIS database and
>90 thousand reference profiles in the Dutch database). Implementing new STRs (as
in the ISSOL) and removing the older ones ensures that databases can be used on
an international level while it infers that a part of the existing databases are no longer
useable (losing potentially valuable information). Although valuable information might
be ‘lost’ some changes have to be made, because most countries currently have
their own specific set of STRs making it difficult or virtually impossible to search for
DNA profiles in databases from other countries. Furthermore if more loci can be
compared, the strength of the evidence in case of a match will increase.
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6.2 Mini-STRs
Improving the success rate of DNA profiling with the use of STRs requires more
specific STR designs. Reducing the amplicon length for example, as discussed in the
SNP section, will make the STRs less prone to the degradation process (this
improvement relies on the same principles as the mRNA to miRNA conversion).
Amplicons in the range of 71-250bp are called mini-STRs 34 . Because mini-STRs will
overlap in size there are more fluorescent dyes required to distinguish them. Mulero
et al 53 describe the conversion of eight STRs into mini-STRs and Gill 54 et al describe
the acceptance of three mini-STRs into the European standard Interpol loci.
6.3 Deep sequencing
Determining the nucleotide sequence in a DNA fragment is called sequencing. The
first DNA sequencing experiments were conducted in 1977 by Maxam and Gilbert
and shortly after by Sanger 37 . Since then many modifications and improvements
have been made to the widely adopted Sanger method. New sequencing
technologies have the ability to generate huge numbers of sequencing reads per
instrument run. Such sequencing is often referred to as deep sequencing 55 . Deep
sequencing methods are 454-, Solexa-, SOLID-, Polonator-, and
HeliScope-sequencing 56 . 454 Pyrosequencing, is based on the detection of released
pyrophosphate (PPi) during DNA synthesis. A cascade of enzymatic reactions
generates visible light with an intensity that is proportional to the number of
incorporated nucleotides 57 , for example adenine (A) is complementary to thymine (T),
thus when adenosine becomes incorporated it binds to thymidine, when the template
sequence is TTA or TTTA the adenosine will be incorporated two or three times
respectively. The amount of light produced is detected by, for example, a photodiode.
Furthermore because the added nucleotide is known the sequence of the template
DNA (e.g. A-G-C-T-A-G-C-T) can be determined after multiple cycles 56 . It is however
essential that all free nucleotides are removed at the end of every incorporation step
by either washing or enzymatic degradation 57 .
Pyrosequencing is suitable for STR analysis 58 , moreover the markers with simple
repeats consisting of only two different types of nucleotides (e.g. A and G in Penta E)
are easier because they do not require the other nucleotide types. Pyrosequencing is
currently the fastest method for sequencing a PCR product 57 and it is user-friendly 59 .
The potential of pyrosequencing lies in its ability to be automated. Furthermore the
technique dispenses with the need of labelled primers, labelled nucleotides, and gel-
or capillary-electrophoresis 57 . The cost per genotype for Pyrosequencing is 1.5 USD
(including PCR) compared to 1.9 USD per genotype using the Power Plex 16
(Promega) and 1.5 USD per genotype for the AmpFLSTR Identifiler kit (Applied
Biosystems) 58 . Nevertheless pyrosequencing also has its limitations and drawbacks.
The multiplexing capability is limited 58 , e.g. multiplex sequencing can only be
performed if all markers have different repeat structures 59 , therefore more research is
needed to improve this capability. Furthermore pyrosequencing uses high cycle
numbers of PCR, which can make the technology more prone to stochastic effects.
Despite the increase in PCR cycles, no allele drop-in has been observed in a study
by Divne et al 58 .
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6.4 Alternative DNA amplification methods
Currently the PCR amplification method is used in forensic DNA analysis. However
methods based on PCR are considered to be complex because it requires
sophisticated and expensive equipment and skilled operators to perform the assay 36 .
PCR may introduce false positive results from nonspecific amplification or allelic
drop-in (due to slippage, following a random genetic drift model 43 ) because of the
thermal cycling steps 36 . Furthermore PCR does not have true multiplexing
properties 60 . Therefore the forensic community has to be aware of alternative DNA
amplification methods that are being developed. For example whole genome
amplification (WGA) can be used to amplify all the DNA in a sample 34 . An alternative
to PCR is rolling circle amplification (RCA). Hatch et al 61 proposed to use RCA in
order to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). RCA provides highly
specific DNA sequence recognition and intense signal amplification from small
starting probes, and can be used to perform parallel screening of DNA for SNPs.
Recently Su et al 36 described the use of RCA in combination with magnetic beads
and electrochemiluminescence to detect point mutations (e.g. SNPs). They
demonstrated that RCA could be used to discriminate between two alleles and can
be applicable for the detection of a variety of biorelated markers.
6.5 Mobile technologies
The above mentioned future developments are noteworthy, nevertheless there is one
development expected to revolutionize current DNA casework: the application of
mobile DNA profiling technologies. Such an instrument is described by Hopwood et
al 62 , which uses an integrated microfluidic system for the analysis of multiplex STR
DNA profiles from reference buccal samples. Until now routine analysis of DNA
reference samples (e.g. buccal swabs) have to undergo laboratory testing, which
means that the samples have to be transported from the police force to a forensic
laboratory. To assure this transportation process is efficient police forces store the
samples until they have enough samples to dispatch. This step is time consuming
therefore an advantage of a portable instrument would be the ability to process
reference samples in for example a police custody suite, assuring immediate analysis
of samples. The development of such mobile technologies has been discussed for
many years. Integrated microfluidic systems, also called micro total analysis systems
(microTAS) have demonstrated to be successful modules for DNA extraction, PCR
amplification, and capillary electrophoresis (CE), offering a tremendous potential for
miniaturizing and integrating DNA analysis in forensic STR analysis. However some
improvements are required if the systems are to be used for probative means,
nevertheless they can be used as a tool to provide some probable cause in the
apprehension of potential perpetrators whose profiles have been previously entered
into a DNA database 63 . The biggest challenge of microTAS is the extraction of DNA
from a crude cell lysate and processing it into a full DNA profile without operator
intervention (which would make it relatively simple to use). To ensure that a full DNA
profile is obtained a number of variables were identified as critical: sample collection,
DNA extraction, PCR efficiency, PCR recovery, and robustness of the CE detection
instrumentation 62 . The major cause of variation in the system’s output is the input, for
different samples taken from different individuals have different quantities of cells,
releasing different quantities of DNA upon lysis.
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345

Examination of
Questioned documents/Handwriting
Review: 2007 to 2010
MAJ Thibaud FRITZ, Mr Frederic HERRY,
CNE Franck PARTOUCHE
Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale (IRCGN)
Rosny Sous Bois
FRANCE
346

Examination
of
 346
Questioned
documents/Handwriting
 346
1.
 INTRODUCTION
 349
2.
 SOURCES
OF
REFERENCES
 349
3.
 STATE
OF
THE
ART
OF
THE
EQUIPMENT
 351
3.1
 The
basic
optical
equipment
which
experts
in
questioned
documents
rely

upon:
 351
3.2
 The
composition
of
inks:
review
of
the
analytical
methods
 352
3.2.1
 Liquid
Chromatography:
 352
3.3.2
 Spectroscopy:
 352
3.3.3
 GC
and/or
MS
Techniques:
 353
3.3.4
 Elemental
analysis:
 353
3.3.5
 Miscellaneous
 353
4
 BALL
POINT,
GEL,
MARKERS
(…)
PEN
INKS
 353
5.
 INCREASE
OF
INKJET
AND
TONER
PRINTING
 354
6.
 TONER
 354
7.
 INKJET
 355
8.
 INK
AGING
 356
9.
 PAPER
ANALYSIS
 356
10.
 DETERMINATION
OF
WRITING
OR
PRINTING
SEQUENCE
 357
11.
 SECURITY
DOCUMENTS
 357
12.
 HANDWRITING
 358
13.
 INDENTED
IMPRESSION
 359
14.
 QUALITY
ASSURANCE
 360
14.
 MISCELLANEOUS
 361
15.
 CHALLENGES
 361
347

16.
 ACKOWLEDGEMENT
 361
17.
 REFERENCES
 362
348

1. Introduction
This paper aims at making an exhaustive review paper of the technical advances in the
field of Document Examination including handwriting reported since the 15th Interpol
Forensic Science Symposium in 2007.
This review paper is essentially based on articles published in the major forensic or
generalist science journals as well as presentations or posters presented at international
forensic meetings during the period 2007 – 2010.
The main goal is to gather every useful and relevant elements for the improvement or
even implementation of a questioned documents forensic lab. It also aims at helping
labs to choose some good technical orientations for new internal developments for
coming years and to facilitate their technology intelligence.
Due to the high number of references found (more than 200) and the variety of sources,
it is important to underline that the scientific basis of all papers, presentations and
posters aren’t validated by the authors of this review.
The fields of expertise in questioned documents are various, so we decided to sort the
bibliography regarding the main aim of each paper: handwriting, ink composition, writing
ink analysis, toner and inkjet ink analysis, aging, printing and/or writing sequence, paper
substrate analysis, indented impression, altered documents, security documents, Quality
Insurance and Miscellaneous.
The number of existing information and papers that can be useful for document
examiners is huge. Therefore some lacks or omissions are possible.
2. Sources of references
The sources of references are various. The main we used were:
a) Sources with a generalist forensic goal, but regularly publishing articles about QD
including handwriting :
To be mentioned:
• Forensic Science Communications
• Science&justice
• Forensic Science International
• Journal of Forensic Sciences
349

) Scientific sources hyper specialised in some professional fields but occasionally
delivering useful papers for the QD examiners community:
• NIP, Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T), review of
international conference on digital printing technologies, covering the widerange
of digital printing process and ink composition.
• Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry
• Talanta
• Pattern Recognition
• Journal of Chromatography
• Journal of Pulp and Paper Sciences
• Measurement Science and Technology
c) Sources directly dedicated to QD examiners or specialists in security documents:
• ASQDE, American Society of Questioned Document Examiners.
• Journal of Forensic Document Examination
• Infosecura (for security documents)
• Intergraf (for security documents)
d) Proceedings of meetings on the examination of questioned documents including
the following:
• The annual meeting of ASQDE
• The triennial conference of EAFS
• The annual conferences of AAFS
• The annual meetings of EDEWG and ENFHEX (ENFSI)
• International Conference on Document Analysis and Recognition (ICDAR)
• The International Workshop on Computational Forensics (IWCF)
350

e) Finally in the specific field of technical watching, regarding printing or paper
making processes, or handwriting it is important to underline that the participation
to specific forums or conferences is a means of being informed of the latest
developments impacting on our speciality and its future:
• DRUPA
• Paper World
• Cartes & Identification
• International conference on digital printing technologies (IST & NIP)
• International Graphonomics Society (IGS)
3. State of the art of the equipment
UNODC is about to deliver a guide named “Guide for the development of forensic
document examination capacity” This guide will describe the different level of
competences of the laboratories (basics, medium and advanced) and the equipment
requested for each level. It will be an interesting tool for each country that wants to
implement a national structure dedicated to document examination.
3.1 The basic optical equipment which experts in questioned documents rely
upon:
• Video spectral analysis stations, where the most renowned producers are
Foster & Freeman with its range of VSCs or Projectina. Other producers
include Regula and CTMS…
• An Electrostatic Detection Device to reveal indented marks on paper.
• Stereo microscopes.
These apparatus are gradually evolving in order to face the new security measures and
to improve comfort of use.
For chemical analysis, the basic techniques remain TLC or HPTLC, but it is important to
underline that they are becoming less effective because of the increase of pigmented
inks. Therefore, it is necessary to add some other analytical techniques to cope with this
matter. These materials are various and some bring identical or complementary results
whether it is for ink or paper analysis. Some of them are quoted in the ink analysis and
paper analysis parts.
For the analysis of TLC or HPTLC plates, some publications insist on the fact that the
discrimination results are better by observing the plates under different illuminations
[97], [98].
Djozan [78] even propose a method based on image analysis of the scanned plate
(measure of intensity profiles of RGB characteristics of the development) with an
estimated discriminating power of 92.8%.
351

In the particular field of Handwriting, we note the emergence of some software
dedicated to help the examiners in his writing report. One of the most distributed at this
time is WriteOn 2.
3.2 The composition of inks: review of the analytical methods
The expert in documents is brought to examine, in the majority of the cases, three major
classes of ink:
• Inks of pen ([66] to [102]).
• Toner ([103] to [111]).
• Ink of inkjet printer ([112] to [119]).
Whilst there are many publications on the forensic analysis of inks of pen inks (37
papers, posters or presentations found), fewer have been written on the analysis of
inkjet inks (8 papers, posters or presentations found) and toner inks (7 papers, posters
or presentations found). However, it seems that today, it is this kind of inks that are
regularly asked to be analysed by magistrates or investigators more than pen inks.
To allow further analysis, the document examiners are often compelled to preserve the
sample he has to analyse.
Today, Raman spectroscopy ([72], [93], [108], [109], [122], [125], [128], [146], [148]),
remains the reference process but we can see some emergent techniques able to make
non destructive analysis applicable to inks.
As said below, it is extremely hard to give an exhaustive list of analytical techniques that
can be used for ink analysis. Listed below are the references appearing in the review
grouped according to technique, the relative popularities of which are likely to be due to
their availability in the university or lab undertaking the tests.
3.2.1 Liquid Chromatography:
• TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) [74], [78], [80], [81], [85], [95], [97], [98], [119],
[129], [140]
• HPTLC (High Performance Thin Layer Chromatography) [80], [81], [91]
• HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography) [91], [104], [119], [134], [140],
[141]
3.3.2 Spectroscopy:
• FTIR spectroscopy (Fourier Transform Infra Red) [76], [85], [89], [108], [119],
[126], [127], [129], [144], [147], [156]
• µFTIR [104], [128]
• Raman spectroscopy [72], [93], [108], [109], [122], [125], [128], [146], [148]
352

3.3.3 GC and/or MS Techniques:
• Pyrolysis / GC / MS (inkjet and toner) (Gaz Chromatography / Mass Spectra) [68],
[104], [109], [119], [127], [138]
• SPME / GC / MS (Solid-Phase Micro-Extraction / Gaz Chromatography / Mass
Spectra) [153]
• Thermal desorption GC MS or GCFID [96], [135], [133], [136], [141]
• GC / MS (Gaz Chromatography / Mass Spectra) [95], [135], [137]
• ICP/MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) [152]
• Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) [65], [87], [90], [100], [112], [123]
• LA ICP MS [91], [101], [105], [108], [157]
• LDMS (Laser Desorption – Mass Spectra including LDI and MALDI-TOF MS)
[83], [84], [92], [114], [116]
• ESI MS (Electrospray Ionisation Mass Spectrometry) [86]
• DART MS Direct Analysis in Real Time [73], [102], [118]
• IRMS [157]
3.3.4 Elemental analysis:
• LIBS [101]
• SEM (Scanning Electron Microscopy) [126], [127]
• XRF including µXRF and EDXRF [74], [124], [125], [127], [128], [157], [197]
3.3.5 Miscellaneous
• Capillary Electrophoresis [67], [115]
• X-Ray diffraction [126], [156]
We can notice that, with the exception of now traditional Raman and IR (FT and ATR), a
significant number of papers were focused on LDMS and SIMS. Apparently these two
methods provide interesting results despite the cost for the latter.
4 Ball point, gel, markers (…) pen inks
These subjects were again widely covered with at least 34 references.
One body of the work that merits highlighting is that of Neumann et al [80], [81], [82],
where they developed in three stages a complete approach for objective forensic ink
analysis by HPTLC using a probabilistic model. The first phase deals with the quality
assurance process with the development of a standard methodology for analysing ink
samples in a more reproducible way. The second speaks about the development,
testing and selection of most suited mathematical algorithms for automatic comparison
and finally the third phase underlines the operational applications and evaluations for
identification and evidential value assessment. This approach may be used as a good
framework to follow for each lab that wants to improve its existing methods or implement
new ones.
Papson et al [84] proposes LD MS as a good replacement tool for TLC to analyse both
dyes and pigments of pen inks.
353

Matthews et al [92], use LDI – TOFMS. The extraction of a single inked paper fibre
seems sufficient to get clear mass spectrometric identification of the dyes.
Dunn et al [83], propose an alternative to LD/MS to examine inks. It is Matrix-Assisted
Laser Desorption Ionization (MALDI) MS, that permit a better discrimination because of
its ability to identify multiply charged dyes.
Causin et al [85] give complementary techniques they judge excellent to be
implemented in an analytical scheme for ballpoint inks analysis. These techniques are
UV-Vis spectrophotometry, TLC and FTIR.
Adam [79] and Hammond [88], both propose improved optical methods. Adam applies a
methodology based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to generate linear
regression graphs of data sets obtained with a standard luminescence spectrometer.
The graphs represent separation of the components of luminescence from the ink-line
and the paper.
Hammond uses LAB colour mode available in some software like Adobe Photoshop to
differentiate writing instrument inks. The results are interesting (no false identification)
but it is important to underline that all the tests were done on substrates with identical
properties (from the same brand).
5. Increase of inkjet and toner printing
The continuing developments in the quality of impression, combined with the ever
reducing cost of inkjet and toner printers, has allowed this technology to spread and thus
be used in increasing numbers of homes, for any type of document, including for a
criminal aim, so it is thus very natural to find this type of impression in our laboratories.
Many publications describe the analytical methods able to give information on the
composition of these inks. These techniques can vary according to whether the inks
contain dyes or pigments.
6. Toner
Few publications make reference to the forensic analysis of printed toners. However,
Konarowska et al [107] and Zlotnick et al [108] remind that the capacity for document
examiners to discriminate between toner printings is interesting to fight against the
forgeries. The investigations must be led as possible by minimizing the destruction of
the questioned documents.
In this context, Konarowska et al [107] uses a method of microscopic investigation at
large magnifications to study the surface aspect of the printing. Moussa et al [106]
specifies that no appreciable microscopic difference of the state of surface of a toner
printing was shown from a same laser facsimile machine over a period of about 5 years.
This information underline the fact that a laser printer can still be identified a long period
of time after having printed a questioned document.
354

Zlotnick et al [108] suggests the use of Raman spectroscopy and micro Fourier
transform infrared (FT-IR) analysis among other more destructive analytical techniques
(LA ICP MS, PY-GC/MS and SEM), because of the inefficiency of the TLC technique.
His results underline that the document examiners must multiply analytical methods to
obtain a best discrimination of toners printings, when they compare toner based
documents between them.
Higashikawa et al [104] proposes a similar approach based on: SEM/EDX, PY/GC/MS,
FTIR and HPLC.
Besides, Zlotnick et al [108] and Higashikawa et al [104], uses the scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) to obtain information on morphological observations or elemental
analysis. More destructive methods can produce very discriminating complementary
information. This is demonstrated by Higashikawa et al [104] who analyse photocopied
characters by pyrolysis gas chromatrography coupled mass spectrometry (PY-GC/MS)
to study resins, and by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to examine
organic additives. Szynkowska et al [105] use the inductively coupled plasma time-offlight
mass spectrometry with laser ablation (LA-ICP-TOF-MS).
In their work, document examiners must also answer the following question: Did the
suspected laser printer print the toner-based questioned documents? To help them,
Tanaka [111] suggests an approach based on the correlation of photoreceptor defects to
electrophotographic documents. Indeed, the location of such defective areas on the
photoreceptors are visualized by plotting the voltage data for the entire circumference
and length of the photoreceptor using automated equipment for testing the electrical
properties of photoreceptors in the electrophotographic industry. These defective areas
are then compared to individual defects on the printed pages to determine whether a
correlation between them is possible.
7. Inkjet
Szafarska et al [115] emphasise that chemical analysis of inkjet printer inks has become
increasingly important in forensic research due to the extensive use of inkjet technology
by counterfeiters. Therefore, the ability to differentiate between inkjet inks is of great
interest in document examination. He suggests using the capillary electrophoresis
technique, with simplified stages of extraction.
For similar reasons, Donnelly et al [116] analyses inkjet inks by LDMS to determine the
number of inks used by a printer and the chemical composition of the colorants.
For his part, LaPorte et al [118] tested an emergent methodology for the identification of
coloured inkjet inks: Direct Analysis in Real Time – Mass spectrometry (DART -MS).
This analytical technique, virtually non-destructive, involves very little sample
preparation and allows creation of a spectral searchable database.
Boileau et al [119] are interested in the analysis of black inkjet printed inks with thin layer
chromatography (TLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), pyrolysis gas
355

chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (PyGC/MS) and attenuated total
reflection fourier transform infrared spectrophotometry (ATR-FTIR). His results allowed
the presentation of a classification procedure that can assist the forensic scientist in the
examination, identification and discrimination of the different inkjet computer generated
documents.
8. Ink aging
This subject is still difficult because it remains controversial. Indeed, it is commonly
admitted that ink aging may be possible but necessitates knowing some prior elements
like, initial ink composition, conditions of storage and interaction with the substrate...
These parameters are often unknown in forensic cases.
Like other ink analysis technique, research is still predominantly on ball point pen inks
rather than on other pen inks or printing inks.
Nevertheless, Andrasko [133] investigates the aging of inkjet ink and toner. Wang [134]
is particularly interested in ink of fountain pens while Tomcik and. Laporte [137]
approaches globally non-ballpoint inks (fountain, fiber tip, roller ball and gel).
A good starting point for labs that are interested in undertaking research in this field is to
study the Ezcurra et al [131] paper, which reviews the main studies related to the aging
of ballpoint pen inks and gel pen inks presented these last decades.
The studies on the aging of ballpoint ink are now traditionally based on the behaviour of
the phenoxy ethanol component, as shown in Bügler et al [135] and Ezcurra et al [140]
works. However, the other compounds can present an interest. Choi et al [142] mention
the by-products of glycol and phenoxy-ethanol, whereas Berger-Karin [136] quotes
polymers and Kirsch et al [141] the resins.
For his part, Weyerman et al [132] propose a modelling of the aging of an ink, but
underline that this model cannot be generalized for inks stored in different conditions on
different papers.
For these various tests, mass spectrometry remains the technique of choice for the
study of the aging of ink. It is sometimes coupled with gas chromatography and with
thermal desorption [135], [136], [141], or with liquid chromatography (HPLC, HPTLC)
[134], [140], [141].
9. Paper analysis
McGaw et al [151], [152] proposed a method to differentiate recycled papers by
identifying trace element concentrations (Mg, Al, Mn, Fe, Sr, Y, Ba, Ce and Nd) by
Inductively Coupled Plasma mass spectrometry (ICP MS). They concluded that Ba is
the most discriminatory element.
356

Hrivnak et al [153] described a rapid and non destructive sampling technique based on
SPME GC MS for the analysis of volatile organic compounds emitted by paper sheet.
They identified 21 compounds and underlined the short sampling time, simplicity and
economic aspect.
Fritz et al [154] proposed an image analysis method dedicated to measure the fibre
orientation for paper differentiation. Added to other non destructive method this
technique allowed to discriminate papers hard to classify.
Berger [155] allowed common copy paper discrimination by spatial frequency analysis of
light transmission images acquired by flatbed scanner.
Van Es et al [157] tested XRF, LA ICP MS and IRMS for the discrimination of document
papers. They concluded that LA-ICP-MS had the highest overall discriminating power
and that it is improved by combination with XRF and even better with IRMS.
10. Determination of writing or printing sequence
Bojko et al [144] worked on ATR-FTIR spectral imaging to determine the sequence of
heterogeneous line intersections produced using ballpoint pens and laser printers
obtaining a 100% success rate. They underlined that this technique was inefficient for
ink-jet, gel pens, roller ball and felt tip pens…
Saini et al [145] determined the sequence between gel pen and laser printer strokes by
microscopic methods. They found that the best results were obtained by using an
illumination angle of 15°.
11. Security documents
Document fraud dealing with security documents is a field of activity generally dealt with
border police but with a wider spectrum of criminality than illegal immigration.
A good collaboration with these services is necessary, first of all to stand aware of the
last kind of counterfeits and forgeries and to bring them the lab capacities to identify
criminal networks.
Due to the huge amount of existing document fraud at a country size, a central lab
facility is insufficient to answer to all national request of authentication. Thus the general
activity of fight against document fraud must be founded on different levels of expertise.
The “Guide for the development of forensic document examination capacity” of UNODC
[221] proposes a pyramidal structure with a basic level then a specialist level and finally
an advanced level. When the document lab belong to a police structure, it is useful that
this lab occupies the advanced level and coordinates the overall architecture by
exchanging information and undertaking operational and strategic profiling. It has also a
training role to fulfil.
Moreover it is the role of forensic document examiners to follow all new evolutions in the
field of security documents as optical, electronics, covert and overt security. In this wide
357

area of expertise, close links have to be assured with electronics lab, signal processing
labs (image) and fingerprint labs. Besides, thanks to their experience of false
documents, document examiners have an obligation of advising authorities responsible
for choosing the security measures embedded in all new national documents. This role
is necessary to avoid implementation of ineffective security and to reach agreed
standards at each level of control (basic, specialist and advanced practitioners).
Few publications and/or forums deal with security documents, with the exception of
some specialized reviews such as Infosecura or the Journal of Documents Identity
published by Keesing. Itergraf conferences also provide an interesting source of
information. These reviews provide information on innovations in security and protection
of printed personal data. Articles provide information on the introduction of new safety
films, holograms or electronics [169-191].
New supports such as PET, ABS, PVC or polycarbonate instead of traditional paper
require additional polymer knowledge to identify substrate sources. No reference was
found dealing with this kind of analysis and/or the foreseeable results it could bring to
forensic applications.
12. Handwriting
Like every triennial period, handwriting is a widely covered subject. Some of the papers
are essentially focused on traditional expertise like those available in the Journal of
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners. Regarding this traditional
approach, Harrison et al [26] propose a paper describing what the bases of handwriting
examination are, and quote different ASTM standards and papers. They all strengthen
the validity of the expertise and support the principle of handwriting individuality.
Found et al [23], Dyer et al [25], Bird et al [53], [54] and Dewhurst et al [55] delivered
test results dealing with questioned signatures, essentially disguised and simulated. It
principally shows that Forensic Handwriting Examiners (FHEs), thanks to their search
strategy, are significantly more confident at identifying writers’ signature as either
forgeries or the disguised writing of a specimen provider than lay people. They also
show that it is easier for FHEs to identify writers’ genuine signatures than writers’
disguised signatures. They confirm the absolute necessity for FHEs to make a first
analyse dedicated to evaluate if the signature is simulated or disguised before forming
an opinion on authorship.
Alewijnse et al [50] worked on the assessment of signature complexity based on
previous work to validate and improve an assessment model and to investigate whether
simulation quality is influenced by signature complexity. They conclude that complexity
is not related to the simulation quality as expected, which may be because it was
impossible to give a preliminary assessment of the forging skills of the simulators.
Other papers dealt with the foreseeable future of handwriting analysis where
conclusions of FHEs are likely be supported by automatic techniques, but these must
remain a decision-making aid.
358

These automatic methods will be based on a probabilistic approach where relevant
criteria have to be chosen. That is the most difficult step since handwriting is an evolving
biometry where relevant criteria may be different from one writer to another.
Marquis et al [57] worked on the Bayesian evaluation of the shape of the handwritten
letters “a”. The aim is to provide a quantitative support to handwriting evidence
evaluation. They use Fourier Descriptors to characterise the shape of loops “a”. The
findings demonstrate that the probabilistic methodology correctly supports either the
hypothesis of authorship or the alternative hypothesis.
Srihari et al [24] showed that an automatic handwriting verification system can be a
good tool to demonstrate the individuality of handwriting, through research using the
CEDAR FOX system. He demonstrated that handwriting of twins is less discriminable
than that of non-twins (an overall error rate of 12.9% for twins and 3.7% for non-twins)
and that error rates with identical twins are higher than with fraternal twins. This kind of
use of automation can be considered as a step towards a more scientific approach to
the field of handwriting examination.
Durina et al [29], [41] conducted a research project responding to criticisms that earlier
studies on the individuality of handwriting did not include populations from
“homogeneous writing communities”, and relied on computer analysis of handwriting
rather than on human examiners. The results of their study offered evidence to support
that there is a high degree of inter-writer variation among writers, even in a population of
writers who all were taught the same copybook style at the same elementary school by
the same teachers about 40 years ago, and that FHE were able to extract features from
the writing samples that enable them to attribute authorship.
Walch et al [16], [18], [31], [36], [37], [39] made different papers and presentation related
to a language independent system for handwriting identification named “Flash ID”. The
process is based on writing segmentation (graphemes) that make the system language
independent. The results are presented as excellent and the tool as a good support for
FHEs.
Brink et al [46] worked on the quantity of handwritten text needed for text independent
writer verification and identification. For the best features, it appears that the minimum
amount of text required is about 100 characters. To get this result, they used two
handwriting datasets, Firemaker and IAM.
Blankers et al [51] organised a competition between different automated biometric
signature verification methods using on- and off-line skilled forgery detection. The
results are promising, especially for the on-line process. It also shows that automated
methods might be able to support FHEs.
13. Indented impression
There are generally few papers dealing with the issue of indented impression, however,
we found 7 references. Some were about methods to improve the actual one. For
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example, Tanaka [158] worked on measurement on the characteristics of the voltage at
the surface of the film covering the document.
Yaraskavitch [159] et al used a similar approach, concluding, among others, that a
period of charge decay before image development is not required when operating in
optimal regime, which is in opposition with previous findings (Seward 1998).
Nic Daéid [160] et al, worked more precisely on the ESDA (F&F) and its cascade
developer. Their results showed that “humidification of the cascade developer doesn’t
have advantage over storage in a normal environment”. They also found that “200 g of
cascade developer gives good quality results for up to 30 traces”.
Tolliver et al [163], underlined a very important matter, which is “the potential of the
Electrostatic Detection Device (EDD) serving as a source for transfer of DNA”. Indeed, it
is quasi impossible to prevent cross contamination when using this kind of device. It is
really important to know about this issue in the sample analysis process especially when
DNA research is done by external labs.
14. Quality assurance
We found only one reference dealing with quality assurance directly applied to
Questioned document matters.
This reference is from Ottiker [202] and raises the problem of the choice of reference
standard for handwriting examination. In his precise case it is ISO/IEC 17020 and
ISO/IEC 17025 that are discussed. He concluded stating that “when applying ISO
17025 for comparative analysis, the expert is considered to be the measurement
instrument and the ultimate goal is to validate the result of this instrument (the opinion
given by the expert). Based on this statement, the method validation as required by ISO
17025 consists in verifying the expert’s competence, which is exactly what ISO/IEC
17020 mainly asks for competence assurance”.
Thus, whatever the choice of the quality standard is, it is absolutely necessary for a
Questioned Document Examination lab to follow an official standard which is often
recommended by the international forensic networks. For example ENFSI recommends
ISO/IEC 17025 and/or 17020. Moreover these international networks often propose
technical standards regarding document and handwriting analysis. Thus, before,
creating new methods, it is necessary to be informed of all existing standards and
papers that can be a good basis to avoid bad practices and to facilitate the process of
accreditation. An ideal situation, would be to take part in the technical work of these
networks.
Moreover a good way for a laboratory to demonstrate the quality of its work or even to
prove its commitment to continuous improvement is to take part in the various available
proficiency testing programmes like the ones from CTS and ST 2 AR (both handwriting
and documents , EDEWG (documents) and ENFHEX (Handwriting).
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14. Miscellaneous
In this part we decided to deal with two different aspects: the first one is the emergence
of new technologies in the field of printing techniques, the second one is more linked to
the use of new technologies to identify printers.
Regarding the new technologies dedicated to produce documents, the striking one is the
recent appearance of Computer To Plate (CTP) inkjet for offset press which was
presented during the DRUPA forum of 2008. This method allows production of offset
plates thanks to an inkjet process. At the end, the printed document looks under
magnification like an inkjet document although it is an offset one. If this kind of novelty
isn’t a problem for identifying false or authentic document by comparison it may be a
great problem for identifying the technique used and the level of the fraud (especially for
banknotes or security documents). A similar issue, is the appearance of the inkjet press
with millions of nozzles, for the moment in white and black, but likely evolving in colour.
The issue of authenticating precisely the origin of a document has always existed.
Digital technologies can now allow this, by linking a document to its printer or scanner.
Chiang, Khanna, Mikkilineni and al [211], [216] made interesting reviews of the existing
techniques to embed information in the printing at the digital document level or at the
printer mechanism level. Although these techniques are not widely disseminated, it is of
use to at least know of their existence and detect their presence, since they can give
accurate information for investigators. The forensic part of the “Non Impact Printing
Conference” often deals with this kind of matter. It is a proactive way to know what could
be the track and trace solutions for tomorrow.
15. Challenges
The document examination expert now has at his disposal an array of techniques,
complementary but requiring widened competencies (chemistry, printing processes,
image analysis, electronic for security documents, statistics and probabilistic…). Thus
for a document examiner to remain efficient it is becoming necessary to move towards
the specialists skills of data and signal processing, whilst remaining informed of the
developments in the technologies of printing, the fast progress of which makes the work
increasingly difficult. Possessing all these competencies in the single field of document
examination is becoming almost impossible. So a way to allow general improvement of
the methods is to integrate a questioned document facility inside a laboratory, where all
the required activities are already undertaken (electronic, signal and image analysis…)
16. Ackowledgement
We would like to acknowledge, Raymond Marquis (UNIL), Isabelle Montani (UNIL), Wil
Fagel (NFI), Laurent Köhler (INCC), Laetitia Heudt (ULg/INCC) and Meredith Miller
361

(independent FDE, FBI certified and qualified) for having sent us interesting references
we wouldn’t have found without their precious help and advice.
17. References
Handwriting
[1] Sargur N. Srihari, Kamal Kuzhinjedathu, Harish Srinivasan, Chen Huang and
Danjun Pu - Signature verification using a Bayesian approach - IWCF 2008 :
Washington DC, USA - 2008, LNCS 5158, PP 192-203.
[2] Katrin Franke - Stroke-morphology analysis using super-imposed writing
movements - IWCF 2008 : Washington DC, USA - 2008, LNCS 5158, PP 204-217.
[3] Azah Kamilah Muda, Siti Mariyam Shamsuddin and Maslina Darus - Invariants
discretization for individuality representation in handwritten authorship - IWCF 2008
: Washington DC, USA - 2008, LNCS 5158, PP 218-228.
[4] Yau-sang patrick ChengA Study on the influence of wearing a glove on handwriting
by chinese in Hong-Kong - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number 1.
[5] Céline Equey, Raymond Marquis and Williams D. Mazella - Original research
paper influence of writing posture on the dimensions of signatures - Journal of
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number
2.
[6] Linda J. Hartand and Lamar Miller - Microsoft access in the questionned document
laboratory - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document Examiners -
2007, Volume 10, Number 2.
[7] Raymond Orta M. and Magdalena Ezcurra G. - Neurosciences applied to
handwriting examination - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number 2.
[8] Nazia Mehrban and Ian J. Turner - A comparison of the identifying features in
original signatures and electronically scanned signatures - Journal of American
Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 1.
[9] Linton Mohammed, Bryan Found and Doug Rogers - Frequency of signature styles
in San Diego County - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 1.
[10] Bonnie L. Beal - The next wave from the critics - Journal of American Society of
Questioned Document Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 1.
[11] Marianne Conrad - Left-hand writing vs. right-hand writing - Journal of American
Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 1.
[12] Tatiana Shlafer - A method of statistical evaluation of handwriting characteristics
developed in Russia - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 1.
[13] Martha A. Blake - Ranking handwriting attributes in the signatures of one person: A
survey of forensic document examiners - Journal of American Society of
Questioned Document Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 2.
[14] Linton Mohammed, Bryan Found and Doug Rogers - Genuine and disguised
signatures - an empirical approach - American Academy of Forensic Sciences -
Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J1.
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[15] Derek L. Hammond - Skill based testing in forensic document examination : Is
there a future? - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008,
Volume XIV, J2.
[16] Mark A. Walch, Donald T. Gantz, John J. Miller, Linda J. Davis, Christopher P.
Saunders, Mark J. Lancaster, Andrea Lamas and JoAnn Buscaglia - Evaluation of
the individuality of handwriting using FLASH ID – A totally automated, language
independent system for handwriting identification - American Academy of Forensic
Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J4.
[17] Ismail Cakir, M. Yasar Iscan, Adli Tip Enstitusu, Cerrahpasa Kampusu, Ismail
Birincioglu and H. Bulent Uner - The effect of writing speed on handwriting in
turkish alphabet - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008,
Volume XIV, J5.
[18] Mark A. Walch - FLASH ID : A totally automated, language independent approach
for handwriting derived biometric identification - American Academy of Forensic
Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J8.
[19] Donald T. Gantz, John J. Miller, Christopher P. Saunders, Mark J. Lancaster and
JoAnn Buscaglia - Statistical characterization of writers for identification -
American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J9.
[20] Christopher P. Saunders, Linda J. Davis, Andrea Lamas and JoAnn Buscaglia – A
comparison between biometric and forensic handwriting individuality - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J10.
[21] Brian S. Lindblom - The application of Write-On document comparison software to
complex handwriting comparisons - American Academy of Forensic Sciences -
Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J21.
[22] R. Marquis, F. Taroni, S. Bozza, M. Schmittbuhl - Size influence on shape of
handwritten characters loops - Forensic Science International - 2007, Volume 172,
number 1, pp 10-16.
[23] Bryan Found and Doug Rogers - The probative character of Forensic Handwriting
Examiners identification and elimination opinions on questioned signatures -
Forensic Science International - 2008, Volume 178, number 1, pp 54-60.
[24] Sargur N. Srihari, Chen Huang and Harish Srinivasan - On the discriminability of
the handwriting of twins - Journal of Forensic Science - 2008, Volume 53, number
2, pp 430-446.
[25] Adrian G. Dyer, Bryan Found and Doug Rogers - An insight into forensic document
examiner expertise for discriminating between forged and disguised signatures -
Journal of Forensic Science - 2008, Volume 53, number 5, pp 1154-1158.
[26] Diana Harrison - Handwriting Examination: Meeting the Challenges of Science and
the Law - Forensic Science Communications - 2009, Volume 11, number 4.
[27] Ahmed Al Haddad, Peter C. White and Michael D. Cole - Examination of a
collection of arabic signatures - Journal of American Society of Questioned
Document Examiners - 2009, Volume 12, number 1.
[28] Abdulaziz Al-Musa Alkahtani and Andrew W. G. Platt - Relative difficulty of
freehand simulation of four proportional elements in arabic signatures - Journal of
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2009, Volume 12, number
2.
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[29] Marie E. Durina and Michael P. Caligiuri - The determination of authorship from a
homogenous group of writers - Journal of American Society of Questioned
Document Examiners - 2009, Volume 12, number 2.
[30] James L. Hayes - Influence of age, gender and handedness in signature imitation -
Journal of American Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2009, Volume
12, number 2.
[31] M.A. WaIch, D.T. Gantz, J.J. Miller and J. Buscaglia - Testing the languageindependant
flash ID system for handwriting identification in english and arabic -
European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference
EAFS , QD 08.
[32] G. Schirripa Spagnolo - Color separation to facilitate handwriting examination -
European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference
EAFS , september, QD 10
[33] Nesma Houmani, Sonia Garcia-Salicetti and Bernadette Dorizzi, - A novel personal
entropy measure confronted with online signature verification systems’
performance - Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems (BTAS) - 2008,
September, pp 1-6.
[34] Nesma Houmani, Sonia Garcia-Salicetti and Bernadette Dorizzi - On assessing the
robustness of pen coordinates, pen pressure and pen inclination to time variability
with personal entropy - Biometrics: Theory, Applications, and Systems (BTAS) -
2009, September, pp 1-7.
[35] Sonia Garcia-Salicetti, Nesma Houmani and Bernadette Dorizzi - A novel criterion
for writer enrolment based on a time-normalized signature sample entropy
measure - EURASIP journal on advances in signal processing - 2009, june, vol.
2009.
[36] Mark A. Walch - Validation of an automated handwriting-derived biometric
identification system (FLASH ID) on english and arabic writings - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J1.
[37] Mark A. Walch, Donald T. Gantz, John J. Miller and JoAnn Buscaglia - Evaluation
of the language-independent process in the FLASH ID system for handwriting
identification - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume
XV, J2.
[38] Christopher P. Saunders and JoAnn Buscaglia - Handwriting individuality:
Probability models, subsampling routines, and implications - American Academy
of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J3.
[39] Carole E. Chaski and Mark A. Walch - Validation testing for FLASH ID on the
Chaski writer sample database - American Academy of Forensic Sciences -
Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J4.
[40] Yoko Seki - How does a document examiner differentiate authors? - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J6.
[41] Marie E. Durina - The determination of authorship from a homogenous group of
writers - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI,
J3.
[42] Amanda Hepler and Christopher Saunders - A comparison between different
likelihood ratios for assessing handwriting evidence - American Academy of
Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI, J4.
364

[43] Donald T. Gantz, John J. Miller, Christopher P. Saunders and JoAnn Buscaglia -
New results for addressing the open set problem in automated handwriting
identification - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume
XVI, J5.
[44] Cedric Neumann and Glenn M. Langenburg - On the conclusions of handwriting
examination - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume
XVI, J6.
[45] Yoko Seki - Optimal variables for handwriting identification - American Academy of
Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI, J7.
[46] Axel Brink, Marius Bulacu and Lambert Schomaker - How much handwritten text is
needed for text-independent writer verification and identification - Proc. of
Document Recognition and Retrieval – 2008.
[47] Axel Brink, Harro van der Klauw and Lambert Schomaker - Automatic removal of
crossed-out handwritten text and the effect on writer verification and identification -
Proc. of Document Recognition and Retrieval – 2008.
[48] Marius Bulacu, Axel Brink, Tijn van der Zant and Lambert Schomaker - Recognition
of handwritten numerical fields in a large single-writer historical collection - Proc. of
Document Recognition and Retrieval – 2009.
[49] Abdulaziz Al-Musa Alkahtani and Andrew W.G. Platt - A statistical study of the
relative difficulty of freehand simulation of form, proportion, and line quality in
Arabic signatures - Science & Justice - 2010, Volume 50, number 2, pp 72-76.
[50] Linda C. Alewijnse, C. Elisa Van Den Heuvel, Reinoud D. Stoel and Katrin Franke -
Analysis of Signature Complexity - Proceedings of the 14th Biennial Conference of
the International Graphonomics Society - 2009.
[51] V.L. Blankers, C.E. van den Heuvel, K.Y. Franke and L.G. Vuurpijl - The ICDAR
2009 Signature Verification Competition - Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Document Analysis - 2009, pp 1403-1409.
[52] Mohammed L., Found B., Caligiuri M and Rogers D. - Can dynamic features be
used to discriminate between genuine, auto-simulated, and simulated signatures? -
Journal of Forensic Science - 2010, in press.
[53] Bird C., Found B., Ballantyne K. and Rogers D. - Forensic handwriting examiners'
opinions on the process of production of disguised and simulated signatures -
Forensic Science International - 2010, Volume 195, pp 103-107.
[54] Bird C., Found B. and Rogers D. - Forensic handwriting examiners' skill in
distinguishing between natural and disguised handwriting behaviours - Journal of
Forensic Sciences - 2009, in press.
[55] Dewhurst T., Found B. & Rogers D. - Are expert penmen better than lay people at
producing simulations of a model signature? - Forensic Science International -
2008, Volume 180, number 1, pp 50-53.
[56] Silvia Bozza, Franco Taroni, Raymond Marquis and Matthieu Schmittbuhl –
probabilistic evaluation of handwriting evidence: Likelihood ration for authorship –
Journal of the Royal Statistical society – 2008, Volume 57, number 3, pp 329-341.
[57] Raymond Marquis, Silvia Bozza, Matthieu Schmittbuhl and Franco Taroni –
Bayesian evaluation of the shape of hadwritten characters “a” – International
Graphonomics Society – Dijon – France – 2009.
[58] Raymond Marquis, Silvia Bozza, Matthieu Schmittbuhl and Franco Taroni –
Application of a multivariate Bayesian methodology to evaluate handwriting
evidence – European Academy of Forensic Science Conference – 2009.
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Ink composition
[59] Michael A. Hopper - Concerning the formation of chemical toners using a latex
aggregation process. - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital Printing
Technologies - 2007, 2007, pp 252-255.
[60] Ming-Huei Liu, Fang-Yi Hsu and Chen-Jen Yang-Preparation of polymer
microspheres by phase-separation/aggregation (PSA) technique for color toner
applications - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital Printing Technologies -
2007, pp 256-259.
[61] Elizabeth Yuan and Sharon Hiergesell - Specialty low molecular weight polyolefins
for digital printing applications - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital
Printing Technologies - 2007, pp 264-269.
[62] Dinesh Tyagi - Polyester-based chemically prepared toner for high-speed digital
production printing - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital Printing
Technologies - 2007, pp 270-273.
[63] Dmitry Fomitchev, Hairuo Tu, Adam Mackay, Casey Whicher, Jincheng Xiong,
William Williams, Joachim K. Floess and Doug West - Colloidal silica particles for
toners: treatment chemistry - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital Printing
Technologies - 2007, pp 283-287.
[64] Masanobu Kaneeda, Akira Inoue, Yuki Amano, Paul Brandl, Maria R Nargiello and
Kai Schumacher - Novel fumed mixed silica-titania (FM-Si/Ti) core materials for a
new class of external toner additives - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital
Printing Technologies - 2007, pp 288-291.
[65] Masaya Shibatani, Tsutomu Asakawa, Toshiharu Enomae and Akira Isogai -
Approach for detecting localization of inkjet ink components using dynamic-SIMS
previous analysis - Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering
Aspects - 2008, Volume 326, number 1-2, pp 61-66.
Writing ink analysis
[66] Shi, X.; Xu, Y.; Wang, Y.; Li, X. and Wang, J. - Analysis of extracts from black
water-based pen ink by HPLC - Fenxi Shiyanshi - 2008, Volume 27, number 1, pp
46-49.
[67] Shih C., Liu, J., Chen B. and Lin C. - Separation of crystal violet dyes and its
application to pen ink analysis using capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) and
micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) - J. Sep. Sci. - 2008, Volume 31,
number 5, pp 893-897.
[68] Zhao P., Wang Y., Zhao Y., Wang Y., Li X., Yao L. and Wang, J. - Classification of
blue gel inks by using pyrolysis GC - Sepu - 2007, Volume 25, number 5, pp 762-
765.
[69] Wang Y., Wang J. and Yao L. - Differentiation of species of blue inks for roller-ball
pens and the determination of relative age post-deposition - Sepu - 2007, Volume
25, number 4, pp 468-472.
[70] Albert H. Lyter - Micro-spectroscopic examination of writing inks - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J3.
[71] Nicole J. Deitz and Lawrence Quarino - Microscopic examination of blue gel inks
after cellulase digestion of paper - American Academy of Forensic Sciences -
Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J7.
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[72] Irina Geiman, John R. Lombardi, Marco Leona and Thomas Kubic - Application of
raman spectroscopy to the analysis of questioned documents - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J11.
[73] Roger W. Jones, Susan E. Lorge and John F. McClelland - Characterizing writing
inks on paper using DART mass spectrometry - American Academy of Forensic
Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J13.
[74] Rachel Dubin, Elizabeth Hirst and Walter F. Rowe - Analysis of writings made with
black gel pens - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008,
Volume XIV, J18.
[75] Derek L. Hammond - Discriminatory power of various dichroic filters in the
differentiation of ballpoint pen inks - American Academy of Forensic Sciences -
Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J19.
[76] Christie L. Mitchell and Walter F. Rowe - Analysis of dry erase markers - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J20.
[77] John A. Denman, Ivan M. Kempson, William M. Skinner, K Paul Kirkbride -
Discrimination of pencil markings on paper using elemental analysis : An initial
investigation - Forensic Science International - 2007, Volume 175, number 2-3, pp
123-129.
[78] Djavanshir Djozan, Thmineh Baheri, Ghader Karimian and Masomeh Shahidi -
Forensic discrimination of blue ballpoint pen inks based on thin layer
chromatography and image analysis - Forensic Science International - 2008,
Volume 179, number 2-3, pp199-205.
[79] Craig D. Adam - In situ luminescence spectroscopy with mutivariate analysis for
the discrimination of back ballpoint pen ink-lines on paper. - Forensic Science
International - 2008, Volume182 , number 1-3, pp 27-34.
[80] Cedric Neuman and Pierre Margot - New perspectives in the use of ink evidence in
forensic science : Part I. - Development of a quality assurance process for forensic
ink analysis by HPTLC. - Forensic Science International - 2009, Volume 185,
number 1-3, pp 29-37.
[81] Cedric Neuman and Pierre Margot - New perspectives in the use of ink evidence in
forensic science : Part II. - Development and testing of mathematical algorithms for
the automatic comparison of ink samples analysed by HPTLC - Forensic Science
International - 2009, Volume 185, number 1-3, pp 38-50.
[82] Cedric Neumann and Pierre Margot - New perspectives in the use of ink evidence
in forensic science: Part III: Operational applications and evaluation - Forensic
Science International - 2009, Volume 192, number 1-3, pp 29-42.
[83] Jamie D. Dunn and John Allison - The detection of multiply charged dyes using
matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry for the forensic
examination of pen ink dyes directly from paper - Journal of Forensic Science -
2007, Volume 52, number 5, pp 1205-1212.
[84] Kaitlin Papson, Sylwia Stachura, Luke Boralsky and John Allision - Identification of
colorants in pidmented pen inks by laser désorption mass spectrometry - Journal of
Forensic Science - 2008, Volume 53, number 1, pp 100-106.
367

[85] Valerio Causin, Rosario Casamassima, Carla Marega, Pietro Maida, Sergio
Schiavone, Antonio Marigo and Antonio Villari - The discrimination potential of
ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry, thin layer chromatography, and fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy for the forensic analysis of black and blue ballpoint
inks - Journal of Forensic Science - 2008, Volume 53, number 6, pp1468-1473.
[86] Mary R. Williams, Chris Moody, Lei-Ann Arceneaux, Caitlin Rinke, Katie White and
Mickael E. Sigman - Analysis of black writing ink by electrospray ionization mass
spectrometry - Forensic Science International - 2009, Volume 191, number 1-3, pp
97-103.
[87] John Coumbaros, K. Paul Kirkbride, Gunter Klass and William Skinner - Application
of time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry to the in situ analysis of ballpoint
pen previous inks on paper - Forensic Science International - 2009, Volume 193,
number 1-3, pp 42-46.
[88] Derek L. Hammond - Validation of LAB color mode as a nondestructive method to
differenciate black ballpoint pen inks - Journal of Forensic Science - 2007, Volume
52, number 4, pp 967-973.
[89] Warnadi Dirwono, Jin Sook Park, M.R. Agustin-Camacho, Jiyeon Kim, Hyun-Mee
Park, Yeonhee Lee and Kang-Bong Lee - Application of micro-attenuated total
reflectance FTIR spectroscopy in the forensic study of questioned documents
involving red seal inks - Forensic Science International - 2010, article in Press.
[90] John A. Denman, William M. Skinner, K. Paul Kirkbride and Ivan M. Kempson -
Organic and inorganic discrimination of ballpoint pen inks by ToF-SIMS and
multivariate statistics - Appl. Surface Sci. - 2010, Volume 256, number 7, pp 2155-
2163.
[91] K. Garzo, P. Korodi, A. Szökéné Toth and Z. Stefãnka - Application of
chromatographic and spectroscopic analytical methods for differenciation of blue
ballpoint pen inks - European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009,
5TH conference EAFS , QD 11.
[92] B. Matthews, G.S. Walker and H.J. Kobus - The analysis of ball point inks on single
paper fibres using laser desorption ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry (LDI-
TOFMS) - European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH
conference EAFS , september 2009, QD 13.
[93] G.Reed N. NicDaeid, K. Savagea, K.Faulds and C.Keeley - The analysis of blue,
black and red gel pen inks by RAMAN spectroscopy - Preliminary findings -
European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference
EAFS , QD 15.
[94] J. Pukkila - Thermal characterization of metallic paints and ball points pen inks on
paper with a multipurpose PTV injector - European Academy of Forensic Science
Conference - 2009, 5TH conference EAFS , QD 17.
[95] Walter F. Rowe and Stephanie Moore - Examination of blue gel inks - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J15.
[96] Vanessa E. Abercrombie, Stephanie M.Houlgrave, Gerald M. LaPorte and Joseph
C. Stephens - The characterization of vehicles found in ballpoint ink cartridges of
different composition and possible implications on ink aging examinations -
American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J16.
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[97] Stephanie M. Houlgrave, Gerald M. LaPorte, Joseph C. Stephens, Vanessa E.
Abercrombie and Justin L. Wilson - The use of filtered lighting and infrared
luminescence for the evaluation of writing inks analyzed using thin layer
chromatography - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009,
Volume XV, J18.
[98] Cara A. Plese, Sara E. Nedley and Rebecca Schuler - Hyperspectral imaging of
TLC plates: A novel approach to ink discrimination - American Academy of
Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI, J2.
[99] Derek L. Hammond, Sara E. Nedley and Rebecca Schuler - Hyperspectral imaging
vs. video spectral analysis: A continued comparison of ink discrimination
capabilities - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume
XVI, J17.
[100] Albert H. Lyter and Albert Schnieders - Analysis of writing inks by time of flight
secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) - A case study - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI, J19.
[101] Tatiana Trejos, Kristin Beiswenger, Alyssa Kress, Richard R. Hark and Jose R.
Almirall - Forensic analysis of inks by laser induced breakdown spectrometry
(LIBS) and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LAICP-
MS) - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI,
J22.
[102] Joseph C. Stephens, Gerald M. LaPorte and Danna Bicknell - Comparison of a
standard set of black ballpoint inks using a direct analysis in real time mass
spectrometer (DART-MS) - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver -
2009, Volume XV, J19.
Toner analysis
[103] Noriyuki Iwata, Atsuyuki Watada, Katsuhiko Tani, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Hiromi
Ikeura-Sekiguchi Tsukuba and Ibaraki - Application of scanning transmission X-ray
microscopy for observation of organic compounds in toner particles - NIP 23 :
International Conference on Digital Printing Technologies - 2007, pp 248-251.
[104] Yoshiyasu Higashikawa, Hiroaki Kanno, Tsuyoshi Kaneko and Shinichi Suzuki -
Forensic Discrimination of Trace Fragments of Photocopied Materials - Japan
Society of analytical chemistry - 2007, Volume 56, Number 12.
[105] M. I. Szynkowska, K. Czerski, T. Paryjczak and A. Parczewski - Ablative analysis
of black and colored toners using LAICP-TOF-MS for the forensic discrimination of
photocopy and printer toners - Surface and interface analysis - 2010, Volume 42,
number 5, pp 429-437.
[106] Candice Moussa and Michelle Novotny - Does my output change with age? -
Journal of American Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2009, Volume
12, number 1.
[107] U. Konarowska, S. Szepanczyk and K. Markiewicz - The use of optical microscopy
to the verification of counterfeit documents on the laser printer - European
Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference EAFS , QD 09.
[108] Joel A. Zlotnick and Douglas K. Shaffer - The need for research into the analysis of
pigmented printing inks - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle -
2010, Volume XVI, J18.
369

[109] L. Engisch, J. Örtegren and W. Goedl - Studies on inkjet ink with confocal raman
microscopy - NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital Printing Technologies -
2007, pp 340.
[110] Williams D. Mazella and Raymond Marquis - Forensic image analysis of laserprinted
documents - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number 1, june 2007.
[111] Tobin A. Tanaka - The correlation of photoreceptor defects to electrophotographic
(toner based) documents - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington
- 2008, Volume XIV, J16.
Inkjet ink analysis
[112] Masaya Shibatani, Tsutomu Asakawa, Toshiharu Enomae and Akira Isogai -
Approach for detecting localization of inkjet ink components using dynamic-SIMS
analysis - Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects -
2008, Volume 326, number 1-2, pp 61-66
[113] Shawn N. Donnelly, Trevor P. Cornell and John Allison - Analysis of inkjet-printed
documents I : Physical and chemical challenges - American Academy of Forensic
Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J23.
[114] John Allison, Trevor P. Cornell and Shawn N. Donnelly - Analysis of inkjet-printed
documents II : Colorant analysis by laser desorption mass spectrometry -
American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J24.
[115] M. Szafarska, A. Solarz, R. Wietecha-Poluszny, M. Wozniakiewicz and P.
KoscieIniak - Optimization of extraction of inkjet inks from paper for forensic
purposes - European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH
conference EAFS , QD 05.
[116] Shawn Donnelly, Josette E. Marrero, Trevor Cornell, Kevin Fowler and John
Allison - Analysis of pigmented inkjet printer inks and printed documents by laser
desorption/mass spectrometry - Journal of Forensic Science - 2009, Volume 55,
number 1, pp 129-135.
[117] Rebecca L. Schuler and Cara A. Plese - A novel method for the examination and
characterization of documents printed with inkjet printers - American Academy of
Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J7.
[118] Gerald M. LaPorte, Justin L. Wilson, Stephanie M. Houlgrave and Joseph C.
Stephens - The classification of inkjet inks using accuTOF DART (Direct Analysis
in Real Time) mass spectrometry - American Academy of Forensic Sciences -
Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J17.
[119] Michelle Boileau, Peter R. De Forest and John A. Reffner - The characterization of
black inkjet computer printer inks using chromatographic and spectrophotometric
techniques - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume
XVI, J20.
Miscellaneous ink analysis
[120] James L. Streeter, Greg P. Kettering, and Kenneth B. Zercie - Invisible ink :
Refresher for document examiners - Journal of American Society of Questioned
Document Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number 1.
370

[121] Shimoyama, M. - IR imaging of document examinations - Nippon Sekigaisen
Gakkaishi - 2007, Volume 16, number 1, pp 25-30.
[122] Heng H., Ke W. and Ji K. - Application of micro-Raman to the identification of ink
mark - Guangxue Jishu - 2007, Volume 33, number 3, pp 456-458.
[123] Lee J., Lee C., Lee K. and Lee Y. - Use of TOF-SIMS for the analysis of redsealing
inks on paper - Appl. Surface Sci. - 2008, Volume 255, number 4, pp
1523-1526.
[124] Hatzistavros V. S. and Kallithrakas-Kontos N. G. - trace element ink spiking for
signature authentication - J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem. - 2008, Volume 277, number
2, pp 399-404.
[125] Janina Zieba-Palus, Rafał Borusiewicz and Marcin Kunicki - PRAXIS — combined
µ-Raman and µ-XRF spectrometers in the examination of forensic samples -
Forensic Science International - 2008, Volume 175, number 1, pp 1-10.
[126] Anna Vila, Nuria Ferrer and Jose F. García - Colored inks analysis and
differentiation: A first step in artistic contemporary prints discrimination - Analytica
Chimica Acta - 2007, Volume 588, number 1, pp 96-107.
[127] A. Gambaro, R. Ganzerla, M. Fantin, E. Cappelletto, R. Piazza and W.R.L. Cairns -
Study of 19th century inks from archives in the Palazzo Ducale (Venice, Italy) using
various analytical techniques - Microchemical Journal - 2009, Volume 91, number
2, pp 202-208.
[128] Jana Striová, Gabriele Coccolini, Sara Micheli, Cristiana Lofrumento, Monica
Galeotti, Andrea Cagnini and Emilio Mario Castellucci - Non-destructive and noninvasive
analyses shed light on the realization technique of ancient polychrome
prints - Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy -
2009, Volume 73, number 3, pp 539-545.
[129] H. Koivula, J.S. Preston, P.J. Heard and M. Toivakka - Visualisation of the
distribution of offset ink components printed onto coated paper - Colloids and
Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects - 2008, Volume 317,
number 1-3, pp 557-567.
[130] Diane K. Williams and Kerri L. Moloughney - Thermal imaging of obliterated writing
- American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J9.
Aging
[131] Magdalena Ezcurra, Juan M.G. Góngora, Itxaso Maguregui and Rosa Alonso -
Analytical methods for dating modern writing instrument inks on paper - Forensic
Science International - 2010, Volume 197, number 1-3, pp 1-20.
[132] Céline Weyermann and Bernhard Spengler - The potential of artificial aging for
modelling of natural aging processes of ballpoint ink - Forensic Science
International - 2008, Volume 180, number 1, pp 23-31.
[133] Jan Andrasko - Some examples of applications of a microthermal desorption
device in the forensic laboratoryForensic Science International2009,Volume 54,
number 5, pp 1055-1058.
[134] Xiang-feng Wang, Jing Yu, Meng-Xia Xie, Ya-Tong Yao, Jie Han - Identification
and dating of the fountain pen ink entries on documents by ion-pairing high
performance liquid chromatography - Forensic Science International - 2008,
Volume 180, number 1, pp 43-49.
371

[135] Jürgen H. Bügler, Hans Buchner and Anton Dallmayer - Age determination of
ballpoint pen ink by thermal desorption and gas chromatography mass
spectrometry - Journal of Forensic Science - 2008, Volume 53, number 4, pp 982-
988.
[136} Claudia Berger-Karin, Ursula Hendricks and Jochen Geyer-Lippmann -
Comparison of natural and artificial aging of ball point inks - Journal of Forensic
Science - 2008, Volume 53, number 4, pp 989-992.
[137] Ryan C. Tomcik and Gerald M. Laporte - The analysis of non ballpoint inks using
gas chromatography/mass spectrometry : Relevance to ink dating - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J25.
[138] Y. Keheyan, G. Eliazyan, P. Engel and B. Rittmeier - Py/GC/MS characterisation of
naturally and artificially aged inks and papers - Journal of Analytical and Applied
Pyrolysis - 2009, Volume 186, number 1, pp 192-199.
[139] Céline Weyermann, Beatrice Schiffer and Pierre Margot - A logical framework to
ballpoint ink dating interpretation - Science & Justice - 2008, Volume 48, number 3,
pp 118-125.
[140] Magdalena Ezcurra G., Itxaso Velasco, Juan M. G. Góngora, M. Itxaso Maguregui
and Rosa M. Alonso - Analysis of bic cristal medium ballpoint pen inks - Journal of
American Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2009, Volume 12, number
2.
[141] D. Kirsch, V. Guillou, P. Seiler and F. Koehler - Different analytical methods for the
characterization of ballpoint ink entries - European Academy of Forensic Science
Conference - 2009, 5TH conference EAFS , QD 07.
[142] Mi-Jung Choi, Sung-Woo Park, Yale-Shik Sun and Chang-Seong Kim - The
quantitative analysis of ballpoint pen inks solvents on paper - American Academy
of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI, J10.
Printing and/or writing sequence
[143] James R. Daniels - Dual mode polarizing pellicle - Journal of American Society of
Questioned Document Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 2.
[144] Katherine Bojko, Claude Roux and Brian J. Reedy - An examination of the
sequence of intersecting lines using attenuated total reflectance-fourier transform
infrared spectral imaging - Journal of Forensic Science - 2008, Volume 53, number
6, pp 1458-1467.
[145] Komal Saini, Ridamjeet Kaur and N.C. Sood - Determining the sequence of
intersecting gel pen and laser printed strokes - A comparative study - Science &
Justice - 2009, Volume 49, number , pp 286-291.
[146] Thomas J. tague Jr., Marco Leona and Peng Wang - Raman spectroscopy of
documents - Defense and Homeland Security - 2010, Avril 2010, pp 20-25.
[147] Tamas Gal, Agnes Karoly and Judit Sandor - The use of microscopy-FTIR-ATR
technique to determine the sequence of crossed lines - American Academy of
Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI, J1.
[148] Tamas Gal - Examination of fraud documents by microscopy raman spectroscopy
method - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume XVI,
J16.
372

[149] Magdalena Ezcurra - Is atomic force microscope a suitable tool for studying
crossing lines? - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document Examiners
- 2008, Volume 11, Number 2, december 2008.
[150] N. Nic Daéid, L. Whitehead and M. Allen - Examining the effects of paper type, pen
type, writing pressure and angle of intersection on white and dark dominance in
ESDA impressions of sequenced strokes - An application of the likehood ratio -
Forensic Science International - 2008, Volume 181, number 1, pp 32-35.
Papers
[151] Elizabeth A. McGaw, David W. Szymanski and Ruth Waddell Smith -
Characterization of undigested particulate material following microwave digestion
of recycled document papers - Forensic Science International - 2009, Volume 54,
number 5, pp 1171-1175.
[152] Elizabeth A. McGaw, David W. Szymanski and Ruth Waddell Smith -
Determination of trace elemental concentrations in document papers for forensic
comparison using inductively coupled-plasma-mass spectrometry - Forensic
Science International - 2009, Volume 54, number 5, pp 1163-1170.
[153] Ján Hrivňák, Peter Tölgyessy, Soňa Figedyová and Svetozár Katuščák - Solidphase
microcolumn extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
identification of volatile organic compounds emitted by paper - Talanta - 2009,
Volume 80, number 1, pp 400-402.
[154] T. Fritz, J.F. Bloch - Use of fibres orientation measurement for paper comparison -
European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference
EAFS , QD 03.
[155] C.E.H Berger - Objective paper structure comparison through processing of
transmitted light images - European Academy of Forensic Science Conference -
2009, 5TH conference EAFS , QD 06.
[156] V. Causin, R. Casamassima, C. Marega, G. Peluso, R. Saini, A. Mango and S.
Schiavone - The discrimination potential of X-RAY diffraction and of infrared
spectroscopy for the forensic analysis of paper - European Academy of Forensic
Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference EAFS , QD 14.
[157] A. Van Es , J. de Koeijer and G. van der Peijl - Discrimination of document paper
by XRF, LA–ICP–MS and IRMS using multivariatestatistical techniques - Science &
Justice - 2009, Volume 49, number 2, pp 120-126.
Indented impression
[158] Tobin A. Tanaka - Voltage and indentation development - Journal of American
Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number 1.
[159] Luke Yaraskavitch, Matthew Graydon, Tobin Tanak and Lay-Keow Ng - Controlled
electrostatic methodology for imaging indentations in documents - Forensic
Science International - 2008, Volume 177, number 2-3, pp 97-104.
[160] N. Nic Daéid, K. Hayes and M. Allen - Investigations into factors affecting the
cascade developer used in ESDA-A review - Forensic Science International - 2008,
Volume 181, number 1, pp 1-9.
373

[161] Larry A. Olson - Indentations produced by the document feeder mechanisms of two
black and white photocopiers - Journal of American Society of Questioned
Document Examiners - 2009, Volume 12, number 1.
[162] A. B. Giles and Audrey Giles - Electrostatic detection apparatus enhancement
using astronomical image stacking and processing software - Journal of American
Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2009, Volume 12, number 1.
[163] Diane K. Tolliver and Carl A. Sobieralski - Awareness of the Potential of the EDD
Serving as a Source for Transfer of DNA - Journal of American Society of
Questioned Document Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 2.
Altered documents
[164] Atul K. Singla, O. P. Jasuja and Sarbjit Kaur - The effect of water soaking on
ballpoint pen writings - Journal of American Society of Questioned Document
Examiners - 2008, Volume 11, Number 1.
[165] Patrick De Smet - Reconstruction of ripped-up documents using fragment stack
analysis procedures - Forensic Science International - 2008, Volume 176, number
2-3, pp 124-136.
[166] P. De Smet - Two-way interactive stack desequencing for reconstruction of rippedup
- European Academy of Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference
EAFS , QD 04.
[167] Gregg M. Mokrzycki and Gabriel D. Watts - Charred documents - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J13.
Security documents
[168] Carl R. Mc Clary - Design and security features of the euro - Journal of American
Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2007, Volume 10, Number 1.
[169] Helene Andersson - Forged LASER engraved documents - INTERGRAF – XXII.
International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[170] Philip Berrie - The importance of machine readibility as a security feature now, and
five years time. - INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference –
Nice – 2007.
[171] Chris Catlin - Co-processing of paper and polymer banknotes. A system approach.
- INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[172] Bill Dorricott and Emmanuel Elgart - Innovation in stamp paper making -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[173] Iain Drummond - The document's own DNA as the ultimate authenticator -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[174] Jan-Dirk Enschedé - New ideas in improving security features in banknotes -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[175] Martyn Fry - Stamp re-use and counterfeiting in the UK. - INTERGRAF – XXII.
International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[176] Réne Michael Holly - US views on data protection and biometrics - INTERGRAF –
XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[177] Peter Hradek - Innovative use of mobile terminals for secure documents -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
374

[178] Dr. Eckhard Koch - The digital seal for security documents - INTERGRAF – XXII.
International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[179] Georgy Kornilov - Innovative security features for banknote substrates -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[180] David Lewis - A new approach to IR-absorbers for high security printing -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[181] Luís Machado and José Rosmaninho - The introduction of the portuguese
biometric passport - INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’
Conference – Nice – 2007.
[182] Bernd Mainzer - ID cards with high data storage capacity and high security
features in one medium - INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’
Conference – Nice – 2007.
[183] Allister McCallum - Trends in eurobanknote couterfeiting lessons for the future -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[184] Hervé Naullet - Long-range vs short-range detection of security documents -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[185] Pandelis Papadimitriou - New developments in liquid crystal pigment technology as
a security system - INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference
– Nice – 2007.
[186] Hugues Souparis - Combination of latest optical technologies on the french epassport
- INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice –
2007.
[187] Charlie Stevens - Development of ICAO machine readable travel documents with
particular emphasis on biometrics and their application to border controls -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[188] Ewout van Haeften - Counterfeiting of eurobanknotes - INTERGRAF – XXII.
International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[189] Nigel Ward - Enhancing document security trough multi-factor identity verification -
INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[190] Dr. Andreas Wolf - Border security, e-passports, interoperability - INTERGRAF –
XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice – 2007.
[191] Jürgen Zerbes - The integrative design approach to functional banknote security
features - INTERGRAF – XXII. International Security Printers’ Conference – Nice –
2007.
[192] D. Joseph, S. D. Maind, A. Saxena and R. K. Choudhury - Characterization of
offset printing ink tagged with rare-earth taggants by X-ray emission techniques -
Int. J. PIXE - 2007, Volume 17, number 3-4, pp 183-191.
[193] Elaine Wooton, Douglas K. Shaffer and Troy Eberhardt - Methods of assessment
of true, simulated, and counterfeit watermarks - American Academy of Forensic
Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J28.
[194] Shigeru Sugawara - Passport examination by a confocal-type laser profile
microscope - Forensic Science International - 2008, Volume 178, number 1, pp 40-
45.
[195] Marcel A. Verhoff, Carsten Wtzel, Kerstin Kreutz and franck Ramsthaler - The ideal
subject dictance for passport pictures - Forensic Science International - 2008,
Volume 178, number 2-3, pp 153-156.
375

[196] S. D. Maind, N. Chattopadhyay, Ch. Gandhi, S. C. Kumar and M. Sudersanan -
Quantitative evaluation of europium in blue ballpoint pen inks/offset printing inks
tagged with europium thenoyltrifluoroacetonate by spectrofluorometry and ICP-
AES - Science & Justice - 2008, Volume 48, number 2, pp 61-66.
[197] Sangita Dhara, N.L. Misra, S.D. Maind, Sanjukta A. Kumar, N. Chattopadhyay and
S.K. Aggarwal - Forensic application of total reflection X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry for elemental characterization of ink samples - Spectrochimica Acta
Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy - 2010, Volume 65, number 2, pp 167-170.
[198] Pei-Ju Chiang, George T.-C. Chiu, Edward J. Delp and Jan P. Allebach -
Optimized Embedding and Decoding of Extrinsic Signatures for
Electrophotographic Halftone Images - NIP 24 : International Conference on
Digital Printing Technologies - 2008, 2008 , pp 782-786.
[199] Eva Snirer, Margaret Kalacska and Rick B. Parent - Spectral analysis of canadian
currency as a potential tool for counterfeit detection - American Academy of
Forensic Sciences - Denver - 2009, Volume XV, J20.
[200] Aravind K. Mikkilineni, George T. C. Chiu, Jan P. Allebach and Edward J. Delp -
High-capacity data hiding in text documents - Proceedings of SPIE, the
International Society for Optical Engineering - 2009, Volume 7254.
[201] Utpal Garain and Biswajit Halder - Machine Authentication of Security Documents -
Proceedings of the 2009 10th International Conference on Document Analysis and
Recognition - 2009, pp 718-722.
Quality assurance
[202] T. Ottiker - Accreditation of handwriting examination under ISO/IEC 17020 or
ISO/IEC 17025 : What differences are to be expected? - European Academy of
Forensic Science Conference - 2009, 5TH conference EAFS , QD 16.
Miscalleneous
[203] Linlin Zheng Rodriguez, S. Lu Zhang Botao Shao Li-Rong Zheng - Design and
implementation of a fully reconfigurable chipless RFID tag using inkjet printing
technology - IEEE circuits and systems - 2008, pp 1524-1527.
[204] Jiro Oi and Hideo Taniguchi - New erase head for RFID thermal rewritable media -
NIP 23 : International Conference on Digital Printing Technologies - 2007, 2007, pp
148-150.
[205] Haley A. Elliott - Decoding the United States postal service barcodes - American
Academy of Forensic Sciences - Washington - 2008, Volume XIV, J6.
[206] Joachim Heinzl - Ink Jets - Comprehensive Microsystems - 2008, Volume 3, pp
335-368.
[207] Wenjuan Cuia, Wensheng Lua, Yakun Zhang, Guanhua Lina, Tianxin Wei and
Long Jiang - Gold nanoparticle ink suitable for electric-conductive pattern
fabrication using in previous ink-jet printing technology - Colloids and Surfaces A:
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects - 2010, Volume 358, number 1-3, pp
35-41.
[208] Douglas K. Shaffer - Evidential value of adhesives in questioned document
examinations - American Academy of Forensic Sciences - Seattle - 2010, Volume
XVI, J15.
376

[209] Yoshihisa Kitano, Toshiharu Enomae and Akira Isogai - Comparative studies of
gloss development in electrophotography and offset printing - Journal of Imaging
Science and Technology - 2008, Volume 52, number 1, pp 010504.
[210] John Welch - Erasable ink; something old, something new - Science & Justice -
2008, Volume 48, number 4, pp 187-19.
[211] Pei-Ju Chiang, Nitin Khanna, Aravind K. Mikkilineni, Maria V. ortiz Segovia,
Sungjoo Suh, Jan P. Allebach, George T.C. Chiu and Edward J. Delp - Printer et
scanner forensics - SECE, SME, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
- 2008, LNCS 5158, PP 22-34, 2008.
[212] S.J. Simske, J.S. Aronoff, M. Strugill, F. Collins, G. Golodetz and R. Israel -
Security printing deterrants : A comparison of TIJ, DEP and LED printing - NIP 23 :
International Conference on Digital Printing Technologies - 2007, pp 543-548.
[213] O. Bulan, V. Monga, G. Sharna, and B Oztan - Data embedding in hardcopy
images via halftone-dot orientation modulation - SPIE International Conference on
Security, Steganoigraphy, and Watermarking of Multimedia Contents X - 2009, Vol.
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information embedding and extraction for halftone documents : New results - NIP
23 : International Conference on Digital Printing Technologies - 2007, pp 549-553.
[215] Joost Van Beusekom, Faisal Shafait and Thomas M. Breuel - Document signature
using intrinsic features for counterfeit detection - ICWF 2008 - 2008, LNCS 5158,
PP 47-57.
[216] Nitin Khanna, Aravind K. Mikkilineni, George T.C. Chiu, Jan P. Allebach and
Edward J. Delp - Survey of scanner et printer forensics - IWCF 2008 : Washington
DC, USA - 2008, LNCS 5158, PP 22-34.
[217] Janette Dove Guscott - Case report : Can you have the perfect training case? -
Journal of American Society of Questioned Document Examiners - 2007, Volume
10, Number 2.
[218] Yoshinori Akao, Atsushi Yamamoto and Yoshiyasu Higashikawa - Estimation of
inkjet printer spur gear teeth number from pitch data string of limited length -
Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Computational Forensics - 2009,
Volume 5718, pp 25-32.
[219] Christian Schulze, Marco Schreyer, Armin Stahl and Thomas M. Breuel -
Evaluation of graylevel-features for printing technique classification in highthroughput
document management systems - Proceedings of the 2nd international
workshop on Computational Forensics - 2008, Volume 5158, pp 35-46.
[220] Orhan Bulan, Junwen Mao and Gaurav Sharma - Geometric distortion signatures
for printer identification - IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and
Signal Processing - 2009, Volume 0, pp 1401-1404.
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be published on the following website
http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/scientists/publications.html?ref=menuside
377

MEDIA EVIDENCE
378

Audio Analysis
Review : 2007-2010
Carl R. Kriigel, MA 1
Geoff Smith, M.Sc. 1
Matthew Graves, M.F.S. 1
Forensic Audio Examiner, Digital Evidence Branch, U.S. Army Criminal Investigation
Laboratory
379

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
 INTRODUCTION
 381
2.
 AUTHENTICATION
(GEOFF
SMITH)
 381
3.
 SPEAKER
IDENTIFICATION
(MATTHEW
GRAVES)
 383
4.
 AUDIO
ENHANCEMENT,
RELATED
AUDIO
FIELDS,
LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
AND
WORKING
GROUPS
(CARL
KRIIGEL)
 386
5.
 RELATED
FIELDS
OF
AUDIO
EVIDENCE
 387
6.
 LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
 388
7.
 U.S.
REPORT
ON
FORENSIC
SCIENCE
 389
8.
 WORKING
GROUPS
AND
ORGANIZATIONS
 389
9.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
 390
10.
 REFERENCES:
 390
380

1. Introduction
This review focuses on Forensic Audio Analysis and the advances in technology during
the past three years. The principal topics covered are divided into five sections:
Authentication, Speaker Identification, Audio Enhancement, Related Fields of Audio
Evidence, and Working Groups and Organizations.
The selection of specific sections to be reviewed was based on a broad literature review
of approximately 100 references which was further refined. For most of the references
the authors reviewed the complete articles; however, the abstracts were sufficient for a
small number of reviews.
Over the past few years there have been several areas of substantial research and
publication. One area of interest is the use of Electronic Network Frequency (ENF)
analysis for authentication of audio recordings. Work has been on-going for several
years in Europe, while in the United States, research has been started in an effort to
implement this technique. Additionally there have been various projects dedicated to
testing automated speaker identification systems and developing better methods for
speaker identification as well as research projects relating to speaker identification,
each of which help strengthen the current state of the science. There also appears to
be an increased focus on forensic audio procedures as more laboratories have
requirements for forensic laboratory accreditation and practitioner certification. In the
United States there is extensive discussion in the forensic science community in
response to the 2009 release of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences released
report entitled “Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward.”
2. Authentication (Geoff Smith)
The authentication method garnering the most attention is the use of Electric Network
Frequency (ENF) analysis that was first proposed by Grigoras in 2003 (1). It has been
called the “'biggest breakthrough since Watergate [1972 U.S. political scandal]” (2) in
the field of audio authentication. In this method, the frequency changes of the mains
hum (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on location) in a digital recording are compared to a
historical database of the mains frequency changes. Depending on the conditions, it is
possible to provide details about the recording including the date and time the ENF
corresponds to, the geographical area the ENF corresponds to, if the recording is
original or copied, and the continuity of the recording.
For current methodologies see Grigoras (3) and Cooper (4). These methodologies
include ENF database collection, extraction of the ENF data from a recording, and an
automated procedure for matching the extracted data to the historical database. ENF
analysis has been tested in both continental Europe by Brixen (5), Michalek (6), and
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Grigoras and in mainland U. K. by Cooper. Sanders (7) conducted preliminary
research comparing ENF measurements within and between each of the three major
U.S. power grids. He found good intra-grid consistency and no correlation between the
grids.
The above cited methods use a mean squared error-based procedure to match the
recording ENF data to the historical database. Huijbregtse and Geradts (8) put forth a
matching procedure based on the correlation coefficient. They demonstrated the
possibility of erroneous matching due to frequency offset using the mean squared errorbased
procedure. The correlation coefficient-based procedure provided improvement
especially for recordings shorter than 10 minutes.
Brixen (9) and Sanders & Popolo (10) tested the susceptibility of battery-powered
recording devices to ENF. Both tests included various recording devices and varying
magnetic field strength. Brixen reported that no ENF was detected on a recording
device with an electrets microphone regardless of the strength of the magnetic field. A
majority of the recorders in the Sanders & Popolo test found no ENF at normal or
slightly-elevated environmental levels. From these studies it can be seen that not all
recordings will contain usable ENF data. Both studies concluded that further tests are
needed in this subject to understand recorder susceptibility to ENF.
Two scientific working groups have addressed ENF analysis. The ENFSI (European
Network of Forensic Science Institutes) which has a Working Group for Forensic
Speech and Audio Analysis (FSAAWG) published a best practices guide (11) for the
use of ENF analysis in authentication. The second, a U.S. group, the Scientific Working
Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) released a discussion paper (12) to describe the
potential use of ENF analysis in the United States. This paper also contains
engineering and forensic concerns with the method that should be addressed.
Nicolalde and Apolinario (13) presented a technique of analyzing ENF data that is
distinct from typical ENF analysis in that the ENF phase change of a recording is
analyzed to identify discontinuities. Also analyzed were discontinuities in spectral
distance. Using both ENF phase change and spectral distance measurements provide
a high probability of detecting if a portion of the speech signal has been deleted from or
inserted into a recording.
Outside of ENF analysis publications, there have been additional advances in digital
audio authentication. Koenig and Lacey (14) provide a thorough 11-step protocol of
digital audio authentication. This protocol encompasses the entire examination process
from evidence marking through reporting. The paper complements an earlier protocol
for analog recordings from 1990 (15) with numerous changes to account for the
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differences between analog and digital media. To address the need to authenticate
digital audio, Grigoras (16) presented statistical tools to detect traces of
(re)compression data. The tool is used to assess compression generation and to
discriminate between different compression algorithms. In a technique specific to MP3
compression, Yang, Qu and Huang (17) examined the frame offsets to detect
manipulation. MP3 audio samples are divided into frames to encode with each frame
having its own offset after encoding. Manipulation can lead to broken frame grids.
Detection rates using this technique were reported to be 94%. In order to detect buttsliced
edits, Cooper (18) presented a simple signal processing method having
significant benefits over traditional approaches. This method is based on high pass
filtering the audio and modeling a discontinuity at higher frequencies; it is used to
complement other techniques since no single method can determine authenticity.
While not as frequent as with digital recordings, authentication of analog recordings is
still necessary on occasion. Visualization of magnetic features is the most effective
method for authentication of analog recording. Boss (19) described methods of
visualization including using crystals with polarizing microscopes, a MOSeS (Magneto-
Optical Sensor System) device, and a MOA-KOF (Magneto-Optical Analysis) device.
Images of visualized recordings including start and stop marks; an example is given of
how visualization can explain certain recording peculiarities (in this case likely due to a
tape fold). Another discussion of magnetic visualization methods was presented by
Broyles (20). The advantages and disadvantages of ferrofluids compared to magnetooptical
film imaging methods are discussed. Supporting test images are included.
Koenig, Lacey and Killion (21) described the components of a macrophotography
system to capture images of Bitter (ferrofluid development) patterns commonly used on
audio duplication, enhancement, authentication and voice comparison examination of
audio tapes.
In a technique valid to both analog and digital audio recordings, Malik and Farid (22)
described a technique to estimate the amount of reverberation in a recording.
Differences in estimated reverberation in a recording purported to be from a single
environment can be used as evidence of manipulation.
3. Speaker Identification (Matthew Graves)
This review will focus on speaker identification and the developments and research
conducted in this field between 2007 and 2010. While the overview provided here
contains many sources for information regarding speaker identification, members of the
Digital Evidence Branch at the United States Army Criminal Investigation Laboratory
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writing this review, do not perform and are not trained in this discipline. Much of the
work is being conducted by Michael Jessen of the Budeskkriminalamt Germany (BKA).
The two main approaches in speaker identification by experts remain the auditoryacoustic
method and the automatic method. There have been several projects
dedicated to testing automated systems and developing better methods and techniques
for conducting this type of examination. In addition, many research projects relating to
speaker identification have occurred that may help strengthen the current state of the
science. Although testing current methodologies, techniques, and systems remains
important, reporting of results must be considered as well. Therefore, some work has
been dedicated to Likelihood Ratios (LRs).
Automated systems can be used for speaker recognition. For an overview of automatic
speaker recognition technology, see Kinnunen and Li (23). One voice comparison
system, the SPES (SPrecher-Erkennungs-System) which is an automatic voice
comparison system used by the BKA and is designed for forensic examinations of
speech recordings was tested using real case data. The results show how the system
performance is influenced by real world recording scenarios (24). Additional works by
Chakroborty and Saha (25), Charbuillet et al. (26), Chetouani et al.(27), Liao et al.(28),
Lu and Dang (29), Kwon and Narayanan (30), Ramos-Castro et al.(31), Shahin (32),
and Wu and Lin (33) provide various methods and techniques for increasing the
effectiveness of automated systems. Finally, Ramos et al. (34) address database
mismatch from a speech database in Spanish: Ahumada III, which was created using
data from real casework.
Becker et al. (35) tested a new approach combining the GMM-UBM (Gaussian Mixture
Model – Universal Background Model) framework with “formant features which have
shown a high discrimination ability among speakers in the acoustic-phonetic approach
of manual speaker verification.” While this technique showed promise for future use in
forensic cases, the authors caution that additional research is needed.
The use of “higher-level” features in automatic systems to aid in forensic speaker
recognition was evaluated by Shriberg and Stolcke (36). In their paper, they provide an
overview of such systems, potential advantages, and issues when using higher-level
features in forensic applications. They state that using these features improves
recognition accuracy because they “add the most information to a traditional low-level
speaker recognition system.”
In many cases, the amount of information that is available for analysis is limited.
Therefore, it is necessary to have a method or technique for dealing with such
situations. Gonzalez-Dominguez et al. (37) examined the use of Factor Analysis (FA) to
overcome limited data sets that are common in forensic applications.
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Occasionally, limited information may be due to the type of device that was transmitting
the voice, for instance VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) communication systems.
Two projects by Khan et al. (38,39) explored speaker recognition from data that was
encrypted or compressed due to a communication system design. With the growing
popularity of VoIP communications, this research could prove to be valuable to the
forensic community in the future.
Disguised voices may be another obstacle that some practitioners of speaker
identification may encounter. It is possible, that if a speaker knows he/she is being
recorded, that a disguise may be employed to mask identity. To show how a disguised
voice could affect an examination, Zhang and Tan (40) evaluated an automatic speaker
recognition system against 10 types of voice disguises.
Improvements to the underlying science and validations of current methods are of vital
importance for any discipline. One paper, by Amino and Arai (41) discusses “speakerdependent
characteristics of the nasals” which were found to be useful for Perceptual
Speaker Identification (PSI). Another, by Ariyaeeinia et al. (42) tests the ability of
speaker verification technology to differentiate between twins. Additionally, Jessen (43)
measured the articulation rate (AR) of 100 German-speaking male subjects in an
attempt to build on multi-speaker studies in this area of research.
Another significant area of research possibilities comes from Nolan et al. (44) and the
Dynamic Variability in Speech (DyViS) database compiled at the University of
Cambridge. The goals of the project are to “test the practicality of ‘speaker-space’ for
distinguishing members of a large population of speakers, quantify articulatory-acoustic
dynamic features for individual speakers, test diachronic change as a source of speaker
idiosyncrasy, and make available a speech database of Standard Southern British
English (SSBE) for wider use by other researchers, forensic phonetic practitioners, and
other interested persons.”
As with any analysis, the reporting of findings remains the most critical step in the
process, since any error here could misrepresent the data the practitioner collected.
According to Morrison (45), the forensic comparison sciences are in the midst of a
paradigm shift that is tending towards “quantitative data-based implementation of the
likelihood-ratio framework with quantitative evaluation of the reliability of results.” As a
result, Morrison et al. (46) describe two procedures that are designed to estimate the
“precision of the output of a forensic-comparison system.” While LRs may be useful for
reporting results, it is important not to misrepresent the weight of the evidence, as
cautioned by Gonzalez-Rodriguez (47).
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In June of 2010, Michael Jessen of the BKA presented Current developments in
forensic speaker identification at Odyssey 2010: The Speaker and Language
Recognition Workshop. That presentation contains a wealth of information that may be
useful to speaker identification practitioners.
4. Audio Enhancement, Related Audio Fields, Laboratory Procedures and
Working Groups (Carl Kriigel)
To improve the intelligibility of speech it is necessary to suppress or attenuate the
unwanted noise that occurs in audio recordings. Ellwart and Czyzewski (48) propose
an algorithm that is based on a combination of adaptive filtration and spectral
subtraction to reduce noise and improve the speech quality. The method utilizes two
signals: the sound recorded by the microphone containing the speech including noise
and the second signal containing only the noise. Several experiments were conducted
using microphones with different characteristics. The results indicate the method
worked well in various environmental conditions. Bitzer and Brandt (49) investigated
the weakness of standard noise reduction approaches and offered solutions for burst
from GSM (Global System Mobile Communication). One method for GSM burst
removal, suggested by Bitzer and Brandt, utilized a template signal cancellation. The
approach is to build a template of the burst signal and apply it over all detected bursts to
remove the GSM. Bitzer and Brandt discussed other approaches to speech
enhancement and limitations (such as low grade microphones, A/D converters and
compression/coding algorithms).
There are several manufacturers of commercial noise-reduction systems that contain a
wide range of parameters that have to be adjusted by the forensic practitioners. These
adjustments are opinion settings based on the practitioners’ experience and training but
may not produce optimal results. Hilkhuysen and Huckvale (50) studied the differences
between opinion based operator settings and settings using an intelligibility model.
The intelligibility model is founded on a speech envelope distortion measure to predict
optimal parameter settings of commercial noise-reduction systems. Hilkhuysen and
Huckvale’s results indicate that the intelligibility model is able to predict optimal
parameter settings better than human operators, even though the model contains
imperfections.
Audio restoration software in forensic applications has raised some questions regarding
the validity of investigative and legal recordings. Koenig and Lacey (51) tested two
widely available software programs using both speech information and sine waves. The
results of the restoration were compared to the original source clip recording using a
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variety of methods to assess the “corrections.” The results suggest that the two
programs tested produced few improvements in the recording quality and often
degraded the voice and other signals. The research supported that detailed testing of
clipped-sample restoration software is strongly recommended before being utilized in
forensic laboratories.
Compressed digital audio recordings are being introduced to law enforcement,
emergency and business communities as they migrate to digital media. To gain insight
into the optimal playback and effects of digital audio recording and playback, Koenig
and Lacey (52) tested ten small solid-state (flash memory) audio recorders. Several
results concerning applications in forensic examinations, including authenticity,
enhancement, voice comparison, and signal analysis were featured. Koenig and Lacy
encouraged more research into intelligibility and suitability of using small solid-state
recorders under typical investigative conditions.
5. Related Fields of Audio Evidence
Microphones play a key role in audio recordings and their use is often overlooked,
leaving post-processing efforts as the norm to clean up these recordings. Using
multiple microphones is more advantageous in enhancing speech signals, thereby
improving their intelligibility. Gunel et al. (53) focused on the performance of a closedform
acoustic scene decomposition technique. The technique blindly decomposes the
sound field using signals obtained from a coincided microphone array. Decomposition
both localizes the audio objects and enhances them, thereby improving the intelligibility
of speech signals. The results indicate this technique achieves very good performance
in realistic forensic scenarios where the intelligibility of the speech is important.
Comparison of sounds recorded during a phone call to an emergency 911 recording
system can sometimes be useful to the investigation. During a homicide investigation,
the investigating department determined that the suspect had probably hit the victim on
the head with an aluminum baseball bat. An acoustic analysis was conducted to
determine if the recovered bat had produced the five “ping” sounds that had occurred
during the assault. These ping sounds were recorded by the department’s 911 system
through an open telephone line at the scene. Marr and Koenig (54) conducted this
unique signal analysis. Several laboratory comparisons were made between the
submitted baseball bat, two other test bats, and the 911 recording. The process used
narrow-band spectrum analysis. The examination results indicated the resonant
frequency of the submitted ball bat was generally consistent with the 911 ping
recordings.
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Recordings of audio gunshots can assist in crime scene reconstruction. The sound
information can assist in estimating the shooter’s location and verify eyewitness
accounts. Maher and Shaw (55) conducted a study by recording a systematic set of
rifle shots. The study summarizes the primary acoustical evidence from the recorded
gunshots and outlines several strengths and weaknesses of gunshot analysis for
forensic purposes.
6. Laboratory Procedures
Forensic Laboratory procedures and practices are becoming more important as
agencies begin to have requirements for certification and accreditation. Practices,
policies and organization structure discussed by How (56) provide insight into the
United Kingdom’s largest Forensic Audio Laboratory at the Metropolitan Police Digital
and Electronics Forensic Services , London , U.K .
Koenig, Lacey and Killion (57) provide a protocol to improve voice intelligibility of
investigative and forensic audio recordings. Sections include the differences between
analog and digital recordings, appropriate laboratory space, applicable equipment and
software, examination procedures, evidence handling and expert testimony.
Forensic audio professionals, according to Rogers and Smith (58), are beginning to
have overlapping roles in computer forensic applications. Defining the audio
professional role in a digital world allows for opportunities in training and understanding
the fundamentals of the infrastructure and computing systems that create, store and
process the audio evidence. Audio professionals are encouraged to embrace
technology dealing with acquisition and recovery of digital media.
The Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE) prepared SWGDE Best
Practices for Forensic Audio (59) to provide forensic audio practitioners
recommendations for the handling and examination of forensic audio evidence in order
to successfully introduce audio evidence in a court of law. The document covers
laboratory equipment considerations, collection of evidence, examination, and
documentation. The best practice guide is useful for agencies currently conducting
audio examinations or those planning on expanding their forensic capabilities.
The European Network of Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) Forensic Speech and
Audio Analysis Working Group produced a document for ENF (Electronic Network
Frequency) analysis in the area of forensic authentication of digital audio and
audio/video recordings(60). The ENFSI Forensic Speech and Audio Analysis Working
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Group also produced a document for Terms of Reference for Forensic Speaker Analysis
(61) in order to successfully present reports or testimony in a court of law.
7. U.S. Report on Forensic Science
In 2009 the U.S. National Academies of Sciences released a report entitled
“Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward” (62) to the
Congress of the United States. The report contained a broad overview of the status of
forensic science in the United States along with thirteen recommendations for
improvement. These recommendations generated significant discussion and could
impact the forensic audio community, if adopted. SWGDE published a position paper
(63) on the report, responding to each of the recommendations.
8. Working Groups and Organizations
Forensic audio analysis is a growing community that has members in several
international working groups:
AAFS- American Academy of Forensic Science: Within the American Academy of
Forensic Science is the newly formed Digital and Multimedia Sciences section that
includes forensic audio and speech analysis. http://aafs.org/digital-multimedia-sciences
AES- Audio Engineering Society: The Audio Engineering Society is devoted exclusively
to audio technology. Founded in the United States in 1948, the AES has grown to
become an international organization that unites audio engineers, creative artists,
scientists and students worldwide by promoting advances in audio and disseminating
new knowledge and research. http://www.aes.org/
ENFSISA –European Network of Forensic Science Institutes Forensic Speech and
Audio Analysis Working Group: a European group that is focused on all aspects of
forensic audio and speech analysis, including linguistics.
http://www.enfsi.eu/page.php?uid=63
NCMF-National Center for Media Forensics: a newly formed American center that is
part of the University of Colorado which has a strong forensic audio program and is
conducting research on ENF. http://cam.cudenver.edu/ncmf/
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SWGDE- Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence: an American group that
includes a forensic audio committee that has produced best practices manuals and is
promoting research on ENF. http://www.swgde.org/
9. Acknowledgment
We thank Micheal Jessen of the Bundeskriminalamt Germany, Jurrien Bijhold of the
Netherlands Forensic Institute, Catalin Grigoras and Jeff Smith of the University of
Colorado, Denver, National Center for Media Forensics, Ken Marr of the FBI Forensic
Audio, Video and Image Analysis Unit, David Hallimore of the Scientific Working
Group on Digital Evidence, and Doug Lacey of BEK TEK LLC, for assistance in
preparation this manuscript.
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60 . ENFSI Forensic Speech and Audio Analysis Working Group. Best Practice
Guideline for ENF Analysis in Forensic Authentication of Digital Evidence. (Issue
001) 2009 June. [retrieved from www.enfsi.eu/uploads/files/ENFSI-FSAAWG-
BPM-ENF-001-20090615.pdf]
395

61 . ENFSI Forensic Speech and Audio Analysis Working Group. Terms of Reference
For Forensic Speaker Analysis. (Issue 001) 2008 September. [retrieved from
http://www.enfsi.eu/uploads/files/ENFSI-FSAAWG-TOR-FSA-001-12Sep2008.pdf]
62 . Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Science Community and the
National Research Council. Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States:
A Path Forward. National Academy Press. 2009
63 . Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence. Forensic Audio Standards.
Proceedings of the 39 th International Conference of the Audio Engineering Society,
2010 June; Hillerød, Denmark.
396

Digital Analysis
Review : 2007-2010
Paul Reedy
Manager, Forensic Operations
Forensic and Data Centres
Australian Federal Police.
Michael Holohan,
Senior legal officer,
Crime and misconduct commission,
Queensland, Australia
397

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
 STATISTICAL
SURVEY
OF
CONSUMER
USAGE
OF
DIGITAL
MEDIA
 400
2
 STORAGE
DEVICES
AND
DEVICE
CONVERGENCE
 400
2.1
 Data
Volume
 400
2.2.
 Data
Speed
 400
2.3
 Security
and
Encryption
 401
2.4
 Anti
forensic
techniques
 402
2.5
 Social
networking
 403
3
 LABORATORY
ACCREDITATION
AND
STANDARDS
 405
3.1
 Practitioner
training
 405
3.5
 Tool
validation
 406
4
 DIGITAL
FORENSIC
EXAMINATIONS
 407
4.1
 Evidence
triage
 407
4.2
 Evidence
reproducibility
 407
4.3
 Operating
systems
 408
4.4
 Hand
held
devices
including
mobile
(cell)
phones
 408
4.5
 Forensic
tools
 409
4.6
 Managing
investigators
and
prosecutors
expectations
 409
5
 LEGAL
ISSUES
 410
5.1
 Presentation
of
digital
evidence
 410
5.2
 Limitations
in
the
Court’s
understanding
of
digital
evidence
 411
6
 FUTURE
TRENDS
 411
6.1
 The
future
of
digital
forensics
 411
6.2
 Investigative
management
 411
6.3
 Evidentiary
problems
with
emerging
technologies
 412
6.4
 Hand
held
devices
 412
6.5
 Practitioner
welfare
 412
398

6.6
 Virtualisation
 413
7.
 REFERENCES
 413
399

1 Statistical survey of consumer usage of digital media
Internet usage statistics report a growth in world internet usage of
approximately 400% from 2000 to 2009 with the largest growth regions
being Asia, Africa and the Middle East (1). World internet penetration rates
report that approximately 76% of the population of North America, 60% of
Oceania and Australia and 53% of Europe use the internet (2) .
The growth in electronic multi media is evidenced by the growth in free
access media sharing sites such as YouTube. On October 9, 2009, the
third anniversary of the acquisition by Google, Chad Hurley announced in a
blog posting that YouTube was serving "well over a billion views a day"
worldwide (3).
2 Storage devices and device convergence
2.1 Data Volume
The cost of data storage halves every 18 months (4). In 2004 the cost per
megabyte of a hard disk was $1.15; in 2009 it was 5–6 cents. Then 250GB
was thought to be enormous (5). Today 1500 GB disks are relatively
inexpensive costing in the order of $100.
Casey states that the increasing capacity of commonly used storage
media, large amounts of data on networks, expanding variety of computing
devices, growing case loads, and limited resources are combining to
create a crisis for Digital Forensics Laboratories (6). Casey submits that it
is becoming critical for digital forensic procedures to deal with the mounting
quantities of digital evidence, and to avoid causing delays in the criminal
justice process. Laboratories, he submits, can address these problems by
establishing thresholds to prioritize cases and scaling the forensic
examination process to fit the needs of the case. He states that the scale
of the examination should be dependent upon considerations that include
the seriousness of the offence under investigation and the type of evidence
sought.
Casey suggests that training investigators, forensic examiners, and
prosecutors to recognize when a survey/triage forensic inspection or
preliminary forensic examination are appropriate will maximize the
investigative opportunities that digital evidence can create when it is
available (7). In doing so, Laboratories can make more effective use of
resources, satisfy the needs of more customers, and limit case backlogs.
2.2. Data Speed
Harris states that advancements in computer technology have increased
processing speeds and storage capacity, creating the need and ability to
store large amounts of metadata for organizing and searching information
stored in a computer (8).
400

2.3 Security and Encryption
Bluetooth enabled devices have become widely available and readily
accessible to consumers in the form of mobile phones, laptop computers
and GPS navigation systems. Browning has described Bluetooth
technology to be vulnerable to hacking measures (9). In the case of
mobile phones, Bluetooth technology may provide an opportunity for
someone to listen to phone conversations or read text messages without
the authorized user’s knowledge. Moreover, calls or texts may be made
without authorization (10).
Wireless access points have also emerged rapidly to provide consumers
with widely accessible, immediate ad in many cases free and unrestricted
access to the internet. Inherent in this technology is the vulnerability of the
network provider and consumer to criminal liability or violation. Network
users may be exposed to security vulnerabilities and unwittingly place
personal information at risk of discovery or manipulation. The network
provider may be exposed by providing a network to be abused for criminal
purposes. Herein lies a further challenge to the digital forensic
investigator. Takahashia reports that network protocol analyzers, typically
developed for network performance analyses, may provide an investigative
tool to investigate such network criminality (11). Takahashia reports that
some characteristics in IEEE 802. (11) Traffic particularly help identify
network users. Like actual human fingerprints, there are also unique traffic
characteristics for each network user. They are called network user
fingerprints, by tracking which more than half of network users can be
connected to their traffic even with medium access control (MAC) layer
pseudonyms. The concept of network user fingerprints is likely to be a
powerful tool for intrusion detection and digital forensics in the future (12.)
Growth in the use of and sophistication of digital encryption will require law
enforcement agencies to develop critical investigative skills. Dr Glen
Dardick, Longwood University states that current level of sophistication and
potential for spoliation and tampering with evidence going undiscovered is
a cause for concern (13). Applications and systems are increasingly
becoming more sensitive to the privacy needs of individuals. These
systems may not necessarily be deleting evidence. They may not be
creating evidence in the first place. Applications with the specific purpose
of deleting evidence (e.g. Evidence Eliminator, Timestomp) have now
become off the shelf software. Dardick argues that if the digital forensic
expert is a finder of fact, then that expert may be finding those facts more
difficult to discover. The role of the digital forensics expert is now much
more than a finder of fact. The expert needs to develop further critical
investigative skill relevant to counter anti forensics. It maybe necessary to
locate evidence of spoliation rather than the evidence itself. A clever
analogy presented was one involving the needle in a haystack. In a digital
world it maybe that a copy of a haystack is used to cover the needle (e.g.
overwriting). It is the haystack and not the needle that becomes crucial
evidence.
401

Commercial and open source encryption tools are becoming increasingly
popular to protect personal information from unauthorised use. Truecrypt
is a common free open source encryption tool. The Truecrypt website
promotes its product as enabling the creation of a virtual encrypted disk
within a file and mount it as a real disk. It may be used to encrypt an entire
partition or storage device such as USB flash drive or hard drive. It may
encrypt a partition or drive where Windows is installed. Disturbingly it
promotes the capability to rovides plausible deniability, in case an
adversary forces the user to reveal the password (14). Truecrypt reports
that the software has been freely downloaded on over 14.2 million
occasions worldwide (15).
Encryption provides a major challenge to the digital forensic investigator
attempting to locate evidence on a digital storage device. Fortea states
that digital forensic experts are currently working on the technological front
together with software vendors although cooperation is not expected in this
regard as any public knowledge of a covert backdoor in the software will
see its marketability rapidly decline (16).
2.4 Anti forensic techniques
Anti-forensics is the catch-all term now used to reference research and
developments dedicated to the idea of manipulating data to undermine the
reliability of digital forensic investigations (17). Behr states that information
technology security experts throughout the world are now stating that
digital forensics is unreliable due to the sheer volume, easy access, and
complications anti-forensic tools present for the core objectives of digital
forensics (18). Behr describes at least four component parts to antiforensics,
namely evidence destruction, evidence hiding, evidence source
elimination and evidence counterfeiting (19). He concludes that while
attempts to employ any one of the above-referenced anti-forensic
strategies by someone who is unfamiliar with them would likely leave a trail
of evidence that could result in significant sanctions, a thorough antiforensic
attack may often render data-mining through computer forensics a
practice in futility. Equally, he states, a comprehensive attack can trick
investigators by leaving evidentiary trails that may well lead to injustices for
the innocent resulting in confiscation of property or liberty.
Initial research has recently commenced into the investigation and
identification of issues relating to the analysis of the Platter Resident
Firmware Area (20). According to Sutherland the possibility that the Platter
Resident Firmware Area could be manipulated and exploited to facilitate a
form of steganography will become more readily available to enable
information to be concealed from discovery by a digital forensic examiner
(21). Sutherland expresses a concern that this may be exploited as a
possible route to introduce malware into a computer system. Potential
solutions to this risk include the standardisation of some aspects in the way
which disk firmware is structured or the generation of a library of trusted
and true firmware which a forensic investigator can use to compare a
suspects disk.
402

Kuncik states that counter forensic tools have become more common and
more powerful. None of these methods however guarantee to eliminate all
evidence of their use and are more likely to leave some evidence of their
use on computers, networks and servers (22). Any attempt to destroy
evidence indicates an intention to hide data and is likely to destroy the
credibility of those who employ it. Unfortunately an incentive to destroy
evidence remains due to the fact that the penalty for evidence tampering
may not be as severe as the penalty for being caught with the original
evidence.
Chval states that while evidence that is obtained during a cyberinvestigation
through the application of computer forensic techniques may
be untainted, the reality is that anti-forensic applications are pervasive and
becoming more accessible to the general public with each passing day,
both in terms of their general availability and their ease of use (23).
Attempts to employ anti-forensic strategies by someone who is unfamiliar
with them would likely leave a trail of evidence that could result in
significant sanctions, particularly if the evidence itself is evidence of the
use of anti forensic technologies. In contrast, Chval states that a thorough
anti-forensic attack may often render data-mining through computer
forensics a practice in futility. Equally, a comprehensive attack can trick
investigators by leaving evidentiary trails that may well lead to injustices for
the innocent resulting in the loss of property or liberty (24). Sophisticated
users, on the other hand, will be able to wreck havoc with little concern of
consequence.
Chval concludes that while many courts continue to accept computer
forensics' tools, techniques and concomitant evidence as presumptively
reliable, both the developments in anti-forensics and research coming out
of related fields point to a reality where computer forensic tools and
techniques merit far greater scrutiny (25). While many courts have not yet
adopted standards for addressing these concerns, others are busy at work
laying that foundation (26).
2.5 Social networking
During the reporting period the world has seen a growth in social
networking web sites such as Facebook and Myspace through Web 2.0
enabling peer to peer communication and self expression through the
sharing of autobiographical information.
Facebook describes its mission to give people the power to share and
make the world more open and connected. The site boasts that millions of
people use Facebook everyday to keep up with friends, upload an
unlimited number of photos, share links and videos, and learn more about
the people they meet (27). The site has over 400 Million users (28).
MySpace is also an online community that lets users “meet their friends'
friends” (29). The site boasts that a user can create a community on
403

MySpace and you can share photos, journals and interests with your
growing network of mutual friends (30).
Minotti describes social networking sites as presenting discovery problems
because information is not physically stored on the user’s computer (31).
Berman states that Web 2.0 applications offer a framework in which its
users interact with and even create content themselves, rapidly sharing the
information across users and encouraging other users to respond in kind
(32). Another aspect that social networking sites have in common is that
they promote very informal means of communication (33). It is for this
reason that forensic examination often unveils truly damning email
communications. This informality according to Berman is even truer of
Web 2.0 applications with Blogs and journal entries on social networking
sites often being a stream of consciousness statements (34).
National Research Council, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United
States, review on the forensic Sciences including the discipline of digital
forensics
In 2009, the United States congressionally mandated report from the
National Research Council, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United
States, found allegedly serious deficiencies in the nation's forensic science
system and called for major reforms and new research (35). The Report
concluded, inter alia, that there are serious issues regarding the capacity
and quality of the current forensic science system. Specifically, the courts
continue to rely on forensic evidence without fully understanding and
addressing the limitations of different forensic science disciplines.
Moreover, it concluded that scientific evidence tests the abilities of judges,
lawyers, and jurors, all of whom may lack the scientific expertise to
comprehend the evidence and evaluate it in an informed manner.
The report’s findings are applicable to the presentation of digital forensic
evidence in criminal proceedings internationally. The challenges to the
digital forensic discipline nationally are not insurmountable. A concerted
effort is required by law enforcement agencies and the administrators of
justice in criminal proceedings nationally to enhance the probative value of
digital evidence.
The proliferation of digital and multimedia technologies and data storage
have provided significant challenges to law enforcement agencies and the
administrators of justice in criminal proceedings nationally (36). The
Report states “Moreover, in almost every instance, scientific evidence tests
the abilities of judges, lawyers, and jurors, all of whom may lack the
scientific expertise to comprehend the evidence and evaluate it in an
informed manner” (37). Moreover it states that the law’s greatest dilemma
in its heavy reliance on forensic evidence, however, concerns the question
of whether, and to what extent, there is science in any given “forensic
science” discipline (38).
404

The Report poses two very important questions that it states, should
underlie the law’s admission of and reliance upon forensic evidence in
criminal trials: (1) the extent to which a particular forensic discipline is
founded on a reliable scientific methodology that gives it the capacity to
accurately analyze evidence and report findings and (2) the extent to which
practitioners in a particular forensic discipline rely on human interpretation
that could be tainted by error, the threat of bias, or the absence of sound
operational procedures and robust performance standards39.
The Report states that digital evidence has undergone a rapid maturation
process. This discipline did not start in forensic laboratories. Instead,
computers taken as evidence were studied by police officers and
detectives who had some interest or expertise in computers. Over the past
10 years, this process has become more routine and subject to the rigors
and expectations of other fields of forensic science. Three holdover
challenges remain: (1) the digital evidence community does not have an
agreed certification program or list of qualifications for digital forensic
examiners; (2) some agencies still treat the examination of digital evidence
as an investigative rather than a forensic activity; and (3) there is wide
variability in and uncertainty about the education, experience, and training
of those practicing this discipline. (40)
3 Laboratory Accreditation and Standards
3.1 Practitioner training
While examining existing resources to ensure the availability of both the
skills and equipment necessary for effective forensic science facilities, the
United Nations continue to receive a range of requests for advice and
assistance concerning the training of staff and the selection of appropriate
equipment and reference material (41). The United Nations developed the
Staff Skill Requirements and Equipment Recommendations for Forensic
Science Laboratories Manual in response to these requests and aims to
provide practical assistance for the establishment or upgrading of national
forensic science infrastructure general forensic science facilities and law
enforcement technical departments. The Digital and Multimedia Evidence
(42) discipline for example, while gradually moving in the same direction,
continues to be performed largely by investigative personnel or
investigative personnel re-assigned to the forensic laboratory environment.
Only recently have advanced education programs and certification
programs emerged specifically for this discipline, as well as the
development of external proficiency testing providers. The manual has
identified an array of requisite skills commensurate with the growth in
diversity in the digital forensic discipline. These skills include:
• Knowledge to recognize non-traditional operating systems and
proprietary software applications, password protected files, and
encryption
405

• Knowledge of how data is stored on various media types and
deleted data recovery techniques
• Knowledge of the concepts for hiding data (Steganography)
• Ability to examine and interpret computer forensic artefacts (internet
history, temporary internet files, email, etc.) to provide a timeline
analysis of events that occurred on a computer or other digital
device under examination
• Ability to analyze advanced or non-traditional compter operating
systems or proprietary software applications
• Ability to analyze unique digital devices such as global positioning
systems or entertainment systems, and
• Ability to extract data from a live computer or network using
advanced forensic extraction tools and methodologies Knowledge to
recognize non-traditional operating systems and proprietary
software applications, password protected files, and encryption
• Knowledge of how data is stored on various media types and
deleted data recovery techniques
• Knowledge of the concepts for hiding data (Steganography)
• Ability to examine and interpret computer forensic artefacts (internet
history, temporary internet files, email, etc.) to provide a timeline
analysis of events that occurred on a computer or other digital
device under examination
• Ability to analyze advanced or non-traditional computer operating
systems or proprietary software applications
• Ability to analyze unique digital devices such as global positioning
systems or entertainment systems
• Ability to extract data from a live computer or network using
advanced forensic extraction tools and methodologies (43)
In 2010, the Scientific Working Groups on Digital Evidence and Information
Technology (SWGDE/SWGIT) published the Guidelines &
Recommendations for Training in Digital & Multimedia Evidence to assist
agencies with designing training programs and to maintain awareness of
new developments (44).
3.5 Tool validation
In 2009 the Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence published the
Recommended Guidelines for Validation Testing for all organizations
406

performing digital forensic examinations (45). The recommendations state
that validation testing is critical to the outcome of the entire examination
process. Validation is essential to demonstrate that examination tools,
techniques and procedures are suitable for their intended purpose. It
recommends that tools, techniques and procedures should be validated
prior to initial use in digital forensic processes. Failure to implement a
validation program can have detrimental effects (46).
Sommer argues that regulatory trends in forensic science point strongly to
the need for exhaustive testing of all findings and tools (47). Sommer
states that the message from forensic science to expert witnesses is clear:
evidence tendered. should be based on validated scientific knowledge; all
tools and procedures deployed should have been subject to independent
testing to demonstrate compliance with their stated claims. He poses the
question, what happens if the raw material with which you work changes at
a rate faster than these cycles of publishing and testing? In fields such as
digital forensics, the rate of technological change is faster than the normal
times required for peer-reviewed publication.
4 Digital Forensic Examinations
4.1 Evidence triage
Casey submits that missed evidence is a concern with survey/triage
forensic inspections and preliminary forensic examinations with the
possibility of overlooking exculpatory evidence48. Forensic examiners
must respond to all inquiries objectively, and they have a duty to the court
to report any potentially exculpatory or additional inculpatory evidence they
find. Forensic examiners are also obliged to reevaluate their findings or
alter their opinion in light of raised defences. However, there is no ethical
requirement that the forensic examiner fully investigate any or all potential
defenses (49).
Casey submit that if laboratories are to keep up with mounting case loads
while at the same time keeping current with technology developments, they
must innovate and adapt to a constantly evolving field (50).
4.2 Evidence reproducibility
The Internet is continuously developing with websites being added,
removed, and continuously updated. Eltgroth states that because of this
transitive nature of the World Wide Web, there is no certainty that a user
will be able to access content in an identical form in the future. For this
reason, the evidential value of data from a prohibited web site found on a
suspect’s computer may be limited if the prosecution is unable to prove the
existence of that website and its content at that point in time.
Eltgroth discusses the application of the Wayback Machine, a service
provided by the Internet Archive that accesses the largest online digital
collection of archived Web pages in the world. The Internet Archive
407

indexes and stores Web pages to allow researchers to access discarded or
since-altered versions. Such a capability may be an asset for the
prosecution also to prove the contents of a particular website a specific
point in time. According to Eltgroth, however, some courts have excluded
evidence obtained via the Wayback Machine, citing both authentication
and hearsay concerns. As a result, parties who rely on the content of a
Web page currently face an unclear evidentiary standard for the admission
of what may serve as the only available record of since vanished content
(51). Once a party removes content from a website, the current case law
fails to provide a clear standard for how to authenticate archived Web
pages offered in lieu of the missing original (52). The skepticism that courts
have displayed with respect to archived Web content appears to result
from a combination of reluctance to attribute archived content to a content
provider and concerns about accuracy and the potential for intermeddling
(53).
Berman states that in order properly to preserve a webpage, it must be
captured at the exact moment in time in which the preservation is desired
(54). It may also require multiple captures to produce a series of
"snapshots," showing how a site changed over time which is especially
useful in instances where the very fact of habitually updating a website, or
the dates and times of the updates, are of evidentiary significance (55).
Once content on a social networking site, blog or wiki has been identified
as relevant, it must be preserved in such a way that it can later be
authenticated for use as evidence in litigation, as well as to show that a
complete preservation was performed (56). Preservation must be done
completely to ensure that all website information including that which
might be contradictory to the stance of a party is captured (57).
4.3 Operating systems
Sommer states that all operating systems, applications and services are in
very wide use and within all are forensic traces that have significant
potential for a very wide range of investigations (58). He states that the
arguments about speed of change in relation to personal computers can be
applied with at least equal force to cellphones, where major manufacturers
release new models with new features and new opportunities for digital
footprints to be created every 3 or 4 months. He states that digital
evidence will have to be at least a year perhaps more behind the ways in
which computers are used by organizations and individuals and criminals.
4.4 Hand held devices including mobile (cell) phones
Marshall describes technical assistants such as smart phones as
“unsleeping witnesses”(59). Stillwagon describes them as portable
microcomputers embedded in public spaces (60). Even though the device
itself may not have played any role in the crime, its very presence at the
crime scene, or use by one of those involved, often leads to it being a
potential source of information or images of evidentiary value (61).
408

Navigation devices are increasingly being examined in criminal cases to
identify data of evidential value. The evidential value of such devices are
obvious and becoming increasing available with the growth in the
availability of this technology particularly outside of traditional applications.
This technology is now a common feature within smart phones to provide
not only a traditional navigation function but to geographically record the
location at which a photograph was taken, or report the location of the
nearest teller machine. Obviously such evidence may provide a strong
indication between the user and a particular address. In any offence
where a person’s movements are of interest, the analysis of a GPS device
to retrieve the stored locations may be evidentiary value. Forensic
analysis may recover deleted location records and identify where the
device has been in addition to destinations which may have been entered
in the device (62).
4.5 Forensic tools
Limongelli states that there is a tendency among many proponents of
open-source software to assert that proprietary software applications
should be evaluated by courts by different, and higher, standards than
those applied to scientific or technical evidence generally (63). He states
that although there is case law regarding the proper standards for the
admission of technical or scientific evidence, none of that case law
supports a distinction between proprietary software and open-source tools.
He submits that if a particular proprietary software is unreliable, the
appropriate remedy is already embodied in existing case law and the rules
of evidence.
Lei pan submits that correctness testing methodology enables the tester to
achieve testing results of high quality from a manageable number of
observations and in a dynamic but controllable way (64). This is of
particular interest to forensic testers who do not have access to
sophisticated equipment and who can allocate only a small amount of time
to testing. Lei Pan stated that the focus of the testing should be on the
verification of the user’s desired features and prioritise frequently used
features. One concern however with tool validation is the assumption that
the tester and ultimate end user have operated the tool correctly according
to the user manual. A further concern for the reliance on tool validation is
that CFT are using the tool on a wide variety of hardware and software, not
necessarily the hardware and software employed for the validation
process. The question may arise “Was the tool validated for the Asus
Laptop model XYZ? If not, is the tool reliable? A further question also
relates to the release of new versions of a tool. For example what were
the changes between version 1.5 and 1.4 and does version 1.5 invalidate
1.4? The practitioner should expect these questions in cross examination.
4.6 Managing investigators and prosecutors expectations
409

Pollitt states that managing expectations is the key to conducting good,
defensible forensic examinations (65). This he states is achieved by
learning to clearly articulate digital forensic case objectives and the
concomitant forensic questions, to gain the understanding and agreement
of digital forensic clients, and provide realistic feedback on the proposed
investigative request. He states that digital forensic examiners need to be
persuasive communicators who can help their clients to more clearly
understand their own cases and the limits of the examiner’s ability to help
them.
5 Legal Issues
5.1 Presentation of digital evidence
The case of Daubert obligated trial court judges to assume the role of
“gatekeepers” and to exclude proffered scientific evidence unless it rested
on scientifically valid reasoning and methodology (66). The National
Acedemy of Sciences Report states the least that the courts should insist
upon from any forensic discipline is certainty that practitioners in the field
adhere to enforceable standards, ensuring that any and all scientific
testimony or evidence admitted is not only relevant, but reliable (67).
According to Neufeld, for years in the forensic science community, the
dominant argument against regulating experts was that every time a
forensic scientist steps into a courtroom, his or her work is vigorously peer
reviewed and scrutinized by opposing counsel. Neufeld states that a
forensic scientist might occasionally make an error in the crime laboratory,
but any vigorous cross-examination would expose it at trial (68).
The National Academy of Sciences Report states that scientific
conclusions are subject to perpetual revision with the law in contrast
required resolve disputes finally and quickly (69). Law enforcement officials
and the members of society they serve need to be assured that forensic
techniques are reliable. Therefore, we must limit the risk of having the
reliability of certain forensic science methodologies condoned by the courts
before the techniques have been properly studied and their accuracy
verified (70).
The requirements are not without their detractors. Casey argues that
although these requirements are designed to raise the bar for forensic
disciplines, they could have unintended adverse ramifications for digital
forensic practitioners and labs (71). Casey states requiring digital forensic
practitioners to be board-certified may be overly restrictive, and may need
to be broadened to accommodate several digital forensic certifications.
Casey states that unfairly burdening small local law enforcement and
private sector labs with accreditation requirements designed for large
410

government labs could be counterproductive, exhausting their limited
resources and driving them out of business.
5.2 Limitations in the Court’s understanding of digital evidence
Edmund argues that police, investigative and security agencies,
prosecutors and federal and state courts have not developed principled
approaches to the use and admissibility of emerging technologies, their
products and the different forms of expertise and opinion based upon them
(72). Edmund argued that these developments are unfortunate because
relatively few of the new techniques have been tested or independently
reviewed (73). It is inevitable that courts will impose more demanding
admissibility standards and that those involved in e-forensics, biometrics
and identification should begin to respond to the anticipated interest in the
validity and reliability of their systems and opinions (74).
6 Future trends
6.1 The future of digital forensics
Technological advances in virtualisation tools have and will continue to
create difficulty for digital forensic examiners. Barrett states that we are
moving towards a dynamic operating environment where organizations are
streaming applications virtual operating systems from remote servers to
desktops on an as needed basis (75). The virtual user environment can be
deleted hence providing a challenge to the digital forensic examiner to
research and implement methods to find virtualization artifacts and identify
virtual activities that affect the examination process of certain virtualized
user environments (76).
6.2 Investigative management
SO/IEC JTC 1/SC 27 Information Technology - Security Techniques,
Guidelines for identification, collection and/or acquisition and preservation
of digital evidence is an international standard to ensure that responsible
individuals manage digital evidence in accordance with practical ways that
are acceptable worldwide, with the objective to preserve its integrity and
authenticity (77). The International Standard provides guidelines for digital
evidence management. It describes the processes of identification,
collection, acquisition and preservation of potential digital evidence that
may be of evidentiary value. The objective is to assist organizations in their
disciplinary procedures, and to facilitate the exchange of potential digital
evidence between jurisdictions. This standard deals with common
situations encountered throughout the digital management process. The
potential digital evidence may be sourced from any type of media, and
refers to data that is already in a digital format. This International Standard
does not attempt to cover the conversion of analog data into digital format
(78).
411

6.3 Evidentiary problems with emerging technologies
Nelson states that in spite of a concerted effort by law enforcement to
teach first responders how to properly seize electronic evidence, we still
see instances where the last access dates of files have been altered by
untrained investigators or officers looking at the evidence post-seizure
(79). She states that it appears to be particularly alluring to take a look at
anything involving sex, but trampling on the evidence in their eager- ness
to see what they have provides for the defence counsel a fortuitous result
in which proper forensic procedures were not followed and the dates of last
access by the defendant are now permanently lost or altered (80).
6.4 Hand held devices
The Apple iPhone was released in the US in June 2007 and in late 2009
Apple released the 3GS version with 32GB storage capacity. The iPhone
has internet connectivity, GPS navigation, camera and video capability.
Apple promotes the iPhone feature “Remote Wipe” which can be launched
as its name suggests remotely by the authorized user to protect their
private information in the event that the phone becomes lost or stolen, or
by inference when it is seized by a law enforcement agency. Apple
promotes this feature stating “Your iPhone contains information you don’t
want in the hands of a stranger. So if you lose your iPhone and displaying
a message on it hasn’t resulted in its safe return, you can remotely lock it
with a passcode or initiate a remote wipe and restore factory settings (81)”.
6.5 Practitioner welfare
The University of New Hampshire, Crimes Against Children Research
Centre published a survey of work exposure to child pornography in
Internet Crimes Against Children (ICAC) Task Forces and affiliates in
November 2009. The report concluded that the well‐being of personnel
who investigate child pornography cases is a matter of concern, not just for
compassionate reasons, but also because unrelieved stress can lead to a
reduction of productivity and retention of the specialized and highly trained
staff who investigate these crimes. It recommended the undertaking of
further research to systematically examine what characteristics or
circumstances place some individuals at risk for adverse reactions and
what agency policies and practices best alleviate negative impacts for
those doing this important work (82). The report claimed to be the first step
to answering critical questions about the impact of viewing child
pornography on law en‐ forcement investigators. The findings indicated
that some law enforcement personnel suffer ill effects, while others cope
well (83). Application of this International Standard requires compliance
with national laws, rules and regulations. The International Standard
outlines the minimum requirements necessary for enabling transfer of
digital evidence between jurisdictions. It provides a framework for the
development of processes and procedures for the identification, collection,
acquisition and preservation of digital evidence (84).
412

6.6 Virtualisation
Davis states that cloud computing has been heralded as a new era in the
evolution of information and communications technologies (85).
Businesses using cloud computing services will benefit from reduced
operating costs as they cut back on IT infrastructure and personnel.
Individual users will no longer need to pay for software application
licences. Users will have access to their data from any internet ready
device in the world. Cloud computing comes with inherent legal risks. The
global nature of cloud computing raises many questions about privacy,
security, confidentiality and access to data. For example, Google
reportedly scans the content of emails to stream “personalised” targeted
advertising to the end user. Moreover, it is uncertain as to who has access
to the end user data. It is uncertain how the information can become “deidentified”
or destroyed. In the face of legal uncertainty, users should rely
on cloud computing with caution.
Palmer describes three-dimensional virtual environments (3dves) as being
the new generation of digital multi-user social networking platforms (86).
Their immersive character allows users to create a digital humanised
representation or avatar, enabling a degree of virtual interaction not
possible through conventional text-based internet technologies (87). In
addition to the conventional range of cybercrimes, including economic
fraud, child pornography and copyright violations, the ‘virtual-reality’
promoted by 3dves is the source of great speculation and concern over a
range of specific and emerging forms of crime and harm to user (88).
These immersive and synchronous elements of 3dves alter conventional
notions of cyber-harm by converging text, audio and video communication
methods. Therefore, offensive conduct can encompass interaction through
speech, gestures, or simulated behaviours including sexual acts, assaults,
gunshots and even terrorist attacks (89).
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414

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415

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& Multimedia Evidence Version: 2 (January 15, 2010)
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(January 2009)
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(January 2009)
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environments, in Science and Justice, 50(1), pp. 12
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Journal of Forensic Science Nov 2009, Vol 54 No 6 p 1353
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proposals for expediting forensic examinations of digital evidence, in
Journal of Forensic Science Nov 2009, Vol 54 No 6 p 1353
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proposals for expediting forensic examinations of digital evidence, in
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Toward A Workable Authentication Standard For Archived Internet
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Toward A Workable Authentication Standard For Archived Internet
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Toward A Workable Authentication Standard For Archived Internet
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Tools
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69
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74
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84
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418

CHEMICAL EVIDENCE
419

Fire cause and fire debris analysis
Review: 2007 to 2010
Niina Viitala, MSc, Chair of ENFSI/ FEIWG
Tia Kakko, BSc
National Bureau of Investigation
Box 285
FI-01301 Vantaa
Finland
email: niina.viitala@poliisi.fi
http://www.poliisi.fi/poliisi/krp/home.nsf/pages/indexeng
420

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.INTRODUCTION
 422
2.FIRE
SCENE
EXAMINATION
 423
2.1
 Site
examination
techniques
and
arson
dogs
 423
2.2
 Sampling
and
sample
packaging
 424
2.3
 Vehicle
and
technical
fires
 425
2.4
 Fatal
fires
 426
3.LABORATORY
ANALYSIS
 427
3.1
 Sampling
and
sample
preparation
techniques
 427
3.2
 Methods
of
analysis
 428
3.3
 Individualisation
of
ignitable
liquids
 431
3.4
 Statistical
methods
in
analysis
 432
3.5
 Spontaneous
combustion
 433
3.5
 Background
matrices
studies
 435
4.MODELLING
 436
5.EDUCATIONAL
ASPECTS
OF
FIRE
INVESTIGATION
 437
6.EXPLOSIONS
 438
7.CRIMINOLOGICAL
ASPECTS
OF
FIRE
SETTING
 438
8.INTERNATIONAL
CO‐OPERATION
 439
8.1
 Working
groups
and
conferences
 439
8.2
 International
Collaborative
Tests
 440
9.SUMMARY
 441
10.BOOKS
AND
OTHER
PUBLICATIONS
 442
11.REFERENCES
 443
421

1. Introduction
Investigating a large fire scene may be demanding as detecting sampling places is
crucial. Electronic sniffers and arson dogs may be used in detection, but their
performance has to be evaluated. Validation and the use of electronic equipment
have been a part of everyday work for a long time. Likewise, there has been a
discussion about arson dogs and the need for their validation. Vehicle fires have
received quite a lot of attention recently due to the high number of casualties.
Reconstructions and modelling are the methods used by fire investigators to
determine and evaluate the cause of the fire.
In the sampling field, the main issue has been the use of solid phase micro extraction
and its developments receiving a lot of academic interest. Two-dimensional gas
chromatography has gained interest too due to advances made in mathematical data
analysis. Interpreting chromatograms has become easier with statistical methods.
Identification and classification of ignitable liquids is one very important aspect of fire
investigation; chemometrics are also used in this area. The problems of background
matrice effects have partly been solved by collecting data of fire debris matrices.
Another analytical aspect in fire debris analysis is the increasing amount of biodiesel
samples. The challenge lies in two different components of biodiesel, namely
vegetable oil and hydrocarbon, which require different methods for analysis.
Spontaneous combustion also needs to be taken into consideration while handling
biodiesel samples.
Understanding firesetters’ behaviour is important in order to facilitate solving arson
crimes. Most of them are young; studies indicate that the younger the person is when
setting their first fire, the more likely it is that he will become a repeat offender.
Alcohol abuse, emotional and behavioural problems in childhood as well as
intellectual disabilities are often found to have a connection with multiple fire settings.
A danger of terrorism cannot be underestimated either, as pyro-terrorism has
become a tactic of choice for terrorists.
International co-operation is a very important way of sharing resources in forensic
science. Many countries have only one forensic laboratory and only a few members
working in the fire investigation group limiting their possibilities for development work
in all fields of fire investigation. Different kinds of proficiency tests are a part of the
collaboration for forensic scientists with limited resources to develop their work.
There is a large review article about fire investigation spanning the years 2001-2007
covering various subject matters, references to which are made in many sections of
this paper. 1
422

2. Fire scene examination
2.1 Site examination techniques and arson dogs
A fairly modest amount of work has been done for improvements in fire field
investigation during the last three years. A practical guide emphasizing the
significance of a good and thorough fire scene investigation has been published for
first responders. A proposal for doing site examination in a specific order, including
the correct documentation consisting of photography and sketches with dates and all
important information, is essential for securing quality of the work. Being aware of
one’s own behaviour at a fire scene is crucial in order to avoid damaging or altering
the scene. Preserving evidence is very important for final fire investigation in order to
determine the origin and spreading of the fire throughout the scene. 2, 3 A thorough
compilation of fire patterns includes an overview of both historical and recent
research. It emphasizes the need for burn pattern analysis in respect to pattern
reproducibility and formation airflow including ventilation studies. 4
The selection of fire debris samples can be challenging due to destructive processes
occuring during a fire. A study about a liquid fuel on carpet was conducted in order to
aid the selection process. The aim was to reveal the physical processes of and
indicators left by such a fire. The article largely questions the current practices
involved in fire site examination and proposes scientists to undertake research work
to advance the role of science in fire investigation. 5 A book about fire debris analyses
includes a chapter focusing on detection of ignitable liquid residues at fire scenes
with colour pictures of burn patterns where ignitable liquids have been used and
comparison pictures where they have not been used. Principles of electronic sniffers
and colorimetric tubes are also demonstrated including both the benefits and
disadvantages of the methods in question. The operating principle of ignitable liquid
absorbent and ultraviolet detection as well as the use of these methods is also
considered. 6
Portable field devices — misleadingly also referred to as electronic noses — have
been studied in a few articles. Fluorescence-based vapour sensors have been
designed and tested. The results of analyzing petroleum distillates in different
experiments seem promising, although more studies are needed to prove the
usefulness of the devices. 7 An artificial nose using optical fibre arrays to sense
vapours has also been developed. Fibres are functionalised with analyte sensitive
materials, which are also cross-reactive. That enables the use of a pattern
recognition algorithm and thus the identification of a large amount of different
vapours including ignitable liquids. 8 Multiple electronic noses were compared in a
review article and the article lists even the technologies they use and their
manufacturers. The article discusses the methods, their effectiveness and
applications from food factories to explosive detection. Future trends are also
discussed. 9 A Vapor-Sensitive Microsphere Array application that has been used in
the detection of volatile organic compounds and nerve agents was explored in a
study to detect ignitable liquids. Despite obtaining high accuracy in distinguishing
three different ignitable liquid classes in burned and unburned samples, additional
studies are needed in order to challenge the system with more realistic, simulated fire
debris samples. 10
423

A few articles related to arson dogs have been published during the recent years. As
accelerant detection dogs have become more widely used, validation of the training
and the dogs’ ability to work have become increasingly important. 1, 11, 12 A standard
assessment technique is useful for comparing the effectiveness of different dogs,
breeds, training methods and agencies. It has been demonstrated that assessment
of behaviour is noth objectively and subjectively important 13 A study was also
conducted to compare arson accelerant dogs and solid absorbents. According to the
study, sensitivity of ignitable liquid absorbent was not effective enough to reveal
either paint thinner, camp fuel or gasoline from floor panels (the term gasoline is
used in this report instead of the British term petrol), whereas the detection dog
alerted 16 out of 18 panels. 14 In another case, the evidential value of ethanol was
pointed out with an arson dog; the canine unit was used to demonstrate sampling
positions. The results showed ethanol in samples and thereby the complainant’s
explanation for the fire was implausible; the indidual confessed to setting up the fire
with the commercial product ethanol. 15
Hypotheses may be formulated in borderline cases where conclusions between
chromatograms and dog’s behaviour is not self-explanatory. In these cases,
collaboration between scientific analysts and canine accelerant detection teams is
extremely valuable. In all cases where accelerant is detected in a sample by a dog or
via another method, the sample must be analysed in a laboratory for formal
identification and confirmation of the results. 16 An article concerning standardization
of the common methods in forensic science also addressed the sources of standards
and how the standards compared to ones in quality assurance schemes. 17
A two-part series touches upon intelligence-led crime scene processing. The first part
gives instructions on how to allow forensic science to become involved in security
assessments by means of forensic intelligence. 18 The second part integrates crime
scene investigation into the intelligence thinking model. New perspectives for
investigations are introduced when the examination process is conducted in a
different way. 19
2.2 Sampling and sample packaging
Although sampling is one of the most important issues to consider in fire investigation,
literature focusing on sampling is scarce.. Mistakes made in sampling cannot be
corrected in further fields of sample analysis. Samples from a fire scene must be kept
in a vapour tight and non-contaminant container. Different kinds of commercial
containers have been studied to reveal their hydrocarbon leaking rates. 20
Some studies have been made on the topic of gasoline on hands. Background
effects and efficiency in the collection of gasoline have been evaluated by using
different kinds of gloves. Statistical methods are included in the analysis in order to
evaluate variations in the results. According to the results, the suspect should wear
gloves for approximately twenty minutes after which the gloves should be placed in a
vapour tight packaging. A prototype sampling kit was developed for the purpose with
optimal support. In order to minimize contamination, the sampling kit should have
424

instructions on the label on the top of the kit. The developed kit has been considered
21, 22
to be practical and easy to use.
2.3 Vehicle and technical fires
Car fires may be divided into different types according to the origin of the fire. Fire
debris can be used as a comparison sample or as trace evidence. Ignitable liquids
found close to a burned car can be used as evidence to prove that igniting the fire/car
was intentional. This report covers different articles on the topic. Firstly there are
cases with casualties, either suicidal or accidental 23, 24 , secondly malfunctions of
electronic or technical apparatus 3, 25 and thirdly evidence gathered from a burned
vehicle. 26
Security improvements in cars during the last decades have simultaneously altered
both the amount and the quality of combustible materials. For example, plastics
constitute the major fire load instead of gasoline, being the primary cause of death in
car crashes. The fire progresses rapidly depending on the direction of the impact and
the amount of combustible plastics. Foam surfaces and fabrics change the direction
in which the fire is spreading while the passengers are stagnant, which is why
survival time inside a flammable vehicle is usually less than 10-15 minutes. 27
Formation of different kinds of gases plays a significant role in car fires. For instance,
inhalation of chlorine or carbon monoxide gases has been reported to be the cause
of death. The origin of such gases is either the covering of a passenger compartment
or a supplementary heater used in a cabin of a truck. Malfunctions in heaters
generate carbon monoxide while the heat transfer to the vicinity of a heater might
23, 24, 28
also cause a fire, subsequently leading to poisonous fumes being released.
Vehicle reconstructions have been used to help fire investigators determine the
cause and origin of car fires. Evolutions of fire were controlled by thermocouples and
the fires were photographed and recorded. Furthermore, fire patterns were used to
analyse the origin of the fire. Previous assumptions about vehicle fires and their
developments, evolutions and venting were dispelled. 29
Functional problems of electronic and technical apparatus in vehicles are often
difficult to detect due to severe damage to the structures. An individual case case
might not be serious, but occurrence of more than one similar incident can be
dangerous. An example of such cases would be automobile recalls. One cause has
been e.g. leakage of gasoline from a fuel line, as polymetric materials might build up
an electrostatic current and therefore create a small hole in the fuel line. Daylight
running modules have been in poor contact between pins and sockets, producing
overheating and thus fire even when the car has not been running. 3 Another,
different case study focuses on metallurgical analysis to detect the origin of the fire
on a bus. The fire occurred while the bus was travelling at a highway speed.
Inspectors had two different theories for the cause of the fire; either a dragging brake
or an overheated underinflated tyre. The method of analysis consisted of
microstructural analysis and hardness tests. One tyre from the bus was used as a
comparison reference in this case. The metallurgical analysis showed that the
dragging brake was the origin of the fire. 25
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A burned vehicle and its interiors may be used as fingerprinting evidence in forensic
work. The geological matrices inside the car can be studied and compared. A study
has been conducted on examining quartz grains after they have been exposed to fire.
The article demonstrates that while soil and sediment alter in car fire temperatures,
most quartz grains are not altered in temperatures below 900°C. As a result,
thoroughly studied grains can be used in forensic work. 26
As mentioned before, a failure of a mechanical or electronic component may cause
fire. Ignitions based on mechanical origins are varied, including friction and further
sparks, overheating, abrasion of electronic wires, leakage of flammable gases and
corrosion. Electronic sources of ignition are also multiple, consisting of arcing,
resistance heating (e.g. by poor connections), external heating due to a rupture in
3, 30
insulation and a discharge of static electricity.
A suggestion for the technical improvement of the detection area has been
demonstrated in a meeting. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) has usually been
used for locating metallic damage with a conductor and excluding other matter. A
comparison between SEM and an alternative method, a confocal laser scanning
microscope, has been conducted by examining dozens of electronic conductors
gathered from fire scenes. 31
2.4 Fatal fires
More than a million people die each year as victims of suicide or homicide. Some of
these cases are straightforward and obvious, but some challenge investigators in
detecting the cause of crime. Depending on the country, its region and culture, the
method of fatal death varies greatly. For example, burning is the most common
suicidal method in females in India. 32 In the Adana region of Turkey, nearly seven
per cent of deaths due to burns are criminal in nature. Homicide cases are committed
either by torching of homes or arson with kerosene whereas fire accelerants are used
in cases of suicide. 33 In Germany, on the other hand, the number of self-cremation is
on the rise. Using an ignitable substance is also common there. The number of
psychotic patients is high and victims have often attempted suicide earlier on. 34
There is a report on catastrophic fires that claimed multiple victims in the United
States in 2008 covering structural and non-structural fires and determining roles of
smoke alarms and sprinklers. 35
One extreme unsettled fire cause is ignition of a human body where the body often
has significant burns on the abdomen, upper legs and chest. No apparent source of
ignition exists and generation of the fire seems to have been spontaneous.
Furthermore, the surroundings of the body are often unharmed. Despite various case
reports about this matter, the general mechanism of the fire seems to be a modest
external flame source which inflames clothes or other suitable substances and
subsequently releases subcutaneous fat. 36-38
Fatal fire scene investigation has been developing towards archaeological
techniques due to the possibilities they offer of maximising evidence recovery and
interpretation. 39 Archaeological data collection methods are systematic, consisting of
grids or zones and starting from the least destructed areas in order to avoid scene
disturbance. The use of alternative light sources can be used in searching the scene.
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39 The distinction between natural and unnatural death is based on the careful
collection and correct interpretation of forensic findings. 34 It is important to
understand the fire incident and its by-products, and how they affect the human body.
It is recommended that the body is examined, with all due respect to the deceased,
at the fire scene in order not to lose any crucial evidence. Documenting the fire
debris found above and underneath the body is also necessary due to determination
of incapacitation of the victim. 40-42
A different area is toxic gases released during the fire and further during the heat
below the combustion temperatures of 200 °C. Carbon monoxide is usually assumed
to be the cause of asphyxia and thus other gases are neglected. Nitrogen, carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) from polyurethane are identified by the
cryogenic mode of GC-MS. A novel sampling system is also designed. 43 A
reconstruction of a hospital fire is also made to demonstrate the requirements for
materials used in general facilities. Flooring material consisting of polyurethane
based mattresses, which does not ignite easily, but after ignition it burned intensely
producing hydrochloride, isocyanate and carbon monoxide etc. All of the
aforementioned gases might have been the cause of death, but only CO and HCN
were actively looked for as they belong to the normal autopsy procedure. 44
3. Laboratory analysis
3.1 Sampling and sample preparation techniques
During the last decade development of solid phase micro extraction fibres (SPME)
has been under discussion. Fused silica has been the key component of the
substrate to which the coating has been applied. Unfortunately, the base of the silica
is very fragile and thus its use is limited. 45 Studies concerning SPME methods focus
on the issues related to either substrate or coating development.
Recent progress in SPME fibres has been the introduction of elastic NiTi assemblies.
This rigid titanium structure has been combined with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS),
sol-gel and silica particles to increase mechanical durability and extraction capacity.
A study was conducted on the performance of extraction, repeatability, reproducibility
and extraction kinetics. Even potential applicability was explored with a fire debris
analysis. The study found that, when compared with commercial fibre, the methods
gathered identical chromatograms. The absolute peak magnitudes carry the
differences in the methods. 45 In addition, there have been a few studies focusing on
a home-made SPME fibre. The fibre was coated with 1:1 molar ratio of
octyltriethoxysilane (C8-TEOS). Methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMOS) and a
polydimethylsiloxane divinylbenzene (PDMS/DVB) fibre was used as a comparison.
Selectivity and extraction capacity of the fibres were determined. Selectivity of C8fibre
was good and enabling the extraction of hydrocarbon compounds from
simulated arson samples with better extraction efficiency than the reference fibre. 46,
47
In another study, a direct contact is made between solid phase micro extraction fibre
(SPME) and the fire debris. 48, 49 This was made possible by an improvement for
recovery of low volatility components in the sample. The method was discovered to
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e suitable for use in screening in forensic work. 49 Another study reported that
SPME is an effective and solventless technique for recovery of accelerants from fire
debris. 50
Singed hairs in arson cases provide a different kind of evidentiary value. When using
volatile accelerant for setting up a fire, hair on the back of an arsonist’s hands and
head is damaged due to deflagration. A sampling method for such cases has been
studied. In the study, samples were taken with a special razor previously proven to
be effective in routine investigations. Stereo and transmitted light microscopy was
used in analysing the samples to search for evidence of heat damage. The results
show that the damage caused to the hairs could last up to two months. As only a few
hairs in an area might be singed and others can be undamaged, they should be
collected in a thorough manner with particular attention paid to the fingers. 51
3.2 Methods of analysis
Analytical methods are divided into three sections: comparison of samples,
comparisons of analysis methods and (novel) techniques. In some cases it is difficult
to define the appropriate section for the subject of a study.
In order to obtain qualitative results in a fire debris analysis and the related extraction
process, the use of an internal standard is suggested. Characteristics of the standard
should involve a few key features. Firstly, the compound needs to be a compound
not commonly found in fire debris samples; secondly, it needs to be eluted within the
same time frame as the target compounds; thirdly, the mass spectrum of the
standard should be different enough to be distinguished from the sample; and lastly,
the cost of the internal standard should be reasonable. 52 The study further
recommends that the internal standards be delivered into the fire debris in the same
solvent that is used to elute the charcoal strips or that the standard is placed in a
paper that is subsequently added into the fire debris can. In the matter of evaluating
the standards, the study suggests that a combination of two different standards be
used in order to obtain the whole range of boiling points, i.e. compounds from both
low and high boiling point areas. 52
Comparison samples are often present in fire investigation due to their revealing
aspect. Sometimes the aim is to demonstrate the use of a certain commercial
chemical or substance. 53 Alternatively, the aim might be to establish the evidence
value of a compound. In such a case, thorough knowledge of the sample and its
composition is crucial. 54 A number of publications touch upon this topic. In one often,
jet fuels are classified by using fast gas chromatography coupled with a fast scanning
quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer (GC-QIT MS). The method was applied in a
two-way data collection mode. After transforming the data with wavelet and principal
component transformation, the fuzzy rule building expert system (FuRES) and partial
least squares (PLS) are used for classification. These mathematical methods were
employed due to their reproducibility and adaptability to interpretation. 55
A large survey was conducted on Canadian gasolines. Seventy-six (76) samples
consisting of regular, mid-range and premium unleaded gasolines were collected in
2004 from 12 different retailers around Canada. GC-MS was used as a method of
analysis and the data was processed with Agilent Chemstation software. In the article
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considering examining the total ion chromatograms (TICs), extracted ion profiles
(EIPs) and ASTM methods have generated discussion. The so-called average
gasoline pattern which can be applied to case work was a point of interest. The
examiner, on the other hand, might notice an exceptional pattern that can produce
difficulties in identification the substance as gasoline originated. A variety of refineries
contributes to the diversity of chemical compositions in gasolines. The article
concludes that two ASTM methods (1387 and E1618) can provide general guidelines
for forensic work. 56
In relation to the above-mentioned subject, discrimination of diesel oil by origin and
type is also discussed. Methods are physicochemical instead of gas chromatographic,
and results are valuated by mathematical methods, such as principal component
analysis and linear discriminant analysis. 57 According to the study, determining the
origin and type of a diesel sample is possible without the use of complimentary
assays. On the other hand, grouping by composition is not distinguished. 57
Furthermore, spectrofluorimetric methods are used in order to determine the residual
oil in diesel oils. There the mixture of fuels is under research due to the obligatory
commercialization of biodiesels. The synchronous fluorescence spectra are able to
categorize diesel oil samples and make groupings by using linear discriminant
analysis. 58 In the same series of studies, gasoline adulteration is identified by using
comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. A generic method is
developed in order to assess the adulteration of gasolines; this method of analysis
can be a powerful tool in solving similar analytical problems with complex mixtures. 59
Since the use of base stock in motor oils has many applications, the possible
association of a motor vehicle in arson is probable. It is in these cases that
comparing the oils becomes relevant. Some investigations have been made into
comparisons of fuel oils and motor oils. Distinguishing several different oil brands and
grades from each other is possible by using high temperature gas chromatography
mass spectrometry (HTGC-MS) with a programmable temperature vaporizer injector.
Increasing viscosity lengthened retention times and while “the chromatogram
envelopes” broadened identification of the samples whereas unused oils from the
same brand and viscosity could not be distinguished. 60 In another example,
composition and a weathering pattern of heavy fuels is analysed based on IR, GC-
FID and GC-MS analyses 54 , and further with high temperature two dimensional gas
chromatography HT-GC x GC 61 and easy ambient sonic-spray ionisation mass
spectrometry. 62
In a Japanese study, detection of total sulphur in fuels demonstrated that different
fuel types could be distinguished by using gas chromatography with atomic emission
detection (GC-AED). Due to the high degree of selectivity and sensitivity in GC-AED
and detection of characteristic elements in compounds, detection of trace amounts of
substances in fire debris samples is possible. Furthermore, although the distillation
characteristics had altered, discrimination of fuel types was successful. 48
A novel concept of isomer abundance analysis (IAA), supersonic gas
chromatography mass spectrometry, has been used in order to widen the range of
fuel and hydrocarbon analysis. The method reveals molecular ions in all
hydrocarbons and this helps to obtain their isomer distribution and provide
identification for them. Due to the trace amounts of fuels collected from fire scenes,
429

sensitivity of the method is important. In diesel fuel characterization the Supersonic
GC-MS achieved the ppb -level (ng/ml). Biodiesel samples were also studied but the
analysis was made without pre-treating the samples. The molecular ions of the
samples were discovered. The method was found adaptable to use in forensic
work. 63 Another type of separation capacity is considered when GC-MS is used in
analysing alkylcyclohexanes. The purpose of the method was to determine whether
the residues found in the fire debris were kerosene, gas oil or plastic based. 64
Another suggested method for the characterization of gasoline samples is multidimensional
GC-fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance MS analysis (GC-FT-ICR-
MS). The author of the study refers to fingerprinting crude oils and refined petroleum
products. Therefore the use of chemical ionization, with protonated reagent ions, can
be used to identify the presence of co-eluting isomers in gasoline samples. When
necessary, the method includes dimensions that can be added to the analysis in
order to achieve greater accuracy. 65
A different kind of detector for forensic work, ion mobility spectrometry (IMS), has
been evaluated and developed. An article and a review written about the method, its
history, ion source development and applications serve to deepen the know-how of a
fire analyst. The method is expected to play a significant role in ignitable liquid and
66, 67
arson investigations.
In addition to the study mentioned in the previous section, there have been two novel
studies made; firstly, an application of gas chromatography differential mobility
spectrometry (GC-DMS) with two-way classification of ignitable liquids in fire debris.
The GC-DMS provides unique profiles for different ignitable liquids and, combined
with the fuzzy rule building expert system (FuRES) on two-way data objects, the
system was successful in forensic analysis of fire debris. Also the method seemed
promising for onsite detection for arson investigation. 68 Secondly, the same writer
has published a comparison of different detection methods in order to value their
performances in ignitable liquid classification by using gas chromatography coupled
with either differential mobility spectrometry or mass spectrometry, GC-DMS and GC-
MS respectively. The comparison of the methods was made with projected difference
resolution (PDR) and the results were furthermore verified by FuRES. One-way
datasets were determined in order to calculate minimum resolution values. The
results were that MS data achieved higher resolution, but DMS gained more
informative data. The two way (2D-GC) datasets in neat samples demonstrated that
GC-MS would have had smaller prediction errors than DMS in classifying the
ignitable liquids. No statistic difference occurred between the two methods
considering the high resolution values of neat and spiked samples, yet with burned
samples a smaller prediction error was obtained with GC-MS. 69
Detection of gasoline and paint thinner directly from common household material has
been studied. The analysis method is a direct analysis of real time mass
spectrometry (DART). The method does not need sample pre-treatment. Samples
are introduced at atmospheric pressure and placed into a stream of exited gas, from
which analytes are desorbed and ionized. The method has been demonstrated to be
sensitive and chemical fingerprinting was obtained when samples were analysed
within 1-24 hours after being spiked. Further studies considering matrices and related
effects for detection are proposed. 70 DART is also mentioned in a review article
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about forensic applications of ambient ionisation methods. The method is capable of
detecting compounds in a wide range with minimal sample workup, yet the time of
analysis is short. Also here the development of the technique(s) is crucial for it to
become widely used. 71
Another detection method using mass spectrometry is a proton transfer reaction,
PTR-MS. The technique has been developed almost exclusively for detection of
gaseous organic compounds in air, but the possibility of detecting fire accelerants
onsite has been shown. It is also possible to identify substances after a prolonged
storage of burnt material with a characteristic mass spectra coupled with principal
component analysis. 72
The high content of ethanol in motor fuels may produce problems in fingerprinting
samples. Especially aliphatic alcohols with the carbon number C3-C8 provide
challenges for the analytical method used. A flow switching GC x GC has been
demonstrated to generate high speed and high resolution separations as well as to
gain quantitative and accurate results. The fast runtime combined with separation
efficiency seems to surpass the compared ASTM methods. A drawback of the
method is that it is not capable to separate ethers from gasoline aliphatics, although
they are not normally added to the gasoline under study (E85). 73 The presence of
foreign material improperly mixed to samples can be detected by fingerprinting
applied to chromatographic data. In addition to multi-way calibration techniques
combined with GC x GC-FID can reveal complex mixtures being treated as a single
analyte. 59
Outside the scope of general analysis methods, a study about gasolines and their
modifications during evaporation and burning by normal phase HPLC has been made.
The task was to determine polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, because they are less
subjected to alterations during the fire. Arenes were identified not only by retention
time but also by distribution of absorption spectral lines at peak points. Relative
concentration of alkylarenes was experimentally obtained. 74
Another method not so common in arson analysis is stable isotope profiling of burned
matches. Burned matches may be recovered from fire scenes, but unfortunately the
isotope profile of matches with gasoline from mock fires were not significantly
different from the ones without fire accelerant. 75
3.3 Individualisation of ignitable liquids
Identification and classification of fire accelerants in arson residues, especially
ignitable liquids, has gained more efforts each year. The method used to obtain
distribution varies, although in many cases analysis is made by GC-MS combined
with different types of data handling. For example, comprehensive two-dimensional
gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry has been a preferred
technique for analysis of complex volatile and semi-volatile mixtures. The use of two
different types of columns and a modulator offers an orthogonal separation system
and also provides the target compound’s carbon number and chemical structure. 76
Alteration of fire debris samples due to microbial degradation of sample matrices
might lead to differences in chromatographic profiles of ignitable liquids.
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Biodegradation occurs rapidly in soil, rotting wood and other organic matter. Because
fire debris samples are often stored at room temperature for a prolonged time, the
study concentrates on exploring biodegradation as a function of time. Findings
include a loss of n-alkanes while branched remained unchanged. Key components of
gasoline were also degraded; among monosubstituted benzenes, propylbenzene
was the most vulnerable. 77 Another study about biodegradation considers biodiesel
mixtures in the sea. In that initial study, fatty acid methyl esters were degraded at the
same rate as n-alkanes, and more rapidly than other hydrocarbon components, being
indistinguishable within weeks. 78
Multivariate pattern recognition is one aspect that has attained attention in sample
identification. The nature of petroleum-based accelerants is complex and this already
generates problems for analysis. Yet weathering, microbiological degradation and
continually changing product formulations of ignitable liquids complicate identification
even more. Thus an application that uses GC-MS technique combined with
multivariate pattern recognition techniques is examined to match the patterns in
weathered and unevaporated fuels. 79
Another, important study focuses on two relevant matters, namely optimization of
sampling by SPME and classifying ignitable liquids. The comparison of the
suggested classification system with a prior one has also been estimated. Data
obtained from GC was pre-processed and normalised and further processed with
mathematical models: principal component analysis (PCA) and soft independent
modelling of class analogy (SIMCA). The data of the study showed that results from
SIMCA may be used as a predictor of accelerant class and that the samples did not
show any correlations to other classes. 50 As an alternative process for categorisation
of commercially available ignitable liquids, classification is made by summed-ion
mass-spectrum. A spectrum is created by summing the intensity of each ion across
the entire chromatographic range and furthermore normalizing the resulting spectrum.
The benefit of the method is that it removes laboratory-depending chromatographic
profiles and provides a set of characteristic m/z ions for sample identification. The
data set can lack some portions of the components only if the samples were
analyzed with very different conditions. The suggested method is the ASTM E 1618
80 protocol where probability to obtain a correct match is high. 81
3.4 Statistical methods in analysis
During the last three years, statistical or chemometric analysis methods have
become more important in data interpretation. This includes association and
discrimination of ignitable liquids with the principal aim to eliminate errors in a visual
comparison of the chromatograms. These methods may be used on group samples
based on chemical similarities by statistically quantifying the matching pattern. The
studies related to this period of time have been made by gas-chromatography mass
82, 83
spectrometry (GC-MS) as it is a routine method when analyzing ignitable liquids.
Three different studies have been made on diesel samples because diesel is
chemically more complex than gasoline. All of the surveys applied data pretreatments,
such as retention time alignment, normalization and mean centring.
Samples were analysed in triplicate to ensure reproducibility of the analysis. The
Pearson product moment correlation (PPMC) was used to analyse correlation
432

etween pairs of diesels whereas principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to
the complete data set to assess variation among the diesel samples. 82-84 The results
of the studies were that one got a strong correlation of PPMC, but had some
retention time troubles, reminding that care must be taken in data interpretation, 83
while the other study succeeded to use PCA in identification natural clusters of
similar diesels and the most discriminatory chemical compounds in the data set
stating that PPMC could be applied in forensic arson investigations. 82 The third
examination included temperature programming of the gas chromatograph in the
PPMC and PCA studies gaining adequate results for use in forensic work. 84
A different approach to statistical methods is covariance mapping by t-tests, in which
power analysis is performed to estimate the number of analyses needed to
discriminate between two samples. As comparative forensic analysis may link an
individual person to a crime in this method, it is crucial to keep the power of the test
high. This means that using a significance level of 5 % the risk of type I error is 5 %.
The error type II occurs when a null hypothesis was accepted incorrectly. In practise,
the significance level of the tests is dependent on the consequences and keeping
them low. 85
Liquid gasoline samples from fire scenes can be subjected to various conditions.
That brings along variation into samples when comparing them to ones purchased
from service stations. Multivariate analysis for fire debris casework has been
developed. Dimensions of gathered GC-MS data was reduced depending on the
method into two or three, four and ten in canonical variate analysis (CVA), orthogonal
canonical variate analysis (OCVA) and PCA, respectively. In this study the
procedures were tested with advance knowledge of the correct assignments. The
method needs to be studied further in order to have an applicable method to fire
debris casework. 86
Sometimes comparison of two different methods and their ability to reveal information
needs to be evaluated. A method for comparing two methods has been published. In
the study the within and between -object variances and covariances were estimated.
Reliability of the two methods was estimated in addition and the parameters were
evaluated with a performance likelihood ratio model. A similar kind of comparison can
be made between different kinds of databases, although care must be taken while
accepting data to the method. 87
3.5 Spontaneous combustion
This subject consists of various substances starting from coal industry, saw dust,
cotton and laundry fires. A major part of recent studies relate to vegetable oils and
biodiesel and their autoignition. Fundamentals of auto-oxidation relate closely to
thermodynamics and the surroundings of the self-heating material. 1, 88 In oil tank
fires oxidation of iron sulphides may lead to tank fires and even explosions. 89 In
another case, the combustible material was Auricularia auricular, dried mushroom. In
2003, a warehouse filled with agaric, cinnamon and aniseed was the starting point of
a severe, fatal fire and the reason is still undetermined. Risks of this kind of materiasl
are underestimated. 90
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Although alternative fuels have been a marginal part of fire debris analysis, in the
near future the amount of samples is supposed to increase. An introduction to
different types of biodiesel fuels, their sample preparation and analysis has been
published. 1, 91 In a study of spontaneous ignition of biodiesel samples, it was found
that the autoignition temperature of biodiesel is much lower, being in isothermal
conditions around 100 °C, than in vegetable oil. The inner temperature of the sample
rose rapidly with generation of smoke and the flash point of biodiesel is dependent on
92, 93
the concentration of methanol originated from the manufacturing technique.
The following studies about the deposition of vegetable oils and biodiesel samples
need to be noted. When dealing with fire debris samples, extraction of ignitable liquid
residues needs to be carried out first. Fatty acids of vegetable oils are not disturbed if
samples are heated in 65 °C for 16 hours. Solvent extraction is needed to recover
vegetable oils, but fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) are volatile and can be analyzed
by a passive head space. Heavy gasoline distillate chromatogram changes when
FAMEs are present; in such a case the identification of every extraneous peak is
essential in order to detect the presence of biodiesel. Another challenge with
suspected vegetable oil in fire debris are storage conditions of fire debris samples, as
they should be waterless and the samples sealed well to reduce degradation. The
91, 94
ageing of such samples, including biodiesel samples, must be studied further.
An analysis method for vegetable oil from fire debris has been developed. Different
derivatization methods were optimized in order to convert fatty acids into esters.
Furthermore three various columns and different GC programs were used. Base
catalysed trans-esterification derivated fatty acids in vegetable oils successfully and a
polar column separated the peaks clearly. The study serves as a starting point for
research in fire debris in respect to vegetable oils. 95 A fast sampling and analysis
method of another kind is solid-phase microextraction (SPME) used with a gas
chromatograph. In this method, thermal desorption of unsaponifiable substances was
carried out first. Then the remaining oil in the fibre was recovered with solvent, further
base-catalysed trans-esterification and injected to GC-MS. The analysis was made
by using two different gas chromatographs with proper columns in the oven. This
method provided more useful information than the reference method. 96
Self heating tendency and thermal stability of vegetable oils have also been studied
with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Being a fast and useful technique, it is
possible to use this method when a sample of questioned oil is available from the fire
88, 92
scene.
An analytical method of C80 calorimeter was used to identify reasons for
spontaneous combustion of cotton. Calculating the thermal behaviour of cotton and
its self-accelerating decomposition temperature, variation of results with different
parameters demonstrated that water plays a key role in the process. Further
consideration seems to be that microbiological degradation of cotton generates
oxygen and methane which could lead to ignition. 97
Spontaneous combustion of laundry has been unrecognised as a fire hazard. Ignition
of laundry from restaurants or hotels with stains some customary cooking oils has
been investigated as to tendency to ignite cotton material. The tests showed that the
prevalent temperature level together with the oil’s properties influences the auto-
434

ignition. Therefore aims have been modified to develop a proper method for studying
chemical spontaneous ignition. 98 In another study, this has already been made by
using a Semenov Model to evaluate the possibility of spontaneous combustion in
tumble dryers. This model uses steady-state treatment and considers the body of the
reactor uniform, thus being the simplest thermal ignition model. Two kinds of
calculations were made in the study: geometry and heat losses for typical dryers and
flow through the tumbling fabric in the drum. The obtained critical temperature
predictions showed that the temperature required for ignition would be approximately
twice the normal operating temperature. This led to the conclusion that in order to
ignite, external heating for several hours or contamination with a reactive material
that would self-heat at lower temperatures would be needed. 99
Spontaneous combustion of Refuse-derived fuels (RDF) has been studied widely.
Just two studies are mentioned here. Some accidents caused by spontaneous
ignition of RDF, even with fatalities, have served as initiatives for studying the
behaviour of refuse-derived fuel in storage conditions. A chemiluminescence
technique has been used to investigate the phenomenon in low temperatures. The
stated reason for chemiluminescence is cellulose in RDF. During the preparation,
RDF was treated with high and low temperatures, and thus cellulose undergoes autooxidation
producing hydroperoxides, which accumulate in RDF, making spontaneous
combustion possible. 100 In another study, various conditions including moisture
content, initial temperature, particle size and the presence of micro-organisms was
examined. The conditions contributed to the ignition in the sense that a rise in water
content reduced the induction time, the particle size of RDF sample showed that
ignition time was shorter in samples that had not been grounded. No relationship
between bacterial fermentation and spontaneous ignition was observed. 101
3.5 Background matrices studies
In forensic fire investigation it is important to compare the analysis results with real
commercial products. This could be the case with detergents which cannot be used
as fire accelerants due to their water content, in spite of including the compounds of
flammable liquids. 53 To prove the likelihood of presence of gasoline residues in the
shoes or clothes of an arson suspect can be necessary. In a pilot investigation, it was
demonstrated that although a person has had regular activities with gasoline during
their work shift, getting a detectable amount of gasoline from the samples is unlikely.
If the action has been lawn mowning, on the other hand, or a noticeable amount of
gasoline has been spilt on the clothes or shoes, it is possible to obtain traces of
gasoline or its components. 102
Another side in a view of forensic characterization is having the same kind of product
that is just manufactured in a different way. For example, this might unfold in plastic
fire debris samples. DSC instruments are widely used for thermal characterization of
polymers. With the help of DSC it is possible to reveal differences in the amount of
cristallinity of the samples, which is due to the different manufacturing processes. 103
Useful software for background matrices comparisons is available at the TWGFEX
web site. The database is open access, which is why in a case of figuring out the
matrix of a fire debris sample, the use of the site is recommended for screening the
samples. 104
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4 Modelling
The importance of basics of modelling cannot be neglected and thus the same article
by Olivier Delémont as in the previous review is mentioned here as well. 105 Fire
safety studies were the first applications for modelling fires. Motivation for using
modelling in forensic fire investigation has been occasional from the beginning of the
1990s. Although it has been advised that all investigators should be aware of the
meaning of modelling, it has been underused in forensic fire investigation. 106 The
modelling technique has been divided into categories including hand calculations,
zone models and field models. 105, 106 These are bases for different approaches
according to the use, level of precision and complexity. Hand calculation uses basic
mathematics and still provides a reliable prediction about the fire. The zone model
uses distinguished layers, but the method suffers from consequent limitations due to
the relative simplicity and the empirical assumption of stratification. 106 The field
model, on the other hand, divides the fire environment into small cells and the fire
fluid flows are calculated according to computational fluid dynamics (CFD) known as
field models. Results of the field models are gained by using higher level
mathematics and they include limitations due to some unavoidable errors and
105, 106
uncertainties.
The most appropriate use of mathematical modelling in forensic fire investigation is in
testing experiments of hypotheses made about the fire. Fire dynamic simulation (FDS)
is software using computational fluid dynamics to provide evidence for fire
investigation. It uses a collection of data obtained from the fire. This includes the
samples, testimonies, chronology of the events and other matters that reduce the
probability of hypotheses. Data obtained from FDS may be used by judicial
authorities. For example, the data might prove claims made by an eye witness wrong
or/and the data obtained by the model may bear visual significance for court. The
model might also provide a timeline and analyse the progression of events.
105, 107, 108
Other circumstances for the use of modelling are situations in which the fire
development was peculiar. In such cases, fire modelling may explain factors
contributing to the fire and its specific propagation by using multiple hypotheses. 105,
109
A disadvantage of modelling is the time spent in the calculations, and thus the count
of the mesh has to be reasonable but large enough to attain reliable results. Also
diversity of construction materials in general creates a challenge for fire simulation.
The method uses average values instead of accurate ones and therefore an error is
106, 110, 111
always present.
Fire dynamic simulation has been used as a defined test plan for a full scale
experimental. There the heat releasing rate (HRR) and temperature evolution were
the most important features. 109 In other experiments, reconstruction of a hotel arson
and fire growth in a tunnel were studied. The experiments provide important
information not only to the forensics but also to the fire administrations. 107, 110, 112 A
sealed structure of trains and a possibility of large fires due to arson have been a
major influence to do numerical simulations of pressure changes in closed chambers.
The prediction of pressure, temperature distribution and air flow pattern were studied.
The experiment had a good correlation between prediction and experimental results.
113
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A novel model for prediction of a multi-component liquid being spilt for the purposeful
intention of arson has been developed. The method presages concentrations of fuel
vapours, evaporation rate and the flash point on a liquid fuel consisting of many
components. The model uses Raoult’s law considering the activity coefficient and the
estimated values corresponded well with the measured ones. 114
One way model has been used to predict the ignition time and spontaneous ignition
of some woods. The investigation has been both theoretical and experimental,
consisting of pyrolysis and spontaneous ignition studies. The heat was radiated from
upper electronic radiator and ignition was initiated without other external sources.
Four different radiator powers and four tree species were tested. The modelling
results matched well with the experimented ones. 115
Different kinds of software of numerical simulation have been used mainly by the fire
prevention purposes. For example, the selection of a fire origin room has been
determined by a mathematical, multicriteria decision-making model in which fire
loads are estimated. 116, 117 Also experimental investigations of fire spread and
flashover time in office fires have been made. 118 Furthermore, the data obtained
from the fire ignition location, probability of fire spread or evaluation of risks of fatality
119, 120
in building fires can all be calculated by the Bayesian network.
The Bayesian theorem includes two separate but important features of forensic work:
the question if scientific evidence can be based on a probabilistic argumentation and
identification of forensic analyses. The method helps in sorting and evaluating
analytical information in complex cases. 121 A few publications considering the
Bayesian network have been published. The first considers the logic and
argumentative implications in which examination is made with a distinct perspective
in order to avoid false interpretations. 122 The second reviews the use of the methods
in chemistry, including forensic sciences, chromatographic and mass spectrometric
methods. 123 The third article serves as a guide in parameter estimation when using
forensic data. It is the first part which introduces the way to apply this method; the
second part is on its way and will be published this year. It will demonstrate the
network fragments as building blocks while constructing larger interference
models. 124
The number of tragic accidents and fires in road tunnels during the past decades has
been a starting point for tunnel safety and simulations of tunnel fire events. 125
Several fire safety studies have been made considering fire scenarios in road tunnels.
Many of the experiments and their results can be used in other tunnels, such as
subway or river tunnels. 111 Here only a few of them are cited, in case of interest or a
112, 126-132
possible need for fire investigations.
5. Educational aspects of fire investigation
There are some problems in teaching fire investigation, such as a lack of
uncontaminated fire fields, time dependence and varying circumstances. Thus the
development of fire scene investigator students in understanding investigation
theories, skills and applications has been studied in a virtual environment. A
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simulated environment in order to investigate the fire scene in a three dimensional
model is produced by a software. The students got basic skills and their knowledge
developed from the learning environment CD. A reward of the CD was to use the
program when it suits best to the students’ schedule. The time the student could
spend with the program was unlimited. On the other hand, limitations of the
technique were that the field of view, visual acuity and navigation of the environment
were limited. Although the results were promising, importance of real tasks in
authentic fire places cannot be underestimated. 133
Another point of view on arson investigation is the educational point for chemistry
students. Using fictitious forensic cases, the studies connect the experiments to realworld
applications. The sampling is made by absorbing the substances either by
charcoal tubes or stripes, the identification and characterization of the accelerants is
made by GC (FID) or GC-MS. The students have been able to develop their problemsolving
abilities and their enthusiasm to understand chemistry has deepened. 134-137
6. Explosions
Explosions of flammable substances, such as natural gas or solid combustible dust,
usually lead to casualties. Fires and explosions occur in many different industries,
such as plastic products, chemical manufacturing and primary metal and wood
factories. A large study considering the explosions during the last 25 years and an
assessment about dust explosion hazards have been made. 138-140
An assumption that materials are inert can lead to major incidents. This assumption
underlies the explosion of aluminum mats when being restored. 141 Also in Italy a
dust explosion occurred due to the domino effect caused by a spark inflaming a
mixture of vegetable dust, wool fibres and inorganic substances. 142 Combustible
dusts are a serious hazard in industrial manufacturing plants and multidisciplinary
techniques might be needed to develop plausible theories for explosions and
reconstructions. Such cases often include gases, for example acetylene, which burn
very rapidly. 138, 143 A discussion of a BLEVE’s (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion) occurrence in a portable gasoline container has been attended. In the
same abstract, it was shown that a flame arrester would have prevented the
explosion inside of a gasoline container. 144
Another matter is co-operation of forensics with the pathologist. A case report about
an unusual suicidal explosive death reminds us of the importance to collaborate in
order to find the correct cause of death. 139
7. Criminological aspects of fire setting
Arson and fire setting are significant concerns for public health and safety. The cost
of arsons and their consequences are billions of dollars each year. On the other hand,
there are damages paid for thousands of injuries and deaths annually. 145 During the
last decades an enormous amount of global studies has been made to understand
the behaviour of arsonists and firesetters. Lately the focus has been in juveniles and
adolescents due to the opportunity to find a way to interfere in their behaviour at an
early stage. 146-148 Thus persons under the age of 16 account for more than half of all
fire-related arrests and the younger the persons were when setting the first fire, the
438

more likely they are to become a frequent fire setter. 149 Furthermore, antisocial
147, 150
behaviour and alcohol abuse had more often relation with multiple fire settings.
The link between maltreatment and anger disgorging with fire has been
demonstrated. Fire setting seems to originate from difficulties in child’s emotions and
behaviour. 151 Retrospective analyses of arsonists demonstrate that their intellectual
disabilities (IQ lower than 85) 152 are more common than in general population;
personality disorders and revenge serve often as reasons for fire setting. 153 Feelings
of tension and excitement were more common in fire recidivism group. 145 Challenges
in psychiatric and psychological research, such as the amount of population and
classification of the surveys, are the contributors for not being able to find “a general
145, 154
arsonist”.
A revealing article about pyro-terrorism and its potential to become a tactic of choice
for terrorists has been published. Terrorist organizations are creative and try to
balance the risk between gained attention and the costs of action. Thus low-tech
methods have been applied when the target is highly vulnerable, meaning mainly the
employment of arson. The article points out recent cases from Israel, Spain, Estonia
and Greece. Furthermore, it reveals implications for Northern America. 155
8. International co-operation
8.1 Working groups and conferences
International working groups aim to share knowledge, share experiences, collect
information, develop methods and give advice to working group members. The
European Network of Forensic Science (ENFSI) is recognized as an expert group in
the field of forensic sciences. One of them is the Fire and Explosion Investigation
Working group (FEIWG). The sphere of activities of the working group is field
investigation, technical investigation and chemical analyses of fire debris samples.
FEIWG strives to ensure the quality of development of fire and explosion
investigation. There are three sub-committees: Training and Education, Accelerants
and Explosion. The Working Group published a Practical Guide for First Responders
to Fire Scene in March 2008. It has been translated into French, German,
Portuguese and Spanish and will be translated into Swedish, Danish, Italian and
Greek in 2010. FEIWG has organised two New Science Seminars in Switzerland.
The first one in 2008 discussed Scene Investigation and in 2010 the topic was fire
debris analysis. 156
In the USA, the Technical Working Group of Fire and Explosion (TWGFEX) maintains
co-operation among personnel in the Forensic laboratory, public safety, private
investigation, and legal communities. The Working Group develops protocols and/or
guides for collection and analysis of fire and explosion debris, training and quality
assurance and introduces new techniques in the field of forensic fire and explosion
investigation and laboratory analyses. TWGFE has three active scene committees:
Education/Training, Fire Modeling Database and Scene Protocol Committee, and six
laboratory committees: Explosives Education and Training, Explosives Database,
Explosives Standard Protocols, Fire Education and Training, Ignitable Liquids
Database and Fire Standard Protocols. TWGFEX has published a Training Outline
for First Responders at Fire Scenes (October 2008) and Recommended Guidelines
439

for Forensic Identification of Post-Blast Explosive Residues. TWGFEX organised a
one-day symposium and many training courses in Orlando in 2009. 157
The Ignitable Liquids Reference Collection (ILRC) was developed by the ILRC
Committee of the TWGFEX. The Ignitable Liquids Reference Collection is a
compilation of reference materials used by forensic analysts to conduct fire debris
analysis. The ILRC consists of a comprehensive set of ignitable liquids and
accompanying characterization data used in the analysis of fire debris samples in
accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E-1618
standard test methods. Another TWGFEX database is a substrate database, which is
a tool designed for screening purposes only. It does not replace the need for
obtaining comparison samples to evaluate the matrix, but it gives good tools for
estimating the results. These two databases are easy to use and all information is
valuable for regular work.
Other important forensic discussion forums are international conferences. The
European Academia of Forensic Science (EAFS) organises Triennial Meetings,
stimulates OOS workshops and effective transfer of knowledge between institutions.
In the EAFS conference organised in 2009, the working group (FEIWG) had two
workshops: Fatal fires and Interpretation of analytical data. 156 The American
Academia of Forensic Science (AAFS) organised annual meetings including
workshops, presentations and posters. 158 The Australian and New Zealand Forensic
Science Society (ANZFSS) holds an International Symposium every two years. The
meeting and sessions cover the major disciplines of forensic science. 159 The
International Association of Forensic Sciences (IAFS) brings together academics and
practicing professionals of various disciplines in forensic sciences and organizes
triennial meetings. 160 A part of Nordic co-operation are the meetings of the fire group
(Nordisk brandgruppe). The group meets twice a year discussing the latest
viewpoints of fire investigation. The meetings include seminars and some tests, such
as interpretations of fire scene photographs. Also a manual for fire investigation was
published in 1999 and it has been updated several times since then. 161
8.2 International Collaborative Tests
Quite many forensic laboratories are accredited and they need a collaborative or
proficiency test to prove the reliability of the test results. One possibility is
Collaborative Testing Services (CTS) 162 , which combines experience with forensic
interlaboratory tests as Flammable Analyses. All participants report the results and
methodology used in case it may help others to develop their own analyses. For the
Flammables tests, examiners provide the detection, identification and comparison of
flammable residue evidence. In 2009, the Flammables Analysis Test was sent to 371
participants and 302 participants (81%) returned the data. Approximately 93% of the
returners did the identification of the flammable substance correctly. 163
The ENFSI Fire and Explosion Investigation Working Group is the provider of a
Collaborative Testing Program for ignitable liquid analysis to Working Group
members. The collaborative tests are designed to share and exchange knowledge on
subjects such as techniques, products used as accelerants in various countries,
matrix and weathering effects and so on. They are not designed to monitor the
performance of individual laboratories like the proficiency tests. Participation in this
440

ENFSI collaborative testing programme gives the laboratories an opportunity to
review their original methods by taking advantage of the varied information derived
from these exercises. The overall review of the laboratories’ results is carried out by
the organising committee and represents one of its valuable outputs. 164 In the test
organized in 2008, forty-five laboratories were listed to participate, eventually fortythree
of them (96%) returned their analysis results for evaluation. From the 42
laboratories that identified and classified the samples, 37 classifications were
considered correct (88%). One laboratory was not able to detect this product in the
165, 166
sample.
Table 1. Results of CTS-tests.
CTS-test 2007 167 2008 168 2009 169
Participants 329 345 371
Returned 269 (82%) 286 (83%) 302 (81%)
Correct answer from the returned 90-96% 94-98% 91-96%
Table 2. Results of ENFSI/FEIWG-tests.
ENFSI/FEIWG-test 2007 2008 2009
Participants 41 45 44
Returners 38 (93%) 43 (97%) 42
varies per
Correct answer from the returned 71-84% 37 (88%) element of the
test
9. Summary
Although being perhaps the most important section of forensic fire investigation,
sampling has not gained adequate attention in the studies. Samples gathered from
fire scenes require new and suitable packaging methods. Packaging materials should
be easy not only for carrying, but also for handling and sampling for different analysis
techniques. The use of canine units is useful in field examinations and even their
number should be raised. On the other hand, attention should be paid to the dogs’
training, in validation and monitoring their quality.
Fuels have been classified e.g. on the basis of high temperature gas chromatography
mass spectrometry (HTGC-MS) with a programmable temperature vaporizer injector
and fast gas chromatography coupled with a fast scanning quadrupole ion trap mass
spectrometer (GC-QIT MS). These methods were referred to in respect to fire debris
analysis only in single articles. It will be interesting to see how these aforememtioned
methods will be developed further.
Statistical methods have gained some attention in analytics, but those applied for fire
scene investigation will hopefully be developed in the near future. At the same time
modelling may be a powerful tool for retrospectively establishing the cause and the
starting point of fire. Applying modelling methods calls for deeper knowledge about
441

information technology and this in fact may be one reason for modelling not being so
widely spread in forensic casework.
International co-operation will become more important because of increasing
efficiency demands. Swift means of communication and common databases enable
smooth co-operation within the forensic community. Despite modern IT technology,
the demand for international conferences and personal discussions with scientists
cannot be neglected.
10. Books and other publications
Robert D. Blackledge, Forensic Analysis on the Cutting Edge –New Methods for
Trace Evidence Analysis, USA 2007, ISBN-10: 0-471-71644-8
Carl Chasteen, Fire and Explosion Investigations and Forensic Analyses: Near- and
Long-Term Needs Assessment for State and Local Law Enforcement, The National
Center for Forensic Science, and The Thecnical/Scientific Working Group for Fire
and Explosions, December 2008
Oliver Pourret, Patric Naïm, Bruce Margot, Bayesian networks: A Practical Guide to
Applications, John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., March 2008, ISBN 978-0-470-06030-8
Christopher W. Schmidt, Steven A. Symes, The Analysis of Burned Human Remains,
Elsevier Great Britain, 2008, ISBN 978-0-12-372510-3
Eric Stauffer, Julia A. Dolan, Reta Newman, Fire Debris Analysis, Elsevier USA, 2008,
ISBN 978-0-12-663971-1
Craig L. Beyler, Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in
the Criminal Arson Cases Against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham,
Texas Forensic Science Commission, Sam Houston State University College of
Criminal Justice, 17 August 2009
David Widlund, Elektricitet och bränder med inriktning på brandutredning,
Myndigheten för samhällsskydd och beredskap, (Electricity and fire from fire cause
determination viewpoint), Brandskyddsföreningen, elektriska nämnden Statens
Kriminaltekniska Laboratorium, Karlstad, 2009, ISBN 978-91-7383-041-6
Yao Lu, Forensic Applications of Gas Chromatography―Differential Mobility
Spectrometry, Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry, and Ion Mobility
Spectrometry with Chemometric Analysis, Ph.D thesis, The University of Ohio, March
2010
Wolfram Jahn, Inverse Modelling to Forecast Enclosure Fire Dynamics, Ph.D thesis,
The University of Edinburgh, 2010
442

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452

Analysis and Detection of
Explosives and Explosives Residues
Review: 2007 to 2010
Richard A. Strobel
Chief, Forensic Explosives Group
United States Department of Justice
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
Forensic Science Laboratory
6000 Ammendale Road
Ammendale, MD 20705 USA
Greg Czarnopys
Deputy Assistant Director Forensic Services
United States Department of Justice
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
Forensic Science Laboratory
6000 Ammendale Road
Ammendale, MD 20705 USA
453

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
 INTRODUCTION
AND
COVERAGE
OF
THE
LITERATURE
 455
2.
 REVIEW
ARTICLES
 455
3.
 SAMPLING
AND
CONCENTRATION
OF
EXPLOSIVE
TRACES
 456
4.
 IDENTIFICATION
OF
EXPLOSIVES
AND
RESIDUES
 457
5.
 INSTRUMENTAL
ANALYSIS
OF
EXPLOSIVES
 457
5.1
 LC/HPLC
 457
5.2
 Ion
Chromatography
 458
5.3
 Capillary
Electrophoresis
 458
5.4
 Gas
Chromatography
 458
5.5
 Mass
Spectroscopy
 458
5.6
 Isotope
Ratio
Mass
Spectroscopy,
IRMS
 460
5.7
 General
Spectroscopy:
Fluorescence,
Luminescence,
Spectrophotometric,
UV,
Chemiluminescence
460
5.8
 FTIR
 460
5.9
 Raman
Spectroscopy
 461
5.10
 DSC,
Thermal
Analysis,
TG
 461
5.11
 Medical;
Pathology;
Injuries;
Toxicology
 461
6.
 DETECTION
 461
7.
 ENVIRONMENTAL
 461
8.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
 462
9.
 REFERENCES
 462
454

1. Introduction and Coverage of the Literature
The coverage of the literature in this review period is a beneficiary (or victim) of the
improved computer networking, the web, and the growth of abstracting services utilized
by library technicians worldwide. Hence the record-setting number of citations listed.
The additional citations are not the result of an increase in research in the forensic field
but are the result of the ability to survey many more specialty journals which were
previously unknown to the forensic practitioner. Without the current technology which
allows one to easily view the abstracts in these far afield journals, it would be
impossible in either expense or time to research them. It has been recognized for
some time that the science in forensic science is largely derivative of more basic
research and methods development activities. Forensic science methods are more
accurately described as applications of existing science and technology. This
demonstrates the requirement for the forensic scientist to be familiar with the literature
of other scientific fields in order to advance. This is the reason that many citations are
included as they might provide the spark of an idea for a forensic application. The two
fields which greatly add to the volume of citations are the fields of environmental
science and explosives detection technologies which will undoubtedly contribute to
future advancements in forensic techniques.
With nearly 600 references this author and anyone plowing their way through those
would have a difficult time evaluating the usefulness of the material. Because of this
the hyperlinks to abstracts of the articles are included. One can usually get an idea
whether to pursue the article through a quick review of the abstract. Another feature
which the reader should make use of is the “bookmark” feature in Microsoft Word. This
will greatly assist navigation through the bibliography section starting on page 11 of this
document. With the volume of references, the reader will have to excuse the fact that
the author would never have sufficient time to comment on every article. Very valuable
resources are any review articles which usually are specific to subject areas of interest
and encompass references for numerous time periods. These will be the first articles
discussed.
2. Review Articles
An all encompassing review is provided by Brettell, [1] et al on Forensic Science with a
subject section devoted specifically to explosives. The period of coverage is pre-2007.
A review article specifically dedicated to explosives analysis appeared in the Journal of
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry by Moore and Goodpaster [2] covering the
period up till 2009. In the field of detection Singh Suman [3] addressees approaches to
explosives detection in a June 2007 article. Instrumental specific review articles include
an article covering HPLC analysis of explosives by Gaurav [43] in the journal Critical
Reviews in Analytical Chemistry in 2007. Continuing with HPLC analysis Fedorowski
and LaCourse review post-column photochemical systems with electrochemical
detection [47]. In the medical field and more specifically in battlefield injuries, Ulrich,
Kalbermatten, et al, explore the possibility cancer caused by grenade fragments [152]
via a literature review. The environmental field Viada, et al review explosive residue
455

effects on sea turtles in a review [319]. Ghafari, et al explore removal techniques for
nitrates in wastewater [386].
The explosives detection field includes a review of biosensor technology in a paper by
Smith, D’Souza, et al [161] covering biosensor and biologically inspired explosives
detection systems. Laser-based standoff detection of explosives is reviewed by Wallin,
et al [164]. Explosives detection via Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy, LIBS, is
examined by Gottfried, et al [165] in a review article covering advances, challenges,
and future advances in a 2009 article in the journal Analytical and Bioanalytical
Chemistry. It is important to note the possible forensic applications of this technique in
the detection of post-blast explosive residues. In the Spectroscopic area Neutron
Activation Analysis receives a renewed look in a review in Spectroscopy Reviews in an
article by Hee-Jung [174]. In the area of air cargo explosives detection Runkle, et al
[215] looks a Photon and Neutron techniques for detection in a review. The FAIMS
technique utilizing IMS and differential IMS is explored by Kolakowski [241] in the
journal Analyst.
3. Sampling and Concentration of Explosive Traces
Whether involving recovery of traces of explosives for post-blast identification or
similarly small amounts for detection of explosives in security applications a critical step
involves selectively trapping and separating the explosive molecule from every other
chemical compound present. A number of techniques are examined such as Zeichner,
et al studying the use of adhesive coated stubs for collection of explosives residues
from a suspect’s hands [7]. Another technique for collection of residues from humans
is Oxley, et al, examining factors for sorption and collection of explosives from hair [13].
Solid phase extraction is frequently examined both for collection and clean-up of
explosive traces. Articles studying the application of SPME (Solid Phase Micro-
Extraction) appeared in the Journal of Chromatography where Harvey, et al looked
SPME use with specially coated fibers [8]. Metal β-diketonate polymers were utilized
to capture explosives from vapor in a paper by Harvey [9]. The continued use of
SPME for sample collection and clean-up has made a review of the Solid Phase
Sorbents a necessity. This is accomplished in a review article on the subject by
Tachon, et al [11] which examines the use of sorbents for clean-up of organic
explosives. A current explosive of interest, urea nitrate, is covered in two articles by
Almog, et al [12] and Tamiri [40]. The Tamiri article addresses initial studies while
describing the synthesis and the Almog article covers trace recovery and detection of
urea nitrate.
The success or failure to identify explosive traces begins at the scene of the crime.
Failure here makes subsequent laboratory analysis fruitless. If a forensic scientist can
insure quality samples are collected at the scene through preliminary testing
subsequent laboratory analysis will have a higher probability of success. The
Netherlands Forensic Institute examined the scene detection of explosives in a study
by van Asten [17] where the technology of Raman Spectroscopy and GC-MS with
SPME sampling at an explosives scene is examined. Maximizing the amount of
456

evidence gathered at a bombing scene is always crucial to the successful outcome of
an investigation. The key is found not only in the collection but also preservation of
evidence. Bille [16] examines on-site cyanoacrylate fuming to preserve fingerprint
evidence and the subsequent effect on both DNA and explosive residue examination.
4. Identification of Explosives and Residues
Major interest remains in all types of peroxide explosives whether for detection pre-
and post-blast. Also of interest are the properties of these explosives. Detection for
security reasons is addressed in papers by Burks [18] which examines current trends;
Benedet [19] which examines amperometric sensing; Lock [20] which using specific
films for specific microcantilever detectors; Banerjee [21] examining nanotube sensor
technology; Bohrer [22] looking a vapor phase detection and Cotte-Rodriguez [23]
examining in-situ detection by AP-CI-MS with sampling via desorption electrospray
ionization. The properties of peroxide explosives, specifically TATP, are provided in a
2-part paper by Zeman [25], [26] which examines TATP mixtures. Oxley [28] examines
Raman and Infrared spectroscopy of peroxide explosives. Detection of HMTD is
examined in papers by Laine[29], Persons [30] and Parajuli [31]. Detection of TATP by
a wide variety of techniques is examined in papers by Shen [32], Xie [33], Wilkinson
[34], Räsänen [35], Lubczyk [36], Capua [37], Bauer [38] and Germain [39]. The
papers cover a complete variety of instrumental techniques from fluorescence, mass
spectroscopy, custom sensors, terahertz spectroscopy to chronoamperometry.
A selection of papers covering novel explosives and properties, degradation of
explosives and performance characteristics are included in references [419] to [546]. It
is beyond the scope of a forensic review article to cover these in depth but they are
provided to the reader for convenient further investigation.
Explosive residues are the primary evidentiary examined by the forensic scientist. Two
articles covered issues directly related to the subject: Vermeij [41] looked specifically at
the morphology and the chemical composition of pyrotechnic residues as affected by
the degree of confinement at the time of explosives. Kunz [42] measured amounts of
explosives residues in trace situations for the purpose of guiding future development of
sensors for pre-blast detection.
5. Instrumental Analysis of Explosives
5.1 LC/HPLC
Much of the work of the forensic scientist in the laboratory is devoted to utilization of
instrumental techniques to identify explosive traces. LC or HPLC continues to be a vital
separation technique and when coupled with a specific detection method, an
identification technique. The review article by Gaurav [43], mentioned previously,
provides a good overview of LC techniques as applied to explosives. Many of the
articles in this section deal with specific applications for solving specific problems in
explosives analysis with many covering explosives processing issues; Gaurav [44],
457

Bausinger [45]. Borowsky [46] looks at development of an electroosmotic pump for
development of LC on a microchip moving forward to the goal of lab-on-a-chip
technology for explosives detection. In order to further the selectivity of detection
systems for use with LC, Fedorowski reviews post-column photochemical reaction
systems [47] coupled with electrochemical detection. Gaurav [48] examines a SPME
followed by LC-UV analysis for explosives in aqueous samples.
5.2 Ion Chromatography
The technique of Ion Chromatography has received an upgraded role in forensic postblast
analysis with the addition of a more specific detector, the mass spectrometer.
The following two articles utilized conductivity detection but the separation techniques
prove valuable. Johns [50] offers a system that identifies 18 anions and 12 cations of
interest for post-blast analysis. Additionally the utility of the technique was tested with
the actual post-blast analysis of witness plate materials and soil. The results were
confirmed using capillary electrophoresis. Meng [49] tests five inorganic anions and
three cations in a single chromatographic run using a non-suppressed ion
chromatographic technique. Lang and Boyle [51] apply IC-MS to identify black powder
substitutes.
5.3 Capillary Electrophoresis
Tagliaro[54] offers a review article on recent advances in the application of CE to
Forensic Science with a section specifically devoted to explosives. Other articles by
Piccin [52], Pumera [53][55] examine electrophoresis applied on a microchip for
explosives detection. Hutchinson [56] uses a portable CE to examine post-blast
inorganic anions and cations. Indirect photometric detection was accomplished by
utilizing a miniature LED detector. Fifteen anions and 12 cations of interest in
explosives analysis were separated and detected.
5.4 Gas Chromatography
GC continues to play a role in the separation of explosive compounds from various
matrices prior to detection by a variety of means. Li [57] offers a SPME technique
coupled with GC for determination of the DMNB tagging agent for plastic explosives.
Burleson [58] examines gunpowder residue by using SPME extraction and GC coupled
with a nitrogen-phosphorous detector. Nitroaromatic compounds and their Kovats
Retention Indices are examined in Caulfield [59]. A novel capillary column coating is
offered by Harvey [60] for selective retention of explosives related compounds.
5.5 Mass Spectroscopy
The variety of mass spectrometric techniques has blossomed in recent years.
Options are numerous in the selection of type of mass detector and the initial means
for fragmenting the molecule of interest. Bečanová [61] examined TNT and the
degradation of TNT with LC-electrospray ionization MS. Nitroaromatic explosive
458

compounds were also examined by Adeem [73], McEnnis [81] using laser induced
fragmentation and Sulzer [82] who examined dinitrobenzene, a toxic yet very
insensitive explosive. Alizadeh [62] utilized electron attachment to nitroaromatic
compound 2-nitro-m-xylene in the gas phase. Schramm [63] used thermal
desorption single photon ionization ion-trap MS (TD-SPI-ITMS) in an application for
real-time detection of explosives for screening wipes. The technique offers very
gentle ionization to maintain the molecule’s mass and detection selectivity. In
addition a successful field trial is included as demonstration the technique’s
applicability to security screening. Scherperel [64] examines smokeless powders
with nanoelectrospray ionization MS (nESI-MS). The technique provides forensic
identification of residues by examining the organic stabilizers to identify and
differentiate unburned smokeless powders from different brands of ammunition in
gunshot residue analysis. Chen [65] looked at utilizing EESI-MS for examination of
explosive traces on human skin. Mullen [66] used TOF-MS to identify
nitroaromatics and related compounds using laser photoionization. Martinez-Lozano
[67] used secondary electrospray ionization (SESI) to identify explosives in the vapor
state at PPT concentrations. Collin [68] used two techniques, GC separation with
Quadrapole Ion Trap (QIT) and a second technique with fast GC separation followed
by dynamic collision-induced dissociation (DCID). Picogram sensitivity is claimed,
rapid analysis (2.5 second GC runs) and the two MS techniques used together are
offered as a confirmational technique. Song [69] compares NI-DART with NI-APPI
for a wide range of compounds including explosives. Both techniques offer
numerous ionization mechanisms for a wider range of compound identification. ESI
and APCI techniques are compared and contrasted. Mauracher [70] examined
musk-ketone compounds with the present results compared with previous aromatic
nitrocompounds studied in our laboratory recently. Particularly the close similarity of
musk ketone and the explosive trinitrotoluene is of special interest. Talaty [71]
analyzed for explosives and on fabric samples by ambient DESI. Sampling was
done in-situ without sample preparation and with a wide variety of common
interferent compounds. High sample throughput and picogram sensitivity are
reported for a technique which could be used for security screening. Wells [72] used
field portable MS instrumentation utilizing DART and DESI ionization. The team
used a portable MS with API interface adapted to DESI and DART sample
introduction to rapidly analyze explosives and other compounds of security interest.
Huestis [74] and Schramm [75] measured ionization potentials for a number of
compounds including nine explosives for investigating whether the compounds could
potentially be detected via single photon ionization time of flight mass spectrometry
(SPI-TOFMS). Na [76] used an ambient ion source to detect explosives on solid
surfaces. Justes [77] used a similar source to examine explosives on skin.
Williamson [78] provides a review which covers the rationale for using TOF for LC
detection, and describes the many methods currently in the literature for the
quantitation of pharmaceuticals, environmental pollutants, explosives and many
phytochemicals. Jönsson [79] used SPME sample collection with (GC–ECNI-MS)
and isotope dilution quantification for the analysis of nitroaromatic compounds in
complex, water based samples. Ochsenbein [80] compares SPME and direct
injection techniques for explosive compounds in water.
459

5.6 Isotope Ratio Mass Spectroscopy, IRMS
IRMS continues to stimulate interest in the field of explosives analysis. Its full
potential has yet to be realized but some specific applications are represented
among the following publications. Lock [84] [92] looks at isotope linkages between
precursor and high explosive products using IRMS. Quirk [83] looks at IRMS
characteristics of plastics in post-blast debris. Sources of explosives are examined
using IRMS in a paper by Widory [85]. Mechanisms for explaining detonation
mechanisms are studied in papers by Anisichkin [89] and [90]. Environmental
analysis using IRMS are outlined in papers by Bernstein [86], [88] and Amaral [87].
Specific explosives are examined by Gentile [91], ammonium nitrate and black
powder; Benson [93], ammonium nitrate and Benson [94], TATP and PETN. Results
of four inter-laboratory comparisons in a test provided by the FIRMS network are
discussed by Carter [95]. Proceedings from the FIRMS network Conference in 2005
are provided by Wakelin [96].
5.7 General Spectroscopy: Fluorescence, Luminescence,
Spectrophotometric, UV, Chemiluminescence
Many of the techniques offered in the spectroscopy area fall into distinct categories
of spectrum. Many of the techniques apply to specific explosive compounds or
processes. Some of the techniques are applied to detection as opposed to
applications for the forensic laboratory. Never the less they could have a future
application. Spectrophotometric techniques are offered by Üzer [99] for
determination of RDX in mixes and residues. A selective spectrophotometric
technique for TNT is covered by Erçağ [102] using a colorimetric sensor.
Fluorescence based techniques are presented by Sanchez [106] for nitroaromatics,
nitramine and nitrate ester explosive residues. Fluorescence quenching based
sensors and techniques are offered by Shi [107], Germain [108], Zyryanov [110],
Monterola [113], Sheaf [114], Meaney [116], Hughes [117], Sushobhan [118], Naddo
[111] and Andrew [120]. Techniques for use in stand-off detection of explosives are
covered by Babushok [100], Pacheco-Londoño [101] and Nadezhdinskii [104].
Wang [97] examines laser induced plasma for plastics and an explosive. Ramos
[98] looks at photochemistry and its use with cavity ringdown spectroscopy. A
specific spectroscopic sensor for TNT is explored by Changmin Deng [103]. UV
plays a role in Chaudhary’s [105] work which looks at TNT and RDX detection and
Sharma [109] who uses UV to provide photo-fragmentation detection for TNT.
Meaney [112] provides a review of Luminescence based detection systems and
Sanchez [119] looks at explosives sensing with 1,1-Tetraphenylsilole- and 1,1-
Silafluorene-vinylene Polymers through their luminescence properties. Naddo[121]
uses a novel fluorescent nanofibril film for explosives detection.
5.8 FTIR
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy has had a long tenure in forensic
explosives analysis. The technique continues this use in Banas [122] paper on post-
460

last traces of explosives and Mou’s [124] work on ATR-FTIR use for identification of
explosive particles in fingerprints. Sharmaand [123] examines EDA complexes with
amines for determination of vertical electron affinity of TNT.
5.9 Raman Spectroscopy
The single largest application of the Raman technique is in stand-off detection of
explosives. Papers covering this aspect are offered by Ramos [125], Hobro [126],
Gaft [132], Katz [134], Li [135] and Eliasson [136]. The last reference covering the
more recent interest in detection techniques for liquid explosives. Raman has also
proved useful for in-situ analysis of explosives such as in fingerprints, Emmons [127]
and Esam [129] utilizing a confocal Raman microscope to look at explosive particles
on clothing. Portnov [131] uses backward coherent anti-stokes Raman to detect
explosive particles. Fleger [128] examined narrow gated Raman and the
luminescence of explosives. Nagli [133] looked at UN, PETN, TATP, RDX, TNT and
PETN and determined the Raman cross-section dependence on excitation energy in
spectral range 620–248 nm.
5.10 DSC, Thermal Analysis, TG
Korošec [137] examined emulsion explosives and utilized both TG and DSC for
quantitative determination of the individual nitrates and water in ‘water in oil’
emulsion explosives.
5.11 Medical; Pathology; Injuries; Toxicology
A variety of articles covering medical aspects of explosives are provided in references
138-152.
6. Detection
References for explosives detection are numerous and generally beyond the scope of
the forensic analysis of explosives. The number are undoubtedly due to monetary
investment in explosives detection technology for security purposes. The fact remains
that many of the detection technologies might ultimately find a use in the forensic
laboratory and are included because of this. IMS is but one prominent example of this.
For the reader the ”Detection” section is broken down according to specific detection
technologies. The section is arranged as follows: Canine Explosives Detection,
Biosensors, LIBS Detection, Neutron, Terahertz, Nuclear Techniques (NQR,
Quadrupole Resonance), X-Ray, Ion Mobility Spectroscopy, Human Factors, Novel
Detection.
7. Environmental
Another major contributor to forensic techniques are analytical techniques
specifically tailored to environmental analysis of explosives. Environmental
461

equirements mandate the monitoring of explosive compounds and by-products
during the manufacturing process and later in the environment at large. References
in this section are arranged as follows: Environmental (general), Soil, Water and
Wastewater, Bioremediation and Biodegredation.
8. Acknowledgements
Ms. Susan Barned, Librarian for the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
Laboratory obtained virtually all of the literature citations and journal articles that
were necessary to prepare this survey report. Her many hours of work are greatly
appreciated.
9. References
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[67] Pablo Martínez-Lozano, Juan Rus, Gonzalo Fernández de la Mora, Marta
Hernández and Juan Fernández de la Mora Secondary Electrospray Ionization
(SESI) of Ambient Vapors for Explosive Detection at Concentrations Below
Parts Per Trillion Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry
Volume 20, Issue 2, February 2009, Pages 287-294
[68] Olivier L. Collin, Carolyn M. Zimmermann and Glen P. Jackson Fast gas
chromatography negative chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry of
explosive compounds using dynamic collision-induced dissociation
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[69] Liguo Song, Andrew B. Dykstra, Huifang Yao and John E. Bartmess Ionization
Mechanism of Negative Ion-Direct Analysis in Real Time: A Comparative Study
with Negative Ion-Atmospheric Pressure Photoionization Journal of the
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[70] Mauracher, P. Sulzer, E. Alizadeh, S. Denifl, F. Ferreira da Silva, M. Probst,
T.D. Märk, P. Limão-Vieira and P. Scheier Electron attachment studies to
musk ketone and high mass resolution anionic isobaric fragment detection
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[71] Talaty N, Mulligan CC, Justes DR, Jackson AU, Noll RJ, Cooks RG. Fabric
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[72] Mitchell Wells, Michael J. Roth, Adam D. Keil, John W. Grossenbacher, Dina
R. Justes, Garth E. Patterson and Dennis J. Barket Jr Implementation of
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[73] Aleem, A. Mauracher, P. Sulzer, S. Denifl, F. Zappa, A. Bacher, N. Wendt, T.D.
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[74] HUESTIS, DAVID L., MULLEN, CHRISTOPHER, COGGIOLA, MICHAEL J.,
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[75] E. Schramm; F. Mühlberger; S. Mitschke; G. Reichardt; R. Schulte-Ladbeck; M.
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[76] Na N, Zhang C, Zhao M, Zhang S, Yang C, Fang X, Zhang X Direct detection
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[78] Williamson LN, Bartlett MG Quantitative liquid chromatography/time-of-flight
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[80] Ochsenbein U, Zeh M, Berset JD. Comparing solid phase extraction and direct
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[81] Caroline McEnnis, Yamac Dikmelik and James B. Spicer (2007) Femtosecond
laser-induced fragmentation and cluster formation studies of solid phase
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[82] Philipp Sulzer, Andreas Mauracher, Stephan Denifl, Michael Probst, Tilmann D.
Märk, Paul Scheier and Eugen Illenberger (2007) Probing di-nitrobenzene by
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[83] Anthony T. Quirk, John M. Bellerby, James F. Carter , Fay A. Thomas and
Jenny C. Hill An initial evaluation of stable isotopic characterisation of postblast
plastic debris from improvised explosive devices Science &Justice
Volume 49, Issue 2, June 2009, Pages 87-93
[84] Claire M. Lock and Wolfram Meier-Augenstein Investigation of isotopic linkage
between precursor and product in the synthesis of a high explosive Forensic
Science International Volume 179, Issues 2-3, 6 August 2008, Pages 157-162
[85] David Widory, Jean-Jacques Minet and Martine Barbe-Leborgne Sourcing
explosives: A multi-isotope approach Science &Justice Volume 49, Issue 2,
June 2009, Pages 62-72
[86] Anat Bernstein, Eilon Adar, Zeev Ronen, Harald Lowag, Willibald Stichler and
Rainer U. Meckenstock Quantifying RDX biodegradation in groundwater using
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[87] Amaral HI, Fernandes J, Berg M, Schwarzenbach RP, Kipfer R. Assessing
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[91] N. Gentile, R.T.W. Siegwolf and O. Delémont Contribution of isotope ratio
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[92] C. Lock and M. Beardah. Establishing Links Between Explosives Precursors
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[93] Sarah J. Benson, Christopher J. Lennard, Philip Maynard, David M. Hill, Anita
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Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) — Preliminary Study on TATP and PETN
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[95] James F. Carter, Jenny C. Hill, Sean Doyle and Claire Lock Results of four
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[96] Dianne Wakelin, Sean Doyle, Chris Andrews, Sarah Mountford and Niamh Nic
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[97] Qianqian Wang, Peter Jander, Cord Fricke-Begemann and Reinhard Noll.
Comparison of 1064 nm and 266 nm excitation of laser-induced plasmas for
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[99] Üzer, E. Erçağ and R. Apak (2008) Spectrophotometric determination of
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[100] V.I. Babushok, F.C. Delucia, P.J. Dagdigian, J.L. Gottfried, C.A. Munson, M.J.
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[102] Erol Erçağ, Ayşem Üzer and Reşat Apak Selective spectrophotometric
determination of TNT using a dicyclohexylamine-based colorimetric sensor
Talanta Volume 78, Issue 3, 15 May 2009, Pages 772-780
[103] Changmin Deng, Qingguo He, Jiangong Cheng, Defeng Zhu, Chao He and
Tong Lin Unusual spectroscopic properties of PPE/TiO2 composite and its
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[104] A.I. Nadezhdinskii, Ya.Ya. Ponurovskii and D.B. Stavrovskii. Non-contact
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Turn-on Sensor. J Forensic Sci Nov2007, Vol. 52 Issue 6, p1308-1313
[107] Shi GH, Shang ZB, Wang Y, Jin WJ, Zhang TC.(2007) Fluorescence
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[109] Ramesh C. Sharma, Tracy S. Miller, Alexander D. Usachev, Jagdish P. Singh,
Fang-Yu Yueh and David L. Monts Photo-fragmentation cross-section of
gaseous 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene at different ultraviolet wavelengths
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[110] Zyryanov GV, Palacios MA, Anzenbacher P Jr. Simple molecule-based
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[111] Tammene Naddo a , Xiaomei Yang, Jeffrey S. Moore and Ling Zang Highly
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film Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical Volume 134, Issue 1, 28 August 2008,
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[118] Sushobhan Ghosh; Partha Sarathi Mukherjee Self-Assembly of a Nanoscopic
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[123] S.P. Sharmaand S.C. Lahiri (2008) Absorption spectroscopic and FTIR studies
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[124] Mou, Yongyan; Rabalais, J. Wayne Detection and Identification of Explosive
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[126] Alison J. Hobro and Bernhard Lendl Stand-off Raman spectroscopy TrAC
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[127] Emmons ED, Tripathi A, Guicheteau JA, Christesen SD, Fountain AW 3rd.
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[128] Y. Fleger, L. Nagli, M. Gaft and M. Rosenbluh Narrow gated Raman and
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[129] Esam M.A. Ali, Howell G.M. Edwards and Ian J. Scowen In-situ detection of
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[132] Gaft and L. Nagli UV gated Raman spectroscopy for standoff detection of
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[137] Korošec, Romana; Kajič, Petra; Bukovec, P. Determination of water,
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[140] K.R. Nagesh MD, Associate Professor, Ritesh G. Menezes MD DNB, Associate
Professor, B. Suresh Kumar Shetty MD, Associate Professor and Anand
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explosion in firecracker factory Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine
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[141] Mark Lenz, Ralf Schmidt, Thomas Muckley, Torsten Donicke, Reinhard Friedel
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[142] Stephen J Wolf MD, Maj Vikhyat S Bebarta MD, USAF, Carl J Bonnett MD,
Prof Peter T Pons MD and Stephen V Cantrill Blast injuries The Lancet
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[143] Deborah L. Warden, Louis M. French, Leslie Shupenko, Jamie Fargus, Gerard
Riedy, Marleigh E. Erickson, Michael S. Jaffee and David F. Moore Case
report of a soldier with primary blast brain injury NeuroImage Volume 47,
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[145] V. Macko, L. Straka and J. Krajcovic C-13 explosion victims – peculiarities of
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[146] Yoko Ihama, Tetsuji Miyazaki, Chiaki Fuke and Zenshin Taira A case of death
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[153] S.D. Gosling and S.J. Hilliard Personality and performance in explosivedetection
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[154] L.J. Myers, E. Mueller and W. Weimar Reliability of operational detector dog
handler teams and associated factors Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical
Applications and Research Volume 4, Issue 6, November-December 2009,
Page 252 (No abstract available)
[155] W.A. Kafka SOKKS ® micro amount animal odor conditioning Journal of
Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research Volume 4, Issue 6,
November-December 2009, Pages 244-245 (No abstract available)
[156] William S. Helton (2007) Skill in Expert Dogs Journal of Experimental
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[157] Aspects of Explosives Detection Chapter 3 - Detection of Explosives by Dogs
J.C. Oxley and L.P. Waggoner Available online 18 February 2009. Copyright ©
2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Edited by: Maurice Marshall and Jimmie
C. Oxley.ISBN: 978-0-12-374533-0
[158] Luis Alberto Marin Guerrero Quick Learning Techniques: Dogs used to detect
narcotics and explosives Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications
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[159] Ehrentreich-Förster E, Orgel D, Krause-Griep A, Cech B, Erdmann VA, Bier F,
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[161] R. González; P. Lucena; L. M. Tobaria; J. J. Laserna Standoff LIBS Detection
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[162] V. Lazic, A. Palucci, S. Jovicevic, C. Poggi and E. Buono. Analysis of
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spectroscopy Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy Volume 64,
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[163] Wallin, Sara; Pettersson, Anna; Östmark, Henric; Hobro, Alison Laser-based
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[164] Gottfried, Jennifer L.; De Lucia Jr., Frank C.; Munson, Chase A.; Miziolek,
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Applied Spectroscopy [Appl Spectrosc] 2008 Apr; Vol. 62 (4), pp. 353-63
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[169] Christian Bohling, Konrad Hohmann, Dirk Scheel, Christoph Bauer, Wolfgang
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Detection: Neutron
[171] Vladivoj Valkovic, Davorin Sudac and Dario Matika Fast neutron sensor for
detection of explosives and chemical warfare agents Applied Radiation and
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[182] Appleby, Roger; Wallace, H. Bruce Standoff Detection of Weapons and
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[187] Zhou Zhen, Chen An-Tao and Feng Li-Shuang Studies on 2,4-DNT Mixtures
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[189] Joseph S. Melinger, N. Laman, and D. Grischkowsky The underlying terahertz
vibrational spectrum of explosives solids Appl. Phys. Lett. / Volume 93 / Issue
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[193] Yingxin Wang, Ziran Zhao, Zhiqiang Chen, Kejun Kang, Bing Feng and Yan
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[199] Qing-li Zhou, Cun-lin Zhang, Kai-jun Mu, Bin Jin, Liang-liang Zhang, Wei-wei
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[206] William Bertozzi, Stephen E. Korbly, Robert J. Ledoux and William Park
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[207] C.E. Demonchy, M. Caamaño, H. Wang, W. Mittig, P. Roussel-Chomaz, H.
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A. Gillibert, L. Giot, M.S. Golovkov, B. Jurado, J.F. Libin, A. Obertelli, E.
Pollaco, A. Rodin, Ch. Spitaels, S. Stepantsov, G. Ter-Akopian and R. Wolski
(2007) MAYA: An active-target detector for binary reactions with exotic beams
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A:
Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment Volume
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Ionizing photon methods for standoff bomb detection Nuclear Instruments and
Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers,
Detectors and Associated Equipment Volume 580, Issue 1 Pages 778-781
[210] K.A. Ten, V.M. Aulchenko, L.A. Lukjanchikov, E.R. Pruuel, L.I. Shekhtman,
B.P. Tolochko, I.L. Zhogin and V.V. Zhulanov Application of introduced nanodiamonds
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Kudryavtsev, M. Tiunov, V. Savkin, V. Shirokov and I. Sorokin (2007) Status of
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James T. Johnson, Scott M. Watson, Alan W. Hunt, Randy Spaulding and
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Gicquel, Frederic; Kalvas, Taneli; Ka-Ngo Leung; Kwan, Joe W Initial
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S. Pesente (2007) Fast neutron inspection of sea containers for the presence
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Sannie, G. Viesti, G. Nebbia, S. Pesente, M. Lunardon, S. Moretto, D. Fabris,
A. Zenoni, G. Bonomi, A. Donzella, A. Fontana, G. Boghen, V. Valkovic, D.
Sudac, M. Moszynski, T. Batsch, M. Gierlik, D. Woski, W. Klamra, P. Isaksson,
P. Le Tourneur, M. Lhuissier, A. Colonna, C. Tintori, P. Peerani, V. Sequeira
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Detection: Ion Mobility Spectroscopy
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[373] Wen-Shing Chen and Sheng-Zhi Lin Destruction of nitrotoluenes in wastewater
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Williams Mitigation of TNT and Destex explosion effects using water mist
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Langwaldt and Riitta Liisa Keiski Concentration of ammonium and nitrate from
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[399] Ben Stenuit, Laurent Eyers, Luc Schuler, Spiros N. Agathos and Isabelle
George Emerging high-throughput approaches to analyze bioremediation of
sites contaminated with hazardous and/or recalcitrant wastes Biotechnology
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Bioremediation: environmental clean-up through pathway engineering Current
Opinion in Biotechnology Volume 19, Issue 5, October 2008, Pages 437-444
[403] Guarav, Malik AK, Rai PK Enhanced extraction of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-
1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) in
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Georg M. Guebitz Development of a biodegradable ethylene glycol dinitratebased
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[408] Benoit Van Aken Transgenic plants for enhanced phytoremediation of toxic
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Balas, Steve Nicolich and Mohammed Sidhoum Biodegradation of the High
Explosive Hexanitrohexaazaiso-wurtzitane (CL-20) Int J Environ Res Public
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Jiansheng Li, Weiqing Han and Lu Xu Biodegradation of 2,4,6-trinitrophenol
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for biological denitrification: Batch and column tests Bioresource
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quantification of nitrite and ammonium ions released from 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene
during biodegradation studies: Eliminating interferences International
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Ang Li and Long Zhang Enhancement of nitroaromatic compounds anaerobic
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Sensitivity, Kinetics, Detonation Properties, Degredation
[419] Byoung Sun Min and Young Chul Park A study on the aliphatic energetic
plasticizers containing nitrate ester and nitramine Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry Volume 15, Issue 4, 25 July 2009, Pages 595-601
[420] Lewis L. Stevens, Nenad Velisavljevic, Daniel E. Hooks, and Dana M.
Dattelbaum The high-pressure phase behavior and compressibility of 2,4,6trinitrotoluene
Appl. Phys. Lett. / Volume 93 / Issue 8 081912 27 August 2008
[421] Xiufang Ma, Weihua Zhu, Jijun Xiao and Heming Xiao Molecular dynamics
study of the structure and performance of simple and double bases propellants
Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 156, Issues 1-3, 15 August 2008,
Pages 201-207
[422] Alex M. Remennikov and Timothy A. Rose (2007) Predicting the effectiveness
of blast wall barriers using neural networks International Journal of Impact
Engineering Volume 34, Issue 12, Pages 1907-1923
[423] Huaxiong Chen, Shusen Chen, Lijie Li, Qingze Jiao, Tianyu Wei and Shaohua
Jin Synthesis, single crystal structure and characterization of
pentanitromonoformylhexaazaisowurtzitane Journal of Hazardous Materials
Volume 175, Issues 1-3, 15 March 2010, Pages 569-574
[424] A.Saikia, R. Sivabalan, B.G. Polke, G.M. Gore, Amarjit Singh, A. Subhananda
Rao and A.K. Sikder Synthesis and characterization of 3,6-bis(1H-1,2,3,4tetrazol-5-ylamino)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine
(BTATz): Novel high-nitrogen content
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Issue 1, 15 October 2009, Pages 306-313
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[425] Hongyan Chen, Tonglai Zhang and Jianguo Zhang Synthesis, characterization
and properties of nitrogen-rich salts of trinitrophloroglucinol Journal of
Hazardous Materials Volume 161, Issues 2-3, 30 January 2009, Pages 1473-
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[426] Thomas M. Klapötke, Norma K. Minar and Jörg Stierstorfer Investigations of
bis(methyltetrazolyl)triazenes as nitrogen-rich ingredients in solid rocket
propellants – Synthesis, characterization and properties Polyhedron Volume
28, Issue 1, 14 January 2009, Pages 13-26
[427] Sheng Jun Luo, Wan Long Pan, Ying Nan Chi, Yan Qing Xu, Kun Lin Huan and
Chang Wen Hu Synthesis and characterization of a novel high thermally stable
energy compound: 1-(1-Adamantylamino)-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene Chinese
Chemical Letters Volume 19, Issue 10, October 2008, Pages 1147-1150
[428] Liqiong Wang, Hongyan Chen, Tonglai Zhang, Jianguo Zhang and Li Yang
(2007) Synthesis, characterization, thermal and explosive properties of
potassium salts of trinitrophloroglucinol Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume
147, Issues 1-2, Pages 576-580
[429] Victor J. Bellitto and Mikhail I. Melnik Surface defects and their role in the
shock sensitivity of cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine Applied Surface Science
Volume 256, Issue 11, 15 March 2010, Pages 3478-3481
[430] Jinshan Li A multivariate relationship for the impact sensitivities of energetic Nnitrocompounds
based on bond dissociation energy Journal of Hazardous
Materials Volume 174, Issues 1-3, 15 February 2010, Pages 728-733
[431] Lemi Türker Contemplation on spark sensitivity of certain nitramine type
explosives Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 169, Issues 1-3, 30
September 2009, Pages 454-459
[432] Lemi Türker Tunneling effect and impact sensitivity of certain explosives
Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 169, Issues 1-3, 30 September 2009,
Pages 819-823
[433] Mohammad Hossein Keshavar , Hamid Reza Pouretedal and Abolfazl Semnani
Reliable prediction of electric spark sensitivity of nitramines: A general
correlation with detonation pressure Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume
167, Issues 1-3, 15 August 2009, Pages 461-466
[434] Keshavarz, Mohammad Hossein; Zali, Abbas; Shokrolahi, Arash A simple
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[435] Xiaolan Song, Yi Wang, Chongwei An, Xiaode Guo and Fengsheng Li
Dependence of particle morphology and size on the mechanical sensitivity and
thermal stability of octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine Journal of
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thermal decomposition and combustion of insensitive explosive 3,3′-diamino-
4,4′-azofurazan (DAAzF) Thermochimica Acta Volume 473, Issues 1-2, 10
July 2008, Pages 25-31
[437] Xiaoshu Song, Xinlu Cheng, Xiangdong Yang, Dehua Li and Rongfeng Linghu
Correlation between the bond dissociation energies and impact sensitivities in
nitramine and polynitro benzoate molecules with polynitro alkyl groupings
Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 150, Issue 2, 31 January 2008, Pages
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Doklady Physical Chemistry 415.2 (August 2007): p.218(3). R. K. Weese, A. K.
Burnham, Heidi C. Turner and T. D. Tran. Exploring the physical, chemical and
thermal characteristics of a new potentially insensitive high explosive RX-55-
AE-5 Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 89.2 (August
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[441] R. K. Weese, A. K. Burnham, Heidi C. Turner and T. D. Tran. Exploring the
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Calorimetry 89.2 (August 2007): p.465(9).
[442] M.R. Sovizi, S.S. Hajimirsadeghi and B. Naderizadeh Effect of particle size on
thermal decomposition of nitrocellulose Journal of Hazardous Materials
Volume 168, Issues 2-3, 15 September 2009, Pages 1134-1139
[443] I.Häring, M. Schönherr and C. Richter Quantitative hazard and risk analysis for
fragments of high-explosive shells in air Reliability Engineering & System
Safety Volume 94, Issue 9, September 2009, Pages 1461-1470
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[444] Xinghua Xie , Jing Zhu and Huisheng Zhou Deflagration products from
emulsion explosive unconventional nano-powders from ion reaction Journal of
Physics: Conference Series Volume 188, Number 1 p. 012003
[445] Z.W. Liu, H.M. Xie, K.X. Li, P.W. Chen and F.L. Huang Fracture behavior of
PBX simulation subject to combined thermal and mechanical loads Polymer
Testing Volume 28, Issue 6, September 2009, Pages 627-635
[446] Jennifer Mott Peuker, Patrick Lynch, Herman Krier and Nick Glumac Optical
depth measurements of fireballs from aluminized high explosives Optics and
Lasers in Engineering Volume 47, Issue 9, September 2009, Pages 1009-1015
[447] Yu, Weifei; Zhang, Tonglai; Huang, Yigang; Yang, Li; Li, Gang; Li, Haibo; Li,
Jinshan; Huang, Hui. Effect of microwave irradiation on TATB explosive.
Journal of Hazardous Materials, Sep2009, Vol. 168 Issue 2/3, p952-954
[448] Song Guo, Qingsong Wang, Jinhua Sun , , Xin Liao and Ze-shan Wang Study
on the influence of moisture content on thermal stability of propellant Journal
of Hazardous Materials Volume 168, Issue 1, 30 August 2009, Pages 536-541
[449] R.S. Damse, B. Omprakash, B.G. Tope, T.K. Chakraborthy and Amarjit Singh
Study of N-n-butyl-N-(2-nitroxyethyl)nitramine in RDX based gun propellant
Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 167, Issues 1-3, 15 August 2009,
Pages 1222-1225
[450] Zhang Jiao-qiang, Gao Hong-xu, Su Li-hong, Hu Rong-zu, Zhao Feng-qi and
Wang Bo-zhou Non-isothermal thermal decomposition reaction kinetics of 2nitroimino-5-nitro-hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine
(NNHT) Journal of Hazardous
Materials Volume 167, Issues 1-3, 15 August 2009, Pages 205-208
[451] Keshavarz, Mohammad Hossein Simple correlation for predicting detonation
velocity of ideal and non-ideal explosives. Journal of Hazardous Materials,
Jul2009, Vol. 166 Issue 2/3, p762-769
[452] Limei Qiu, Xuedong Gong, Jian Zheng and Heming Xiao Theoretical studies
on polynitro-1,3-bishomopentaprismanes as potential high energy density
compounds. Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 166, Issues 2-3, 30 July
2009, Pages 931-938
[453] R.S. Damse and A.K. Sikder Suitability of nitrogen rich compounds for gun
propellant formulations Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 166, Issues 2-
3, 30 July 2009, Pages 967-971
[454] Keshavarz, Mohammad Hossein Prediction of detonation performance of
CHNO and CHNOAl explosives through molecular structure Journal of
Hazardous Materials, Jul2009, Vol. 166 Issue 2/3, p1296-1301
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[455] Dmitry Bedrov, Justin B. Hooper, Grant D. Smith and Thomas D. Sewell
Shock-induced transformations in crystalline RDX: A uniaxial constant-stress
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[456] Im, Hee-Jung; Song, Byoung Chul; Park, Yong Joon; Song, Kyuseok
Classification of materials for explosives from prompt gamma spectra by using
principal component analysis. Applied Radiation & Isotopes, Jul2009, Vol. 67
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[457] Xin Zhang, Yu-man Lin and Zu-liang Chen 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene reduction
kinetics in aqueous solution using nanoscale zero-valent iron Journal of
Hazardous Materials Volume 165, Issues 1-3, 15 June 2009, Pages 923-927
[458] Jian-hua Yi, Feng-qi Zhao, Si-yu Xu, La-ying Zhang, Hong-xu Gao and Rongzu
Hu Effects of pressure and TEGDN content on decomposition reaction
mechanism and kinetics of DB gun propellant containing the mixed ester of
TEGDN and NG Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 165, Issues 1-3, 15
June 2009, Pages 853-859
[459] Richard Gunawan and Dongke Zhang Thermal stability and kinetics of
decomposition of ammonium nitrate in the presence of pyrite Journal of
Hazardous Materials Volume 165, Issues 1-3, 15 June 2009, Pages 751-758
[460] Xiaohong Li, Zhengxin Tang, Xianzhou Zhang and Xiangdong Yang The heats
of formation in a series of nitroester energetic compounds: A theoretical study
Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 165, Issues 1-3, 15 June 2009, Pages
372-378
[461] Ryan M. Richard and David W. Ball. B3LYP calculations on the
thermodynamic properties of a series of nitroxycubanes having the formula
C8H8−x(NO3)x (x = 1–8) Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 164, Issues 2-
3, 30 May 2009, Pages 1595-1600
[462] Dušan Klasovitý, Svatopluk Zeman , , Aleš Růžička, Marcela Jungová and
Michal Roháč cis-1,3,4,6-Tetranitrooctahydroimidazo-[4,5-d]imidazole
(BCHMX), its properties and initiation reactivity Journal of Hazardous Materials
Volume 164, Issues 2-3, 30 May 2009, Pages 954-961
[463] Wei Zhu Jijun Xiao, Weihua Zhu and Heming Xiao Molecular dynamics
simulations of RDX and RDX-based plastic-bonded explosives Journal of
Hazardous Materials Volume 164, Issues 2-3, 30 May 2009, Pages 1082-1088
[464] Shyam S. Shukla, Kenneth L. Dorris and Bhaskara V. Chikkaveeraiah
Photocatalytic degradation of 2,4-dinitrophenol Journal of Hazardous Materials
Volume 164, Issue 1, 15 May 2009, Pages 310-314
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[465] Ling Qiu and Heming Xiao Molecular dynamics study of binding energies,
mechanical properties, and detonation performances of bicyclo-HMX-based
PBXs Journal of Hazardous Materials Volume 164, Issue 1, 15 May 2009,
Pages 329-336
[466] Mauracher, S. Denifl, M. Probst, T. D. Märk, and P. Scheier Investigations Of
Electron Attachment To Nitro-Compounds Towards Explosives AIP Conf.
Proc. -- May 2, 2009 -- Volume 1125, pp. 157-165
[467] Marc J. Schniederjans, Michelle L. Pantoya, James J. Hoffman and Darrin L.
Willauer A multi-objective modeling approach for energetic material evaluation
decisions European Journal of Operational Research Volume 194, Issue 3, 1
May 2009, Pages 629-636
[468] Jacques Bouillard, Alexis Vignes, Olivier Dufaud, Laurent Perrin and
Dominique Thomas Explosion risks from nanomaterials Journal of Physics:
Conference Series Volume 170, Number 1 012032
[469] Miao-miao Li, Gui-xiang Wang, Xiao-de Guo, Zhan-wu Wu and Hong-chang
Song Theoretical studies on the structures, thermodynamic properties,
detonation properties, and pyrolysis mechanisms of four trinitrate esters
Journal of Molecular Structure: THEOCHEM Volume 900, Issues 1-3, 30 April
2009, Pages 90-95
[470] Weihua Zhu, Xiaowen Zhang, Tao Wei and Heming Xiao First-principles study
of crystalline mono-amino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene, 1,3-diamino-2,4,6trinitrobenzene,
and 1,3,5-triamino-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene Journal of Molecular
Structure: THEOCHEM Volume 900, Issues 1-3, 30 April 2009, Pages 84-89
[471] C. Gruau, D. Picart, R. Belmas, E. Bouton, F. Delmaire-Sizes, J. Sabatier and
H. Trumel Ignition of a confined high explosive under low velocity impact
International Journal of Impact Engineering Volume 36, Issue 4, April 2009,
Pages 537-550
[472] Alexey Makarov, Rosario LoBrutto, Christos Christodoulatos and Anton
Jerkovich The use of ultra high-performance liquid chromatography for
studying hydrolysis kinetics of CL-20 and related energetic compounds Journal
of Hazardous Materials Volume 162, Issues 2-3, 15 March 2009, Pages 1034-
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523

Hazardous materials:
Chemical biological radiological
And nuclear
Review: 2007 to 2010
Eric Wenger, PhD
Australian CBRN Data Centre
Australian Federal Police
GPO Box 401
Canberra, ACT 2601
Australia
524

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
 EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
 526
2.
 INTRODUCTION
 526
3.
 CURRENT
CBRN
TRENDS
 527
3.1
 Chemical
 528
3.2
 Biological
 528
3.3
 Radiological
and
nuclear
 528
4.
 DETECTION
 528
4.1
 Field
Detection
 529
4.1.2
Chemical
 529
4.1.3
 Biological
 530
4.1.4
 Radiological
 532
4.2
 Optically­Stimulated
Luminescence
 532
4.3
 In
Vivo
Detection
 533
4.3.1
 Chemical
 533
4.3.2
 Biological
 536
4.3.3
 Radiological
 536
5.
 CBRN
FORENSIC
ANALYSIS
 538
5.1
 Dealing
with
CBR
contaminated
evidence
 538
5.2
 Forensic
study
of
CBRN
materials
 538
5.2.1
 Chemical
 538
5.2.2
 Biological
 539
5.3.3
 Radiological
and
nuclear
 541
5.4
 Impact
of
CBRN
agents
on
standard
forensic
evidence
 541
5.5
 Decontamination
of
forensic
evidence
 542
5.6
 Contaminated
bodies
 543
6.
 CONCLUSION
 544
7.
 REFERENCES
 544
525

1. Executive Summary
Terrorist groups remain interested in using CBR materials in attacks and, as a
result, many countries have been investing in developing a CBRN forensic
capability. However, the crime scene associated with the preparation or
release of hazardous chemical, biological, radiological or nuclear (CBRN)
material provides unique challenges for investigators. Following a terrorist,
criminal or inadvertent release of CBRN agents, emergency service (first
responder) agencies may have to deal with mass casualties and public panic,
where significant numbers of people in the area will seek medical attention
believing they have been exposed. The risks that these agents pose to first
responders and crime scene investigators are significant factors in managing
the response. The CBRN crime scene may be difficult to identify and map,
particularly following a covert release of agents. The crime scene may be
both hazardous and fragile, with the potential for critical material to be lost due
to time delays or lost to the elements, including rain, wind and heat. Efforts to
decontaminate the scene may also destroy critical forensic evidence.
Evidence gathered from the scene will be considered contaminated and
without purpose-build containment laboratories, cannot be examined for
traditional forensic evidence (fingerprints, fibre, handwriting) until it has been
decontaminated. The integrity of this evidence may be compromised by the
agents themselves or by the methods used for decontamination. This article
is a sequel to the previous review that concentrated on the CBR agents 1 and
will concentrate on the research carried out since 2007 in support of forensic
investigation involving CBRN agents. The article is not an exhaustive review
but will highlight the difficulties CBRN agents create for forensic investigation
and will give representative examples of the research carried out to overcome
them.
2. Introduction
In many aspects, a CBRN crime scene is very different to the ones law
enforcement is used to. Indicators of a CBRN terrorist attack may include
mass-casualties with symptoms typical of exposure to a CBRN agent and
claims of responsibility by the perpetrators; however, the covert release of
CBRN agents, particularly biological and radiological agents, may only be
recognised as a result of affected people presenting for medical treatment.
Misdiagnosis and delayed diagnosis, including failure to consider an ‘unusual’
cause, such as an act of terrorism, all reduce the likelihood that a terrorist
event will be detected early and therefore investigated effectively. Critical
evidence, particularly clinical samples from affected individuals, may have
been collected and analysed without law enforcement involvement or
adherence to chain-of-custody principles. This means that locating the site of
the release and the source of the agent used may require a combined effort
by law enforcement investigators and public health epidemiologists, who are
expert at tracing the source of disease outbreaks. Chemical weapons are
more likely to produce immediate effects, so identifying the crime scene and
526

the type of weapon used is often more straight-forward.
Efforts by law enforcement agencies to identify and interdict planning
processes for CBRN terrorism is a key pillar in preventing CBRN attacks. In
these cases, law enforcement agencies are required to recognise the
indicators of a CBRN production/preparation facility (clandestine laboratory),
as well as other indicators of planning, such as recruitment of scientists from
universities or legitimate laboratories, trial releases, acquisition of laboratory
equipment and terrorist training literature/recipes. Crime scene investigators
need to be aware of the indicators of clandestine laboratories involved in the
preparation of materials other than illicit drugs. Key indicators include
dedicated equipment (centrifuges, glassware, detectors), unusual laboratory
chemicals (agar, culture media, chemical precursors) and possible dispersion
devices (explosives, gas cylinders, pressurised sprayers). Specific laboratory
equipment for safe handling of radioactive materials will most likely include
lead bricks for shielding during storage/preparation and radiation detectors.
Finally, once evidence has been processed and is not longer needed, specific
arrangements must be made for the safe destruction and/or disposal of CBRN
agents and contaminated items. Such items may be considered as hazardous
materials with specific requirements and reporting.
The different aspects of investigations involving specific CBRN agents have
recently been described, 2 as well as the main issues linked with chemical 3 or
biological 4 agents. However, the forensic investigations related to such events
may require techniques and protocols not usually available in standard
forensic laboratories. As a result, many countries are developing some CBRN
forensic capabilities, usually by agreements with partner agencies that
specialise in the handling of pathogens or nuclear materials. This review will
attempt to highlight some of the specific issues arising with CBRN agents and
give some recent examples of the techniques that are currently being
developed.
3. Current CBRN trends
The ability to stage a successful CBRN attack will depend greatly on the
technical ability of the terrorist group. While relatively simple “back yard”
laboratories might allow the preparation of some simple biological and
chemical agents, more complex laboratories, requiring commercial laboratory
equipment, would be required to prepare most biological and chemical
warfare agents, particularly if large-scale or high-purity preparations are the
desired end-product. 5 There have not been significant CBRN incidents over
the last 3 years period but the awareness of the disruption that a CBRN attack
may cause is increasing, hence it is only a question of time before a terrorist
attack using CBRN materials is performed.
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3.1 Chemical
Chemical warfare agents (CWA) have been used in the past by terrorist
groups as in the case of the sarin attack in the Tokyo subway in 1995, but
these high end agents have remained mostly aspirational. The opportunistic
nature of most terrorist groups has seen a shift towards using more easily
available toxic industrial chemicals in attacks, such as the recent use of
chlorine in Iraq to enhance improvised explosive devices. Other toxic
chemicals of interest are readily generated gases, pesticides or even heavy
metals such as thallium. 6
3.2 Biological
The 2001 Amerithrax case 7 and aspirations of groups like Al Qaida 8 have
brought anthrax into the limelight and many hoaxes, also known as “white
powder incidents”, are based on this fear. However, this agent is not that easy
to prepare and forensic investigators are more likely to encounter other types
of biological agents. 9 Plague is a potential bioterrorism agent that cannot be
ignored although several technical hurdles remain. However, many natural
toxins such as ricin or abrin are readily prepared and can be used to poison
small numbers of individuals. In general, such toxins are more likely to be
used than bacteriological agents such as anthrax, or viruses that are even
harder to culture.
3.3 Radiological and nuclear
Although the use of a nuclear device by a terrorist group is highly unlikely, the
use of radioactive materials to cause harm is a much more likely scenario. It is
technically infeasible to manufacture radiological material in a clandestine
laboratory as such preparations require access to a nuclear reactor.
Nevertheless, the assembly of an Radiological Dispersion Device using
illicitly-acquired radioactive material and conventional explosives might be
achieved in a clandestine laboratory.
4. Detection
The greatest concern to the investigator is the hazards of the CBRN
environment, hence rapid identification of the agent is essential. Information
gathered from the crime scene will help determine the likely impact and risks
to crime scene examiners and the general public 10 . However, the need for
personal protective equipment (PPE) can severely limit the capability of crime
scene investigators to gather appropriate and adequate evidence. If CBRN
agents have been released in a public place, there will be pressure to rapidly
528

decontaminate the site to limit the potential for further impact on the
environment and to restore normal operations. The greatest challenge
presented to investigators following a covert act of CBRN terrorism may be
identifying and containing the crime scene. Further, there may be multiple
crime scenes, including where the agent was manufactured and the site(s) of
release.
4.1 Field Detection
The presence of CBRN agents in a crime scene may not be visible to the
naked eye, hence a collection approach that maps the crime scene may be
required. Field detectors will allow the scene examiner to determine the
location of the agent for sampling. Further, adequate samples will need to be
collected from within and around the crime scene to determine background
levels. These data will also be important for site remediation and for declaring
the previously contaminated site clean.
A number of field-deployable detectors and screening kits exist that can
rapidly identify the presence of explosive, radiological, chemical and biological
agents at a CBRN scene, though the accuracy and sensitivity of these kits for
specific agents is highly variable. 11 Ultimately, the aim is to be able to
incorporate the techniques for the detection of CBRN agents, drugs and
explosives into a single device that could be used by investigators in confined
places such as clandestine laboratories.
4.1.2 Chemical
There are a number of hand held electronic detectors and colourimetric
indicators that are utilised for presumptive identification of CWA, toxic
industrial chemicals (TICs) and toxic industrial materials (TIMs). Detection
principles utilised in equipment available for the detection of chemicals in the
field include colourimetric, electrochemical, ion mobility spectrometry, flame
photometry, photoionisation and enzyme based techniques. 12,13
Field (on-site) and laboratory (off-site) based analytical methods used for the
detection of chemical warfare agents, their characteristic degradation
products and related compounds have recently been reviewed, 14 with an
emphasis on analytical methods developed over the past five to seven years
which could be used for forensic or other purposes.
Detectors based on the lab-on-a-chip concept are a field of intense study.
These detectors, based on microfluidics, could allow fast and cheap field
detection of a large variety of chemicals including explosive and drugs, which
could potentially make such a device very useful for clandestine laboratory
529

investigations. 15,16 Chips based on capillary electrophoresis (CE) are being
used in the development of novel analysers for chemical and biological threat
agents. 17 Such a capillary electrophoresis (CE)-based microfluidic device with
an integrated carbon sensing electrode has been built for the sensing of
chemicals such as morphine and codeine. 18
New detectors for chemical warfare agents and their degradation products are
currently being developed using the biomimetic properties of molecularly
imprinted polymers (MIPs) that make them attractive for molecular recognition
and sensing. 19
Desorption electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) is a
promising technique for the detection of chemical agents adsorbed on
surfaces. For example, arsenic species can directly be detected on plant
tissues without any sample preparation. 20
Rapid sampling and sample preparation, both in the laboratory and on-site
can be obtained by using solid-phase microextraction (SPME). Unlike
traditional sample preparation methods, SPME is a non-exhaustive extraction
technique in which only a small portion of the target analyte is removed from
the sample matrix. 21 This method is also commonly used for the study of
chemical agents (see Forensic study of CBRN agents).
4.1.3 Biological
Unlike acts of terrorism involving chemical or radiological agents, the
investigation of acts of bioterrorism or biocrimes is hindered by the lack of
real-time detectors for the identification of biological agents. This provides a
significant gap in the ability of first responders to determine risk when tasked
with the initial investigation of potential biological releases. 22,23
To date, immunoassays provide the fastest biological detection technology
that is commercially available. Most immunoassays use an antibody-mediated
capture of their target antigens. Typically, detection and identification is by
means of specific antibodies that are covalently bound with visible or
fluorescent dyes or with enzymes that generate visible or chemiluminescent
reaction products. Such a method has been used for the detection of botulism
neurotoxin A, 24 while a rapid analyte measurement platform (RAMP) as been
applied to the detection of Bacillus anthracis. 25
Similar techniques have been used for the detection of ricin. A combination of
immunocapture of the toxin, examination of the ricin protein on a DNA
substrate that mimics the toxin's natural RNA target, and analysis of the tryptic
fragments of the actual toxin, followed by mass spectrometry, allowed the
530

successful identification of ricin. 26 However, the major downfall of
immunoassay technologies is that they are currently limited to one or a few
targets in each test.
A recent study has evaluated 3 cost-effective biological screening tools
capable of non-specifically determining the presence of a biological material,
such as ricin or anthrax, in a suspicious powder. 27 Evaluation of the Guardian
Bio-Threat alert (BTA) system has shown that it was capable of detecting
several toxins, such as staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB), botulinum toxins
(BTX) A and B, and ricin with no interference from white-powdered materials
or coloured matrices; although temperature and toxin sub-types proved
important factors to take into account. 28,29
Genetic techniques like the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and microarrays
provide the high sensitivity required for the detection of biological agents in
the field and those samples submitted to the laboratory. To date, real time
PCR (RT-PCR) technology has shown the greatest application for the genetic
detection and identification of biological agents. 30 One of the major
disadvantages of RT-PCR is the inability to multiplex numerous simultaneous
targets.
Another technology is based on microarrays, consisting of a bank of nucleic
acid probes bound to the surface of a glass slide. The advantage of
microarrays is that the technology allows the simultaneous analyses of
hundreds to thousands of targets, but traditional microarray technology is
lengthy, complex, and technically difficult. The integration of automation and
software processing has largely removed human involvement into many of the
repetitive tasks involved in the processing and interpretation of microarrays.
Recent work on the combination of nucleic acid amplification, lateral flow
chromatography and microarray technologies provides a novel platform from
which microarrays can be developed for field deployment. 31
Other methods are also appearing, such as biosensors based on the surface
plasmon resonance technique, where the surfaces were prepared with
antibody fragments specific for the biological toxin ricin. 32,33
Stand-off detection has also attracted some attention as it does not require
contact with the agent. The detection and discrimination of the biological
warfare agent surrogate Bacillus subtilis (BG) at a distance of 20 m was
achieved using standoff laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (ST-LIBS)
and linear correlation. 34
A covert biological attack is likely to be detected by medical practitioners in
the first instance, but there is a high likelihood that the diseases arising from a
biological agent may be misdiagnosed due to their rarity. For example,
531

detection systems for plague may now be needed in non-endemic regions
and the existing rapid tests for the diagnosis of plague have been reviewed. 35
4.1.4 Radiological
The techniques for the detection of alpha, beta, gamma and neutron radiation
are well established and current research in the field is mainly focussed in
increasing the sensitivity of these methods. The current state of commercial
instruments has recently been reviewed for different categories of detection
equipment including personal radiation detectors, radioisotope identifiers,
man-portable detection equipment, and radiation portal monitors. In addition,
emerging technologies are being examined, such as spectroscopic detectors
and advanced spectroscopic portal monitors. 36 . The principle of operation and
properties of several types of detectors have also been reviewed, briefly
detailing the functioning of ionization and wire chambers, semiconductor
detectors, and scintillation detectors. 37
4.2 Optically-Stimulated Luminescence
Optically-Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) is a detection technique that allows
the detection of items that have been in close proximity with a radioactive
source. This technique has great potential for counter-terrorism, in helping to
determine locations where a source or a radioactive device may have been
stored.
Ionizing radiation, from a radioactive source, can create charges within
mineral crystals that may be present around it (concrete, ceramics, even
mineral pigments in some paints). These charges can become localized, or
trapped, and held there over significant time scales. Exposure to heat, light, or
high pressures can release the charges, which is often accompanied by a
detectable release of light. OSL provides therefore a useful tool for forensic
investigations and for tracking the former locations of a radioactive source. 38,39
Recent instrumental developments that can make this method more field
portable have been reviewed. 40
A study investigated the OSL response of electronic components found within
portable electronic devices such as cell phones and pagers, portable
computers, music and video players, global positioning system receivers,
cameras, and digital watches. The surface-mount resistors with alumina
porcelain substrates of such items consistently produced OSL following
gamma irradiation, allowing to determine whether such an object has been
close to a source. 41 The same useful property has been found for alumina-rich
electronic components from a USB flash drive. 42 It has even been shown that
some epoxy resins used to encapsulate electronic chips produce some OSL
effects. This is due to the silica used in some cases as filler in the resin. 43
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The same technique has been used to determine whether red brick have
been in contact with beta radiations, 44 and even some glasses have been
found to be suitable for some dosimetric applications. 45 Gypsum wallboards
have also been shown to display OSL after irradiations as low as 500 mGy. 46
4.3 In Vivo Detection
The covert release of CBRN agents, particularly biological and radiological
agents, may remain unrecognized for some time. Accurate and fast diagnosis
will be important to provide fast treatment or to prevent further people being
affected, but doses or internal physiological effects that could help
determining the time since exposure will also be essential in order to locate
the crime scene. It is also anticipated that many terrorist attacks using CBR
agents may not be very effective or lethal, hence the study of metabolites may
provide the only indication that people have been exposed. Another direction
for the research into CBR metabolites is the need for some fast screening
methods that will allow first responders to separate people needing treatment
after exposure from the “worried well”. However, at this stage, most
techniques described below remain laboratory techniques that would be
difficult to apply in the field.
4.3.1 Chemical
The perceived threat of the use of nerve agents by terrorists against civilian
targets implies the need for methods for point-of-care (POC) diagnosis. The
methods that are currently available for the assessment of exposure to nerve
agents are mostly mass-spectrometry based, but new technologies are
emerging that allow immunochemical detection of acetylcholinesterase that is
inhibited by nerve agents. These latter techniques could be more suitable for
field deployment. 47
Tandem mass spectrometry combined with liquid- or gas-chromatography
(LC-MS/MS or GC-MS/MS, respectively) have become methods of choice for
the analysis of toxic chemicals present in the body and the metabolites that
can be produced after exposure to toxic chemicals. Metabolites, proteins,
and/or DNA adducts have been identified for the majority of nerve agents and
vesicants. 48,49 For example, phosphylated butyrylcholinesterase has been
found to be an important biomarker for the confirmation of exposure to nerve
agents. This compound can be analysed by LC-MS/MS by the detection of a
phosphylated nonapeptide produced after the digestion of
butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) with pepsin. 50 Several methods, based on
isotope dilution LC-MS/MS, have been developed for the determination of the
metabolites of organophosphorus nerve agents such as VX, rVX, Sarin (GB),
Soman (GD), or Cyclosarin (GF) in human urine. 51,52
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Other methods to detect organophosphorus nerve agents exposure consist of
refluoridation of nerve agents adducted to the butyrylcholinesterase prior to
solid-phase extraction and analysis by isotope-dilution gas chromatographymass
spectrometry, 53 or by analysis of the dialkylphosphates metabolites
found in urine by GC-MS/MS. 54 The fluoride ion-based regeneration method
has been used successfully in a number of cases. For example, it allowed the
quantification of VX-butyrylcholinesterase adduct in plasma, resulting from a
relatively low-level accidental human exposure case, by gas chromatographyhigh
resolution mass spectrometry of the resulting biomarker ethyl
methylphosphonofluoridate (VX-G), 55 or by GC-MS/MS of VX-G in red blood
cells. 56 The same method was applied to the detection of VX-G in Gottingen
minipig red blood cells after whole-body exposure to VX vapour, 57 while VX in
plasma could be identified directly. 58
The fluoride method was also applied to analysis of soman in rat plasma. 59
The relative toxicity of the four soman stereoisomers was also investigated. 60
A new method, based on high-performance liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry with negative ion electrospray ionisation and time-of-flight
detection (LC-ESI-MS-TOF), has been developed and validated for the
determination of isopropyl methylphosphonic acid (IMPA) and cyclohexyl
methylphosphonic acid (CMPA), the metabolic hydrolysis products of sarin,
and cyclosarin, respectively. 61
A lab-on-a-chip method has been developed for the detection of sarin in
blood, based on continuous-flow microfluidics with sequential stages for lysis
of whole blood, regeneration of free nerve agent from its complex with blood
cholinesterase, protein precipitation, filtration, enzyme-assisted reaction, and
optical detection. 62
Exposures to vesicants such as sulphur mustard (HD) or nitrogen mustard
(HN) can also be determined by metabolites analysis. For example, exposure
to HD can be ascertained by measuring thiodiglycol (TDG), TDG-sulphoxide,
and the bis-mercapturate of mustard sulphone in urine. 63 Other metabolites
such as adducts of HD with albumin, with glutamic and aspartic acids of
plasma proteins or with haemoglobin have also been extensively
studied, 64,65,66 while detection of blood protein adducts can be identified from
the cleavage of protein-hydroxyethylthioethyl esters to produce thiodiglycol. 67
The albumin-derived adduct biomarkers present in blood samples have also
been investigated for nitrogen mustards (HN-1, HN-2, and HN-3). 68
The determination of the sesqui-mustard metabolites bis(2hydroxyethylthio)alkanes
(n = 1-5) and the oxy-mustard metabolite bis(2hydroxyethylthioethyl)ether
in human urine by HPLC-MS/MS could similarly
provide indication of exposure to sesqui- and oxy-mustards that are potential
chemical weapons because of their vesicant properties. 69
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Biomarkers or new analytical methods for exposures to industrial toxics have
also been studied. Chlorine exposure has been found to trigger both 3chlorotyrosine
(CY) and 3,5-dichlorotyrosine (dCY) – produced by the
modification of tyrosine by reactive chlorine – making them promising new
metabolites to investigate. 70 Using an LC-MS/MS method, six rodenticides
could be detected and quantified after liquid/liquid extraction of blood
samples. 71
A simple method, based on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-
MS), has been developed and validated for the determination of fenitrothion,
its metabolite 3-methyl-4-nitrophenol, and five other organophosphorus
pesticides (acephate, cyanophos, methidathion, ethyl-p-nitrophenyl
phenylphosphonothioate, and malathion) in human urine. 72
A gas chromatography-mass spectroscopic (GC-MS) method has also been
described for the routine assessment of organo-phosphorus pesticide
exposure via automated solid phase extraction of the metabolites present in
urine prior to derivatisation with pentafluorobenzyl bromide and quantitation
by GC-MS, 73 while the same method was used for the determination of
dichlorvos in blood samples. 74
Inorganic materials in body samples can also be analysed successfully. A
rapid and reliable method, based on high-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC)-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), has been
developed for the determination of inorganic arsenic in human urine. 75 The
same method was used to analyse Lewisite metabolites in urine. 76
A headspace gas chromatographic method with electron capture detection
has been applied to the determination of cyanide in blood, 77 while highperformance
liquid chromatography with inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS) was used to analyse arsine-exposed human
blood samples for arsenic speciation, 78 or arsenic in urine. 79
A spectrophotometric method has been developed for the analysis of
inorganic arsenic in urine but the samples need to be treated with copper
granules prior to reaction with ammonium molybdate for visual detection. 80
Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) has
been found suitable for the determination of mercury and lead in biological
fluids and tissues at concentrations likely to be encountered in cases of acute
poisoning, but the sensitivity remains weak for lower exposures. 81
Toxic gas such as phosphine, present in body samples, could be detected by
using headspace gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorus detection
(HS-GC/NPD), 82 while concentrations of thiosulphate in urine could indicate
exposure to hydrogen sulphide gas. 83
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4.3.2 Biological
Intensive work has been carried out to determine levels of toxins in the
body, 84 several using new liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric
(LC-MS-MS) methods. Such a method has been developed for the
simultaneous determination of aconitine, mesaconitine, hypaconitine, and
jesaconitine in whole blood, 85 aconitine in blood and urine, 86 or has been used
for the identification of cytosine in post-mortem samples. 87 Saxitoxin and
neosaxitoxin in urine samples preconcentrated by solid-phase extraction
could be identified by electrospray ionisation and tandem mass
spectrometry. 88 Multi-analyte procedures have been developed for the
detection and validated quantification of the toxic alkaloids aconitine, atropine,
colchicine, coniine, cytisine, nicotine and cotinine, physostigmine, and
scopolamine in plasma using liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure
chemical ionisation-mass spectrometry (LC-APCI-MS) and liquid
chromatography-electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-
MS/MS) after solid-phase extraction. 89
Ricinine, a piperidine alkaloidal toxin found in the castor bean, is often
described as a biomarker for exposure to ricin. This biomarker was recently
successfully identified in blood, urine, and vitreous humour specimens using
solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry
(LC-MS/MS) with an electrospray source in positive ionisation mode. 90
Abrin – a toxic protein similar to ricin that is found in the jequirity (or rosary)
seed – has been analysed in urine samples subjected to solid-phase
extraction prior to high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC)
separation and mass spectrometric analysis. 91
A different method to identify exposure to ricin is based on a sensitive
luminescent assay detecting the adenine produced by a ribosome
depurination catalysed by ricin. 92
More sophisticated methods are also starting to appear, such as the use of
nano-electrospray hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the
accurate identification of anatoxin A. 93
4.3.3 Radiological
Medical intervention in the aftermath of a radiological or nuclear incident will
require rapid assessment of the extent of exposure of those involved, usually
via the determination of the internal dose received. 94 A recent study has
compared different methods of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) for the determination of plutonium in urine with a thermal ionisation
536

mass spectrometry (TIMS) method and two alpha spectrometry methods. 95
However, the main field of research is concerned with biodosimetry. 96
Biodosimetry reflects the radiation dose absorbed by an individual. It is not a
direct, real-time reading of dose, but is based on clinical observations and
laboratory results used to estimate the radiation dose received after exposure
or internal contamination. 97 Extensive work is being carried out in this field
with a large variety of techniques, including the development of reliable and
simple mathematical and statistical tools to analyse the observed data. 98
There are several methods that can be used in biodosimetry that will only be
briefly mentioned in this paper as each of them would require a review of their
own. 99 Measurements based on physical methods use dose estimation of
physical changes in samples such as teeth and nails with techniques such as
EPR or spectroscopy. More recently, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)
properties of dental enamel have been investigated as a tool to determine
exposure to radiation. The potential and challenges of OSL for filling the
technological gap in biodosimetry required for medical triage following a
radiological or nuclear accident or terrorist event have been reviewed. 100 The
dose response and thermal stability characteristics of an adult human molar
tooth to blue photon stimulation have been reported. Statistically significant
dose response OSL was observed for beta doses ≥ 1.4 Gy. 101
Biological methods are based on the measure of biological processes that are
affected by radiations, such as abnormal cell divisions or on clinical
parameters such as lymphosite count, chromosomal aberrations, the
identification of specific biomarkers resulting from irradiated organs or timing
of nausea or vomiting. Cytogenetic dosimetry, based on chromosomal
aberrations, is probably the most widespread method and one aspect of it,
chromosome translocations due to radiations, has recently been reviewed. 102
However, while the traditional radiation exposure biomarkers based on
cytogenetic assays serve as standards, the development of rapid and noninvasive
tests for radiation exposure is needed. Genomics based knowledge
is providing new avenues for investigation. The examination of gene
expression after ionizing radiation exposure could provide potential molecular
markers for biodosimetry. 103 Some promising macromolecules found in
normal (without tumour response) irradiated tissues have been identified. 104
Irradiated human cells have recently been screened, and 55 ionizing-radiation
responsive proteins have been identified. 105
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5. CBRN forensic analysis
5.1 Dealing with CBR contaminated evidence
The rarity and nature of CBRN criminal and terrorism events means that
investigations tend to be extensive and protracted. This may necessitate longterm
storage of the agents and contaminated items, including biological
specimens, computers and vehicles. Many CBRN agents, or the solvents in
which they are collected, can react with standard evidence storage containers
(notably plastic bottles or bags), potentially resulting in the loss of evidence
and harm to people and the environment. In addition, some plastics in storage
bags and tubes can absorb chemical and biological agents, thus reducing the
yield of agent for analysis or altering its properties. As most CBRN agents are
unstable, they will degrade over time, losing their viability or potency and even
changing their chemical properties. In some cases, it is possible to treat the
agents to minimise loss (such as freezing, drying, or immobilizing in a matrix),
but all of these treatments will alter the properties of the agent from its original
condition.
Most standard forensic laboratories and law enforcement agencies do not
have appropriate facilities for safe, long-term storage of CBRN agents and
contaminated items. 106 These items may need to be stored in facilities
dedicated to the analysis or research of specific material, where capacity to
store large or multiple items may be lacking. Consideration must be given to
maintaining security, evidence integrity and chain-of-custody for storage of
CBRN items in facilities that are not managed by law enforcement agencies.
5.2 Forensic study of CBRN materials
Specific disciplines are required for the direct examination of CBRN agents
and their production/preparation processes, providing information that can be
used for the attribution of CBRN crime. As with any forensic field, the
application and interpretation of data is critical in excluding a particular source
as the origin of the sample, as well as attributing the sample to a particular
source. This is particularly important in discriminating malicious use of CBRN
agents from natural causes.
5.2.1 Chemical
The analysis of chemical reagents, chemical degradation products and
equipment found at the scene can determine the types agents being
manufactured and the preparatory method. Chemical trace analyses,
including isotopic ratios and mass spectrometry, are not only useful for
chemical tracing but can support microbial forensics to determine the origin of
538

source material (such as toxic plants) and the origins of growth media.
A new analytical protocol for the forensic identification of chemical warfare
agent surrogates for sulphur mustard, sarin, VX, soman and tabun, based on
rapid solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatographic-mass
spectrometric (GC-MS) analysis, has been developed for various media. 107
Desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (DESI-MS) is a
promising new technique for forensic applications. It has been applied to the
direct analysis of CWA samples collected on swabs or solid-phase
microextraction fibres without the need for additional sample handling. 108
A simple and rapid generic method has also been developed for the
simultaneous extraction of various classes of pesticides, mycotoxins, plant
toxins, and veterinary drugs in a range of matrices for subsequent analysis by
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The new generic
extraction method was validated for 136 pesticides, 36 natural toxins, and 86
veterinary drugs in compound feed and honey using ultraperformance liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for analysis. 109
One- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
can also be applied to the identifications of unknown powders. 110
The analysis of impurities in warfare agents to provide forensic signatures is
field that has attracted more attention in recent time. The use of bioinformatic
and chemometric tools on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)
data has proved very useful for the discovery of trace forensic signatures for
sample matching of ten stocks of the nerve-agent precursor known as
methylphosphonic dichloride (dichlor). 111 The feasibility of using analytical and
chemometric methodologies to reveal and exploit the chemical impurity
profiles from commercial di-Me methylphosphonate (DMMP) samples has
been explored to illustrate the type of forensic information that may be
obtained from chemical-attack evidence. 112 Alkyl methylphosphonic acids
(RMPAs) and methylphosphonic acid (MPA), both nerve gas hydrolysis
products, can be readily identified by GC-MS after having undergone tertbutyldimethylsilylation.
113
5.2.2 Biological
Since the Amerithrax events of 2001, a new scientific discipline has appeared
– “microbial forensics” – that is dedicated to the analysis of evidence from an
actual or threatened bioterrorism act, biocrime, or inadvertent
microorganism/toxin release for attribution purposes. 114 The forensic
examination of microbial agents will be most effective if there is sufficient
basic scientific information concerning microbial genetics, evolution,
physiology and ecology of the agent. 115,116
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Apart from providing greater confidence in the data for attribution purposes,
understanding the ‘microbial background’ of relevant geographic areas is
critical for determining the source of the biological agent for consequence
management and for remediation. For example, a catchment-scale microbial
source tracking study in the Leven Estuary drainage basin in northwestern
England has been carried out. Although discrimination between livestock- and
human-derived faecal indicator concentrations could be obtained, the study
failed to provide quantitative source apportionment for the catchment
studied. 117
Mass spectrometry (MS) has proved a useful tool for microbial forensics,
allowing the identification of microorganisms through their microbial
biomarkers rapidly and reliably without time-consuming sample pre-treatment.
These MS techniques have recently been reviewed. 118 Three different mass
spectral techniques were used to characterise the culture medium of Bacillus
spores to predict the production environment of unknown-source
microorganisms. The data of the three techniques were integrated via a
Bayesian statistical framework, significantly improving the accuracy and
robustness of the analyses. 119
Electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) is a promising
emerging technique for microbial forensics. This technique was used for the
detection of trace agar residue within suspect microbial samples, indicating
that the potential agent was produced using agar-solidified growth media. 120
This method, coupled with PCR (PCR/ESI-MS), enables rapid detection,
identification, and serotyping of pathogens. The assay employs a highperformance
mass spectrometer to “weigh” the amplicons obtained from PCR.
The measured masses are then converted to base compositions and, by
comparison against a database of the genetic sequences, the serotype
present in a sample can be determined. 121,122
Hyperspectral imaging-enabled microscopy has also been evaluated for the
identification of chemical signatures in simulated bioagent materials. 123
The sampling of the biological agent is also important. The optimal
procedures for testing everyday surfaces likely to be contaminated following
the release of environmentally stable biological weapons such as anthrax
spores and ricin have been studied, showing that dry devices, including
swabs, wipes, and Trace Evidence Collection Filters, had poor retrieval
efficiencies. 124
In order to get a forensic signature for ricin extracts to enable cultivar and
provenance determination, seeds from 14 Ricinus communis specimens were
collected from the east coast of Australia and their metabolome – the
540

complete set of small-molecule metabolites to be found within a biological
sample – analysed by high pressure liquid chromatography with UV detection
(HPLC-UV), liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS), and 1 H
NMR spectroscopy. 125
5.3.3 Radiological and nuclear
“Nuclear forensics” is the branch of science that seeks to examine the nature,
use and origin of intercepted illicit nuclear or radioactive materials. 126,127 The
analysis seeks to produce a characteristic energetic “signature” for the
material as evidence for attribution. It can be applied to investigations
involving the malevolent use of nuclear materials and is instrumental in
determining adherence to international safeguards for illicit trafficking.
Nuclear forensic analyses are also essential to determine the origin of the
radioactive material.
New methods for the detection of previous neutron irradiation and
reprocessing of illicit nuclear materials have been reported for the
characterisation of nuclear materials of unknown origin in nuclear forensics.
Alpha spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma sector-field mass
spectrometry (ICP-SFMS) were used to measure traces of uranium and
plutonium isotopes derived from previous neutron irradiation of uraniumcontaining
nuclear materials. 128 A similar laser ablation assisted inductively
coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used for the rapid
classification of nuclear forensic evidence based on uranium isotopic
composition of seized samples. 129
Confirmation of the origin of a plutonium sample found in Hanford USA in
2004 as being the X-10 reactor in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, was obtained from
the analytical results of minor actinide isotopes and reactor model
simulations. 130
5.4 Impact of CBRN agents on standard forensic evidence
The CBRN agents themselves, particularly radiological and chemical agents,
can damage or destroy critical evidence, including biological evidence (DNA,
hair, fingerprints), as well as documents, computer data and other reactive
material. Standard forensic analysis for DNA, fingerprints, handwriting from
evidence gathered from a CBRN crime scene will be unsafe if evidence is not
handled with physical protection or decontaminated.
It has been shown that DNA can be safely recovered from blood samples
having been exposed to chemical agents – sulphur mustard, sodium
fluoroacetate, sarin and diazinon – after extraction of the sample, 131 although
541

fresh and aged bloodstains exposed to hydrogen cyanide, phosgene,
chlorine, dimethyl sulphate, sodium fluoroacetate, diazinon, sulphur mustard,
lewisite I and sarin, in gaseous and/or liquid form tended to give lower
concentrations of DNA. 132
The enhancement of latent fingerprints with ninhydrin or cyanoacrylate has
been found to be inhibited by the exposure of such evidence to either
hydrogen chloride or chlorine, resulting in acidification. In such cases, pretreating
the samples with volatile bases, such as triethylamine or
ethanolamine, is required to obtain a successful visualisation of the latent
fingerprints. 133
The effect of aerosolised bacteria on fingerprint impression evidence was
studied by contaminating latent and blood-contaminated fingerprints
deposited on various surfaces with bacteria which serve as standard
simulants for anthrax, plague, and tularaemia. It was found that all of the
fingerprint reagents tested performed well in the presence of these biological
agents. 134
Irradiation of forensic evidences may arise from the release of a radioactive
compound but can also be the result of decontamination of evidences
contaminated with biological agents by irradiation (see also Decontamination
of forensic evidence).
Radiations can have significant impact on fingerprints. Latent fingerprints from
surfaces such as aluminium, glass, paper, and plastic, were exposed to doses
of radiation ranging from 1 to 1000 kGy. With the exception of glass and
aluminium substrates, radiolysis was found to have a considerable effect on
the quality of the developed prints. 135
5.5 Decontamination of forensic evidence
Most forensic laboratories do not have facilities that allow physical
examination of contaminated evidence, so decontamination is often the only
option. Chemical, heat and irradiation methods used for decontamination
have the potential to significantly alter surface materials as well as affecting
the integrity of latent fingerprints, DNA and the characteristics of writing inks
and dyes.
A study of bloodstains exposed to chemical warfare agents and
decontamination agents were subjected to DNA extraction and typing. DNA
profiles were not obtained from blood dilution samples exposed to the
CASCAD and MDF LSA-100 decontamination products. 132
542

One technique to decontaminate evidences contaminated with anthrax spores
is to expose the evidence to formaldehyde gas. A new protocol for such
decontamination was developed that allows the destruction of viable spores
without affecting the successful recovery of latent fingerprints. 136
The effect of electron beam irradiation – used for disinfecting letters
contaminated with biological agents – on various writing inks was
investigated, showing only little degradation of the inks. 137 A similar study
sought to determine whether gamma irradiation could be used as an effective
biological decontaminant. Its effect on the recovery of latent fingermarks and
DNA was tested and established that gamma irradiation was a viable
decontamination option, 138 although an earlier study indicated that the
irradiation process can have a detrimental effect on the success of certain
visualization reagents. 139
The efficacy of two decontamination techniques (chemical and physical)
designed for the removal of radiological material dispersed on documents
have been assessed. The impact that these procedures have on the
development of latent fingermarks and the forensic analysis of the inks on
these documents has also been studied. It was found that slight changes in
the colour and chemical composition of a variety of document inks and a
destruction of fingermark ridges occurred after chemical decontamination, but
physical decontamination had no impact on these parameters. 140
5.6 Contaminated bodies
Bodies contaminated with CBRN agents provide their own challenges. The
bodies themselves may require decontamination, but internal organs may still
retain some of the toxic agent. A guide for medical examiners and coroners
has recently been issued, providing information and suggestions about the
principles involved in decontamination procedures as they may impact on
evidence collection and/or the temporal sequence of death investigation. 141
The risks associated with contaminated CBR fatalities depend on the nature
of the hazards and a number of environmental factors encountered during
handling. The UK Government has developed body process pathway
algorithms to provide guidance to those involved at all stages of contaminated
mass fatalities. 142 The situation is even more complicated for radioactively
contaminated fatalities, where regulations about the transport and storage of
radioactive material may apply. 143
The requirement for identification of the deceased may necessitate the
removal of contaminated samples to a DNA laboratory for processing. The
potential risks and difficulties associated with processing samples of this type
have been reviewed. 144
543

6. Conclusion
The nature of a CBRN crime scene is quite different to other ones. It is an
aggressive environment that requires the investigator to be protected and that
will make the collection of evidence difficult. Detection techniques for chemical
and radiological agents are adequate but a method for rapid identification of
biological agents is still lacking. Detection of the exposure to CBR agents has
come a long way, with biomarkers being identified and the field of
biodosimetry being developed. However, the handling of the evidence
remains a problem. Techniques to investigate the agents, especially regarding
their source attribution, are being developed. Meanwhile obtaining good
forensic evidence from contaminated items remains difficult although more
harmless decontamination methods are being investigated.
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97 Blakely WF. Early Biodosimetry Response: Recommendations for Mass-
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100 Yukihara EG, Mittani J, McKeever SWS, Simon SL. Optically stimulated
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101 Godfrey-Smith DI. Toward in vivo OSL dosimetry of human tooth enamel.
Radiation Measurements 2008; 43 (2-6): 854-858.
102 Tucker JD. Low-dose ionizing radiation and chromosome translocations: A
review of the major considerations for human biological dosimetry.
Mutation Research, Reviews in Mutation Research 2008; 659 (3): 211-220.
103 Chaudhry M. Biomarkers for human radiation exposure. Journal of
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104 Okunieff P, Chen Y, Maguire DJ, Huser AK. Molecular markers of
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105 Ivey RG, Subramanian O, Lorentzen TD, Paulovich AG. Antibody-based
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106 Roffey P, Norman K, Royds D. A mobile laboratory for real time analysis
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107 Kuang W, Fingas M, Li K. Development of an Analytical Protocol for
Forensic Identification of Chemical Warfare Agent Surrogates.
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108 D'Agostino PA, Chenier CL. Desorption electrospray ionization mass
spectrometric analysis of organophosphorus chemical warfare agents using
ion mobility and tandem mass spectrometry. Rapid Communications in
Mass Spectrometry 2010, 24(11): 1617-1624.
552

109 Mol HGJ, Plaza-Bolanos P, Zomer P, De-Rijk TC, Stolker AAM, Mulder
PPJ. Toward a Generic Extraction Method for Simultaneous Determination
of Pesticides, Mycotoxins, Plant Toxins, and Veterinary Drugs in Feed and
Food Matrixes. Analytical Chemistry 2008 December; 80 (24): 9450-9459.
110 Henderson TJ, Cullinan DB, Lawrence RJ, Oyler JM. Positive Identification
of the Principal Component of a White Powder as Scopolamine by
Quantitative One-Dimensional and Two-Dimensional NMR Techniques.
Journal of Forensic Science 2008 January; 53 (1): 151-161.
111 Fraga CG, Clowers BH, Moore RJ, Zink EM. Signature-Discovery
Approach for Sample Matching of a Nerve-Agent Precursor Using Liquid
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry, XCMS, and Chemometrics.
Analytical Chemistry 2010; 82(10): 4165-4173.
112 Hoggard JC, Wahl JH, Synovec RE, Mong GM, Fraga CG. Impurity
Profiling of a Chemical Weapon Precursor for Possible Forensic Signatures
by Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography/Mass
Spectrometry and Chemometrics. Analytical Chemistry 2010; 82(2): 689-
698.
113 Kanamori-Kataoka M, Seto Y. Laboratory identification of the nerve gas
hydrolysis products alkyl methylphosphonic acids and methylphosphonic
acid, by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after tertbutyldimethylsilylation.
Journal of Health Science 2008; 54(5): 513-523.
114 Pattnaik P, Sekhar K. Forensics for tracing microbial signatures:
Biodefence perspective and preparedness for the unforeseen. Indian
Journal of Biotechnology 2008; 7(1): 23-31.
115 Budowle B, Beaudry JA, Barnaby NG, Giusti1 AM, Bannan JD, Keim P.
Role of Law Enforcement Response and Microbial Forensics in
Investigation of Bioterrorism. Croatian Medical Journal 2007; 48: 437-449.
116 Hari KL, Goates AT, Jain R, Towers A, Harpin VS, Robertson JM, Wilson
MR, Samant VS, Ecker DJ, McNeil JA, Budowle B. The Microbial Rosetta
Stone: A Database System for Tracking Infectious Microorganisms.
International Journal of Legal Medicine 2009 January; 123 (1) ; 65-69.
117 Stapleton CM, Wyer MD, Kay D, Crowther J, McDonald AT, Walters M,
Gawler A, Hindle T. Microbial Source Tracking: A Forensic Technique for
Microbial Source Identification. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 2007;
9: 427-439.
118 Ho YP, Reddy PM, Chen CT, Lo AAL. Mass Spectrometry in Microbial
Forensics. Forensic Science Reviews 2009 January; 21 (1): 25-50.
119 Jarman KH, Kreuzer-Martin HW, Wunschel DS, Valentine NB, Cliff JB,
Petersen CE, Colburn HA, Wahl KL. Bayesian-Integrated Microbial
Forensics. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2008 June; 74 (11):
3573–3582.
553

120 Wahl KL, Colburn HA, Wunschel DS, Petersen CE, Jarman KH, Valentine
NB. Residual Agar Determination in Bacterial Spores by Electrospray
Ionization Mass Spectrometry. Analytical Chemistry 2010 February; 82 (4):
1200–1206.
121 Blyn LB, Hall TA, Libby B, Ranken R, Sampath R, Rudnick K, Moradi E,
Desai A, Metzgar D, Russell KL, Freed NE, Balansay M, Broderick MP,
Osuna MA, Hofstadler SA, Ecker DJ. Rapid Detection and Molecular
Serotyping of Adenovirus by Use of PCR Followed by Electrospray
Ionization Mass Spectrometry. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2008
February; 46 (2): 644–651.
122 Wolk DM, Blyn LB, Hall TA, Sampath R, Ranken R, Ivy C, Melton R,
Matthews H, White N, Li F, Harpin V, Ecker DJ, Limbago B, McDougal LK,
Wysocki VH, Cai M, Karroll KC. Pathogen Profiling: Rapid Molecular
Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus by PCR/Electrospray
Ionisation-Mass Spectrometry and Correlation with Phenotype. Journal of
Clinical Microbiology 2009 October; 47 (10): 3129-3137.
123 Brewer LN, Ohlhausen JA, Kotula PG, Michael JR. Forensic Analysis of
Bioagents by X-Ray and TOF-SIMS Hyperspectral Imaging. Forensic
Science International 2008 August; 179 (2-3): 98-106.
124 Frawley DA, Samaan MN, Bull RL, Robertson JM, Mateczun AJ, Turnbull
PCB. Recovery Efficiencies of Anthrax Spores and Ricin from Nonporous
or Nonabsorbent and Porous or Absorbent Surfaces by a Variety of
Sampling Methods. Journal of Forensic Science 2008 September; 53 (5):
1102-1107.
125 Ovenden SPB, Gordon BR, Bagas CK, Muir B, Rochfort S, Bourne DJ. A
Study of the Metabolome of Ricinus communis for Forensic Applications.
Australian Journal of Chemistry 2010; 63: 8–21
126 Nuclear Forensics Role, State of the Art, and Program Needs. Report of
the Joint Working Group of the American Physical Society and the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2010.
127 Koperski JG, Abbodante SF. Nuclear Forensics. Wiley Encyclopaedia of
Forensic Science, Jamieson A, Moenssens A (eds), John Wiley & Sons
Ltd., Chichester, UK, 2009; 1883-1887.
128 Varga Z, Suranyi G. Detection of Previous Neutron Irradiation and
Reprocessing of Uranium Materials for Nuclear Forensic Purposes.
Applied Radiation and Isotopes 2009; 69: 516-522.
129 Stefanka Z, Katona R, Varga Z. Laser Ablation Assisted ICP-MS as a Tool
for Rapid Categorisation of Seized Uranium Oxide Materials Based on
Isotopic Composition Determination. Journal of Analytical Atomic
Spectrometry 2008; 23: 1030-1033
130 Schwantes JM, Douglas M, Bonde SE, Briggs JD, Farmer OT, Greenwood
LR, Lepel EA, Orton CR, Wacker JF, Luksic AT. Nuclear Archaeology in a
Bottle: Evidence of Pre-Trinity U.S. Weapons Activities from a Waste Burial
Site. Analytical Chemistry 2009 February; 81 (4): 1297-1306.
554

131 Wilkinson DA, Hulst AG, De Reuver LPJ, Van Krimpen SH, Van Baar BML.
The Fate of the Chemical Warfare Agent During DNA Extraction. Journal
of Forensic Science 2007 November; 52 (6): 1272-1283.
132 Wilkinson DA, Sweet D, Fairly D. Recovery of DNA from exhibits
contaminated with chemical warfare agents: a preliminary study of the
effects of decontamination agents and chemical warfare agents on DNA.
Canadian Society of Forensic Science Journal 2007 40:15–22.
133 McDonald D, Pope H, Miskelly GM. The Effect of Chlorine and Hydrogen
Chloride on Latent Fingermark Evidence. Forensic Science International
2008 July; 179 (1) 70-77.
134 Wilkinson DA, Larocque S, Astle C, Vogrinetz J. The Effect of Aerosolised
Bacteria on Fingerprint Impression Evidence. Journal of Forensic
Identification 2009 January; 59 (1): 65-79.
135 Colella M, Parkinson A, Evans T, Lennard C, Roux C. The Recovery of
Latent Fingermarks from Evidence Exposed to Ionising Radiation. Journal
of Forensic Science 2009 May; 54 (3): 583-590.
136 Hoile R, Walsh SJ, Roux C. Bioterrorism: processing contaminated
evidence, the effects of formaldehyde gas on the recovery of latent
fingerprints. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2007; 52: 1097-1102.
137 Ramotowski RS, Regen EM. Effect of electron beam irradiation on forensic
evidence. 2. Analysis of writing inks on porous surfaces. Journal of
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138 Hoile R, Banos C, Colella M, Walsh SJ, Roux C. Gamma irradiation as a
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techniques and DNA profiling. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2010; 55(1):
171-177.
139 Ramotowski RS, Regen EM. The Effect of Electron Beam Irradiation on
Forensic Evidence. 1. Latent Print Recovery on Porous and Non-Porous
Surfaces. Journal of Forensic Science 2005 March; 50 (2): 1-9.
140 Parkinson A, Colella M, Evans T. The Development and Evaluation of
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and Latent Fingermarks on Porous Surfaces. Journal of Forensic Science
2010 May; 55(3): 728-734.
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Contaminated Deceased Body Management. American Journal of
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188.
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255-258.
556

Environmental crime
Review : 2007 - 2010
Jennifer A. Suggs, M.S.
EPA NEIC
P.O. Box 25227
Building 25, Denver Federal Center
Denver, Colorado USA 80225-5227
suggs.jennifer@epa.gov
557

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.
 Introduction
 561
2.
 Environmental
crime
 562
3.
 Environmental
forensics
 566
3.1
 10
years
of
environmental
forensics
 566
Table
1.

Topics
in
Selected
Environmental
Forensics
Review
Papers
 567
Table
2.

Survey
of
Recent
Topics
Published
in
Environmental
Forensics
(2007–May
2010)
 570
3.2
 recent
books
and
papers
 571
Table
3.

Recent
Papers
in
the
Field
of
Environmental
Forensics
 572
4.
 Electronic
waste
 577
5.
 Regulatory
and
legislative
considerations
 578
6.
 Contamination
and
health
effects
 580
7.
 Analytical
methods
 582
Table
4.

Publications
from
the
Townsend
Research
Group,
University
of
Florida,
Gainesville
 584
8.
 Biological
waste
 585
8.1
 Concentrated
animal
feeding
operations
(cafos)
 585
8.1.1
 Environmental
Impacts
 585
8.1.2
 Analytical
Methods
for
Emissions
 587
8.1.3
 Methods
for
Tracking
Waste
Releases
 588
8.2
 Microbial
source
tracking
 589
9.
 Acknowledgments
 592
10.
 References
 592
558

LIST OF ACRONYMS
AFO – animal feeding operation
ARF – advance recovery fee
ASTER – Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission
and Reflection Radiometer
BAN – Basel Action Network
BTEX – benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and
xylene
CAA – Clean Air Act
CAFO – concentrated animal feeding operation
CERCLA – Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CF-IRMS – continuous flow-isotope ratio mass
spectrometry
CPU – central processing unit
CRT – cathode ray tube
CWA – Clean Water Act
DART – direct analysis in real time
DIN S4 – extraction method of the Institut fur
Normung, Germany
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
DTSC – California Department of Toxic Substance
Control
EA NEN 7371/NEN 7371 – Dutch Environmental
Agency Availability Test
ECD – electron capture detector
EDXRF – energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
EEE – electrical and electronic equipment
EIA – Environmental Investigation Agency
EPR – extended producer responsibility
ERI – electrical resistivity imaging
ESA – Endangered Species Act
EU – European Union
e-waste – electronic waste
MS – mass spectrometry
MST – microbial source tracking
MSW – municipal solid waste
MTBE – methyl tert-butyl ether
NAPL – non-aqueous phase liquids
NCI – negative chemical ionization
NMP – Nutrient Management Plan
NPDES – National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System
NZEC – New Zealand Environmental Court
OCP – organochlorine pesticide
OP-FTIR – open path Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy
PAH – polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PBDD – polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxin
PBDF – polybrominated dibenzofuran
PCB – polychlorinated biphenyl
PCE – tetrachloroethene
PCR – polymerase chain reaction
PDA – portable digital assistant
FID – flame ionization detector
FIFRA – Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act
FTIR – Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
GC – gas chromatography
GC-ECD – gas chromatography-electron capture
detection
GC-FID – gas chromatography-flame ionization
detection
GC/HRMS – gas chromatography/high-resolution
mass spectrometry
GC-IRMS – gas chromatography-isotope ratio
mass spectrometry
GC-MS, GC/MS – gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry
GC-NCI-MS – gas chromatography-negative
chemical ionization mass spectrometry
GIS – geographic information systems
GPR – ground-penetrating radar
GPS – global positioning system
HARL – Home Appliance Recycling Law (Japan)
HF-LPME – hollow fiber based liquid-phase
microextraction
ICPMS – inductively coupled plasma-mass
spectrometry
IRMS – isotope ratio mass spectrometry
LA – laser ablation
LA-ICPMS – laser ablation inductively coupled
mass spectrometry
LPEUR – Law for Promotion of Effective Utilization
of Resources (Japan)
LPME – liquid-phase microextraction
MODIS – moderate resolution imaging
spectroradiometer
SRM – standard reference material
SW-846 – US EPA Test Methods for Evaluating
Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods
TCA – trichloroethane
TCE – trichloroethene
TCLP – Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TSCA – Toxic Substances Control Act
TTLC – Total Threshold Limit Concentrations
TV – television
UEEE – used electrical and electronic equipment
US – United States
US EPA – United States Environmental Protection
Agency
UV – ultraviolet
VTB – viral toolbox
VOC – volatile organic compound
WEEE – waste electrical and electronic equipment
WET – Waste Extraction Test
XRD – X-ray diffraction
559

LIST OF ACRONYMS
PDF – portable document format
PFPD – pulsed flame photometric detectors
RCRA – Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
REACH – Registration, Evaluation, and
Authorization of Chemicals
RHA – Rivers and Harbors Act
RoHS – Restriction on Hazardous Substances (EU)
RT – reverse transcription
SDWA – Safe Drinking Water Act
SEM – scanning electron microscope
SPLP – Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure
SPE – solid phase extraction
560

1. Introduction
This environmental crime review paper is a follow up to the review prepared for the 15 th
Interpol International Forensic Science Symposium in October 2007. It is compiled
primarily from a literature review of papers published since early 2007 on specific
environmental crime and environmental forensics topics. Books, critical reviews, and
other papers that were published before 2007 are also included when those may be of
interest to the reader.
This paper differs in format from previous environmental crime review papers in that it
does not present a field or crime scene examination component nor does it summarize
the wide range of analytical instrumentation and methods useful to environmental
analysis. For readers desiring some background knowledge for field investigations and
sample analysis, the review papers prepared for the three prior Interpol International
Forensic Science Symposia are available. 1-3
Electronic waste (e-waste) and microbial source tracking are two topics highlighted in
this review. Concerns over the hazardous components in electrical and electronic
equipment (EEE) have led to regulations that seek changes in the components of the
equipment and establish requirements for disposing of that equipment. 4-10 Initiatives for
reuse, recycling, and proper disposal of e-waste are underway in many nations, but the
success of the initiatives and the compliance with regulations vary. 11-15 Literature
searches reveal many papers on the contamination and health effects from improper
recycling of waste EEE (WEEE). 16-20 Many papers discuss the leachability of metal
contaminants from e-waste with reference to the United States Environmental
21, 22
Protection Agency (US EPA) Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP),
23, 24
although metals are not the only contaminants of concern.
Microbial source tracking (MST) involves the various biological and chemical techniques
that can be used to determine a source of fecal pollution. Both human and animal
waste can contaminate water sources, and the origins and causes for contamination
events must be determined in order to prevent repeat occurrences. 25, 26 Several groups
are investigating methods that may help locate a single source or multiple contributing
sources of a contamination. 27-30
Environmental crime and environmental forensics are large, general search topics. The
environmental crime search yielded papers with specific regulatory and enforcement
reviews 31-34 and legal perspectives on environmental crime cases. 35-37
An essential environmental forensics journal turns 10 years old; some of its history and
fundamental papers are revisited. 38 Chemical characterization and determining sources
of pollutants are key topics in environmental forensics papers. 39-44 A new area of
environmental forensics investigations was proposed in response to problems with
imported Chinese drywall. 45
561

2. Environmental crime
For the past 5 years, Solow has reviewed United States (US) environmental crime
enforcement actions from the preceding year. 33, 46-49 For the survey of enforcement
actions of 2009, Solow and Carpenter summarized notable criminal cases and
graphically presented the number of cases prosecuted under environmental statutes.
Also included were summaries of the current US EPA National Enforcement Initiatives,
the new US Department of Justice guidance on discovery, the increased oversight of
chemicals in the Toxic Substances Control Act, and the emerging environmental issue
of e-waste. 33 In addition to the usual summaries of selected cases, Solow’s survey of
2008 developments included a note about criminal cases on illegal discharges from
vessels and the decisions on the corporate criminal liability for acts of non-managerial
employees involved in these illegal discharges. 46 The 2007 survey included an
interview with Stacey Mitchell, chief of the US Department of Justice Environmental
Crimes Section, a mention of a highly-rated environmental crimes blog, and discussions
on Clean Water Act (CWA) prosecutions, voluntary disclosures, and attorney-client
privilege. 47
Sanders writes an annual environmental law review for Water Environment Research.
Each review includes regulatory changes and developments in wastewater treatment,
ambient waters, hazardous wastes, and emerging issues. Also included are summaries
of agreements, enforcement actions, and lawsuits from the previous year. 50-52
Natural Resources & Environment, a journal published quarterly by the Section of
Environment, Energy, and Resources of the American Bar Association, dedicated an
issue to environmental crime (Winter 2009). 53 The issue included an interview with
Granta Nakayama who was the Assistant Administrator for the US EPA Office of
Enforcement and Compliance Assurance at that time. 54 Harrell et al. discussed the
“knowing violations” aspect of criminal prosecutions, the variation in penalties among
the US environmental statutes, and the complexities of prosecuting an environmental
crime case. The authors explained that an environmental prosecutor would need to
develop an understanding of statutes, programs, and the multiple layers of regulations
at federal, state, and local levels and develop the skill to present the complex material to
a jury. 37 Periconi provided a history of environmental crime prosecutions in the State of
New York and added information on current trends and case law developments. The
author described an overall decline in environmental crime prosecutions in New York
state and suggested that one of the reasons given for this decline in prosecutions was
the lack of jail time imposed for environmental crimes. Periconi noted that judges and
juries seem more inclined to impose jail time for more threatening crimes (for example,
street crime); civil enforcement, with its large fines and monitoring programs for
environmental compliance, seems to have moved to the forefront of dealing with
environmental violations. 32 Other topics from the environmental crime articles in the
issue included the role of motive in environmental crimes, victims’ rights, the
prosecution of corporate officers, and new European Union (EU) chemical regulations. 53
562

Burns et al. provided an overview of issues, history, and developments in the wide field
of environmental crime in their book, Environmental Law, Crime, and Justice. The
authors briefly reviewed types of environmental harm and detailed the US history of
environmentalism and how it stimulated actions and policies of the federal government.
The founding and history of the US Environmental Protection Agency, the development
and enforcement of environmental laws (including crime investigation and data
sources), and the connection between environmental justice and enforcement are
detailed. The authors also shared their perspectives on the future challenges and
expectations regarding regulatory efforts and criminal prosecutions of environmental
crimes. 55
Shafer et al. authored a concise summary of environmental crime as defined by US
statutes. The article starts with general introductions to criminal versus civil penalties,
federal enforcement responsibilities, and links with other criminal violations. After a
brief summary of the “knowing” element of criminal violations, the authors discuss the
topics of liability, defenses, voluntary compliance, and sentencing. In the following
sections, the authors examined the Clean Air Act (CAA), the Clean Water Act (CWA),
the Rivers and Harbors Act (RHA), the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), the
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA),
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA), the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), and the
Endangered Species Act (ESA). For each, the authors provided the purpose of the
statute and the elements of an offense of that statute including violations, intent, and
exceptions. Possible defenses and penalties for violation of the statute are also
included. While each section in this review is brief, the authors provided more than 600
footnotes. 36
Brickey wrote Environmental Crime: Law, Policy, Prosecution, a law school textbook
dedicated to the study of environmental crime. The book, published in 2009, includes
discussions on the environmental regulatory framework and the integration of criminal
law principles with environmental law. Brickey focused on the criminal provisions for
CWA, CAA, RCRA, and CERCLA and focused on the concept of knowing
endangerment. Conventional criminal statues often linked to environmental crime
cases, such as conspiracy, mail fraud, false statements, and obstruction of justice, were
discussed along with some enforcement issues. Also included were several excerpts
from legal work by other authors. 56
Sachs compared the chemical toxicity regulations of the US to those of the EU and
found the US regulations lacking. The author stated that the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) in the US has been hindered by the heavy information demand it places on
the US EPA. Thousands of chemicals in production at the time TSCA was written were
exempted from the Act, and, since then, the burden has been on the US EPA to prove
that a chemical poses an unreasonable risk before it can compel testing by the
manufacturer. In contrast to this, other US chemical regulations are more strict;
manufacturers of pesticides and pharmaceuticals are required to prove the safety of
their chemical products to regulators. Sachs described the EU Registration, Evaluation,
563

and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH) legislation as the law that will buttress TSCA.
REACH requires that chemicals manufactured or imported into the EU be registered
and undergo an amount of toxicity testing in line with the volume sold. Manufacturers
outside the EU must provide chemical registration and toxicity data on their chemicals
prior to receiving approval to import into the EU. In this way, the toxicity data collected
via REACH could be shared with the US EPA to improve the enforcement of TSCA. 31
The International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement published
the second edition of the Principles of Environmental Compliance and Enforcement
Handbook in April 2009. 57, 58 This handbook is available in portable document format
(PDF) and can also be accessed online at the International Police Expertise Platform
Web site. 58, 59 This handbook gives the reader an overview of compliance and
enforcement programs, the principles involved to make them effective, and information
on how to build and manage compliance and enforcement programs.
The International Lawyer, a journal published quarterly by the American Bar Association
Section of International Law, has an annual summary of selected developments,
conferences, reports, and publications in international environmental law from the
previous year. Review topics generally include atmosphere and climate, marine
conservation, international hazard management, natural resources, and international
economy and the environment. The 2009 review also included a section on
35, 60, 61
international environmental litigation.
The Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA) published “Environmental Crime–A
Threat to Our Future” in October of 2008 and it is available online in PDF. 62 This report
stated the definition of international environmental crime in five broad areas of offenses:
illegal trade in wildlife, illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances, illegal transport and
dumping of hazardous waste, illegal fishing, and illegal logging and trade in timber.
Four case studies of crimes and five examples of successful enforcement models were
included in the report.
With a strong emphasis on environmental harm and an international perspective on
environmental issues, White wrote Crimes Against Nature: Environmental Criminology
and Ecological Justice. Published in 2008, this book gave many examples of
environmental harm from toxic waste dumping, airborne pollutants, and contamination
of soil and water. The author included sections on environmental regulations and law
enforcement. 63
Tal et al. presented the interesting results of a year-long study of environmental
enforcement actions in Israel. In the study, the authors compared the outcomes of
criminal enforcement for environmental violations to the outcomes of administrative
enforcement for environmental violations. Administrative enforcement actions were
faster, required less detailed evidence, and were perceived as being less costly than
criminal enforcement actions. The authors did warn that the use of administrative
actions might lead a company to determine that the cost of the fines for violations could
be less than the cost to improve environmental controls. “Rather than creating a
564

‘polluter pays’ dynamic, the message becomes: ‘it pays to pollute.’” 64 In contrast, the
stigma of criminal conviction or incarceration might outweigh any financial calculation or
monetary savings in avoiding environmental improvements. The authors came to three
conclusions from their study of 100 criminal cases and 100 administrative actions. The
first conclusion was that the criminal enforcement process was more effective than the
administrative process in achieving present and future compliance. The administrative
path did not have clear consequences and a clear timetable for delaying or ignoring
compliance requests. The administrative system contained additional weaknesses, as
pointed out in the authors’ second conclusion; it lacked a timely schedule and a formal
process for followup site visits to determine compliance. This time delay could allow an
environmental violation to continue too long before a decision is made to pursue a
criminal enforcement action. With the third conclusion, the authors stated the
advantage of a combined benefit and penalty approach to environmental enforcement.
The authors discovered that when enforcement personnel could offer something to the
regulated community, such as funds to assist in making environmental improvements,
compliance and cooperation was more likely to occur. 64
Stott gave a brief summary of how environmental enforcement is handled in the United
Kingdom and provided a table of the acts of Parliament and the statutes used by the
Environment Agency to protect the environment. Stott mentioned that, in general, the
fines for water quality violations were higher than those for waste violations and
speculated that the difference might be due to the inability to demonstrate the real cost
of illegal waste dumping to the courts. One example he presented was a case in which
a man abandoned nearly 200 drums of toxic waste. The fine for this violation was about
half of what the man had been paid when he was hired to do the “disposal.” The
authorities ended up spending more than five times the amount of the fine in cleanup
costs. Stott pointed out that, with new regulations, the Environmental Damage
(Prevention and Remediation) Regulations 2008, the courts could ensure that pollution
will be cleaned up and the costs or damages would be recovered. 65
Bostan et al. outlined how environmental crimes are categorized in Romania. The
authors presented the punishment categories (range of time for imprisonment or range
of criminal fines) and listed below each of the penalties descriptions of qualifying
violations (for example, releasing pollutants into the water, atmosphere, or soil).
Personal responsibility for environmental crimes and the classifications of crimes
stipulated in environmental law in Romania also were presented in the paper. 34
Two papers, both filled with references, discussed the problems and some possible
solutions to environmental pollution issues faced by China. Sitaraman provided the
history behind and development of environmental laws in China. Included in the paper
was a table listing the major environmental laws of China from 1979 to 2004 and a table
listing the major environmental treaties signed or ratified by China. Sitaraman observed
that the environmental laws are not always specific enough to avoid variations in
interpretation between different regions in China. The author suggested cleanup efforts,
advanced technology, and citizen involvement as tools that could be used in improving
environmental protection efforts. 66
565

Goelz suggested that a special environmental court, modeled after the New Zealand
Environmental Court (NZEC), could provide a good start to dealing with China’s
environmental problems. Goelz compared this proposition to the current existence of
China’s other specialized courts, including military courts, railway transport courts,
maritime transport courts, and forestry courts. The author made some comparisons
between the structure and operation of the NZEC and that of the Chinese maritime
courts and outlined how an environmental court could be designed to align with the
Chinese legal system and best serve the goal of environmental protection. 67
3. Environmental forensics
3.1 10 years of environmental forensics
March 2000 hailed the first print issue of the journal Environmental Forensics. The first
editorial traced the emergence of “environmental forensics” back nearly 20 years to the
need to distinguish between different petroleum hydrocarbons in the environment. 68
Since that time, the editors noted, the field of environmental forensics had expanded to
include a wide range of scientific techniques. An investigator was no longer just
involved with identification of hydrocarbon products (often termed “chemical
fingerprinting”) or the fate and transport modeling of hydrocarbons in the environment.
Now, the editors pointed out, an investigator could use a toolbox of techniques from
historical sources and scientific disciplines: historical aerial photography, industrial
archeology, regulatory history, analytical chemistry, atmospheric chemistry,
geochemistry, toxicology, hydrogeology, environmental fate and transport, computer
modeling, and health risk assessment. 68
That editorial also included the prediction that environmental forensics would take a
larger role in regulatory and legal actions in the future. Environmental attorneys,
regulatory agencies, and insurance companies seeking to establish or allocate liability
for environmental contamination would need environmental forensics. Also, scientists
and the courtroom would need the knowledge to distinguish between the evidence and
expert opinions based on valid scientific methods and the unwanted intrusion of junk
science. 68
In the 10 years since that first editorial, Environmental Forensics has become a primary
journal for developments in the field of environmental forensics. It also has been one of
the best sources for reviews on the disciplines and techniques used in environmental
forensics. A newcomer to this type of investigative work would find many excellent
fundamental reviews throughout this journal. The legal and investigative emphasis of
Environmental Forensics complements two other journals in the environmental arena,
the Royal Society of Chemistry’s Journal of Environmental Monitoring and the
International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, the official journal of the
69, 70
International Association of Environmental Analytical Chemistry.
566

Morrison published a two-part critical review of environmental forensics techniques in
the journal during its first year. 71, 72 Morrison stated that when the results of
environmental forensics techniques are introduced in the courtroom as evidence, the
scientific validity of the data can be examined and challenged, often with success. His
purpose for writing the review papers was to give an overview of the different
techniques available and the benefits and purpose of each. The reader could then
choose the single technique or combination of techniques needed to successfully
investigate and prove the case. 71, 72 Table 1 lists the topics from these two Morrison
review papers. It also lists other important review papers published in Environmental
Forensics and the key topics from those papers.
A wide variety of topics have been published in Environmental Forensics since 2007.
Table 2 lists a survey of the topics in these categories. These topics have been
organized in the general categories of contaminants, techniques, location or media,
legal, or other.
Table 1. Topics in Selected Environmental Forensics Review Papers
Title, Author(s) and Year Topics
Critical Review of Environmental
Forensic Techniques, Part I 71
• Aerial Photography
• Underground Storage Tank Corrosion Models
RD Morrison
• Commercial Availability of a Chemical
2000
• Chemical Formulations and Applications Unique to a
Manufacturing Activity
• Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
• Age Dating Chlorinated Solvents
• Presence of Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs)
Critical Review of Environmental
Forensic Techniques, Part II 72
• Petroleum Hydrocarbons
• Fingerprinting
RD Morrison
• Proprietary Additives
2000
• Alkyl-leads
• Oxygenates
• Dyes
• Stable Isotope Analysis
• Weathering and Biomarkers
• Degradation Models
• Pristane/Phytane Ratios
• Benzene/Toluene/Ethylbenzene/Xylene (BTEX)
Ratios
• Contaminant Transport Models
567

Table 1. Topics in Selected Environmental Forensics Review Papers
Title, Author(s) and Year Topics
Application of Forensic
Techniques for Age Dating and
Source Identification in
Environmental Litigation 73
• Underground Storage Tank Corrosion Models
• Commercial Availability of a Chemical
• Chemical Applications Unique to a Manufacturing
Activity
RD Morrison
• Age Dating and Source Identification of Chlorinated
2000
Solvents
• Age Dating and Source Identification of Petroleum
Hydrocarbons
• Proprietary Additives
• Alkyl-Leads
• Lead Scavengers
• Oxygenates
• Stable Isotope Analysis
• Biomarkers
• Degradation Models
• Contaminant Transport Models
• Contaminant Transport through Pavement and Soil
• Ground Water Models
Application of Aerial
Photography and
Photogrammetry in
Environmental Forensic
Investigations 74
• Photograph Acquisition
• Interpretation of Aerial Photography
WM Grip, RW Grip, and RD
Morrison
2000
• Trial Presentation of Aerial Photography
Age Dating of Environmental
Organic Residues 75
• Long-Term Methods:
o Radiometric Carbon-14 (
IR Kaplan
2003
14 C)
o Amino Acid Racemization
• Short-Term Method:
o Release Times of Crude Oil, Refined
Petroleum Fuels, and Chlorinated Solvents
Fingerprinting of Hydrocarbon
Fuel Contaminants: Literature
Review 76
• Fingerprinting Techniques
• Characterization of Hydrocarbon Fuel Contaminants:
o Fingerprinting of Fuel Contaminants Using
H Alimi, T Ertel, and B Schug
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH)
2003
Compounds
o Fingerprinting of Fuel Contaminants Using
Biomarkers
• Fate of Hydrocarbon Fuels in the Environment:
o Weathering of Volatile Aromatic Hydrocarbons
o Weathering of n-Alkanes (or n-Paraffins)
o Weathering of PAHs
o Weathering of Biomarkers
568

Table 1. Topics in Selected Environmental Forensics Review Papers
Title, Author(s) and Year Topics
Combustion-Derived Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the
Environment—A Review 77
• Formation of PAHs
• Environmental Fate:
o Physicochemical Properties
ALC Lima, JW Farrington, and CM o Biodegradation
Reddy
o Photodegradation and Chemical Oxidation
2005
• Source Apportionment:
o Source Diagnostic Ratios
o Historical Records
o Stable Carbon Isotopic Composition
o Radiocarbon Measurements
Forensic Fingerprinting of
Biomarkers for Oil Spill
Characterization and Source
Identification 78
• Biomarker Chemistry
• Biomarker Analysis Methodologies
• Characteristic Fragment Ions of Biomarkers
• Biomarker Distributions
Z Wang, SA Stout, and M Fingas • Diagnostic Ratios (Indices) and Cross-Plots of
2006
Biomarkers
• Unique Biomarker Compounds
• Effects of Weathering on Chemical Composition of Oil
and Biomarkers
• Application of Multivariate Statistical Methods for
Biomarker Fingerprinting
Applied Dendroecology and
Environmental Forensics.
Characterizing and Age Dating
Environmental Releases:
Fundamentals and Case
Studies 79
• Fundamentals:
o Scientific Background
o Dendroecological Principles
o Field and Laboratory Procedures
o Ring-Width Data and Principles
o Characterizing the Environmental Release
J-C Balouet, G Oudijk, KT Smith, I • Case Studies:
Petrisor, H Grudd, and B
o Contamination by Heating Oil
Stocklassa
o Chlorinated Solvent Plume
2007
o Unknown Plumes
o Leaking Underground Storage Tanks
o Former Gasoline Service Station
Age Dating Heating Oil Releases,
Part 1. Heating-Oil Composition
and Subsurface Weathering 80
• Heating-Oil Composition
• Heating Oil in the Subsurface
• Assessing Heating-Oil Release
G Oudijk
• Factors Influencing Petroleum Weathering
2009
o Hydrocarbon Physical State, Petroleum
Chemistry
o Temperature, Light
o Contact with Water, Hydrologic Conditions
o Soil Lithology, Texture, and Moisture
o Oxygen and Nutrients, Redox Conditions
o Vegetation, Bacteriocides
• Sequence of Biodegradation
• Christensen and Larsen Method
569

Table 1. Topics in Selected Environmental Forensics Review Papers
Title, Author(s) and Year Topics
Age Dating Heating Oil Releases,
Part 2. Assessing Weathering
and Release Time Frames
Through Chemistry, Geology and
Site History 81
• Age-Dating Methodology
• Assessing Petroleum Weathering with
Chromatograms
• Sampling and Laboratory Analyses
• Evaluating the Age Range
G Oudijk
• Critiquing the Matrix Age Range
2009
• Range of Error
• Case Study
The Rise and Fall of
Organometallic Additives in
Automotive Gasoline 82
• Tetraethyl Lead-Based Additives
• Lead Scavengers
• Tetraethyl Lead Extenders
G Oudijk
• Mixed Lead Additives
2010
• Lead Phase-Out
• Organometallic Anti-Knock Agents
Reconstructed Plume Method for
Identifying Sources of
Chlorinated Solvents 83
• Degradation Pathways
• Reconstructing Chlorinated Solvent Plumes
• Factoring in Groundwater Flow Direction: A Case
BL Murphy and F Mohsen
Study
2010
• Trichloroethane (TCA) Plume Age-Dating
Table 2. Survey of Recent Topics Published in Environmental Forensics (2007–May
2010)
Category Topics Include
Contaminant Polychlorinated biphenyls, lead, benzene, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
gasolines, fuels, pesticides, dioxins, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE),
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, air particulates, mercury
Technique Fingerprinting (hydrocarbons, lead), ground-penetrating radar (GPR),
environmental modeling, wipe samples and analysis, carbon aerosol
measurements, microscopy, statistics, dendrochronology, isotopic
Location or
Media
characterization
Surface water, ground water, river water, public drinking water, coastal
erosion, soils, air, nutrient concentrations, sewage overflow, mining waste,
buried waste
Legal Bias and testimony, Daubert, cost allocations, crime investigation
Other Biological infections, climate change, greenhouse gases, chemical warfare
agent surrogates, standard reference materials (SRM), radiological hazards
570

3.2 recent books and papers
Hester and Harrison edited the 2008 book Environmental Forensics. This was volume
26 in the Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing series, “Issues in Environmental
Science and Technology.” Contributors to this book tackled topics of source
identification, microbial techniques, spatial considerations of stable isotope analysis,
chemical fingerprinting of petroleum, chlorinated solvents, and ground water pollution. 84
Wang and Stout compiled the expertise of more than 30 scientists into the 2007 book
Oil Spill Environmental Forensics: Fingerprinting and Source Identification. Topics from
the 17 chapters included methods and factors affecting petroleum fingerprinting, spill
site investigation, petroleum biomarker fingerprinting, identification by comprehensive
two-dimensional gas chromatography, quantitative chemical fingerprinting, chemical
heterogeneity of modern marine fuel oils, biodegradation of oil hydrocarbons, oil spill
remote sensing, and case studies. 85
Murphy and Morrison released a second edition of their book, Introduction to
Environmental Forensics, in 2007. This book was designed to give the reader an
organized presentation of the forensic tools available to use in environmental forensics.
Updates from the first edition included chapters on laser ablation inductively coupled
mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS), scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques, Xray
diffraction (XRD), pattern recognition methods, and emerging forensic techniques.
The chapters on sampling techniques and statistical methods were also expanded for
the second edition. 86
Mudge was the editor of Methods in Environmental Forensics, published in 2009.
Mudge also authored or co-authored four of the chapters. Topics in this book included
radionuclides, chemical fingerprinting of petroleum hydrocarbons, biomarkers and
stable isotopes, volatile organic compound (VOC) analysis, molecular microbiology,
statistical methods, air pollution monitoring, and evidence and expert witnesses. 87
Mudge also contributed a chapter in Criminal and Environmental Soil Forensics. 88 Even
though this book had a heavy emphasis on soil forensics specific to the effects from
cadavers and footwear, it contained some chapters that could be useful for the analysis
of pollutants in soils. These chapters included discussions on tracing soil and ground
water pollution, current and future spectroscopic methods of analysis for soils, and a
novel handheld sensor using anodic stripping voltammetry for real-time detection of
heavy metals. 89
Selected papers published on environmental forensics topics are listed and briefly
described in Table 3. Most of these papers are from the past three years, but a few
older review papers are included as an aid to the interested reader.
571

Table 3. Recent Papers in the Field of Environmental Forensics
Category Description
Contaminant • Use of three methods (ground water modeling, subsurface environmental conditions, and isotopic fingerprinting) to
evaluate the extent of dissolved perchlorate from multiple sources 90
• Discussion and case study on analysis and attribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments; emphasized
need for analysis that includes both parent (non-alkylated) and alkylated compounds 91
• Investigation of polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations in gas and particles from ambient air samples taken in a suburb
in Bursa, Turkey; temperature, evaporation, and atmospheric transport were factored into the study 92
• Study of the differences in chemical composition of used and unused motor oils; used motor oils showed the presence of
gasoline combustion residues and PAHs 93
• Testing at an oil and gas processing facility for oil characteristics that would distinguish between naturally-occurring crude
oil seepage and oils present on the site due to anthropogenic causes; use of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry
(GC/MS) and isotopic techniques to determine chemical signatures 94
• Characterization of ambient air particulate mass and ionic species near industrial zones and the Taiwan Strait in central
Taiwan; major components of fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5-10) particulate matter were identified along with possible
sources 95
• Characterization and identification problems of two oil spills (off-road diesel and crude oil) undergoing methanogenic
biodegradation; concerns expressed about fingerprinting during this degradation process 96
• Physical and chemical characterization of samples of “slag” and “tar-like” materials; physical analysis included density,
microscopic character, magnetic properties, and float-sink behavior; chemical analysis included the chemical
fingerprinting of the total extractable hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and petroleum biomarkers 97
• Study on methods to identify sources of PAHs in soils; analyzed for 45 PAHs, measured PAH ratios, and measured nalkanes;
recommended the extended 45 PAH analysis before pursuing additional methods for source identification 98
• Total alkylated PAH characterization using Ion Signature software 99
Technique • Use of satellite images to detect sources of pollution on the coast of Lebanon; more than 80 major sources of pollution
were detected using the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and Landsat 7
ETM+ satellite images 100
• Use of moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) remote sensing technique to take spectral
measurements of five oil types (kerosene, lubricating oil, light diesel oil, heavy diesel oil, and crude oil); MODIS also used
to monitor Jeyeh, Lebanon, storage tank leaking event 40
• Distinguishing oil spill patterns on water and determining the size of a major oil spill on the coast of Lebanon using
satellite imagery 101
• Use of ground-penetrating radar and electrical resistivity imaging (ERI) to assess the geometry and extent of illegally
buried toxic waste 102
572

Table 3. Recent Papers in the Field of Environmental Forensics
Category Description
• Two case studies in using geological materials to exclude or link suspects to illegal waste disposal in Northern Ireland 103
• Study on soil-sampling techniques using soil treated with fipronil insecticide and placed in either opaque bags that block
ultraviolet (UV) light or clear glass jars; factors of time, temperature, humidity, and UV light exposure were considered in
the study 104
• Use of marker compounds and analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography
with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) to identify the oil contamination in the Bohai Sea of China 105
• Use of hollow fiber based liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) coupled with GC, GC-MS, and gas chromatographyisotope
ratio mass spectrometry (GC-IRMS) to identify hydrocarbons in oil spills 44
• Geochemical study of the tailings after processing and disposal of the Agios Filippos high sulfidation epithermal deposit
(located in Kirki in northeast Greece); assessed the toxicity and potential for acid generation from the tailings 106
• Use of gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry to determine stable carbon isotopes for ethenes
in ground water samples to understand history of a trichloroethene (TCE) ground water plume; some results pointed to a
tetrachloroethene (PCE) contamination 107
• Use of gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC/HRMS) to identify compounds from water samples
taken above a pollutant plume 108
• Fingerprinting five types of commercial oils (heavy diesel, crude oil, diesel, gasoline, and lubricant) using three
dimensional fluorescence spectroscopy and GC-MS 39
• Use of compound-specific stable carbon isotope analysis and consideration of physical site characteristics responsible for
petroleum weathering to understand the age of methyl tert-butyl ether releases 109
• Characterization of PAH sources in rivers and coastal environments of Louisiana using principal components analysis 110
• Study of arsenic contamination in Bangladesh using geographic information systems (GIS) and univariate and bivariate
statistical analysis 111
• Use of carbon and hydrogen isotopes to create a two-dimensional isotope fingerprint to differentiate gasoline sources in
environmental assessments of gasoline-contaminated sites 112
• Study on the potential for rapid semi-quantitative surface mapping and analysis of “contaminants” (tested on powdered
aspirin and caffeine) using a direct analysis in real time (DART)/time-of-flight mass spectrometer 113
• New GC-MS method to distinguish between anthropogenic petroleum hydrocarbons and biogenic organic compounds in
order to properly assess contamination sites and toxicity risks 43
• Study to correlate odor index to pollutants from a pharmaceutical plant using open path Fourier transform infrared (OP-
FTIR) and dispersion modeling; two volatile organic compounds emitted by the plant were ethyl acetate and acetone 114
• Comparison between two different sampling media, quartz filters and overhead projection film, for ambient air particulates
and particulate mercury at a site in central Taiwan 115
573

Table 3. Recent Papers in the Field of Environmental Forensics
Category Description
• Development of new method for compound-specific chlorine stable isotope analysis for vinyl chloride using a continuous
flow-isotope ratio mass spectrometer (CF-IRMS); samples were taken from a confined sandy aquifer contaminated with
vinyl chloride and located near Ferrara in northern Italy 116
• Investigation of sources of benzene and chlorobenzene in a shallow and deep aquifer using the combination of
compound-specific isotope analyses, hydrogeologic data, contaminant concentrations, and site history 117
• Analysis of soil samples to determine concentrations of residual organochlorine pesticides (OCP): used gas
chromatograph-electron capture detection (GC-ECD) and gas chromatograph-negative chemical ionization mass
spectrometry (GC-NCI-MS) after Soxhlet extraction and Florisil solid phase extraction (SPE) column cleanup 118
• Critical review of compound-specific stable isotope analysis of organic contaminants using gas chromatography-isotope
ratio mass spectrometry; 2004 paper with biodegradation table and over 100 references 119
• General review of forensic applications of isotope ratio mass spectrometry, including references to the determination of
the origin of contaminants in the environment, analysis of environmental contaminants, and carbon and chlorine isotopes
in chlorinated organic compounds 120
• Review of the applications of stable isotopes to environmental studies including discussions on BTEX, PAHs, PCBs, and
MTBE 121
• Critical review on the current and future uses of enriched stable isotope analysis in biological systems; includes tables
Location or
Media
listing tracers for aquatic ecosystems, terrestrial ecosystems, animals, and humans 122
• Nutrient analysis of the Ria Formosa Lagoon in Portugal; nitrogen sources traced to agricultural areas, and phosphates
traced to a golf complex and sewage discharges 123
• Analysis of sediment samples from eight locations in the Ria Formosa Lagoon for PAH concentrations; the most
significant source of PAHs in the summer was determined to be boat traffic 124
• Determining water quality and sources of pollution in the Ljubljanica River in Slovenia; input of pollution was categorized
as coming from point sources (tannery and municipal effluents) or diffuse sources 125
• Assessment of the metal contamination in the Riou Mort River watershed, an area affected by mining and ore-treatment
activities, using hydrological and geochemical monitoring 126
• Sampling and analysis for organic pollutants along a portion of the Iloilo River in the Philippines; analysis focused on
three major groups: PAHs, branched and cyclic saturated hydrocarbons, and sterols 41
• Site assessment of a section of floodplain used for the disposal of tailings and waste from multiple milling and smelting
operations; historical documents, aerial photographs, geochemical and stratigraphic data were used to develop mixing
equations to quantify contributions from the different mining sources 127
• Use of a methodology to predict the nitrogen concentration in the ground water beneath unsewered areas; field
measurements matched predictions of nitrogen concentration; methodology was applied to the Liman Region in Antalya,
Turkey 128
574

Table 3. Recent Papers in the Field of Environmental Forensics
Category Description
• Study of PAHs and hopanes in atmospheric aerosols from samples taken in nine locations in peninsular Malaysia;
biomass burning and vehicular emissions were determined to be the main sources of PAHs, and the significant source of
hopanes was determined to be crankcase oil in street dust 129
• Case investigation of a subsurface plume of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) at an automotive service station; four
different gasoline formulations were identified from analysis with the conclusion that four separate gasoline releases
occurred 130
• Investigation of a subsurface plume of NAPL at a truck fueling facility; two separate sources of diesel contamination were
determined from the distribution patterns of diesel-range alkane and aromatic hydrocarbons and from an evaluation of
source and weathering diagnostic ratios 131
• Study of a large coastal area to assign sources to PAH contamination; sources were classified as petrogenic, pyrogenic,
diagenetic, or biogenic 42
• Compilation of data from ambient air studies in Asia from 1997 to 2006, including sampling techniques, sampling
instruments, sources, and average concentrations for dry deposition and related metallic elements 132
• Study of total gaseous mercury concentrations in indoor and outdoor air in residential locations in downtown Chongqing,
China; results indicated higher concentrations at night and during the summer, but gaseous mercury concentrations were
highly variable overall due to anthropogenic emissions, atmospheric changes, and unique events 133
• Review of methyl tert-butyl ether water monitoring data from drinking water supplies across the United States 134
• Characterization of street sediments in Kolkata, India; samples were taken from roadsides in residential, industrial, and
inner city areas and from five sites along a highway; results of energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis
showed higher concentrations of copper, zinc, tin, lead, antimony, chromium, and nickel than from ambient or control
soils; Kolkata metals concentrations were compared to reported analyses of street sediments from other major cities 135
Legal • Advice for expert witnesses on presenting scientific findings in a Daubert hearing 136
• Calculating cost allocations to account for plume scenarios and petroleum contamination in soil and ground water 137
Other • Discussion on background values in environmental forensics, including references for general forensic techniques
(historical document review, fingerprinting, statistical analysis) and specific forensic techniques (isotopic fingerprinting,
geophysical method for evaluating metal backgrounds, dendroecology, and deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] fingerprinting) 138
• Discussion of an error in the 1,1,1-trichloroethane (1,1,1-TCA) degradation pathway; reports the literature history with
both correct and incorrect degradation pathways 139
• Study of natural spring water from the Eastern Black Sea region of Turkey of the activity concentrations of four
radionuclides ( 226 Ra, 232 Th, 40 K, and 137 Cs); concentrations of the elements in water were measured using inductively
coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy 140
• Review of developments in standard reference materials (SRMs) for environmental forensics, including details on
recertified and reissued standards and new standards for organic contaminants and biological and environmental
matrices 141
575

Table 3. Recent Papers in the Field of Environmental Forensics
Category Description
• Discussion of the defective Chinese drywall used in thousands of homes in the United States that off-gas sulfur
compounds; overview of the scientific and legal aspects of the problem 45
• Editorial on age-dating gasoline spills when insufficient or inadequate sampling has already occurred; includes table on
various plume observations that can give an indication of the age of the plume 142
• Crime investigation of a landfill site containing hazardous waste from tannery and shoe factories located in Arroio do
Meio, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; traditional crime scene examination conducted, along with a detailed description of the
area; examination of possible pollutant sources; historical data gathering and sampling; and analysis of water, sediment,
and animal tissues 143
576

4. Electronic waste
Electronic waste or “e-waste” has been the fastest-growing part of the solid waste
stream since the mid-1990s. 144 In 2004, an estimated 100 million personal computers
worldwide entered the waste stream for either recycling or disposal. 145 In 2005, more
than 40 million computers were discarded in the US alone. 146 Governmental agencies,
multinational committees, and environmental conservation groups internationally are on
4, 5, 11, 147-153
alert to find solutions to this immense waste problem.
Personal computers (including central processing units, monitors, keyboards and
peripherals) are not the only type of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
of concern. Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) that might be discarded into the
waste stream includes large and small household appliances, cellular and regular
telephones, portable digital assistants (PDAs), video and audio equipment (televisions,
stereos, cameras, video recorders), electrical tools, and other computer equipment
9, 154, 155
(scanners, printers, computer game units).
Some discarded EEE is classified as used or UEEE for the purpose of reuse and/or
recycling. WEEE or e-waste may be banned from importation into a country, but the
same country may allow the importation of UEEE as part of a reuse or recycling
operation. Li et al. listed the criteria to distinguish between WEEE and UEEE for 11
Asian countries, but the criteria are not uniform. The authors stated that the
development of consistent standards could help restrict illegal transboundary movement
and processing of e-waste. 156
Trade shipments of UEEE frequently include some WEEE. The quantity of WEEE in
the shipment of UEEE can be an amount negotiated between the exporter and the
recycler/importer. As part of a deal for desirable UEEE, the recycler/importer agrees to
deal with disposing of the useless WEEE. Or, the addition and amount of WEEE
included in a shipment of UEEE can be an unfortunate surprise. Either way, the WEEE
must be disposed of somehow in the importing country. Schmidt presented the findings
of a Basel Action Network (BAN) investigation in Africa, with examples of the
unregulated EEE market at work. 157 BAN representatives observed thousands of
vendors in the Ikeja Computer Village, near Lagos, Nigeria, selling repaired and
refurbished electronics such as computers, fax machines, and cell phones; these were
products from the UEEE imports. They also observed piles of e-wastes filling swamps;
these were the EEE junk items, the WEEE. When the piles of e-waste grew too high,
the piles were burned, producing fumes that affected the local residents. BAN
estimated that, of the purported UEEE shipped to Nigeria, between 25 to 75 percent
was just waste or WEEE. 157
Williams et al. presented the multiple facets to the reuse and recycling of computers in
the global market and described some contrasting points of view about the e-waste
issue. The authors used published research to make the argument that the hazards of
leaching toxic materials out of landfills are minimal and that disposing of old computers
in landfills could be environmentally preferable to recycling. In contrast, though, a lack
577

of old, reusable computers would decrease the ability for poorer, developing markets to
access information technology through low-priced, refurbished computers.
Economically, the authors stated, the reuse and recycling market provides employment,
but unregulated recycling efforts have caused great harm to the environment and
human health. 158
Ogunseitan et al. described a major difficulty in dealing with the international e-waste
problem in their 2009 policy brief. The difficulty is the worldwide patchwork of
regulations and standards dealing with three parts of the e-waste problem: the
movement of hazardous wastes, the use of hazardous substances, and the recycling
responsibilities of the EEE producers. The authors explained that uneven
implementation of standards had created “risk holes” in poor and developing
communities. These are areas where markets trading in second-hand electronics and
the recycling of illegally imported or domestic e-waste thrive. 144 Mckenna expressed
concerns about illegal e-waste in developing areas and discussed the application of the
Basel Convention and WEEE Directive to the e-waste problem. 159 The Basel
Convention set into action a multi-national agreement on the control of transboundary
movements and disposal of hazardous wastes. 6 The WEEE Directive of the European
Parliament (Directive 2002/96/EC) set an objective to reduce the quantity of waste
electrical and electronic equipment and the harm to the environment. 9 Together, these
European initiatives have the potential to decrease illegal e-waste.
5. Regulatory and legislative considerations
Ladou and Lovegrove briefly outlined the e-waste problem and presented the
regulations and initiatives that might assist countries in dealing with e-wastes. The
Basel Convention was described first, followed by the European Restriction on
Hazardous Substances (RoHS) and the WEEE legislation. The authors mentioned the
US EPA RCRA regulations but indicated that, even with the openness of the US EPA to
consider improvements to these regulations, many impediments exist to actually
revising the regulations. It was noted that several US states have passed or developed
regulations similar to the RoHS legislation of Europe. Regulations developed in Asia
such as the Home Appliance Recycling Law (HARL, Japan) and the Law for Promotion
of Effective Utilization of Resources (LPEUR, Japan) have promoted the recycling of
millions of appliances per year. The Environmental Protection Agency of Taiwan
assigned the responsibility of recycling waste personal computers to producers in 1997.
The authors added that several Asian countries are actively working on their own ewaste
recycling or RoHS-type regulations. 160
The US Government Accountability Office produced a report in 2008 on the weakness
of the US regulations to address e-waste exports. The report explained that cathode
ray tubes (CRT) are the only electronic device regulated by the US EPA. In order for
CRTs to be exported for reuse, the US EPA must receive a notification of the intent to
export CRTs and approval from the importing country. The report gave examples of the
578

need for increased enforcement of the RCRA regulations limiting CRT exports, and it
recommended expanding the scope of the CRT rule to include other e-waste types. 13-15
Kutz provided a quick review of the e-waste problem, including a section on examples
of what initiatives are being taken to correct the problem. The author described the
efforts of businesses, the restrictions on hazardous chemicals as directed by the EU,
and the possibilities of biodegradable and eco-friendly (non-plastic) case designs.
Programs in Japan, Canada, and Taiwan were listed as examples that the US could
observe in order to design a program that could best address e-waste issues. Two
programs were emphasized as potential e-waste solutions: advance recovery fees
(ARFs) and extended producer responsibility (EPR). With ARFs, consumers pay a
recycling or recovery fee for the electronic item at the time the item is purchased with
the purpose of collecting enough funds to support e-recycling programs. EPR programs
can place responsibilities on manufacturers (or producers) with the purpose of having
the manufacturer cover the costs of managing the waste at the end of the product life.
Kutz recommended an EPR program for the US and provided guidance for structuring
that system. 161
EPR and WEEE management initiatives were discussed by Nnorom and Osibanjo. The
authors listed examples of the administrative, economic, and informative policy
instruments that could be used to implement EPR. Administrative instruments included
implementing product take-back programs, setting emission limits, and setting reuse
and recycling targets. Economic approaches included advance disposal fees and
deposit-refund systems. Environmental reports and labeling were two of the informative
instruments listed. WEEE management initiatives in the EU, Finland, Japan,
Switzerland, and Taiwan were also described. 162
Krishna and Kulshrestha discussed the problem of e-waste in developing nations and
focused their attention on Indian and Chinese directives. The authors mentioned the
Basel Convention and the EU WEEE and RoHS Directives and also described the
Bamako Convention. The Bamako Convention was adopted by 51 African countries
and banned the import and trafficking of hazardous waste into Africa. 163
E-waste initiatives for China, Nigeria, and India were the topics of several other papers.
Ye et al. discussed the elements of the current legislative framework for e-waste
management in China and analyzed the challenges that still exist. 12 Ni and Zeng
presented a set of recommendations to address the e-waste crisis that included
enhancing law enforcement, establishing national or local e-waste disposal centers, and
coordinating with other countries on e-waste. 164 Umesi and Onyia suggested solutions
for e-waste problems in Nigeria and lamented the fact that the Basel Convention
provisions are not being enforced in originating countries. The authors recommended
establishing adequate material collection systems and additional systems for the proper
reuse, refurbishment, recovery, and recycling of materials; this plan would create
employment and provide environmentally sound management. 155 Nnorom and
Osibanjo reviewed the flow of secondhand and scrap electronic devices into Nigeria and
noted that much of the growth in the information and communications technology in
579

Nigeria had come from secondhand electronics. Management practices for e-waste
were discussed, and the recommendation was made for formal recycling facilities and
the implementation of a plan to check secondhand EEE for functionality before
importing the devices. 165 Bandyopadhyay reviewed the e-waste management initiatives
in India and included tables on the economics of the e-waste trade, estimates of ewaste
in Mumbai, and the Indian WEEE policy framework. 166 Dwivedy and Mittal
estimated current and future quantities of e-waste generation in India. Estimates of ewaste
quantities could help recyclers make decisions in planning recycling infrastructure
and capacity building. Total WEEE estimates for 2007-2011 were given at
approximately 2.5 million metric tons, about 30 percent of which would be from personal
computers. 167
6. Contamination and health effects
Materials used to manufacture electrical and electronic equipment include both valuable
and hazardous components. Unregulated recovery of the valuable materials, such as
copper wire or gold from UEEE or WEEE, can lead to situations in which very
hazardous components are released, which may endanger human health and the
environment. In his recent review on e-waste, Robinson made the point that the
chemical composition of e-waste varied by the age and the type of the discarded item.
The author stated that the composition continually changes to meet the demands of
technological developments, the regulatory requirements of environmental agencies,
and the requests of environmental organizations. 168 A table of environmental
contaminants found in e-waste was provided in Robinson’s review, and the health
effects of many of these contaminants were listed by Schmidt. 169
Basel Action Network representatives visited a city in China that was, and still is, a
center for e-waste metals recovery. 169 Residents of Guiyu, according to BAN, had been
receiving e-waste to process since 1995. The processes used for recovering metals
included no protection for human health or the environment. Residents heated circuit
boards in woks to melt lead solder to remove computer chips; the molten lead and
burning plastic created toxic fumes. The molten lead was then poured on the ground,
contaminating the soil and nearby river area. Pits filled with “aqua regia,” a strong
combination of hydrochloric and nitric acid that can produce smoke and fumes, were
used to dissolve the computer chips. Used acid and sludge were dumped into the local
river. 169
Guiyu was visited in 2008 by BAN and a crew from the CBS network’s primetime
investigative show, 60 Minutes. The show obtained footage of smoldering piles of ewaste;
residents heating circuit boards in the open air and pooling molten lead;
residents using a large acid bath for gold recovery; and views of the smoky air and the
dark, polluted river water. 170-172
Fresh water samples from inside and outside of Guiyu were analyzed for metals by
Wong et al. High metal concentrations attributable to the acid leaching of e-wastes
(silver, cadmium, copper, and nickel) were found. Lead isotope composition from river
580

samples was studied and indicated that lead from multiple sources was present in the
two local rivers. 19 Air, soil, and sediment samples from locations in Guiyu were
analyzed for persistent organic pollutants (flame retardants, dioxins and furans,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated biphenyls) and heavy metals in
another study. Open combustion of e-waste and the dumping of materials at the end of
the recycling process were suspected as major sources of toxic chemicals in the local
environment. As expected, results from air analyses indicated high levels of the
persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals when compared to samples from other
cities. Soil and sediment analysis results also indicated extremely high levels of
pollution. 173
Lead and cadmium levels in the blood of the children living in Guiyu were the focus of
work by Zheng et al. The authors sampled blood from children in Guiyu and from
children in nearby Chendian, a town with no e-waste processing but with clothing
manufacturing as the primary industry. Analyses found that children in Guiyu had
higher levels of lead and cadmium in the blood when compared to the control children of
Chendian. 174 Xing et al. tested for PCB levels in local river fish, air, and human milk
samples in Guiyu. Results indicated that inhalation exposure was a more significant
contributor to PCB levels in humans than dietary exposure (fish). 20
Analyses were performed on soil samples taken in e-waste recycling areas in the
province of Taizhou, China. Jun-hui and Hang sampled the rice paddy soils from seven
different sites, all with past or present e-waste recycling operations. The authors found
soil samples from one of the active e-waste recycling sites to be high in cadmium. 16
Tang et al. analyzed soil samples taken from Wenling, an emerging e-waste recycling
city in Taizhou. The samples were analyzed for heavy metals (copper, chromium,
cadmium, lead, zinc, mercury, and arsenic) and persistent organic compounds,
including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls. Results
indicated that most heavy metals exceeded the Grade II value of soil quality standards
set by the State Environmental Protection Administration of China. PCB levels ranged
from 2 to more than 200 times higher in the e-waste area soil samples than in samples
taken from reference sites. PAH concentrations were higher in the samples taken near
small, household workshops. Overall, the authors found the small, household e-waste
recycling workshops to be greater contributors to local soil contamination than largescale
plants. 18
Samples from an e-waste recycling facility, agricultural land, and a chemical-industrial
complex in Taizhou were analyzed for polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and
dibenzofurans (PBDD/Fs) by Ma et al. The matrices included workshop-floor dust,
electronic shredder residues, leaves from trees and shrubs, and surface soils.
Estimated daily human intakes of PBDD/Fs were calculated. 175 Chen et al. sampled
surface sediment of the Nanguan River running through Taizhou. The authors
determined the concentrations of PCBs, PAHs, and heavy metals in the samples.
Toxicity studies were also performed. The authors noted that pollutant and toxicity
levels near industrial recycling parks were much lower than areas near household
581

workshops. This was attributed to the management and recycling technologies at use
in the industrial parks. 176
Wang analyzed scalp hair samples to determine heavy metal exposure to residents in
Taizhou and used samples from two control sites for comparison. Lead, copper,
manganese, and cadmium were significantly higher in concentration in the samples
from Taizhou than in the control samples. 177
Contamination by e-waste recycling in Bangalore, India, was studied by Ha et al. The
authors sampled soil, airborne particulates, and human hair from e-waste recycling sites
and reference sites in Bangalore and Chennai and analyzed the samples for trace
elements. Concentrations were reported for 16 elements (vanadium, chromium,
manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, molybdenum, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony,
mercury, thallium, lead, and bismuth). In each results table, the analytical data from this
study were compared to metals analysis data from other published studies. The
authors concluded that a link could be made to metal contamination and exposure from
e-waste recycling. But, the authors conceded, since not all sample types were taken
from every site and no lifestyle considerations were factored into the hair analysis, this
study was only a preliminary start for further investigations. 17
7. Analytical methods
Testing for the hazards posed by e-waste in the US has centered on the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure in the US EPA Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods (SW-846). 178 This test attempts to mimic conditions
for waste items in a landfill. Liquid in a landfill may contact waste and may cause the
leaching of metals or organic chemicals from that waste into the liquid. A breech in the
landfill structure could allow this liquid to exit and contact soils, surface waters, or
ground water. If one or more of 40 contaminants exceed toxicity limits, then the waste
may be considered to be hazardous and issues of waste treatment and land disposal
restrictions may need to be addressed. 179 Questions about the metals that might leach
from e-waste disposed in landfills have led to several studies using computer parts and
the TCLP method.
The primary researcher and research center for e-waste and TCLP during the past 10
years has been Townsend at the University of Florida in Gainesville. 169 The work
published by his research group has shown that lead is the main concern for toxic,
leachable metals in e-waste. Publications by the group are listed and described in
Table 4. Townsend and his group also produced two reports, one for the Florida Center
for Solid and Hazardous Waste Management on lead leachability from CRTs using the
TCLP method, and another for the US EPA in 2004 on RCRA toxicity characterization of
180, 181
computer central processing units (CPU) and additional electronic devices.
Lincoln et al. tested cellular telephones for metals and organic compounds using three
methods: the US EPA TCLP, the California Department of Toxic Substance Control
(DTSC) Waste Extraction Test (WET) and California DTSC’s Total Threshold Limit
582

Concentrations (TTLC). Phones were grouped by physical dimensions; phones outside
a specific size range were eliminated. Phones were shredded, homogenized, then
divided equally by mass. The authors determined that the phones exceeded TCLP
limits for lead and failed the standards of the TTLC for five metals (copper, nickel, lead,
antimny, and zinc). No limits were exceeded in the WET test. 22
Keith et al. used four different leachability tests on a selection of computer CRTs,
printed circuit boards, computer mice, television (TV) remote controls, and mobile
phones. Each of the six devices were crushed and then tested using the US EPA
TCLP, the US EPA Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure (SPLP, Method 1312),
the Dutch Environmental Agency Availability Test (EA NEN 7371), and method DIN S4
of the Institut fur Normung, Germany. The extracts were analyzed for lead, cadmium,
chromium, and silver. TCLP extractions were repeated on composite CRT glass (one
additional extraction) and filter papers with residual solids (two additional extractions),
and then those extracts were filtered and analyzed. Results indicated increased lead
leachability with smaller CRT and circuit board particle sizes and extracted lead
increased with the repeated TCLP extractions. The SPLP, NEN 7371, and DIN S4 tests
yielded very low results for the leachable metals, and the authors did not recommend
those tests for assessing potential metal leachability from e-waste. 21
Researchers are actively seeking ways to detect unwanted chemicals in EEE
fabrication, ways to better deconstruct EEE for recovery or reuse of materials, and ways
to destroy or isolate the usable and disposable WEEE. This requires a thorough
understanding of the chemical composition of the devices, and most researchers have
provided the chemical analysis process details and data in their published work. Lee
and Wright developed a standard operating procedure for assessing and confirming
compliance with regulations on the use of ozone-depleting chemicals. 23 Cui and
Forssberg used a variety of methods to characterize television scrap and determine
cost-effective ways to separate the components of a shredded TV mix for potential
material recovery. 182 Lee et al. presented a good overview of the recycling process for
scrap computers, including tables on compositions of components, separation methods,
and CRT coating-removal methods. 183 Méar et al. characterized the waste funnel and
panel glass from dismantled CRTs in order to develop reuse applications. 184 Chen et al.
tested a pyrovacuum process that removes and recovers lead from the funnel glass of
CRTs and makes a porous glass residue. 185 Guo et al. reviewed the recycling methods
for the non-metallic fractions of printed circuit boards. 186 Hino et al. developed a
method for pulverizing waste printed circuit boards with integrated circuits. 187 Niu and Li
studied two methods for making printed wire boards non-hazardous: high-pressure
compaction and cement solidification. The low-impact resistance of the compacted
samples made them too unstable to be a long-term disposal solution. The results from
the TCLP tests on the highly impact-resistant, solidified samples showed lead at
concentrations well below the regulatory limits; a good indication that this method could
render the boards non-hazardous. 188
583

Table 4. Publications from the Townsend Research Group, University of Florida,
Gainesville
Title, Author (s), Year Description of Research and Results
Characterization of Lead
Leachability from Cathode
Ray Tubes Using the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching
Procedure 189
SE Musson, Y-C Jang, TG
Townsend, and I-H Chung
2000
Leaching of Lead from
Computer Printed Wire
Boards and Cathode Ray
Tubes by Municipal Solid
Waste Landfill Leachates 190
Y-C Jang and TG Townsend
2003
RCRA Toxicity
Characterization of Discarded
Electronic Devices 191
SE Musson, KN Vann, Y-C
Jang, S Mutha, A Jordan, B
Pearson, and TG Townsend
2006
Factors Affecting TCLP Lead
Leachability from Computer
CPUs 192
KN Vann, SE Musson, and TG
Townsend
2006
Evaluation of a Modified
TCLP Methodology for RCRA
Toxicity Characterization of
Computer CPUs 194
K Vann, S Musson, and T
Townsend
2006
Used TCLP procedure on 36 CRTs from television and
computer monitors; found that most color monitors (21 of
30) exceeded regulatory limits for lead, but no
monochrome monitors exceeded lead limits; the frit seal
in color CRTs was a major source of lead
Varied the leachates used to test printed wire boards and
CRTs from television and computer monitors; test
methods and leachates used were the standard TCLP
method; leachates that were sampled from 11 Florida
landfills, California’s Waste Extraction Test, and the US
EPA Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Procedure;
leaching test results indicated that lead concentrations
were highest with the TCLP test, followed by WET, then
leaching with the landfill leachates, and, lastly, the SPLP
test
Thirteen electronic devices (printers, cell phones,
laptops, flat-panel displays, computers peripherals, etc.)
were tested using a standard TCLP test and/or a
modified TCLP test; tests were modified to be either
large-scale or small-scale; all toxicity characteristic
metals were below regulatory limits except lead; a
correlation was observed between the amounts of
ferrous metal in the device and lead concentrations in the
leachate
Performed TCLP particle reduction on computer central
processing units, then leached different combinations of
the CPU components; high lead concentrations were
observed when leaching printed wire boards; again
observed the correlation between decreased lead
concentrations when ferrous metal was included and
discussed the connection of iron and zinc concentrations
and the hydrous ferric oxide interaction as previously
reported by Kendall; 193 also noted increased lead
concentration with increased head space and that
additional particle size reduction below the size required
for TCLP did not increase the lead concentration
Large-size leaching modification to TCLP test to allow
disassembled CPUs to be leached almost whole in a
large vessel in order to be more representative of the
device and decrease sample preparation time; observed
higher lead concentrations for the large-scale leaching
when compared to standard TCLP conditions; reported
that the large-scale leaching did reduce sample
processing time (sample particle reduction), but
584

Table 4. Publications from the Townsend Research Group, University of Florida,
Gainesville
Title, Author (s), Year Description of Research and Results
Impact of Electronic Waste
Disposal on Lead
Concentrations in Landfill
Leachate 195
E Spalvins, B Dubey, and T
Townsend
2008
8. Biological waste
increased the cost of analysis
Created simulated landfills in large columns using a
manufactured municipal solid waste (MSW) in five
columns and excavated waste and soil in the sixth
column; identical sets of e-waste were added to three of
the manufactured MSW columns, and dechlorinated tap
water was added to all columns on nearly 30 occasions;
analysis of extracts from the columns indicated lead
concentrations between columns with e-waste were not
statistically significant when compared with lead
concentrations in the control columns
8.1 Concentrated animal feeding operations (cafos)
Animal Feeding Operations (AFOs) are defined as agricultural operations where
animals are kept and raised in a confined area. 196 Animals live and grow in a
production setting that contains feed, excrement, and sometimes dead animals, all in a
limited space. The US EPA has defined AFOs by animal confinement times and the
lack of natural vegetation in the confined area. Concentrated Animal Feeding
Operations (CAFOs) must meet the definition of an AFO, and, in addition, CAFOs must
meet one of the specific regulatory definitions for small, medium, or large CAFOs.
CAFOs may be regulated by the US EPA under the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) which is a part of the Clean Water Act. 196-198
8.1.1 Environmental Impacts
CAFOs are a concern in the environment due to the large amounts of waste produced
from the confined animal productions. Potential problems include leaking, leaching, or
runoff from manure stockpiles or storage pits, which can contaminate ground water and
fresh water sources. 199, 200 Water contamination is not the sole concern; emissions of
gases and particulate matter from the production facilities may cause harm to human
health.
Water Environment Research publishes several annual reviews on the types of
pollutants that can contaminate surface or ground water. Several review papers
address the contaminants that can originate from agricultural waste and the detection of
chemicals or pathogens in the environment. 201-209
Lee et al. prepared an in-depth review of the effect of agricultural antimicrobials and
hormones on soil and surface and ground waters. The authors covered the use and
occurrence, sorption, degradation, transport processes, and ecological and health
effects of the chemicals. Analytical methods and suggestions for future research were
585

also included. The authors stated that more studies were needed to make conclusive
connections between animal-derived antibiotic-resistant pathogens and human health
impacts. 210
Dolliver and Gupta addressed the potential for manure runoff to be a source of
emerging contaminants to the environment. The authors quantified three commonly
used beef antibiotics, chlortetracycline, monensin, and tylosin, in runoff from beef
manure stockpiles. Due to concerns from the spread of antibiotic resistance in the
environment, they suggested covered facilities to decrease runoff. The authors also
compared the antibiotic runoff concentrations to the antibiotic concentrations reported in
studies about composting and manure-applied fields; the latter concentrations were
generally found to be much less than those found in runoff losses. 199
Sapkota et al. sampled surface and ground water up-gradient and down-gradient of a
swine facility to determine if antibiotic-resistant enterococci and other fecal indicators
were present. The results indicated higher concentrations of fecal bacteria in the down
gradient surface and ground water samples. The down-gradient surface water
concentrations were consistently in excess of the US EPA bacterial water quality for
recreational standards. 200
Seepage of animal wastes stored and treated in anaerobic lagoons can lead to an
increase of nitrate concentrations in the ground water. Excess nitrates in rivers can
lead to areas of hypoxia, or oxygen deficiency, which can dramatically affect the plant
and fish life. Mariappan et al. used nitrogen isotope ratios in their study to identify
sources of lagoon seepage. 15 N isotope enrichment was dependent on the ambient
temperatures and the rates of mixing or addition of fresh wastes. 211
Burkholder et al. reviewed the possible contaminants in CAFO waste and the potential
impacts to water and wildlife. 212 The authors asserted that current livestock waste
management practices are inadequate to protect water resources. This review was
prepared as part of the mini-monograph, “Environmental Health Impacts of
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations: Anticipating Hazards—Searching for
Solutions,” which resulted from a 2004 scientific conference and workshop addressing
CAFO environmental health issues. 213
Emissions from CAFOs can be more than just malodorous and can include ammonia,
hydrogen sulfide, and particulate matter contaminated with endotoxins. Endotoxins are
inflammatory agents produced by bacteria that can either aid in the development of
immunity or cause harm by inducing asthmatic reactions. Heederik et al. reviewed the
human health effects from CAFO emissions as part of the CAFO mini-monograph
mentioned above. 214
Wash and runoff water from CAFOs can be used beneficially as a fertilizer and soil
215, 216
amendment when an acceptable Nutrient Management Plan (NMP) is followed.
An additional advantage is the reduction in the need for fresh water irrigation in fields
when the CAFO water is applied.
586

Bradford et al. provided a thorough review on the use of CAFO wastewater on
agricultural lands. The review was divided into three sections: environmental
contaminants, land application, and treatments. Six classes of potential waste lagoon
contaminants were addressed in the environmental contaminant section: nutrients and
organics, heavy metals, salts, pathogens, antibiotics, and hormones. For each of these
classes, the authors described the potential environmental problems. For example, the
authors stated that some waste lagoon water exceeded the recommended copper and
zinc concentrations for irrigation water. The potential negative effects from an excess of
these metals could be phytotoxicity and surface and ground water contamination. The
land application section of the review discussed the US EPA requirement for NMPs that
are designed to consider all nutrient input sources, nutrient losses, and nutrient uptake
rates for the plants. 215 The authors explained the basic assumption of the NMP, that all
CAFO contaminants would be absorbed or degraded in the root zone and no
contaminants would enter the surface or ground water. Possible weaknesses to NMP
designs and implementation also were discussed in the paper. 216
8.1.2 Analytical Methods for Emissions
Bunton et al. reviewed methods for ammonia and hydrogen sulfide monitoring. The
review contained information on the type of equipment and analyzers that have been
used in various studies. The authors provided cautionary summaries regarding odor
measurements and the monitoring of particulate matter and described potential
problems with each. For odor measurements, a chemical characterization can be
performed and constituents quantified, but the result may be a complex mixture of
compounds and the correlation of the compounds to human scent responses can be
poor. Also, taking only air samples in the field may leave a study incomplete because
some odorous material may attach to particulate matter that could be filtered out,
depending on the sampling method. For particulate matter emitted from CAFOs,
instrumentation does exist for sampling and measurement, but the authors pointed out
that dust in the rural areas around CAFOs has the potential to interfere with those
results. The authors also included sections on plume dispersion models and
recommendations for future studies. 217
Ni and Heber provided an extensive review of ammonia sampling and measurement
techniques for animal facilities in volume 98 of the Advances in Agronomy series. The
review included sampling methods categorized into closed, point, and open-path
methods and advice for selecting a method. Measurement techniques and devices
were described in brief and were well-referenced. A comparison of ammonia
measurement devices and summaries from several comparative studies were provided
at the end of the measurement section. An important addition to the review was the
detailed table of potential sources of error in the sampling or measurement of ammonia
concentrations. The authors categorized the errors (calibration, sampling,
measurement, and data processing) and provided suggestions to reduce or eliminate
each source of error. 218
587

Todd et al. used acid gas washing samplers and a calibrated flow injection analyzer to
obtain ammonia concentrations from sampling sites at a beef cattle feedyard.
Continuous ammonia measurements were taken during a summer period using a
chemiluminescence analyzer. Measurements for wind velocity and direction, air
temperature and humidity, and precipitation were also collected to provide further data
for modeling ammonia emission rates in spring, summer, and winter months. 219
Trabue et al. measured volatile sulfur compounds at swine and poultry feeding
operations. They employed a canister-based method and used fused silica-lined minicanisters
to collect the air samples at lagoon and building locations. The sampled air
was focused into a gas chromatograph system with both mass spectrometer and pulsed
flame photometric detectors (PFPD). Target compounds for the analysis were
hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, methanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, carbon disulfide,
dimethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide. Storage stability for samples was a problem
especially when sampled from warm, humid environments. 220
8.1.3 Methods for Tracking Waste Releases
Several research groups have published their efforts to find one or more optimal
methods to trace the source of an overflow or leak from a CAFO. 28, 199, 200, 211 Causes of
leaks or overflows can be obvious, for example, from a weather related event (heavy
rains filling an uncovered lagoon) or a structural or engineering fault (a lagoon wall
failure). Observed lagoon problems like these likely would not require tracking methods
to find the source of waste contamination and encourage a CAFO operator to improve
the facilities to avoid future contamination events. But, when fecal environmental
contamination occurs and several potential sources of fecal waste exist, using source
identification tools may be the solution to track down the cause of contamination.
Environmental contamination from fecal waste is not limited to AFOs or CAFOs. When
urban areas are involved, fecal material entering the environment may come from
humans (leaks in sanitary sewers or sewer connections to storm drains), domestic
animals (including pets), and urban wildlife (birds, raccoons, rats, etc.). Mallin et al.
listed these contributors to waste from urban areas and studied the impacts from
stormwater runoff in urban, suburban, and rural areas. The authors noted that, in some
rural areas, unsuitable septic systems, pastureland, and farmland receiving applications
of manure as fertilizer can contribute to fecal material found in waterways. 26
Chemicals such as artificial sweeteners, pharmaceuticals, detergents, fragrances, and
caffeine can be used to trace discharges into a waste stream. 30, 221 Buerge et al. in
Switzerland sampled untreated and treated wastewater, ground water, and tap water
and tested for the presence of four sweeteners, acesulfame, cyclamate, saccharin, and
sucralose. The authors observed that acesulfame was prevalent in all waters and was
not removed through wastewater treatment, but cyclamate and saccharin were
removed. Buerge’s team concluded that assumptions could be made about the source
of a leak from those sweeteners. Assuming that some contamination has occurred,
ground water samples without saccharin and cyclamate could point to a treated
588

wastewater leak and ground water samples with those two sweeteners could indicate a
leak from untreated wastewater. 221
Using specific chemicals to locate the source of a release of fecal waste into water
resources is one of the tracking methods discussed in the literature and, in the paper by
Cimenti et al., it is listed as “chemical microbial source tracking” or chemical MST.
Microbial source tracking encompasses many different methods that can be used alone
for a single-source investigation or in combination for scenarios in which multiple
sources of contamination exist. The large volume of research and developments in
MST is complex, but some excellent papers exist to help the investigator decide the
most efficient and informative tracking approach. 30
8.2 Microbial source tracking
The goal of microbial source tracking is to determine the source of a fecal contamination
event. To trace back to the origin, it is necessary to determine what species produced
the fecal material. Is the fecal material of human or animal origin? If animal, can
indicators point to the type of animal (agricultural animals, domestic animals, urban
wildlife)?
Contamination can also be from multiple sources. More than one method of tracking
may be needed to locate those sources and the pathways used to spread the fecal
waste in the environment. Considering the ecology of an area can be an essential tool
in understanding the spread of contamination. 25
Cimenti et al. provided an excellent overview of microbial source tracking in their
concise, informative review paper. The authors acknowledged several fundamental
papers in microbial source tracking in their text. 222-225 In the paper, MST methods were
sorted into five classifications: direct monitoring of pathogens, culturing methods,
phenotypic methods, genetic methods, and chemical methods. The classifications and
several examples of each were listed in a summary table and later described in detail
with methods and references to published work. The authors suggested that direct
monitoring of pathogens, while effective for determining health risks, may not be the
most efficient or affordable. More than one pathogen may exist in water affected by
fecal contamination, and detection of pathogens can be complex and costly. 30
The other four method classes (culturing methods, phenotypic methods, genetic
methods, and chemical methods) track fecal indicators, which, if chosen well, should
only be present whenever fecal contamination is present; the indicators should not be a
normal part of the environment. An ideal indicator should also be effective for tracking
in all types of waters (surface, ground, and marine waters). These indicator
characteristics and a few others (fast analysis, cost-effective, etc.) were listed in the
Cimenti paper and credited to a book by Maier et al. 226 Gerba contributed the chapter
on indicator microorganisms, and in it he listed the criteria for an ideal indicator
organism. 227
589

Detection of enteroviruses falls into the category of direct monitoring of pathogens.
Enteroviruses are very host-specific, and detection of these confirms fecal
contamination. But, the authors pointed out, the lack of enteroviruses in a sample does
not exclude fecal contamination because water polluted by feces does not always have
enteroviruses present. 30 Rajtar et al. detailed the danger of enteroviruses in the aquatic
environment and listed some methods of detection. 228
Culturing methods involve isolating a microorganism that is specific to a potential source
of the fecal pollution (humans, agricultural animals, domestic animals, urban wildlife).
These microorganisms can include fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, protozoa, or
viruses. The authors cautioned that culturing media is rarely selective and that few
organisms are host-specific and have “ideal indicator” criteria as presented in Maier et
30, 226, 227
al.
Phenotypic methods look at bacterial species that are present in both humans and
animals, but differentiate the bacterium based on how it changed while existing within a
specific host. Different phenotypic characteristics develop under different intestinal
conditions. The authors stated that biochemical responses to these methods could be
too similar to distinguish a difference, but, if multiple phenotypic characteristics are
detected, the accuracy of the method could be improved. Antibiotic resistance analysis
is one phenotypic method. Bacteria are isolated, cultured, and measured for their
responses to several antibiotics. 30
The preferred MST methods are the genetic methods. These use intestinal bacteria to
discern sources of fecal pollution by either making a host-specific match for DNA or
identifying a genetic characteristic that indicates an adaptation to a specific host. The
drawback to the genetic method is that it requires databases or libraries to match the
genetic profiles, and these profiles can vary by location and time. The authors provided
brief descriptions of a few genetic methods, but point to other papers for more
information. 30
Cimenti et al. also listed several possible chemical tracers that can be either directly
associated with fecal material or can be discharged in the same wastewaters as fecal
material. These chemical methods, the authors pointed out, do not easily correlate to
pathogens, but can still help in locating a source of pollution. Using information about
emerging contaminants in water, the authors provided lists of veterinary and human
antibiotics, veterinary medicines, prescription and non-prescription drugs, and
hormones as possible chemical tracers. 30
Field and Samadpour published a review of source tracking methods and included
details on the applicability of certain methods, the usefulness of the methods, and the
drawbacks of the methods. They expressed concerns about public health and the
occurrence of pathogens in water and suggested a combination of targeted pathogen
monitoring with targeted fecal source tracking to better regulate water quality. 229 Zhang
et al. reviewed antibiotic resistance genes and provided detailed tables, categorized by
590

antibiotic, that list the genes, the biological and environmental sources, and references
of papers with studies on each specific gene. 230
Stoeckel and Hardwood prepared a review of MST that addressed the strategies for
developing, validating, and evaluating a microbial source tracking study. The authors
compared method performance data, including statistics, and outlined considerations for
the field study design. 231 Santo Domingo et al. reviewed MST methods and listed the
research gaps and suggested some goals for future studies. 27
Witty et al. addressed the complexity of determining a single source of pollution from
multiple potential and contributing sources. The authors used multiple methods but
concluded that DNA sequence analysis for MST in combination with a study of the
ecosystem is a better approach than microbiological applications alone. 25 Reischer et
al. emphasized the need to consider hydrological catchment dynamics in source
tracking study design and gathered data for their study over a 31-month period of
time. 232 Stapleton et al. performed a catchment scale study and found that MST
techniques needed further development in order to become a useful tool in catchment
systems. 233 Vogel et al. studied water and sediment samples in a catchment reach for
fecal contamination. The authors found Escherichia coli in both water and sediment,
while the Bacteroidales markers were detected more frequently in the sediment
samples. 234
Wolf et al. created a library-independent “viral toolbox” (VTB) to distinguish between
human and animal fecal pollution. Their VTB used real-time reverse transcription (RT)polymerase
chain reaction (PCR) assays for norovirus genogroups, adenovirus species,
and F+ RNA bacteriophage genogroups. The authors found their assays to be highly
sensitive and specific to the targets. 29
Microbial source tracking papers are filled with PCR assays. Agudelo et al. used a
multiplex real-time PCR assay for fast quantification and obtained higher detection
levels than with conventional microbiological techniques. 235 Kortbaoui et al. used dotblotting
membranes containing specific oligonucleotides for human and for four animals
(bovine, porcine, ovine, and chicken) to detect mitochondrial DNA in water samples.
The dot-blot assays were found to be as specific and sensitive as a nested-PCR
approach. 28 Lamendella et al. evaluated two swine-specific PCR assays. The
Prevotella strain-based PCR assay provided positive results more often than the
methanogen-based PCR assay, and it also had a high number of cross-reactions with
non-target fecal DNA samples. 236
591

9. Acknowledgments
This paper would not have been possible without the assistance of several people, and I
offer my thanks to them. Thank you to Nancy Greer for her constant help with acquiring
the books and publications needed for this review paper and for responding quickly and
knowledgably to all the miscellaneous queries I sent her way.
Thank you to Diane Sipe and Beth Mishalanie for their critical reviews of the entire
paper; their questions and corrections provided clarity and readability in many sections.
Thank you to Mark Goodwin and Jennifer Lee for their comments to improve my
accuracy and presentation of the information in the biological section.
Thank you to Lindsay Powis for entering more than 200 references into the EndNote
bibliography software. And, thank you to Dianne Clark for providing her editorial check
of the review paper and preparing it for outside distribution.
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607

DRUGS AND TOXICOLOGY
608

Toxicology
Review : 2007 - 2010
Compiled by
Wing-chi Cheng Ph.D.; Wing-sum Chan Ph.D.; Nai-leung Poon Ph.D.
Government Laboratory, Hong Kong
CHINA
Presented by
Fu-chiu Kwok Ph.D.
All correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Fu-chiu Kwok, Acting Assistant
Government Chemist, Government Laboratory, 7/F, Homantin Government
Offices, 88 Chung Hau Street, Ho Man Tin, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
609

TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION
 613
2.
CURRENT
TOXICOLOGICAL
ISSUES
 613
2.1 Driving Under the Influence
 613
2.1.1
Alcohol
 613
2.1.2
Drugs
 616
2.1.2.1
Detection
of
DUID
 616
(i) Impairment Approach
 616
(ii) Drug Presence Approach
 617
2.1.2.2
Epidemiological
studies
 621
2.2
Drug
Facilitated
Sexual
Assaults
(DFSA)
 625
2.3
Workplace
Drug
Testing
 627
2.3.1
Urine
 628
2.3.2
Alternative
specimens
 631
2.3.2.1
Oral
fluid
 631
2.3.2.2
Hair
 632
2.3.2.3
Sweat
 634
2.4
Emergence
of
New
Drugs
of
Abuse
 635
2.4.1
Phenethylamines
 635
2.4.2
Piperazines
 636
2.4.3
Synthetic
cannabinoids
 637
2.4.4
Pyrrolidinophenones
 638
2.5
Survey
on
Trends
of
Drug
Use
 638
2.5.1
Opiates
 638
2.5.2
Amphetamines
 639
2.5.3
GHB
 640
2.5.4
Ketamine
 640
2.5.5
Other
Drugs
 641
2.6
Quality
Assurance
and
Accreditation
 643
610

3.
ADVANCES
IN
TOXICOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS
645
3.1
Instrumental
techniques
 645
3.1.1
GC‐MS
 645
3.1.2
LC‐MS
 646
3.1.3
Capillary
electrophoresis
 648
3.2
Extraction
Techniques
 649
3.2.1
Liquid‐phase
microextraction
(LPME)
 649
3.2.2
Electrokinetic
membrane
extraction
(EME)
 650
3.2.3
Solid‐phase
extractions
(SPE)
 650
3.2.4
Microextraction
in
packed
sorbent
(MEPS)
 651
3.2.5
Solid‐phase
microextraction
(SPME)
 651
3.3
Analysis
of
Specific
Drugs
 652
3.3.1
Markers
for
ethanol
consumption
 652
3.3.2
Small
molecules
 653
3.3.3
Drugs
of
abuse
 653
3.3.4
Chemical
warfare
agents
 655
3.3.5
Toxic
herbs
and
venoms
 657
3.3.6
Drugs
in
sports
and
doping
control
 658
3.3.6.1
Anabolic
androgenic
steroids
 660
3.3.6.2
Stimulants
 662
3.3.6.3
Synthetic
protein
hormone,
blood
doping
and
gene
doping
 662
3.4
ALTERNATIVE
SPECIMENS
 665
3.4.1
Oral
fluid
 666
3.4.2
Hair
 667
3.4.3
Sweat
 671
3.4.4
Meconium
 672
3.4.5
Other
specimens
 673
3.5
Interpretation
of
toxicological
results
 674
3.5.1
Drug
levels
in
postmortem
specimens
 674
3.5.1.1
Alcohols
and
related
biomarkers
 675
3.5.1.2
Abused
drugs
 677
3.5.1.3
Other
drugs
 679
3.5.2
Drug
stability,
artifact
and
post‐mortem
redistribution
 682
3.5.3
Pharmacogenomics
 684
611

4.
CONCLUSIONS
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 685
5.
REFERENCES
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 688
612

1.
INTRODUCTION
Forensic toxicology is of paramount importance to the judicial system and for
legal protection of individuals and society, in providing scientifically sound
information relevant to the cause of incident. Areas of interest include, but are
not limited to, road safety, criminal activities with suspected involvement of
drugs/poisons, workplace drug testing, drugs of abuse monitoring in prisons
and custodial medicine, death investigations, and doping in sports.
Scientific advancement on one hand facilitates the development of more
sensitive and specific toxicological examination techniques for detection of a
wider scope of drugs/poisons at very low concentrations in biological
specimens that would have otherwise been difficult or impossible in the past.
On the other hand, it also helps in filling in the gaps to better understand the
toxicological findings through research such as controlled experiments,
epidemiological studies, and compilation of casework results of similar types.
Scientific advancement, however, also results in the development of new
drugs, both in the form of pharmaceutical preparations and illicit drugs, which
pose continual challenges to toxicologists with respect to developing strategies
for their identification, quantification, and interpretation of results. This review
is divided into 2 parts, namely “Current Toxicological Issues” and “Advances in
Toxicological Analysis”. It covers the most significant progress in toxicology
published over the past 3 years.
2. Current Toxicological Issues
2.1 Driving Under the Influence
Driving is a very complex task, requiring simultaneous coordination of several
different cognitive and psychomotor functions. Although crashes can be the
consequence of many different factors, driving under the influence of alcohol
and drugs is considered to be one of the major problems worldwide, causing a
million people to be killed and many millions more to be injured in traffic
crashes.
2.1.1 Alcohol
Driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) is continued to be one of the major
road safety problems. The breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) has been used
extensively in many jurisdictions for DUI enforcement and prosecution
613

purposes. The pulmonary exchange processes of ethyl alcohol after drinking
were studied [1,2]. During a single-exhalation breath test, a person with a
smaller lung size can give a greater BrAC reading [1]. With 504 pairs of BrAC
and BAC (Blood Alcohol Concentration) tests evaluated, the mean hourly
BrAC elimination rate was found to be 0.082 mg/L/h (0.050–0.114, 95% range)
[3]. Paired BAC and BrAC (BAC, in g/dL, and BrAC, in g/210 L), were
determined for 11,837 drivers apprehended in New Zealand. With a mean time
delay of 0.73 h between breath and blood sampling, the BrAC false-positive
rate decreased from 31.3% to only 2.8% after time-adjustment for BAC using
0.019 g/dL/h as the blood alcohol clearance rate [4]. In a controlled study
performed with volunteers who drank 3 glasses of wine, 46% of females and
no male subjects exceeded a BrAC of 0.25 mg/L. The main predictor of
self-perception of impaired driving skills was the feeling of nausea, followed by
a BrAC in excess of 0.25 mg/L [5]. The usefulness of portable, handheld
breath analysers was assessed by re-calculation of the results using mean
elimination rates of 0.156 ±0.099 g/L/h for blood and 0.091± 0.054 mg/L/h for
breath; the readings from the portable instruments were in very good
agreement with the results taken from stationary devices, but correlation with
the results of blood analysis was weaker [6].
Some drivers may claim to have consumed alcohol after traffic accidents,
causing difficulties in prosecution. The relationships of the change in urinary
alcohol concentrations (UACs) between two successive voids, and that
between the ratio of BAC and UAC in DUI cases, were studied [7]. With
supporting evidence from after-drink cases, the UAC/BAC ratio for the first
void was close to or less than unity, and the UAC increased by 0.21 g/L
between the two voids (about 1 hour interval). For those cases without
evidence of an after-drink, the ratio was 1.46 and the UAC decreased by 0.25
g/L on average, indicating it is in the post-absorptive phase. The inter- and
intra-subject variability in the elimination rate and absorption rate was
estimated with BAC measured over time in 12 male volunteers on 4 occasions.
Results showed that inter-subject variability was substantially smaller than
intra-subject variability when the dose varied [ 8 ]. The gender specific
elimination rates were studied and determined that the elimination rates for
women are generally higher than those for men [9,10]; this can partly, but not
completely, be explained by progesterone levels [9]. A BAC analysis was
carried out for two consecutive blood specimens to correlate the elimination
rate of alcohol and BAC. Results showed a slight change in alcohol elimination
614

ate with increase of BAC, with the mean value of 0.221 ± 0.075 g/kg [11].
The results of a pilot study have shown that the use of alcohol biomarkers
[carbohydrate-deficient transferrin (CDT), and the Early Detection of Alcohol
Consumption (EDAC) test] in the U.S. could provide an objective tool to
identify high-risk drivers [12]. While a study in Canada showed that all
biomarkers except fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) [phosphatidyl ethanol (PETH),
CDT and gamma glutamyltransferase (GGT) in blood samples; ethyl
glucuronide (EtG) and ethyl sulphate (EtS) in urine samples; and FAEE and
EtG in hair samples] were related significantly to the interlock BAC test profiles
[13]. Hence, it was suggested that the alcohol biomarkers should serve as a
good means for determining license regranting for DUI offenders. The value of
analyzing ethanol metabolites as measures of abstinence was evaluated for a
subject who was convicted of DUI but claimed abstinence from alcohol after
supervised disulfiram treatment [14]. Apart from traditional biomarkers, CDT,
EtG and FAEE in hair, phosphatidylethanol in whole blood, and EtG and ethyl
sulphate in urine were measured. The subject was found with EtG in distal
parts of hair only, with FAEE concentrations typical for either moderate social
drinking or abstinence.
The efficacy of a fructose drink that claimed to noticeably increase the alcohol
elimination rate was investigated using 30 volunteers under a randomized
double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. While the soft drink may
decrease the alcohol concentration by about 10%, the claim of fructose drinks
to work as a 'soberade' cannot be proven from a scientific point of view [15].
A comparison of the performance of a portable impairment test device known
as the Roadside Impairment Testing Apparatus (RITA) with the Field
Impairment Tests (FIT) was conducted using 122 volunteers who received a
dose of alcohol and placebo on separate days [16]. The accuracy of RITA was
between 66 and 70%, not significantly higher than that of FIT. Horizontal gaze
nystagmus, not currently included in FIT, was also investigated and posted an
accuracy of 74%. Driving is a classic example of visually guided behavior in
which the eyes move before some other action. A study showed that the
optimal eye-hand coordination relationship deteriorates with levels of breath
alcohol well within the current UK legal limit for driving, and that deterioration in
eye movement can be detected by an automated in-car system, which warns
the driver when he is no longer fit to drive [17].
615

2.1.2 Drugs
Driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) is scientifically and legally more
complex than DUI. The complexity of drug impaired driving is compounded by
drug-alcohol or drug-drug interactions which can be additive, synergistic or
antagonistic in nature. A major problem in assessing the true public health
impact of drug-use on driving and overall traffic safety is that the variables
being measured across studies vary significantly. A project was initiated by
several international organizations to develop guidelines for research on
drugged driving [18]. This Guidelines Document is divided into three major
sections, each focusing upon different aspects of drugged driving research
within the critical issue areas of 'behavior', 'epidemiology', and 'toxicology'.
Apart from the control over the use of illicit drugs, concerns on the impact of
the use of centrally acting medicinal drugs on driving cannot be ignored. The
International Council of Alcohol and Drugs on Traffic Safety (ICADTS) has
proposed a three-tier categorization system by comparing the effects within the
three categories with effect of different blood alcohol concentrations (BAC),
where categories I, II, and III as respectively equivalent to BACs < 0.5 g/L
( 0.8 g/L (>0.08%) [19].
2.1.2.1 Detection of DUID
Two approaches, namely the impairment approach and the drug presence
approach, are currently used to identify DUID drivers.
(i) Impairment Approach
Owing to limited scopes of drugs that can be identified by drug testing devices,
the impairment approach for law enforcement to identify DUID drivers is
currently used in many countries. The impairment tests are based on the
evaluation of a variety of observable signs and symptoms, and divided
attention tests that have been proven to be reliable indicators of impairment.
There are no roadside testing devices commercially available for the detection
of ketamine, which is increasingly being abused in many Asian countries. A
study found that more than 70% of ketamine abusers failed in the FIT
assessment. The typical observable signs and symptoms being a lack of
convergence, horizontal gaze nystamus, elevated pulse rate, and general
failing the divided attention tests, especially the walk-and-turn and one-leg
616

stand [20]. In Norway, an impairment-based law is used to handle suspected
drugged driving and it was determined in a study that benzodiazepines were
the most frequently detected drugs in comparison with other common illegal
drugs such as Δ 9 -tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and amphetamine [21]. The
relationship between the blood concentration of benzodiazepines and the
influence on performance in field sobriety tests was studied for 171 cases. The
observations of behavior, walking, walking after turn, and Romberg's test were
found to be significantly related to the benzodiazepines concentration, while no
significant relation was found with respect to pupil size, nystagmus, or
orientation [22]. Apart from illicit drugs, consumption of prescription drugs may
also cause driving impairment. For example, the prevalence of gabapentin in
impaired driving cases in the U.S. found that the mean concentration of
gabapentin in blood from impaired driving cases (n = 137) was 8.4 ± 5.4 mg/L,
and that the subjects may exhibit psychophysical indicators of a central
nervous system depressant (e.g., horizontal gaze nystagmus) but with clinical
indicators that are not consistent with depressants (e.g., dilated pupils, low
body temperature, and elevated pulse and blood pressure) [23]. 12 drivers
arrested for driving under the influence of dextromethorphan alone or in
combination with chlorpheniramine revealed that blood dextromethorphan
concentrations ranged from 150 to 1220 ng/mL and that the subjects were
evaluated to be under the influence of a drug in the CNS-depressant category
[24]. Six blood samples obtained from arrested DUID drivers tested positive for
toluene, with blood concentrations of 12 to 45 mg/L, and the subjects
displayed horizontal but not vertical nystagmus, elevated pulse and blood
pressure, and lower body temperatures [25].
A statistically based approach to drug classification decisions in Drug
Evaluation and Classification (DEC) evaluations suggested that nine clinical
indicators significantly enhanced the prediction of drug category, including
pulse rate, condition of the eyes and eyelids, lack of convergence, hippus,
reaction to light, rebound dilation, systolic blood pressure, and the presence of
injection sites [26].
(ii) Drug Presence Approach
Blood is the preferred specimen for investigating impaired driving, but some
jurisdictions allow the use of other specimens such as urine and oral fluid. One
of the key elements in the enforcement process is the availability of rapid and
reliable drug screening devices for on-site screening of drugged drivers,
617

equired for immediate administrative measures. With recent progress in
performance of the point-of-collection testing device performance, controlled
drug administration studies, immunoassay and chromatographic methods, and
collection devices, there is no doubt that oral fluid has an increasingly
important role in testing for suspected DUID drivers [27]. In 2009, modification
of the Traffic Act in Belgium was made to allow for random oral fluid drug
testing and analysis of oral fluid samples for evidence of DUID (comparable to
the Australian situation) [28]. Analytical techniques for detection of drugs in
oral fluid have been reviewed with emphasis on applications used in European
Union (EU) roadside testing projects [29]. Various on-site oral testing devices
were evaluated [30,31,32,33]. While good results were found for amphetamine
(Drugwipe, Oralab6), cocaine (OraLab, Dräger), and opiates (OraLab,
Oralab6), improvements are still needed regarding the detection of cannabis
and benzodiazepines. Efforts have been made to look for reliable devices for
the detection of THC in oral fluid. 25 subjects, 5 free and 20 addicts from a
heroin detoxification center with time of cannabis last smoked recorded, were
used to evaluate the Cozart DDSV to detect cannabis in oral fluid. The 5
drug-free subjects were negative for cannabis; however, the device could only
detect 8 positive subjects (with THC concentrations in the buffer in the range
15-219 ng/mL) [34]. In a more recent evaluation of three devices, namely
Drugwipe-5(+), RapidSTAT and Drug Test 5000, these devices were concluded
to be able to detect about 70% of all cocaine and cannabis users in a roadside
setting. Moreover, with the lowering of the cutoff for THC for the new Drug Test
5000 (i.e., 5 ng/mL), a sensitivity of 93% was reported [35].
In 2006-2008, 13 oral fluid screening devices for drugs of abuse were
evaluated in operational police practice by 11 teams from 6 EU member states,
as part of a work package of the EU funded integrated project “Driving under
the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines” (DRUID) [28]. The 13
screening devices selected for the ROSITA II project were evaluated for
operational aspects in two phases. At the end of the evaluation of over 2950
tests, a total of 7 devices were considered to be promising (from a practical
police perspective) for use during daily traffic law enforcement activities, and a
set of Police Users Requirements and Specifications has been developed.
Similarly, 8 on-site oral fluid drug screening devices were evaluated for their
analytical performance in another DRUID project performed in Belgium,
Finland, and Denmark. However, this latter evaluation concluded that none of
the tests reached the target value of 80% for sensitivity, specificity, and
618

accuracy for all the separate tests. The sensitivities of the cannabis and
cocaine tests were all quite low; however, the sensitivities of the devices are
generally better for amphetamines [36].
In the context of toxicological analysis of samples from DUID cases,
immunoassays tailored for a limited number of drugs (of abuse) are usually
applied as prescreening tests at the roadside and/or in the laboratory. However,
many other common drugs, such as anesthetics, antidepressants,
antiepileptics, antihistamines, newer designer drugs, herbal drugs,
neuroleptics (antipsychotics), opioids, or sedative-hypnotics, can also impair
drivers. The pros and cons of multianalyte single-stage and tandem gas or
liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry procedures for the screening,
identification, and validated quantification of such drugs in blood were
reviewed with respect to their probable usefulness in impaired driving
toxicology [ 37 ]. A survey conducted in the U.S. identified marijuana,
benzodiazepines, cocaine, prescription and illicit opiates, muscle relaxants,
amphetamines, CNS depressants, and sleep aids used as hypnotics, as being
the most frequently encountered drugs in these cases [38]. Recommendations
as to what specific members of these drug classes should (at a minimum) be
tested for in the investigation of suspected DUID cases, with suggested
analytical cutoffs for screening and confirmation of drugs in blood and urine,
were reported.
With the limited sample volume of oral fluid available for testing in the context
of DUID, a comprehensive methodology is needed for simultaneous
measurement of multiple analytes in a single aliquot; liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is the common
method of choice. An ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass
spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for detection of 29 drugs
(including THC and benzoylecgonine) in oral fluid collected randomly and
anonymously at the roadside from drivers in Denmark throughout 2008-2009.
Using a solid phase extraction of 0.2 mL oral fluid, the LOQs were 0.5 µg/kg for
all analytes. A preliminary account of oral fluid samples collected at the
roadside showed the presence of amphetamine, cocaine, codeine, THC,
tramadol, and zopiclone [39]. A semi-automated LC-MS/MS method for the
simultaneous extraction, identification, and quantitation of 21 analytes in oral
fluid was developed with LOQs ranged from 0.4 to 5 ng/mL using 0.2 mL of
diluted oral fluid [40]. Another LC-MS/MS method for the detection and
619

quantitation of common drugs of abuse in oral fluid, collected with Quantasil
oral fluid collection kits, was reported with LODs/LOQs being 2-10 ng/mL [41].
A confirmational analysis of drugs, including morphine, cocaine,
benzoylecgonine, and amphetamines in oral fluid by LC-MS was also reported.
300 µL of oral fluid is required for the testing, with LODs of 0.5 – 1 ng/mL [33].
That the window of detection of drugs in oral fluid reflects the corresponding
window in blood suggests that oral fluid is a specimen of choice for roadside
testing. However, oral fluid/blood ratios vary from drug to drug, from person to
person, and even intra-individually, posing challenges in interpretation of the
results for oral fluid. Blood (B) and oral fluid (OF) samples collected from
drivers suspected of DUID in Belgium, Germany, Finland, and Norway for the
ROSITA-2 project were used to study the relationship between the oral fluid
and the blood concentrations of drugs of abuse [42]. The ratios found in this
study were comparable with those that were published previously, but the
range was wider. The median of the OF:B ratios of basic drugs such as
amphetamines, cocaine, and opiates were 4-13, 22, and 2-10 respectively.
The ratios for benzodiazepines were very low (median OF:B ratio: 0.02-0.1)
while that for THC was 15. Several methods for estimating the prevalence of
high blood concentrations of THC and amphetamine in a population of drug
users by analysing their OF suggested that dividing the drug concentration in
OF by the OF/B regression coefficient gives an acceptable estimation of high
blood drug concentrations, which may give valuable additional information on
possible drug impairment [43]. The presence of THC in blood is usually
interpreted as an indicator for recent drug use. However, a study of chronic
cannabis users over 7 days of continuous monitored abstinence showed that
substantial whole blood THC concentrations (0.3 ± 0.7 ng/mL) persisted
multiple days after drug discontinuation in heavy chronic cannabis users [44]. A
comparison of the impairment of driving-relevant skills by alcohol or cannabis
suggested that a THC concentration in serum of 7-10 ng/mL is correlated with
an impairment comparable to that caused by BAC of 0.05%. The per se limits
for THC in blood appear to be the most effective approach to differentiating
drivers who are impaired by cannabis use from those who are no longer under
the influence [45]. The relationship between blood zopiclone and zolpidem
concentrations and driving impairment was assessed by a clinical test, and the
impairment was compared in that with a group of drivers with suspected
alcohol-related impairment [46]. It is concluded that the percentage of impaired
drivers with blood zopiclone concentrations above 130 µg/L roughly
620

corresponded to the percentage of impaired drivers with BACs higher than
0.1%, but a positive relationship of blood concentration and impairment was
not found for zolpidem. Some prescription medications will metabolize into
illicit drugs, leading to complicated interpretations. For instance, in a study
conducted by Jones et al. revealed that when 6-acetylmorphine (6-MAM) was
present in urine (N = 324), the mean morphine/codeine ratio in blood was 7.5,
and this important ratio was less than unity in only two cases. This study finds
compelling evidence that approximately 90% of apprehended drivers in
Sweden with morphine and codeine in their blood had used heroin [47].
Some countries such as Sweden and Italy require offenders of DUID with their
driving license suspended to have passed a drug test before considering
re-issuance of the driving license [48,49]. In a pilot study of hair analysis of
drivers previously convicted of DUID, both clients and clinicians thought that
hair sampling was easier than urine sampling. With 99 hair samples and 198
urine samples being collected from 84 clients during the 12-month study period,
hair analysis identified illegal drugs on seven different occasions, whereas
urine failed to identify any illegal drugs [48]. Another similar study on hair
analysis of cocaine and its metabolite benzoylecgonine was also conducted.
With relatively short half-life (

2007 in Sweden revealed that 22% of them had alcohol above the legal limit (>
0.2 g/L), and 18% with drugs other than alcohol found (where 4.8% was found
with illicit drugs, with amphetamine being the most common one identified at
mean concentrations of 1.5 mg/L) [53]. A study on re-arrest rate of DUI and
DUID in Sweden during a 4-year survey showed that 44% of individuals
(16,277 out of 36,799 cases) re-offended 3.2 times on average, and that the
re-arrest rate of DUID is higher than that of DUI [54]. The median BAC was 1.5
mg/g (~ 0.15 g%) compared with 1.6-1.7 mg/g in recidivists, while
amphetamine, the most frequently detected drug found in DUID drivers, with
median concentration of 0.5 mg/L in the first-time offenders compared with 1.0
mg/L found in blood samples in recidivists [54]. Also, a 5-year survey of DUID
cases showed that amphetamines were found in 60% of the cases (15,898 of
26,556 cases), with mean blood concentration of 1.01 mg/L for amphetamine;
0.85 mg/L and 0.34 mg/L, for amphetamine and MA, respectively; and 0.23
mg/L for ecstasy [55]. In a similar 5-year survey by the same group for cocaine
and benzyolecgonine, most of the cases (574 cases) had only
benzyolecgonine found in apprehended drivers, with mean concentrations of
0.19 mg/L. For the remaining cases (221 cases), cocaine and
benzyolecgonine were both found in the blood samples at mean
concentrations of 0.076 mg/L and 0.859 mg/L, respectively [ 56 ]. Over a
10-year period (1995-2004), between 18% and 30% of all DUID suspects had
measurable amounts of THC in their blood (> 0.3 ng/mL), either alone or
together with other drugs, with mean THC concentration of 2.1 ng/mL [57].
Zero-tolerance or limits of quantitation laws are a much more pragmatic way to
enforce DUID legislation. Occurrences of GHB in blood samples from people
arrested in Sweden for DUID between 1998 and 2007 were also studied. With
the use of a cut-off concentration of 8 µg/mL, 215 cases (39%) were detected,
with GHB only at mean blood concentrations of 91 mg/L [58]. In a similar study
by the same group in 473 cases for DUID, the mean GHB blood concentration
was 90 mg/L; people arrested for petty drug offenses (N=1061) were 111-118
mg/L; and GHB-related deaths (N=33) were 190 mg/L. The signs of drug
influence noted by arresting police officers included sedation, agitation,
unsteady gait, slurred speech, irrational behavior, jerky body movements,
dilated pupils, and spitting [59].
A study of trends of DUID in Finland showed that there was an 18-fold increase
in DUID cases during 1977-2007 [60]. The most commonly found substances
were benzodiazepines (75.7%), amphetamines (46.0%), cannabinoids
622

(27.7%), and opioids (13.8%). A 7-year survey in Greece for the prevalence of
alcohol/drugs involved in road traffic accidents indicated that there was a drop
in the detection of alcohol from 37% in 1998-2000 to 29% in 2000-2004, and
that cannabis, benzodiazepines, opiates, and cocaine were found in 4%, 4%,
4%, and 1% of the total number of cases, respectively [61]. The prevalence of
drugs in the first year after the introduction of the revision of the Swiss Traffic
Law for DUID in 2005 was studied [62]. The most frequently encountered
drugs in whole blood were cannabinoids (48% of total number of cases),
ethanol (35%), cocaine (25%), opiates (10%), amphetamines (7%),
benzodiazepines (6%), and methadone (5%). In the U.K., the drugs and
alcohol findings for victims of 1047 cases in fatal road traffic incidents indicated
that alcohol and cannabinoids were the most frequently detected substances
across the victim groups, while a wide range of drugs were also detected (e.g.,
drugs of abuse, anti-convulsants, anti-histamines, anti-inflammatories,
anti-psychotics, cardiac drugs, and over-the-counter products) [ 63 ].
Epidemiological data in fatal road accidents in France suggested that alcohol
levels above the legal limit (0.5 g/L of blood) were found in 21% of all drivers
involved in accidents (killed, injured, or unharmed). Cannabis headed the list of
illicit drugs detected, with a prevalence of 6.8% (THC > or = 1 ng/mL) [64]. The
prevalence of the use of psychoactive substances for 1000 truck drivers in
France was studied by analyzing urine samples. The drugs found included
cannabinoids (85 cases), ethanol (50), opiates (41), buprenorphine (18),
methadone (5), benzodiazepines (4), amphetamines (3), cocaine (1), and
6-MAM (1) [65]. A study in Austria for the period of 2003-2007 showed that
cannabis (50%), opiates (20%), amphetamines (18%), cocaine (15%), and
benzodiazepines (20%) were those with the highest prevalence in blood
samples taken from drivers; a newly developed urinary road-site-test system,
Check 24 (Protzek GmbH, Germany), with two different cut-off values for
THCCOOH-glucuronide, was used to identify drivers under the influence of
cannabis [66]. Post-mortem cases for amphetamine-based drugs in 1999-2004
in the Netherlands were reviewed and compared with those of non-fatal DUID
cases. Amphetamine-based drugs were present in 70 post-mortem cases and
467 DUI cases. The majority of MDMA- and amphetamine-caused deaths
occurred with blood concentrations above 1.5 and 0.80 mg/L, respectively, and
the concentrations in drug related deaths and DUI cases overlap the range of
fatal concentrations. Thus, the MDMA and amphetamine concentrations
should never be used alone to establish the cause of death [ 67]. 274
amphetamines (amphetamine, MA, MDA, MDMA and/or
623

3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE)) positive serum samples
collected by police in Germany for roadside testing were also analysed for
GHB by LC-MS/MS after acetonitrile protein precipitation [68]. Applying a
cut-off concentration of 10 µg/mL, 5 samples exceeded this concentration and
were found positive for GHB.
In a retrospective study (2001-2005) of the blood samples from DUI drivers in
Ontario, Canada for toxicological examinations for drugs, showed that THC
was the most frequently encountered drug (n=18), followed by
benzoylecgonine/cocaine (n=8), morphine (n=6), lorazepam (n=5), and
diphenhydramine (n=4) [69].
The state of Victoria in Australia has had a random drug-testing program for
drivers since 2004, targeting THC and methamphetamines (MA and MDMA) in
oral fluid [70,71]. With 13,176 roadside drug tests performed in the first year,
the overall drug positive rate was 2.4% of the screened population. There was
one false positive for cannabis when the results of both on-site devices were
considered, and four for methamphetamines [70]. Oral fluid samples were
collected from drivers to estimate the prevalence of drug driving in Queensland,
Australia [72]. Positive rate for at least one illicit substance was 3.7% [72]. 436
specimens taken from injured drivers involved in motor vehicle collisions and
subsequently transported to a major adult trauma centre in Victoria, revealed
that metabolites of cannabis were the most commonly found drug (46.7%).
THC was found in 33 specimens, which was almost exclusively found in the
15-44 years age group. Also, there was an increasing use of benzodiazepines
in older drivers, particularly women >65 years old [73].
1635 motor vehicle drivers were randomly selected in Thailand in 2005-2006
to determine the prevalence of psychoactive drug and alcohol use among
general drivers [ 74 ]. 5.5% tested positive for breath alcohol, with 2%
exceeding the legal limit (≥ 50 mg%). A psychoactive drug was found in 158
(9.7%) urine samples. The top 3 most frequently detected licit drugs were
antihistamines (2.0%), sedative cough suppressants and benzodiazepines,
while the most frequently detected illicit drugs were amphetamine (1.8%),
cannabis (1.1%), mitragynine (Kratom) (0.9%), and morphine (0.1%).
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2.2 Drug Facilitated Sexual Assaults (DFSA)
The true prevalence of DFSA will never be fully realized due to the general
underreporting of sexual assaults. In addition, the drugs used can be difficult to
detect (active products at low doses, chemical instability), possess amnesic
properties, are rapidly cleared from the body (short half-life), and are difficult to
detect when there is delay in specimen collection. To perform successful
toxicological examinations, analysts need to obtain sufficient amount of the
corresponding biological specimens (blood and urine as soon as possible, hair
about 1 month after the alleged event), use sensitive methods to detect
relevant drugs and/or metabolites, and be cautious in results interpretation.
The Society of Forensic Toxicologists (SOFT) DFSA Committee developed a
chart of the most prevalent drugs associated with DFSA and the associated
recommended “maximum detection limits” when analyzing urine specimens
[75]. To address the current challenges in dealing with DFSA cases, a series of
reviews were published dealing with laboratory management of DFSA cases
[ 76 ], frequency of DFSA investigation [77 ], the use of alcohol [ 78 ],
benzodiazepines [79], GHB and its analogs [80], miscellaneous prescription
drugs [81], over the counter drugs [82] and the “Z-drugs” (i.e., zopiclone,
zolpidem, and Zaleplon) [83]. The analysis of benzodiazepines and their
derivatives using their isotopically labeled analogs has also been reviewed
[84].
In a review of the current understanding of alleged DFSA, several definitions of
DFSA are provided as well as a list of the intoxicating substances which have
so far been implicated in this type of crime [85]. Also, the effects of alcohol on
sexual behaviour, drinking patterns, and specific quantitative research with
very high alcohol levels in some instances, are also addressed. Reviews for
DFSA cases [86] and in cases involving the elderly and chemical poisonings
[87], with particular emphasis on the analysis of hair, were presented. Kintz
commented that hair should not be considered as an alternative to blood and
urine analyses, but as a complement. This approach may find useful
applications, but the definition of legally defensible cutoff values would require
much more data. In a literature research by Madea et al., the modes of action
and toxicological means of detection of substances used as knock-out drugs
were described. The most frequently used drug in DFSA was still alcohol
followed by illicit drugs (cannabis, cocaine, etc.) [88]. Only in relatively few
cases was the presence of involuntarily consumed medications and drugs of
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abuse found by routine toxicological analysis, with benzodiazepines most
commonly found followed by other hypnotics.
Alleged sexual assault cases in North Ireland from 1999 to 2005 were studied
[89]. The estimated average blood alcohol concentration remained broadly
similar (218 mg% in 1999 vs 217 mg% in 2005), while there was an increase in
the detection of antidepressants, recreational drugs, benzodiazepines, and
analgesics, some of which were also associated with alcohol consumption.
The study, like others, failed to identify specific date-rape drugs, such as GHB
or Rohypnol (flunitrazepam). Likewise, a study by the U.K.'s National Forensic
Services also suggested that there was no evidence for the use of
flunitrazepam in DFSA during its 3-year investigation [90]. Alcohol and drug
consumption, sexual abuse history, sexual impulsivity, and risk of recidivism
were evaluated for 104 convicts in Brazil. It was concluded that alcohol use or
abuse was associated with the perpetration of sexual aggression. The role of
alcohol consumption seems to be greater in sexual offenders against boys
than against girls [91]. A study by recruiting sexual assault complainants in the
U.S. to provide urine and hair specimens for analysis of 45 drugs estimated
that 43% of 144 subjects, and 7% of 859 complainants, were characterized as
victims of DFSA [92] Results of toxicological analysis of blood and urine
specimens from 1806 female victims of alleged non-consensual sexual activity
in Sweden were reported [93]. It was found that 772 cases had ethanol only,
while 215 cases had ethanol together with at least one other drug. The mean
BAC was 1.24 g/L. Amphetamine and THC were the most commonly detected
illicit drugs in blood or urine (262 cases). Among prescription drugs,
sedative-hypnotics such as diazepam and zopiclone were the most commonly
found, along with SSRI antidepressants and various opiate analgesics.
A DFSA case involving the use of acepromazine (a phenothiazine tranquilizer)
was reported [94]. The presence of acepromazine was not detected in the
blood but it was subsequently detected in the victim's hair, collected a month
and a half after the incident, at a concentration of 31 pg/mg. A commonly
available over-the-counter drug, tetrahydrozoline, was reported to induce an
obtunded compliant victim with no memory of the period during the sexual
assault [95]. It may be warranted to include imidazoline derivatives in the
testing for cases of DFSA. A case of a 24-year-old girl who was sexually
assaulted after administration of GHB, and morphine was reported [96].
Toxicological analysis of her hair using GC/MS with 2/3-cm segmentation of all
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the length (20 cm) of the hair showed a higher value of GHB, and the presence
of morphine was found in the period associated with the alleged criminal
activity. Current analytical methods used for screening drugs and their
metabolites in biological samples from victims of DFSA or other vulnerable
groups can lack sufficient sensitivity. A UPLC-MS/MS method for the detection
of ketamine and its metabolites was developed to analyze urine specimens
from 6 volunteers following a small oral dose of ketamine (50 mg) [97]. With
LODs for ketamine and norketamine being 0.03 ng/mL and 0.05 ng/mL,
respectively, detection in urine could be up to 5 and 6 days, respectively, and
the detection could be extended up to 10 days if dehydro-norketamine is also
analyzed.
2.3 Workplace Drug Testing
To combat misuse of drugs or alcohol in the workplace, the application of
workplace drug testing has grown at a phenomenal rate around the world. The
U.S. Department of Transportation updated its drug and alcohol testing
procedures to make specimen validity testing mandatory [98], and also to
authorize employers to disclose to State commercial driver licensing (CDL)
authorities the drug and alcohol violations of employees who hold CDLs and
operate commercial motor vehicles [99].
The current perspective of workplace drug testing in the U.S. was reviewed
[100]. A number of inconsistencies were observed based on epidemiological
data between illegal drug-use self-reported survey and drug testing results
which might be due to the increased specificity of immunoassay screening
tests and the critical issues of adulteration and substitution. In addition, the
performance of rapid point-of-collection (POCT) oral fluid drug-testing devices
was also reviewed. Most of the POCT devices can detect amphetamines and
opiates very well, while their ability to detect cocaine varies significantly across
devices and the detection of cannabis use is generally poor across all devices
[100]. The Finnish legislation on workplace drug testing (2004) incorporates
provisions related to drug use testing [101]. Their purpose is to ensure that
drug testing is carried out by good occupational health care practice and
laboratory quality standards, taking into account the integrity and protection of
privacy of the persons tested as well as their other fundamental rights. In
connection to the legislation, the guidelines to be followed by laboratories were
described, along with the requirement for accreditation [102]. An overview of
the New Zealand experience in drug-free workplace program was described,
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highlighting the mix of testing options employed, the industry sector trends, the
categories of drugs misused, the influence of significant Employment Court
Judgements, proposed changes to the AS/NZS 4308(2006), and current oral
fluid research projects [103].
The importance of LC-MS in supporting workplace drug-testing programs was
reviewed with particular focus on the combination of LC-MS with innovative
instrumentation such as triple quadrupoles, ion traps, or time-of-flight mass
spectrometers [104].
2.3.1 Urine
The most common specimen for illicit drug testing is urine. Immunoassay is
commonly used for screening because the method is simple, sensitive, rapid,
and is reasonably cost-effective. The potential false-positive and
false-negative results in urine drug screens that occur with immunoassays of 5
substances (amphetamines, cannabinoids, cocaine, opiates, and
phencyclidine) and also with alcohol, benzodiazepines, and tricyclic
antidepressants, were discussed [105]. Other pitfalls, such as adulteration,
substitution, and dilution of urine samples, were also included. A
homogeneous immunoassay (EMIT-type assay) has been developed for the
detection of zolpidem in urine, with an LOD of 5 ng/mL. The zolpidem antibody
is highly specific and does not cross-react with zopiclone and zaleplon, and the
accuracy of the assay was greater than 90% as demonstrated by authentic
urine samples, with results confirmed by LC-MS/MS [106].
A method to analyze 40 different drugs of abuse using UPLC-MS/MS with a
run time of 5.2 min to replace immunoassay screening for drugs of abuse in
urine was developed. Urine samples were hydrolyzed enzymatically, diluted
and injected with isotopically labeled internal standards; a parallel analysis with
GC/MS showed excellent correlation results [ 107 ]. An ELISA and an
LC-MS/MS confirmation method were developed and validated for the
identification and quantitation of ketamine and its major metabolite
norketamine (NK) in urine samples [108]. A cutoff value of 25 ng/mL ketamine
in the ELISA screen was proposed. In another study, positive ion chemical
ionization-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (PCI-GC-MS) with an
automatic solid-phase extraction (SPE) apparatus was used to study ketamine
and NK in urine samples with LODs and LOQs of 25 ng/mL and 50 ng/mL,
respectively, for both analytes [ 109 ]. Two solid phase extraction
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(SPE)-LC-MS/MS methods for the analysis of THC-COOH in human urine
were developed, with LOQs of 2 ng/mL [110] and 5 ng/mL [111] and no
carryover evidenced at both 2000 ng/mL [110] and 5000 ng/mL [111]. An
LC-MS/MS method was developed for detection of cocaine and its metabolites
in urine at concentrations as low as 1.0 ng/mL [112].
Understanding urinary excretion profiles following controlled drug
administration is important for interpretation of urine test results. The pattern
and timeframe of excretion of MDMA and its metabolites in urine were studied,
where placebo, 1.0 mg/kg, and 1.6 mg/kg oral MDMA doses were
administered double-blind to healthy adult MDMA users. After 1.6 mg/kg,
median of maximum concentrations, C(max), were 21,470 (MDMA), 2229
(MDA), 20,793 (HMMA), and 876 ng/mL (HMA) at median time to maximum,
T(max), of 13.9, 23.0, 9.2 and 23.3 h. Identification of
4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) as well as MDMA increased
the ability to identify positive specimens, but required hydrolysis [113]. Huestis
and co-workers studied the urinary excretion profile of cocaine through various
modes of administration under controlled conditions [114,115]. Both studies
concluded that urine ecgonine concentrations peaked later and had longer
detection times than the other minor metabolites [114,115]. With a 50 ng/mL
cutoff concentration, and following low doses of 10 to 45 mg cocaine by
multiple routes, detection times extended up to 98 h [115]. The excretion
profiles of flunitrazepam metabolites in urine after a single dose (0.5 mg or 2
mg) were investigated using CEDIA (300 µg/L cutoff) for screening and
quantitation using LC-MS/MS (0.5 µg/L). It was found that none of the subjects
receiving 0.5 mg screened positive, and only 23 of 102 samples from the
subjects given 2.0 mg were positive with CEDIA, but that
7-aminoflunitrazepam was detected up to 120 h, and that LC-MS/MS was able
to detect two subjects after more than 240 h administration at low dose [116].
In a EtG controlled administration study, the maximum EtG concentration
normalized to creatinine after the uptake of trace amounts of 1 g and 3 g of
ethanol was 0.32 mg/L and 1.53 mg/L, respectively, and 0.15 mg/L and 1.17
mg/L for EtS. These peak concentrations are considered to be positive by
many laboratories testing urine for ethanol conjugates in work-place testing
progammes [117]. Differentiating new intake of drugs-of-abuse from residual
drug excretion may be difficult, especially following chronic drug usage and for
drugs with long elimination half-lives such as cannabis. In a case of young
pregnant woman following heavy and chronic cannabis use, urinary
11-nor-9-carboxy-delta-9-tetrahydrocannnabinol (THCCOOH) concentrations
629

measured by LC-MS, declined from 348 to 3.9 ng/mL over a surprisingly long
period of 12 weeks (84 days), but were supported by her THCCOOH excretion
profile, indicating that special caution is needed in interpreting urine test results
from heavy, chronic cannabis users [118]. To test the validity of THC and
11-hydroxy-THC (11-OH-THC) in urine as indicators of recent cannabis use,
urinary cannabinoid excretion in 33 chronic cannabis smokers, who resided on
a secure research unit under 24 h continuous medical surveillance, were
monitored. Extended urinary excretion of THC and 11-OH-THC was observed
for at least 24 days, negating their effectiveness as biomarkers of recent
cannabis exposure, and substantiating long terminal elimination times for
urinary cannabinoids following chronic cannabis smoking [119]. The time
course of THCCOOH elimination in urine was characterized in 60 cannabis
users during 24 h monitored abstinence for up to 30 days, with urine samples
taken for GC-MS analysis. Data were divided into three groups, 0-50, 51-150,
and > 150 ng/mg, and results from this study showed that the number of days
until first negative and last positive urine specimens for the three groups were
0.6 and 4.3, 3.2 and 9.7, and 4.7 and 15.4 days, respectively [120].
In a retrospective study of a military testing program that had been conducted
over a three-year period, it was found that 50% of all positive marijuana and
cocaine urine metabolite were below median values of 65 and 968 ng/mL,
respectively. A median drug concentration combined with the percentile or
frequency that a particular urine drug concentration occurs, may provide useful
information for evaluation [121]. 22 urine specimens reported by the same
group for the presence of high concentrations of amphetamine only (28,028 to
241,142 ng/mL) were subjected to further analysis for the presence of
methamphetamine (MA) [ 122 ]. It has been suggested that a urine
concentration ratio of MA to amphetamine less than 0.5%, with similar isomeric
distribution of d-(S) and l-(R) amphetamine and MA, respectively, may not
necessarily indicate the use of both amphetamine and MA.
A study reported that increased storage temperatures were associated with
increased urine pH, which might be due to degradation of nitrogenous urine
[123]. The pH values of specimens stored at -20 o C are relatively stable,
whereas pH results > 9 are achieved when samples are stored at room
temperature or higher. Statistical data of consecutive urine-creatinine
concentrations were evaluated as a laboratory marker of urine dilution [124].
The 2.5-97.5% percentile ranges for women were: 129-2690 mg/L, while for
men were 204-3520 mg/L. Using cut-offs greater than the gender-specific
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2.5% percentiles bear a high risk of misinterpretation, and gender-specific and
creatinine-adjusted decision limits are suggested to differentiate urine
adulteration. Two drug normalization procedures based on specific gravity and
creatinine to compensate for excessive hydration were applied to urine
specimens collected from three distinct groups (pain patients, heroin users,
and marijuana/cocaine users) [ 125 ]. By applying this normalization, an
increase in percent positives was observed, particularly for marijuana/cocaine
users (2- to 38-fold increases).
A literature review of the influence of poppy seed foods on opiate drug tests
revealed that the possibility of false-positive opiate drug tests after poppy food
ingestion is genuine and that there are no unambiguous markers available to
differentiate poppy food ingestion from heroin or pharmaceutical morphine use
[126]. Capsule and drink type detox agents were evaluated for their ability to
alter the elimination of MA in rats, and no significant differences was found
between the control and detox-dosed groups in the amounts of MA and AP
excreted into urine or in the volume of excreted urine [127].
2.3.2 Alternative specimens
The addition of accurate and reliable workplace drug testing using hair, oral
fluid, and sweat patch specimens can complement urine-based drug testing,
and aid in combating products intended to subvert drug testing through
adulteration, substitution, and/or dilution. In 2004, significant revisions of the
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) drug testing standards
were published defining, standardizing, and requiring specimen validity testing
on Federal employee donor urine specimens [128].
2.3.2.1 Oral fluid
Oral fluid offers multiple advantages as an alternative matrix for drug
monitoring and therefore has an increasingly important role in DUID, treatment,
workplace, and criminal justice programs. A review has outlined oral fluid
testing advantages and limitations, and the progress in oral fluid testing in the
last 5 years with respect to the collection of oral fluid and subsequent
screening, confirmation, and results interpretation for cannabinoids, opioids,
amphetamines, cocaine, and benzodiazepines [27]. In another review, it was
noted that significant developments have occurred; i.e., new pharmacokinetic
studies have been conducted, optimal cutoffs have been proposed, and the
631

correlation between oral fluid drug concentrations and impairment have been
examined [129]. However, reliable point-of-care drug testing is still problematic,
especially for cannabinoids and benzodiazepines [129].
A database of oral fluid test results from a commercial laboratory in the U.K.
(8679 confirmed positive results) was evaluated to study drug/metabolite
prevalence data, concentrations, and drugs/metabolite patterns encountered
in oral fluid [ 130 ]. Opiate positives were most frequently observed in
legal/treatment settings, whereas cannabinoids were most frequently reported
in the workplace.
Although oral fluid testing is now commonplace in many monitoring programs,
the greatest current limitation is the scarcity of controlled drug administration
studies to guide interpretation of results. The concentrations of oxazepam and
oxazepam glucuronide in oral fluid, blood, and serum after controlled
administration of 15 and 30 mg oxazepam in eight subjects was determined,
and the mean oral fluid/blood ratios were 0.05 for oxazepam and 0.004 for
oxazepam glucuronide [131].
2.3.2.2 Hair
With more demand for analyzing drugs in hair, many methods have been
developed and validated. A commercial ELISA test for the screening of drugs
of abuse (cannabis, amphetamines, opiates, and cocaine) in human hair was
validated. No false negative results were observed, based on the Society of
Hair Testing's cutoffs (0.5 ng/mg for cocaine, 0.2 ng/mg for opiates and
amphetamines, and 0.1 ng/mg for THC) [132]. Micro-pulverized extraction has
been used as the sample preparation procedure for analysis of MA in human
hair analysed by either LC-MS/MS [133] or a microchip-based ELISA system
(microELISA) [134]. The pulverizing highly disintegrated the hair components
(2 mg of hair), thereby allowing the extraction of any drugs present for
LC-MS/MS analysis [133]. The microELISA was run in parallel with LC/MS/MS
and also proved to be a reliable method [134]. A rapid and cleanup-free
microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method was proposed for the
simultaneous extraction of cocaine, opiates, and their associated metabolites
from human hair samples, followed by LC-DAD detection [135]. Using 50 mg
hair, the LOQ of the method was 0.2 ng/mg, and similar recoveries were
obtained when compared with enzymatic or acid digestion. MAE was also
applied for the analysis of EtG for 15 hair samples from occasional alcohol
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users, obtaining positive results in all cases, using GC-MS with a linear range
of 0.3-10 ng/mg [136].
An LC-MS/MS method was developed for the determination of ketamine (and
its metabolite norketamine) and some amphetamines in human hair [137].
Using 20 mg hair, the LOD and LOQ were 0.1 and 0.5 ng/mg, respectively, for
ketamine (K) and amphetamines. Another LC-MS/MS method for the
simultaneous identification and quantification of amphetamines, diazepam,
cocaine, their metabolites, and opiates from hair was developed using a single
SPE method, with LODs between 0.02 and 0.09 ng/mg [138]. Pulverized hair
samples were extracted with methanol, and the supernatant injected into the
LC/MS/MS system for the simultaneous determination of opiates, cocaine, and
their metabolites [139]. The LODs were 10 pg/mg for morphine, codeine and
6-acetylmorphine (6-AM); and 1 pg/mg for cocaine and BE, and the method
was successfully applied to the analysis of 79 authentic hair samples.
A GC-MS method for determination of ketamine, amphetamines, and opiates
in hair was developed [140]. With 25 mg hair, and following derivatization with
heptafluorobutyric acid anhydride, the LODs were in the range of 0.03-0.08
ng/mg, and the LOQs were 0.05-0.1 ng/mg. Using GC/NCI-MS, the
sensitivities of amphetamine, MA, MDA, MDMA, MDEA, morphine, and
codeine were improved from 15- to 60-fold (and 200- and 2000-fold for K and
NK) when compared with the EI method [141]. The analysis of cocaine and
benzoylecgonine in hair, using GC/MS after derivatization with a mixture of
N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide with 5% chlorotrimethylsilane,
was reported [142]. Using a sample size of 20 mg hair, the LODs and LOQs
were 20 and 50 pg/mg for cocaine, and 15 and 50 pg/mg for benzoylecgonine,
respectively. With the use of a commercial chiral derivatizing agent,
trifluoroacetyl-prolyl chloride, chiral separation of amphetamines, MA, MDMA
and MDEA in hair samples was achieved by GC/MS operated in the SIM mode,
with LODs in the range of 0.1-0.2 ng/mg [143].
As with other alternative specimens, ascertaining the time of exposure and the
extent of drug use using hair test results is difficult due to the complicated
disposition mechanism(s) and limited research available, particularly studies in
controlled clinical environments. Hair results from MA abusers in 2070 hair
samples were statistically evaluated [144]. The low, medium and high ranges
of MA were 0.5–4.2, 4.2–24.5, and 24.5–608.9 ng/mg, and those of
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amphetamine were 0.1–0.4, 0.4–1.7, and 1.7–41.4 ng/mg, respectively. In
addition, the amphetamine-to-MA ratios showed large variations but also a
tendency towards smaller variations as the MA ranges increased. Segmented
hair specimens of self-declared ecstasy abusers obtained from a double-blind
placebo-controlled six-way crossover study, during which they received a 75
and a 100 mg dose of racemic MDMA twice, were used to determine the
enantioselective disposition of MDMA. With the use NCI-GC-MS, the
(R)-enantiomer was predominant, with R/S ratios varying between 1.02 and
2.75 and total concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 20.1 ng/mg [145]. Although
there is a study showing no significant difference in results between natural
and bleached hair, the results show a possible reduction in cocaine and
benzoylecgonine concentrations for bleached hair [49,146]. In fact, there is
another study showing that bleaching may lead to false negatives for analysis
of EtG in hair [147]. Hence, it is possible that the bleaching or perming of hair
may negatively affect the result of analysis.
2.3.2.3 Sweat
Toxicology tests obtained from 188 properly worn and unadulterated patches
(out of 536 applied) from opiate-dependent, treatment-seeking volunteers
showed that the level of agreement between positive sweat test results and
positive urine results was 33% for opiates and 92% for cocaine. Also, there
was a low acceptability of sweat patch testing by patients (only 54.3% were
brought back attached to the skin) and that weekly sweat testing is less
sensitive than weekly urine testing in detecting opiate use, suggesting limited
utility of sweat patch testing in outpatient clinical settings. The excretion profile
of methadone and other drugs (nicotine, cotinine, caffeine, and cocaine) was
studied by analyzing sweat patches of heroin abusers by GC/MS [148]. The
results showed that all the patches showed positive results for methadone,
with cocaine detected in two cases, and that the parent drug was mainly
identified rather than the metabolite(s). Sweat patches (n = 389) were collected
from 39 pregnant volunteers and were analyzed for opiates, cocaine, and
related metabolites using GC-MS [149]. Cocaine was present in 254 (65.3%)
patches in concentrations ranging from 5.2 to 11,835 ng per patch, with 154 of
them higher than the 25 ng per patch of proposed the Substance Abuse and
Mental Health Services Administration’s (SAMHSA) cutoff. Interestingly,
6-acetylmorphine was the most prominent opiate analyte documented in 134
patches (34.4%), with 11.3% exceeding the cutoff of 25 ng per patch.
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2.4 Emergence of New Drugs of Abuse
There is increasing use of legally available “designer drugs” as recreational
drugs. Many of these designer drugs are structurally and/or pharmacologically
very similar to their corresponding illicit analogs. Contrary to new medications,
which are extensively studied in animals, followed by human epidemiological
investigations and risk assessment under controlled clinical environments,
many designer drugs are consumed without any safety testing.
2.4.1 Phenethylamines
Metabolite standards are often not commercially available, particularly in the
case of new designer drugs. As an alternative to often cumbersome chemical
synthesis, human cytochrome P450 isoenzymes (P-450s) can be used for the
biotechnological synthesis of drug metabolites. This concept was applied to
the synthesis of N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-hydroxyethanamine (PCHEA), the
common O-dealkyl metabolite of the designer drugs
N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-methoxyethanamine (PCMEA) and
N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-ethoxyethanamine (PCEEA) [150]. The involvement
of P450s in the metabolism of N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-ethoxypropanamine
(PCEPA) and N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-methoxypropanamine (PCMPA), to
the common metabolite N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-hydroxypropanamine
(PCHPA), was studied [151]. Among the tested isoenzymes, P450 2B6, 2C19,
2D6, and 3A4 catalyzed PCEPA O-deethylation, and P450 2B6, 2C19, and
2D6 catalyzed PCMPA O-demethylation.
Another new class of designer drugs, the so-called beta-keto (bk)
phenethylamines (aka “cathinones”) such as mephedrone
(bk-4-methylmethamphetamine), butylone (bk-MBDB), and methylone
(bk-MDMA) have appeared in the illicit drug markets in many countries. The
metabolites of bk-MBDB and
2-ethylamino-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)propan-1-one (bk-MDEA) in
human urine were identified using synthesized standards [152]. Based on
GC-MS and LC-MS, N-dealkylation, demethylenation followed by
O-methylation, and β-ketone reduction were identified as their major metabolic
pathways.
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Maurer et al. reported a series of studies on the metabolism of PCMPA [153],
N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-propanamine (PCPR) [ 154 ],
N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-ethoxyethanamine (PCEEA) [ 155 ] and
N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-methoxyethanamine (PCMEA) [155],
4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine [ 156 ], mephedrone, butylone, and
methylone [157] in rats and/or humans, by analyzing urine samples using
GC-MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction, and microwave-assisted
acetylation. The systematic analytical methods described in these reports are
useful for screening of these drugs.
A fatal overdose case involving the potent hallucinogenic drug
“Bromo-Dragonfly” (1-(8-bromobenzo[1,2-b;
4,5-b′]difuran-4-yl)-2-aminopropane) was reported [158]. Bromo-Dragonfly was
identified in the liver and blood using UPLC–Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
(TOFMS), and was subsequently quantified in femoral blood (0.0047 mg/kg),
urine (0.033 mg/kg), and vitreous humour (0.0005 mg/kg). A synthesized
designer drug, para-methoxyethylamphetamine (PMEA) was unexpectedly
detected in the postmortem specimens in a case in Japan [159]. Blood
concentration of PMEA was estimated to be 12.2 µg/mL, with
para-methoxyamphetamine, para-hydroxyethylamphetamine, and
para-hydroxyamphetamine identified as its major metabolites.
3-Fluoromethcathinone was identified in capsules marketed as plant fertilizer
available from internet sources [160]. GC–MS data for the three isomers of
fluoromethcathinone and their N-acetyl derivatives were reported, and the
positional isomers of fluoromethcathinone were determined using Fourier
transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and 19 F nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (NMR).
2.4.2 Piperazines
Reports on the use of benzylpiperazine (BZP) and
1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP) for their stimulating, enacting,
and "recreational" properties are increasing. In view of the abuse potential,
BZP is banned in the U.S., Japan, Australia, Denmark, and Sweden. In 2008,
New Zealand also controlled BZP and related substances [161]. A review of
the information currently available on BZP suggested that further research into
its mechanisms of action, long-term effects, and potentially addictive
properties is needed [162]. A study to assess the abuse liability of BZP in rats
indicated that BZP self-administration, like cocaine, is readily acquired and
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mediated by dopaminergic mechanisms [163]. In a national household survey
conducted in New Zealand of the use of BZP/TFMPP showed that the mean
quantity of BZP/TFMPP taken on an occasion of greatest use was 533 mg. It
was concluded in the survey that females may be at greater risk of problems
from BZP/TFMPP abuse, due to their smaller physical size, and that taking
5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) 'recovery' pills with BZP/TFMPP may actually
increase the risk of adverse effects [164].
BZP intoxication can be life threatening, and it has been detected in several
fatal cases, while the toxicity of TFMPP appears to be weaker but has a risk of
serious psychiatric manifestations and serotoninergic syndrome [165]. Three
cases of BZP and TFMPP intoxications were reported, with serum
concentrations of TFMPP at 263 ±5.8 ng/mL and BZP at 46.7 ± 15.3 ng/mL
[166]. The pharmacokinetics of BZP was measured in blood and urine samples
taken from 7 healthy adults over 24 h following a 200 mg oral dose of BZP,
with a peak plasma concentration at 262 ng/mL in 75 min [167]. The results of
this study indicate that BZP may be detectable in plasma for up to 30 h
following an oral dose. Seven urine specimens were analyzed for BZP and
TFMPP, with concentrations ranging from 13.0 to 429.1 mg/L and 0.79 to 25.4
mg/L, respectively [ 168 ]. A new derivative of BZP,
4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxybenzylpiperazine, first seized in Germany, was
reported in 2009. The structure was proven by two-dimensional NMR
correlations and GC-MS, after synthesis of two of the possible isomers from
commercially available starting materials [169].
2.4.3 Synthetic cannabinoids
“Spice” is one of a large number of cannabis-free mixtures of various “inert”
plant materials which have had one or more synthetic cannabinoids or
cannabimimetics sprayed on them. Compounds such as cannabicyclohexanol,
oleamide, JWH-018, CP 47497, JWH-073, and HU-210, have received
intensive attention due to their cannabis-like effects when smoked, and have
been sold on the Internet and in various specialized shops since at least 2006
[170]. Responding to potential health concerns, Austria, Germany, France,
Luxembourg, Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Estonia, and a number of states in
the U.S. have taken legal actions to ban or otherwise control these products
and related compounds. Identification of many of the compounds used in these
products have been reported in Japan [171,172], Germany [173,174], Spain
[175], many European countries, and the U.S. [170]. While there are no
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officially published safety data concerning their effects in humans, a case was
reported for a patient who developed physical withdrawal phenomena and a
dependence syndrome similar to that seen in cannabis dependence, after the
consumption of "Spice" [176].
2.4.4 Pyrrolidinophenones
In the metabolism of 4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone (MPBP) to
4'-(hydroxymethyl)-alpha-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone, only P450 enzymes
CYP2D6, CYP2C19, and CYP1A2 were capable of catalyzing MPBP
4'-hydroxylation. From the relative activity factor and experiments with human
liver microsomes from CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 poor metabolizers, it could be
concluded that polymorphically expressed CYP2D6 is mainly responsible for
MPBP hydroxylation [177 ]. With the use of GC/MS, 11 metabolites of
alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP) in rat urine were identified, and a
metabolic pathway was suggested involving initial hydroxylation of the side
chain followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding ketone [178]. For
studies on the quantitative involvement of P450s in the initial hydroxylation of
1-(4-methylphenyl)-2-pyrrolidin-1-ylhexan-1-one
(4'-methyl-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone, MPHP), the metabolite
4'-hydroxymethyl-alpha-pyrrolidinohexanophenone (HO-MPHP) was
synthesized (for use as a reference standard) using a biotechnological
approach [ 179 ]. The NMR and MS data of another designer drug,
3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), which is claimed to be a stimulant
(first seized in Germany in 2007), were described [180].
2.5 Survey on Trends of Drug Use
2.5.1 Opiates
The global epidemic of opiate use continues to spread and is an increasing
burden, especially in developing countries. In a study of acute opiate
overdoses in a poisoning center in Tehran, Iran over a six month period,
showed that opium rather than heroin was most commonly used by regular
users, with benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and alcohol being the most
common agents co-consumed with opiates [181]. The pattern of poisoning in
the elderly population in Tehran also found that opioids and opiate products
accounted for 54.02% of the non-pharmaceuticals found, and that the most
frequently involved drug groups were benzodiazepines, antidepressants, and
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analgesics [182]. An epidemic of fatal accidental poisonings due to the highly
potent opioid-mimicking designer drug 3-methylfentanyl (TMF) was revealed
among Estonian drug users, with 46 and 71 cases found in 2005 and 2006,
respectively. The mean combined concentration of TMF stereoisomers among
pure TMF cases (1.9 µg/L) was more than ten times lower than the mean
fentanyl concentration in fentanyl-related fatalities [183].
2.5.2 Amphetamines
The abuse of amphetamines is a major threat worldwide, and various studies
on the epidemic in Australia, the U.S., and southeast Asia were reported. In a
study of MA-related deaths in Australia, injection was found to be the major
route of administration (89%), with other drugs detected including
benzodiazepines (41%) and morphine (36%) [184]. The median blood MA
concentration was 0.2 mg/L (range 0.02-15.0 mg/L). A study of abuse of MA
and amphetamine in North America indicated the annual prevalence for
'speed' use in Canada being 0.8% in 2004, 0.3% for amphetamine and 0.1%
for MA in Mexico in 2002, and 1.4% for 'stimulants' in the United States in 2006
[ 185 ]. The type of stimulants has shifted from non-medical use of
pharmaceutical amphetamine to use of MA powder and then 'ice'. Data
collected in southeast and east Asia indicated that they have experienced a
MA epidemic in the past decade, which began around 1997 and peaked in
2000-2001 [186]. MA is typically smoked or ingested, but injection of the drug
is also apparent. The bone mineral density in the lumbar spine measured
among 46 hospitalized male MA abusers in Korea indicated that there was a
considerable loss of bone mineral among them [187].
In a study of 169 forensic autopsy cases detected with amphetamines in
Australia, 9 cases with either cerebral hemorrhage or serotonin syndrome
were caused by the interaction of MDMA and moclobemide, and 19 cases with
heart disease were associated with long-term use of amphetamines [188].
Another study in Australia for MDMA related deaths based on the National
Coronial Information System showed that MDMA deaths were predominantly
due to drug toxicity (82%), with MDMA being the sole drug causing death in
23% of cases, and combined drug toxicity in 59% of cases [189]. A survey of
the laboratory urinalysis data of ecstasy users in the U.S. in 2005-2007
showed that a majority (84.3%) of the specimens contained multiple drugs
and/or metabolites in addition to MDMA and MDA, with the median number of
drugs/metabolites reported being 5. The most commonly identified drug
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groups were in the following order: Cannabis (THCCOOH); amphetamine/MA;
benzoylecgonine; diazepam-related; and opiates and alprazolam [190]. 59
fatalities that tested positive for MDMA during the period of 2001 to 2008 in
Taiwan were studied [191]. Among the fatalities, ketamine was found in 28
cases, indicating the popularity of this drug in Taiwan. The cause of death was
mainly acute intoxication, with a mean MDMA concentration of 2.75 µg/mL,
while the manner of death was predominately accidental.
2.5.3 GHB
Several studies of GHB use were conducted in the U.K. [192,193,194]. 189
individuals that reported at least one lifetime use of GHB in the U.K. completed
an online questionnaire, which indicated that the primary use of GHB was for
recreation [192]. In another study on 173 individuals with recreational drug
toxicity and requiring "medical" assistance in a large urban nightclub from
September 2007 to January 2008, the results showed that the majority of them
were not first-time recreational drug users, and that they used a variety of
recreational drugs, particularly GHB, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and
ketamine [193]. Although the use of GHB is controlled in many countries, its
precursors GBL and 1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) remain legally available despite
having similar clinical effects (GBL is now controlled in U.K., Canada, Australia,
and Sweden). A self-reported study found that GHB ingestion was much more
common than GBL ingestion, whereas GBL was more commonly found in the
seized samples, suggesting that GBL use may be more common than
previously thought [194].
A National Drug Strategy Household Survey in Australia showed that 0.5% of
Australians aged 14 years or older reported ever using GHB, and 0.1%
reported recent use, with the prevalence of use being highest amongst those
aged 20-29 years [195].
2.5.4 Ketamine
In a national survey in Taiwan from 2004 to 2006, a decline was noted in the
prevalence and incidence rate of ecstasy, a leading illegal drug used by
school-attending adolescents in Taiwan since the early 2000s. The emerging
ketamine use trend, being the first commonly used illegal drug in the middle
school-aged students starting in 2006, may warrant more attention [196]. Data
analyzed from the 2004 National Drug Strategy Household Survey in Australia
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showed that lifetime use of ketamine was reported by 1% of Australians aged
14 years or older, with 0.3% reporting recent use. Again, the prevalence of
ketamine use was highest amongst those aged 20-29 years [195]. An interview
was conducted for 90 ketamine users in the U.K. showed that frequent
ketamine users expressed more concerns than other groups about long-term
effects on physical health problems, especially “K-cramps” and cystitis,
whereas ex-users were more concerned about mental health problems [197].
An assessment of 360 club-drug users and 303 non-drug users in Hong Kong
showed that the most frequently used drugs were ketamine, ecstasy, and
cannabis, with the majority using two or more drugs on any one occasion, and
that club-drug users were more rash-impulsive, reward-driven, and less
punishment-sensitive, than non-drug users [198].
2.5.5 Other Drugs
A 10-year retrospective review of 216 poisoning death cases in Hubei, China
showed that the most common classes of substances involved were
rodenticide (19.7%), insecticide and herbicide (17.9%), carbon monoxide
(16.5%), drugs (13.8%) and alcohols (12.4%) [199]. A retrospective evaluation
of drugs detected in a pediatric postmortem population between the years
1998 and 2002 (n = 730) in the U.S. state of Ohio reported that
resuscitative/treatment drugs were detected most frequently (56% of positive
results), followed by illicit drugs (26%), ethanol (11%), carbon monoxide (8%),
and antihistamines (6%) [200]. The authors suggested that illicit drugs and
ethanol be targeted for testing, especially when limited specimens are
available for analysis. Causes of accidental drug deaths occurring in 2002 in
the U.S. state of Georgia revealed that cocaine was the most prevalent drug
(40%), followed by mixed drug intoxication (37%), opioids (10%), ethanol (7%),
and prescription medications (non-opioid) (5%). This study also supported of
the lack of correlation between serum drug levels and the mechanism of drug
toxicity in cocaine-related deaths [201].
Serotonin-active drugs are detected relatively frequently in Victorian deaths in
Australia. A study of 1123 fatalities with serotonin-active drugs (tramadol,
venlafaxine, fluoxetine, sertraline, citalopram, paroxetine, and MDMA)
detected over a 7-year period was conducted [202]. Of the 28 death cases
where the circumstances suggested the involvement of serotonin toxicity,
tramadol was frequently detected, in combination with serotonergic
antidepressants. MDMA was also detected relatively commonly and was
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associated with moclobemide in 4 cases of confirmed serotonin toxicity.
PubMed/Medline search using terms dextromethorphan (DM) and abuse
through July, 2008 indicated that DM is often abused to seek dissociative
effects similar to ketamine and phencyclidine, and that its abuse potential
should be recognized in view of its low cost and ready accessibility as an
over-the-counter drug [203].
Patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) frequently experience pain. A study
with 11,466 PD patients showed that they significantly received more
prescriptions of analgesics than the general population (82% versus 77%), and
that they were more exposed than the general population and diabetics to
opiates, acetaminophen, and adjuvant analgesics chronic use [204].
A study of 24 multiple suicidal/accidental drug intoxication cases in the U.S.
found that opiates, antidepressants, benzodiazepines, ethanol, and cocaine
were equally likely to be present in both suicide and accidents, and that the
mean number of drugs found in suicides was 4, compared to 2 in accidents
[205]. Travel-related poisonings (i.e., incidents associated with bus, taxi, train,
and air travel, or at local markets) is an emerging social and public health
emergency in Bangladesh. A prospective clinical study and retrospective
analysis of hospital records suggested that benzodiazepines such as
lorazepam, diazepam, and nitrazepam are commonly used to commit these
crimes [206]. The blood concentrations of clonazepam and its metabolite
7-aminoclonazepam in toxicology cases in Denmark were reported [207]. The
median concentrations of clonazepam plus 7-aminoclonazepam were 0.067
mg/kg for traffic cases, 0.071 mg/kg for criminal cases (offenders), 0.030
mg/kg for criminal cases (victims), and 0.115 mg/kg for postmortem cases.
A retrospective study of the prevalence of drugs found in carbon monoxide
related deaths in the U.S. state of Ohio showed that the manners of death
were mostly accidental (69%), followed by suicide (25%), and then homicide
(6%). In addition, 28% of the deaths had ethanol detected, while 41% had
therapeutic and/or abused drugs detected; antidepressants and antihistamines
were commonly detected in suicides, and pain medications and antihistamines
in accidents [208]. While it is known that diesel fuel combustion engines
produce much lower concentrations of CO than gasoline engines, a case of
CO poisoning of a truck driver (which was initially referred for autopsy as a
presumed natural death) was reported [209]. Toxicology results showed lethal
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lood carboxyhemoglobin, and the cause of death was re-certified as CO
intoxication. A 10-year retrospective review conducted on all non-fire related
CO deaths autopsied (n = 94) in the U.S. from 1994 to 2003, along with an
extensive literature review, indicated no previously reported cases of fatal CO
poisoning attributed to diesel fuel exhaust.
2.6 Quality Assurance and Accreditation
The implementation of quality management systems and accreditation of
laboratories by regional or national accreditation bodies are intended to ensure
that the laboratories are capable of providing effective and “fit for purpose”
analytical service to the end users. The current status of accreditation amongst
laboratories offering drug testing of hair was assessed. Although the vast
majority of laboratories follow current guidelines (83%), only nine laboratories
were accredited to ISO/IEC 17025 standards for hair testing; however, a
significant number of laboratories reported that they were in the process of
developing quality assurance protocols with a view to accrediting their
methods within 2–3 years [210]. Quality assurance in toxicological examination
in DUID cases requires efforts from professionals of different disciplines. In the
quality assurance program of Switzerland for laboratories performing
toxicological road traffic analyses, a multidisciplinary working group, the Road
Traffic Commission (RTC), was established to organize external quality control,
to interpret the results of these controls, to perform audits in the laboratories
and to report all results to Swiss Federal Road Office [211]. The program
required that all tested drugs and psychoactive substances listed in a federal
instruction as 'zero tolerance substances' (THC, morphine, cocaine,
amphetamine, MA, MDMA, and MDEA) and their metabolites to be tested
once a year, and all other substances (benzodiazepines, zolpidem,
phenobarbital, etc.) be tested periodically. External audits are performed
triennially, but accredited laboratories can combine the audit with the approval
of the Swiss Accreditation Service.
Participation in external quality assurance or proficiency testing (PT) schemes
is an important part of quality management. The Federal Aviation
Administration of the U.S. reported the second 7 years of their postmortem
toxicology proficiency test program [212]. Twenty-eight survey samples (12
urine, 9 blood, and 7 tissue homogenate) with/without alcohols/volatiles, drugs,
and/or putrefactive amine(s) were submitted, with an average of 25
participants reporting their results. Analytes in the survey samples were
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correctly identified and quantitated by a large number of participants, but some
false positives of concern were reported.
Three exercises were offered by an external proficiency testing program
(HAIRVEQ) in 2006 to evaluate 32 laboratories' performance in analyzing the
same hair samples containing opiates, cocaine, and methadone, after carrying
out some specific educational interventions [213]. It was found that with the
standard operating procedures sent together with the test hair samples, a
reduction in the number of incorrect results was observed compared with
previous exercises in 2004 and 2005. An external quality assessment scheme
was reported that assessed the reliability of analytical laboratories when
analyzing drugs of abuse in oral fluid (ORALVEQ). Results were evaluated
from a qualitative and quantitative point of view. Eighteen false-positive and 3
false-negative results were reported by 8 (from a total of 21) laboratories. In
general, the participating laboratories had a satisfactory performance [214].
Reference materials are a critical tool for successful quality assurance and
accreditation. Although the importance of analysis of drug in hair has attracted
much attention in the past few years, the need for a reference material (RM) for
method development and validation, internal quality control, or proficiency
tests has rapidly increased. RMs of drug-free hair spiked with MA and its main
metabolite, amphetamine (AP) [215], and authentic hair samples from MA
abusers [216], were prepared. As a result, a spiked hair RM containing MA and
AP was prepared at levels of 4.86±0.69 ng/mg and 4.63±0.44 ng/mg,
respectively, and for the authentic hair RM, MA was found with concentration
of 7.64±1.24 ng/mg and AP at 0.54±0.07 ng/mg. Certified solution standards
(widely used in toxicology laboratories) are often purchased from vendors who
present concentration and uncertainty differently on their Certificates of
Analysis. Gates et al. described the impact of uncertainty associated with the
neat material purity, mass measurement (weighing techniques), and solvent
addition (solution density) on the overall uncertainty of the certified
concentration, along with uncertainty calculations [217]. The measurement
uncertainties (MUs) were estimated for the determination of MA and
amphetamine near their cutoff concentrations in human hair [218]. With the
use of 1% HCl in methanol, followed by derivatization and quantification using
GC-MS, the concentrations of MA and AP in hair with their expanded
uncertainties were 0.66+/-0.05 and 1.01+/-0.06 ng/mg, respectively. The
method precision and the weight of the hair sample gave the largest
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contributions to the overall combined uncertainties of MA and AP.
Appropriate specimen selection and collection is important for a successful
systematic toxicological analysis (STA). The Committee of STA published
guidelines to address the issue of sampling such as specimen types, amounts
that should be collected and submitted to laboratories expected to perform
STA, and criteria for ensuring quality assurance in sample collection [219].
3. Advances in Toxicological Analysis
3.1 Instrumental techniques
The first step of toxicological analysis is the identification of unknown drugs
and poisons in body fluids. A general unknown screening procedure is
necessary to enable simultaneous detection of as many intoxicants as possible.
Modern analytical and instrumental methods that were used in forensic
toxicology for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of drugs have been
reviewed [220]. The review focused on description of the theory, inherent
strengths, and limitations of various analytical instrumentation, including
GC-MSs, LC-MSs, mass spectrometers, and capillary electrophoresis
instruments, commonly used in forensic toxicology.
3.1.1 GC-MS
The applicability of a freeware deconvolution software AMDIS (Automated
Mass Spectral Deconvolution and Identification System) for GC-MS-based
systematic toxicological analysis (STA) in urine was evaluated [221]. It is
concluded that with the use of optimized settings, the AMDIS-based data
analysis was comparable or even superior to manual evaluation by an
experienced toxicologist, and reduced by half the overall analysis time.
Nevertheless, AMDIS can identify only targets present in the user-defined
target library, and may therefore not indicate unknown compounds that might
be relevant in clinical and forensic toxicology. A comprehensive GC-MS
screening method was developed for the detection of over 150 prohibited
substances on the list of the World Anti-Doping Agency, including anabolic
androgenic steroids, stimulants, and narcotic agents [222]. The analytes were
extracted from urine by LLE using diethylether and dibutyl ether at pH 9.5 and
14, respectively, followed by derivatization using a mixture of
N-methyl-N-trimethylsilyltrifluoroacetamide, NH4I, and ethanethiol, prior to
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GC-MS analysis.
Different workup procedures, i.e., cleavage of conjugates by acid hydrolysis
(Hy) or enzymatic hydrolysis (Gluc) followed by liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) or
SPE, and derivatization, e.g., acetylation (Ac), in extractive methylation (ExMe),
for systematic toxicological screening in urine by GC-MS, were evaluated [223].
In conclusion, Hy-LLE-Ac remains the method of choice for STA in clinical
toxicology owing to its wide analyte spectrum and short workup time, while
Gluc-ExMe is an ideal complementary method when acidic drugs need to be
covered.
3.1.2 LC-MS
The multi-analyte single-stage and tandem liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry procedures using different mass analyzers (quadrupole, ion
trap, time-of-flight) for screening, identification, and/or quantification of drugs,
poisons, and/or their metabolites in blood, plasma, serum, or urine published
after 2004, was reviewed [224]. LC-MS/MS has been used as an alternative
method for screening and quantification of drugs in biological samples,
rodenticides [225], pesticides [226], anti-malarial drugs [227], doping controls
[228] and abused drugs [229,230,231,232,233].
Apart from being a very useful and sensitive confirmatory tool, promising
progress has been made in the application of LC-MS(MS) in general unknown
screening (GUS). Several groups have created libraries suitable for screening
of drugs/poisons in biological specimens [234,235,236]. With a hybrid linear
ion-trap LC-MS/MS system, using 3 different collision energies during each
scan, Weinmann and coworkers have created a library containing 1253
compounds relevant in clinical and forensic toxicology by injecting pure
solutions of drugs and toxic compounds [235]. More recently, they also
reported a multi-target screening method to allow the simultaneous
identification of 700 drugs and metabolites in biological fluids. Retention times
were determined and transitions for each compound were selected by a
"scheduled" survey MRM scan [237]. With the help of the software for routine
screening and quantitation to allow automated acquisition and library
searching, the time for evaluation and interpretation of the results could be
drastically reduced. Using a similar instrument, Liu et al. has also created a
library of LC/ESI-MS/MS for 800 drugs and toxic compounds, based on
spectra and retention time of the analytes with increased collision energy from
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0.3 to 2.0 V, to produce an optimal set of fragment-rich MS/MS spectra for
application of GUS in postmortem blood, urine, and hair specimens [234].
Identification of metabolites in addition to parent drugs are also helpful in the
GUS, and five cases were used to illustrate the utility of screening of xenobiotic
metabolites in routine analysis of forensic samples by employing a previously
published LC-MS/MS GUS procedure [236].
An UPLC-TOFMS method was developed for the routine analysis of urine
samples [238]. By comparison of acquired data to libraries containing more
than 300 common drugs and metabolites, identification was based on a
combination of retention time, exact mass and fragmentation patterns. The use
of TOFMS techniques for screening of drugs in serum [ 239 ], urine
[238,239,240,241] and hair [242,243] have been reported.
Apart from high sensitivity and selectivity, there is also a need of
high-throughput methods to cope with the increasing number of samples
typically submitted to toxicology laboratories. UPLC with sub-2 µm particles
can be operated at higher pressures, resulting in an increase in resolution,
speed and sensitivity comparing with conventional LC [244]. Because the triple
quadrupole MS/MS technique is limited by the cycle time when dealing with a
large amounts of compounds, TOFMS coupled to UPLC is more frequently
adopted in the screening of unknown analytes [240]. For example, a
UPLC-QTOFMS method was developed for fast analysis of 103 doping agents
(such as stimulants, diuretics, narcotics, and anti-estrogens) in urine based on
retention time and mass accuracy, including an automated tool for peak
picking, with a runtime of 9 min for the screening [240] and 7 min for
confirmation with an addition use of SPE [245]. UPLC-TOFMS can be applied
not only in screening of unknown analystes but also for quantitative analysis.
Quantitative analysis using UPLC-TOFMS of 52 common pharmaceuticals and
abused drugs in hair was reported [242]. But the TOF method was found to be
less suitable for quantification of amphetamines, as high background noise
may be observed because of its low molecular mass, leading to a lack of
linearity and poor sensitivity [242]. Identification of drugs metabolites is
sometimes helpful for the identification of their parent compounds, and
software that could predict the metabolites and mass fragmentation pattern of
quetiapine (as analysed by LC-TOFMS) was developed and was found to be
able to assign 13 metabolites in urine samples [246].
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Reverse phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) has been widely used in
bioanalysis, but very polar compounds may be weakly retained. With the use
of a hydrophilic stationary phase and low-aqueous/ high-organic mobile phase,
hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) has been demonstrated to be a
powerful technique for the retention of polar analytes [247]. HILIC also proved
to improve MS sensitivity, allow higher flow rates, and reduce matrix effects
[248]. Because of its advantages over RPLC, there is an increased interest in
using HILIC in bio-analytical applications for drugs and their metabolites, which
are often polar in nature [244,249]. For example, cocaine and its metabolites,
especially ecgonine methyl ester, in hair samples [250], omeprazole and
lansoprazole in plasma [251], metoclopramide in plasma [252], estrogen
conjugates in urine [253], and acetylcholine, choline, and butyrobetaine in liver
tissues [254]. Analysis of polar analytes, such as the endogenous metabolite
trigonelline and the polar antibiotics amoxicillin in urine, using HILIC coupled to
NMR and MS, was also reported [255]. Analysis of EtG, could also be
performed by HILIC-MS/MS instead of GC; the latter requires derivatisation
[256].
Although HILIC gives good separations of polar compounds, neutral and
non-polar analytes generally show little retention [257]. To broaden the elution
window, pharmaceutical compounds were analysed using serial coupling of
reversed-phase and hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography
(RPLC/HILIC) [258]. In addition, the use of low-aqueous/ high-organic mobile
phases in HILIC makes it possible for the eluent from SPE or liquid-liquid
extraction (LLE) to be directly injected to the HILIC column without
reconstitution, enabling high throughput and automated extractions
[247,251,255].
3.1.3 Capillary electrophoresis
The current application of capillary electrophoresis (CE) in forensic toxicology
has been reviewed with special focus on those areas where this technique has
shown real advantages over chromatographic methods, such as chiral drugs,
proteins, and alcohol biomarkers analyses [259].
The utilization of dynamic doubly coated capillaries for a fast separation of
methadone and its two major metabolites,
2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) and
2-ethyl-5-methyl-3,3-diphenyl-1-pyrroline (EMDP), was investigated. Complete
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achiral separation of methadone, EDDP and EMDP was achieved, using a
capillary coated with a polycation of poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride)
and a polyanion of dextran sulfate, with migration times of approximately 4 min
[260]. To further separate enantiomers of methadone and EDDP, another CE
method was developed using 0.2% highly sulphated gamma-cyclodextrins as
chiral selectors, giving LODs of 2.3-2.4 ng/mL with a 5 min runtime [261]. The
prevalence of elevated levels of CDT, a marker of chronic alcohol abuse in
serum of DUI drivers, was studied by CE. With a cut-off set at 2.00% (CDT
index), 24 out of 40 drunken drivers were identified as chronic alcohol abusers
[262].
Due to its selectivity and sensitivity, CE coupled to MS (CE-MS) has evolved
as a useful analytical tool for determining drugs and metabolites in biological
samples. Non-aqueous CE online coupled with a mass spectrometer for the
analysis of phosphatidylethanol (Peth), another biomarker of chronic alcohol
abuse in blood, was developed. With the use of phosphatidylbutanol as an
internal standard, the estimated LOD was 0.1 µM, while LOQ was 0.4 µM [263].
Determinations of illicit drugs and/or metabolites (opiates, cocaine,
amphetamines, and methadone) in blood [264] and in hair [265] by CE-MS,
were accomplished. LODs in blood were in the range of 2-10 ng/mL, while in
hair were 0.1 ng/mg. With the use of protein precipitation (PP) prior to a
hydrodynamic injection (HD) or liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with electrokinetic
injection (EK), CE-ESI-MS methods for analysis of ecstasy and methadone in
plasma, were developed. Methods were linear over the concentration range of
0.50-175 ng/mL and 0.25-5 µg/mL for LLE-EK and PP-HD procedures,
respectively [266].
3.2 Extraction Techniques
3.2.1 Liquid-phase microextraction (LPME)
Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) was one of the conventional sample preparation
techniques extensively used for biological sample analysis, particularly for
post-mortem toxicology. This method, however, is relatively time-consuming
and produces relatively large amount of organic solvent waste. Liquid-phase
microextraction (LPME), which requires much less organic solvent in the
pretreatment procedure, was recently developed [267,268,269]. There are
several types of LPME, including single-drop microextraction (SDME) [270],
dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (DLLME) [ 271 ], and hollow-fiber
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microextraction (HF-LPME) [272].
Hollow fibre liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) has an improved stability
and reliability over the SDME method, and may become the most widely used
LPME method [244]. It is an efficient technique for sample clean-up, with a
good extraction efficiency [273]. Its main disadvantage is that polar analytes
are difficult to extract, and the pH of the sample solution must be adjusted in
order to have total ionization of the analytes [267]. Recent studies using
HF-LPME included the determination of some antidepressant drugs
(imipramine, amitriptyline, and sertraline) in urine and plasma by HPLC [274],
progesterone in human serum by GC-MS [275], β-agonists and β-blockers
(clenbuterol, metoprolol, and propranolol) in urine, with derivatization by
N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MSTFA) followed by GC-MS
[276], xenobiotics (DNP, DNOC, Dinoseb, and Dinoterb) in human plasma
using LC/ESI-MS [ 277 ], an anti-diabetic drug (pioglitazone) [ 278 ], and
antidepressants (amitriptyline, imipramine, and sertraline) [279] in biological
fluids by HPLC. An automated method was also developed for the
determination of flunitrazepam in plasma and urine samples using GC-MS/MS
[280].
3.2.2 Electrokinetic membrane extraction (EME)
In HF-LPME the driving force for the extraction of analytes is the passive
diffusion, and hence the extraction times typically range from 15 - 60 min
[267,281]. In electrokinetic membrane extraction, two electrodes, one in the
sample solution and the other in the acceptor solution, are placed such that
electrical field is the driving force for the extraction process; therefore, the
extraction time can be shortened to approximately 5 – 10 min [281,282].
Recent studies were reported using EME on basic drugs and acidic drugs
[283], basic drugs (pethidine, nortriptyline, tramadol, methadone, haloperidol,
and loperamide) from untreated human plasma and whole blood, with
recoveries at range 19 – 51% [284]. Basic drugs extraction using EME at low
voltage (9V) (obtainable by common batteries) was demonstrated by Kjeisen
et al. [285].
3.2.3 Solid-phase extractions (SPE)
Solid-phase extractions (SPE) are becoming a more popular extraction
method over the traditional LLE due to its lower solvent consumption, higher
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extraction efficiency for certain drugs, and ease of automation for on-line
coupling of SPE to chromatographic systems [286,287]. Pre-treated samples
were injected into the LC system with two extraction columns. A comparison of
the LODs of LLE and SPE for alkaline drugs was conducted, and most of the
drugs had lower LODs using SPE versus LLE [288]. In addition, several
methods have been reported to use online coupling of SPE to LC-MS/MS for
the analysis of basic drugs of abuse in human serum [289], 21 therapeutic and
21 drugs of abuse in urine [290], tricyclic antidepressant drugs (amitriptyline,
desipramine, imipramine, and nortriptyline) in serum [ 291 ], 19 drugs of
different classes in equine plasma [292], and amphetamines in blood and urine
[293].
3.2.4 Microextraction in packed sorbent (MEPS)
Although SPE has many advantages over LLE, it normally has a higher cost
because the SPE cartridges are typically disposed of after each use. To
address this, the microextraction in packed sorbent (MEPS) technique was
developed, where the packed syringe can be used more than 100 times (and
also allowing the use of smaller sample sizes, as small as 10 µL) [294]. The
use of MEPS in sample preparation was reported for cotinine [295] and
metabolites of monoterpenes [296] in urine by GC-MS, cocaine and its
metabolites in urine by real-time source coupled to TOFMS [297], anti-cancer
drugs such as cyclophosphamide [298] and busulphan [299] in plasma, and
β-blockers such as acebutolol and metoprolol in plasma and urine by
LC-MS(MS) [300], anesthetic drugs in plasma [301], and fluoroquinolones in
urine by CE-MS [302]. Determination of dopamine and serotonin with MEPS
connected online to LC-MS/MS was reported to be a facile, more rapid, and
lower cost method [303].
3.2.5 Solid-phase microextraction (SPME)
SPME has several advantages such as ease of automation, good linearity, and
high sensitivity without the need of solvents. It can also be utilized for direct
measurement of biological samples such as whole blood or plasma [304]. But
longer extraction times are required for analytes with low volatility in complex
matrices, and the capacity of SPME fiber is limited [268].
Automation of SPME on a 96-multi-well plate format improves the speed and
throughput of the method to be at least comparable to automated LLE,
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producing high-throughput SPME-LC methods [305,306,307]. While sorbents
in conventional 96-well systems are normally located in a polypropylene
pipette tip, a new sorbent with a monolithic plug was recently developed with a
high binding capacity and low back-pressure properties [308,309]. 96 samples
could be treated in 2-4 min with a good accuracy and precision. Monolithic
packed 96-tips have been used to extract anti-cancer drugs (busulphan,
cyclophosphamide, and roscovitine) [ 310 ], β-blocker drugs (pindolol and
metoprolol) [311], local anesthetics (ropivacaine and bupivacaine) [312], and
antidepressants (fluoxetine, setraline, paroxetine, citalopram, duloxetine, and
mirtazapine) [313] in plasma.
Other new coatings for SPME devices include sol-gel technology and
polypyrrole (PPY) coatings, which can be electrochemically discharged and
recharged when deposited on a metal wire [304, 314 ]. Among the two,
applications of PPY coated-fibre SPME is more focused on analysis of drugs.
The screening of methamphetamines in serum by SPME using
dodecylsulfate-doped PPY film has been reported [315]. In addition to a PPY
coating, other types of coatings for SPME of drugs in plasma have also been
studied [316,317,318].
3.3 Analysis of Specific Drugs
3.3.1 Markers for ethanol consumption
The diagnosis of alcoholism is a topical subject of discussion; in fact, many
studies have been published on the determination of biochemical markers of
alcohol abuse. EtG, EtS, 5-hydroxytryptophol-glucuronide (GTOL),
5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid (5-HIAA), and FAEE are all suggested as
biomarkers for recent alcohol ingestion, with longer detection times than
measurement of ethanol itself. The determination of EtG and/or EtS are
commonly performed by LC-MS/MS in blood/serum [319,320,321,322], urine
[319, 323 , 324 ], vitreous humor [321], oral fluid [319, 325 ], and hair
[326,327,328], but methods using GC-MS are also reported [136,329]. A direct
UPLC-MS/MS method to determine urinary GTOL and 5-HIAA was developed
[330]. The measuring ranges were 6.7-10,000 nmol/L for GTOL and 0.07-100
µmol/L for 5-HIAA. A direct injection UPLC-MS/MS method for measuring the
urinary ratio of GTOL and 5-HIAA was compared with that of an ELISA assay
for direct determination of GTOL in urine [331].
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The testing of the FAEE (such as ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate,
and ethyl stearate) in hair as a biomarker of excessive alcohol use, was
documented. Using a cutoff level of 0.5 ng/mg, 324 hair samples from parents
of at-risk children analyzed by GC-MS were found with 33.3% positive rate of
excessive drinking [332]. Of 26 FAEE hair tests in the study where the women
donors were reported to be pregnant, 19% were positive for excessive drinking.
In another study, FAEE and EtG concentrations in hair were determined using
SPME-GC-MS and GC-NCI-MS, respectively [333]. The LODs were both in
the range of 1 to 10 pg/mg. From their results, it is suggested that strict
abstinence is excluded or improbable when concentration of FAEE > 0.2
ng/mg or EtG > 7 pg/mg, whereas FAEE above 0.5 ng/mg and EtG above 25
pg/mg suggested probable alcohol abuse.
3.3.2 Small molecules
Carbon monoxide (CO), cyanide (CN), and sulfide are well-known small and
highly toxic molecules. Analysis for these molecules should be considered
whenever poisoning due to these compounds is suspected. Luchini et al. has
modified the method for determination of the carboxyhemoglobin
concentration using spectrophotometric measurement at 420 nm and 432 nm.
The method requires determination of the constant factors F1, F2, and F3
every time an analysis is performed, in order to increase the accuracy and
precision of the test [334]. A method based on solid-supported liquid-liquid
extraction (SLE) and GC-MS, with two-step derivatization for determination of
CN in plasma and urine, was reported [335]. The LODs of the final analyte,
heptafluorobutyric acid-alpha-cyanobenzyl ester, were 0.04 and 0.01 µg/mL
for plasma and urine, respectively. A method for the determination of
thiosulfate in human urine was developed based on precolumn derivatization
with 2-chloro-1-methylquinolinium tetrafluoroborate, followed by
reversed-phase LC separation and ultraviolet detection of
1-methyl-2-thioquinolone at 375 nm [336]. The LOD and LOQ were 0.3 and 0.5
µmol/L, respectively with linear calibration range of 0.5-50 µmol/L.
3.3.3 Drugs of abuse
LC-MS/MS methods for simultaneous quantification of THC, 11-OH-THC, and
THC-COOH in blood were reported either using LLE with hexane:ethyl acetate
(90:10, v/v) [337], or by protein precipitation followed by SPE [338] of the 3
analytes. LOQs for all analytes in the methods were in the range of 0.5-2
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ng/mL. The combination of the automated online SPE with LC-MS/MS can
significantly reduce time for sample preparation requirements. With the use of
tandem enzyme-alkaline hydrolysis, the total content of THC, 11-OH-THC, and
THC-COOH in urine could be determined by protein precipitation followed by
BSTFA deriviatization prior to GC-MS analysis. The calibration curves were
linear from 2.5 to 300 ng/mL for all analytes [339]. A two-dimensional GC-MS
(2D-GCMS) assay provides a new means of simultaneously quantifying
cannabidiol, THC, and metabolite biomarkers. Analytes were extracted from 1
mL of plasma by SPE, derivatized with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)
trifluoroacetamide with 1% trimethylchlorosilane, and analyzed by 2D-GCMS
with cryofocusing. The lowest points of calibration for all analytes were either
0.25 or 0.5 ng/mL [340].
With the use of pipette tip SPE with MonoTip C(18) tips for extraction of MA
and amphetamine from whole blood (0.1 mL), followed by derivatization with
trifluoroacetic anhydride, a GC-MS method was developed with LOD of 1.5
ng/mL for MA and 1.1 ng/mL for amphetamine [341]. An automated LC-MS/MS
method for the analysis of amphetamines (amphetamine, MA, MDMA, MDA,
MDEA, PMA, and ephedrine) using 100 and 50 µL of blood and urine,
respectively, was developed. The LOQs in blood and urine were 2.5 µg/L and
25 µg/L, respectively, and the runtime per sample was under 11 min [293].
A headspace GC-MS method was reported for the determination of GHB in
serum and urine by converting GHB to GBL in the presence of acid. The LODs
for serum and urine were 0.16 µg/mL and 0.17 µg/mL, respectively [342]. A
GC-MS method for quantitative determination of GHB and its precursors [GBL,
BD] in blood and/or urine samples was reported. GHB and BD were extracted
with tert-butylmethylether in test tubes preloaded with NaCl followed by acid
wash, solvent evaporation, and derivatization with MSTFA prior to GC-MS
analysis. When analyzing GBL, the salting-out step was omitted, and analysis
was performed with a GC-FID apparatus [343].
A UPLC-MS/MS method was validated for the confirmation and quantitation of
LSD, iso-LSD, N-demethyl-LSD (nor-LSD), and 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD
(O-H-LSD) [344]. LOQs in blood and urine were 20 pg/mL for LSD and iso-LSD
and 50 pg/mL for nor-LSD and O-H-LSD. This was the first reported detection
of O-H-LSD in blood from a suspected LSD user.
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3.3.4 Chemical warfare agents
Organophosphorus nerve agents and sulphur or nitrogen mustard are among
the most toxic organic compounds used as chemical warfare agents by both
military and terrorists. An overview of biological markers of exposure to
chemical warfare agents was reported; metabolites, protein, and/or DNA
adducts were identified for most nerve agents and vesicants, and validated in
experimental animals or in a small number of human exposures [345].
An analytical method for determining the metabolic hydrolysis products of
organophosphorus nerve agents, such as sarin (GB) and cyclosarin (GF), has
been developed using LC-ESI-TOFMS, with an LOD of 2 ng/mL in plasma
[346], and HILIC-MS/MS down to LOQ of 1 ng/mL in human urine [347]. The
biomarker ethyl methylphosphonofluoridate (VX-G) of VX was measured in red
blood cells (RBC) following treatment with fluoride ion using isotope-dilution
GC-MS/MS, with an absolute detection limit of < 1 pg on column [348]. The
method was used for analysis of minipig RBC samples following exposure to
VX vapor [349,350], and concluded that VX-G was a more precise indicator for
severity of exposure than analysis of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition
[349].
Four methods were used to monitor the reaction of albumin with soman:
Progressive inhibition of the aryl acylamidase activity of albumin, the release of
fluoride ion from soman, 31 P NMR, and MS. The study concluded that
soman-albumin adducts detected by MS was useful for the diagnosis of soman
exposure [351]. A fluoride ion-based regeneration assay with isotope dilution,
followed by large volume injection GC-CI-MS, was developed for the detection
of soman in rat plasma. With the use of an isotope labeled internal standard,
the LOD was 5.65 pg (on column) with an average recovery of 93% [352].
Nanoparticle-based electrochemical immunosensor provides an opportunity to
develop field-deployable, sensitive, and quantitative biosensors for monitoring
exposure to a variety of OP pesticides and nerve agents, by the detection of
the potential marker phosphorylated acetylcholinesterase (Phospho-AChE).
Experimental results showed that the developed electrochemical quartz crystal
microbalance technique can allow the detection of Phospho-AChE in human
plasma, with a detection limit of 0.020 nM-8.0 pM [353,354]. The AChE
enzyme activity was investigated using a carbon nanotube-based
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electrochemical sensor with commercially available purified AChE and ChE in
saliva obtained from nave rats. It is found that the sensor is very sensitive, with
an LOD for AChE down to 2 pM [355].
An automated on-line pepsin digestion-LC-MS configuration has been
developed for the rapid determination of chemical warfare agent protein
adducts, and was demonstrated by the analysis of specific adducts of sarin
and sulfur mustard to human butyryl cholinesterase and human serum albumin,
respectively [356]. To identify five hydrolysis degradation products of sulfur
mustards, namely thiodiglycol, bis(2-hydroxyethylthio)methane,
1,2-bis(2-hydroxyethylthio)ethane, 1,3-bis(2-hydroxyethylthio)propane, and
1,4-bis(2-hydroxyethylthio)butane, a RPLC coupled with inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was employed for element-specific sulfur
detection, and ESI-MS was used to confirm the identification [357]. An SPE
followed by GCMS was reported for the analysis of nitrogen containing amino
alcohols, the precursors and degradation products of nitrogen mustards and
VX in plasma. The LOD was down to 5 ng/mL in the selected ion monitoring
mode and 0.01 µg/mL in full scan mode [358]. An LC-MS/MS procedure has
been developed for retrospective diagnosis of exposure to different forms of
mustard agents [nitrogen mustards (HN-1, HN-2, and HN-3) or sulfur mustard
(HD)] by detection of the CWA-adducts formed in blood samples, enabling
LODs of 200 nM of HN-1, 100 nM of HN-2, 200 nM of HN-3, or 50 nM of HD
[359].
Timely diagnosis of exposure to ricin is of primary importance for appropriate
treatment. A sensitive and specific immunochromatographic test for ricin has
been developed for identifying ricins prepared from 19 Ricinus cultivars, all
with a limit of visible detection between 1 and 2.5 ng/mL in buffer [360].
Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS)
with an automated laser firing sequence was used to detect intact ricin from
solutions containing less than 4 µg/mL of ricin in the presence of other
endogenous seed proteins [361].
Methods involving LC-ICP-MS were examined for the determination of
phenylarsenic compounds derived from chemical warfare agents, such as
diphenylarsinic acid (DPAA), phenylarsonic acid, phenylmethylarsinic acid
(PMAA), phenyldimethylarsine oxide, and diphenylmethylarsine oxide, in urine
[362]. Analysis of the urine samples of the patients exposed to phenylarsenic
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compounds indicated that the main phenylarsenic components were DPAA
and PMAA.
3.3.5 Toxic herbs and venoms
Although many plants and animals contain toxic alkaloids which may be
dangerous to humans, cases of fatal poisonings are relatively rare. A review of
toxic alkaloids which are often involved in fatal and non-fatal poisonings, was
reported [363]. It summarized the symptoms of the intoxications, and the
methods of detection of the toxic constituents in biological fluids, of aconitine,
atropine, coniine, colchicine, cytisine, dimethyltryptamine, harmine, harmaline,
ibogaine, kawain, mescaline, scopolamine, and taxine. Toxicological studies
constitute an essential part of the effort in developing an herbal medicine into a
drug product. In the U.S., current regulatory views on issues related to
requirements and recommendations on various types of nonclinical toxicity
studies in support of clinical trials, and filing a new drug application for a herbal
medicine, were discussed [364] .
Multianalyte procedures were developed for detection and quantification of
aconitine, atropine, colchicine, coniine, cytisine, nicotine, cotinine,
physostigmine, and scopolamine in plasma, using LC-APCI-MS and
LC-ESI-MS/MS, with LOQs in the range of 0.1 – 50 ng/mL [365]. With the
exception of greater sensitivity and higher identification power, LC-ESI-MS/MS
had no major advantages over LC-APCI-MS.
A fatal aconitine poisoning case involving a 25-year-old man in Canada who
died suddenly due to accidental consumption of Monkshood (Aconitum
napellus), was reported [366]. LC-MS/MS analysis revealed the presence of
aconitine, at levels of 3.6 and 149 µg/L in blood and urine, respectively.
LC-ESI-MS-MS methods were developed for simultaneous determination of
Aconitum alkaloids in rat plasma following oral administration of Sini decoction
after basic LLE [367], and in human plasma collected from 18 healthy
volunteers after intravenous drop infusion of "SHEN-FU" injectable powder,
using SPE for sample preparation [368].
Aristolochic acid I (AA I), a major component of the carcinogenic plant extract
aristolochic acid (AA), is known to be nephrotoxic, carcinogenic, and
mutagenic. An HPLC-DAD-fluorescence detection method was developed for
the analysis of AA I and its metabolites in cell culture medium, for investigating
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cytotoxicity of AA I on human liver cells (L-02) [369]. Using LC coupled with a
hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, significant changes of two
endogenous metabolite markers, kynurenic acid and hippuric acid, were
detected in the rat urine samples; this metabolic profiling may be useful as an
indicator for AA exposure before symptoms are observed [370].
Heimia salicifolia ("sinicuichi") may cause feelings of exhilaration and an
alteration of awareness accompanied by bradycardia, muscle relaxation, and a
pleasant faintness. A case of sinicuichi intoxication was reported [371]. After
liquid extraction with acetone, five different heimia alkaloids were detected in
the plant material by LC-MS/MS, and these alkaloids were also detected in the
patient's serum sample. An LC-MS/MS protocol was optimized for the
collective detection of gelsemine and related alkaloids from Gelsemium
elegans [372]. Nine cases of gelsemium poisonings were thus ascertained by
their diagnostic urine alkaloid profiles, where gelsemine was identified as the
main urinary marker. A rapid LC-MS/MS/MS method for the analysis of
alpha-amanitin in serum and liver was described, with calculated MDL of 0.5
ng/L in serum, and positive identification of alpha-amanitin in serum and liver
from suspect human and animal intoxications [373].
A case of sudden death associated with injection of toad extract which was
originally believed to be the ring-derivative of amphetamine 'ecstasy' (MDMA)
was reported [374]. Toxicological analyses of the victim's blood showed low
levels of bufotenine, while the injected material revealed the presence of
bufotenine, resibufogenin, cinobufagin, and bufalin.
3.3.6 Drugs in sports and doping control
Doping refers to the use of performance-enhancing drugs such as anabolic
steroids, particularly those that are prohibited under the list published by the
International Olympics Committee. Some doping substances, however, are
permitted in low doses (alcohol and caffeine). Another form of doping is blood
doping, either by blood transfusion or use of the hormone erythropoietin
(EPO).
In a study of the use of prescribed medication and nutritional supplements in
female and male junior, youth, and adult track and field athletes, non-steroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs; 0.27 per athlete, n = 884), respiratory drugs
(0.21 per athlete, n = 682), and alternative analgesics (0.13, n = 423) were
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used most frequently [375].
A comparative study was made between LLE and direct injection for the
LC-MS/MS detection of 34 diuretics and 9 other doping agents in urine [376].
With a 25-fold dilution of the urine samples, the problems of retention time
shifting and ion-suppression in direct injection were improved compared with
the undiluted samples, with results comparable to those obtained from LLE. A
fully automated method based on UPLC-MS/MS for the analysis of 130
substances by direct injections of urine samples has been developed for three
different classes of doping agents: diuretics, central nervous system stimulants
(CNS stimulants), and opiates [377].
Direct analysis of urine samples by UPLC-MS/MS has been developed for
quantitation of salbutamol [378]. With salbutamol-d6 as internal standard
followed by dilution with ultrapure water (1:1), the LOQ was 200 ng/mL. A
quantitative LC-MS/MS method to detect altizide, hydrochlorothiazide and their
common metabolites (chlorothiazide and
4-amino-6-chloro-1,3-benzenedisulphonamide) was developed, and the
concentrations ranges were found to be between 41-239 and 60-287 ng/mL
after altizide and hydrochlorothiazide administration, respectively [379]. The
study also showed that 4-amino-6-chloro-1,3-benzenedisulphonamide is an
important target compound to detect usage of thiazide diuretics. CE coupled
with field-amplified sample stacking (FASS) has been reported for the
simultaneous determination of strychnine and brucine residues in human urine,
with detection limits of 2 and 2.5 ng/mL, respectively [380].
The administration of glycerol to endurance athletes results in an increased
fluid retention and improved performance, particularly under hot and humid
conditions. A quantitative method was established using a GC/isotope-dilution
MS-based approach, with an LOD of 0.3 µg/mL [381]. A 200 µg/mL threshold
for glycerol levels in urine is suggested based on the analysis of 1039 doping
control samples. An important aspect of doping research is the rapid
implementation of tests for emerging drugs with potential for misuse into
routine doping control assays. The mass spectrometric fragmentation of four
new emerging drug candidates: GW501516 (PPAR-delta-agonists), S-107 and
JTV-519 (ryanodine-calstabin-complex stabilizers), and S-40503 (selective
androgen receptor modulators) were studied, and a screening and
confirmation procedure was established for the analysis of these drugs in
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plasma based on LC-MS/MS, with LODs in the range of 0.4-8.3 ng/mL [382].
3.3.6.1 Anabolic androgenic steroids
Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are widely abused by athletes and
account for the majority of adverse analytical findings reported in doping
control. Testosterone is the most common AAS abused. Although traditional
methods allow identification and characterization of testosterone and its
metabolites in urine, they cannot distinguish between pharmaceutical products
and endogenous materials. A study summarized the results obtained from the
doping control analysis for delta(13)C values of selected steroids during the
period of the 2007 Pan American Games [383]. One urine sample with a
testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio of 4.7 was confirmed to be positive
while the delta values of 5-beta-diol and 5-alpha-diol were 3.8 and 10.8,
respectively, which exceeded the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) limit of 3
per thousand. A study was reported to determine if consuming a diet low in
13C plants, such as soy, can be confused with a GC/Combustion (C)/Isotopic
Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS)-positive test for exogenous testosterone
[ 384 ]. The study concluded that the carbon isotope ratios of urinary
testosterone metabolites of vegetarians consuming a diet that is markedly
depleted of 13C content were lower than that of control subjects, but not low
enough to result in exceeding the WADA limit.
Debate on the use of >2 ng/mL of 19-norandrosterone (19-NA) in urine taken
as prima facie evidence of administration of nandrolone or other 19-norsteroid
has never stopped. Two reports indicated that it is possible for positive
detection of 19-NA despite not having taken 19-norsteroid [385,386].
Contraceptives containing 19-norandrostenedione as impurity per 1 mg and 5
mg of norethisterone were administered to female volunteers in doses used for
menstrual disorders, and resulted in maximal 19-NA concentrations of 9.1
ng/mL and 63 ng/mL, respectively [385]. The urinary concentrations of 19-NA
in 1202 female volunteers who were not using anabolic steroids, including 38
subjects using oral contraceptives containing norethisterone, were studied.
The results showed that only one sample exceeded the 19-NA reporting
threshold, having a concentration of 4.1 ng/mL [386]. 28 women participated in
a study in the excretion of nandrolone metabolites [19-NA, and
19-noretiocholanolone (19-NE)] in urine, as analysed by GC-MS, revealed that
urinary concentrations of 19-NA and 19-NE ranged from undetectable levels to
1.14 and 0.47 ng/mL, respectively [387]. Therefore, a urinary concentration of
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2 ng/mL of 19-NA was concluded to be a fair upper acceptable limit in doping
control tests for female athletes.
The metabolism of methyltestosterone has been reinvestigated by the use of a
precursor ion scan method in LC-ESI-MS/MS [388]. Two metabolites have
been detected using this method, namely epimethyltestosterone and a
dehydrogenated compound. Comparison with the synthesized reference
standard revealed that the structure of the dehydrogenated metabolite is
6-ene-epimethyltestosterone. 6-Ene-epimethyltestosterone was found in all
samples, demonstrating its applicability in the detection of methyltestosterone
misuse.
An approach based on precursor ion scanning of m/z 105, 91, and 77
corresponded to the methyl tropylium, tropylium, and phenyl ions, respectively,
for the detection of unknown anabolic steroids, their metabolites and
prohormones, was proposed [ 389 ]. In general, only compounds with a
steroidal structure showed a signal at all three selected m/z values, although
some exceptions have been found. A new doping control screening method
has been developed using HPLC/orbitrap with in-source collision-induced
dissociation and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, for the detection of
29 compounds, including agents with antiestrogenic activity, beta(2) agonists,
exogenous anabolic steroids, and other anabolic agents [390]. The mass
accuracy of this method is better than 2 ppm using an external reference, with
LODs for all compounds tested better than 100 pg/mL. Ten steroids
(11-beta-hydroxyandrosterone, 5-alpha-androst-16-en-3-alpha-ol,
pregnanediol, androsterone, etiocholanolone, testosterone, epitestosterone,
5-alpha-androstan-3-alpha,17-beta-diol,
5-beta-androstan-3-alpha,17-beta-diol and dehydroepiandrosterone) were
measured from a single urine specimen by a GC/thermal conversion
(TC)/IRMS method for deuterium/hydrogen ratio [391]. For a 20 mL specimen,
the LODs ranged from 10-15 ng/mL. The applicability of comprehensive
two-dimensional gas chromatography (GCxGC) for sterol analysis was
investigated by separation and identification of endogenous sterols in
standards, and spiked in human urine [ 392 ]. The match quality of
GCxGC-TOFMS spectra was reported to be superior to that for analysis using
1D GC-TOFMS for sterols spiked in urine at 10 ng/mL. The LOD for estrone
was 0.1 ng/mL, while the highest LOD was for
5-alpha-androstan-3-alpha,11-beta-diol-17-one, epitestosterone, and
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cholesteryl butyrate (1 ng/mL).
Trenbolone and its derivatives such as 17-alpha-methyltrenbolone represent a
class of highly potent anabolic-androgenic steroids. Based on an enzymatic
hydrolysis of target compounds, LLE and subsequent LC-MS/MS
measurement, a method was developed for the analysis of 7 related
compounds, namely trenbolone, epitrenbolone, methyltrenbolone,
ethyltrenbolone, propyltrenbolone, 17-ketotrenbolone and altrenogest, with
LODs in the range of 0.3-3 ng/mL [393].
A chemical mixture consisting of antibiotics, antimycotic substances, and
protease inhibitors was added to urine aliquots fortified with conjugated and
deuterated steroids and inoculated with nine representative microorganisms to
compare against urine aliquots without the chemical mixture, by analysis of
steroids in the free, glucuronide, and sulfate fractions by GC-MS [394]. The
study concluded that addition of the chemical stabilization mixture to urine
samples inhibited microorganism growth and prevented steroid degradation at
37 o C, while some microorganisms induced alterations in the steroid profile of
the unstabilized samples incubated at 37 o C.
3.3.6.2 Stimulants
Stimulants were the first group of compounds prohibited by most international
sports federations. An Italian study carried out in 2003- 2007 showed that the
percentage of positive test results range from 1.1 to 2%, with a high incidence
of stimulants and drugs of abuse; THC metabolites were the most frequently
found, followed by cocaine metabolites [395]. Doping control concerning
pesudoephedrine in Poland was studied by comparing results obtained in
2001-2003 and 2004-2007, revealing that athletes used pseudoephedrine
more frequently and in high doses in 2004-2007 when this substance was
permitted by WADA [396]. A method for detection of metamfepramone,
methylpseudoephedrine, and methcathinone by LC-MS/MS was developed to
allow analysis of these three analytes by direct injection of 2 µL of urine [397].
The method was fully validated with LODs of 2-10 ng/mL for all analytes.
3.3.6.3 Synthetic protein hormone, blood doping, and gene doping
Darbepoetin alfa (DPO), an analog of recombinant human erythropoietin
(rhEPO), is abused as a blood doping agent (along with the latter) in human
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sports. A method was described for unequivocal identification of DPO in
human plasma [ 398 ]. The analyte was extracted from plasma by
immunoaffinity separation with anti-rhEPO antibodies, digested by trypsin
followed by peptide-N-glycoside F (PNGase F), and analyzed by LC-MS/MS;
the LOD for DPO was 0.1 ng/mL. Four proposed new markers for detection of
rhEPO abuse were reported. Preliminary data showed that concentrations of
asymmetrical dimethylarginine (ADMA), symmetrical dimethylarginine (SDMA),
citrulline, and arginine in human urine were increased after administration of a
single intravenous erythropoietin injection, up to 40-270 µg /mL, 40-240 µg/ mL,
10-60 µg /mL and 12-140 µg/ mL, respectively [399].
While samples containing endogenous growth hormone (GH) yield up to four
isoforms, samples with recombinant GH contain the main 22 kDa spot only. A
method was reported to separate different isoforms by two-dimensional
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2-D PAGE) after isolation of GH from
plasma, using an immunoaffinity purification system which detected discrete
isoforms of GH from plasma, thereby discriminating endogenous GH from its
recombinant analog [400]. A mass spectrometric approach was developed to
determine the nondegraded hormone, gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH), in doping control samples with SPE, immunoaffinity purification, and a
subsequent analysis by LC-ESI-MS/MS [401]. The method offered an LOD of
about 5 pg/mL, and urinary concentrations of the intact peptide in
post-administration samples ranged from 20 - 100 pg/mL.
Doping control analysis of performance-enhancing peptides in urine
represents a challenging requirement in modern sports drug testing: Low
doses and short half-lives lead to low concentrations (in fmol/mL range) in
urine. Immunoaffinity purification with UPLC-MS/MS (high resolution/high
mass accuracy) of Synacthen from urinary specimens is described and
validated with LOD of 3 pg/mL [402].
A study was conducted on the intra-individual variance of total hemoglobin
mass (tHb-mass) in elite athletes during a training year as the basis to
measure tHb-mass as an effective screening parameter for detecting blood
doping [403]. Results showed that tHb-mass was very low for individuals
during a training year (

for medical reasons or for blood doping to increase athletic performance are
potentially exposed to the plasticizer di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) found
in IV bags. A study showed that elevated concentrations of urinary DEHP
metabolites collected from athletes may suggest illegal blood transfusions, and
can therefore be used as a qualitative screening measure for blood doping
[404].
With the recent technical improvements in genetic manipulation there is
mounting concern over the possibility of such technology being abused by
athletes in their quest for improved performance. A review of the literature was
conducted to identify the genes and methodologies most likely to be used for
gene doping, and the technologies that might be used to identify such doping
[405]. Although there is currently no evidence that gene doping has yet been
undertaken in competitive athletes, the anti-doping authorities will need to
remain vigilant in reviewing this rapidly emerging technology. So far, the abuse
of gene transfer technology in sport is undetectable. However, recent studies
in somatic gene therapy indicated that long-term presence of transgenic DNA
(tDNA) following various gene transfer protocols can be found in DNA isolated
from whole blood using conventional PCR protocols [406]. Application of these
protocols for the direct detection of gene doping would require almost
complete knowledge about the sequence of the genetic information that has
been transferred. A novel single-copy primer-internal intron-spanning PCR
(spiPCR) procedure that overcomes this difficulty has been developed and
reported [406].
In the post-genome era, genetic- and molecular-based tests are being
evaluated as potential approaches to detect new and sophisticated forms of
doping. Transcriptome analysis, in which a tissue's complement of mRNA
transcripts is characterized, is one such method. The quantity and composition
of a tissue's transcriptome is highly reflective of milieu and metabolic activity. A
review has briefly described the current understanding of transcriptomes,
common methods of global analysis of gene expression, and non-invasive
sample sources, focusing on the potential to apply this approach in doping
control [407].
3.3.6.4 Horse racing
Two LC-MS methods with direct injection analysis were developed and
validated for the quantification and identification of hydrocortisone in equine
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urine [408]. To overcome matrix effects, a standard additions calibration
method was applied. The linear range was 0.25-2.5 µg/mL for both methods. A
method for the simultaneous detection of bovine, porcine and human insulins,
as well as the synthetic analogues Humalog (Lilly) and Novolog (Novo Nordisk)
in equine plasma, capable of detecting at 0.05 ng/mL, was described [409].
Administration studies of levamisole in horses were carried out using two
different levamisole preparations. Aminorex and rexamino, in addition to
levamisole and 4-phenyl-2-imidazolidinone, were detected in
post-administration urine and plasma samples [410]. It has been established
unequivocally that the normal use of levamisole products in horses can lead to
the presence of aminorex, rexamino, and 4-phenyl-2-imidazolidinone in their
urine and blood samples. A direct injection method was developed and
validated for the quantification and identification of salicylic acid by
LC-QTOFMS after the horse urine samples was 900-fold diluted, and the
internal standard (4-methylsalicylic acid) was added [411]. The intra- and
inter-assay precisions of salicylic acid in horse urine were better than 2.5% and
2.8%, respectively, with accuracy better than 3.3% deviation. A method for
differentiation and identification of rhEPO and DPO in equine plasma by
LC-MS/MS was reported [412]. The method involved analyte extraction and
enrichment by immunoaffinity separation with anti-rhEPO antibodies, dual
digestion by trypsin and peptide-N-glycosidase F (PNGase F), and analysis by
LC-MS/MS, with LODs of 0.05 ng/mL for DPO and 0.1 ng/mL for rhEPO.
3.4 Alternative Specimens
The use of alternative specimens in the field of toxicology was first described in
1979, when hair analysis was used to document chronic drug exposure. Since
then, 'alternative' samples such as oral fluid, hair, and sweat have gained
tremendous attention, and a large number of papers have been published.
'Alternative' specimens present a number of advantages over 'traditional'
samples (e.g., blood, urine, and tissues), namely the facts that their collection
is non-invasive, their adulteration is difficult, and they may allow suitable
windows of detection for certain drugs. The main disadvantage is that drugs
may be present in very low concentrations, and there are limited clinical
studies to aid in results interpretation. A literature review on the use of
alternative specimens, with special focus on the main analytical and
chromatographic problems for the analysis of these specimens, was presented;
the review included discussion on their advantages and disadvantages over
traditional samples in documenting drug exposure [413].
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3.4.1 Oral fluid
Oral fluid is a readily available specimen that can be collected by non-invasive
procedures and that typically contains many drugs of interest in screening and
diagnosis. Several reviews have been published regarding to the collection
techniques and application of drug testing of oral fluid [414], the progress in
oral fluid collection, screening, confirmation, and interpretation of cannabinoids,
opioids, amphetamines, cocaine, and benzodiazepines [27], bioanalytical
procedures in testing abused drugs [415], and as an alternative matrix to those
of plasma and serum for therapeutic drug monitoring of xenobiotics [416]. In
general, collection techniques can artificially affect the production of oral fluid
and its subsequent pH. Nevertheless, it is essential that devices used to collect
oral fluid are checked to ensure reasonable stability and recovery of absorbed
drug [27,415,416]. A number of issues are also discussed concerning
collection device performance, such as the variability in the volume of sample
collected and its implications in terms of quantitative measurements, and the
drug recoveries from various devices available in the market [415]. Additional
considerations that receive attention are the importance of providing complete
validation data with respect to analyte stability, matrix effects, and the choice of
collection method [415,416].
Recent advances in analytical techniques have enabled the detection of drugs
and drug metabolites in oral fluid specimens. Roche DAT screening assays for
amphetamines, cocaine metabolite (i.e., benzoylecgonine), and opiates in oral
fluid were assessed where good results were obtained for sensitivity and
specificity (> 94%) compared to LC-MS-MS, with overall agreement of >96%
[417]. An analytical method using GC-MS to determine THC and its metabolite
THC-COOH in oral fluid was reported and was used to analyze samples from
12 suspected abusers [418]. Various methods for the analysis of abused drugs
in oral fluid were reported using LC-MS/MS method [33, 39,40,41,419 ,420]. In
general, less than 1 mL of oral fluid is required with LOQs from 0.4-10 ng/mL
[33, 39,40,41,419,420]. Some methods were able to analyze THC with other
abused drugs simultaneously [39,420]. The uses of porous silicon assisted
laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (pSi LDI-TOFMS)
for rapid analysis (on the order of seconds) of MA, MDMA, and THC in
sub-microliter oral fluid was reported [421]. An LC-MS/MS was developed for
determination of nicotine, cotinine, trans-3'-hydroxycotinine, and norcotinine in
0.5 mL of oral fluid, with LOQs of 0.2-1 ng/mL [422].
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The stability of several drugs and metabolites (6-MAM, cocaine, THC, and
THC-COOH) in oral fluid collected by two oral fluid collection devices, namely
Cozart Drug Detection System and Intercept, was studied. On average,
9%-12% 6-MAM was converted to morphine and 26% and 41% cocaine to
benzoylecgonine. Good recoveries were observed for the acid metabolite of
THC in both collection devices, whereas THC was always scarcely recovered
[423]. A study of the stability of methadone in oral fluid for long-term storage
found that it is sufficiently stable at 4 o C for 2 months, while a decrease was
observed for its metabolite, EDDP [424]. The pre-analytical stability study of 11
frequently abused benzodiazepines in an oral fluid collecting device (Dräger
DCD 5000) found that during the 14 days of storage, major loss of analytes
was found in the benzodiazepines with nitro group, such as flunitrazepam and
clonazepam, which could be prevented by storing the sample in methanol after
collection [425].
The greatest current limitation in oral fluid testing is the scarcity of controlled
drug administration studies to aid in result interpretation. A UPLC-MS/MS
method was reported for the analysis of EtG in oral fluid using SPE for sample
clean-up, with an LOQ of 4.4 ng/mL [325]. With this method, the concentration
of EtG in oral fluid collected 2-14 h after a moderate alcohol intake varied from
13.3 to 57.7 ng/mL. To assess the correlation between oral fluid and plasma
samples from patients on antidepressants, an LC-MS/MS method was
developed for the simultaneous determination of nine antidepressants,
including venlafaxine and some of their metabolites, in both oral fluid and
plasma [426]. The ratio of venlafaxine in oral fluid to plasma was calculated
and showed a high variability for 5 patients on four different occasions
(coefficient of variance=24.2-69.6%).
3.4.2 Hair
Apart from additional information obtained for DFSA and routine drug
monitoring, analysis of hair for drugs is useful in obtaining a drug history for
weeks or months prior to death. A 5-year-old male who died after drinking a
fatal dose of ethanol revealed urine and blood alcohol levels of 0.4 and 0.5
g/dL, respectively [427]. But, the analysis of the boy’s hair demonstrated EtG
with concentrations indicating that the boy might have occasionally imbibed
alcohol prior to death. In another study using GC-NCI-MS/MS, EtG in hair was
analysed after derivatization with perfluoropentanoic anhydride (PFPA); the
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LOD was determined to be 3.0 pg/mg and the LOQ was fixed at 8.4 pg/mg
using 30-mg hair [329]. Hair analyses of autopsy cases with a history of
alcoholism and/or lesions caused by alcohol revealed that EtG concentrations
were in the range of 60-820 pg/mg. With the use of 72 head hair and 15 pubic
hair samples, a study was reported to collate 6-MAM and morphine
concentrations in head and pubic hair from heroin users [428]. A statistical
evaluation demonstrated that the lower, middle, and upper concentration
ranges of 6-MAM and morphine in head hair were in general higher than those
found in pubic hair. A qualitative drug screening method involving alkaline
hydrolysis, purification with mixed-mode SPE followed by LC-TOFMS analysis,
was developed for analysis of 32 hair samples from deceased drug addicts
[243]. The results identified 35 different drugs, and confirmed that drugs were
found in the majority (72%) of the cases; tramadol was predominantly found. A
study was conducted in the UK for 286 selected cases reported between 2004
and 2006, where hair was submitted in addition to the routine specimens for
analysis. The study demonstrated that hair analysis could provide vital
evidence to understand both the medical cause of death and the
circumstances surrounding the death [429].
The detection of EtG is of interest in both clinical and forensic contexts. EtG is
incorporated into growing hair, allowing retrospective investigation of chronic
alcohol abuse. To give more clues on the alcohol use history, several studies
were conducted in an attempt to differentiate social drinkers from heavy
drinkers [326,328]. The levels of EtG in heavy drinkers and social drinkers
using 30-mg samples were determined following cleanup using SPE graphite
cartridges and LC-MS/MS [326]. With an LOD and LOQ of 4 and 10 pg/mg,
respectively, hair EtG concentrations in social drinkers were 50 pg/mg for fatal cases with known history of heavy drinking. 98 hair
samples from volunteers of social drinkers and heavy drinkers, whose ethanol
daily intake (EDI) was estimated by means of a written questionnaire, were
analyzed by LC-MS/MS (LOQ: 3 pg/mg) [328]. The EtG level of 27 pg/mg was
concluded to provide the best compromise between sensitivity (0.92) and
specificity (0.96) at detecting an EDI of 60 g or higher during the last 3 months.
Hair specimens from 15 patients after alcohol abuse cessation were
segmented and analyzed for EtG, with measured concentrations varying from
8 to 261 pg/mg; good correlation was found with self-reported past alcohol
consumption [430]. In view of the usage of different cut-off levels of EtG used
by different laboratories, consensus by the Society of Hair Testing suggested a
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cut-off of 30 pg/mg scalp hair (measured in the 0-3 cm proximal segment) to
differentiate chronic excessive alcohol consumption [431]. Black and white
patches of fur from LE rats were taken before and after daily intraperitoneal
injection of ethanol to study the effect of hair pigmentation in fatty acid ethyl
ester (FAEE) incorporation [432]. The FAEE profiles were similar between
black and white hair, and so hair pigmentation was concluded not to affect
FAEE incorporation into hair. To assess the influence of ethanol contamination,
an in vitro experiment was performed, leaving hair in an atmosphere saturated
with ethanol vapor for 15 days [433]. Under this stressed experimental
condition, the spontaneous production of FAEEs was demonstrated by
analyzing hair daily with an SPME-GC-MS technique, and a constant increase
of ethyl myristate, palmitate, and stearate was observed. The problem of hair
contamination that can occur, for example, with ethanol-containing cosmetics
should be taken into account in interpretation of results.
GC-MS and LC-MS(MS) are commonly employed in hair drug analysis, but
other analytical techniques are also used. Using 100 mg of hair sample and
nalorphine as internal standard, a capillary zone electrophoresis mass
spectrometry (CZE-MS) method was developed for analysis of common drugs
of abuse and their metabolites [265]. The LODs were lower than the 0.1 ng/mg
cut-offs commonly adopted in hair analysis. MALDI-MS was used for the rapid
detection of cocaine, benzoylecgonine, and cocaethylene in hair. The hair
samples were required to be incubated in methanol/trifluoroacetic acid for 15
min at 45 o C prior to MALDI-MS analysis [434]. Surface-activated chemical
ionization (SACI) was employed for the analysis of cocaine and its metabolite,
benzoylecgonine, extracted from hair. Following decontamination and acid
hydrolysis, the sample solutions were diluted (1:10) and directly analyzed by
LC/SACI-MS [435]. The LODs and LOQs were 0.003 ng/mg and 0.01 ng/mg,
respectively, for cocaine and 0.02 ng/mg and 0.04 ng/mg for benzoylecgonine.
Detection of drugs of abuse in hair is also important for monitoring compliance
with drug abstinence. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms and timeline
of drug disappearance from hair is critical for clinical and forensic application of
hair testing. The kinetics of disappearance of cocaine and its metabolite,
benzoylecgonine, from hair after discontinuation of drug use was evaluated
using 137 subjects [436]. The results revealed that the median half-life of both
cocaine and benzoylecgonine was 1.5 months and approximately 3-4 months,
were required to “pass” hair testing when the analysis was performed in the
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segment proximal to the scalp.
An LC-MS procedure has been developed for the determination of
methylphenidate in hair of treated children [437]. Using 20 mg hair per assay,
hair methylphenidate concentrations varied from 0.15 to 4.17 ng/mg hair, with
decreasing drug concentration in distal hair segment. A 2D GC-MS method
was described for the analysis of fentanyl in hair [438]. With an LOQ of 5
pg/mg, the fentanyl concentrations detected in four hair samples collected at
autopsy were 12, 17, 490, and 1930 pg/mg. An assay of citalopram,
escitalopram, and their demethylated metabolites in 10-mg hair samples has
been developed using LC-MS/MS, with LOQs of 25 pg/mg for all analytes [439].
Neonatal hair samples from two real cases of gestational exposure were
analyzed using this method to document their in utero exposure to the drugs.
Hair analyses of two non-fatal cases of intoxication with pesticides, namely
alachlor and carbofuran, were reported. Alachlor was detected for the 5
segments in the range of 12 to 136 pg/mg in the first case while carbofuran
and 3-hydroxycarbofuran were detected at concentrations of 207 and 164
pg/mg, respectively, for the second case [440]. The chronic exposure of
different working population groups in Greece to common currently used
pesticides (diazinon, fenthion, methyl parathion and malathion) and two
banned pesticides [hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and DDT] was studied
through hair analysis [441]. GC-ECD and GC-MS analyses of the liquid extract
of the pulverized hair determined that the median concentrations of total HCHs
and DDTs detected in the three working groups were: 95.0 and 8.9 pg/mg for
the greenhouse workers, 38.2 and 3.3 pg/mg for the animal breeders, and 24.1
and 5.2 pg/mg for the open cultivation group.
Determination of 8 anabolic steroids (methyltestosterone, stanozolol,
methandienone, nandrolone, trenbolone, boldenone, methenolone, and DHEA,
which were administered intraperitoneally) in guinea pig hair has been
developed using LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS [442]. The peak concentrations in
hair were found on days 2-4, except stanozolol, which peaked on day 10. In
another similar study by analyzing full-length hair samples from volunteers to
study the physiological concentration of anabolic steroids, the physiological
concentrations of testosterone were in the range of 0.8-24.2 pg/mg, 0.1-16.8
pg/mg, and 0.2-11.5 pg/mg in males, females, and children, respectively, and
were very much lower than the mean values of dehydroepiandrosterone [443].
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The differentiation between systemic exposure and external contamination for
certain drug groups has been frequently referred to as one of the limitations of
drug testing of hair. Difficulty in the interpretation arises when metabolites are
not detected which may either be due to external contamination of the hair, or
low doses of the drugs used, in particular when the drugs are administered by
smoking, sniffing or inhalation. Hair samples of eight pre-Columbian mummies
were analyzed for drugs using GC-MS. Nicotine was detected in 3 of the hair
samples, with measured concentrations of 11.4-57.5 pg/mg, but all 3 cases
revealed negative results for cotinine [444]. Thus, an active consumption of
tobacco could not be confirmed based on the results of the analysis. The
determination of the ratio of drug(s) in wash residue (W) to that in hair (H), i.e.,
W/H ratio, is proposed to differentiate system exposure to external
contamination [445]. When the W/H ratio is less than 0.1 or null, it would tend
to indicate drug use. Where the W/H ratio is above 0.1 but less than 0.5, it is
likely to indicate possible use possibly combined with a level of external
contamination. A W/H ratio greater than 0.5 is likely to indicate that the source
of most of the drug in the wash residue is from external contamination. The
W/H ratios of 891 results were evaluated over 13 analytes. Between 74 and
100% of the analytes studied produced W/H ratios less than 0.5, in particular
for cannabis (93%) and cocaine (95%), where external contamination is more
likely because of the way the drug is used. Hair samples from cocaine users
and seized cocaine samples were compared for the possible profiles of
metabolites/chemical degradation products [446]. It was found that norcocaine,
cocaethylene and anhydroecgonine methyl ester (each normalised to cocaine)
were significantly increased in the incorporation group (i.e., hair samples from
cocaine users). Hair samples were contaminated by rubbing with cocaine
followed by sweat application, multiple shampoo treatments and storage to
study criteria to differentiate the use of cocaine from contamination [447]. All
contaminated samples were correctly identified as contaminated by cutoff,
benzoylecgonine presence, percent of benzoylecgonine, and/or the wash
criterion.
3.4.3 Sweat
A controlled administration of MDMA to 15 volunteers with histories of MDMA
use was conducted to understand the excretion of MDMA and metabolites in
sweat [448]. MDMA was the primary analyte detected, with concentrations up
to 3007 ng/patch. 35.0% and 9.4% of the samples were positive for MDMA and
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MDA, respectively, at the 25-ng/patch threshold proposed by SAMHSA.
Variability in sweat excretion suggests that results should be interpreted
qualitatively rather than quantitatively. In a similar study for MA, 8 participants
received four 10-mg oral doses (low dose) of sustained-release S-(+)-MA HCl
(d-MA HCl) within 1 week, and 5 of them also received four 20-mg (high) doses
3 weeks later. MA was measurable in sweat within 2 h of dosing. 92.9% (low
dose) and 62.5% (high dose) of weekly sweat patches were positive, with
median concentrations of MA being 63.0 and 307 ng/patch, respectively [449].
THC excretion in 11 daily cannabis users after cessation of drug use was
evaluated. Sweat patches worn the first week of continuously monitored
abstinence had THC above the proposed cutoff concentration of 1 ng
THC/patch, with mean THC concentrations being 3.85±0.86 ng/patch. Daily
and weekly sweat patches from seven subjects who were administered oral
doses of up to 14.8 mg THC/day for five consecutive days were also tested,
but no daily or weekly patches had THC above the LOQ (i.e., 0.4 ng
THC/patch) [ 450 ]. Simultaneously quantification of methadone, heroin,
cocaine and metabolites in sweat was developed by extracting drugs from
sweat patches with sodium acetate buffer, followed by SPE and quantification
by GC/MS, with LOQs of 5-10 ng/patch [451].
3.4.4 Meconium
Meconium is a newborn’s first stool. It is formed over the last trimester of
pregnancy, and thus can represent exposure to drugs over a 16-20 week
prepartum and provide a crucial indication of neonatal exposure or maternal
drug use. Simultaneous quantification of 20 drugs in meconium, including
cocaine, amphetamine, opiate, and nicotine analytes, by LC-MS/MS was
developed and applied to document drug-exposed neonates [230]. In a study
of amphetamines and related analytes in meconium, it was found for the first
time that para-hydroxymethamphetamine (pOHMAMP), norephedrine
(NOREPH), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine were identified in
meconium from a MA-exposed neonate [452]. However, MA exposure is poorly
reflected in neonatal meconium; often, maternal self-reported MA use is not
corroborated by positive results in amphetamines immunoassays of meconium,
and even if the initial test results are positive, they frequently are not confirmed
for MA or amphetamine (AMP) by chromatographic analysis.
Immunoassay-positive and -negative meconium samples were subjected to
LC-MS/MS to re-analyse for MA metabolites pOHMAMP,
p-hydroxyamphetamine (pOHAMP), and NOREPH. It was found that
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pOHMAMP identified 6 additional neonates whose mothers reported MA
exposure, yet had a meconium sample screened as negative; pOHMAMP was
more likely to be present if maternal MA use continued into the third trimester
[453]. Maternal self-reported drug use and/or meconium toxicology results
were used to evaluate the effects of prenatal MA exposure on infant and child
development, and also for potential concurrent exposure to cannabis and
tobacco. A study showed that meconium tests were more likely to be positive if
the mother reported MA and cannabis use, particularly in the third trimester,
but less than half of immunoassay-positive amphetamines (31.0%) and
cannabis (17.9%) meconium results were confirmed by GC-MS [454]. The
concentrations of nicotine and 4 metabolites (with and without hydrolysis) in
meconium from tobacco-exposed and nonexposed neonates were studied by
LC-MS. Nicotine, cotinine, and OH-cotinine were the most prevalent and
abundant meconium tobacco biomarkers, and a concentration >10 ng/g was
suggested to discriminate active from passive and nonexposed neonates
[455].
3.4.5 Other specimens
The analytical data on placenta concentrations of methadone and metabolites
after controlled drug administration were reported by analyzing the specimens
using LC-MS obtained from 5 opioid-dependent women receiving methadone
pharmacotherapy (doses 65-95 mg on the day of delivery) [456]. LC-MS
methods were reported for the simultaneous determination of buprenorphine
(BUP) and related metabolites in umbilical cord [457] and placenta [458]. With
LODs of 0.8 ng/g, authentic umbilical cord and placenta obtained from an
opioid-dependent pregnant woman receiving BUP pharmacotherapy was
analyzed. Interestingly, only the metabolites, namely
norbuprenorphine-glucuronide, buprenorphine-glucuronide and
norbuprenorphine, were detected. Analysis of an umbilical cord following
controlled methadone administration and illicit drug use was accomplished
with SPE followed by LC-MS/MS analysis. With LOQs of 2.5-10 ng/g, the
sample was found to contain (in ng/g), 40.3 morphine, 3.6 codeine, 442
benzyolecgonine, 186 methadone and 45.9 EDDP [459].
The usefulness of newborn nails for monitoring in utero drug exposure was
investigated [460]. Cocaine, benzoylecgonine, morphine, methadone, caffeine,
nicotine, and cotinine were determined in nail samples from the first 3 months
of life of 25 newborns abandoned immediately after birth (Group 1), and of 33
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abies born at the local hospital recruited on a voluntary basis (Group 2).
Caffeine (n=12), nicotine (n=13), cocaine and benzoylecgonine (n=6),
morphine (n=4), and methadone (n=5) were found for Group 1 and methadone
(n=2), caffeine (n=6), and nicotine and/or cotinine (n=6) were detected in
Group 2. A GC-MS method was developed for the simultaneous detection and
quantification of four amphetamine-type stimulants and two cannabinoids in
fingernails [461]. The LOD and LOQ for each compound were lower than 0.056
and 0.2 ng/mg, respectively, and positive results were obtained from
specimens of nine suspected MA or cannabis abusers. The concentration
ranges of MA, AP, and THCCOOH were 0.10-1.41, 0.12-2.64, and 0.20 ng/mg,
respectively.
A case showing the presence of morphine in bile (21.3 µg/mL) and hair (4.8
ng/mg) but not in blood, urine, or the liver of an addict who survived in hospital
for about 144 h (6 days) was reported [462]. These data would indicate that the
enterohepatic cycle does not play any role after the last injection, and directly
confirmed that gall bladder is a storage depot for morphine.
Forensic toxicological analyses have traditionally focused on the use of blood,
body fluids, and certain organs in examinations of deaths due to intoxication.
However, in some situations, putrefaction and contamination make proper
sampling from tissues impossible, such as in exhumation cases. Postmortem
viscera and putrefied bone marrow of pesticides (endosulfan and diazion)
treated rabbits were analyzed by GC- MS. The results showed that mean
residue levels of diazinon in the putrefied bodies were 3327 mg/kg in putrefied
viscera and 1783 mg/kg in the bone marrow, while the levels were 0.26 mg/kg
(endosulfan sulfate), 0.24 mg/kg (alpha and beta isomers of endosulfan), and
0.1 mg/kg (endosulfan ether) in putrefied samples (putrefied bone marrow and
putrefied viscera); the cause of death in these cases was acute pesticide
poisoning [463].
3.5 Interpretation of toxicological results
3.5.1 Drug levels in postmortem specimens
The interpretation of the analytical results constitutes one of the most difficult
aspects in forensic toxicology; particularly for postmortem samples where the
drug concentrations obtained do not necessarily reflect the blood
concentration at the time of death, due to variations such as the sampling site
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and postmortem changes from the time of death to samples taken. In a
literature review regarding the post-mortem clinical pharmacology, Ferner
pointed out that there is a lack of adequate studies of the true relationship
between fatal events and the concentrations that can be measured
subsequently, noting that without such studies, clinical pharmacologists and
others should be wary of interpreting post-mortem results [464]. To assist in the
interpretation of drug levels found, a review of seemingly similar cases can
provide added information to assist in understanding the role of drugs/poisons
found under the circumstances presented.
3.5.1.1 Alcohols and related biomarkers
A death of a diabetic man where the concentration of ethanol in post-mortem
blood rose from 0.4 g/L 2 days after autopsy to 3.5 g/L 10 days after autopsy
was investigated. Further analysis showed no EtG, suggesting postmortem
formation of ethanol, due possibly to the presence of glucose and insufficient
amount of fluoride added [465]. The use of biomarkers of ethanol can establish
whether a deceased had consumed ethanol before death. In a study of 36
cases where postmortem formation of ethanol was suspected, 19 cases
showed the presence of EtG and EtS, indicating antemortem ingestion of
alcohol [466]. Analysis of EtG in hair and phosphatidylethanol (PEth) in femoral
blood taken from 70 autopsy cases found that 39 cases had EtG levels above
the cutoff limit (≥30 pg/mg) compared with 29 for PEth (≥0.7 µmol/L),
suggesting that measurements of EtG in hair may provide improved diagnostic
information on alcohol abuse [467]. A unique case was reported for analysis
of ethanol conjugates in the biological material of a 50-year-old known
alcoholic whose corpse was exhumed 27 years after death [468]. EtG and EtS
were identified and quantified in the liver, the kidney, and a blood clot, and EtG
was identified in all hair segments, suggesting antemortem use of alcohol. EtG
levels in vitreous humor (VH) were compared with blood and urine in 25
post-mortem cases; VH EtG was in measurable amounts in 19 cases, ranging
from 0.05 to 1.90 mg/L; in 21 cases in blood (EtG levels: 0.64 to 5.82 mg/L);
and 17 cases in urine (EtG levels: 0.25 to 623 mg/L); and there was a
significant relation between VH EtG levels and blood and urine EtG levels
[321].
The measurement of FAEE in human meconium as biomarkers for prenatal
alcohol exposure was reviewed [469]. 10 articles including 2,221 subjects
(range per study 4 to 725) identified 455 (20.5%) subjects as prenatal alcohol
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exposed using the methods stated in the articles. FAEE levels above the
studies' respective cutoffs were reported for 502 (22.6%) subjects. The
prevalence of gestational ethanol exposure and subsequent fetal exposure
has been assessed in a cohort of mother-infant dyads in a Mediterranean city
(Barcelona, Spain) by meconium analysis of FAEEs. Of the 353 meconium
samples analyzed for FAEEs, 159 (45%) samples contained a total amount of
7 FAEEs ≥ 2 nmol/g, the cutoff for differentiating heavy maternal alcohol
consumption during pregnancy [470]. In a similar study conducted in Canada,
meconium FAEE extracted by LLE and SPE prior to analysis with GC-FID and
GC-MS confirmed that 17 samples were above the 2 nmol/g (7.74-151.28
nmol/g of FAEE) out of 682 meconium samples [471]
False-positive EtG screening results by the DRI ® ethyl glucuronide enzyme
immunoassay caused by chloral hydrate intake was reported, where
trichloroethyl glucuronide as an important chloral hydrate metabolite was the
most probable cross reacting substance [ 472 ]. A controlled study was
conducted using 10 healthy male volunteers in a fasted state to compare the
sensitivities and detection times for EtG, EtS, and GTOL/5-HIAA, after a single
ingestion of ethanol [473]. Compared to ethanol testing in urine, the detection
times for GTOL/5-HIAA were approximately 5 h longer, and for EtG and EtS
approximately 25 h longer. In another study, the median detection time for an
elevated urinary GTOL/5-HIAA ratio was 39 h, while EtG was detected for a
median of 65 h [331]. In a controlled experiment, ingestion of EtG and EtS as
components of nonalcoholic wine lead to detection of urine EtS only. A positive
EtG or EtS result after accidental alcohol exposure is unlikely in blood and oral
fluid [319]. The serum/blood (S/B) concentration ratios for EtG and EtS were
determined by an LC-MS method for samples taken from patients at admission
to an alcohol rehabilitation clinic. The median S/B value for EtG was 1.69, and
that for EtS was 1.30, indicating that the levels of serum EtG and EtS are
higher than those in the blood [474]. Ten male volunteers consumed ethanol at
a fixed dose of 0.5 g/kg body weight in a fasted state was used for the
pharmacokinetic study of ethanol and EtG in blood and urine. EtG reached its
maximum concentration [C(max)] at a median time of 4 h, a median time of 3 h
after C(max) for ethanol. The median EtG elimination half-life was 2.2 h, and
the renal clearance was 8.32 L/h [475].
Three corresponding cases of fatal methanol intoxications with different
survival times were investigated. High methanol levels were determined in the
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ains, with very low concentrations in femoral venous blood (738 mg/kg vs. 5
mg/L and 1008 mg/kg vs. 228 mg/L) and other postmortem specimens [476].
Toxicological analysis of a fatality involving a woman who ingested an
unknown quantity of a pine oil-containing product was reported [ 477 ].
Postmortem blood, urine, and stomach content levels of 1-alpha-terpineol
analyzed by GC-MS were 276 mg/L, 0.5 mg/L, and 4.0 g/total contents,
respectively, and isopropanol levels analysed by GC-FID were 730 mg/dL, 20
mg/dL, and 1000 mg/dL, respectively, with no acetone detected.
3.5.1.2 Abused drugs
A study on the gender differences in pharmacokinetics for opiates using male
and female Wistar rats showed that the maximal contents of opiates in blood of
both genders were found in the second measurement time (15 min), and faster
distribution of opiates from blood to brain in the female compared to male rats
[ 478 ]. Human subjects, who received 16 mg buprenorphine and 4 mg
naloxone, were found to have naloxone detected up to 2 h in three subjects
and up to 4 h in one subject, with mean maximum concentration was 0.139 ±
0.062 ng/mL. In urine samples taken 24 h after administration, about 55% of
the daily dose was excreted in urine in either conjugated or unconjugated
forms of naloxone and nornaloxone [479]. There has been an increased
awareness of illicit opiate abusers using the narcotic oxymorphone (Opana) by
inhalation. Two oxymorphone-involved fatalities were analyzed using GC-MS.
Concentrations of oxymorphone in blood samples of the deceased were 0.05
mg/L and 0.12 mg/L, respectively [480].
A study examining the plasma pharmacokinetics of MDMA and metabolites
using controlled oral administration of MDMA in young adults found that the
mean maximum plasma concentrations of 162.9 ± 39.8 and 171.9 ± 79.5
ng/mL were observed for MDMA and HMMA, respectively, at low dose (1.0
mg/kg), and that the mean half-lives of MDMA, and HMMA were approximately
7 to 8 hours, and 11.5 to 13.5 hours, respectively [481]. Three cases of MA
related fatalities were reported [482,483,484]. In one case, about 3 g of MA
was swallowed, the MA concentration in the hospital blood taken
approximately 12 h after ingestion was 3.0 mg/L, and that in the femoral blood
from autopsy was 30 mg/L [482]. The other two cases involved MA body
packers that were believed to be poisoned due to MA leakage from the
packages into the stomach. The MA concentration was found to be 8.6 mg/L in
plasma 17 h before death, and 63.5 mg/L in the postmortem cardiac blood in
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one case [483], while 24.8 mg/L of MA was found in the cardiac blood in the
other case [484]. Toxicological examination of a patient with a rib fracture from
a traffic accident who died after being hospitalized for 13 days revealed 0.178
and 0.051 µg/mL of MA, and amphetamine, respectively, in the heart blood
[485]. The cause of death was concluded to be circulatory failure due to MA
poisoning, and hair samples collected during an autopsy suggested that she
was a MA abuser for at least 3 months before her death.
An investigation of cocaine-related death cases from 1990 to 2005 in Italy
revealed that the mean ratios of cocaine/benzoylecgonine in overdose cases
were 10.28 in the brain and 0.69 in the blood, and were clearly different from
those found in incidental cases (brain mean was 0.71 and blood mean was
0.21) [486].
Concentrations of THC and its metabolites were measured in plasma samples
taken from 18 long-term heavy cannabis smokers residing in an in-patient
research unit for seven days of monitored abstinence [ 487 ]. THC
concentrations were > 1 ng/mL in nine participants (1.2–5.5 ng/mL) while
THCCOOH was detected (2.8–45.6 ng/mL) in all participants after 7 days. The
study suggested that THC presence in plasma for seven days of abstinence
may not indicate recent use in daily cannabis users.
The pre-analytical variation of methadone measurements was evaluated and
compared to the analytical variation [488]. 27 duplicate blood samples from
routine autopsy cases (mostly drug addicts) were collected from the left and
right femoral veins and analyzed for the R- and S-enantiomers of methadone
and EDDP by a chiral LC-MS method. The total measurement uncertainty
(CVT) was estimated from the pre-analytical variation (derived from
measurement of right and left femoral blood samples, CVPA), analytical
variation (analytical coefficient of variance (CV) of the method, CVA), and
variation related to calibration (CVCal). The pre-analytical variation amounted to
a CV% of 19-21% for R- and S-methadone, and 30-38% for R- and S-EDDP,
i.e., considerably larger than the other components. The results concluded that
the width of the 95%-uncertainty interval (±2 CVT) for a postmortem
measurement was largely determined by the component of pre-analytical
variation.
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3.5.1.3 Other drugs
Carbon monoxide (CO) intoxication is one of the most common types of
poisoning in the modern world. A retrospective study based on toxicological
results of autopsies from 1999 to 2007 in Morocco revealed that 139 out of
4402 analyses were recorded as acute CO intoxications, and the average
carbon monoxide concentration was 5.76 ± 4.3 mL/100mL of blood [489]. A
toxicological study of a deceased found dead in a car equipped with a hose
leading exhaust from the engine to the interior of the car was reported [490].
Analysis revealed a moderately elevated COHb and a high methemoglobin
saturation level (MetHb) in peripheral blood. The cause of death could possibly
be attributed to a combination of methemoglobinemia and a moderately high
COHb concentration. A case of suicidal inhalation of motorbike exhaust, a
mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and gasoline vapor, by a 38-year-old female
was reported [491]. The %COHb determined in blood was 73%. Gasoline
concentrations in heart blood and vitreous humor were 22.3 and 1.0 mg/L,
respectively. Simultaneous deaths of two individuals by inhalation of hydrogen
sulfide were reported [492]. Autopsies of the two patients revealed a partial
green discoloration of the skin and pulmonary edema with high levels of
thiosulfate in the blood (0.089 mmol/L and 0.142 mmol/L, respectively). In a
study to determine toluene exposure, blood toluene levels (BT) and urinary
hippuric acid (UHA) levels in 65 homeless adolescents were measured.
Toluene was detected in 91.9% of the investigated population, who presented
BT levels from 0.5 to 83.7 µg/mL. The study concluded that UHA levels higher
than 3.0 g/g creatinine indicate intentional exposure to toluene [493].
A fatality case involving a 27-year-old woman with epilepsy was studied, with
femoral blood concentrations of 2.9 mg/kg oxcarbazepine and 66 mg/kg
10-hydroxycarbazepine, respectively [494]. Reviewing 26 postmortem cases
involving oxcarbazepine during the period 2001–2006, the
10-hydroxycarbazepine concentrations ranged from 2.2 to 48 mg/kg; therefore,
oxcarbazepine intoxication in this case was implicated as a possible cause of
death.
Tramadol is an extensively used centrally acting analgesic and 17 forensic
autopsy cases with fatal unintentional tramadol intoxications among Swedes
between 1995 and 2005 were examined [495 ]. The median tramadol
concentration was 2.0 µg/g with a mean age of 44; 14 subjects were identified
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with substance abuse histories, with 8 of them being tramadol abusers. A
young man suspected of suffering from a tramadol overdose was found with
tramadol concentration of 8 µg/mL on admission in the ICU; the patient
subsequently died due to severe acute liver failure. Post-mortem toxicology
revealed tramadol concentrations of 5.2 mg/L in blood, 6.5 mg/g in liver and
4.5 mg/g in kidney, with desmethyltramadol detected. This is one of a very few
cases of a lethal poisoning due to tramadol alone [496]. Body fluids and
tissues in eight doxepin-related deaths were investigated [497]. For two cases
of fatal doxepin ingestion and another case of high dosage with advanced
putrefaction, the liver concentration sum (i.e., N-desmethyl metabolite along
with its parent) may be more useful if a fatal ingestion cannot be clearly
separated from a person's medication usage. In another study of 9 cases
related to lethal doxepin intoxication, the concentrations in blood samples from
peripheral vessels was measured to be 1.5-7.0 mg/L, which is in the lowest
quarter of the span of lethal concentrations mentioned in the literature - but the
literature did not specify the location of the blood sample taken [498]. In
reviewing toxicological reports in Canada, there was an increase in the
incidence of findings of acetone in decedents who were taking olanzapine over
the past decade [499]. Olanzapine concentrations were detected in the range
from

and parathion were reported, with parathion being the most frequently
detected compound among the four [ 503 ]. The mean concentrations of
chlorpyrifos, diazinon, malathion and parathion were 0.72, 1.03, 0.82 and
2.90 mg/L, respectively. A case of a combined suicide by ingestion of a
pesticide, oxydemeton-methyl (Metasystox ® ) and hanging was reported,
where the level of dimethyl phosphate (DMP), a stable product of
oxydemeton-methyl, was determined using a GC-MS procedure to be
0.10 µg/mL in blood, 1.40 µg/g in liver, and 103.31 µg/mL in gastric contents
[504]. With no DMP found in urine but a high concentration in gastric contents,
a close temporal connection between ingestion of poison and hanging is
assumed. The concentrations of bromadiolone in whole blood and plasma in
serial samples from a 62-year-old woman, who was repeatedly
exposed to bromadiolone, using LC-MS/MS were measured. The half-life of
bromadiolone in blood was estimated to be about 6 days in the initial phase of
elimination, and about 10-13 days in the terminal phase. The mean
plasma/blood ratio of bromadiolone was 1.7 ± 0.6. Stability testing of
bromadiolone in whole blood samples after two cycles of freeze and thaw
revealed that bromadiolone concentrations decreased [505].
Toxicologists should consider that decedents who survived for a relative long
interval in cases of fatal poisonings may have lower blood concentrations of
drugs and poisons due to ongoing metabolism while undergoing intensive
medical treatment. Post-mortem toxicological analysis of a patient of drug
overdose who received intensive medical treatment for 1 day before death was
reported. It revealed that concentrations of trazodone, paroxetine and
7-aminoflunitrazepam in the femoral blood were 5.85 µg/mL, 0.30 µg/mL and
0.13 µg/mL, respectively, which were all below reported fatal levels. The
concentrations of paroxetine and trazodone in stomach contents, however,
were high [506]. The cause of death was concluded to be due to the central
nervous system depression by the combined effects of trazodone, paroxetine,
and flunitrazepam.
Due to continuous consumption of glucose by surviving cells postmortem,
blood glucose levels decrease rapidly. A study on 3076 cases for vitreous
glucose and lactate suggested that vitreous glucose alone should be used to
diagnose hyperglycemia postmortem, and that the limit of 10 mmol/L should
have a good specificity for diabetic coma, which theoretically would be equal to
an original blood glucose value of about 26 mmol/L [507].
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Rosano et al. has conducted a study of postmortem blood ethylene glycol and
glycolic acid in fatal poisoning cases and concluded that measurement of
glycolic acid is recommended in addition to ethylene glycol for cases of
ethylene glycol poisoning, as ethylene glycol determination alone may not
provide a sensitive index for the detection or determination of severity of EG
poisoning [508].
The determination of calcium and sodium content in post-mortem liver, heart,
and skeletal muscle samples as the biochemical marker defining hypothermia
as the cause of death was investigated; the results showed that no significant
differences of calcium content in the tissues of persons who died due to
hypothermia versus those who died in normothermic conditions [509,510], but
the concentration of sodium was significantly (p

EtG in blood samples during putrefaction showed that EtG was very unstable
in blood samples at 30/40 o C without preservatives, but was stable with
addition of potassium fluoride at room temperature [ 513 ]. In another
investigation related to stability of EtG and EtS in urine using several
preservatives, it was found that chlorhexidine, a combination of chlorhexidine,
ethylparabene and sodium propionate, and boric acid proved to be useful
preservatives, while EtG degraded in samples doped with thymol, and addition
of these preservatives did not interfere with the LC-MS/MS analysis [514]. The
presence of microorganisms capable of ethanol production was checked by
fermentation tests and the liver was tested for the presence of EtG. It was
confirmed that there was no EtG formation during bacterial fermentation of
glucose to ethanol [515]. Even though EtS is claimed to be more stable than
EtG, a recent study showed possible bacterial degradation of EtS with high
bacterial density [ 516 ]. Study on post-mortem stability and possible
post-mortem redistribution of CDT, another alcohol marker, found that CDT
remains stable for an appreciable time after death and it is not subject to major
post-mortem redistribution [517].
Embalming and formalin fixation are common, and yet they can create
problems if the only available specimens to be analyzed are formalin-fixed
tissues. In a study of the stability of cocaine in formalin-fixed liver and brain
tissues, it was found that in buffered formalin (pH 7.4) cocaine is hydrolyzed to
benzyolecgonine with half-life time of approximately 7 days, whereas in
unbuffered formalin (pH approximately 3.5) it is relatively stable over a period
of 30 days [518]. Eight drugs (sertraline, paroxetine, citalopram, diazepam,
alprazolam, diphenhydramine, promethazine, and hydrocodone) from four
different drug classes were evaluated to determine the difference between
drug concentrations in clamped and blind stick femoral blood, and it was
concluded that there is no significant difference in the results obtained by these
two sampling methods [519]. The stability of drugs and metabolites in urine
after the addition of NaN3 and/or filtration sterilization using an aseptic
collection kit has been investigated [ 520 ]. In urine that was severely
contaminated with bacteria, there were significant losses of
7-aminoflunitrazepam and nitrazepam, and slight decomposition of MA and
amphetamine at 25 o C. However, such degradation was successfully
suppressed by the use of the kit, though the use of the kit and NaN3 were
preferred for 7-aminoflunitrazepam.
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As an inherent part of postmortem toxicology, artifacts may arise from the
antemortem, perimortem and even during specimen collection. In a review
written by Skopp, he opined that knowledge on the degradation mechanisms,
breakdown products, and artifactual formation in specimens is of exceptional
importance to recognize artifacts, and that quantitative analysis is preferably
done on femoral blood [521].
Postmortem redistribution refers to the process of drugs diffusing from tissues
into blood along a concentration gradient between death and time of specimen
collection at autopsy. Fentanyl concentrations were measured in postmortem
specimens collected with mean femoral blood concentrations of 4.6 µg/L and
17.3 µg/L shortly after death (FB1) and at autopsy (FB2), respectively, and the
mean fentanyl heart blood (HB) to FB1 ratio of 8.39 - which was higher
compared with the corresponding HB/FB2 ratio of 3.48 [522]. In another report,
9 fentanyl-positive cases were identified, and the femoral blood fentanyl
concentrations ranged from 2.7 to 52.5 µg/L, liver tissue fentanyl ranged from
37.0 to 179 µg/kg, and heart tissue fentanyl (n = 3) ranged from 52.8 to 179
µg/kg. Liver tissue to femoral blood ratios ranged from 0.85 to 35.8, and heart
tissue to femoral blood ratios ranged from 1.9 to 5.4 [523]. Concomitant heart
and peripheral blood determinations were performed on 40 fatal cases
involving nordiazepam (20 cases) and bromazepam (20 cases). The mean
ratios for the heart and peripheral blood concentrations were 0.95 for
nordiazepam and 0.86 for bromazepam, suggesting that no postmortem
redistribution was observed for these two benzodiazepines [524]. Postmortem
redistribution was evident for flecainide, where antemortem plasma obtained
13 h before death showed a flecainide concentration of 2.5 mg/L, while
postmortem right and left cardiac blood contained flecainide concentrations of
13.8 and 44.2 mg/L, respectively [525].
3.5.3 Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics is one of the first clinical applications of the postgenomic
era. It promises personalized medicine rather than the established "one size
fits all" approach to drugs and dosages. Despite initial enthusiasm, the use of
pharmacogenetics has remained limited. The main reason is the paucity of
scientific evidence to show that pharmacogenetic testing leads to improved
clinical outcomes, and the challenge in implementation of pharmacogenomics
in routine clinical practice [526,527]. Metabolisms of BZP and TFMPP were
reported to involve the hepatic P450 enzymes CYP2D6, CYP1A2, and
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CYP3A4, resulting in inhibited metabolism of other drugs and medicines, as
well as compromised metabolism in poor metabolisers for CYP2D6. In addition,
these drugs could cause various drug-drug interactions [528,529]. Furthermore,
BZP and TFMPP inhibited each other's metabolism [529]. The metabolite ratio
of amitriptyline (AT), nortriptyline (NT), and its 10-hydroxy metabolites was
examined by LC-MS in hair samples of 23 white infants after long-term
administration of AT [530]. High inter-individual variation of the metabolite
ratios was observed and could be explained for those being CYP2C19 poor
metabolizers, where the demethylation capabilities were depleted significantly.
To study the metabolism of naloxone, an LC-MS/MS method was developed
for determination of naloxone and its metabolite, nornaloxone, in plasma, urine,
and human liver microsomes. When cDNA-expressed P450s were incubated
with 20 ng of naloxone, nornaloxone formation was detected for P450s 2C18,
2C19, and 3A4 [479]. Two cases were studied in which there was a suspicion
that the patients continued to abuse diazepam, because of repeatedly positive
urine test results. The measurement of diazepam metabolites in urine showed
that none of them had in fact ingested diazepam during the study period [531].
One of the subjects was found to have a slow metabolism for CYP2C9 as well
as for CYP2C19. In the second case, there was a possible drug interaction
between diazepam and zolpidem.
4. Conclusions
Phenomenal progress has been achieved in various areas relevant to forensic
toxicology. The increased availability of more sensitive and specific
instrumentation has enabled the development of many effective methods for
the detection of a wider scope of drugs and/or their metabolites at very low
levels, in both conventional and alternative specimens.
With the more structured approach towards control over illicit drug use while
driving, the list of drugs that can be determined is continously expanding. It is
known that the problem of DUID is far more complex than that of DUI, and that
it still requires a large amount of research in various areas such as
epidemiology, behavior, and toxicology. The efforts made in harmonization of
methods will undoubtedly facilitate more efficient cross-study comparisons in
future drugged driving research.
The development of methods for detection of alcohol biomarkers such as EtG,
EtS and FAEE in oral fluid, urine, blood, vitreous humor, and hair has shed
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new light on the investigation of alcohol use: Extension of the detection time for
alcohol consumption; differentiation of antemortem alcohol use vs. postmortem
generation due to decomposition; chronic vs. social drinking, etc. It would be
expected that more laboratories will include alcohol biomarker testing in their
routine toxicological screening protocols in order to provide additional
information when required.
Alternative matrices for analysis of drugs and poisons are becoming popular in
forensic toxicology. Promising improvements in the reliability of the oral-fluid
drug screening devices, particularly for the detection of cocaine and more
recently cannabinoids for DUID, are noted. The scope of drug detection for the
device, however, is limited and needs to be extended to other common drugs
of abuse such as ketamine (which is extensively abused in some Asian
countries). While blood is still regarded as the specimen of choice, the use of
oral fluid either for roadside testing or even as evidence for prosecution after
laboratory confirmation of DUID, is increasing. The analysis of hair is
escalating in various routine drug monitoring programs such as driving license
re-granting, proof of drug abstinence, and drug-related crimes such as DFSA.
It should be noted that interpretation of hair test results is difficult due to
complicated disposition mechanisms; issues of external contamination; and
limited research available, particularly those in controlled clinical studies. As
such, more background studies such as controlled administration at clinical
settings and statistical evaluation of hair drug testing results from drug users,
are needed.
The rapid emergence of new drugs of abuse, such as synthetic cannabinoids
and mephedrone, continues to be one of the major challenges to toxicologists,
as the unavailability of reference standards (particularly for the corresponding
metabolites) has hindered the timely development of effective analytical
methods for their identification. While toxicity data for the new drugs are
lacking, background studies utilizing data derived from animal models are
useful in assessing the potential risk to humans, and to determine what
analytes need to be included in systematic toxicological analysis. This
information is also valuable to assist governments, medical practitioners, and
the pharmaceutical industry in formulating policies to reduce the risk to the
general public.
The harmonization of quality assurance programs are seen in many toxicology
laboratories in the adoption of the ISO/IEC 17025 requirements; for instance,
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ASCLD/LAB, the world’s largest accrediting body, has become the full member
signatory to the International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC)
Mutual Recognition Arrangement (April, 2009). Although the use of alternative
matrices, such as oral fluid, hair, and/or sweat in toxicological examination is
becoming more popular, related proficiency tests are surprisingly scarce. The
proficiency test providers should consider introducing more test programs for
these specimens in order to ensure the competency of the laboratories offering
such drug testing services. It is known that the quality of the reference
materials is of paramount importance to uphold the accuracy of the results
produced. In view of the limited availability of certified reference materials
(CRMs), there is an increasing need for the industry to have a long vision
towards producing CRMs for a wide variety of drugs and/or metabolites in
related matrices such as blood, oral fluid, and urine.
The gold standard of using GC-MS in STA for organic drugs and poisons is
facing a structural change. There has been a gradual shift in many laboratories
towards the use of LC/MS(MS) due to its improved sensitivity and relatively
simple sample preparation compared with GC/MS procedures. Moreover, with
the ability to analyze for a large number of drugs and poisons using LC-MS(MS)
either using a commercially available database or one developed in-house,
laboratories are now more willing to switch their screening protocols to
LC-MS(MS). In addition, the use of isotopic-labeled analytes as internal
standards is a standard practice for accurate quantitation and to eliminate the
risk of matrix effects such as ion suppression, particularly in LC-ESI-MS
analysis.
With the introduction of more sensitive instruments such as GC-MS/MS and
LC-MS/MS, increased use of simple sample preparation procedures such as
dilute and shoot (direct injection) and on-line SPE are reported for relatively
routine matrices such as urine, oral fluid, and serum. LLE is still the method of
choice for whole blood, even though some methods have demonstrated the
applicability of SPME and EME for whole blood extraction. Thus, two of the
goals in method development will be the replacement of labor intensive
extraction procedures by automated extraction procedures, and the use of
smaller sample volumes.
The collaborative efforts by toxicologists worldwide have filled in many gaps in
the field through research and development, by sharing of views and
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experience in thematic symposia and conferences, and by setting up of new
professional organization for continual enhancement of the quality and
knowledge. While there is still a long way to go for the understanding of the
broad and complicated toxic consequences of myriad chemicals exposure to
human, toxicologists are ready to take concerted action to tackle the
challenges ahead.
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390 Virus ED, Sobolevsky TG, Rodchenkov GM. Introduction of
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392 Mitrevski BS, Brenna JT, Zhang Y, Marriott PJ. Application of
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397 Thevis M, Sigmund G, Thomas A, Gougoulidis V, Rodchenkov G,
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398 Guan F, Uboh CE, Soma LR, Birksz E, Chen J. Identification of
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399 Appolonova SA, Dikunets MA, Rodchenkov GM. Possible indirect
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402 Thomas A, Kohler M, Schänzer W, Kamber M, Delahaut P, Thevis M.
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417 Crooks CR, Brown S. Roche DAT immunoassay: Sensitivity and
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419 Simões SS, Ajenjo AC, Franco JM, Vieira DN, Dias MJ. Liquid
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429 Paterson S, Cordero R, Stearns E. Chronic drug use confirmed by hair
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433 De Giovanni N, Donadio G, Chiarotti M. Ethanol contamination leads to
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434 Vogliardi S, Favretto D, Frison G, Ferrara SD, Seraglia R, Traldi P. A fast
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437 Marchei E, Muñoz JA, García-Algar O, Pellegrini M, Vall O, Zuccaro P, et
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438 Moore C, Marinetti L, Coulter C, Crompton K. Analysis of pain
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440 Dulaurent S, Gaulier JM, Baudel JL, Fardet L, Maury E, Lachâtre G. Hair
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441 Tsatsakis AM, Tzatzarakis MN, Tutudaki M. Pesticide levels in head hair
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444 Musshoff F, Rosendahl W, Madea B. Determination of nicotine in hair
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445 Tsanaclis L, Wicks JF. Differentiation between drug use and
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446 Hoelzle C, Scheufler F, Uhl M, Sachs H, Thieme D. Application of
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447 Hill V, Cairns T, Schaffer M. Hair analysis for cocaine: Factors in
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469 Burd L, Hofer R. Biomarkers for detection of prenatal alcohol exposure: A
critical review of fatty acid ethyl esters in meconium. Birth Defects
Research. Part A, Clinical and Molecular Teratology 2008 Jul; 82 (7):
487-493.
729

470 Garcia-Algar O, Kulaga V, Gareri J, Koren G, Vall O, Zuccaro P, et al.
Alarming prevalence of fetal alcohol exposure in a Mediterranean city.
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 2008 Apr; 30 (2): 249-254.
471 Gareri J, Lynn H, Handley M, Rao C, Koren G. Prevalence of fetal ethanol
exposure in a regional population-based sample by meconium analysis of
fatty acid ethyl esters. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 2008 Apr; 30 (2):
239-245.
472 Arndt T, Gierten B, Güssregen B, Werle A, Grüner J. False-positive ethyl
glucuronide immunoassay screening associated with chloral hydrate
medication as confirmed by LC–MS/MS and self-medication. Forensic
Science International 2009 Jan; 184 (1-3): e27-e29.
473 Høiseth G, Bernard JP, Stephanson N, Normann PT, Christophersen AS,
Mørland J, et al. Comparison between the urinary alcohol markers EtG,
EtS, and GTOL/5-HIAA in a controlled drinking experiment. Alcohol and
Alcoholism 2008 Mar-Apr; 43 (2): 187-191.
474 Høiseth G, Morini L, Polettini A, Christophersen AS, Johnsen L, Karinen
R, et al. Serum/whole blood concentration ratio for ethylglucuronide and
ethyl sulfate. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2009 May; 33 (4): 208-211.
475 Høiseth G, Bernard JP, Karinen R, Johnsen L, Helander A,
Christophersen AS, et al. A pharmacokinetic study of ethyl glucuronide in
blood and urine: Applications to forensic toxicology. Forensic Science
International 2007 Oct 25; 172 (2-3 ): 119-124.
476 Andresen H, Schmoldt H, Matschke J, Flachskampf FA, Turk EE. Fatal
methanol intoxication with different survival times—Morphological
findings and postmortem methanol distribution. Forensic Science
International 2008 Aug; 179 (2-3): 206-210.
477 Martz W. A lethal ingestion of a household cleaner containing pine oil and
isopropanol. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2010 Jan-Feb; 34 (1): 49-52.
478 Djurendic-Brenesel M, Mimica-Dukic N, Pilija V, Tasic M. Gender-related
differences in the pharmacokinetics of opiates. Forensic Science
International 2010 Jan; 194 (1-3): 28-33.
479 Fang WB, Chang Y, McCance-Katz EF. Moody DE. Determination of
naloxone and nornaloxone (noroxymorphone) by high-performance liquid
chromatography-electrospray ionization- tandem mass spectrometry.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2009 Oct; 33 (8): 409-417.
480 McIntyre IM, Sherrard JL, Nelson CL. Case report:
Oxymorphone-involved fatalities: A report of two cases. Journal of
Analytical Toxicology 2009 Nov-Dec; 33 (9): 615-619.
481 Kolbrich EA, Goodwin RS, Gorelick DA, Hayes RJ, Stein EA, Huestis MA.
Plasma pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine after
controlled oral administration to young adults. Therapeutic Drug
Monitoring 2008 Jun; 30 (3): 320-332.
730

482 Kiely E, Lee CJ, Marinetti L. A fatality from an oral ingestion of
methamphetamine. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2009 Oct; 33 (8):
557-560.
483 Takekawa K, Ohmori T, Kido A, Oya M. Methamphetamine body packer:
Acute poisoning death due to massive leaking of methamphetamine.
Journal of Forensic Sciences 2007 Sep; 52 (5): 1219-1222.
484 Li RB, Guan DW, Zhu BL, Zhang GH, Zhao R. Death from accidental
poisoning of methamphetamine by leaking into alimentary tract in drug
traffic: A case report. Legal Medicine (Tokyo, Japan) 2009 Apr; 11 Suppl
1: S491-493.
485 Ago M, Ago K, Ogata M. Determination of methamphetamine in sudden
death of a traffic accident inpatient by blood and hair analyses. Legal
Medicine (Tokyo, Japan) 2009 Apr; 11 Suppl 1: S568-S569.
486 Bertol E, Trignano C, Di Milia MG, Di Padua M, Mari F. Cocaine-related
deaths: An enigma still under investigation. Forensic Science
International 2008 Apr; 176 (2-3): 121-123.
487 Karschner EL, Schwilke EW, Lowe RH, Darwin WD, Harning RI, Cadet
JL, et al. Implications of plasma Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol,
11-hydroxy-THC, and 11-nor-9-carboxy-THC concentrations in chronic
cannabis smokers. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2009 Oct; 33 (8):
469-477.
488 Linnet K, Johansen SS, Buchard A, Munkholm J, Morling N. Dominance
of pre-analytical over analytical variation for measurement of methadone
and its main metabolite in postmortem femoral blood. Forensic Science
International 2008 Jul; 179 (1): 78-82.
489 Ait El Cadi M, Khabbal Y, Idrissi L. Carbon monoxide poisoning in
Morocco during 1999-2007. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine 2009
Oct; 16 (7): 385-387.
490 Vevelstad M, Morild I. Lethal methemoglobinemia and automobile
exhaust inhalation. Forensic Science International 2009 May; 187 (1-3):
e1-e5.
491 Martínez MA, Ballesteros S. Suicidal inhalation of motorbike exhaust:
Adding new data to the literature about the contribution of gasoline in the
cause of death. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2006 Nov-Dec; 30 (9):
697-702.
492 Ago M, Ago K, Ogata M. Two fatalities by hydrogen sulfide poisoning:
Variation of pathological and toxicological findings. Legal Medicine
(Tokyo, Japan) 2008 May; 10 (3): 148-52.
493 Thiesen FV, Noto AR, Barros HM. Laboratory diagnosis of toluene-based
inhalants abuse. Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia) 2007 Jun-Aug; 45 (5):
557-562.
731

494 Linnet K, Steentoft A, Simonsen KW, Sabers A, Hansen SH. An
oxcarbazepine-related fatality with an overview of 26 oxcarbazepine
postmortem cases. Forensic Science International 2008 May; 177 (2-3):
248-251.
495 Tjäderborn M, Jönsson AK, Hägg S, Ahlner J. Fatal unintentional
intoxications with tramadol during 1995–2005. Forensic Science
International 2007 Dec; 173 (2-3): 107-111.
496 De Decker K, Cordonnier J, Jacobs W, Coucke V, Schepens P, Jorens
PG. Fatal intoxication due to tramadol alone: Case report and review of
the literature. Forensic Science International 2008 Feb; 175 (1): 79-82.
497 Gronewold A, Dettling A, Haffner HT, Skopp G. Doxepin and nordoxepin
concentrations in body fluids and tissues in doxepin associated deaths.
Forensic Science International 2009 Sep; 190 (1-3): 74-79.
498 Dettling A, Haffner HT, Wehner HD. The evaluation of doxepin
concentrations in postmortem blood as optional cause of death. The
American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology 2009 Sep; 30 (3):
298-300.
499 House CJ. Olanzapine-induced hyperglycemic ketoacidosis and
corresponding acetone concentrations post-mortem: A forensic
interpretation. Forensic Science International 2007 Aug; 171 (1): 22–26.
500 Centini F, Fiore C, Riezzo I, Rossi G, Fineschi V. Suicide due to oral
ingestion of lidocaine: A case report and review of the literature. Forensic
Science International 2007 Aug; 171 (1): 57-62.
501 Kirschbaum KM, Musshoff F, Madea B. Unclear loss of consciousness
after clobutinol intake. Forensic Science International 2009 Aug; 189
(1-3): e37-e40.
502 Kłys M, Rojek S, Rzepecka-Woźniak E. Neonatal death following
clozapine self-poisoning in late pregnancy: An unusual case report.
Forensic Science International 2007 Aug; 171 (1): e5-e10.
503 Park MJ, In SW, Lee SK, Choi WK, Park YS, Chung HS. Postmortem
blood concentrations of organophosphorus pesticides. Forensic Science
International 2009; 184 (1-3): 28-31.
504 Gottzein AK, Musshoff F, Doberentz E, Madea B. Combined suicide by
oxydemeton-methyl (Metasystox) ingestion and hanging. Forensic
Science International 2009 Aug; 189 (1-3): e21-e25.
505 Vindenes V, Karinen R, Hasvold I, Bernard JP, Mörland JG,
Christophersen AS. Bromadiolone poisoning: LC-MS method and
pharmacokinetic data. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2008 Jul; 53 (4):
993-996.
506 Kinoshita H, Nishiguchi M, Kasuda S, Takahashi M, Ouchi H, Minami T, et
al. A fatal case due to combined toxicity of psychotropic drugs. Forensic
Science International 2008 Oct; 181 (1-3): e7-e8.
732

507 Zilg B, Alkass K, Berg S, Druid H. Postmortem identification of
hyperglycemia. Forensic Science International 2009 Mar; 185 (1-3):
89-95.
508 Rosano TG, Swift TA, Kranick CJ, Sikirica M. Ethylene glycol and glycolic
acid in postmortem blood from fatal poisonings. Journal of Analytical
Toxicology 2009 Oct; 33(8): 508-513.
509 Jakubeniene M, Irnius A, Chaker GA, Paliulis JM, Bechelis A.
Post-mortem investigation of calcium content in liver, heart, and skeletal
muscle in accidental hypothermia cases. Forensic Science International
2009 Sep; 190 (1-3): 87-90.
510 Jakubeniene M, Chaker GA, Becelis A, Malakiene D, Raudys R.
Investigation of calcium and sodium in postmortem material as
biochemical markers defining the cause of death from hypothermia. Legal
Medicine (Tokyo, Japan) 2009 Apr; 11 Suppl1: S304-S306.
511 Saussereau E, Lacroix C, Cattaneo A, Mahieu L, Goulle JP. Hair and
fingernail gadolinium ICP-MS contents in an overdose case associated
with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Forensic Science International 2008
Mar; 176 (1): 54-57.
512 Peters FT. Stability of analytes in biosamples - An important issue in
clinical and forensic toxicology? Analytical & Bioanalytical Chemistry
2007 Aug; 388 (7): 1505-1519.
513 Høiseth G, Karinen R, Johnsen L, Normann PT, Christophersen AS,
Mørland J. Disappearance of ethyl glucuronide during heavy putrefaction.
Forensic Science International 2008 Apr; 176 (2-3): 147-151.
514 Thierauf A, Serr A, Halter CC, Al-Ahmad A, Rana S, Weinmann W.
Influence of preservatives on the stability of ethyl glucuronide and ethyl
sulphate in urine. Forensic Science International 2008 Nov; 182 (1-3):
41-45.
515 Appenzeller BMR, Schuman M, Wennig R. Was a child poisoned by
ethanol? Discrimination between ante-mortem consumption and
post-mortem formation. International Journal of Legal Medicine 2008
Sep; 122 (5): 429 – 434.
516 Halter CC, Laengin A, Al-Ahmad A, Wurst FM, Weinmann W, Kuemmerer
K. Assessment of the stability of the ethanol metabolite ethyl sulfate in
standardized degradation tests. Forensic Science International 2009 Apr;
186 (1-3): 52-55.
517 Rainio J, De Paoli G, Druid H, Kauppila R, De Giorgio F, Bortolotti F, et al.
Post-mortem stability and redistribution of carbohydrate-deficient
transferrin (CDT). Forensic Science International 2008 Jan; 174 (2-3):
161-165.
518 Viel G, Nalesso A, Cecchetto G, Montisci M, Ferrara SD. Stability of
cocaine in formalin solution and fixed tissues. Forensic Science
International 2009 Dec; 193 (1-3): 79-83.
733

519 Hargrove VM, McCutcheon JR. Comparison of drug concentrations taken
from clamped and unclamped femoral vessels. Journal of Analytical
Toxicology 2008 Oct; 32 (8): 621-625.
520 Zaitsu K, Miki A, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H. Long-term stability of various
drugs and metabolites in urine, and preventive measures against their
decomposition with special attention to filtration sterilization. Forensic
Science International 2008 Jan; 174 (2-3): 189-196.
521 Skopp G. Artifacts are an inherent part of postmortem toxicology. TIAFT
Bulletin 2010; 40 (1): 7-17.
522 Olson KN, Luckenbill K, Thompson J, Middleton O, Geiselhart R, Mills
KM, et al. Postmortem redistribution of fentanyl in blood. American
Journal of Clinical Pathology 2010 Mar; 133 (3): 447-453.
523 Luckenbill K, Thompson J, Middleton O, Kloss J, Apple F. Fentanyl
postmortem redistribution: Preliminary findings regarding the relationship
among femoral blood and liver and heart tissue concentrations. Journal of
Analytical Toxicology 2008 Oct; 3 2(8): 639-643.
524 Pos Pok PR, Haddouche D, Mauras M, Kuhlmann E, Burle J, Salmon T,
et al. Cardiac and peripheral blood similarities in the comparison of
nordiazepam and bromazepam blood concentrations. Journal of
Analytical Toxicology 2008 Nov-Dec; 32(9): 782-786.
525 Yoshitome K, Miyaishi S, Yamamoto Y, Ishizu H. Postmortem increase of
flecainide level in cardiac blood. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2008
Jul-Aug; 32 (6): 451-453.
526 Swen JJ, Wilting I, de Goede AL, Grandia L, Mulder H, Touw DJ, et al.
Pharmacogenetics: From bench to byte. Clinical Pharmacology &
Therapeutics 2008 May; 83 (5): 781-787.
527 Swen JJ, Huizinga TW, Gelderblom H, de Vries EG, Assendelft WJ,
Kirchheiner J, et al. Translating pharmacogenomics: Challenges on the
road to the clinic. PLoS Medicine 2007 Aug; 4 (8):e209.
528 Antia U. 'Party pill' drugs--BZP and TFMPP. The New Zealand Medical
Journal 2009 Dec; 122 (1307): 55-68.
529 Antia U, Tingle MD, Russell BR. Metabolic interactions with
piperazine-based 'party pill' drugs. Journal of Pharmacy and
Pharmacology 2009 Jul; 61 (7): 877-882.
530 Thieme D, Rolf B, Sachs H, Schmid D. Correlation of inter-individual
variations of amitriptyline metabolism examined in hairs with CYP2C19
and CYP2D6 polymorphisms. International Journal of Legal Medicine
2008 Mar; 122 (2): 149-155.
531 Lennestål R, Lakso HA, Nilsson M, Mjörndal T. Urine monitoring of
diazepam abuse- New intake or not? Journal of Analytical Toxicology
2008 Jul-Aug; 32(6): 402-407.
734

Drug Evidence
Review : 2007-2010
U.S. Department of Justice
Drug Enforcement Administration
Office of Forensic Sciences
700 Army Navy Drive, W-7342
Arlington, Virginia 22202 USA
(Coordinating Office)
and
Special Testing and Research Laboratory
22624 Dulles Summit Court
Dulles, Virginia 20166 USA
(Coordinating Laboratory)
735

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.
ROUTINE
AND
IMPROVED
ANALYSIS
OF
ABUSED
SUBSTANCES
 740
1.2
 Scientific
Working
Group
for
Forensic
Analysis
of
Illicit
Drugs:
 742
1.1.
 Amphetamine
(including
substituted
amphetamines),
Methamphetamine,
and
Dimethylamphetamine
(see
Phenethylamines,
and
Methylenedioxyamphetamines):
743
1.3
 Barbiturates
(including
Quaaludes):
 746
1.4
 Benzodiazepines:
 747
1.5
 Dimethoxyphenethylamines:
 748
1.6
 Chlordiazepoxide:
 749
1.7
 Clenbuterol:
 749
1.8
 Cocaine:
 750
1.9
 Emerging
Substances
(including
MDPV
and
“FLY”
compounds)
 753
1.10
 Ergot
Alkaloids
(see
also
LSD):
 755
1.11
Fentanyl(s):
 756
1.12
 Flos
Daturae:
 757
1.13
 Fluoxetine
(Prozac):
 757
1.14
 Heroin:
 757
1.15
 gamma­Hydroxybutyric
Acid
(GHB),
gamma­butyrolactone
(GBL)
and
1,4­butanediol
(BD):
 759
1.16
 Human
Growth
Hormone
(HGH):
 760
1.17
 Ketamine:
 760
1.18
 Khat:
 760
1.19
 Kratom
(Also
mitragynine):
 761
1.20
 LSD:
 762
1.21
 Marijuana
and
Related
Cannabinoids:
 762
1.22
 Mescaline/Peyote:
 765
1.23
 Methadone:
 766
736

1.24
 Methcathinone
(Also
methcathinone­related
compounds):
 766
1.25
 Methylenedioxyamphetamines
and
Related
Compounds:
 767
1.26
 Morphine,
Codeine,
and
Related
Opium
Alkaloids:
 769
1.27
 Opiate
Alkaloids
(Also
Opioids):
 770
1.28
 Opium
(and
Opium
Poppies):
 770
1.29
 Phenethylamines
(including
mixtures
of
Amphetamines,
Methylenedioxy­
amphetamines,
and
Related
Compounds):
 774
1.30
 Piperazines:
 774
1.31
 Polydrug:
 776
1.32
 Psilocybin
Mushrooms,
Psilocybin,
and
Psilocin:
 776
1.33
 Salvia
Divinorum:
 777
1.34
 Scopolamine:
 778
1.35
 Steroids:
 778
1.36
 Synthetic
Cannabimimetics
(Also
“Spice”):
 780
1.37
 (Designer)
Tryptamines
(see
also
Psilocybin):
 781
1.38
 Zaleplon:
 784
1.39
 Zolpidem:
 784
1.40
 Zopiclone:
 784
1.41
 Miscellaneous:
 785
2.
 SYNTHESIS
AND/OR
CULTIVATION
OF
ABUSED
SUBSTANCES,
THEIR
PRECURSORS,
AND
ESSENTIAL
CHEMICALS
 785
2.1
 Production
of
Abused
Substances
and/or
their
Precursors
and
Essential
Chemicals:
 786
3.
 CLANDESTINE
LABORATORIES
‐
APPRAISALS
AND
SAFETY
 790
3.1
 General
 790
3.2
 Clandestine
Laboratory
Appraisals
and
Safety:
 791
3.3
 Safety
Issues
­
Case
Reports:
 791
3.4
 Miscellaneous:
 792
737

4
 REFERENCE
DRUG
STANDARDS
AND
TOTAL
SYNTHESES
 792
4.1
 General
 792
5.
 SOURCE
DETERMINATION
OF
DRUGS
(IMPURITY
PROFILING)
AND
COMPARATIVE
ANALYSES
 793
5.1
 Amphetamine(s):
 794
5.2
 Cocaine:
 794
5.3
 Heroin:
 795
5.4
 Marijuana:
 796
5.5
 Methamphetamine:
 797
5.6
 3,4­Methylenedioxymethamphetamine:
 799
5.7
 Multi­Drug
and
Miscellaneous:
 800
6.
 ANALYSIS
OF
NON‐CONTROLLED
PHARMACEUTICALS,
PSEUDO‐DRUGS,
ADULTERANTS,
DILUENTS,
AND
PRECURSORS
 801
6.1
 Ephedra,
Ephedrine,
and/or
Pseudoephedrine
and
Related
Compounds:
 801
6.2
 Phenylpropanolamine:
 803
6.3
 Other
Adulterants/Diluents
(including
mixtures
containing
Ephedrine
and/or
Pseudoephedrine):
 804
6.4
 Theophylline:
 804
6.5
 Miscellaneous:
 805
7.
 NEW
AND/OR
IMPROVED
INSTRUMENTAL
TECHNIQUES
 805
7.1
 Capillary
Electrophoresis
(and
Related
Techniques,
including
Tandem
Techniques):
 805
7.2
 Extraction
Techniques:
 807
7.3
 Gas
Chromatography
(and
Tandem
GC
Techniques):
 808
7.4
 High­Performance
Liquid
Chromatography
(and
tandem
HPLC
techniques):
 810
7.5
 Inductively
Coupled
Plasma­
Mass
Spectrometry
(ICP­MS,
Also
ICP­OES):
 812
7.6
 Infrared
and
Near
Infrared
Spectroscopy
(including
terahertz
spectroscopy):
 813
7.7
 Ion
Mobility
Spectrometry:
 816
738

7.8
 Mass
Spectrometry
(including
ambient
pressure
techniques
and
Isotope
Ratio):
 816
7.9
 Microchip
Technology:
 821
7.10
 Nuclear
Magnetic
Resonance
Spectroscopy:
 821
7.11
 Raman
Spectroscopy:
 823
7.12
 Solid
Phase
Micro­Extraction
(Headspace
Techniques
and
Solvent
Analysis):
 824
7.13
 Thin
Layer
Chromatography:
 825
7.14
 X­Ray
based
Techniques:
 826
7.15
 Miscellaneous:
 826
8.
 PORTABLE
DETECTION
AND
ANALYTICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
 827
8.1
General
 828
9.
MISCELLANEOUS
 829
9.1
 Beverage
Analysis:
 829
9.2
 Chemometrics:
 829
9.3
 Counterfeit
Drugs:
 830
9.4
 Dragon’s
Blood:
 831
9.5
 Drugs
on
Currency:
 831
9.6
 Education:
 832
9.7
 Legal
Issues:
 832
9.8
 Quality
Assurance:
 833
9.9
 Sampling
Plans:
 833
9.10
 Toolmarks:
 834
9.11
 Other:
 834
739

I. Routine and Improved Analysis of Abused Substances
Issue:
Improved methods of analysis, i.e., faster, more discriminatory, more sensitive,
less costly, etc., are needed for all abused substances. Additionally, standard
analytical data are required for previously unknown or rarely encountered
substances and/or new homolog or analog (i.e., "designer"-type) drugs.
Solution:
Drug seizures and clandestine laboratory operations are continuously monitored
to provide a comprehensive overview of new developments. Ongoing research
in the forensic community, as well as in the general field of analytical chemistry,
provide new and/or improved methods of analysis for both routine and
specialized analyses of seized drugs. Reports providing standard analytical data
for new drugs of abuse and/or improved analytical protocols for known drugs of
abuse are generated for the forensic and enforcement communities.
1. Bakouri E, Tsitsimpikou C, Tzifa R, Potamianos S, Tarli A, Vakka
C, Pantilieri E. The general chemical state laboratory of Greece and its
role in forensic drug analysis. TOXICOLOGY LETTERS 2008;180:S156-
S157.
2. Bell S. Forensic chemistry. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;2:297-319.
3. Berbatis CG, Sunderland VB, Dhaliwal SS. Linked electronic medication
systems in community pharmacies for preventing pseudoephedrine
diversion: A review of international practice and analysis of results in
Australia. DRUG AND ALCOHOL REVIEW 2009;28(6):586-591.
4. Bjornsdottir I, Almarsdottir AB, Traulsen JM. The lay public's explicit and
implicit definitions of drugs. RESEARCH IN SOCIAL & ADMINISTRATIVE
PHARMACY 2009;5(1):40-50.
5. Bornmann L, Nast I, Daniel HD. Do editors and referees look for signs of
scientific misconduct when reviewing manuscripts? A quantitative content
analysis of studies that examined review criteria and reasons for accepting
and rejecting manuscripts for publication. SCIENTOMETRICS
2008;77(3):415-432.
6. Brettell TA, Butler JM, Almirall JR. Forensic science. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;81(12):4695-4711.
7. Caulkins JP. Price and purity analysis for illicit drug: Data and conceptual
issues. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE 2007;90:S61-S68.
8. Clark RL, Johnston BF, Mackay SP, Breslin CJ, Robertson MN, Sutcliffe
OB, Dufton MJ, Harvey AL. The drug discovery portal: A computational
platform for identifying drug leads from academia. CURRENT
PHARMACEUTICAL DESIGN 2010;16(15):1697-1702.
9. Cody JT. Hallucinogens. HANDBOOK OF ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS
2008;6:175-201.
740

10. Nic Daeid N, Buchanan HAS, Savage KA, Fraser JG, Cresswell SL.
Recent advances in the application of stable isotope ratio analysis in
forensic chemistry. AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY
2010;63(1):3-7.
11. Fazey C. International policy on illicit drug trafficking: The formal and
informal mechanisms. JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES 2007;37(4):755-779.
12. Fersht A. The most influential journals: Impact factor and Eigenfactor.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 2009;106(17):6883-6884.
13. Gorun G, Ceausu M, Francisc A, Curca GC. Thanathogenesis due to inert
chemical excipients in illicit drugs: Case report and literature review.
ROMANIAN JOURNAL OF LEGAL MEDICINE 2008;16(3):181-186.
14. Holden C. Forensic science needs a major overhaul, panel says.
SCIENCE 2009;323(5918):1155.
15. Houck MM. Foresight: A business approach to improving the nation’s
forensic laboratories. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting.
16. Hu C, Feng Y, Xue J, Chong X, Cheng S. Consideration and science
development of the fast drug analysis system. YAOWU FENXI ZAZHI
2008;28(4):647-655.
17. Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Dinsdale RM, Guwy AJ. Illicit drugs and
pharmaceuticals in the environment - Forensic applications of
environmental data. Part 1: Estimation of the usage of drugs in local
communities. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 2009;157(6):1773-1777.
18. Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Dinsdale RM, Guwy AJ. Illicit drugs and
pharmaceuticals in the environment - Forensic applications of
environmental data, Part 2: Pharmaceuticals as chemical markers of
faecal water contamination. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
2009;157(6):1778-1786.
19. Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Dinsdale RM, Guwy AJ. The removal of
pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit
drugs during wastewater treatment and its impact on the quality of
receiving waters (vol 43, pg 363, 2009). WATER RESEARCH
2010;44(6):2076-2076.
20. Kolosov CA. Evaluating the public interest: Regulation of industrial hemp
under the controlled substances act. UCLA LAW REVIEW
2009;57(1):237-274.
21. Leicach S, Margarita YG, Hugo C. Amines. RESEARCH METHODS IN
PLANT SCIENCES: ALLELOPATHY 2009;7:291-314.
22. Liang BA, Mackey T. Searching for safety: Addressing search engine,
website, and provider accountability for illicit online drug sales.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF LAW & MEDICINE 2009;35(1):125-184.
23. Marone P. Strengthening forensic science in the united states: A path
forward. Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists Annual Meeting:
2009.
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24. Maurer HH. Forensic analysis on the cutting edge - new methods for trace
evidence analysis. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2008;19(3):R1.
25. McCambridge J, Winstock A, Hunt N, Mitcheson L. Five year trends in use
of hallucinogens and other adjunct drugs among UK dance drug users.
EUROPEAN ADDICTION RESEARCH 2007;13(1):57-64.
26. McKetin R. The holy grail of supply control: Have we found the evidence?
ADDICTION 2009;104(3):455-456.
27. Michels II, Fang YX, Zhao D, Zhao LY, Lu L. Comparison of drug abuse in
Germany and China. ACTA PHARMACOLOGICA SINICA 2007;28:1505-
1518.
28. Mionel O. The drug geopolitics in South America. METALURGIA
INTERNATIONAL 2008;13(6):71-75.
29. Paoli L, Greenfield VA, Charles M, Reuter P. The global diversion of
pharmaceutical drugs. ADDICTION 2009;104(3):347-354.
30. Paoli L, Rabkov I, Greenfield VA, Reuter P. Tajikistan: The rise of a narcostate.
JOURNAL OF DRUG ISSUES 2007;37(4):951.
31. Poret S. An optimal anti-drug law enforcement policy. INTERNATIONAL
REVIEW OF LAW AND ECONOMICS 2009;29(3):221-228.
32. Reid G, Devaney ML, Baldwin S. Drug production, trafficking and trade in
Asia and Pacific Island countries. DRUG AND ALCOHOL REVIEW
2006;25(6):647-650.
33. Robertson J. Research front essay: Forensic chemistry. AUSTRALIAN
JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2010;63(1):1-2.
34. Sanderson K. Forensic labs warn of deuterated drug threat. NATURE
2009;458(7240):817
35. Storti CC, De Grauwe P. Globalization and the price decline of illicit drugs.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2009;20(1):48-61.
36. Thevis M, Schaenzer W. Emerging drugs - Potential for misuse in sport
and doping control detection strategies. MINI-REVIEWS IN MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY 2007;7(5):531.
37. Yasuda I, Takahashi M. Analysis of illegal drugs. BUNSEKI 2008(1):26-31.
38. Yasuda I. The identification of illegal drugs and the change of circulation
products. TOKYO-TO KENKO ANZEN KENKYU SENTA KENKYU
NENPO 2007;58:37-45.
39. Zwingenberger S, Pietsch J, Hommola A, Dressler J. Illegal drug-related
deaths in East Germany between 1995 and 2004. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2010;199(1-3):58-62.
1.2 Scientific Working Group for Forensic Analysis of Illicit Drugs:
40. Jackson LC. SWGDRUG update 2009. Mid-Atlantic Association of
Forensic Scientists Annual Meeting: 2009.
41. Santos NA. The Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs
(SWGDRUG). 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual
Meeting.
742

1.1. Amphetamine (including substituted amphetamines),
Methamphetamine, and Dimethylamphetamine (see
Phenethylamines, and Methylenedioxyamphetamines):
42. Andreasen MF, Lindholst C, Kaa E. Adulterants and diluents in heroin,
amphetamine, and cocaine found on the illicit drug market in Aarhus,
Denmark. OPEN FORENSIC SCIENCE JOURNAL 2009;2:16-20.
43. Awad T, Belal T, DeRuiter J, Kramer K, Clark CR. Comparison of GC-MS
and GC-IRD methods for the differentiation of methamphetamine and
regioisomeric substances. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2009;185(1-3):67-77.
44. Awad T, Clark CR, DeRuiter J. GC-MS analysis of acylated derivatives of
the side-chain regioisomers of 4-methoxy-3-methyl-phenethylamines
related to methylenedioxymethamphetamine. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE 2007;45(8):477-485.
45. Belal T, Awad T, Clark CR, DeRuiter J. GC-MS evaluation of a series of
acylated derivatives of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. JOURNAL
OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE 2009;47(5):359-364.
46. Bell SEJ, Fido LA, Sirimuthu NMS, Speers SJ, Peters KL, Cosbey SH.
Screening tablets for DOB using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(5):1063-1067.
47. Bijlsma L, Sancho JV, Pitarch E, Ibanez M, Hernandez F. Simultaneous
ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry
determination of amphetamine and amphetamine-like stimulants, cocaine
and its metabolites, and a cannabis metabolite in surface water and urban
wastewater. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(15):3078-
3089.
48. Blachut D, Wojtasiewicz K, Czarnocki Z, Szukalski B. The analytical profile
of some 4-methylthioamphetamine (4-MTA) homologues. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;192(1-3):98-114.
49. Boles TH, Wells MJM. Analysis of amphetamine and methamphetamine
as emerging pollutants in wastewater and wastewater-impacted streams.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2010;1217(16):2561-2568.
50. Bozenko JS. Clandestine enantiomeric enrichment of d-methamphetamine
via tartaric acid resolution. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;18(3):4.
51. Callaghan RC, Cunningham JK, Victor JC, Liu LM. Impact of Canadian
federal methamphetamine precursor and essential chemical regulations
on methamphetamine-related acute-care hospital admissions. DRUG AND
ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE 2009;105(3):185-193.
52. Chiadmi F, Schlatter J. Crystal meth: A particular form of
methamphetamine. PRESSE MEDICALE 2009;38(1):63-67.
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53. Chintalova-Dallas R, Case P, Kitsenko N, Lazzarini Z. Boltushka: A
homemade amphetamine-type stimulant and HIV risk in Odessa, Ukraine.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2009;20(4):347-351.
54. Chung LW, Lin KL, Yang TCC, Lee MR. Orthogonal array optimization of
microwave-assisted derivatization for determination of trace amphetamine
and methamphetamine using negative chemical ionization gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(18):4083-4089.
55. Cody JT. Amphetamines. HANDBOOK OF ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS
2008;6:127-174.
56. Coxon A, Mills S. Tackling methamphetamine in New Zealand. JOURNAL
OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;20(1):9.
57. Cunningham JK, Liu LM, Callaghan R. Impact of US and Canadian
precursor regulation on methamphetamine purity in the United States.
ADDICTION 2009;104(3):441-453.
58. Cunningham JK, Liu LM. Impact of methamphetamine precursor chemical
legislation, a suppression policy, on the demand for drug treatment.
SOCIAL SCIENCE & MEDICINE 2008;66(7):1463-1473.
59. Diozan D, Baheri T, Pournaghi-Azar MH. Development of electro solidphase
microextraction and application to methamphetamine analysis.
CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2007;65(1-2):45.
60. Dobkin C, Nicosia N. The war on drugs: Methamphetamine, public health,
and crime. AMERICAN ECONOMIC REVIEW 2009;99(1):324-349.
61. Fu Q, Liao L-c, Chen L-l, Yan Y-y, Yang L, Hou J-h, Chen Y. Detecting
methamphetamine and amphetamine with high performance liquid
chromatography. SICHUAN DAXUE XUEBAO, YIXUEBAN
2007;38(6):1025-1028.
62. Goh CY, van Bronswijk W, Priddis C. Rapid nondestructive on-site
screening of methylamphetamine seizures by attenuated total reflection
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY
2008;62(6):640-648.
63. Gosav S, Dinica R, Praisler M. Choosing between GC-FTIR and GC-MS
spectra for an efficient intelligent identification of illicit amphetamines.
JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR STRUCTURE 2008;887(1-3):269-278.
64. Gosav S, Praisler M, Dorohoi DO. ANN expert system screening for illicit
amphetamines using molecular descriptors. JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE 2007;834:188-194.
65. Inoue H, Kuwayama K, Iwata YT, Kanamori T, Tsujikawa K, Miyaguchi H.
Simple and simultaneous detection of methamphetamine and dimethyl
sulfone in crystalline methamphetamine seizures by fast gas
chromatography. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2008;26(1):19-22.
66. Kim JY, In MG, Jung JC, Ko BJ. Method for simultaneously analyzing
dimethylamphetamine and amphetamine derivatives by using liquid
chromatography. Republic of Korea KR 902,571.
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67. Kubicz EJ, Allen L. Studies on methamphetamine detection with drugwipe
analytical device, part 2. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting.
68. Lamb PB, McElhinny CJ, Sninski T, Purdom H, Carroll FI, Lewin AH. High
specific activity (+)-amphetamine and (+)-methamphetamine. JOURNAL
OF LABELLED COMPOUNDS & RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS
2009;52(11-12):457-462.
69. Martinez FS, Roesch DM, Jacobs JL. Isolation of methamphetamine from
1-(1’,4’-cyclohexadienyl)-2-methylaminopropane using potassium
permanganate. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY
INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;18(1):18.
70. Martinez, FS, Roesch DM, and Jacobs JL. Isolation of methamphetamine
from 1-(1’,4’-cyclohexadienyl)-2-methylaminopropane. MICROGRAM
JOURNAL 2008;6(1-2):46.
71. Matchett CC, Pietrucha TL. Investigation of mothballs as a counterfeit for
“ice” methamphetamine. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;19(2):10.
72. Matsushita T, Takatsu M, Yoshida Y, Moriyasu M. Development of new
on-column chiral derivatization reagent for gas chromatographic
separation of optical isomeric amphetamine and methamphetamine.
BUNSEKI KAGAKU 2007;56(12):1089-1095.
73. McKetin R. Methamphetamine precursor regulation: Are we controlling or
diverting the drug problem? ADDICTION 2008;103(4):521-523.
74. Nevescanin M, Stevic SB, Petrovic S, Vajs V. Analysis of amphetamines
illegally produced in Serbia. JOURNAL OF THE SERBIAN CHEMICAL
SOCIETY 2008;73(7):691-701.
75. Pavlova V, Petrovska-Jovanovic S. Simultaneous determination of
amphetamine, methamphetamine, and caffeine in seized tablets by highperformance
liquid chromatography. ACTA CHROMATOGRAPHICA
2007;18:157.
76. Romero GM, Chianella I, Piletska EV, Karim K, Turner APF, Piletsky SA.
Development of a piezoelectric sensor for the detection of
methamphetamine. ANALYST (Cambridge, United Kingdom)
2009;134(8):1565-1570.
77. Sachs SB, Woo F. A detailed mechanistic fragmentation analysis of
methamphetamine and select regioisomers by GC/MS. JOURNAL OF
FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(2):308-319.
78. Sanderson R. Identification of N-methylbenzlamine hydrochloride, Nethylbenzylamine
hydrochloride, and N-isopropylbenzylamine
hydrochloride. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(1-2):36.
79. Shahdousti P, Aghai-Nohammadi M, Alizadeh N. Spectrophotometric
study of the charge-transfer and ion-pair complexation of
methamphetamine with some acceptors. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA
PART A-MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY
2008;69(4):1195-1200.
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80. Smith JP, Martin A, Sammons DL, Striley C, Biagini R, Quinn J, Cope R,
Snawder JE. Measurement of methamphetamine on surfaces using
surface plasmon resonance. TOXICOLOGY MECHANISMS AND
METHODS 2009;19(6-7):416-421.
81. Steiner RR. A rapid technique for the confirmation of iodine and red
phosphorus using direct analysis in real time and accurate mass
spectrometry. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2010;7(1):3-6.
82. Sugita R, Sasagawa K, Suzuki S. Illegal route estimation of the seized
illicit drug, methamphetamine, by the comparison of striation marks on
plastic packaging films. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2009;54(6):1341-1348.
83. Tsujikawa K, Kuwayama K, Miyaquchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Yoshida
T, Inoue H. Development of an on-site screening system for
amphetamine-type stimulant tablets with a portable attenuated total
reflection Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. ANALYTICA CHIMICA
ACTA 2008;608(1):95-103.
84. Wang H, Jia J, Cao J, Wang Y. Simultaneous determination of
methamphetamine, caffeine and ketamine by GC/MS. SHANXI YIKE
DAXUE XUEBAO 2007;38(11):1013-1016,1023.
85. Watanabe-Galloway S, Ryan S, Hansen K, Hullsiek B, Muli V, Malone AC.
Effects of methamphetamine abuse beyond individual users. JOURNAL
OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 2009;41(3):241-248.
86. Wei T, Hao H, Liu J, Zhu J, Yu, Z. Sensitive biosensor chip for recognizing
methamphetamine, and method for manufacturing said biosensor chip.
APPLICATION: CN 2010-118987 11 Mar 2009.
87. Yohannan M. Detection of phenethylamine, amphetamine, and tryptamine
imine by-products from an acetone extraction. Mid-Atlantic Association of
Forensic Scientists Annual Meeting: 2009.
88. Zaitsu K, Katagi M, Kamata H, Kamata T, Shima N, Miki A, Iwamura T,
Tsuchihashi H. Discrimination and identification of the six aromatic
positional isomers of trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA) by gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). JOURNAL OF MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2008;43(4):528-534.
89. Zhang LL, Chen Y, Lin M, Fan GR, Zhao WQ, Wu YT. Fast CE
determination of d-amphetamine and diphenhydramine in quick-acting
anti-motion capsules. CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2007;65(5-6):305.
1.3 Barbiturates (including Quaaludes):
90. Kuila DK, Lahiri SC. Study of hydrogen bonding interactions of
methaqualone with alcohols, naphthols and nitrophenols. JOURNAL OF
THE INDIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2008;85(8):830-835.
91. Pilau EJ, Silva RGC, Jardim ICFS, Augusto F. Molecularly imprinted solgel
silica for solid phase extraction of phenobarbital. JOURNAL OF THE
BRAZILIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2008;19(6):1136-43.
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92. Ray R, Sharma JD, Limaye SN. Variations in the physico-chemical
parameters of some N-methyl substituted barbiturate derivatives. ASIAN
JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2007;19(5):3382.
93. Shabir GA, Bradshaw TK, Arain SA, Shar GQ. A new validated method for
the simultaneous determination of a series of eight barbiturates by RP-
HPLC. JOURNAL OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY & RELATED
TECHNOLOGIES 2010;33(1):61-71.
1.4 Benzodiazepines:
94. Acikkol M, Mercan S, Karadayi S. Simultaneous determination of
benzodiazepines and ketamine from alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages
by GC-MS in drug facilitated crimes (vol 70, pg 1295, 2009).
CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2009;70(11-12):1769-1770.
95. Acikkol M, Mercan S, Karadayi S. Simultaneous determination of
benzodiazepines and ketamine from alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages
by GC-MS in drug facilitated crimes. CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2009;70(7-
8):1295-1298.
96. Bishop SC, Lerch M, McCord BR. Detection of nitrated benzodiazepines
by indirect laser-induced fluorescence detection on a microfluidic device.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2007;1154(1-2):481-484.
97. Brettell TA, Asselin EL. Presumptive and confirmatory identification of 1,2triazolo-benzodiazepines.
2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting.
98. Daundkar BB, Malve MK, Krishnamurthy R. A specific chromogenic
reagent for detection of diazepam among other benzodiazepines from
biological and nonbiological samples after HPTLC. JOURNAL OF
PLANAR CHROMATOGRAPHY—MODERN TLC 2008;21(4):249-250.
99. Du H, Ge H, Yu L, Wang X. Fast detection of clonazepam mixed illegally
in traditional Chinese medicine by TLCS. ZHONGGUO YAOSHI
2007;10(9):891.
100. Guthery B, Bassindale A, Pillinger CT, Morgan GH. The detection of
various opiates and benzodiazepines by comprehensive two-dimensional
gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry. RAPID
COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009;23(3):340-348.
101. Honeychurch KC. Determination of flunitrazepam and nitrazepam in
beverage samples by liquid chromatography with dual electrode detection
using a carbon fibre veil electrode. JOURNAL OF SOLID STATE
ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2008;12(10):1317-1324.
102. Ishida T, Kudo K, Hayashida M, Ikeda N. Rapid and quantitative screening
method for 43 benzodiazepines and their metabolites, zolpidem and
zopiclone in human plasma by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry
with a small particle column. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY, B:
ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE
SCIENCES 2009;877(25):2652-2657.
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103. Janowska E, Adamowicz P, Chudzikiewicz E, Lechowicz W. Clonazepam-
A drug use for medical and criminal purposes. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK
SADOWYCH 2007;71:297-302.
104. Koba M, Koba K, Baczek T. Determination of oxazepam in pharmaceutical
formulation by HPTLC UV-densitometric and uv-derivative
spectrophotometry methods. ANALYTICAL LETTERS 2009;42(12):1831-
1843.
105. McGuire ND, Honeychurch KC, Hart, JP. The electrochemical behavior of
nitrazepam at a screen-printed carbon electroge and its determination in
beverages by adsorptive stripping voltammetry. ELECTROANALYSIS
2009;21(19):2165-2170.
106. Sarwar M, Taylor S, Majeed I. A specific screening color test for
diazepam. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-4):63.
107. Webb R, Doble P, Dawson M. A rapid CZE method for the analysis of
benzodiazepines in spiked beverages. ELECTROPHORESIS
2007;28:3553-3565.
1.5 Dimethoxyphenethylamines:
108. da Costa JL, Wang AY, Micke GA, Maldaner AO, Romano RL, Martins
HA, Negrini O, Tavares MFM. Chemical identification of 2,5-dimethoxy-4bromoamphetamine
(DOB). FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2007;173:130-136.
109. Franck MC, Meneghini LZ, Rossato LG, Limberger RP, Froehlich PE.
Development and validation of an LC-UV method for quantitation of 4bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine
(DOB), 4-bromo-2,5dimethoxyphenetylamine
(2C-B), methylphenidate, fenproporex and
amfepramone. CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2009;69(Suppl. 2):143-148.
110. Luiz da Costa J, Wang AY, Micke GA, Maldaner AO, Romano RL,
Martins-Junior HA, Negrini O, Tavares MFM. Chemical identification of
2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB). FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2007;173(2-3):130.
111. Maher HM, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS and GC-IRD studies on
dimethoxyamphetamines (DMA): Regioisomers related to 2,5-DMA.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;192(1-3):115-125.
112. Suzuki J, Takahashi M, Nagashima M, Seto T, Mori K, Ogino S.
Identification of 2,4,5-trichloro-3,6-dimethoxyphenethylamine detected in
illegal drugs by the chemical synthesis. TOKYO-TO KENKO ANZEN
KENKYU SENTA KENKYU NENPO 2009;59:85-89.
113. Trachsel D, Nichols DE, Kidd S, Hadorn M, Baumberger F. 4-Arylsubstituted
2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamines: Synthesis and serotonin 5-
HT2A receptor affinities. CHEMISTRY & BIODIVERSITY 2009;6(5):692-
704.
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114. Xu YZ, Lin HR, Lua AC, Chen C. Determination of
dimethoxyphenethylamine derivatives in urine by deuterium labeled
internal standards. JOURNAL OF THE SERBIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
2008;73(12):1223-1233.
115. Xu YZ, Lin HR, Lua CA, Chen CP. Synthesis of deuterium labeled (+/-)-
2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA), (+/-)-4-bromo-2,5dimethoxyamphetamine
(DOB), and (+/-)-4-methoxyamphetamine (PMA)
as internal standards for quantitative analyses by GC-MS. JOURNAL OF
THE CHINESE CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2007;54(2):493-502.
1.6 Chlordiazepoxide:
116. Bakal RL, Manwar JV, Sahare AY, Bhajipale NS, Manikrao AM.
Spectrophotometric estimation of amitriptyline HCl and chlordiazepoxide in
pharmaceutical dosage form. INDIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH 2008;42(1):23-26.
117. Jouyban A, Shokri J, Barzegar-Jalali M, Hassanzadeh D, Acree
WE, Ghafourian T, Nokhodchi A. Solubility of chlordiazepoxide, diazepam,
and lorazepam in ethanol plus water mixtures at 303.2 K. JOURNAL OF
CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING DATA 2009;54(7):2142-2145.
118. Ozdemir A, Keskin CS. Quantification of chlordiazepoxide and pipenzolate
bromide in tablets and comparison with chromatographic results. ASIAN
JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2009;21(2):1159-1170.
119. Patel S, Patel NJ, Patel SA. Simultaneous spectrophotometric estimation
of imipramine hydrochloride and chlordiazepoxide in tablets. INDIAN
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2009;71(4):468-U198.
120. Patel S, Patel NJ. Spectrophotometric and chromatographic simultaneous
estimation of amitriptyline hydrochloride and chlordiazepoxide in tablet
dosage forms. INDIAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
2009;71(4):472-U203.
121. Patel SK, Patel NJ. Simultaneous RP-HPLC estimation of trifluoperazine
hydrochloride and chlordiazepoxide in tablet dosage forms. INDIAN
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2009;71(5):545-547.
122. Sarrafi AHM, Khodakarami Z, Karkeabadi M. Simultaneous
spectrophotometric determination of amitriptyline hydrochloride and
chlordiazepoxide in pharmaceutical tablets by multivariate calibration
method. E-JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2009;6:S111-S116.
1.7 Clenbuterol:
123. Jiao F, Chen X, Hu Y, Wang Z. Enantiomeric separation of racemic
clenbuterol by capillary zone electrophoresis. JOURNAL OF THE
IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2008;5(4):553-558.
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124. Mostafa GAE Hefnawy MM El-Majed A. Separation and determination of
clenbuterol by HPLC using a vancomycin chiral stationary phase.
JOURNAL OF AOAC INTERNATIONAL 2009;92(3):824-829.
125. Parr MK, Koehler K, Geyer H, Guddat S, Schanzer W. Clenbuterol
marketed as dietary supplement. BIOMEDICAL CHROMATOGRAPHY
2008;22(3):298-300.
1.8 Cocaine:
126. Aehle E, Drager B. Tropane alkaloid analysis by chromatographic and
electrophoretic techniques: An update. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY B-ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 2010;878(17-18):1391-1406.
127. Anonymous. Washington, DC, USA, proves to be cocaine capital of the
world. TrAC-TRENDS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;28(9):V-VI.
128. Bonilla DA, Penuela LF, Sierra N, Diaz JE, Rojas JH. Development and
validation of an analytical methodology for cocaine hydrochloride
determination in a synthetic polymer by ultraviolet spectrometry. VITAE
2008;15(1):103-12.
129. Borges F, Cordeiro M, Mosquera RA, Natalia DS,Rincon DA. Theoretical
study of cocaine and ecgonine methyl ester in gas phase and in aqueous
solution. CHEMICAL PHYSICS LETTERS 2009;467(4-6):249-254.
130. Boudreau DK, Casale JF. An in-depth study of the peruvian base llavada
(“washed base”) technique for purification of crude cocaine base.
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-4):72.
131. Brackney M, Baumbach J, Ewers C, Martinez AL, Hagan J, Czuchlewski
D, Foucar K, Fekrazad MH, Seifert SA, Dimple D, Nolte KB, Buchanan JA,
Lavonas Nelson C, Wood RW, Duchin JS, VanEenwyk J, Reuter N, Ta
ML, Vagi S. Agranulocytosis associated with cocaine use-four states,
March 2008-November 2009 (Reprinted from MMWR, vol 58, pg 1381-
1385, 2009). JAMA-JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL
ASSOCIATION 2010;303(6):504.
132. Bradley A, Millington A. Agricultural land-use trajectories in a cocaine
source region: Chapare, Bolivia. LAND-CHANGE SCIENCE IN THE
TROPICS: CHANGING AGRICULTURAL LANDSCAPES 2008;231-250.
133. Casale JF, Boudreau DK, Jones LM. Tropane ethyl esters in illicit cocaine:
Isolation, detection, and determination of new manufacturing by-products
from the clandestine purification of crude cocaine base with ethanol.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2008;53(3):661-667.
134. Casale JF, Corbeil EM, Hays PA. Identification of levamisole impurities
found in illicit cocaine exhibits. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-4):82.
135. Casale J, Lydon J. Apparent effects of glyphosate on alkaloid production
in coca plants grown in Colombia. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(3):573-578.
136. Casale JF, Nguyen MC. N-Acetylbenzocaine: Formation via
transacetylation of benzocaine and acetylsalicylic acid in a cocaine exhibit.
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2010;7(1):7-11.
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137. Casale JF, Orlando PM, Colley VL, Hays PA. Identification of diltiazem
impurities/artifacts during the analyses of illicit cocaine exhibits containing
diltiazem. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-4):90.
138. Casale JF, Hays PA, Toske SG, Berrier AL. Four new illicit cocaine
impurities from the oxidation of crude cocaine base: Formation and
characterization of the diastereomeric 2,3-dihydroxy-3phenylpropionylecgonine
methyl esters from cis- and transcinnamoylcocaine.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(4):860-866.
139. Cecinato A, Balducci C, Nervegna G. Occurrence of cocaine in the air of
the world's cities: An emerging problem? A new tool to investigate the
social incidence of drugs? SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT
2009;407(5):1683-1690.
140. Corbeil EM, Casale JF. Determination of cocaine in various south
american commercial coca products. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-
4):109.
141. Czuchlewski DR, Brackney M, Ewers C, Manna J, Fekrazad MH, Martinez
A, Nolte KB, Hjelle B, Rabinowitz I, Curtis BR, McFarland JG, Baumbach
J, Foucar K. Clinicopathologic features of agranulocytosis in the setting of
levamisole-tainted cocaine. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL
PATHOLOGY 2010;133(3):466-472.
142. Da Silva MJ, dos Anjos EV, Honorator RS, Pimentel MF, Paim AP.
Spectrophotometric cocaine determination in a biphasic medium
employing flow-batch sequential injection analysis. ANALYTICA CHIMICA
ACTA 2008;629(1-2):98-103.
143. Davalos LM, Bejarano AC, Correa HL. Disabusing cocaine: Pervasive
myths and enduring realities of a globalised commodity. INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2009;20(5):381-386.
144. Eliasson C, Macleod NA, Matousek P. Non-invasive detection of cocaine
dissolved in beverages using displaced Raman spectroscopy.
ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;607(1):50-53.
145. Gheorghe A, van Nuijs A, Pecceu B, Bervoets L, Jorens PG, Blust R,
Neels H, Covaci A. Analysis of cocaine and its principal metabolites in
waste and surface water using solid phase extraction and liquid
chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL &
BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;391(4):1309-19.
146. Gostic T, Klemenc S, Stefane B. A study of the thermal decomposition of
adulterated cocaine samples under optimized aerobic pyrolytic conditions.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;187(1-3):19-28.
147. Gostic T, Klemenc S. Evidence on unusual way of cocaine smuggling:
Cocaine-polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) solid solution - study of
clandestine laboratory samples. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2007;169(2-3):210-219.
148. He JL, Wu ZS, Zhou H, Wang HQ, Jiang JH, Shen GL, Yu RQ.
Fluorescence aptameric sensor for strand displacement amplification
detection of cocaine. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2010;82(4):1358-1364.
751

149. Hewitt AJ, Solomon KR, Marshall EJP. Spray droplet size, drift potential,
and risks to nontarget organisms from aerially applied glyphosate for coca
control in Colombia. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH-PART A-CURRENT ISSUES 2009;72(15-
16):921-929.
150. Janowska E. Peruvian foodstuffs with cocaine. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK
SADOWYCH 2008;75:276-281.
151. Jones LM, Boudreau DK, Casale JF. “Crack” cocaine: A study of stability
over time and temperature. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-4):114.
152. Kinzie E. Levamisole found in patients using cocaine. ANNALS OF
EMERGENCY MEDICINE 2009;53(4):546-547.
153. Knowles L, Buxton JA, Skuridina N, Achebe I, LeGatt D, Fan SH, Zhu NY,
Talbot J. Levamisole tainted cocaine causing severe neutropenia in
Alberta and British Columbia. HARM REDUCTION JOURNAL 2009;6.
154. Kolomiets YN, Pervukhin VV. Effect of UV irradiation on detection of
cocaine hydrochloride and crack vapors by IMIS and API-MS methods.
TALANTA 2009;78(2):542-547.
155. Mari F, Politi L, Biggeri A, Accetta G, Trignano C, Di Padua M, Bertol E.
Cocaine and heroin in waste water plants: A 1-year study in the city of
Florence, Italy. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;189(1-
3):88-92.
156. Marshall EJP, Solomon KR, Carrasquilla G. Coca (Erythroxylum coca)
control is affected by glyphosate formulations and adjuvants. JOURNAL
OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH-PART A-CURRENT
ISSUES 2009;72(15-16):930-936.
157. Matthews AR, Oladapo O, Morgan BW. A cocaine death with concomitant
adulterant-induced toxicity. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 2009;47(7):290.
158. McGill JW, Dixon CA, Ritter D, Sides JD. Discovery of an interesting
temperature effect on the sensitivity of cobalt thiocyanate test for cocaine.
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(1-2):26.
159. Moore JM, Casale JF. The discoloration of illicit drug samples.
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(3-4):128.
160. Oiye EN, de Figueiredo NB, de Andrade JF, Tristao HM, de Oliveira MF.
Voltammetric determination of cocaine in confiscated samples using
a cobalt hexacyanoferrate film-modified electrode. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2009;192(1-3):94-97.
161. Pedersoli S, Lombardi L, Hoehr NF, Rittner R. Assignments of H-1 and C-
13 NMR spectral data for benzoylecgonine, a cocaine metabolite.
SPECTROSCOPY LETTERS 2008;41(3):101-103.
162. Pesaresi M. Textural analysis of coca plantations using remotely sensed
data with resolution of 1 metre. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
REMOTE SENSING 2008;29(23):6985-7002.
752

163. Pistos C, Karampela S, Papoutsis I, Athanaselis S, Spiliopoulou Ch,
Maravelias C. Investigation of the identification point system adaptation in
cocaine, benzoylecgonine and ecgonine methyl ester using a single
quadrupole mass spectrometer. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2009;23(23):3772-3780.
164. Qaseem A, Shekelle P, Owens DK. Agranulocytosis after consumption of
cocaine adulterated with levamisole. ANNALS OF INTERNAL MEDICINE
2009;150(4):287-289.
165. Raymon LP, Isenschmid DS. The possible role of levamisole in illicit
cocaine preparations. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY
2009;33(9):620-622.
166. Rincon DA, Cordeiro M, Mosquera RA, Borges F. Theoretical study of
cocaine and ecgonine methyl ester in gas phase and in aqueous solution.
CHEMICAL PHYSICS LETTERS 2009;467(4-6):249-254.
167. Ropero-Miller JD, Stout PR, Bynum ND, Casale JF. Comparison of the
novel direct analysis in real time time-of-flight mass spectrometry
(AccuTOF-DART) and signature analysis for the identification of
constituents of refined illicit cocaine. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2007;5(1-
4):34-40.
168. Shiyahovsky B, Di L, Weizmann Y, Nowarski R, Kotler M, Willner I.
Spotlighting of cocaine by an autonomous aptamer-based machine.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
2007;129(13):3814.
169. Smith RM, Casale JF. The mass spectrum of cocaine: deuterium labeling
and MS/MS studies. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2010;7(1):16-41.
170. Storti CC, De Grauwe P. The cocaine and heroin markets in the era of
globalisation and drug reduction policies. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
DRUG POLICY 2009;20(6):488-496.
171. Tadmor T, Vadasz Z, Polliack A, Attias D. Two cases of agranulocytosis
associated with cocaine use: Is this phenomenon becoming more
prevalent? EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF HAEMATOLOGY 2010;84(5):458-
459.
172. Wiens MO, Son WK, Ross C, Hayden M, Carleton B. Cocaine adulterant
linked to neutropenia. CANADIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL
2009;182(1):57-59.
173. Zhang CY, Johnson LW. Single quantum-dot-based aptameric
nanosensor for cocaine. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;81(8):3051-
3055.
1.9 Emerging Substances (including MDPV and “FLY” compounds)
174. Andreasen MF, Telving R, Birkler RI, Schumacher B, Johannsen M. A
fatal poisoning involving Bromo-Dragonfly. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2009;183(1-3):91-96.
753

175. Bozenko JS, Yohannan JC. The characterization of 3,4methylenedioxypyrovalerone
(MDPV). MICROGRAM JOURNAL
2010;7(1):12-15.
176. Funada M. Uncontrolled newly-abused drugs (law-evading drugs).
NIPPON YAKURIGAKU ZASSHI 2007;130(5):433-435.
177. Kenney J. Not So Legal, “Legal Highs”. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;18(4):12.
178. Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawamura M, Uchiyama N, Ogata J, Kamakura H,
Saisho K, Goda Y. Analytical data of designated substances (Shitei-
Yakubutsu) controlled by the pharmaceutical affairs law in Japan, part I:
GC-MS and LC-MS (vol 128, pg 971, 2008). YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-
JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN
2008;128(12):1857-1857.
179. Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawamura M, Uchiyama N, Ogata J, Kamakura H,
Saisho K, Goda Y. Analytical data of designated substances (Shitei-
Yakubutsu) controlled by the pharmaceutical affairs law in Japan, part I:
GC-MS and LC-MS. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE
PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2008;128(6):971-979.
180. Kikura-Hanajiri R, Maruyama T, Miyashita A, Goda Y. Chemical and DNA
analyses for the products of a psychoactive plant, Voacanga africana.
YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY
OF JAPAN 2009;129(8):975-982.
181. Masahiko F. Uncontrolled newly-abused drugs (law-evading drugs).
FOLIA PHARMACOLOGICA JAPONICA 2007;130(5):433-435.
182. Nagashima J, Seto T, Takahashi M, Suzuki J, Mori K, Ogino S. Analyses
of uncontrolled drugs purchased from April 2007 to March 2008 and newly
found compounds. TOKYO-TO KENKO ANZEN KENKYU SENTA
KENKYU NENPO 2009;59:71-77.
183. Piggee C. Investigating a not-so-natural-high. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2009.
184. Reed EC, Kiddon GS. The characterization of three FLY compounds.
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2007;5(1-4):26-33.
185. Sauer C, Peters FT, Haas C, Meyer MR, Fritschi G, Maurer HH. New
designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP): Studies on
its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using
gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF
MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009;44(6):952-964.
186. Thevis M, Thomas A, Kohler M, Beuck S, Schaenzer W. Emerging drugs:
Mechanism of action, mass spectrometry and doping control analysis.
JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009;44(4):442-460.
187. Uchiyama N, Kawamura M, Kamakura H, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y.
Analytical data of designated substances (shitei-yakubutsu) controlled by
the pharmaceutical affairs law in Japan, part II: Color test and TLC.
YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY
OF JAPAN 2008;128(6):981-987.
754

188. Westphal F, Junge T, Roesner P, Soennichsen F, Schuster F. Mass and
NMR spectroscopic characterization of 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone:
A designer drug with alpha-pyrrolidinophenone structure. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;190(1-3):1-8.
189. Wood DM, Button J, Lidder S, Ovaska H, Ramsey J, Holt DW, Dargan PI.
Detection of the novel recreational drug diphenyl-2-pyrrolidinemethanol
(D2PM) sold 'legally' in combination with glaucine. CLINICAL
TOXICOLOGY 2008;46(5):193-.
190. Yohannan J. Driving under the influence, but under the influence of what?
An introduction to MDPV. Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists
Annual Meeting: 2009.
191. Zaitsu K, Katagi M, Kamata H, Nakanishi K, Shima N, Kamata T, Nishioka
H, Miki A, Tatsuno M, Tsuchihashi H. Simultaneous analysis of six novel
hallucinogenic (tetrahydrobenzodifuranyl)aminoalkanes (FLYs) and
(benzodifuranyl)aminoalkanes (DragonFLYs) by GC-MS, LC-MS, and LC-
MS-MS. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2010;28(1):9-18.
192. Zhang ZY, An LY, Hu WX, Xiang YH. 3D-QSAR study of hallucinogenic
phenylalkylamines by using CoMFA approach. JOURNAL OF
COMPUTER-AIDED MOLECULAR DESIGN 2007;21(4):145.
1.10 Ergot Alkaloids (see also LSD):
193. Crews C, Anderson WAC, Rees G, Krska R. Ergot alkaloids in some ryebased
UK cereal products. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART
B-SURVEILLANCE 2009;2(1):79-85.
194. Krska R, Berthiller F, Schuhmacher R, Nielsen KF, Crews C.
Determination of ergot alkaloids: Purity and stability assessment
of standards and optimization of extraction conditions for cereal samples.
JOURNAL OF AOAC INTERNATIONAL 2008;91(6):1363-1371.
195. Krska R, Crews C. Significance, chemistry and determination of ergot
alkaloids: A review. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS
2008;25(6):722-731.
196. Krska R, Stubbings G, Macarthur R, Crews C. Simultaneous
determination of six major ergot alkaloids and their epimers in cereals and
foodstuffs by LC-MS-MS. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2008;391(2):563-576.
197. Muller C, Kemmlein S, Klaffke H, Krauthause W, Preiss-Weigert
A, Wittkowski R. A basic tool for risk assessment: A new method for the
analysis of ergot alkaloids in rye and selected rye products. MOLECULAR
NUTRITION & FOOD RESEARCH 2009;53(4):500-507.
755

1.11 Fentanyl(s):
198. Cicero TJ, Inciardi JA, Surratt H. Trends in the use and abuse of branded
and generic extended release oxycodone and fentanyl products in the
United States. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE 2007;91:115-120.
199. Denton JS, Donoghue ER, McReynolds J, Kalelkar MB. An epidemic of
illicit fentanyl deaths in Cook County, Illinois: September 2005 through
April 2007. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2008;53(2):452-454.
200. Gupta PK, Manral L, Ganesan K, Dubey DK. Use of single-drop
microextraction for determination of fentanyl in water samples.
ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2007;388(3):579-583.
201. Higashikawa Y, Suzuki S. Studies on 1-(2-phenethyl)-4-(Npropionylanilino)piperidine
(fentanyl) and its related compounds: Novel
metabolites in rat urine following injection of alpha-methylfentanyl, one of
the most abused typical designer drugs. JOURNAL OF HEALTH
SCIENCE 2008;54(6):629-637.
202. Higashikawa Y, Suzuki S. Studies on 1-(2-phenethyl)-4-(Npropionylanilino)
piperidine (fentanyl) and it related compounds. VI.
Structure-analgesic activity relationship for fentanyl, methyl-substituted
fentanyls and other analogues. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2008;26(1):1-
5.
203. Lurie IS, Iio R. Use of multiple-reaction monitoring ratios for identifying
incompletely resolved fentanyl homologs and analogs via ultra-highpressure
liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL
OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(9):1515-1519.
204. Ojanpera I, Gergov M, Liiv M, Riikoja A, Vuori E. An epidemic of fatal 3methylfentanyl
poisoning in Estonia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
LEGAL MEDICINE 2008;122(5):395-400.
205. VanNimmen NFJ, Veulemans HAF. Validated GC-MS analysis for the
determination of residual fentanyl in applied Durogesic® reservoir and
Durogesic® D-Trans® Matrix transdermal fentanyl patches. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY B - ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 2007;846(1-2):264.
206. Vuckovic S, Prostran M, Ivanovic M, Dosen-Micovic L, Todorovic Z, Nesic
Z, Stojanovic R, Divac N, Mikovic Z. Fentanyl analogs: Structure-activityrelationship
study. CURRENT MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
2009;16(19):2468-2474.
207. Wang Y, Dai H, Wu X, Chen H, Xu L, Chen Y, Chen G.
Electrochemiluminescence determination of fentanyl citrate with a
novel glassy carbon paste electrode. LUMINESCENCE 2008;23(2):99-99.
208. Wong SC, Curtis JA, Wingert WE. Concurrent detection of heroin,
fentanyl, and xylazine in seven drug-related deaths reported from the
Philadelphia Medical Examiner's Office. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2008;53(2):495-498.
756

209. Yamamoto K, Kojima M, Iguchi H, Ohta T. Measurement of amount of
fentanyl remaining in used patches: Investigation of clinical factors
affecting the remaining amounts in 4 patients. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-
JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN
2008;128(6):959-964.
1.12 Flos Daturae:
210. Li JG, Chun Y, Ju HX. Simultaneous electrochemiluminescence detection
of anisodamine, atropine, and scopolamine in Flos daturae by capillary
electrophoresis using beta-Cyclodextrin as additive. ELECTROANALYSIS
2007;19(15):1569-1574.
1.13 Fluoxetine (Prozac):
211. Patel RB, Patel MR, Shankar MB, Bhatt KK. Simultaneous determination
of alprazolam and fluoxetine hydrochloride in tablet formulations by highperformance
column liquid chromatography and high-performance thinlayer
chromatography. JOURNAL OF AOAC INTERNATIONAL
2009;92(4):1082-1088.
212. Patel S, Patel NJ. Simultaneous RP-HPLC and HPTLC estimation of
fluoxetine hydrochloride and olanzapine in tablet dosage forms. INDIAN
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2009;71(4):477-480.
1.14 Heroin:
213. Agg KM, Barnett NW, Lewis SW, Pearson JR. Preliminary investigations
into tris(2,2'-bipyridyl) ruthenium (III) as a chemiluminescent reagent for
the detection of 3,6-diacetylmorphine (heroin) on surfaces. JOURNAL OF
FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(5):1111-1114.
214. Agg KM, Craddock AF, Bos R, Francis PS, Lewis SW, Barnett NW. A
rapid test for heroin (3,6-diacetylmorphine) based on
two chemiluminescence reactions. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(3):759-759.
215. Buryakov IA, Baldin MN. Comparison of negative and positive modes of
ion-mobility increment spectrometry in the detection of heroin vapors.
JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;63(8):787-791.
216. Casale JF, Toske SG, Hays PA. Chlorinated opium alkaloid derivatives
produced by the use of aqueous sodium hypochlorite during the
clandestine manufacture of heroin. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2009;54(2):359-364.
217. Ciccarone D, Unick GJ, Kraus A. Impact of South American heroin on the
US heroin market 1993-2004. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG
POLICY 2009;20(5):392-401.
757

218. Dussy FE, Berchtold C, Briellmann TA, Lang C, Steiger R, Bovens M.
Validation of an ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) method for the detection
of heroin and cocaine on incriminated material. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2008;177(2-3):105-111.
219. Gheorghe M, Balalau D, Ilie M, Baconi DL, Ciobanu AM. Component
analysis of illicit heroin samples by GC-MS method. FARMACIA
2008;56(5):577-582.
220. Hill LA, Lenehan CE, Francis PS, Adcock JL, Gange ME, Pfeffer FM,
Barnett NW. A screening test for heroin based on sequential injection
analysis with dual-reagent chemiluminescence detection. TALANTA
2008;76(3):674-679.
221. Jiggens J. Australian heroin seizures and the causes of the 2001 heroin
shortage. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY
2008;19(4):273-278.
222. Kerr SC, Casale JF. The use of dipropionylmorphine as a structurallyrelated
internal standard for gas chromatographic quantitation of heroin.
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(1-2):3.
223. Kleinschmidt K, Feng S, Goto C, Sobotka A, Liebbe J. Difficulty in the
forensic laboratory assessment of "Cheese" - A new form of heroin.
CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 2007;45:224.
224. Liu M, Song C, Qiao J, Wang Y. Component and purity of retail heroin and
concentration ratio of morphine to codeine in urine of heroin abusers.
ZHONGGUO YAOWU YILAIXING ZAZHI 2007;16(5):386-9.
225. Moros J, Galipienso N, Vilches R, Garrigues S, de la Guardia M.
Nondestructive direct determination of heroin in seized illicit street drugs
by diffuse reflectance near-infrared spectroscopy. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2008;80(19):7257-7265.
226. Moros J, Kuligowski J, Quintas G, Garrigues S, de la Guardia M. New cutoff
criterion for uninformative variable elimination in multivariate calibration
of near-infrared spectra for the determination of heroin in illicit street
drugs. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;630(2):150-160.
227. Risser D, Uhl A, Oberndorfer F, Honigschnabl S, Stichenwirth M, Hirz
R, Sebald D. Is there a relationship between street heroin purity and drugrelated
emergencies and/or drug-related deaths? An analysis from
Vienna, Austria. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(5):1171-
1176.
228. Rudakov TN, Hayes PA, Flexman JH. Optimized NQR pulse technique for
the effective detection of heroin base. SOLID STATE NUCLEAR
MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2008;33(3):31-35.
229. Subhan F, Khan N, Sewell RDE. Adulterant profile of illicit street heroin
and reduction of its precipitated physical dependence withdrawal
syndrome by extracts of St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum).
PHYTOTHERAPY RESEARCH 2009;23(4):564-571.
230. Toprak S, Cetin I. Heroin overdose deaths and heroin purity between 1990
and 2000 in istanbul, turkey. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2009;54(5):1185-1188.
758

231. Wodak A. What caused the recent reduction in heroin supply in Australia?
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2008;19(4):279-286.
232. Wu G-P, Xiang B-R. A new method for fast and nondestructive analysis of
heroin, 6-acetylmorphine, and codeine in drug by near infrared
spectroscopy. FENXI HUAXUE 2007;35(4):552.
233. Yang S, Liu X, Qiao J. Analysis of diluents in retail heroin seized in Beijing
in 2005. ZHONGGUO YAOWU YILAIXING ZAZHI 2007;16(4):276-80.
234. Zhang ZX, Yan B, Liu KL, Bo T, Liao YP, Liu HW. Fragmentation
pathways of heroin-related alkaloids revealed by ion trap and quadrupole
time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN
MASS SPECTROMETRY 2008;22(18):2851-2862.
235. Zhang ZX, Yan B, Liu KL, Liao YP, Liu HW. CE-MS analysis of heroin and
its basic impurities using a charged polymer-protected gold nanoparticlecoated
capillary. ELECTROPHORESIS 2009;30(2):379-387.
1.15 gamma-Hydroxybutyric Acid (GHB), gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and
1,4-butanediol (BD):
236. Bennett MJ. Detection of GHB in various drink matrices via AccuTOF-
DART. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
237. Bennett MJ, Steiner RR. Detection of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid in
various drink matrices via AccuTOF-DART. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2009;54(2):370-375.
238. Brewster VL, Edwards HGM, Hargreaves MD, Munshi T. Identification of
the date-rape drug GHB and its precursor GBL by Raman spectroscopy.
DRUG TESTING AND ANALYSIS 2009;1(1-2):25-31.
239. Carter LP, Pardi D, Gorsline J, Griffiths RR. Illicit gamma-hydroxybutyrate
(GHB) and pharmaceutical sodium oxybate [Xyrem (R)]: Differences in
characteristics and misuse. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE
2009;104(1-2):1-10.
240. Dempsey DA, Wiegand TJ, Havel C, Benowitz NL, Haller C. Butanediol
(BD) Conversion to gamma-hydroxybutyrate, (GHB), is markedly reduced
by fomepizole (4-MP), an alcohol dehydrogenase blocker. CLINICAL
TOXICOLOGY 2009;47(7):113.
241. Elie MP, Baron MG, Birkett JW. Enhancement of microcrystalline
identification of gamma-hydroxybutyrate. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2008;53(1):147-150.
242. Henck C, Nally L. GC-MS analysis gamma-hydroxybutyric acid analogs: A
forensic chemistry experiment. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
2007;84:1813-1815.
243. Majid MA. Identification of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), gammabutyrolactone
(GBL) and 1,4-butanediol using trimethyl derivatization. Mid-
Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists Annual Meeting: 2009.
244. Marinetti L. History and pharmacology of γ-hydroxybutyric acid.
CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS IN CLINICAL CHEMISTRY AND
TOXICOLOGY 2007:197.
759

245. Meng PJ. Analysis of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid using gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry after pentafluorobenzyl derivatization.
FENXI HUAXUE 2008;36(1):61-65.
246. Mercer JW, Oldfield LS, Hoffman KN, Shakleya DM, Bell SC. Comparative
analysis of gamma-hydroxybutyrate and gamma-hydroxyvalerate using
GC/MS and HPLC. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(2):383-388.
247. Michalik KA, Brettell TA. The detection of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid
through the use of a rapid colorimetric test. 2008 American Academy of
Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
248. Saudan C, Augsburger M, Mangin P, Saugy M. Carbon isotopic ratio
analysis by gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass
spectrometry for the detection of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB)
administration to humans. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2007;21(24):3956-3962.
1.16 Human Growth Hormone (HGH):
249. Hancock WS, Jiang H, Karger BL,Wu SL. Mass spectrometric analysis of
innovator, counterfeit, and follow-on recombinant human growth hormone.
BIOTECHNOLOGY PROGRESS 2009;25(1):207-218.
1.17 Ketamine:
250. Pieri M, Castiglia L, Miraglia N, Guadagni R, Malorni L, Sannolo
N, Acampora A, Della Casa E. Study of the fragmentation pattern of
ketamine-heptafluorobutyramide by gas chromatography/electron
ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2010;24(1):49-56.
251. Wang G, Shen J, Jia Y. Vibrational spectra of ketamine hydrochloride and
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in terahertz range. JOURNAL OF
APPLIED PHYSICS 2007;102(1):013106/1.
1.18 Khat:
252. Balint EE, Falkay G, Balint GA. Khat - a controversial plant. WIENER
KLINISCHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 2009;121(19-20):604-614.
253. Chappell JS, Lee MM. Cathinone preservation in khat evidence via drying.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;195(1-3):108-120.
254. Krizevski R, Dudai N, Bar E, Dessow I, Ravid U, Lewinsohn E.
Quantitative stereoisomeric determination of phenylpropylamino alkaloids
in khat (Catha edulis Forsk.) using chiral GC-MS. ISRAEL JOURNAL OF
PLANT SCIENCES 2008;56(3):207-213.
760

255. Krizevski R, Dudai N, Bar E, Lewinsohn E. Developmental patterns of
phenylpropylamino alkaloids accumulation in khat (Catha edulis Forsk.).
JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2007;114(3):432-438.
256. Tefera TL. Supply response, local reality and livelihood sustainability: The
policy dilemma of khat (Catha edulis) production in eastern Ethiopia.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY
2009;7(3):176-188.
1.19 Kratom (Also mitragynine):
257. Assanangkornchai S, Muekthong A, Sam-Angsri N, Pattanasattayawong
U. The use of Mitragynine speciosa ("Kratom"), an addictive plant, in
Thailand. SUBSTANCE USE & MISUSE 2007;42(14):2145-2157.
258. Chittrakarn S, Keawpradub N, Sawangjaroen K, Kansenalak
S, Janchawee B. Mitragynine and methanol extract of kratom leaf
(Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) inhibited compound nerve action potential.
DRUG METABOLISM REVIEWS 2009;41(205).
259. Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawamura M, Maruyama T, Kitajima M, Takayama H,
Goda Y. Simultaneous analysis of mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, and
other alkaloids in the psychotropic plant "kratom" (Mitragyna speciosa) by
LC-ESI-MS. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2009;27(2):67-74.
260. Leon F, Habib E, Adkins JE, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Cutler SJ.
Phytochemical characterization of the leaves of mitragyna speciosa grown
in USA. NATURAL PRODUCT COMMUNICATIONS 2009;4(7):907-910.
261. Liu HN, McCurdy CR, Doerksen RJ. Computational study on the
conformations of mitragynine and mitragynaline. JOURNAL OF
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE-THEOCHEM 2010;945(1-3):57-63.
262. Maruyama T, Kawamura M, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Takayama H, Goda Y. The
botanical origin of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa; Rubiaceae) available as
abused drugs in the Japanese markets. JOURNAL OF NATURAL
MEDICINES 2009;63(3):340-344.
263. Phongprueksapattana S, Putalun W, Keawpradub N, Wungsintaweekul J.
Mitragyna speciosa: Hairy root culture for triterpenoid production and high
yield of mitragynine by regenerated plants. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR
NATURFORSCHUNG SECTION C-A JOURNAL OF BIOSCIENCES
2008;63(9-10):691-698.
264. Roche KM, Hart K, Sangalli B, Lefberg J, Bayer M. Kratom: A case of a
legal high. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 2008;46(7):41-.
265. Sukrong S, Zhu S, Ruangrungsi N, Phadungcharoen T, Palanuvej C,
Komatsu K. Molecular analysis of the genus Mitragyna existing in Thailand
based on rDNA ITS sequences and its application to identify a narcotic
species: Mitragyna speciosa. BIOLOGICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL
BULLETIN 2007;30(7):1284-1288.
761

1.20 LSD:
267. Inoue T, Yokoshima S, Fukuyama T. Synthetic studies toward (+)-Lysergic
acid: Construction of the tetracyclic ergoline skeleton. HETEROCYCLES
2009;79:373-378.
268. Moldvai I, Gacs-Baitz E, Termesvari-Major E, Russo L, Papai I, Rissanen
K, Szarics E, Kardos J, Szantay C. Dimerization of (+)-lysergic acid esters.
HETEROCYCLES 2007;71(5):1075-1094.
1.21 Marijuana and Related Cannabinoids:
269. Aarons JN. Laboratory and field experiments used for the determination of
odor signature chemicals in marijuana. 2008 American Academy of
Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
270. Ahmed SA, Ross SA, Slade D, Radwan MM, Khan IA, Elsohly MA.
Structure determination and absolute configuration of cannabichromanone
derivatives from high potency Cannabis sativa. TETRAHEDRON
LETTERS 2008;49(42):6050-6053.
271. Ahmed SA, Ross SA, Slade D, Radwan MM, Zulfiqar F, Matsumoto RR,
Xu YT, Viard E, Speth RC, Karamyan VT, ElSohly MA. Cannabinoid ester
constituents from high-potency Cannabis sativa. JOURNAL OF NATURAL
PRODUCTS 2008;71(6):1119-1119.
272. Ahmed SA, Ross SA, Slade D, Radwan MM, Zufiqar A, ElSohly MA.
Isolation and characterization of new cannabis constituents from a
high potency variety. PLANTA MEDICA 2008;74(3):P15.
273. Ahmed SA, Ross SA, Slade D, Radwan MM, Zulfiqar F, ElSohly MA.
Cannabinoid ester constituents from high-potency Cannabis sativa.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2008;71(4):536-542.
274. Appendino G, Giana A, Gibbons S, Maffei M, Gnavi G, Grassi G, Sterner
O. A polar cannabinoid from Cannabis sativa var. Carma. NATURAL
PRODUCT COMMUNICATIONS 2008;3(12):1977-1980.
275. Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, Pagani A, Grassi G, Stavri M, Smith
E, Rahman M. Antibacterial cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: A
structure-activity study. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
2008;71(8):1427-1430.
276. Balducci C, Nervegna G, Cecinato A. Evaluation of principal cannabinoids
in airborne particulates. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2009;641(1-2):89-
94.
277. Boleda MR, Galceran MT, Ventura F. Trace determination of cannabinoids
and opiates in wastewater and surface waters by ultra-performance liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2007;1175(1):38.
762

278. Chou SL, Ling YC, Yang MH, Pai CY. Determination of delta(9)tetrahydrocannabinol
in indoor air as an indicator of marijuana cigarette
smoking using adsorbent sampling and in-injector thermal desorption gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA
2007;598(1):103-109.
279. De Backer B, Debrus B, Lebrun P, Theunis L Dubois N, Decock L
Verstraete A, Hubert P, Charlier C. Innovative development and validation
of an HPLC/DAD method for the qualitative and quantitative determination
of major cannabinoids in cannabis plant material. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY B-ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 2009;877(32):4115-4124.
280. de Meijer EPM, Hammond KM, Micheler M. The inheritance of chemical
phenotype in Cannabis sativa L. (III): Variation in cannabichromene
proportion. EUPHYTICA 2009;165(2):293-311.
281. de Meijer EPM, Hammond KM, Sutton A. The inheritance of chemical
phenotype in Cannabis sativa L. (IV): Cannabinoid-free plants.
EUPHYTICA 2009;168(1):95-112.
282. de Oliveira GL, Voloch MH, Sztulman GB, Neto ON, Yonamine M.
Cannabinoid contents in cannabis products seized in Sao Paulo,
Brazil, 2006-2007. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2008;26(1):31-35.
283. Fischedick JT, Glas R, Hazekamp A, Verpoorte R. A Qualitative and
quantitative HPTLC densitometry method for the analysis of cannabinoids
in Cannabis sativa L. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 2009;20(5):421-426.
284. Flemming T, Muntendam R, Steup C, Kayser O. Chemistry and biological
activity of tetrahydrocannabinol and its derivatives. TOPICS IN
HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY 2007;10(Bioactive Heterocycles IV):1-42.
285. Florian NM, Parada F, Garzon WF. Study Of cannabinoids content in
marihuana samples (Cannabis Sativa L.) cultivated in several regions of
Colombia. VITAE-REVISTA DE LA FACULTAD DE QUIMICA
FARMACEUTICA 2009;16(2):237-244.
286. Fucci N. Analysis of fatty acids in marijuana (Cannabis sativa leaf).
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2007;5(1-4):20-6.
287. Garcia A, Borchardt D, Chang CA, Marsella MJ. Thermal isomerization of
cannabinoid analogues. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL
SOCIETY 2009;131(46):16640-16641.
288. Hakki EE; Kayis SA, Pinarkara E, Sag A. Inter simple sequence repeats
separate efficiently hemp from marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.)
ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF BIOTECHNOLOGY 2007;10(4):None.
289. Holler JM, Bosy TZ, Dunkley CS, Levine B, Past MR, Jacobs A.
Tetrahydrocannabinol content of commercially available hemp products.
JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY 2008;32(6):428-432.
290. Holler JM, Smith ML, Paul SN, Past MR, Paul BD. Isomerization of delta-
9-THC to delta-8-THC when tested as trifluoroacetyl-,
pentafluoropropionyl-, or heptafluorobutyryl-derivatives. JOURNAL OF
MASS SPECTROMETRY 2008;43(5):674-679.
763

291. Howard C, Gilmore S, Robertson J, Peakall R. A Cannabis STR genotype
database for Australian seizures: forensic applications and limitations.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2009;54(3):556-563.
292. Howard C, Gilmore S, Robertson J, Peakall R. Developmental validation
of a cannabis sativa STIR multiplex system for forensic analysis.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2008;53(5):1061-1067.
293. Knight G, Hansen S. An experimental indoor hydroponic cannabis growing
set-up, using the screen of green (ScrOG) method. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;20(1):12.
294. Lee JS, Park YH, Rhee JS, Jeong JI, Lim MA, Chung HS. Planting
conditions of Korean cannabis derived from stable isotope ratio and
tetrahydrocannabinol contents. YAKHAK HOECHI 2008;52(3):172-175.
295. McLaren J, Swift W, Dillon P, Allsop S. Cannabis potency and
contamination: A review of the literature. ADDICTION 2008;103(7):1100-
1109.
296. Mehmedic Z, Slade D, Denham H, Chandra S, Stanford D, Khan IA,
ElSohly MA. Indoor and outdoor cultivation of cannabis: Is there an effect
on the chemical composition of the volatile oil? PLANTA MEDICA
2008;74(3):P17.
297. Mendoza MA, Mills DK, Lata H, Chandra S, ElSohly MA, Almirall JR.
Genetic individualization of Cannabis sativa by a short tandem repeat
multiplex system. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2009;393(2):719-726.
298. Ogata J, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Yoshimatsu K, Kiuchi F, Goda Y. Detection
method for the ability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed germination by
the use of 2,3,5-triphenyl-2H-tetrazolium chloride (TTC). YAKUGAKU
ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN
2008;128(11):1707-1711.
299. Pacifico D, Miselli F, Carboni A, Moschella A, Mandolino G. Time course
of cannabinoid accumulation and chemotype development during the
growth of Cannabis sativa L. EUPHYTICA 2008;160(2):231-240.
300. Peltzer K, Ramlagan S. Cannabis use trends in South Africa. SOUTH
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY 2007;13(4):126-131.
301. Pinarkara E, Kayis SA, Hakki EE, Sag A. RAPD analysis of seized
marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) in Turkey. ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY 2009;12(1).
302. Potter DJ, Clark P, Brown MB. Potency of delta(9)-THC and other
cannabinoids in cannabis in England in 2005: Implications for
psychoactivity and pharmacology. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2008;53(1):90-94.
303. Radwan MM, ElSohly MA, Slade D, Ahmed SA, Khan IA, Ross SA.
Biologically active cannabinoids from high-potency Cannabis sativa.
JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2009;72(5):906-911.
764

304. Radwan MM, ElSohly MA, Slade D, Ahmed SA, Wilson L, Al-Alfy AT,
Ross SA. Non-cannabinoid constituents from a high potency Cannabis
sativa variety. PLANTA MEDICA 2008;74(9):1069-1069.
305. Radwan MM, ElSohly MA, Slade D, Ahmed SA, Wilson L, El-Alfy AT,
Khan IA, Ross SA. Non-cannabinoid constituents from a high potency
Cannabis sativa variety. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2008;69(14):2627-2633.
306. Radwan MM, Ross SA, Slade D, Ahmed SA, Zulfiqar F, ElSohly MA.
Isolation and characterization of new cannabis constituents from
high potency variety. PLANTA MEDICA 2008;74(3):267-272.
307. Ricordel I, Wenzek M. Cannabis and safety of work. Evolution of its
detection within the controls of narcotics since 2004 to the SNCF.
ANNALS PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANCAISES 2008;66(4):255-260.
308. Stanaszek R, Zuba D. A comparison of developed and validated
chromatographic methods (HPLC, GC-MS) for determination of delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol
and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid in hemp. Z
ZAGADNIEN NAUK SADOWYCH 2007;71:313-322.
309. Van der Kooy F, Pomahacova B, Verpoorte R. Cannabis smoke
condensate II: Influence of tobacco on tetrahydrocannabinol levels.
INHALATION TOXICOLOGY 2009;21(2):87-90.
310. Ware MA, St Arnaud-Trempe E. The abuse potential of the synthetic
cannabinoid nabilone. ADDICTION 2010;105(3):494-503.
311. Yoshimatsu K, Kitazawa T, Kawano N, Iida O, Kawahara N.
Characteristics of Cannabis sativa L.: Seed Morphology, Germination and
Growth Characteristics, and Distinction from Hibiscus cannabinus L.
YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY
OF JAPAN 2010;130(2):237-246.
1.22 Mescaline/Peyote:
312. Carstairs SD, Cantrell FL. Crazy for Cacti: A retrospective review of
peyote exposures. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 2009;47(7):57.
313. Casado R, Uriarte I, Cavero RY, Calvo MI. LC-PAD determination of
mescaline in cactus "Peyote" (Lophophora williamsii).
CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2008;67(7-8):665-667.
314. MacLean H. Rock crystals and peyote dreams: Explorations in the Huichol
universe. JOURNAL OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH
2008;64(3):448-449.
315. Mann J, Mann J. Peyote and amphetamines. TURN ON AND TUNE IN:
PSYCHEDELICS, NARCOTICS AND EUPHORIANTS 2009;108-118,138-
139.
316. Nakajima J, Aragane M, Hamano T, Shioda H, Yoshizawa M, Suzuki Y,
Kitagawa S, Yasuda I Mori K, Ogino S. Analysis of mescaline in botanical
uncontrolled drugs prepared from cactus. TOKYO-TO KENKO ANZEN
KENYU SENTA KENKYU NENPO 2009;59:91-95.
765

1.23 Methadone:
317. Snozek CLH, Bjergum MW, Langman LJ. Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry method for the determination of methadone and 2ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine
(EDDP). CLINICAL
APPLICATIONS OF MASS SPECTROMETRY: METHODS AND
PROTOCOLS 2010;351-358.
1.24 Methcathinone (Also methcathinone-related compounds):
318. Archer RP. Fluoromethcathinone, a new substance of abuse. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;185(1-3):10-20.
319. Belal T, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-IRD methods for the
identification of isomeric ethoxyphenethylamines and
methoxymethcathinones. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2009;184(1-3):54-63.
320. Camilleri A, Johnston MR, Brennan M, Davis S, Caldicott DGE. Chemical
analysis of four capsules containing the controlled substance analogues 4methylmethcathinone,
2-fluoromethamphetamine, alphaphthalimidopropiophenone
and N-ethylcathinone. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2010;197(1-3):59-66.
321. Combs MR. Analytical profile of 4-methylmethcathinone. JOURNAL OF
THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;20(1):2.
322. Dickson AJ, Vorce SP, Levine B, Past MR. Multiple-drug toxicity caused
by the coadministration of 4-methylmethcathinone (Mephedrone) and
heroin. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY 2010;34(3):162-168.
323. Dyer C. Mephedrone is an amphetamine "by another name," drug adviser
tells MPs. BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL 2010;340.
324. Fleming N. The truth about mephedrone. NEW SCIENTIST
2010;206(2757):42-45.
325. Kmietowicz Z. Home secretary bans mephedrone after taking advice from
depleted council. BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL 2010;340.
326. Meyer MR, Wilhelm J, Peters FT, Maurer HH. Beta-keto amphetamines:
studies on the metabolism of the designer drug mephedrone and
toxicological detection of mephedrone, butylone, and methylone in urine
using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL &
BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2010;397(3):1225-1233.
327. Morris K. UK places generic ban on mephedrone drug family. LANCET
2010;375(9723):1333-1334.
328. Winstock AR, Marsden J, Mitcheson L. What should be done about
mephedrone? BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL 2010;340.
329. Zuba D. Medicines containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine as a
source of methcathinone. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK SADOWYCH
2007;71:323-333.
766

1.25 Methylenedioxyamphetamines and Related Compounds:
330. Awad T, Belal T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-IRD studies on regioisomeric
ring substituted methoxy methyl phenylacetones related to 3,4methylenedioxyphenylacetone.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2010;194(1-3):39-48.
331. Belal T, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS studies on acylated
derivatives of 3-methoxy-4-methyl- and 4-methoxy-3-methylphenethylamines:
Regioisomers related to 3,4-MDMA. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;178(1):61-82.
332. Boushehri SVS, Tamimi M, Kebriaeezadeh A. Quantitative determination
of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine by thin-layer chromatography in
ecstasy illicit pills in Tehran. TOXICOLOGY MECHANISMS AND
METHODS 2009;19(9):565-569.
333. Bruhn JG, El-Seedi HR, Stephanson N, Beck O, Shulgin AT. Ecstasy
analogues found in cacti. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
2008;40(2):219-222.
334. Choodum A, Thavarungkul P, Kanatharana P, Smith NW. Ecstasy
analysis by monolithic materials-capillary electrochromatography.
ANALYTICAL SCIENCES 2009;25(4):517-522.
335. Collins M, Heagney A, Cordaro F, Odgers D, Tarrant G, Stewart S. Methyl
3-[3 ',4 '-(methylenedioxy)phenyl]-2-methyl glycidate: An ecstasy
precursor seized in Sydney, Australia. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2007;52(4):898-903.
336. da Costa JL, Pintao ER, Corrigliano CMC, Neto ON. Determination Of 3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA) In ecstasy tablets by high
performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-
FD). QUIMICA NOVA 2009;32(4):965-969.
337. de Korompay A, Hill JC, Carter JF, NicDaeid N, Sleeman R. Supported
liquid-liquid extraction of the active ingredient (3,4methylenedioxymethylamphetamine)
from ecstasy tablets for
isotopic analysis. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1178(1-
2):1-8.
338. Deluca P, Schifano F, Psychonaut 2002 Research Group. Searching the
internet for drug-related web sites: Analysis of online available information
on ecstasy (MDMA). AMERICAN JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
2007;16(6):479-483.
339. Giraudon I, Bello PY. Monitoring ecstasy content in France: Results from
the national surveillance system 1999-2004. SUBSTANCE USE &
MISUSE 2007;42(10):1567-78.
340. Gura S, Guerra-Diaz P, Lai H, Almirall JR. Enhancement in sample
collection for the detection of MDMA using a novel planar SPME (PSPME)
device coupled to ion mobility spectrometry (IMS). DRUG TESTING AND
ANALYSIS 2009;1(7-8):355-362.
767

341. Hakey PM, Allis DG, Hudson MR, Korter TM. Density functional
dependence in the theoretical analysis of the terahertz spectrum of the
illicit drug MDMA (Ecstasy). IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL 2010;10(3):478-
484.
342. Inoue H, Hashimoto H, Watanabe S, Iwata YT, Kanamori T, Miyaguchi H,
Tsujikawa K, Kuwayama K, Tachi N, Uetake N. Thermal desorption
counter-flow introduction atmospheric pressure chemical ionization for
direct mass spectrometry of ecstasy tablets. JOURNAL OF MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2009;44(9):1300-1307.
343. Kato N, Fujita S, Ohta H, Fukuba M, Toriba A, Hayakawa K. Thin layer
chromatography/fluorescence detection of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
and related compounds. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2008;53(6):1367-1371.
344. Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawamura M, Miyajima A, Sunouchi M, Goda Y.
Determination of a new designer drug, N-hydroxy-3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine
and its metabolites in rats using ultraperformance
liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;198(1-3):62-69.
345. Lasmar MC, Leite EMA. Development and validation of a gas
chromatography method for the determination of ecstasy and
amphetamine derivatives in tablets. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE
CIENCIAS FARMACEUTICAS 2007;43(2):223.
346. Liu J, Decatur J, Proni G, Champeil E. Identification and quantitation
of 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) in human
urine by H-1 NMR spectroscopy. Application to five cases of intoxication.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;194(1-3):103-107.
347. Luiz da Costa J, Pintao ER, Corrigliano CM, Negrini Neto O.
Determination of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in Ectasy
tablets by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence
detection (HPLC-FD). QUIMICA NOVA 2009;32(4):965-969.
348. Matsuda K, Fukuzawa T, Ishii Y, Yamada H. Color reaction of 3,4methylenedioxyamphetamines
with chromotropic acid: Its improvement
and application to the screening of seized tablets. FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY 2007;25(1):37.
349. Milhazes N, Martins P, Uriarte E, Garrido J, Calheiros R, Marques MPM,
Borges F. Electrochemical and spectroscopic characterization of
amphetamine-like drugs: Application to the screening of 3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA) and its synthetic precursors.
ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2007;596(2):231.
350. Salouros H, Collins M, Tarrant G, George AV. N-Cyanomethyl-N-methyl-1-
(3 ',4 '-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-propylamine: An MDMA manufacturing
by-product. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2008;53(5):1083-1091.
351. Thigpen AL, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS studies on the regioisomeric
2,3-and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenethylamines related to MDEA, MDMMA,
and MBDB. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE
2007;45(5):229-235.
768

352. Tsujikawa K, Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H.
Degradation of N-hydroxy-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in
aqueous solution and its prevention. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2009;193(1-3):106-111.
353. Tsujikawa K, Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Inoue H.
Increase in split ratio enables detection of underivatized N-hydroxy-3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine
and N-hydroxy-3,4methylenedioxyamphetamine
by capillary GC-MS. FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY 2010;28(1):55-57.
354. Vogels N, Brunt TM, Rigter S, van Dijk P, Vervaeke H, Niesink RJM.
Content of ecstasy in the Netherlands: 1993-2008. ADDICTION
2009;104(12):2057-2066.
355. Wang G, Shen J. Terahertz spectroscopic investigation of methylenedioxy
amphetamine. PROCEEDINGS OF SPIE 2008;6840.
356. Wu G-p, Xiang B-r. Nondestructive determination of MDMA and MA in
ecstasy by near infrared spectroscopy. FENXI CESHI XUEBAO
2007;26(5):698.
357. Yu XJ, Li GP. Determination of MDA and MDMA by TFA derivatization-
GC/MS/MS. GUANGPU SHIYANSHI 2009;26(4):1051-1053.
358. Zaitsu K, Katagi M, Kamata HT, Miki A, Tsuchihashi H. Discrimination and
identification of regioisomeric beta-keto analogues of 3,4methylenedioxyamphetamines
by gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2008;26(2):45-51.
1.26 Morphine, Codeine, and Related Opium Alkaloids:
359. Chaudhary V, Leisch H, Moudra A, Allen B, De Luca V, Cox DP, Hudlicky
T. Biotransformations of morphine alkaloids by fungi: Ndemethylations,
oxidations, and reductions. COLLECTION OF
CZECHOSLOVAK CHEMICAL COMMUNICATIONS 2009;74(7-8):1179-
1193.
360. Feng SY, Chen WW, Huang W, Cheng M, Lin JQ, Li YZ, Chen R. Surfaceenhanced
Raman spectroscopy of morphine in silver colloid. CHINESE
OPTICS LETTERS 2009;7(11):1055-1057.
361. Hansen SH. Sample preparation and separation techniques for
bioanalysis of morphine and related substances. JOURNAL OF
SEPARATION SCIENCE 2009;32(5-6):825-834.
362. Li F, Song J, Gao D, Zhang Q, Han D, Niu L. Simple and rapid
voltammetric determination of morphine at electrochemically pretreated
glassy carbon electrodes. TALANTA 2009;79(3):845-850.
363. Pejic N, Blagojevic S, Vukelic J, Kolar-Anic L, Anic S. Analyte pulse
perturbation technique for the determination of O-6-acetylmorphine in
seized street drug samples. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY
OF JAPAN 2007;80:1942-1948.
769

364. Rezaei B, Khayamian T, Mokhtari A. Simultaneous determination of
codeine and noscapine by flow-injection chemiluminescence method
using N-PLS regression. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND
BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2009;49(2):234-239.
1.27 Opiate Alkaloids (Also Opioids):
365. Berenyi S, Csutoras C, Sipos A. Recent developments in the chemistry of
thebaine and its transformation products as pharmacological targets.
CURRENT MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2009;16(25):3215-3242.
366. Bladek J, Polak P, Jarzyna E, Jakubowska I. Analysis of opiates and
cannabinols by TLC. BIULETYN WOJSKOWEJ AKADEMII
TECHNICZNEJ 2007;56(3):257-267.
367. Bogusz MJ. Opiods: Methods of forensic analysis. HANDBOOK OF
ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS 2008;6:3-72.
368. Hamunen K, Paakkari P, Kalso E. Trends in opioid consumption in the
Nordic countries 2002-2006. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PAIN
2009;13(9):954-962.
369. Hindson BJ, Francis PS, Purcell SD, Barnett NW. Determination of opiate
alkaloids in process liquors using capillary electrophoresis. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2007;43(3):1164.
370. Jensen H, Kirby DA. Assessment of the smokeability of oxycodone hcl 80
mg controlled-release tablets. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;20(1):5.
371. Kumar MG, Lin Senshang. Hydromorphone: Analytical methodologies for
its determination. CURRENT ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;4(2):11-
126.
372. Mann J, Mann J. Opiates from opium to heroin. TURN ON AND TUNE IN:
PSYCHEDELICS, NARCOTICS AND EUPHORIANTS 2009;26-59,137.
373. Turner NW, Cauchi M, Piletska EV, Preston C, Piletsky SA. Rapid
qualitative and quantitative analysis of opiates in extract of poppy head via
FTIR and chemometrics: Towards in-field sensors. BIOSENSORS &
BIOELECTRONICS 2009;24(11):3322-3328.
1.28 Opium (and Opium Poppies):
374. Apuya NR, Park JH, Zhang L, Ahyow M, Davidow P, Van Fleet J, Rarang
JC, Hippley M, Johnson TW, Yoo HD, Trieu A, Krueger S, Wu CY, Lu YP,
Flavell RB, Bobzin SC. Enhancement of alkaloid production in opium and
California poppy by transactivation using heterologous regulatory factors.
PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2008;6(2):160-175.
375. Chakrabarti DK, Singh OP. Techniques to reproduce primary and
secondary symptoms of downy mildew disease in opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum L.). ADVANCES IN PLANT SCIENCES 2008;21(1):65-66.
770

376. Dittbrenner A, Mock HP, Borner A, Lohwasser U. Variability of alkaloid
content in Papaver somniferum L. JOURNAL OF APPLIED BOTANY AND
FOOD QUALITY-ANGEWANDTE BOTANIK 2009;82(2):103-107.
377. Drea S, Hileman LC, De Martino G, Irish VF. Functional analyses of
genetic pathways controlling petal specification in poppy. DEVELOPMENT
2007;134:4157-4166.
378. Dubey MK, Shasany AK, Dhawan OP, Shukla AK, Khanuja SPS. AFLP
studies on downy-mildew-resistant and downy-mildew-susceptible
genotypes of opium poppy. JOURNAL OF GENETICS 2010;89(1):9-19.
379. Dubey MK, Dhawan OP, Khanuja SPS. Downy mildew resistance in
opium poppy: Resistance sources, inheritance pattern, genetic variability
and strategies for crop improvement. EUPHYTICA 2009;165(1):177-188.
380. Dubey RB, Jain SK, Maloo SR. Combining ability and heterosis for latex
yield, seed yield and other agronomic traits in opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum L.). INDIAN JOURNAL OF GENETICS AND PLANT
BREEDING 2007;67(4):392-395.
381. Facchini PJ, De Luca V. Opium poppy and Madagascar periwinkle: Model
non-model systems to investigate alkaloid biosynthesis in plants. PLANT
JOURNAL 2008;54(4):763-784.
382. Facchini PJ, Hagel JM, Liscombe DK, Loukanina N, MacLeod
BP. Samanani N, Zulak KG. Opium poppy: Blueprint for an alkaloid
factory. PHYTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2007;6(1):97-124.
383. Finlay IG, Mancroft L, Field F. Opium production in Afghanistan - Let's reexamine
buying the Afghan poppies that are left. BRITISH MEDICAL
JOURNAL 2008;336(7657):1325-1325.
384. Foster RA, ONeill NR, Saunders JA. Potential biological control of opium
poppy by fungal pathogens. PLANTA MEDICA 2008;74(3):P31.
385. Francis PS, Adcock JL, Costin JW, Purcell SD, Pfeffer FM, Barnett NW.
Chemiluminescence detection of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
alkaloids. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL
ANALYSIS 2008;48(3):508-518.
386. Gumuscu A, Arslan N, Sarihan EO. Evaluation of selected poppy
(Papaver somniferum L.) lines by their morphine and other alkaloids
contents. EUROPEAN FOOD RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
2008;226(5):1213-1220.
387. Hagel JM, MacLeod BP, Facchini PJ. Opium poppy. BIOTECHNOLOGY
IN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY 2007;169-187.
388. Hagel JM, Weljie AM, Vogel HJ, Facchini PJ. Quantitative H-1 nuclear
magnetic resonance metabolite profiling as a functional genomics platform
to investigate alkaloid biosynthesis in opium poppy. PLANT
PHYSIOLOGY 2008;147(4):1805-1821.
389. Harvest T, Brown PH, Fist A, Gracie A, Gregory D, Koutoulis A. The latex
capacity of opium poppy capsules is fixed early in capsule development
and is not a major determinant in morphine yield. ANNALS OF APPLIED
BIOLOGY 2009;154(2):251-258.
771

390. Higashi Y, Smith TJ, Jez JM, Kutchan TM. Crystallization and preliminary
X-ray diffraction analysis of salutaridine reductase from the opium poppy
Papaver somniferum. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION F-
STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY AND CRYSTALLIZATION COMMUNICATIONS
2010;66:163-166.
391. Khan R, Khan MMA, Singh M, Nasir S, Naeem M, Siddiqui
MH, Mohammad F. Gibberellic acid and triacontanol can ameliorate the
opium yield and morphine production in opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum L.). ACTA AGRICULTURAE SCANDINAVICA SECTION B-
SOIL AND PLANT SCIENCE 2007;57:307-312.
392. Kutchan TM, Ounaroon A, Haase S, Frick S. O-Methyltransferases of
tetrahydrobenzylisoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis in Papaver
somniferum. PN US 07514251 Donald Danforth Plant Science Center.
Official Gazette of the United States Patent and Trademark Office Patents
2009.
393. Lin X, Wang J, Li L, Wang X, Lu H, Xie Z. Separation and determination of
five major opium alkaloids with mixed mode of hydrophilic/cationexchange
monolith by pressurized capillary electrochromatography.
JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE 2007;30(17):3011-3017.
394. Lisson SN. Temperature and photoperiod effects on the growth and
development of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). AUSTRALIAN
JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL AGRICULTURE 2007;47(6):742-748.
395. Montes-Borrego M, Ledesma FJM, Jimenez-Diaz RM, Landa BB. A
Nested-polymerase chain reaction protocol for detection and population
biology studies of peronospora arborescens,the downy mildew pathogen
of opium poppy, using herbarium specimens and asymptomatic, fresh
plant tissues. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2009;99(1):73-81.
396. Panicker S, Wojno HL, Ziska LH. Quantitation of the major alkaloids in
opium from Papaver setigerum DC. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2007;5(1-
4):13-9.
397. Pienkny S, Brandt W, Schmidt J, Jo RK, Ziegler J. Functional
characterization of a novel benzylisoquinoline O-methyltransferase
suggests its involvement in papaverine biosynthesis in opium poppy
(Papaver somniferum L.). PLANT JOURNAL 2009;60(1):56-67.
398. Reid RG, Durham DG, Boyle SP, Low AS, Wangboonskul J.
Differentiation of opium and poppy straw using capillary electrophoresis
and pattern recognition techniques. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA
2007;605(1):20-27.
399. Remberg B, Sterrantino AF, Artner R, Janitsch C, Krenn L. Science in
drug control: The alkaloid content of Afghan opium. CHEMISTRY &
BIODIVERSITY 2008;5(9):1770-1779.
400. Salehi P, Sonboli A, Zavareh AF, Sefidkon F, Dayeni M, Cheraghi B.
Narcotic alkaloids of four Papaver species from Iran. ZEITSCHRIFT FÜR
NATURFORSCHUNG C 2007;62(1-2):16.
401. Shukla S, Singh SP, Singh HB, Pushpangadan P. High yielding multiple
disease resistant/tolerant stable variety 'Madakini' of opium poppy. PN US
772

07442854 AE Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Official
Gazette of the United States Patent and Trademark Office Patents 2008.
402. Steinberg M, Taylor M. Marginalizing a vulnerable cultural and
environmental landscape - Opium poppy production in highland
Guatemala. MOUNTAIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
2007;27(4):318-321.
403. Werb D, Kerr T, Montaner J, Wood E. The need for an evidence-based
approach to controlling opium production in afghanistan. JOURNAL OF
PUBLIC HEALTH POLICY 2008;29(4):440-448.
404. Williams S. On islands, insularity, and opium poppies: Australia's secret
pharmacy. ENVIRONMENT AND PLANNING D: SOCIETY AND SPACE
2010;28(2):290-310.
405. Yadav HK, Shukla S, Singh SP. Assessment of genotype x environment
interactions for yield and morphine content in opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum L.). ACTA AGRONOMICA HUNGARICA 2007;55(3):331-338.
406. Yadav HK, Shukla S, Rastogi A, Singh SP. Assessment of diversity in new
genetic stock of opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). INDIAN JOURNAL
OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES 2007;77:537-539.
407. Yadav HK, Shukla S, Rastogi A, Singh SP. Non-parametric measure of
stability for yield and morphine content in opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum). INDIAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
2007;77:596-599.
408. Yadav HK, Shulkla S, Rastogi A, Singh MP, Singh SP. Genotype -
Environmental interactions and phenotypic stability analyses of opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) for seed, opium and morphine content.
INDIAN JOURNAL OF GENETICS AND PLANT BREEDING
2007;67(2):166-168.
409. Zein AL, Dakhil OO, Dawe LN, Georghiou PE. Enantioselective syntheses
and X-ray structures of (S)- and (R)-N-norlaudanidine: Trace opium
constituents. TETRAHEDRON LETTERS 2010;51(1):177-180.
410. Zhang CJ, Cheng CG. Identification of Papaver somniferum L. and
Papaver rhoeas using DSWT-FTIR-RBFNN. SPECTROSCOPY AND
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS 2009;29(5):1255-1259.
411. Ziegler J, Facchini PJ, Geissler R, Schmidt J, Ammer C, Kramell R,
Voigtlander S, Gesell A, Pienkny S, Brandt W. Evolution of morphine
biosynthesis in opium poppy. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2009;70(15-16):1696-
1707.
412. Ziska L, Panicker S, Wojno H. Recent and projected increases in
atmospheric carbon dioxide and the potential impacts on growth and
alkaloid production in wild poppy (Papaver setigerum DC.). CLIMATIC
CHANGE 2008;91(3-4):395-403.
413. Zulak KG, Khan MF, Alcantara J, Schriemer DC, Facchini PJ. Plant
Defense responses in opium poppy cell cultures revealed by liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry proteomics. MOLECULAR &
CELLULAR PROTEOMICS 2009;8(1):86-98.
773

1.29 Phenethylamines (including mixtures of Amphetamines,
Methylenedioxy-amphetamines, and Related Compounds):
414. Awad T, DeRuiter J, Belal T, Clark CR. GC and mass spectral studies on
acylated side chain regioisomers of 3-methoxy-4-methyl-phenethylamine
and 4-methoxy-3-methyl-phenethylamine. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE 2009;47(4):279-286.
415. Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS analysis of acylated derivatives of
a series of side chain regioisomers of 2-methoxy-4-methylphenethylamines.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE
2008;46(5):375-380.
416. Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS analysis of ring and side chain
regioisomers of ethoxyphenethylamines. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE 2008;46(8):671-679.
417. Kanai K, Takekawa K, Kumamoto T, Ishikawa T, Ohmori T. Simultaneous
analysis of six phenethylamine-type designer drugs by TLC, LC-MS, and
GC-MS. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2008;26(1):6-12.
418. Min JZ, Shimizu Y, Toyo'oka T, Inagaki S, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y.
Simultaneous determination of 11 designated hallucinogenic
phenethylamines by ultra-fast liquid chromatography with fluorescence
detection. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY B-ANALYTICAL
TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE SCIENCES
2008;873(2):187-194.
419. Pellati F, Benvenuti S. Fast high-performance liquid chromatography
analysis of phenethylamine alkaloids in citrus natural products on a
pentafluorophenylpropyl stationary phase. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2007;1165:58-66.
420. Schultz DM, Prescher JA, Kidd S, Marona-Lewicka D, Nichols DE, Monte
A. 'Hybrid' benzofuran-benzopyran congeners as rigid analogs
of hallucinogenic phenethylamines. BIOORGANIC & MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY 2008;16(11):6242-6251.
421. Thigpen AL, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS Studies on the
Regioisomeric Methoxy-Methyl-Phenethylamines Related to MDEA,
MDMMA, and MBDB. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC SCIENCE
2008;46(10):900-906.
422. Westphal F, Roesner P, Junge T. Differentiation of regioisomeric ringsubstituted
fluorophenethylamines with product ion spectrometry.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;194(1-3):53-59.
1.30 Piperazines:
423. Abdel-Hay KM, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. Differentiation of
methylenedioxybenzylpiperazines (MDBP) by GC-IRD and GC-MS.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;195(1-3):78-85.
774

424. Elliott S, Smith C. Investigation of the first deaths in the United Kingdom
involving the detection and quantitation of the piperazines BZP and 3-
TFMPP. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY 2008;32(2):172-177.
425. Heegel RA, Trigg JJ. Different Approaches to the separation of 1benzylpiperazine
and 1-[3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-piperazine found in illicit
ecstasy tablets. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY
INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;18(3):9.
426. Johnstone AC, Lea RA, Brennan KA, Schenk S, Kennedy MA, Fitzmaurice
PS. Benzylpiperazine: A drug of abuse? JOURNAL OF
PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY 2007;21(8):888-894.
427. Lanaro R, Costa JL, Zanolli LA, Cazenave SOS. Chemical identification of
chlorophenylpiperazine in seized tablets. QUIMICA NOVA
2010;33(3):725-729.
428. Lecompte Y, Roussel O, Perrin M. 1-Benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(3trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine
(TFMPP): Emergence of two agents
which lead to misuse. ANNALES PHARMACEUTIQUES FRANCAISES
2008;66(2):85-91.
429. Maher HM, Awad T, Clark CR. Differentiation of the regioisomeric 2-, 3-,
and 4-trifluoromethylphenylpiperazines (TFMPP) by GC-IRD and GC-MS.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;188(1-3):31-39.
430. Nikolova I, Danchev N. Piperazine based substances of abuse: A new
party pill on Bulgarian drug market. BIOTECHNOLOGY &
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT 2008;22(2):652-655.
431. Schafstall HJ, Burris MD, Kramer KL, Weston RG. Analytical data for
ortho-, meta-,and para-chlorophenyl-piperazines (CPP). 2008 American
Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
432. Sheridan J, Butler R. "They're legal so they're safe, right?" What did the
legal status of BZP-party pills mean to young people in New Zealand?
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2010;21(1):77-81.
433. Staack RF. Piperazine designer drugs of abuse. LANCET
2007;369(9571):1411-1413.
434. Westphal F, Junge T, Girreser U, Stobbe S, Perez SB. Structure
elucidation of a new designer benzylpiperazine: 4-Bromo-2,5dimethoxybenzylpiperazine.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2009;187(1-3):87-96.
435. Wilkins C, Sweetsur P. Differences in harm from legal BZP/TFMPP party
pills between North Island and South Island users in New Zealand: A case
of effective industry self-regulation? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
DRUG POLICY 2010;21(1):86-90.
436. Wilkins C, Sweetsur P, Girling M. Patterns of
benzylpiperazine/trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine party pill use and
adverse effects in a population sample in New Zealand. DRUG AND
ALCOHOL REVIEW 2008;27(6):633-639.
775

1.31 Polydrug:
437. Laussmann T, Meier-Giebing S. Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic
mushrooms and khat (Catha edulis Forsk) using cation-exchange liquid
chromatography. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;195(1-
3):160-164.
438. Mori T, Ito S, Sawaguchi T. Survey on transactions of methamphetamine
MDMA and methylphenidate in Japan: A study using the internet.
INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL JOURNAL 2008;15(1):75-78.
1.32 Psilocybin Mushrooms, Psilocybin, and Psilocin:
439. Adamczyk A, Sadakierska-Chudy A, Janoszka J, Rymkiewicz A, Dobosz
T. Hallucinogenic fungi (psilocybe). Part II. Identification of Psilocybe
semilanceata by PCR. ARCH MED SADOWEJ KRYMINOLOGIA
2007;57(3):285.
440. Boissevain I. Psilocybin mushrooms. TIJDSCHRIFT VOOR
DIERGENEESKUNDE 2008;133(8):343-343.
441. Guzman G. Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview.
ECONOMIC BOTANY 2008;62(3):404-412.
442. Guzman G, Gaines RV, Ramirez-Guillen F. New species of hallucinogenic
Psilocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm. (Agaricomycetideae) from the eastern USA.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MEDICINAL MUSHROOMS
2007;9(1):75-77.
443. Guzman G, Kroeger P, Ramirez-Guillen F, Castillo-Del-Moral R. Psilocybe
(Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in Canada, with a special
review of species from British Columbia. MYCOTAXON 2008;106:179-
193.
444. Horak E, Guzman G, Desjardin DE. Four new species of Psilocybe from
Malaysia and Thailand, with a key to the species of sect. Neocaledonicae
and discussion on the distribution of the tropical and temperate species.
SYDOWIA 2009;61(1):25-37.
445. Jiang G, Stenzel JR. Identification of psychotropic substances in
mushrooms by UHPLC/MS. LCGC NORTH AMERICA 2009;(Suppl.)13.
446. Kocak A, De Cotiis LM, Hoffman DB. Comparative study of ATR and
transflection IR spectroscopic techniques for the analysis of hallucinogenic
mushrooms. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;195(1-3):36-
41.
447. Lott JP, Marlowe DB, Forman RF. Availability of websites offering to sell
psilocybin spores and psilocybin. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE
DRUGS 2009;41(3):305-307.
448. Rafati H, Riahi H, Mohammadi A. Enhancement of indole alkaloids
produced by Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer (Agaricomycetideae) in
controlled harvesting light conditions. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
MEDICINAL MUSHROOMS 2009;11(4):419-426.
776

449. Stenzel JR, Jiang G. Identification of psychotropic substances in
mushrooms by UHPLC/MS. LCGC NORTH AMERICA 2009;13.
1.33 Salvia Divinorum:
450. Albertson DN, Grubbs LE. Subjective Effects of salvia divinorum: LSD- or
marijuana-like? JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 2009;41(3):213-
217.
451. Carvalho P, Bikbulatov R, Zjawiony JK, Avery MA. Unusual hemiacetal
structure derived from Salvinorin A. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA
SECTION E-STRUCTURE REPORTS ONLINE 2008;64:O1370-U2878.
452. Griffin OH, Miller BL, Khey DN. Legally high? Legal considerations of
Salvia divinorum. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
2008;40(2):183-191.
453. Grundmann O, Phipps SM, Zadezensky I, Butterweck V. Salvia divinorum
and salvinorin A: An update on pharmacology and analytical methodology.
PLANTA MEDICA 2007;73(10):1039-1046.
454. Holden KG, Tidgewell K, Marquam A, Rothman RB, Navarro H, Prisinzano
TE. Synthetic studies of neoclerodane diterpenes from Salvia
divinorum: Exploration of the 1-position. BIOORGANIC & MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY LETTERS 2007;17:6111-6115.
455. Jermain JD, Evans HK. Analyzing salvia divinorum and its active
ingredient salvinorin A utilizing thin layer chromatography and gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2009;54(3):612-616.
456. Kennedy JH, Wiseman JM. Direct analysis of Salvia divinorum leaves for
salvinorin A by thin layer chromatography and desorption electrospray
ionization multi-stage tandem mass spectrometry. RAPID
COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY 2010;24(9):1305-1311.
457. Kutrzeba LM, Ferreira D, Zjawiony JK. Salvinorins J from Salvia
divinorum: Mutarotation in the neoclerodane system. JOURNAL OF
NATURAL PRODUCTS 2009;72(7):1361-1363.
458. Maruyama T, Kamakura H, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y. Authentication and
ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC)/MS analysis of magic
mint, Salvia divinorum and its related plants. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-
JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN
2008;128(1):179-183.
459. Shirota O, Nagamatsu K, Sekita S. Simple preparative isolation of
salvinorin a from the hallucinogenic sage, Salvia divinorum, by centrifugal
partition chromatography. JOURNAL OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY &
RELATED TECHNOLOGIES 2007;30(5-8):1105-1114.
777

460. Simpson DS, Lovell KM, Lozama A, Han N, Day VW, Dersch
CM, Rothman RB, Prisinzano TE. Synthetic studies of neoclerodane
diterpenes from Salvia divinorum: Role of the furan in affinity for opioid
receptors. ORGANIC & BIOMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY 2009;7(18):3748-
3756.
461. Tsujikawa K, Kuwayama K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Yoshida
T, Inoue H. Determination of salvinorin A and salvinorin B in Salvia
divinorum-related products circulated in Japan. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2008;180(2-3):105-109.
462. Zhang Y, Chen H, Cheng W, Feng Y, Tang Z, Yang L. Studies on the
chemical constituents of Salvia miltiorrhiza of Lijiang. ZHONGYAOCAI
2008;31(2):226-229.
1.34 Scopolamine:
463. Henderson TJ, Cullinan DB, Lawrence RJ, Oyler JM. Positive identification
of the principal component of a white powder as scopolamine by
quantitative one-dimensional and two-dimensional NMR techniques.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2008;53(1):151-161.
464. Yuan BQ, Zheng CY, Teng H, You TY. Simultaneous determination of
atropine, anisodamine, and scopolamine in plant extract by nonaqueous
capillary electrophoresis coupled with electrochemiluminescence and
electrochemistry dual detection. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2010;1217(1):171-174.
1.35 Steroids:
465. Blokland MH, Zoontjes PW, Sterk SS, Stephany RW, Zweigenbaum J, van
Ginkel LA. Confirmatory analysis of trenbolone using accurate mass
measurement with LC/TOF-MS. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA
2008;618(1):86-93.
466. Fragkaki AG, Angelis YS, Tsantili-Kakoulidou A, Koupparis M,
Georgakopoulos C. Statistical analysis of fragmentation patterns of
electron ionization mass spectra of enolized-trimethylsilylated anabolic
androgenic steroids. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2009;285(1-2):58-69.
467. Galesio M, Rial-Otero R, Capelo-Martinez JL. Comparative study of
matrices for their use in the rapid screening of anabolic steroids by matrixassisted
laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry.
RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY
2009;23(12):1783-1791.
468. Hadef Y, Kaloustian J, Portugal H, Nicolay A. Multivariate optimization of a
derivatisation procedure for the simultaneous determination of nine
anabolic steroids by gas chromatography coupled with mass
spectrometry. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1190(1-
2):278-285.
778

469. Kauppila TJ, Talaty N, Jackson AU, Kotiaho T, Kostiainen R, Cooks RG.
Carbohydrate and steroid analysis by desorption electrospray ionization
mass spectrometry. CHEMICAL COMMUNICATIONS 2008;(23):2674-
2676.
470. Morris JA, Minor RG. Confirmation of anabolic steroids by alkaline
hydrolysis. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY
INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;19(3):2.
471. Muniz-Valencia R, Gonzalo-Lumbreras R, Santos-Montes A, Izquierdo-
Hornillos R. Liquid chromatographic method development for anabolic
steroids using a monolithic column. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA
2008;611(1):103-112.
472. Nie J, Wu H, Wang X, Zhang Y, Zhu S, Yu R. Determination of
testosterone propionate in cosmetics using excitation-emission matrix
fluorescence based on oxidation derivatization with the aid of secondorder
calibration methods. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;628(1):24-
32.
473. Parr MK, Zapp J, Becker M, Opfermann G, Bartz U, Schaenzer W.
Steroidal isomers with uniform mass spectra of their per-TMS derivatives:
Synthesis of 17-hydroxyandrostan-3-ones, and rost-1-, and -4-ene-3,17diols.
STEROIDS 2007;72(6-7):545-551.
474. Pozo OJ, Van Eenoo P, Deventer K, Delbeke FT. Detection and
characterization of anabolic steroids in doping analysis by LC-MS. TrAC,
TRENDS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;27(8):657-671.
475. Pozo OJ, Van Eenoo P, Deventer K, Delbeke FT. Ionization of anabolic
steroids by adduct formation in liquid chromatography electrospray mass
spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2007;42(4):497-
516.
476. Saudan C, Emery C, Marclay F, Strahm E, Mangin P, Saugy M. Validation
and performance comparison of two carbon isotope ratio methods to
control the misuse of androgens in humans. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY, B: ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE SCIENCES 2009;877(23):2321-2329.
477. Shi Y-Q, Yao J, Liu F, Hu C-Q, Yuan J, Zhang Q-M, Jin S-H.
Establishment of an HPLC identification system for detection of counterfeit
steroidal drugs. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL
ANALYSIS 2008;46(4):663-669.
478. Silva AI, Pereira HMG, Casilli A, Conceicao FC, Neto FRA. Analytical
challenges in doping control: Comprehensive two-dimensional gas
chromatography with time of flight mass spectrometry, a promising option.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(14):2913-2922.
479. Stepan R, Cuhra P, Barsova S. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas
chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometric detection for the
determination of anabolic steroids and related compounds in nutritional
supplements. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS, PART A:
CHEMISTRY, ANALYSIS, CONTROL, EXPOSURE & RISK
ASSESSMENT 2008;25(5):557-565.
779

480. Verheyden K, Le Bizec B, Courtheyn D, Mortier V, Vandewiele M, Gillis W,
Vanthemsche P, De Brabander HF, Noppe H. Mass spectrometric
detection of and similarities between 1-androgens. ANALYTICA CHIMICA
ACTA 2007;586(1-2):57.
481. Walker CJ, Cowan DA, James VH, Lau JC, Kichman AT. Doping in sport-
2. Quantification of the impurity 19-norandrostenedione in pharmaceutical
preparations of norethisterone. STEROIDS 2009;74(3):335-340.
482. Yuan B. Feature analysis and future perspective of designer steroid.
TIANJIN TIYU XUEYUAN XUEBAO 2007;22(5):422-425.
483. Yuan Y, Xu C, Peng C, Jin Z, Chen W, Liu L. Analytical methods for the
detection of corticosteroids-residues in animal-derived foodstuffs.
CRITICAL REVIEWS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;38(4):227-241.
484. Zhang Y, Tobia HJ, Brenna JT. Steroid isotopic standards for gas
chromatography-combustion isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GCC-
IRMS). STEROIDS 2009;74(3):369-378.
1.36 Synthetic Cannabimimetics (Also “Spice”):
485. Atwood BK, Huffman J, Straiker A, Mackie K. JWH018, a common
constituent of 'Spice' herbal blends, is a potent and efficacious
cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist. BRITISH JOURNAL OF
PHARMACOLOGY 2010;160(3):585-593.
486. Auwaerter V, Dresen S, Weinmann W, Mueller M, Puetz M, Ferreiros N.
'Spice' and other herbal blends: Harmless incense or cannabinoid
designer drugs? JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009;44(5):832-
837.
487. Auwaerter V. Structure elucidation of synthetic materials in “Spice.”
LABORPRAXIS 2009;33(6):62-64.
488. Combs M, Morris JA. Analytical profile of two synthetic cannabinoids-
JWH-018 and JWH-073. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;20(2):2.
489. Griffiths P, Sedefov R, Gallegos A, Lopez D. How globalization and
market innovation challenge how we think about and respond to drug use:
'Spice' a case study. ADDICTION 2010;105(6):951-953.
490. Hammersley R. Dangers of banning spice and the synthetic cannabinoid
agonists. ADDICTION 2010;105(2):373-373.
491. Hermanns-Clausen M, Sauer O, Gerber G, Faerber E, Koch IE, Hentschel
H, Seidel C, Stedtler U, Auwarter V. New "Herbal Drugs" of Abuse: Spice
and Smoke. CLINICAL TOXICOLOGY 2009;47(5):57-.
492. Lindigkeit R, Boehme A, Eiserloh I, Luebbecke M, Wiggermann M, Ernst
L, Beuerle T. Spice: A never ending story? FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2009;191(1-3):58-63.
493. Mustata C, Torrens M, Pardo R, Perez C, Farre M. Spice drugs:
Cannabinoids as new designer drugs. ADICCIONES 2009;21(3):181-186.
780

494. Piggee C. Investigating a not-so-natural high: Researchers identify
synthetic cannabinoids in herbal incense. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2009;81(9):3205-3207.
495. Uchiyama N, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawahara N, Goda Y. Identification of a
cannabimimetic indole as a designer drug in a herbal product. FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY 2009;27(2):61-66.
496. Uchiyama N, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawahara N, Haishima Y, Goda Y.
Identification of a cannabinoid analog as a new type of designer drug in a
herbal product. CHEMICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL BULLETIN
2009;57(4):439-441.
497. Uchiyama N, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Ogata J, Goda Y. Chemical analysis of
synthetic cannabinoids as designer drugs in herbal products. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;198(1-3):31-38.
498. Zimmermann US, Winkelmann PR, Pilhatsch M, Nees JA, Spanagel R,
Schulz K. Withdrawal phenomena and dependence syndrome after the
consumption of "Spice Gold". DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT
INTERNATIONAL 2009;106(27):464-467.
1.37 (Designer) Tryptamines (see also Psilocybin):
499. Brandt SD, Martins CPB, Freeman S, Dempster N, Riby PG, Gartz J,
Alder JF. Halogenated solvent interactions with N,N-dimethyltryptamine:
Formation of quaternary ammonium salts and their artificially induced
rearrangements during analysis. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;178(2-3):162-170.
500. Brandt SD, Martins CPB, Freeman S, Dempster N, Wainwright M, Riby
PG, Alder JF. N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and dichloromethane:
Rearrangement of quaternary ammonium salt product during GC-EI and
CI-MS-MS analysis. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND
BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2008;47(1):207-212.
501. Buchanan MS, Carroll AR, Pass D, Quinn RJ. NMR spectral assignments
of a new chlorotryptamine alkaloid and its analogues from Acacia confusa.
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IN CHEMISTRY 2007;45(4):359-361.
502. Cason TD. Mass spectra of designer drugs. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;19(2):8.
503. Chen BH, Liu JT, Chen WX, Chen HM, Lin CH. A general approach to the
screening and confirmation of tryptamines and phenethylamines by mass
spectral fragmentation. TALANTA 2008;74(4):512-517.
504. Fasanello JA, Placke AD. The isolation, identification, and quantitation of
dimethyltryptamine (DMT) in Mimosa hostilis. MICROGRAM JOURNAL
2007;5(1-4):41-50.
505. Gambelunghe C, Aroni K, Rossi R, Moretti L, Bacci M. Identification of
N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta-carbolines in psychotropic ayahuasca
beverage. BIOMEDICAL CHROMATOGRAPHY 2008;22(10):1056-1059.
781

506. Hsiao Y, Liu JT, Lin CH. Simultaneous separation and detection of 18
phenethylamine/tryptamine derivatives by liquid chromatography-UV
absorption and -electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL
SCIENCES 2009;25(6):759-763.
507. Kamata T, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H. Metabolism and toxicological
analyses of hallucinogenic tryptamine analogues being abused in Japan.
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2010;28(1):1-8.
508. Martins CPB, Awan MA, Freeman S, Herraiz T, Alder JF, Brandt SD.
Fingerprint analysis of thermolytic decarboxylation of tryptophan to
tryptamine catalyzed by natural oils. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
A 2008;1210(1):115-120.
509. Martins CPB, Freeman S, Alder JF, Passie T, Brandt SD. Profiling
psychoactive tryptamine-drug synthesis by focusing on detection using
mass spectrometry. TrAC-TRENDS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2010;29(4):285-296.
510. Martins CPB, Freeman S, Alder JF, Brandt SD. Characterisation of a
proposed internet synthesis of N,N-dimethyltryptamine using liquid
chromatography/electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(33):6119-6123.
511. McIlhenny EH, Pipkin KE, Standish LJ, Wechkin HA, Strassman R, Barker
SA. Direct analysis of psychoactive tryptamine and harmala alkaloids in
the Amazonian botanical medicine ayahuasca by liquid chromatographyelectrospray
ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(51):8960-8968.
512. Nakamoto A, Namera A, Yahata M, Kuramoto T, Nishida M, Yashiki M. A
systematic toxicological analysis for hallucinogenic tryptamines in seized
and biological materials. HIROSHIMA DAIGAKU IGAKU ZASSHI
2007;55(1-3):1-14.
513. Ouyang YZ, Liang YZ, Li SH, Luo X, Zhang LX, Tang ZH, Xu XN.
Interpretation of the characteristic fragmentation mechanisms
through determining the initial ionization site by natural spin density:
A study on the derivatives of tryptophan and tryptamine.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009;286(2-
3):112-121.
514. Pichini S, Pujades M, Marchei E, Pellegrini M, Fiz J, Pacifici R, Zuccaro P,
Farre M, de la Torre R. Liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure
ionization electrospray mass spectrometry determination of
“hallucinogenic designer drugs” in urine of consumers. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2008;47(2):335-342.
515. Runguphan W, Maresh JJ, O'Connor SE. Silencing of tryptamine
biosynthesis for production of nonnatural alkaloids in plant culture.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 2009;106(33):13673-13678.
782

516. Salum Pires AP, Rodrigues De Oliveira CD, Moura S, Doerr FA, Silva
WAE, Yonamine M. Gas chromatographic analysis of dimethyltryptamine
and beta-carboline alkaloids in ayahuasca, an amazonian psychoactive
plant beverage. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 2009;20(2):149-153.
517. Takahashi M, Nagashima M, Suzuki J, Seto T, Yasuda I, Yoshida T.
Creation and application of psychoactive designer drugs data library using
liquid chromatography with photodiode array spectrophotometry detector
and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. TALANTA 2009;77(4):1245-
1272.
518. Takahashi M, Nagashima M, Suzuki J, Seto T, Yasuda I, Yoshida T.
Analysis of phenethylamines and tryptamines in designer drugs using gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCE
2008;54(1):89-96.
519. Uchiyama N, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawahara N, Goda Y. Analysis of
designer drugs detected in the products purchased in fiscal year 2006.
YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY
OF JAPAN 2008;128(10):1499-1505.
520. Uchiyama N, Miyazawa N, Kawamura M, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y.
Analysis of newly distributed designer drugs detected in the products
purchased in fiscal year 2008. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE
PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2010;130(2):263-270.
521. Wang M-J, Liu J-T, Chen H-M, Lin J-J, Lin C-H. Comparison of the
separation of nine tryptamine standards based on gas chromatography,
high performance liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis
methods. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1181(1-2):131-
136.
522. Wang MJ, Tsai CH, Hsu WY, Liu JT, Lin CH. Optimization of separation
and online sample concentration of N,N-dimethyltryptamine and related
compounds using MEKC. JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE
2009;32(3):441-445.
523. Westphal F, Junge T, Roesner P, Fritschi G, Klein B, Girreser U. Mass
spectral and NMR spectral data of two new designer drugs with an αaminophenone
structure: 4'-Methyl-α-pyrrolidinohexanophenone and 4'methyl-α-pyrrolidinobutyrophenone.
FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2007;169(1):32.
524. Wolf EU, Raziel A, Katz Y. The “periodic table” of designer drugs in Israel.
JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING
CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;20(2):19-20.
525. Zaitsu K, Katagi M, Kamata T, Kamata H, Shima N, Tsuchihashi
H, Hayashi T, Kuroki H, Matoba R. Determination of a newly encountered
designer drug "p-methoxyethylamphetamine" and its metabolites in human
urine and blood. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;177(1):77-84.
783

1.38 Zaleplon:
526. Bharathi C, Prabahar KJ, Prasad CS, Kumar MS, Magesh S, Handa VK,
Dandala R, Naidu A. Impurity profile study of Zaleplon. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2007;44(1):101-109.
527. Metwally FH, Abdelkawy M, Abdelwahab NS. Application of
spectrophotometric, densitometric, and HPLC techniques as stability
indicating methods for determination of Zaleplon in pharmaceutical
preparations. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA PART A-MOLECULAR AND
BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2007;68(5):1220-1230.
528. Radl S, Blahovcova M, Placek L, Pekarek T, Havlicek J. Synthesis of
some impurities and/or degradation products of Zaleplon. JOURNAL OF
HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY 2010;47(2):276-283.
1.39 Zolpidem:
529. Emshanova SV, Veselova NI, Zuev AP, Sadchikova NP. Direct molding
technology for the production of Zolpidem tablets. KHIMIKO-
FARMATSEVTICHESKII ZHURNAL 2007;41(12):37-39.
530. Halasz I, Dinnebier RE. Structural and thermal characterization of
Zolpidem hemitartrate hemihydrate (form e) and its decomposition
products by laboratory x-ray powder diffraction. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2010;99(2):871-878.
531. Owen RT. Novel Zolpidem formulations. DRUGS OF TODAY
2009;45(5):395-400.
532. Pushpalatha P, Sarin RK, Rao MA, Baggi TRR. A new thin-layer
chromatographic method for analysis of Zolpidem and Zopiclone. JPC-
JOURNAL OF PLANAR CHROMATOGRAPHY-MODERN TLC
2009;22(6):449-451.
533. Sumalatha Y, Reddy PP, Reddy R, Satyanarayana B. Synthesis and
spectral characterization of process-related substances to the hypnotic
agent Zolpidem. ARKIVOC 2009;143-149.
534. Sumalatha Y, Reddy TR, Reddy PP, Satyanarayana B. A simple, efficient
and scalable synthesis of hypnotic agent, Zolpidem. ARKIVOC 2009;315-
320.
1.40 Zopiclone:
535. Gomis DB, Velasco CB, Sanchez IH, Alvarez MDG. Optimization by
factorial design of a capillary electrophoresis method for the chiral
resolution and determination of Zopiclone and its synthesis precursor.
JOURNAL OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY & RELATED
TECHNOLOGIES 2009;32(18):2654-2668.
784

536. Chen YY, Liu JJ, Tang KW. Study on inclusion complexes of betacyclodextrin
with Zopiclone. SPECTROSCOPY AND SPECTRAL
ANALYSIS 2008;28(10):2380-2383.
537. Jerussi TP, Fang QK. Compositions comprising Zopiclone derivatives and
methods of making and using the same. PN US 07456173 AE Sepracor
Inc. Official Gazette of the United States Patent and Trademark Office
Patents 2008.
538. Sangaraju S, Kanth ML, Rao BM, Someswararao N. Enantiomeric
separation of S-Zopiclone and its R-enantiomer in bulk drug samples by
validated chiral RP-HPLC. PHARMAZIE 2009;64(11):717-719.
539. Yilmaz S. Adsorptive stripping voltammetric determination of Zopiclone in
tablet dosage forms and human urine. COLLOIDS AND SURFACES B:
BIOINTERFACES 2009;71(1):79-83.
1.41 Miscellaneous:
540. Suzuki J, Takahashi M, Nagashima M, Seto T, Mori K, Ogino S.
Determination of chloral hydrate in unapproved/unpermitted drugs.
TOKYO-TO KENKO ANZEN KENKYU SENTA KENKYU NENPO
2009;59:79-84.
541. Tcheremissine OV. Is quetiapine a drug of abuse? Reexamining the issue
of addiction. EXPERT OPINION ON DRUG SAFETY 2008;7(6):739-48.
2. Synthesis and/or Cultivation of Abused Substances, their
Issue:
Precursors, and Essential Chemicals
Forensic chemists must maintain familiarity with existing and new clandestine
syntheses of abused substances, their precursors, and essential chemicals, and
with the cultivation of abused natural products, in order to assist enforcement
activities, to ensure safety and effectiveness during enforcement operations, and
to provide expert testimony in legal proceedings.
Solution:
Illicit drug seizures, clandestine laboratory operations, and illicit grow operations,
are continuously monitored to maintain a comprehensive overview of the field. In
cases where new drugs are synthesized, or new methodologies are utilized, case
reports are generated for the forensic and enforcement communities.
785

2.1 Production of Abused Substances and/or their Precursors and
Essential Chemicals:
542. Alacid E, Najera C. Regioselective Heck reaction of N-vinylphthalimide: A
general strategy for the synthesis of (E)-N-styrylphthalimides and
phenethylamines. ADVANCED SYNTHESIS & CATALYSIS
2008;350(9):1316-1322.
543. Allwein SP, McWilliams JC, Secord EA, Mowrey DR, Nelson TD, Kress
MH. Efficient synthesis of chiral phenethylamines: Preparation,
asymmetric hydrogenation, and mild deprotection of enetrifluoroacetamides.
TETRAHEDRON LETTERS 2006;47:6409-6412.
544. Barreto RD, Nascimbem LBLR, Correia CRD. Synthesis of the 3-(3,4,5trimethoxyphenyl)pyrrolidine:
A new conformationally constrained
mescaline analogue. SYNTHETIC COMMUNICATIONS 2007;37:2011-
2018.
545. Bergman YE, Mulder R, Perlmutter P. Total synthesis of 20-Norsalvinorin
A. 1. Preparation of a key intermediate. JOURNAL OF ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY 2009;74(6):2589-2591.
546. Bikbulatov RV, Stewart J, Jin WT, Yan F, Roth BL, Ferreira D, Zjawiony
JK. Short synthesis of a novel class of salvinorin A analogs
with hemiacetalic structure. TETRAHEDRON LETTERS 2008;49(6):937-
940.
547. Brandt SD, Tirunarayanapuram SS, Freeman S, Dempster N, Barker SA,
Daley PF, Cozzi NV, Martins CPB. Microwave-accelerated synthesis of
psychoactive deuterated N,N-dialkylated-[alpha,alpha,beta,beta-d(4)]tryptamines.
JOURNAL OF LABELLED COMPOUNDS AND
RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS 2008;51(13-14):423-429.
548. Carroll RJ, Leisch H, Rochon L, Hudlicky T, Cox DP. One-pot conversion
of thebaine to hydrocodone and synthesis of neopinone ketal. JOURNAL
OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2009;74(4):1812-1812.
549. Chen YW, Gao MZ, Tan SD, Reibenspies JH, Zingaro RA. Synthesis and
structures of new C-2-symmetrical chiral macrocycles containing the
ephedrine moiety. HETEROCYCLES 2009;78(4):891-897.
550. Cloonan SM, Keating JJ, Corrigan D, O'Brien JE, Kavanagh PV, Williams
DC, Meegan MJ. Synthesis and in vitro toxicity of 4-MTA, its characteristic
clandestine synthesis byproducts and related sulfur substituted alphaalkylthioamphetamines.
BIOORGANIC & MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
2010;18(11):4009-4031.
551. Coote SJ, Davies SG, Fletcher AM, Roberts PM, Thomson JE.
Enantiospecific Stereodivergent synthesis of trans- and cis-N(2),3dimethyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolines.
CHEMISTRY-AN
ASIAN JOURNAL 2010;5(3):589-604.
552. Cox M. The source of tolualdehyde derived oxazolidines in clandestine
laboratory samples. AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2008;40(2):161-170.
786

553. Cox M, Klass G, Wei Min Koo C. Forensic aspects of the
biotransformation of benzaldehyde used in the synthesis of
methamphetamine, Part 1: Reaction conditions, stereochemical outcomes,
and the use of other substituted benaldehydes. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;19(4):23.
554. Dal Cason TA. Synthesis and identification of N,N-dimethylcathinone
hydrochloride. MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2007;5(1-4):3-12.
555. Davis SF, Culshaw PN, Wermuth UD. The production of phenyl-2propanone
from benzaldehyde via a baeyer-villiger reaction. JOURNAL
OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;18(1):28.
556. Edwankar CR, Edwankar RV, Namjoshi OA, Rallapalli SK, Yang J, Cook
JM. Recent progress in the total synthesis of indole alkaloids. CURRENT
OPINION IN DRUG DISCOVERY & DEVELOPMENT 2009;12(6):752-
771.
557. Gould C. iodine recovery from povidone-iodine solutions and its use in
clandestine methamphetamine synthesis. 2008 American Academy of
Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
558. Groeper JA, Eagles JB, Hitchcock SR. A facile, one-pot synthesis of
Ephedra-based aziridines. TETRAHEDRON-ASYMMETRY
2009;20(17):1969-1974.
559. Guizzetti S, Benaglia M, Biaggi C, Celentano G. A convenient, highly
stereoselective, metal-free synthesis of chiral amines. SYNLETT
2010;(1):134-136.
560. Guy M, Freeman S, Alder JF, Brandt SD. The Henry Reaction:
Spectroscopic studies of nitrile and hydroxylamine by-products formed
during synthesis of psychoactive phenylalkylamines. CENTRAL
EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2008;6(4):526-534.
561. Hagiwara H, Nozawa M. Highly oxygenated diterpenoids associated to the
central nervous system: Syntheses of salvinorin and forskolin. JOURNAL
OF SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY JAPAN 2009;67(11):1115-1124.
562. Hagiwara H, Suka Y, Nojima T, Hoshi T, Suzuki T. Second-generation
synthesis of salvinorin A. TETRAHEDRON 2009;65(25):4820-4825.
563. Hu CM, Qin H, Cui YX, Jia YX. Palladium-catalyzed synthesis of
tryptamines and tryptamine homologues: Synthesis of psilocin.
TETRAHEDRON 2009;65(45):9075-9080.
564. Inuki S, Oishi S, Fujii N, Ohno H. Total synthesis of (+/-)-lysergic acid,
lysergol, and isolysergol by palladium-catalyzed domino cyclization of
amino allenes bearing a bromoindolyl group. ORGANIC LETTERS
2008;10(22):5239-5242.
565. Kesharwani S, Sahu NK, Kohli DV. Synthesis And biological evaluation of
some new spiro derivatives of barbituric acid. PHARMACEUTICAL
CHEMISTRY JOURNAL 2009;43(6):315-319.
787

566. Kok G, Ashton TD, Scammells PJ. An improved process for the Ndemethylation
of opiate alkaloids using an iron(ii) catalyst in acetate
buffer. ADVANCED SYNTHESIS & CATALYSIS 2009;351(1-2):283-286.
567. Kurokawa T, Isomura M, Tokuyama H, Fukuyama T. Synthesis of lysergic
acid methyl ester via the double cyclization strategy. SYNLETT
2009;(5):775-778.
568. Lozama A, Prisinzano TE. Chemical methods for the synthesis and
modification of neoclerodane diterpenes. BIOORGANIC & MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY LETTERS 2009;19(18):5490-5495.
569. Ma J, Yin WY, Zhou H, Liao XB, Cook JM. General approach to the total
synthesis of 9-methoxy-substituted indole alkaloids: Synthesis of
mitragynine, as well as 9-methoxygeissoschizol and 9-methoxy-N-bmethylgeissoschizol.
JOURNAL OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
2009;74(1):264-273.
570. Ma ZZ, Lee DYW. Synthesis of deacetyl-1,10-didehydrosalvinorin G.
TETRAHEDRON LETTERS 2008;49(11):1782-1785.
571. Magnus P, Sane N, Fauber BP, Lynch V. Concise syntheses of (-)galanthamine
and (+/)-codeine via intramolecular alkylation of a phenol
derivative. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
2009;131(44):16045.
572. Mayo E, Coxon A, Johnson C. The reduction of pseudoephedrine to
methamphetamine using phosphorous acid and iodine. JOURNAL OF
THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;19(3):30.
573. Michaelis DJ, Dineen TA. Ring opening of aziridines with orthobromophenyl
metal reagents: Synthesis of 2-substituted indolines.
TETRAHEDRON LETTERS 2009;50(17):1920-1923.
574. Nicolaou KC, Krasovskiy A, Majumder U, Trepanier VE, Chen DYK. New
synthetic technologies for the construction of heterocycles
and tryptamines. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
2009;131(10):3690-3699.
575. Nicolaou KC, Krasovskiy A, Trepanier VE, Chen DYK. An expedient
strategy for the synthesis of tryptamines and other heterocycles.
ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE-INTERNATIONAL EDITION 2008;47(22):4217-
4220.
576. Norman K. The synthesis of amphetamine and methamphetamine: A “big”
picture. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY
INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;19(3):10-29.
577. Nozawa M, Suka Y, Hoshi T, Suzuki T, Hagiwara H. Total synthesis of the
hallucinogenic neoclerodane diterpenoid salvinorin A. ORGANIC
LETTERS 2008;10(7):1365-1368.
578. Painter B, Pigou PE, W.M. Koo C. The Willgerodt-Kindler reaction. Part 1:
Styrene to methamphetamine. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;19(4):53.
788

579. Pan ZR, Zheng HG, Wang TW, Song Y, Li YZ, Guo ZJ, Batten SR.
Hydrothermal synthesis, structures, and physical properties of four new
flexible multicarboxylate ligands-based compounds. INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY 2008;47(20):9528-9536.
580. Pearson JR, Reid EF, Rowe JE. The preparation of y-butyrolactone from
readily available starting materials. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;19(1):8.
581. Refat MS, EI-Korashy SA, Ahmed AS. A convenient method for the
preparation of barbituric and thiobarbituric acid transition metal
complexes. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA PART A-MOLECULAR AND
BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2008;71(3):1084-1094.
582. Scheerer JR, Lawrence JF, Wang GC, Evans DA. Asymmetric synthesis
of salvinorin A, a potent kappa opioid receptor agonist. JOURNAL OF
THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2007;129:8968.
583. Sengmany S, Le Gall E, Le Jean C, Troupel M, Nedelec JY.
Straightforward three-component synthesis of diarylmethylpiperazines and
1,2-diarylethylpiperazines. TETRAHEDRON 2007;63:3672-3681.
584. Stork G, Yamashita A, Adams J, Schulte GR, Chesworth R, Miyazaki
Y, Farmer JJ. Regiospecific and stereoselective syntheses of (+/-)
morphine codeine and thebaine via a highly stereocontrolled
intramolecular 4+2 cycloaddition leading to a phenanthrofuran system.
JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY
2009;131(32):11402-11406.
585. Toske SG, Hays PA, Geer BL. The synthesis and identification of Nacetylpseudoephedrine
and N-acetylephedrine. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;20(2):8.
586. Walker AR, Love DW, Bordelon JA. Phosphorous acid flakes used as a
substitute for red phosphorus in the reduction of (pseudo) ephedrine to
methamphetamine. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY
INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;20(2):14.
587. Yamauchi T, Hagiwara S, Higashiyama K. Concise Total synthesis of (-)deoxocuscohygrine
and (-)-dihydrocuscohygrine. JOURNAL OF
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2008;73(24):9784-9787.
588. Yan F, Bikbulatov RV, Mocanu V, Dicheva N, Parker CE, Wetsel
WC, Mosier PD, Westkaemper RB, Allen JA, Zjawiony JK, Roth BL.
Structure-based design, synthesis, and biochemical and
pharmacological characterization of novel salvinorin a analogues as active
state probes of the kappa-opioid receptor. BIOCHEMISTRY
2009;48(29):6898-6908.
589. Yang L, Xu W, Chen F, Liu-Chen LY, Ma ZZ, Lee DYW. Synthesis and
biological evaluation of C-12 triazole and oxadiazole analogs of salvinorin
A. BIOORGANIC & MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS
2009;19(5):1301-1304.
789

590. Yun H, Kim BG. Enzymatic production of (R)-phenylacetylcarbinol by
pyruvate decarboxylase from Zymomonas mobilis. BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING 2008;13(3):372-376.
591. Zhang L, Ding ZY, Shi GY. Asymmetric biosynthesis of (1S,2S)-ephedrine
by Morganella morganii CMCC(B)49208. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF
BIOTECHNOLOGY 2009;8(4):694-698.
3. Clandestine Laboratories - Appraisals and Safety
Issue:
Forensic chemists must maintain familiarity with clandestine laboratory
procedures, setups, and techniques in order to assist enforcement activities, to
ensure safety and effectiveness during enforcement operations, and in order to
provide expert testimony in court proceedings.
Solution:
Clandestine laboratory operations are continuously reviewed to provide a
comprehensive overview of the field. In cases where new methodologies are
noted, or unusual safety concerns are salient, reports are generated for the
forensic and enforcement communities.
3.1 General
592. Coxon A, McLeay N, Ranaweera N. Development of scene examination
software for clandestine drug laboratory scenes. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;18(1):23.
593. Coxon A. The cost of “p-lab” callouts. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;18(1):10.
594. MacFarlane KJ, Neely IJ. Identification of hypophosphorous and
hydrochloric acid mixtures encountered at clandestine laboratories.
JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING
CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;19(2):16.
595. Man G, Stoeber B, Walus K. An assessment of sensing technologies for
the detection of clandestine methamphetamine drug laboratories.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;189(1-3):1-13.
596. Montefusco V. An improved scent transfer device for collecting evidence
at a crime scene. U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ. US 2008 87,110.
790

597. Norman K. Improvised containers used for hydrogen chloride gas
generation at a clandestine drug laboratory. JOURNAL OF THE
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;18(3):17.
598. Solomon KR, Anadon A, Brain RA, Cerdeira AL, Crossan AN, Marshall J,
Sanin LH, Smith L. Comparative hazard assessment of the substances
used for production and control of coca and poppy in colombia.
RATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF AGROCHEMICALS:
RISK ASSESSMENT, MONITORING, AND REMEDIAL ACTION
2007;966:87-99.
599. Solomon KR, Marshall EJP. Production of illicit drugs, the environment,
and human health. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH-PART A-CURRENT ISSUES 2009;72(15-
16):913-913.
600. Wong L, Sannerud C, Carr S. Clandestine laboratory, synthetic drugs and
precursor chemicals trends in the united states over a seven year period,
2001-2007. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual
Meeting.
3.2 Clandestine Laboratory Appraisals and Safety:
601. Abdullah AFL, Miskelly GM. Recoveries of trace pseudoephedrine and
methamphetamine residues from impermeable household surfaces:
Implications for sampling methods used during remediation of clandestine
methamphetamine laboratories. TALANTA 2010;81(1-2):455-461.
602. Cotner J, Cole B, Healy J. Quantitative comparison of common
decontamination methods. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;18(1):6.
603. McLeod V, Ketcham G. The safety guys: Introduction to clandestine drug
laboratories - A serious health and safety concern. FORENSIC
MAGAZINE 2007;4(3):48.
604. Patrick G, Daniell W, Treser C. Residual methamphetamine in
decontaminated clandestine drug laboratories. JOURNAL OF
OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2009;6(3):151-156.
605. VanDyke M, Erb N, Arbuckle S, Martyny J. A 24-hour study to investigate
persistent chemical exposures associated with clandestine
methamphetamine laboratories. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2009;6(2):82-89.
3.3 Safety Issues - Case Reports:
606. Burge M, Hunsaker JC, Davis GJ. Death of a toddler due to ingestion of
sulfuric acid at a clandestine home methamphetamine laboratory.
JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 2010;285(2):298-301.
791

607. Grant P, Bell K, Stewart D, Paulson J, Rogers K. Evidence of
methamphetamine exposure in children removed from clandestine
methamphetamine laboratories. PEDIATRIC EMERGENCY CARE
2010;26(1):10-14.
608. Savopolos, JA, Person EC. Date rape drugs and children’s toys.
JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING
CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;18(1):4.
609. Wells SM, Noonan C, Wells KM, Holian A, Wibbemmeyer LA. Effects of
toxic gases: methamphetamine inhalation. JOURNAL OF BURN CARE &
RESEARCH 2009;30(1):152-154.
610. Witter RZ, Martyny JW, Mueller K, Gottschall B, Newman LS. Symptoms
experienced by law enforcement personnel during methamphetamine lab
investigations. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
HYGIENE 2007;4:895-902.
3.4 Miscellaneous:
611. Frish MB, Wainner RT, Laderer MC, Green BD, Allen MG. Standoff and
miniature chemical vapor detectors based on tunable diode laser
absorption spectroscopy. IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL 2010;10(3):639-
646.
612. Zipf EC. Emission detector for the remote detection of explosives and
illegal drugs. (Patent) CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS 2007:874282.
4 Reference Drug Standards and Total Syntheses
Issue:
Many reference drug standards or structurally related internal standards are
either commercially unavailable, or if available are extremely expensive.
Solution:
Controlled substances and their structural or isotopically labelled analogs are
synthesized as needed. Internal standards are also prepared as needed. Case
reports are published for new or unusual standards or improved synthetic
approaches.
4.1 General
608. Rundlof T, Mathiasson M, Bekiroglu S, Hakkarainen B, Bowden T,
Arvidsson T. Survey and qualification of internal standards for
quantification by H-1 NMR spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2010;52(5):645-651.
792

609. Schwarz M, Klier B, Sievers H. Herbal reference standards. PLANTA
MEDICA 2009;75(7):689-703.
610. Shaikh AC, Chen CP. Synthesis of deuterium-labeled Zaleplon-d(5) as an
internal standard. JOURNAL OF LABELLED COMPOUNDS &
RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS 2008;51(1-2):72-76.
611. Shaikh AC, Wang YY, Chen CP. Synthesis of deuterium-labelled
standards of (+/-)-DOM and (+/-)-MMDA. JOURNAL OF LABELLED
COMPOUNDS & RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS 2007;50(7-8):660-665.
612. Sharpless KE, Duewer DL. Standard reference materials for analysis of
dietary supplements. JOURNAL OF AOAC INTERNATIONAL
2008;91(6):1298-1302.
613. Sharpless KE, Thomas JB, Christopher SJ, Greenberg RR, Sander
LC, Schantz MM, Welch MJ, Wise SA. Standard reference materials for
foods and dietary supplements. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2007;389:171-178.
614. Wang YY, Chen C. Synthesis of deuterium labeled tryptamine derivatives.
JOURNAL OF THE CHINESE CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2007;54(5):1363-
1368.
615. Wang YY, Chen CP. Synthesis of a deuterium-labelled standard of
bufotenine (5-HO-DMT). JOURNAL OF LABELLED COMPOUNDS &
RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS 2007;50(13-14):1262-1265.
616. You ZY, Chen YJ, Wang YY, Chen CP. Synthesis of deuterium labeled
standards of 1-benzylpiperazine, fenetylline, nicocodeine and
nicomorphine. JOURNAL OF THE CHINESE CHEMICAL SOCIETY
2008;55(3):663-667.
5. Source Determination of Drugs (Impurity Profiling) and Comparative
Issues:
Analyses
Impurity profiling of drugs is important for comparative analysis protocols, geosourcing,
and synthetic route determinations. However, although certain drugs
have been well characterized with respect to their impurity profiles, most have
not been properly investigated.
Comparative analysis (i.e., the systematic application of impurity profiling for
determination of commonality of origin) is complicated due to both the high
complexity of the data and the large numbers of exhibits. Improved analytical
and data handling techniques are needed.
793

Solution:
High sensitivity analytical techniques (primarily chromatographic) provide
detailed profiles of trace-level impurities, ions, trace metals, and stable isotopes.
Identification of individual impurities enhance origin identification and
comparative analyses and also aid in development of internal standards for
improved accuracy and precision of analysis.
In-depth analysis via improved instrumental methodologies help identify
discriminatory components in impurity profiles. Computer databases, sorting
programs, and pattern recognition/neural networks provide enhanced data
handling and analysis, enabling and improving comparative analyses.
Case reports are generated for the forensic and enforcement communities.
5.1 Amphetamine(s):
617. Kokiashvili NG, Wongwan S, Landgraf C, Michaelis K, Hammitzsch-
Wiedemann M, Scriba GKE. Profiling of levoamphetamine and related
substances in dexamphetamine sulfate by capillary electrophoresis.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS
2009;50(5):1050-1053.
618. Zhang J, Zhang D. Study on the optimization methods of common-batch
identification of amphetamine samples. WEISHENG YANJIU
2008;37(4):505-507.
5.2 Cocaine:
619. Dujourdy L, Besacier F. Headspace profiling of cocaine samples for
intelligence purposes. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;179(2-3):111-122.
620. Galimov EM, Sevast’yanov VS, Kul’bachevskaya EV, Golyavin AA. The
identification of the geographical origin of narcotic drugs based on the
carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios. MASS-SPEKTROMETRIYA
2004;1(1):31.
621. Garzon WF, Parada F, Florian NM. Forensic analysis of cocaine samples
produced in colombia: I. Chromatographic profiling. VITAE-REVISTA DE
LA FACULTAD DE QUIMICA FARMACEUTICA 2009;16(2):228-236.
622. Garzon WF, Parada F, Florian NM. Forensic analysis of cocaine samples
produced in colombia: I. Chromatographic profiling. VITAE-REVISTA DE
LA FACULTAD DE QUIMICA FARMACEUTICA 2009;16(2):220-227.
623. Lociciro S, Hayoz P, Esseiva P, Dujourdy L, Besacier F, Margot P.
Cocaine profiling for strategic intelligence purposes, a cross-border project
between France and Switzerland - Part I. Optimisation and harmonisation
of the profiling method. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2007;167(2-3):220-228.
794

624. Lociciro S, Esseiva P, Hayoz P, Dujourdy L, Besacier F, Margot P.
Cocaine profiling for strategic intelligence, a cross-border project between
France and Switzerland - Part II. Validation of the statistical methodology
for the profiling of cocaine. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;177(2-3):199-206.
625. Sewenig S, Fichtner S, Holdermann T, Fritschi G, Neumann H.
Determination of delta C-13(V-PDB) and delta N-15(AIR) values
of cocaine from a big seizure in Germany by stable isotope ratio
mass spectrometry. ISOTOPES IN ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH
STUDIES 2007;43(4):275-280.
5.3 Heroin:
626. Cai XL, Wu GP. Preliminary study on identification of heroin from different
routes with clustering analysis by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.
SPECTROSCOPY AND SPECTRAL ANALYSIS 2007;27(12):2441-2444.
627. Dufey V, Dujourdy L, Besacier F, Chaudron H. A quick and automated
method for profiling heroin samples for tactical intelligence purposes.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;169(2-3):108-117.
628. Hibbert DB, Blackmore D, Li JF, Ebrahimi D, Collins M, Vujic S,
Gavoyannis P. A probabilistic approach to heroin signatures.
ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2010;396(2):765-773.
629. Huai C, Chen G, Hong L, Fan L, Ping F, Zhao W, Yang H, Su S, Wen Y. A
new method to differentiate heroin source and the use of software.
JISUANJI YU YINGYONG HUAXUE 2008;25(11):1329-1333.
630. Lurie IS, Toske SG. Applicability of ultra-performance liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for heroin profiling.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1188(2):322-326.
631. Morello DR, Cooper SD, Panicker S, Casale JF. Signature profiling and
classification of illicit heroin by gc-ms analysis of acidic and neutral
manufacturing impurities. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2010;55(1):42-49.
632. Nguyen XT, Hoang MH, Do DN, Tran VS. Establishment of the method for
analysis of solvent residue in heroin samples to track the origin. TAP CHI
DUOC HOC 2007;47(2):34.
633. Odell LR, Skopec J, McCluskey A. Isolation and identification of unique
marker compounds from the Tasmanian poppy Papaver somniferum N.
Implications for the identification of illicit heroin of Tasmanian origin.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;183(1-3):105-106.
634. Odell LR, Skopec J, McCluskey A. Isolation and identification of unique
marker compounds from the Tasmanian poppy Papaver somniferum N.
Implications for the identification of illicit heroin of Tasmanian origin.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;175(2-3):202-208.
635. Qian Z, Zhang C, Zheng H. Determination on heroin geographical source
by capillary electrophoresis and principal component analysis. HUAXUE
FENXI JILIANG 2008;17(2):31-33.
795

636. Qian Z, Zhang C, Zheng H. Determination of heroin geographical source
by capillary electrophoresis and discriminant analysis. HUAXUE FENXI
JILIANG 2008;17(4):40-42.
637. Wang Y, Wen Y, Luo A, Zou H. Application of hierarchical clustering to the
classification of spectra of pyrolytic cracking of heroin. LIHUA JIANYAN,
HUAXUE FENCE 2008;44(3):205-208.
638. Wen Y, Zhang J. Testing of 15 elements in heroin produced in different
areas by ICP-AES. LIHUA JIANYAN, HUAZUE FENCE 2008;44(10):980-
985.
639. Xing H, Ma G, Zhang C, Bai Y. Application of chemometrics in heroin
source determination. JISUANJI YU YINGYONG HUAXUE
2008;25(4):437-440.
640. Zhang C, Zheng H, Qian Z. Rapid test and source determination of heroin
samples by GC/FID. HUAXUE FENXI JILIANG 2007;16(5):39-41.
5.4 Marijuana:
641. Ehleringer JR, West J, Hurley J. Geographical region of origin and
cultivation assignments of marijuana seizures in major cities. The Fourth
Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
642. ElSohly MA, Stanford DF, Murphy TP. Chemical fingerprinting of cannabis
as a means of source identification. FORENSIC SCIENCE AND
MEDICINE 2007;51-66.
643. Gilmore S, Peakall R, Robertson J. Organelle DNA haplotypes reflect
crop-use characteristics and geographic origins of Cannabis sativa.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;172(2-3):179.
644. Hurley JM, West JB, Ehleringer JR. Tracing retail cannabis in the United
States: Geographic origin and cultivation patterns. INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2010;21(3):222-228.
645. Shibuya EK, Sarkis JES, Negrini-Neto O, Ometto JPHB. Multivariate
classification based on chemical and stable isotopic profiles in sourcing
the origin of marijuana samples seized in Brazil. JOURNAL OF THE
BRAZILIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2007;18(1):205-214.
646. West JB, Hurley JM, Ehleringer JR. Stable Isotope Ratios of Marijuana. I.
Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotopes Describe Growth Conditions.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2009;54(1):84-89.
647. West JB, Hurley JM, Dudas FO, Ehleringer JR. The stable isotope ratios
of marijuana. II. Strontium isotopes relate to geographic origin. JOURNAL
OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2009;54(6):1261-1269.
648. Zacca JJ, Fava N, Santos RV, Mancini LH, Bastos MQ, Pacheco WL,
Lima BA. Stable Isotope Ratios of Marijuana from Brazil and Paraguay:
Carbon and Nitrogen as Guides for Growth Conditions. The Fourth
Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
796

5.5 Methamphetamine:
649. Billault I, Courant F, Pasquereau L, Derrien S, Robins RJ, Naulet N.
Correlation between the synthetic origin of methamphetamine samples
and their N-15 and C-13 stable isotope ratios. ANALYTICA CHIMICA
ACTA 2007;593(1):20-29.
650. Collins M, Cawley AT, Heagney AC, Kissane L, Robertson J, Salouros H.
delta C-13, delta N-15 and delta H-2 isotope ratio mass spectrometry
of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine: application to methylamphetamine
profiling. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY
2009;23(13):2003-2010.
651. Cox M, Klass G, Koo CWM. Manufacturing by-products from, and
stereochemical outcomes of the biotransformation of benzaldehyde used
in the synthesis of methamphetamine. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2009;189(1-3):60-67.
652. David GE, Hibbert DB, Frew RD, Hayman AR. Significant determinants of
isotope composition during hi/p-red synthesis of methamphetamine.
AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY 2010;63(1):22-29.
653. Dujourdy L, Dufey V, Besacier F, Miano N, Marquis R, Lock E, Aalberg L,
Dieckmann S, Zrcek F, Bozenko JS. Drug intelligence based on organic
impurities in illicit MA samples. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;177(2-3):153-161.
654. Ikehara Y, Kurashima N, Makino Y, Nagano T, Sanuki K, Urano Y. Use of
stable isotope ratios for profiling of industrial ephedrine samples:
Application of hydrogen isotope ratios in combination with carbon and
nitrogen. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;189(1-3):14-18.
655. Inoue H, Iwata YT, Kuwayama K. Characterization and profiling of
methamphetamine seizures. JOURNAL OF HEALTH SCIENCE
2008;54(6):615-622.
656. Iwata YT, Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Inoue H.
Evaluation method for linking methamphetamine seizures using stable
carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions: A complementary study with
impurity profiling. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2008;22(23):3816-3822.
657. Ko BJ, Suh SI, Suh YJ, In MK, Kim SH. The impurity characteristics of
methamphetamine synthesized by Emde and Nagai method. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;170(2-3):142.
658. Kunalan V, Nic Daeid N, Kerr WJ, Buchanan HAS, McPherson AR.
Characterization of route specific impurities found in methamphetamine
synthesized by the leuckart and reductive amination methods.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;81(17):7342-7348.
659. Kurashima N, Makino Y, Urano Y, Sanuki K, Ikehara Y, Nagano T. Use of
stable isotope ratios for profiling of industrial ephedrine samples:
Application of hydrogen isotope ratios in combination with carbon and
nitrogen. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;189(1-3):14-18.
797

660. Kuwayama K, Inoue H, Kanamori T, Tsujikawa K, Miyaguchi H, Iwata Y,
Kamo N, Kishi T. Contribution of thermal desorption and liquid-liquid
extraction for identification and profiling of impurities in methamphetamine
by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2007;171(1):9-15.
661. Kuwayama K, Inoue H, Phorachata J, Kongpatnitiroj K, Puthaviriyakorn V,
Tsujikawa K, Miyaguchi H, Kanamori T, Iwata YT, Kamo N, Kishi T.
Comparison and classification of methamphetamine seized in Japan and
Thailand using gas chromatography with liquid-liquid extraction and solidphase
microextraction. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;175(2-3):85-92.
662. Lee JS, Chung HS, Kuwayama K, Inoue H, Lee MY, Park JH.
Determination of impurities in illicit methamphetamine seized in Korea and
Japan. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;619(1):20-25.
663. Lee JS, Yang WK, Han EY, Lee SY, Park YH, Lim MA, Chung HS, Park
JH. Monitoring precursor chemicals of methamphetamine through
enantiomer profiling. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2007;173(1):68.
664. Li Q, Xu H, Song Z, Li Q. Analysis of organic impurity profiling of illicit
methamphetamine bydrochloride crystal by GC-MS. FENXI CESHI
XUEBAO 2007;26(3):310-314.
665. Matsumoto T, Urano Y, Makino Y, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Kawahara N, Goda
Y, Nagano T. Evaluation of characteristic deuterium distributions of
ephedrines and methamphetamines by NMR spectroscopy for drug
profiling. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;80(4):1176-1181.
666. Person EC, Golden ML. Current views on the molecular structures of
phosphorus allotropes. JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE
LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION
2008;19(4):20.
667. Person E, Heegel RA, Knops LA, Northrop DM. Phosphorus-containing
reducing agents: a review of their chemistry and use in the manufacture of
methamphetamine and the significance of observed phosphate, phosphite,
and hypophosphite in clandestine laboratory casework. JOURNAL OF
THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING CHEMISTS
ASSOCIATION 2008;18(2):7-38.
668. Qi Y, Evans I, McCluskey A. New impurity profiles of recent Australian
imported “Ice”: Methamphetamine impurity profiling and the identification
of (pseudo)ephedrine and Leuckart specific marker compounds.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;169(2-3):173.
669. Salouros H, Collins M, George AV, Davies S. Isolation and identification of
three by-products found in methylamphetamine synthesized by the emde
route. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2010;55(3):605-615.
798

670. Schneiders S, Holdermann T, Dahlenburg R. Comparative analysis of 1phenyl-2-propanone
(P2P), an amphetamine-type stimulant precursor,
using stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry. Presented in part as a
poster at the 2nd meeting of the Joint European Stable Isotope User
Meeting (JESIUM), Giens, France, September 2008. SCIENCE &
JUSTICE 2009;49(2):94-101.
671. van Breukelen M, Hoitink M, Poortman A. Comparison of p2p seizures
using GC/MS impurity profiling and IRMS. The Fourth Forensic Isotope
Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
672. Zhang J, Zhang D, Han X, Qiao J, Yang S, Xin G. Study on the linked
samples of methamphetamine identified by the impurity profile.
WEISHENG YANJIU 2008;37(6):736-739, 744.
673. Zhang J, Zhang D, Han X, Yang S, Xin G. Determination of the synthetic
route based on impurity profiling of methamphetamine. WEISHENG
YANJIU 2008;37(6):740-744.
674. Zhang J, Zhang D, Zhang W, Qiao J, Yang S, Xin G. Monitoring precursor
chemicals through enantiomer profiling of methamphetamine. WEISHENG
YANJIU 2009;38(4):426-428.
675. Zhang JX, Zhang DM, Han XG. Identification of impurities and statistical
classification of methamphetamine hydrochloride drugs seized in China.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;182(1-3):13-19.
5.6 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine:
676. Baer I, Gurny R, Margot P. NIR analysis of cellulose and lactose:
Application to ecstasy tablet analysis. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2007;167(2-3):234-241.
677. Bolck A, Weyermann C, Dujourdy L, Esseiva P, van den Berg J. Different
likelihood ratio approaches to evaluate the strength of evidence of MDMA
tablet comparisons. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;191(1-
3):42-51.
678. Bonadio F, Margot P, Delemont O, Esseiva P. Optimization of HS-
SPME/GC-MS analysis and its use in the profiling of illicit ecstasy tablets
(Part 1). FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;187(1-3):73-80.
679. Bonadio F, Margot P, Delemont O, Esseiva P. Headspace solid-phase
microextraction (HS-SPME) and liquid-liquid extraction (LLE): Comparison
of the performance in classification of ecstasy tablets (Part 2). FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;182(1-3):52-56.
680. Buchanan HAS, Nic Daeid N, Meier-Augenstein W, Kemp HF, Kerr
WJ, Middleditch M. Emerging use of isotope ratio mass spectrometry as a
tool for discrimination of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine by
synthetic route. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;80(9):3350-3356.
681. Byrska B, Zuba D. Profiling of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine by
means of high-performance liquid chromatography. ANALYTICAL &
BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;390(2):715-722.
799

682. Cioroch K, Zuba D. Analytical approaches used for profiling of ecstasy
tablets. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK SADOWYCH 2007;69:71-89.
683. Cox M, Klass G, Morey S, Pigou P. Chemical markers from the peracid
oxidation of isosafrole. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;179(1):44-53.
684. Fierro I, Deban L, Pardo R, Tascon M, Vazquez D. Analysis of heavy
metals in ecstasy tablets by electrochemical methods. TOXICOLOGICAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 2007;89(3):411.
685. Kochana J, Tomaszewski W, Moszczynski T, Zakrzewska A, Parczewski
A. Application of carbon adsorbents for extraction of MDMA impurities in
TLC drug profiling. JOURNAL OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY &
RELATED TECHNOLOGIES 2008;31(6):819-827.
686. Koper C, van den Boom C, Wiarda W, Schrader M, de Joode P, van der
Peijl G, Boick A. Elemental analysis of 3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA): A tool to determine the
synthesis method and trace links. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2007;171(2-3):171-179.
687. Marquis R, Weyermann C, Delaporte C, Esseiva P, Aalberg L, Besacier F,
Bozenko JS, Dahlenburg R, Kopper C, Zrcek F. Drug intelligence based
on MDMA tablets data 2. Physical characteristics profiling. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;178(1):34-39.
688. Meisinger SC, Waddell-Smith R. Comparison of extraction procedures for
organic impurity profiling of seized MDMA tablets. 2008 American
Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
689. Meng PJ, Margot P. Constituent profiling of ecstasy seizures by GC-MS
after joint derivatization with MSTFA and MBTFA. FORENSIC
TOXICOLOGY 2010;28(1):52-54.
690. Milliet Q, Weyermann C, Esseiva P. The profiling of MDMA tablets: A
study of the combination of physical characteristics and organic impurities
as sources of information. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2009;187(1-3):58-65.
691. Waddell-Smith RJH. A review of recent advances in impurity profiling of
illicit MDMA samples. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(6):1297-1304.
692. Weyermann C, Marquis R, Delaporte C, Esseiva P, Lock E, Aalberg
L, Bozenko JS, Dieckmann S, Dujourdy L, Zrcek F. Drug intelligence
based on MDMA tablets data - I. Organic impurities profiling. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;177(1):11-16.
5.7 Multi-Drug and Miscellaneous:
693. Gross KC. Passive tagging of pharmaceutical products with noble gas
isotopes. (Patent) CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS 2007;147:39338v.
694. Jasper JP, Weaner LE, Hayes JM. Process patent protection:
Characterizing synthetic pathways by stable-isotopic measurements.
PHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY 2007;31(3):68-78.
800

695. Lock CM, Meier-Augenstein W. Investigation of isotopic linkage between
precursor and product in the synthesis of a high explosive. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;179(2-3):157-162.
696. Marclay F, Pazos D, Delemont O, Esseiva P, Saudan C. Potential of IRMS
technology for tracing gamma-butyrolactone (GBL). FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2010;198(1-3):46-52.
697. Wise SH, Almirall JR. Chemical taggant detection and analysis by laserinduced
breakdown spectroscopy. APPLIED OPTICS 2008;47(31):G15-
G20.
698. Yip YC, Lam JCW, Tong WF. Applications of lead isotope ratio
measurements. TrAC-TRENDS IN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2008;27(5):460-480.
699. Zhang G, Jin Y. Recent advances on the techniques of fluorescentlabeling
and its application. WUJING YIZUEYUAN ZUEBAO
2008;17(6):550-552.
700. Zhu EY, Lin Y, Zhuang ZY. Partial least squares variable selection method
and its application in drug source analysis. CHINESE JOURNAL OF
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2007;35:973-977.
6. Analysis of Non-Controlled Pharmaceuticals, Pseudo-Drugs,
Issue:
Adulterants, Diluents, and Precursors
Most "street-level" drugs are "cut" with various adulterants and diluents. Many of
these cutting agents are pharmaceutical products or precursors. Others are
“carry-through” compounds present in precursors (especially in cold remedy
products). Separation and identification of these extraneous materials can be
tedious, especially in exhibits which contain many components. In addition, new
or unusual adulterants and/or diluents are occasionally identified in drug exhibits,
and standard analytical data are required for these substances. Finally,
improved methods of analysis, i.e., faster, more discriminatory, less costly, etc.,
are needed for all cutting agents.
6.1 Ephedra, Ephedrine, and/or Pseudoephedrine and Related
Compounds:
701. Ansell RJ, Wang DY, Kuah JKL. Imprinted polymers for chiral resolution of
(+/-)-ephedrine. Part 2: Probing pre-polymerisation equilibria in different
solvents by NMR. ANALYST 2008;133(12):1673-1683.
702. Ansell RJ, Wang DY. Imprinted polymers for chiral resolution of (+/-)ephedrine.
Part 3: NMR predictions and HPLC results with alternative
functional monomers. ANALYST 2009;134(3):564-576.
801

703. bin Abdullah AFL, Miskelly GM. Formation of trifluoroacetylated ephedrine
during the analysis of a pseudoephedrine-formaldehyde adduct by TFAA
derivatization followed by GC-MS. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2009;54(2):365-369.
704. Boff BD, Sebben VC, Paliosa PK, Azambuja I, Singer RB, Limberger RP.
Investigation of the presence of ephedrines in Ephedra tweediana Fisch &
CA Meyer and E. triandra Tul. (Ephedraceae) collected in Porto
Alegre/RS. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE FARMACOGNOSIA-BRAZILIAN
JOURNAL OF PHARMACOGNOSY 2008;18(3):394-401.
705. Fan Q, Wang YL, Sun P, Liu S, Li Y. Discrimination of Ephedra plants with
diffuse reflectance FT-NIRS and multivariate analysis. TALANTA
2010;80(3):1245-1250.
706. Ghafoor S, Shah MM, Ahmad H, Swati ZA, Shah SH, Pervez A, Farooq U.
Molecular characterization of Ephedra species found in Pakistan.
GENETICS AND MOLECULAR RESEARCH 2007;6(4):1123-1130.
707. Guerreiro AR, Korkhov V, Mijangos I, Piletska EV, Rodins J, Turner APF,
Piletsky SA. Influence of continuous magnetic field on the separation of
ephedrine enantiomers by molecularly imprinted polymers. BIOSENSORS
& BIOELECTRONICS 2008;23(7):1189-1194.
708. Hakey PM, Allis DG, Hudson MR, Ouellette W, Korter TM. Investigation of
(1R,2S)-(-)-ephedrine by cryogenic terahertz spectroscopy and solid-state
density functional theory. CHEMPHYSCHEM 2009;10(14):2434-2444.
709. Hayashi K, Shimura K, Makino T, Mizukami H. Comparison of the
contents of kampo decoctions containing ephedra herb when prepared
simply or by re-boiling according to the traditional theory. JOURNAL OF
NATURAL MEDICINES 2010;64(1):70-74.
710. Inoko A, Kakiuchi N, Yoshimitsu M, Cai SQ, Mikage M. Ephedra resource
in sichuan and yunnan provinces 2007. BIOLOGICAL &
PHARMACEUTICAL BULLETIN 2009;32(9):1621-1623.
711. Kakiuchi N, Inoue K, Kurita Y, Ohkubo K, Tsuda Y, Mikage M. Survey of
Ephedra resources in the northern areas of Pakistan and their genetic
diversity. JOURNAL OF NATURAL MEDICINES 2007;61(3):357-365.
712. Kitani Y, Zhu S, Omote T, Tanaka K, Batkhuu J, Sanchir C, Fushimi H,
Mikage M, Komatsu K. Molecular analysis and chemical evaluation of
ephedra plants in mongolia. BIOLOGICAL & PHARMACEUTICAL
BULLETIN 2009;32(7):1235-1243.
713. Lu J, Jin X, Mao PH, Ma XD, Ling HQ, Fan YH, Yu L, Wu BS, Ouyang PK.
Transfer of ephedra genomic DNA to yeasts by ion implantation. APPLIED
BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2009;158(3):571-581.
714. Mao P, Ma X, Jin X, Yang H, Lou K. Production of l-ephedrine and dpseudoephedrine
in recombined yeasts obtained by Argon ion
implantation mediated Ephedra genome DNA transformation.
WEISHENGWU XUEBAO 2007;47(5):905-909.
802

715. Okada T, Nakamura Y, Kanaya S, Takano A, Malla KJ, Nakane
T, Kitayama M, Sekita S. Metabolome analysis of ephedra plants with
different contents of ephedrine alkaloids by using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS.
PLANTA MEDICA 2009;75(12):1356-1362.
716. Pellati F, Benvenuti S. Determination of ephedrine alkaloids in Ephedra
natural products using HPLC on a pentafluorophenylpropyl stationary
phase. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL
ANALYSIS 2008;48(2):254-263.
717. Ranieri TL, Ciolino LA. Rapid selective screening and determination of
ephedrine alkaloids using GC-MS footnote mark. PHYTOCHEMICAL
ANALYSIS 2008;19(2):127-135.
718. Valente AJM, Ribeiro ACF, Marques JMC, Abreu PE, Lobo VMM, Kataky
R. Transport properties of aqueous solutions of (1R,2S)-(-)- and (1S,2R)-
(+)-ephedrine hydrochloride at different temperatures. JOURNAL OF
CHEMICAL AND ENGINEERING DATA 2010;55(3):1145-1152.
719. Wang LL, Kakiuchi N, Mikage M. Studies of Ephedra plants in Asia. Part
6: Geographical changes of anatomical features and alkaloids content of
Ephedra sinica. JOURNAL OF NATURAL MEDICINES 2010;64(1):63-69.
720. Wang LS, Zhao DQ, Liu YH. GC-MS analysis of the supercritical CO2 fluid
extraction of Ephedra sinica roots and its antisudorific activity.
CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL COMPOUNDS 2009;45(3):434-436.
721. Wilhalm T. Current survey of Ephedra stands (Ephedra helvetica,
Ephedraceae, Gnetales) in South Tyrol. GREDLERIANA 2007;7:69-90.
722. Zhao W, Deng AJ, Du GH, Zhang JL, Li ZH, Qin HL. Chemical
constituents of the stems of Ephedra sinica. JOURNAL OF ASIAN
NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2009;11(2):168-171.
723. Zhou L, Zhou XM, Luo Z, Wang WP, Yan N, Hu ZD. In-capillary
derivatization and analysis of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine by micellar
electrokinetic chromatography with laser-induced fluorescence detection.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1190(1-2):383-389.
6.2 Phenylpropanolamine:
724. Abbasi K, Bhanger MI, Khuhawar MY. Capillary-gas chromatographic
determination of phenylpropanolamine using acetylacetone as derivatizing
reagent in pharmaceutical preparations. JOURNAL OF THE CHEMICAL
SOCIETY OF PAKISTAN 2008;30(5):692-695.
725. Hadad GM, El-Gindy A, Mahmoud WMM. Development and validation of
chemometrics-assisted spectrophotometry and liquid chromatography
methods for the simultaneous determination of the active ingredients in
two multicomponent mixtures containing chlorpheniramine maleate and
phenylpropanolamine hydrochloride. JOURNAL OF AOAC
INTERNATIONAL 2007;90(4):957-970.
803

6.3 Other Adulterants/Diluents (including mixtures containing Ephedrine
and/or Pseudoephedrine):
726. Amer SM, Abbas SS, Shehata MA, Ali NM. Simultaneous determination of
phenylephrine hydrochloride, guaifenesin, and chlorpheniramine maleate
in cough syrup by gradient liquid chromatography. JOURNAL OF AOAC
INTERNATIONAL 2008;91(2):276-284.
727. Amin AS, Dessouki HA, Moustafa MM, Ghoname MS. Spectrophotometric
methods for sertraline hydrochloride and/or clidinium bromide
determination in bulk and pharmaceutical preparations. CHEMICAL
PAPERS 2009;63(6):716-722.
728. Brettell TA. Chiral analysis of methorphan and citalopram using HPLC.
2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
729. El-Naby, EH. Polymeric membrance sensors for the selective
determination of dextromethorphan in pharmaceutical preparations.
ANALYTICAL SCIENCES 2008;24(11):1409-1414.
730. Liao CZ, Nicklaus MC. Comparison of nine programs predicting pK(a)
values of pharmaceutical substances. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL
INFORMATION AND MODELING 2009;49(12):2801-2812.
731. Lin MC, Liu YC, Lin YL, Lin JH. Identification of a tadalafil analogue
adulterated in a dietary supplement. JOURNAL OF FOOD AND DRUG
ANALYSIS 2009;17(6):451-458.
732. Liu Y, Ge H, Zhao K, Yu L. Determination of three chemical components
added illegally in a analgesia traditional Chinese medicine preparation by
TLC-MS. ZHONGGUO YAOXUE ZAZHI 2008;43(22):1747-1750.
733. McGehee MC. Etodolac: An analytical profile. MICROGRAM JOURNAL
2008;6(3-4):104.
734. Pavlic M, Schubert B, Libiseller K, Oberacher H. Comprehensive
identification of active compounds in tablets by flow-injection datadependent
tandem mass spectrometry combined with library search.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;197(1-3):40-47.
735. Rodriguez N, Vidot JV, Panelli J, Colon H, Ritchie B, Yamamura Y. GC-
MS confirmation of xylazine (Rompun), a veterinary sedative,
in exchanged needles. DRUG AND ALCOHOL DEPENDENCE
2008;96(3):290-293.
6.4 Theophylline:
736. Zare-Shahabadi V, Shamsipur M, Hemmatenejad B, Akhond M.
Simultaneous determination of guaifenesin and theophylline by
chemometrics methods. ANALYTICAL LETTERS 2010;43(4):687-700.
804

6.5 Miscellaneous:
737. Gratz SR, Zeller M, Mincey DW, Flurer CL. Structural characertization of
sulfoaildenafil, an analog of sildenafil. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL
AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2009;50(2):228-231.
738. Jouyban A, Soltanpour S, Tamizi E. Solubility prediction of solutes in
aqueous mixtures of ethylene glycols. PHARMAZIE 2008;63(7):548-550.
739. Kamb V. Analytical profile of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (Vyvanse).
JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING
CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;18(2):3.
740. Sakar MK, Alper-Yegul N. Isolation and identification of N-monodesmethylsibutramine
in a slimming herbal product. ACTA
PHARMACEUTICA SCIENCIA 2008;50(2):97-100.
7. New and/or Improved Instrumental Techniques
Issue:
Forensic Chemists must maintain familiarity with updates in current instrumental
techniques and become versant in new, improved methods of analysis.
Solution:
Improved/existing and new technologies are reviewed and applied to both routine
and specialized analyses of drugs. In cases where improved performance is
observed, case reports are generated for the forensic community.
7.1 Capillary Electrophoresis (and Related Techniques, including
Tandem Techniques):
741. Assuncao NA, Bechara EJH, Simionato AVC, Tavares MFM, Carrilho E.
Capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry (CE-MS): Twenty
years of development. QUIMICA NOVA 2008;31(8):2124-2133.
742. Aturki Z, D'Orazio G, Fanali S, Rocco A, Bortolotti F, Gottardo R, Tagliaro
F. Capillary electrochromatographic separation of illicit drugs employing a
cyano stationary phase. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2009;1216(17):3652-3659.
743. Breadmore MC, Thabano JRE, Dawod M, Kazarian AA, Quirino JP, Guijt
RM. Recent advances in enhancing the sensitivity of electrophoresis and
electrochromatography in capillaries and microchips (2006-2008).
ELECTROPHORESIS 2009;30(1):230-248.
805

744. Du Y, Wang E. Separation and detection of narcotic drugs on a microchip
using micellar electrokinetic chromatography and
electrochemiluminescence. ELECTROANALYSIS 2008;20(6):643-647.
745. Ganzera M. Quality control of herbal medicines by capillary
electrophoresis: Potential, requirements and applications.
ELECTROPHORESIS 2008;29(17):3489-3503.
746. Greenspoon SA, Yeung SHI, Johnson KR, Chu WK, Rhee HN,
McGuckian AB, Crouse CA, Chiesl TN, Barron AE, Scherer JR, Ban JD,
Mathies RA. A forensic laboratory tests the Berkeley microfabricated
capillary array electrophoresis device. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2008;53(4):828-837.
747. Gubitz G, Schmid MG. Chiral separation by capillary electromigration
techniques. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1204(2):140-
156.
748. Hoeman KW, Culbertson CT. A novel, environmentally friendly sodium
lauryl ether sulfate-, cocamidopropyl betaine-, cocamide
monoethanolamine-containing buffer for MEKC on microfluidic devices.
ELECTROPHORESIS 2008;29(24):4900-4905.
749. Huck CW, Huck-Pezzei V, Bakry R, Bachmann S, Najam-ul-Haq M,
Rainer M, Bonn GK. Capillary electrophoresis coupled to mass
spectrometry for forensic analysis. OPEN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
JOURNAL 2007;1:30-43.
750. Huhn C, Puetz M, Holthausen I, Pyell U. Separation of very hydrophobic
analytes by micellar electrokinetic chromatography. I. Optimization of the
composition of the sample solution for the determination of the aromatic
ingredients of sassafras and other essential oils of forensic interest.
ELECTROPHORESIS 2008;29(2):526-537.
751. Jiang ZJ, Thorogate R, Smith NW. Highlighting the role of the hydroxyl
position on the alkyl spacer of hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin for
enantioseparation in capillary electrophoresis. JOURNAL OF
SEPARATION SCIENCE 2008;31(1):177-187.
752. Jouyban A, Kenndler E. Impurity analysis of pharmaceuticals using
capillary electromigration methods. ELECTROPHORESIS
2008;29(17):3531-3551.
753. Li MJ, Zhou JY, Gu X, Wang Y, Huang XJ, Yan C. Quantitative capillary
electrophoresis and its application in analysis of alkaloids in tea, coffee,
coca cola, and theophylline tablets. JOURNAL OF SEPARATION
SCIENCE 2009;32(2):267-274.
754. Loden H, Pettersson C, Arvidsson T, Amini A. Quantitative determination
of salbutamol in tablets by multiple-injection capillary zone
electrophoresis. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1207(1-
2):181-185.
755. Magana JJ, de la Luz Arenas-Sordo M, Gomez R. Capillary
electrophoresis, a new diagnostic tool. REVISTA MEDICA DE CHILE
2009;137(7):946-956.
806

756. Mala Z, Slampova A, Gebauer P, Bocek P. Contemporary sample
stacking in CE. ELECTROPHORESIS 2009;30(1):215-229.
757. Preinerstorfer B, Lammerhofer M, Lindner W. Advances in
enantioselective separations using electromigration capillary techniques.
ELECTROPHORESIS 2009;30(1):100-132.
758. Rohrbasser C, Rheme D, Decastel S, Roth S, Aja Montes M, Veuthey J,
Rudaz S. A new capillary electrophoresis device with deep UV detector
based on LED technology. CHIMIA 2009;63(12):890-891.
759. Saavedra L, Nickerson B, Borjas RE, Lynen F, Sandra P.
Enantioseparation of pharmaceutical compounds by multiplexed
capillary electrophoresis using highly sulphated alpha-, beta- and gammacyclodextrins.
JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY B-ANALYTICAL
TECHNOLOGIES IN THE BIOMEDICAL AND LIFE SCIENCES
2008;875(1):248-253.
760. Scriba GKE. Cyclodextrins in capillary electrophoresis enantioseparations
- Recent developments and applications. JOURNAL OF SEPARATION
SCIENCE 2008;31(11):1991-2011.
761. Staub A, Giraud S, Saugy M, Rudaz S, Veuthey J, Schappler J. CE-ESI-
TOF/MS for human growth hormone analysis. ELECTROPHORESIS
2010;31(2):388-395.
762. Tagliaro F, Bortolotti F. Recent advances in the applications of CE to
forensic sciences (2005-2007). ELECTROPHORESIS 2008;29(1):260-
268.
763. Tagliaro F, Pascali J, Fanigliulo A, Bortolotti F. Recent advances in the
application of CE to forensic sciences: An update over years 2007-2009.
ELECTROPHORESIS 2010;31(1):251-259.
764. Yang YL, Zhu CF, Shen J, Hao AY. Enantioseparation in capillary
electrophoresis using 6-oligo(lactic acid)cyclomaltoheptaose as a chiral
selector. ANALYTICAL SCIENCES 2009;25(11):1315-1318.
765. Yin DG, Wu MH, Xie CJ, Zhang L, Liu BH, Zhou XZ, Wang P. A Novel
Capillary Electrophoresis-Chemiluminescence system for separation and
detection of amino acids. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;37(1):152-156.
766. Zhu FX, Du YX, Chen JQ, Chen B, Zhu YQ, Zhai X, Xu S, Zhou WH.
Enantioselective separation of basic drugs by CE with polygalacturonic
acid as a novel chiral selector. CHROMATOGRAPHIA 2009;69(11-
12):1315-1320.
7.2 Extraction Techniques:
767. Almirall J, Perr J, Guerra P. Method and apparatus for extraction,
detection, and characterization of vapors from explosives, taggants in
explosives, controlled substances, and biohazards. APPLICATION: US
2008-135954;9 June 2008.
768. Brewer W. Pipette tips for extraction, sample collection and sample
cleanup, and methods for their use. PCT Int. Appl. WO 2008 103,828.
807

769. Gonzalez-Marino I, Quintana JB, Rodriguez I, Cela R. Determination of
drugs of abuse in water by solid-phase extraction, derivatisation and gas
chromatography-ion trap-tandem mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2010;1217(11):1748-1760.
770. Juhascik MP, Jenkins AJ. Comparison of liquid/liquid and solid-phase
extraction for alkaline drugs. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHIC
SCIENCE 2009;47(7):553-557.
771. Kmecz I, Simandi B, Szekely E, Lovasz J, Fogassy E. Application of
mixtures of tartaric acid derivatives in resolution via supercritical fluid
extraction. CHIRALITY 2007;19(6):430-433.
772. Lu J, Shen D, Liu Y. Solubilization of microemulsion to indissolvable drugs
and its clinical application. WUJING YIXUEYUAN XUEBAO
2008;17(3):241-243.
773. Madej K. Microwave-assisted and cloud-point extraction in determination
of drugs and other bioactive compounds. TrAC - TRENDS IN
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;28(4):436-446.
774. Person EC, Sunderson NS. Liquid-liquid extractions of phenylephrine.
JOURNAL OF THE CLANDESTINE LABORATORY INVESTIGATING
CHEMISTS ASSOCIATION 2008;19(1):4.
775. Wietecha-Posluszny R, Wozniakiewicz M, Garbacik A, Koscielniak P.
Application of microwave-assisted extraction in isolation of psychotropic
drugs from biological material. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK SADOWYCH
2007;70:187-197.
776. Wille SMR, Lambert WEE. Recent developments in extraction procedures
relevant to analytical toxicology. ANALYTICAL AND BIOANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2007;388(7):1381-1391.
777. Xu L, Basheer C, Lee HK. Chemical reactions in liquid-phase
microextraction. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2009;1216(4):701-707.
7.3 Gas Chromatography (and Tandem GC Techniques):
778. Ali S, Ashraf-Khorassani M, Taylor LT, Agah M. MEMS-based semipacked
gas chromatography columns. SENSORS AND ACTUATORS B:
CHEMICAL 2009;141(1):309-315.
779. Binkley J. Rapid analysis of drugs by abuse by gas chromatography-time
of flight mass spectrometry. Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists
Annual Meeting: 2009.
780. Chu FL, Yaylayan VA. Model studies on the oxygen-induced formation of
benzaldehyde from phenylacetaldehyde using pyrolysis GC-MS and FTIR.
JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY
2008;56(22):10697-10704.
781. Damm M, Rechberger G, Kollroser M, Kappe CO. An evaluation of
microwave-assisted derivatization procedures using hyphenated mass
spectrometric techniques. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2009;1216(31):5875-5881.
808

782. Fan WZ, Zhang Y, Carr PW, Rutan SC, Dumarey M, Schellinger AP, Pritts
W. Application of Snyder-Dolan classification scheme to the selection of
"orthogonal" columns for fast screening of illicit drugs and impurity profiling
of pharmaceuticals - I. Isocratic elution. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(38):6587-6599.
783. Fialkov AB, Gordin A, Amirav A. Hydrocarbons and fuels analyses with the
supersonic gas chromatography mass spectrometry-The novel concept of
isomer abundance analysis. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2008;1195(1-2):127-135.
784. Grigor'ev AM, Savchuk SA. Correlation of the parameters of screening
libraries of the gas-chromatographic retention data. JOURNAL OF
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2010;65(4):388-397.
785. Groger T, Schaffer M, Putz M, Ahrens B, Drew K, Eschner
M, Zimmermann R. Application of two-dimensional gas chromatography
combined with pixel-based chemometric processing for the chemical
profiling of illicit drug samples. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2008;1200(1):8-16.
786. Hadef Y, Kaloustian J, Nicolay A, Portugal H. Thermal stability evaluation
of doping compounds before GC-MS analysis by DSC. JOURNAL OF
THERMAL ANALYSIS AND CALORIMETRY 2008;93(2):553-560.
787. Hoggard JC, Wahl JH, Synovec RE, Mong GM, Fraga CG. Impurity
profiling of a chemical weapon precursor for possible forensic signatures
by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry and chemometrics. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2010;82(2):689-698.
788. Kirkpatrick DS. A practical guide to drug identification using fast GC/MS.
2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
789. Kudo K, Ishida T, Hikiji W, Hayashida M, Uekusa K, Usumoto Y, Tsuji A,
Ikeda N. Construction of calibration-locking databases for rapid and
reliable drug screening by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY 2009;27(1):21-31.
790. Kudo K, Ishida T, Ikeda N. Development of a systematic screening
procedure for abused drugs without using standard compounds by gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF THE MASS
SPECTROMETRY SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2008;56(3):123-30.
791. Lin DL, Wang SM, Wu CH, Chen BG, Liu RH. Chemical derivatization for
the analysis of drugs by GC-MS. YAOWU SHIPIN FENXI 2008;16(1):1-10.
792. Maurer HH. Forensic screening with GC-MS. HANDBOOK OF
ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS 2008;6:425-445.
793. Meier-Augenstein W, NicDaeid N. Feasibility of source identification of
seized street drugs samples by exploiting differences in isotopic
composition at natural abundance level by GC/MS as compared to isotope
ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2008;174(2-3):259-261.
809

794. Mitrevski BS, Wilairat P, Marriott PJ. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas
chromatography improves separation and identification of anabolic agents
in doping control. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2010;1217(1):127-135.
795. Ojanpera I, Rasanen I. Forensic screening by gas chromatography.
HANDBOOK OF ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS 2008;6:403-424.
796. Schmarr HG, Bernhardt J. Profiling analysis of volatile compounds from
fruits using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and
image processing techniques. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A
2010;1217(4):565-574.
797. Zeigler C, MacNamara K, Wang ZD, Robbat A. Total alkylated polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon characterization and quantitative comparison of
selected ion monitoring versus full scan gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry based on spectral deconvolution. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2008;1205(1-2):109-116.
798. Zhang Y. Optimization of determination method for components and
impurities of illicit drugs by GC-MS. ZHONGGUO YAOWU LANYONG
FANGZHI ZAZHI 2007;13(1):19-21.
7.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (and tandem HPLC
techniques):
799. Dragovic S, Haghedooren E, Nemeth T, Palabiyik IM, Hoogmartens
J, Adams E. Evaluation of two approaches to characterise liquid
chromatographic columns using pharmaceutical separations. JOURNAL
OF CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2009;1216(15):3210-3216.
800. Dresen S, Gergov M, Politi L, Halter C, Weinmann W. ESI-MS/MS library
of 1,253 compounds for application in forensic and clinical toxicology.
ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;395(8):2521-2526.
801. Fountain KJ, Xu J, Diehl DM, Morrison D. Influence of stationary phase
chemistry and mobile-phase composition on retention, selectivity, and MS
response in hydrophilic interaction chromatography. JOURNAL OF
SEPARATION SCIENCE 2010;33(6-7):740-751.
802. Gergov M. Forensic screening with liquid chromatography-mass
spectrometry. HANDBOOK OF ANALYTICAL SEPARATIONS
2008;6:491-511.
803. Gholami M, Ghassempour A, Alizadeh R, Aboul-Enein HY. Microcolumn
LC enantioseparation of chiral compounds using diol silica gel
functionalized with vancomycin crystalline degradation products.
JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE 2009;32(7):918-922.
804. Huerta-Fontela M, Galceran MT, Ventura F. Ultraperformance liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of stimulatory drugs
of abuse in wastewater and surface waters. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2007;79(10):3821-3829.
810

805. Huttunen J, Dawson M, Roux C, Robertson J. Physical evidence in drug
intelligence Part 3: Supercritical fluid extraction-high performance liquid
chromatography of packaging tapes. AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF
FORENSIC SCIENCES 2009;41(1):63-72.
806. Krawczeniuk AS. LC/MS Electrospray applications and the use of insource
collision induced dissociation (CID) in the confirmatory analysis of
drugs of abuse. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual
Meeting.
807. Lee H, Shen S, Grinberg N. Identification and control of impurities for drug
substance development using LC/MS and GC/MS. JOURNAL OF LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY & RELATED TECHNOLOGIES 2008;31(15):2235-
2252.
808. Luo H, Ma LJ, Paek C, Carr PW. Application of silica-based hypercrosslinked
sulfonate-modified reversed stationary phases for separating
highly hydrophilic basic compounds. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
A 2008;1202(1):8-18.
809. Lurie I, Li L. Use of high-temperature liquid chromatography with sub-2µm
particle C18 columns for the analysis of seized drugs. JOURNAL OF
LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY & RELATED TECHNOLOGIES
2009;32(18):2615-2626.
810. Maldaner L, Jardim ICSF. A new thermally immobilized fluorinated
stationary phase for RP-HPLC. JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE
2010;33(2):174-181.
811. Min JZ, Hatanaka S, Toyo'oka T, Inagaki S, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y.
Rapid sensitive and simultaneous determination of fluorescence-labeled
designated substances controlled by the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law in
Japan by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with
electrospray-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL &
BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;395(5):1411-1422.
812. Nakashima K, Ikeda R, Wada M. Analytical studies on the development of
high-performance liquid chromatographic methods with fluorescence or
chemiluminescence detections and their practical applications.
ANALYTICAL SCIENCES 2009;25(1):21-31.
813. Nguyen DT, Guillarme D, Heinisch S, Barrioulet MP, Rocca JL, Rudaz S,
Veuthey JL. High throughput liquid chromatography with sub-2µm
particles at high pressure and high temperature. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2007;1167(1):76.
814. Ojanpera, I, Pelander A, Ojanpera S. Comprehensive toxicological and
forensic drug screening by LC/TOF-MS. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
2009;173:173-195.
815. Ortiz RS, Antunes MV, Linden R. Determination Of sildenafil citrate and
tadalafil by ultra performance liquid chromatography with diode-array
detection (Uplc-Dad). QUIMICA NOVA 2010;33(2):389-393.
811

816. Postigo C, de Alda MJL, Viana M, Querol X, Alastuey A, Artinano
B, Barcelo D. Determination of drugs of abuse in airborne particles by
pressurized liquid extraction and liquid chromatography-electrospraytandem
mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2009;81(11):4382-4388.
817. Ranc V, Havlicek V, Bednar P, Lemr K. Nanoelectrospray versus
electrospray in chiral analysis by the kinetic method. COLLECTION OF
CZECHOSLOVAK CHEMICAL COMMUNICATIONS 2009;74(2):313-322.
818. Rodriquez-Cruz SE. Forensic Applications of liquid chromatography mass
spectrometry (LC-MS). 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting.
819. Rosal C, Betowski D, Romano J, Neukom J, Wesolowski D, Zintek L. The
development and inter-laboratory verification of LC-MS libraries for
organic chemicals of environmental concern. TALANTA 2009;79(3):810-
817.
820. Sauvage FL, Gaulier JM, Lachatre G, Marquet P. Pitfalls and prevention
strategies for liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry in the
selected reaction-monitoring mode for drug analysis. CLINICAL
CHEMISTRY 2008;54(9):1519-1527.
821. van Nuijs ALN, Tarcomnicu I, Bervoets L, Blust R, Jorens PG, Neels
H, Covaci A. Analysis of drugs of abuse in wastewater by hydrophilic
interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.
ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;395(3):819-828.
822. Wang Y, Ong TT, Li LS, Tan TTY, Ng SC. Enantioseparation of a novel
chemistry derived native beta-cyclodextrin chiral stationary phase for highperformance
liquid chromatography. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
A 2009;1216(12):2388-2393.
823. Xiang P, Shen M, Zhuo X. Matrix effects in liquid chromatographic-mass
spectrometric analysis. FENXI CESHI XUEBAO 2009;28(6):753-756.
824. Zhang Y, Liang C, Ye H, Wang G, Wang R, Ni C, Liu Y, Zhang R. Method
for simultaneously and qualitatively screening 242 kinds of compounds by
liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).
APPLICATION: CN 2010-201228;15 October 2008.
825. Zhen X, Bo Q, Lin GX, Lai CF, Hai L. Desorption electrospray ionization.
PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY 2008;20(4):594-601.
7.5 Inductively Coupled Plasma- Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS, Also ICP-
OES):
826. Ammann AA. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP MS): a
versatile tool. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2007;42(4):419-
427.
827. Ash RD, McDonough WF. In situ laser ablation icp ms trace element and
isotope fingerprinting of powdered pharmaceuticals. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
812

828. Campbell GP, Curran JM, Miskelly GM, Coulson S, Yaxley GM, Grunsky
EC, Cox SC. Compositional data analysis for elemental data in forensic
science. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;188(1-3):81-90.
829. Noguchi O, Oshima M, Motomizu S. Minimization of sample volume with
air-segmented sample injection and the simultaneous determination of
trace elements by ICP-MS. ANALYTICAL SCIENCES 2008;24(5):631-
635.
830. Noguchi O, Oshima M, Motomizu S. Enrichment with air-sandwiched
method of on-line collection/concentration using chelating resin and
simultaneous determination of trace elements by inductively coupled
plasma atomic emission spectrometry. TALANTA 2009;78(4-5):1235-
1239.
831. Shuttleworth S. LA-ICP-MS: The Ideal Tool Trace Element Fingerprinting
of Solid Forensic Materials. Mid-Atlantic Association of Forensic Scientists
Annual Meeting: 2009.
832. van der Peijl G, van Breukelen M, van Es A, Wiarda W. Reporting of
forensic iRMS/ICPMS results in The Netherlands. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
833. Yang XJ, Low GK. Validation of a digestion procedure for ICP-AES and
dynamic reaction cell ICP-MS for trace elemental analysis in
environmental samples. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY LETTERS
2009;7(4):381-387.
7.6 Infrared and Near Infrared Spectroscopy (including terahertz
spectroscopy):
834. Adam C. Shedding light on evidence: Forensic applications of UV/visible
spectroscopy. SPECTROSCOPY EUROPE 2009;21(2):13-16.
835. Ali HR, Edwards HG, Scowen IJ. Noninvasive in situ identification and
band assignments of some pharmaceutical excipients inside USP vials
with FT-near-infrared spectroscopy. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA, PART A:
MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2009;72(4):890-
896.
836. Bradley M, Izzia F, Nunn S. Analysis of mixtures by FT-IR: Spatial and
spectral separation of complex samples. SPECTROSCOPY 2008;20-
22:24-26.
837. Bukowski EJ, Monti JA. FTIR-ATR spectroscopy for identification of illicit
drugs seized from clandestine laboratories. AMERICAN LABORATORY
2007;39(20):16-17,19.
838. Burnett AD, Fan WH, Upadhya PC, Cunningham JE, Hargreaves
MD, Munshi T, Edwards HGM, Linfield EH, Davies AG. Broadband
terahertz time-domain spectroscopy of drugs-of-abuse and the use of
principal component analysis. ANALYST 2009;134(8):1658-1668.
813

839. Clark D, Pysik A. The analysis of pharmaceutical substances and
formulated products by vibrational spectroscopy. APPLICATIONS OF
VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY IN PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH
AND DEVELOPMENT 2007;213-238.
840. Dolbnev, DV, Dorofeev VL, Arzamastsev SP, Azimova ID, Vakhtel AV,
Stepanova EV. Use of near-infrared spectrophotometry (NIR) for
identification of pharmaceutical drugs. VOPROSY BIOLOGICHESKOI,
MEDITSINSKOI IFARMATSEVTICHESKOI KHIMII 2008;(6):27-30.
841. El-Bardicy MC, Lotfy HM, El-Sayed MA, El-Tarras MF. Smart stabilityindicating
spectrophotometric methods for determination of binary
mixtures without prior separation. JOURNAL OF AOAC INTERNATIONAL
2008;91(2):299-310.
842. Galloway CM, Le Ru EC, Etchegoin PG. An iterative algorithm for
background removal in spectroscopy by wavelet transforms. APPLIED
SPECTROSCOPY 2009;63(12):1370-1376.
843. Kazarian SG, Chan KLA. Micro- and Macro-Attenuated total reflection
fourier transform infrared spectroscopic imaging. APPLIED
SPECTROSCOPY 2010;64(5):135A-152A.
844. Kocak A, Lucania JP, Berets SL. Some advances in fourier transform
infrared transflection analysis and potential applications in forensic
chemistry. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2009;63(5):507-511.
845. Lanzarotta A, Baumann L, Story GM, Witkowski MR, Khan F, Sommers A,
Sommer AJ. Rapid molecular imaging using attenuated total internal
reflection planar array infrared spectroscopy for the analysis of counterfeit
pharmaceutical tablets. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2009;63(9):979-991.
846. Lei Y, Luo ZY, Hu CQ. Rapidly screening counterfeit drugs using near
infrared spectroscopy: Combining qualitative analysis with quantitative
analysis to increase effectiveness. JOURNAL OF NEAR INFRARED
SPECTROSCOPY 2008;16(3):349-355.
847. Li X, Liu B, Zhu K, Tu D. The application of near infrared spectral
characteristic peaks in counterfeit drugs analysis. ZHONGGUO YAOSHI
(BEIJING, CHINA) 2008;22(7):558-9.
848. Lin ACY, Hsieh HM, Tsai LC, Linacre A, Lee JCI. Forensic applications of
infrared imaging for the detection and recording of latent evidence.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(5):1148-1150.
849. Liu GF, Zhao FW, Ge M, Wang WF. Application of terahertz time domain
spectroscopy to explosive and illegal drug. SPECTROSCOPY AND
SPECTRAL ANALYSIS 2008;28(5):966-969.
850. Ng PH, Walker S, Tahtouh M, Reedy B. Detection of illicit substances in
fingerprints by infrared spectral imaging. ANALYTICAL &
BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009.
851. Polli JE, Hoag SW, Flank S. Near-infrared spectrophotometric comparison
of authentic and suspect pharmaceuticals. PHARMACEUTICAL
TECHNOLOGY 2009;33(8):46-52.
814

852. Puchert T, Lochmann D, Menezes JC, Reich G. Near-infrared chemical
imaging (NIR-CI) for counterfeit drug identification-A four-stage concept
with a novel approach of data processing (Linear Image Signature).
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSES
2009;51(1):138-145.
853. Roggo Y, Gendrin C, Spiegel C. Near infrared chemical imaging for the
pharmaceutical industry. SPECTRA ANALYSE 2007;36(258):26-30.
854. Rutlidge HT, Reedy BJ. Classification of heterogeneous solids using
infrared hyperspectral imaging. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY
2009;63(2):172-179.
855. Sadlej-Sosnowska N, Ocios A. Selectivity of identification of sugars using
IR spectroscopy. CHEMIA ANALITYCZNA 2008;53(5):639-649.
856. Sakamoto T, Fujimaki Y, Kawanishi T, Hiyama Y. An approach for
qualitative analysis of pharmaceuticals using diffusion reflectance NIR
spectroscopy. IYAKUHIN KENKYU 2009;40(7):387-401.
857. Sasaki Y, Hayashi A, Otani C, Kawase K. Noninvasive mail inspection
system with terahertz radiation. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY
2009;63(1):81-86.
858. Sato C, Furube A, Katoh R, Nonaka H, Inoue H. Non-destructive and
discriminating identification of illegal drugs by transient absorption
spectroscopy in the visible and near-IR wavelength range. JAPANESE
JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 2008;47(11):8583-8589.
859. Shi ZQ, Anderson CA. Application of monte carlo simulation-based photon
migration for enhanced understanding of near-infrared (NIR) diffuse
reflectance. Part I: Depth of Penetration in Pharmaceutical Materials.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2010;99(5):2399-2412.
860. Storme-Paris I, Clarot I, Esposito S, Chaumeil JC, Nicolas A, Brion F,
Rieutord A, Chaminade P. Near InfraRed Spectroscopy homogeneity
evaluation of complex powder blends in a small-scale pharmaceutical
preformulation process, a real-life application. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICS AND BIOPHARMACEUTICS 2009;72(1):189-198.
861. Storme-Paris I, Rebiere H, Matoga M, Civade C, Bonnet PA, Tissier
MH, Chaminade P. Challenging near infrared spectroscopy discriminating
ability for counterfeit pharmaceuticals detection. ANALYTICA CHIMICA
ACTA 2010;658(2):163-174.
862. Wang L, Li SB, Meng JS, Hu C. Identification of counterfeit drugs by direct
near-infrared spectra comparison. ZHONGGUO YAOSHI 2008;22(8):668-
671.
863. West MJ, Went MJ. The spectroscopic detection of drugs of abuse on
textile fibres after recovery with adhesive lifters. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2009;189(1-3):100-103.
815

7.7 Ion Mobility Spectrometry:
864. Geraghty E, Kekukh V, Bunker SN. Nitrovanillin calibration agent for trace
analyses using ion mobility spectrometry. US Appl. 2007/6,246;31
December 2007.
865. Kanu AB, Hill HH. Identity confirmation of drugs and explosives in ion
mobility spectrometry using a secondary drift gas. TALANTA 2007;73:692-
699.
866. Khayamian T, Jafari MT. Design for electrospray ionization - ion mobility
spectrometry. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2007;79(8):3199.
867. Sherma J, John D, Larkin FH. Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS) and
IMS/MS. JOURNAL OF AOAC INTERNATIONAL 2009;92(5):163A-168A.
7.8 Mass Spectrometry (including ambient pressure techniques and
Isotope Ratio):
868. Alimpiev S, Grechnikov A, Sunner J, Borodkov A, Karavanskii V,
Simanovsky Y, Nikiforov S. Gas chromatography/surface-assisted laser
desorption ionization mass spectrometry of amphetamine-like compounds.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;81(3):1255-1261.
869. Andrade FJ, Shelley JT, Wetzel WC, Webb MR, Gamez G, Ray SJ, Hieftje
GM. Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source. 2. Desorptionionization
for the direct analysis of solid compounds. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2008;80(8):2654-2663.
870. Binette MJ, Lafontaine P, Vanier M, Ng LK. Characterization of Canadian
cigarettes using multi-stable isotope analysis by gas chromatography-
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND
FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009.
871. Calderone G, Serra F, Lees M, Mosandl A, Reniero F, Guillou C, Moreno-
Rojas JM. Inter-laboratory comparison of elemental analysis and gas
chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry. II. delta N-
15 measurements of selected compounds for the development of an
isotopic Grob test. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2009;23(7):963-970.
872. Carter JF, Hill JC, Doyle S, Lock C. Results of four inter-laboratory
comparisons provided by the Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
(FIRMS) network. SCIENCE & JUSTICE 2009;49(2):127-137.
873. Chen HW, Zheng J, Zhang X, Luo MB, Wang ZC, Qiao XL. Surface
desorption atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry
for direct ambient sample analysis without toxic chemical contamination.
JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 2007;42(8):1045-1056.
874. Collin OL. Development of a novel tandem mass spectrometry technique
for forensic and biological applications. Avail UMI Order NO. DA3292877
2007;68(12):7978.
816

875. Collins M, Cawley A, Salouros H, Heagney A, Swan H, Vujic S. Stable
isotope ratio methodologies for illicit drug intelligence programs. The
Fourth Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
876. Cotte-Rodriguez I, Mulligan CC, Cooks G. Non-proximate detection of
small and large molecules by desorption electrospray ionization and
desorption atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry:
Instrumentation and applications in forensics, chemistry, and biology.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2007;79(18):7069-7077.
877. Dove A. Mass spectrometry raises the bar. SCIENCE
2010;328(5980):920-922.
878. Doyle S. Special issue: Forensic application of isotope ratio mass
spectrometry (IRMS). SCIENCE & JUSTICE 2009;49(2):61-61.
879. Ehleringer JR, Cerling TE, West JB, Podlesak DW, Chesson LA, Bowen
GJ. Spatial considerations of stable isotope analyses in environmental
forensics. ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2008;26:36-53.
880. Galhena AS, Harris GA, Nyadong L, Murray KK, Fernandez FM. Small
molecule ambient mass spectrometry imaging by infrared laser ablation
metastable-induced chemical ionization. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2010:82(6):2178-2181.
881. Galimov E, Sevastyanov V, Kuznetsova O. Isotope ratio mass
spectrometry for tracing the origin of forensic agents. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
882. Grange AH. An Integrated Wipe Sample transport/autosampler to
maximize for a direct analysis in real time (DART)/orthogonal acceleartion,
time-of-flight mass spectrometer (oa-TOFMS). ENVIRONMENTAL
FORENSICS 2008;9(2-3):137-143.
883. Green FM, Salter TL, Stokes P, Gilmore IS, O'Connor G. Ambient mass
spectrometry: advances and applications in forensics. SURFACE AND
INTERFACE ANALYSIS 2010;42(5):347-357.
884. Haapala M, Pol J, Saarela V, Arvola V, Kotiaho T, Ketola RA, Franssila S,
Kauppila TJ, Kostiainen R. Desorption atmospheric pressure
photoionization. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2007;79(20):7867-7872.
885. Hoogewerff J. The use of strontium isotope ratios and biological profiling
for forensic provenancing of soils. The Fourth Forensic Isotope Ratio
Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
886. Ifa DR, Jackson AU, Paglia G, Cooks RG. Forensic applications of
ambient ionization mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;394(8):1995-2008.
887. Ifa DR, Wu CP, Ouyang Z, Cooks RG. Desorption electrospray ionization
and other ambient ionization methods: Current progress and preview.
ANALYST 2010;135(4):669-681.
888. Ishii A, Kaneko R, Hirata Y, Hamajima M. Application of new mass
spectrometric techniques to legal medicine. JOURNAL OF THE MASS
SPECTROMETRY SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2008;56(3):131-138.
817

889. Jurschik S, Tani A, Sulzer P, Haidacher S, Jordan A, Schottkowsky R,
Hartungen E, Hanel G, Seehauser H, Mark L, Mark TD. Direct aqueous
injection analysis of trace compounds in water with proton-transferreaction
mass spectrometry (PTR-MS). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF
MASS SPECTROMETRY 2010;289(2-3):173-176.
890. Kala M. Forensic sciences. MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009:309-319.
891. Kauppila TJ, Arvola V, Haapala M, Pol J, Aalberg L, Saarela V, Franssila
S, Kotiaho T, Kostiainen R. Direct analysis of illicit drugs by desorption
atmospheric pressure photoionization. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN
MASS SPECTROMETRY 2008;22(7):979-985.
892. Kauppila TJ, Kostiainen R, Kotiaho T, Laakkonen UM, Luosujarvi L.
Analysis of street market confiscated drugs by desorption atmospheric
pressure photoionization and desorption electrospray ionization coupled
with mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2009;23(9):1401-1404.
893. Kawamura M, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y. Simple and rapid screening for
psychotropic natural products using direct analysis in real time (DART)-
TOFMS. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI-JOURNAL OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL
SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2009;129(6):719-725.
894. Kennedy C, Bowen GJ, Ehleringer JR. Characterizing temporal variations
in the isotopic composition of human drinking water. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
895. Kertesz V, Van Berkel GJ. Improved desorption electrospray ionization
mass spectrometry performance using edge sampling and a rotational
sample stage. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY
2008;22(23):3846-3850.
896. Kertesz V, Van Berkel GJ. Improved imaging resolution in desorption
electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS
IN MASS SPECTROMETRY 2008;22(17):2639-2644.
897. Landwehr J, Coplen TB. Spatial and seasonal variability of stable isotopic
compositions of tap waters throughout the United States. The Fourth
Forensic Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
898. Liu K, Ma B, Wang Y, Chen X, Zhong D. A new software method for
accurate mass measurements of drugs on unit mass resolution mass
spectrometer. YAOXUE XUEBAO 2007;42(10):1112-1114.
899. Liu YY, Lin ZQ, Zhang SC, Yang CD, Zhang XR. Rapid screening of
active ingredients in drugs by mass spectrometry with low-temperature
plasma probe. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2009;395(3):591-599.
900. Luosujarvi L, Laakkonen UM, Kostiainen R, Kotiaho T, Kauppila TJ.
Analysis of street market confiscated drugs by desorption atmospheric
pressure photoionization and desorption electrospray ionization coupled
with mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2009;23(9):1401-1404.
818

901. Martin AN, Farquar GR, Jones AD, Frank M. The non-destructive
identification of solid over-the-counter medications using single particle
aerosol mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS
SPECTROMETRY 2007;21(22):3561-3568.
902. Martin AN, Farquar GR, Steel PT, Fergenson DP, Gard EE. The Rapid
non-destruction identification of drug tablets using single particle aerosol
mass spectrometry. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting.
903. Martin AN, Farquar GR, Steele PT, Jones AD, Frank M. Use of single
particle aerosol mass spectrometry for the automated nondestructive
identification of drugs in multicomponent samples. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;81(22):9336-9342.
904. Miao ZX, Chen H. Direct Analysis of liquid samples by desorption
electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (DESI-MS). JOURNAL OF
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY
2009;20(1):10-19.
905. Mitsui T. Effective use of mass spectrometry in scientific criminal
investigation. JOURNAL OF THE MASS SPECTROMETRY OF JAPAN
2008;56(3):117-122.
906. Muccio Zeland, Jackson GP. Isotope ratio mass spectrometry. ANALYST
2009;134(2):213-222.
907. Mylonas R, Mauron Y, Masselot A, Binz PA, Budin N, Fathi M, Viette V,
Hochstrasser DF, Lisacek F. X-Rank: A robust algorithm for small
molecule identification using tandem mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;81(18):7604-7610.
908. Nilles JM, Connell TR, Durst HD. Thermal separation to facilitate Direct
Analysis in Real Time (DART) of mixtures. ANALYST 2010;135(5):883-
886.
909. Oberacher H, Pavlic M, Libiseller K, Schubert B, Sulyok M, Schuhmacher
R, Csaszar E, Kofeler HC. On the inter-instrument and inter-laboratory
transferability of a tandem mass spectral reference library: 1. Results of an
Austrian multicenter study. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY
2009;44(4):485-493.
910. Petucci C, Diffendal J, Kaufman D, Mekonnen B, Terefenko G,
Musselman B. Direct analysis in real time for reaction monitoring in drug
discovery. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2007;79(13):5064-5070.
911. Philip RP, Kuder T. The evolution of stable isotope applications in
environmental forensics-past, present and future. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
912. Rao RM, Parab AR, Aggarwal SK. A study on the determination of
strontium isotopic ratio by thermal ionization mass spectrometry using
single as well as multiple filament assembly. BARC NEWSLETTER
2007;285:80-83.
819

913. Ratcliffe LV, Rutten FJM, Barrett DA, Whitmore T, Seymour D,
Greenwood C, Aranda-Gonzalvo Y, Robinson S, McCoustra M. Surface
analysis under ambient conditions using plasma-assisted
desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2007;79(16):6094-6101.
914. Rodriguez-Cruz SE, Carson KA. Anion identification via complexation with
meso-octamethylcalix(4)pyrrole and detection using electrospray
ionization mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2010;55(2):499-507.
915. Rodriguez-Cruz SE. Rapid screening of seized drug exhibits using
desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (DESI-MS).
MICROGRAM JOURNAL 2008;6(1-2):10.
916. Shen C, Li J, Wang H, Han H, Xu G, Zheng P, Wang Y, Li H, Chu Y. Realtime
measurements of the drug precursor chemicals with proton transfer
reaction mass spectrometry. HUNAN DAXUE XUEBAO, ZIRAN
KEXUEBAN 2009;36(2):75-79.
917. Soparawalla S, Salazar GA, Perry RH, Nicholas M, Cooks RG.
Pharmaceutical cleaning validation using non-proximate large-area
desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. RAPID
COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009;23(1):131-137.
918. Steiner RR, Larson RL. Validation of the direct analysis in real time
Source for use in forensic drug screening. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2009;54(3):617-622.
919. Talaty N, Mulligan CC, Justes DR, Jackson AU, Noll RJ, Cooks RG.
Fabric analysis by ambient mass spectrometry for explosives and drugs.
ANALYST 2008;133(11):1532-1540.
920. Thevis M, Schrader Y, Thomas A, Sigmund G, Geyer H, Schaenzer W.
Analysis of confiscated black market drugs using chromatographic and
mass spectrometric approaches. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL
TOXICOLOGY 2008;32(3):232-240.
921. Van der Veer G, Voerkelius S, Lorentz G, Heiss G, Hoogewerff JA. Spatial
interpolation of the deuterium and oxygen-18 composition of global
precipitation using temperature as ancillary variable. JOURNAL OF
GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION 2009;101(2):175-184.
922. Walker GS. Combining Light Isotope, Trace Element and isotope of
metals in environmental and forensic investigations. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
923. West BJ, Ehleringer JR, Kreuzer HM, Hurley JM, Cerling TE.
Provenancing plant materials form isoscapes. The Fourth Forensic
Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry Conference: 2010.
924. Weston DJ. Ambient ionization mass spectrometry: Current understanding
of mechanistic theory; analytical performance and application areas.
ANALYST 2010;135(4):661-668.
820

925. Wiseman JM, Laughlin BC. Desorption electrospray ionization (DESI)
mass spectrometry: A brief introduction and overview. CURRENT
SEPARATIONS AND DRUG DEVELOPMENT 2007;22(1):11.
7.9 Microchip Technology:
926. Bell SC, Hanes RD. A microfluidic device for presumptive testing of
controlled substances. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(4):884-888.
927. Klenkar G, Liedberg B. A microarray chip for label-free detection of
narcotics. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2008;391(5):1679-1688.
7.10 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy:
928. Beyer T, Schollmayer C, Holzgrabe U. The role of solvents in the signal
separation for quantitative H-1 NMR spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2010;52(1):51-58.
929. Charlton AJ, Robb P, Donarski JA, Godward J. Non-targeted detection of
chemical contamination in carbonated soft drinks using NMR
spectroscopy, variable selection and chemometrics. ANALYTICA
CHIMICA ACTA 2008;618(2):196-203.
930. Chen SN, Turner A, Jaki BU, Nikolic D, van Breemen RB, Friesen JB,
Pauli GF. An experimental implementation of chemical subtraction.
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS
2008;46(4):692-698.
931. Claridge TDW, Davies SG, Polywka MEC, Roberts PM, Russell AJ,
Savory ED, Smith AD. "Pure by NMR"? ORGANIC LETTERS
2008;10(23):5433-5436.
932. Dai B, Eads CD. Efficient removal of unwanted signals in NMR spectra
using the filter diagonalization method. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IN
CHEMISTRY 2010;48(3):230-234.
933. Dalisay DS, Molinski TF. NMR Quantitation of natural products at the
nanomole scale. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2009;72(4):739-
744.
934. de Brouwer H. Evaluation of algorithms for automated phase correction of
NMR spectra. JOURNAL OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2009;201(2):230-
238.
935. Hays PA, Thompson RA. A processing method enabling the use of peak
height for accurate and precise proton NMR quantitation. MAGNETIC
RESONANCE IN CHEMISTRY 2009;47(10):819-824.
936. Henderson TJ. Feasibility study for the rapid screening of target molecules
using translational diffusion coefficients: Diffusion-ordered NMR
spectroscopy of biological toxins. ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2010;396(4):1465-1471.
821

937. Mo HP, Harwood JS, Raftery D. Receiver gain function: The actual NMR
receiver gain. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IN CHEMISTRY
2010;48(3):235-238.
938. Mo HP, Raftery D. Solvent Signal as an NMR Concentration Reference.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;80(24):9835-9839.
939. Ozdemir MS, De Deene Y, Fieremans E, Lemahieu I. Quantitative proton
magnetic resonance spectroscopy without water suppression. JOURNAL
OF INSTRUMENTATION 2009;4.
940. Pantoja-Uceda D, Santoro J. Aliasing in reduced dimensionality NMR
spectra: (3,2)D HNHA and (4,2)D HN(COCA)NH experiments as
examples. JOURNAL OF BIOMOLECULAR NMR 2009;45(4):351-356.
941. Pauli GF, Jaki BU, Lankin DC. A routine experimental protocol for qHNMR
illustrated with taxol. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS
2007;70(4):589-595.
942. Pierens GK, Carroll AR, Davis RA, Palframan ME, Quinn RJ.
Determination of analyte concentration using the residual solvent
resonance in H-1 NMR spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF NATURAL
PRODUCTS 2008;71(5):810-813.
943. Rubtsov DV, Griffin JL. Time-domain Bayesian detection and estimation of
noisy damped sinusoidal signals applied to NMR spectroscopy. JOURNAL
OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2007;188:367-379.
944. Silvestre V, Mboula VM, Jouitteau C, Akoka S, Robins RJ, Remaud GS.
Isotopic C NMR spectrometry to assess counterfeiting of active
pharmaceutical ingredients: Site-specific C content of aspirin and
paracetamol. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL
ANALYSIS 2009;50(3):336-341.
945. Son H, Hwang G, Ahn H, Park W, Lee C, Hong Y. Characterization of
wines from grape varieties through multivariate statistical analysis of H-1
NMR spectroscopic data. FOOD RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL
2009;42(10):1483-1491.
946. Stanek J, Kozminski W. Iterative algorithm of discrete Fourier transform
for processing randomly sampled NMR data sets. JOURNAL OF
BIOMOLECULAR NMR 2010;47(1):65-77.
947. Stern AS, Donoho DL, Hoch JC. NMR data processing using iterative
thresholding and minimum l(1)-norm reconstruction. JOURNAL OF
MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2007;188:295-300.
948. Trefi S, Gilard V, Balayssac S, Malet-Martino M, Martino R. The
usefulness of 2D DOSY and 3D DOSY-COSY H NMR for mixture
analysis: Application to genuine and fake formulations of sildenafil
(Viagra). MAGNETIC RESONANCE IN CHEMISTRY 2009;47(S1):S163-
S173.
949. Trefi S, Routaboul C, Hamieh S, Gilard V, Malet-Martino M, Martino R.
Analysis of illegally manufactured formulations of tadalafil (Cialis) by H
NMR, 2D DOSY H NMR and Raman spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2008;47(1):103-113.
822

950. Wang T, Shao K, Chu QY, Ren YF, Mu YM, Qu LJ, He J, Jin CW, Xia B.
Automics: An integrated platform for NMR-based metabonomics spectral
processing and data analysis. BMC BIOINFORMATICS 2009;10.
951. Webster GK, Marsden I, Pommerening CA, Tyrakowski CM, Tobias B.
Determination of relative response factors for chromatographic
investigations using NMR spectrometry. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2009;49(5):1261-
1265.
952. Webster GK, Marsden I, Pommerening CA, Tyrakowski CM. Validation of
pharmaceutical potency determinations by quantitative nuclear magnetic
resonance spectrometry. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2010;64(5):537-
542.
7.11 Raman Spectroscopy:
953. Ali EMA, Edwards HGM, Hargreaves MD, Scowen IJ. In-situ detection of
drugs-of-abuse on clothing using confocal Raman microscopy.
ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;615(1):63-72.
954. Anonymous. Innovative use of Raman spectroscopy as a forensic tool.
BIOANALYSIS 2009;1(7):1189.
955. Bell SEJ, Sirimuthu NMS. Quantitative surface-enhanced Raman
spectroscopy. CHEMICAL SOCIETY REVIEWS 2008;37(5):1012-1024.
956. Buckley K, Goodship A, MacLeod NA, Parker AW, Matousek P.
Technique for enhancing signal in conventional backscattering
fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy of turbid media. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2008;80(15):6006-6009.
957. Clelland BL. Forensic applications of Raman microspectroscopy, capillary
electrophoresis, chromatography, and mass spectrometry for the analysis
of textile fibers, dyes, illicit drugs, and anticoagulant rodenticides. (Thesis)
DISSERTATION ABSTRACTS INTERNATIONAL, B 2007;67(9):5041.
958. de Veij M, Deneckere A, Vandenabeele P, de Kaste D, Moens L.
Detection of counterfeit Viagra with Raman spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2008;46(2):303-309.
959. De Veij M, Vandenabeele P, Moens L. Detection of counterfeit erectile
dysfunction drugs with Raman spectroscopy. SPECTROSCOPY EUROPE
2008;20(3):7-10.
960. De Veij M, Vandenabelle P, DeBeer T, Remon JP, Moens L. Reference
database of Raman spectra of pharmaceutical excipients. JOURNAL OF
RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY 2009;40(3):297-307.
961. Efremov EV, Ariese F, Gooijer C. Achievements in resonance Raman
spectroscopy - review of a technique with a distinct analytical chemistry
potential. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;606(2):119-134.
823

962. Hargreaves MD, Burnett AD, Munshi T, Cunningham JE, Linfield EH,
Davies AG, Edwards HGM. Comparison of near infrared laser excitation
wavelengths and its influence on the interrogation of seized drugs-ofabuse
by Raman spectroscopy. JOURNAL OF RAMAN
SPECTROSCOPY 2009;40(12):1974-1983.
963. Hargreaves MD, Page K, Munshi T, Tomsett R, Lynch G, Edwards HGM.
Analysis of seized drugs using portable Raman spectroscopy in an airport
environment - a proof of principle study. JOURNAL OF RAMAN
SPECTROSCOPY 2008;39(7):873-880.
964. Kiefer W. Recent advances in linear and non-linear Raman spectroscopy.
Part III. JOURNAL OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY 2009;40(12):1766-
1779.
965. MacLeod NA, Matousek P. Emerging non-invasive Raman methods in
process control and forensic applications. PHARMACEUTICAL
RESEARCH 2008;25(10):2205-2215.
966. McGoverin CM, Rades T, Gordon KC. Recent pharmaceutical applications
of raman and terahertz spectroscopies. JOURNAL OF
PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES 2008;97(11):4598-4621.
967. Noonan KY, Tonge LA, Fenton OS, Damiano DB, Frederick KA. Rapid
classification of simulated street drug mixtures using raman spectroscopy
and principal component analysis. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY
2009;63(7):742-747.
968. Otieno-Alego V. Some forensic applications of a combined micro-Raman
and scanning electron microscopy system. JOURNAL OF RAMAN
SPECTROSCOPY 2009;40(8):948-953.
969. Roggo Y, Degardin K, Margot P. Identification of pharmaceutical tablets by
Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics. TALANTA 2010;81(3):988-995.
970. Virtanen S, Antikainen O, Yliruusi J. Determination of the crushing
strength of intact tablets using Raman spectroscopy. INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICS 2008;360(1-2):40-46.
7.12 Solid Phase Micro-Extraction (Headspace Techniques and Solvent
Analysis):
971. Andrasko J. Some examples of applications of a microthermal desorption
device in the forensic laboratory. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2009;54(5):1055-1058.
972. Beam KN, Brettell TA. Forensic applications of headspace single-drop
microextraction. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual
Meeting.
973. Baliyan PK, Singh RP, Arora S. Simultaneous estimation of residual
solvents (Ethanol, Acetone, Dichloromethane and Ethyl Acetate) in
dosage form by GC-HS-FID. ASIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMISTRY
2009;21(8):5851-5857.
824

974. Kang XJ, Chen LQ, Zhang YY, Liu YW, Gu ZZ. Performance of
electrospun nanofibers for SPE of drugs from aqueous solutions.
JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE 2008;31(18):3272-3278.
975. Lai H, Guerra P, Joshi M, Almirall JR. Analysis of volatile components of
drugs and explosives by solid phase microextraction-ion mobility
spectrometry. JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE 2008;31(2):402-
412.
976. Lai H, Corbin I, Almirall JR. Headspace sampling and detection of
cocaine, MDMA, and marijuana via volatile markers in the presence of
potential interferences by solid phase microextraction-ion mobility
spectrometry (SPME-IMS). ANALYTICAL AND BIOANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2008;392(1-2):105-113.
977. Lai HT, Almirall JR. Headspace Sampling and detection of cocaine,
MDMA, and marijuana via volatile chemical markers; solid phase
microextraction-ion mobility spectrometry. 2008 American Academy of
Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
978. Misharina TA. Determination of volatile organics in gaseous phase using
porous adsorbents. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2010;65(2):127-134.
979. Ouyang G, Pawliszyn J. A critical review in calibration methods for solidphase
microextraction. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2008;627(2):184-
197.
980. Snow NH, Bullock GP. Novel techniques for enhancing sensitivity in static
headspace extraction-gas chromatography. JOURNAL OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY A 2010;1217(16):2726-2735.
981. Wang YW, McCaffrey J, Norwood DL. Recent advances in headspace gas
chromatography. JOURNAL OF LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY &
RELATED TECHNOLOGIES 2008;31(11-12):1823-1851.
7.13 Thin Layer Chromatography:
982. Gheorghe M, Balalau D, Ilie M, Baconi DL, Ciobanu AM. Qualitative
analysis of confiscated illegal drugs by thin-layer chromatography.
FARMACIA 2008;56(5):541-546.
983. Sherma J. Analysis of counterfeit drugs by thin layer chromatography.
ACTA CHROMATOGRAPHICA 2007;19:5-20.
984. Turkmen Z, Mercan S, Tutanc L. Simultaneous High Performance Thin
Layer Chromatographic Determination of Heroin, Morphine, Cocaine, and
MDMA. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
825

7.14 X-Ray based Techniques:
985. Causin V, Marega C, Carresi P, Schiavone S, Marigo A. A quantitative
differentiation method for plastic bags by wide angle X-ray diffraction for
tracing the source of illegal drugs. FORENSIC SCIENCE
INTERNATIONAL 2007;168(1):37-41.
986. Cook E, Fong R, Horrocks J, Wilkinson D, Speller R. Energy dispersive Xray
diffraction as a means to identify illicit materials: A preliminary
optimization study. APPLIED RADIATION AND ISOTOPES
2007;65(8):959.
987. Kotrly M. Using X-ray diffraction in forensic science. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR
KRISTALLOGRAPHIE 2007;222(3-4):193-198.
988. Moore MD, Cogdill RP, Wildfong PLD. Evaluation of chemometric
algorithms in quantitative X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) of intact multicomponent
consolidated samples. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL
AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2009;49(3):619-626.
989. Moore MD, Steinbach AM, Buckner IS, Wildfong PLD. A structural
investigation into the compaction behavior of pharmaceutical composites
using powder x-ray diffraction and total scattering analysis.
PHARMACEUTICAL RESEARCH 2009;26(11):2429-2437.
990. West M, Ellis AT, Potts PJ, Streli C, Vanhoof C, Wegrzynek D,
Wobrauschek P. Atomic spectrometry update. X-Ray fluorescence
spectrometry. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL ATOMIC SPECTROMETRY
2009;24(10):1289-1326.
7.15 Miscellaneous:
991. Channaa H, Surmann P. Voltammetric analysis of N-containing drugs
using the hanging galinstan drop electrode (HGDE). PHARMAZIE
2009;64(3):161-165.
992. Domenech A, Navarro P, Aran VJ, Muro B, Montoya N, Garcia-Espana E.
Selective electrochemical discrimination between dopamine and
phenethylamine-derived psychotropic drugs using electrodes modified
with an acyclic receptor containing two terminal 3-alkoxy-5-nitroindazole
rings. ANALYST 2010;135(6):1449-1455.
993. Ferreira FJO, Crispim VR, Silva AX. Detection of drugs and explosives
using neutron computerized tomography and artificial intelligence
techniques. RADIATION AND ISOTOPES 2010;68(6):1012-1017.
994. Frisk T, Sandstroem N, Eng L, van der Wijngaart W, Maansson P,
Stemme G. An integrated QCM-based narcotics sensing microsystem.
LAB ON A CHIP 2008;8(10):1648-57.
995. Gayton-Ely M, Shakleya DM, Bell SC. Application of a pyroprobe to
simulate smoking and metabolic degradation of abused drugs through
analytical pyrolysis. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
2007;52(2):473.
826

996. Hodge TA. Method and apparatus for forensic screening and laboratory
information management systems. U.S. Patent Application Publication US
20090275038 A1, November 2009.
997. Hua Q. Radiocarbon: A chronological tool for the recent past.
QUATERNARY GEOCHRONOLOGY 2009;4(5):378-390.
998. Izake EL. Chiral discrimination and enantioselective analysis of drugs: An
overview. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
2007;96(7):1659.
999. Jestice AL. Method and apparatus for detecting and classifying explosives
and controlled substances. U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ. US 2009.
1000. Kibar O, Chachisvilis M, Tu E, Marsilje TH. Separation and manipulation
of a chiral object by rotating field. U.S. Pat Appl. Publ. US 2008 274, 555.
1001. Li H. Rapid detection of drugs and poisons in forensic samples.
HIROSHIMA DAIGAKU IGAKU ZASSHI 2007;55(4-6):25-33.
1002. Liang M, Shen J, Wang G. Identification of illicit drugs by using SOM
neural networks. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS D: APPLIED PHYSICS
2008;41(13):135306/1-135306/6.
1003. Molnar P, Thorey P, Bansaghi G, Szekely E, Poppe L, Tomin A, Kemeny
S, Fogassy E, Simandi B. Resolution of racemic trans-1,2-cyclohexanediol
with tartaric acid. TETRAHEDRON-ASYMMETRY 2008;19(13):1587-
1592.
1004. Perot B, Carasco C, Valkovic V, Sudac D, Franulovic A. Detection of illicit
drugs with the EURITRACK system. AIP CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
2009;1099:565-569.
1005. Reeve S, Allen S. Multicolor cavity ringdown based detection method and
apparatus used for detecting gas phase molecules emanating from
explosives, drugs, hazardous materials, or patient’s breath. U.S. Pat. Appl.
Publ. US 20090180119 A1 16 Jul 2009.
1006. Reviriego F, Navarro P, Garcia-Espana E, Albelda MT, Frias JC,
Domenech A, Yunta MJR, Costa R, Orti E. Diazatetraester 1 H-Pyrazole
crowns as fluorescent chemosensors for AMPH, METH, MDMA (Ecstasy),
and dopamine. ORGANIC LETTERS 2008;10(22):5099-5102.
1007. Silverio FO, Barbosa LCA, Pilo-Veloso D. Pyrolysis as an analytical
technique. QUIMICA NOVA 2008;31(6):1543-1552.
1008. Tondre C, Parant S, Lemiere P, Gerardin C. On the use of colloidenhanced
ultrafiltration in view of enantiomeric enrichments and limiting
conditions. COLLOIDS AND SURFACES A-PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND
ENGINEERING ASPECTS 2008;317(1-3):431-437.
8. Portable Detection and Analytical Instrumentation
Issue:
“Free Trade” agreements and the easing of formally restrictive national and
international borders have resulted in dramatic increases in cargo
827

transshipments and personal travel, thereby complicating drug inspection and
interdiction efforts at POEs. Discovery and confirmational analysis of suspected
drugs in cargo or on individuals is severely hampered by the lack of on-site
detection and/or analytical equipment.
Solution:
Development of portable and highly sensitive detectors for drug detection and
analyses allows law enforcement personnel and/or forensic chemists to perform
screening type analyses on-site. In those cases where new methodologies have
proven effective, case reports are generated for the forensic and enforcement
communities.
8.1 General
1009. Amisar S. A reagent, a kit, and a method for detecting and identifying a
wide range of illicit drugs. US 2007-2007/PV935762;30 August 2007.
1010. Babichenko S, Ivkina T, Poryvkina L, Sominsky V. Method for on-site drug
detection in illicit drug samples. PCT Int. Appl. WO 2008.
1011. Chen X, Lian Y, Li A, Li J, Liu G, He C, Wu X, Wang H, Li H. An intelligent
recognition program for in-situ detection of illicit chemicals by ion mobility
spectrometry. JISUANJI YU YINGYONG HUAXUE 2007;24(9):1145-1148.
1012. Carron K, Cox R. Qualitative analysis and the answer box: a perspective
on portable raman spectroscopy. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2010;82(9):3419-3425.
1013. Cleary M, Vitale M. Improvements to methods of in-field analysis.
APPLICATION: WO 2009-GB225 26 Jan 2009.
1014. Eliasson C, Macleod NA, Matousek P. Non-invasive detection of powders
concealed within diffusely scattering plastic containers. VIBRATIONAL
SPECTROSCOPY 2008;48(1):8-11.
1015. Grates KM, Ring JG, Savage KA, Denicola TA. Conclusion of validation
study of commercially available field test kits for common drugs of abuse.
2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
1016. Guerra-Diaz P, Gura S, Almirall JR. Dynamic planar solid phase
microextraction-ion mobility spectrometry for rapid field air sampling and
analysis of illicit drugs and explosives. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
2010;82(7):2826-2835.
1017. O’Neil AJ, Jee RD, Lee G, Charvill A, Moffat AC. Use of a portable near
infrared spectrometer for the authentication of tablets and the detection of
counterfeit versions. JOURNAL OF NEAR INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
2008;16(3):327-333.
1018. Quest DW, Horsley J. Field-test of a date-rape drug detection device.
JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY 2007;31(6):354.
828

1019. Ramsey SA, Mustacich RV, Smith PA, Hook GL, Eckenrode BA. Directly
heated high surface area solid phase microextraction sampler for rapid
field forensic analyses. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;81(21):8724-
8733.
1020. Staples EJ, Viswanathan S. Detection of contrabands in cargo containers
using a high-speed gas chromatograph with surface acoustic wave
sensor. INDUSTRIAL & ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY RESEARCH
2008;47(21):8361-8367.
1021. Wells JM, Roth MJ, Keil AD, Grossenbacher JW, Justes DR, Patterson
GE, Barket DJ. Implementation of DART and DESI ionization on a
fieldable mass spectrometer. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY
FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2008;19(10):1419-1424.
1022. Yoon SS. Portable counterfeit detector machine. PRIORITY: KR 2008-
2293, 8 Jan 2008.
1023. Zieba-Palus J, Borusiewicz R, Kunicki M. PRAXIS - combined m-Raman
and m-XRF spectrometers in the examination of forensic samples.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2008;175(1):1-10.
9. Miscellaneous
9.1 Beverage Analysis:
1024. Clark A. A device for automatically testing whether a drink has been
spiked. APPLICATION: GB 2007-5716 24 March 2007.
1025. Loane CJ. Chemical spot test for the detection of drugs of abuse in a
beverage. (Patent) CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS 2007;147:501291d.
1026. Madea B, Musshoff F. Knock-out drugs: Their prevalence, modes of
action, and means of detection. DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT
INTERNATIONAL 2009;106(20):341-U12.
1027. Murray GM, Mason AF, Ott EW. Molecularly imprinted polymer and
colorimetric indicator sensor device useful for testing presence of drugs or
hormones in body fluids or beverages. U.S. Pat. Appl. Publ. US
20090197297 A16 Aug 2009.
1028. Petrenko ES, Petrenko AE, Petrenko DE. Mode and an arrangement for
prevention of carrying in a luggage through an inspection zone of liquid
explosive and narcotic substances in a household package for beverage
and perfumery. (Patent) CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS 2007:1405564.
9.2 Chemometrics:
1029. Armstrong N, Hibbert DB. An introduction to Bayesian methods for
analyzing chemistry data Part 1: An introduction to Bayesian theory and
methods. CHEMOMETRICS AND INTELLIGENT LABORATORY
SYSTEMS 2009;97(2):194-210.
829

1030. Drabek J. Validation of software for calculating the likelihood ratio for
parentage and kinship. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL-
GENETICS 2009;3(2):112-118.
1031. Hibbert DB, Armstrong N. An introduction to Bayesian methods for
analyzing chemistry data Part II: A review of applications of Bayesian
methods in chemistry. CHEMOMETRICS AND INTELLIGENT
LABORATORY SYSTEMS 2009;97(2):211-220.
1032. Kafkafi N, Yekutieli D, Elmer GI. A data mining approach to in vivo
classification of psychopharmacological drugs.
NEUROPSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY 2009;34(3):607-623.
1033. Liu Q, Zhang J, Chen L, Min F, He M. Intelligent analysis method for
criminal case based on relevance. APPLICATION: CN 2010-50854 17
December 2007.
1034. Melucci D, Monti D, D’Elia M, Luciano G. Multivariate analysis of powder
drugs using reflectance NIR spectrometry. CHIMICA E L’INDUSTRIA
2009;91(4):83-89
1035. Ratle F, Gagne C, Terrettaz-Zufferey AL, Kanevski M, Esseiva P, Ribaux
O. Advanced clustering methods for mining chemical databases in
forensic science. CHEMOMETRICS AND INTELLIGENT LABORATORY
SYSTEMS 2008;90(2):123-131.
1036. Zadora G. Glass analysis for forensic purposes - A comparison of
classification methods. JOURNAL OF CHEMOMETRICS 2007;21(5-
6):174-186.
1037. Zadora G, Neocleous T, Aitken C. A Two-level model for evidence
evaluation in the presence of zeros. JOURNAL OF FORENSIC
SCIENCES 2010;55(2):371-384.
1038. Zadora G, Neocleous T. Likelihood ratio model for classification of forensic
evidence. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA 2009;642(1-2):266-278.
1039. Zadora G, Wolanska-Nowak, P. Applications of Bayesian networks in
forensic genetics and criminalistics. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK SADOWYCH
2009;78:141-152.
1040. Zadora G. Evaluation of evidence value of glass fragments by likelihood
ratio and Bayesian Network approaches. ANALYTICA CHIMICA ACTA
2009;642(1-2):279-290.
9.3 Counterfeit Drugs:
1041. Balogh MP. Techniques for structure elucidation of unknowns: Finding
substitute active pharmaceutical ingredients in counterfeit medicine.
LCGC NORTH AMERICA 2007;25(6):554.
1042. Balogh MP. Techniques for structure elucidation of unknowns: Finding
substitute active pharmaceutical ingredients in counterfeit medicines. LC-
GC EUROPE 2008;21(2):84-95.
1043. Dubois J, Wolff J-C, Warrack JK, Schoppelrei J, Lewis EN. NIR chemical
imaging for counterfeit pharmaceutical products analysis.
SPECTROSCOPY 2007;22(Suppl.):36.
830

1044. Fernandez FM, Green MD, Newton PN. Prevalence and detection of
counterfeit pharmaceuticals: A mini review. INDUSTRIAL &
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY RESEARCH 2008;47(3):585-590.
1045. Fernandez FM, Hampton CY, Nyadong L, Navare A, Kwasnik M. Liquid
chromatography and ambient ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry
for the analysis of genuine and counterfeit pharmaceuticals. CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS 2009;173:113-132.
1046. Francis AR, Lyle RD, Moses VL, Pichardo D. Authentication of
pharmaceuticals using molecular computational identification. U.S. Pat.
Appl. Publ. US 20090187364 A1 23 Jul 2009.
1047. Kogan, V, Beckers D, Bolze J, Lehmann C, Schweim H, Steffens, K.
Detection of counterfeit drugs in packaged products, for example in blister
packs, by angle dispersive x-ray diffraction. Europe Patent Application, EP
2,090,883, August 2009
1048. Nyadong L, Harris GA, Balayssac S, Galhena AS, Malet-Martino M,
Martino R, Parry RM, Wang MDM, Fernandez FM, Gilard V. Combining
two-dimensional diffusion-ordered nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy, imaging desorption electrospray ionization mass
spectrometry, and direct analysis in real-time mass spectrometry for the
integral investigation of counterfeit pharmaceuticals. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2009;81(12):4803-4812.
1049. Soltaninejad K, Faryadi M, Akhgari M, Bahmanabadi L. Chemical profile of
counterfeited buprenorphine vials seized in Tehran, Iran. FORENSIC
SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;172(2-3):e4.
1050. Willis RC. Noninvasive testing for counterfeit drugs. ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY 2007;79(5):1773.
1051. Yi X, Yang Y. Method for identifying genuine traditional Chinese medicine
based on stable isotope fingerprint. APPLICATION: CN 2010-55059;30
August 2007:9.
9.4 Dragon’s Blood:
1052. Gupta D, Bleakley B, Gupta RK. Dragon's blood: Botany, chemistry and
therapeutic uses. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY
2008;115(3):361-380.
1053. Wu Z, Shu T, Zhang L, Zhang Q, Zhu H. Determination of cochinchinenin
C new compound of Dragon’s blood with RP-HPLC. WUJING
YIXUEYUAN XUEBAO 2008;17(5):417-419.
9.5 Drugs on Currency:
1054. Armeta S, de la Guardia M. Analytical methods to determine cocaine
contamination of banknotes from around the world. TrAC-TRENDS IN
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008;27(4):344-351.
831

1055. Di Donati E, Martin CCS, Spinosa De Martinis B. Determination of cocaine
in Brazilian paper currency by capillary gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry. QUIMICA NOVA 2007;30(8):1966-1967.
1056. Ebejer KA, Lloyd GR, Brereton RG, Carter JF, Sleeman R. Factors
influencing the contamination of UK banknotes with drugs of abuse.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;171(2-3):165-170.
1057. Zuo YG, Zhang K, Wu JP, Rego C, Fritz J. An accurate and
nondestructive GC method for determination of cocaine on US paper
currency. JOURNAL OF SEPARATION SCIENCE 2008;31(13):2444-
2450.
9.6 Education:
1058. Anonymous. Forensic science badly lacking in the United States. Nature
2009;457(733):1071.
1059. Boucher MA, Specht KM. A forensic-themed case study for the organic
lab. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION 2009;86(7):847-848.
1060. Bowen A. Putting chemistry in context: The role of the light microscope in
non-routine analysis. MICROSCOP 2007;55(4):147-161.
1061. Coleman WF. Molecular models of real and mock illicit drugs from a
forensic chemistry activity. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION
2008;85(6):880.
1062. Harmon KJ, Miller LM, Millard JT. Crime scene investigation in the art
world: the case of the missing masterpiece. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL
EDUCATION 2009;86(7):817-819.
1063. Harpp DN. Crime in the classroom Part IV: Conclusions. JOURNAL OF
CHEMICAL EDUCATION 2008;85(6):805-806.
1064. Hasan S, Bromfield-Lee D, Oliver-Hoyo MT, Cintron-Maldonado JA. Using
laboratory chemicals to imitate illicit drugs in a forensic chemistry activity.
JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL EDUCATION 2008;85(6):813-816.
9.7 Legal Issues:
1065. Bono JP, Siegel JA. Pattern evidence and conformance to the
requirements of Daubert. 2008 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
Annual Meeting.
1066. Bower CM. Forensics Under fire: are bad science and dueling experts
corrupting criminal justice? SCIENCE 2008;320(5884):1722.
1067. Malkoc E, Neuteboom W. The current status of forensic science laboratory
accreditation in Europe. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2007;167(2-3):121-126.
1068. Melton L. Courtroom chemistry. CHEMISTRY WORLD 2007;4(11):58-61.
1069. Moskvina TP, Usov AI Kuz'min SA. Laboratories for forensic expertise and
their accreditation problems. INORGANIC MATERIALS 2008;44(14):1612-
1616.
832

1070. Wadell-Smith R, McGuffin VL. The need for research in forensic science.
ANALYTICAL & BIOANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2009;394(8):1985-1986.
9.8 Quality Assurance:
1071. Bogusz MJ. Quality assurance aspects of identification with
chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods. Z ZAGADNIEN NAUK
SADOWYCH 2009;77:7-19.
1072. Gates K, Chang N, Dilek I, Jian H, Pogue S, Sreenivasan U. The
uncertainty of reference standards-a guide to understanding factors
impacting uncertainty, uncertainty calculations, and vendor certifications.
JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL TOXICOLOGY 2009;33(8):532-539.
1073. Hauck WW, Abernethy DR, Williams RL. Metrologic approaches to setting
acceptance criteria: Unacceptable and unusual characteristics. JOURNAL
OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ANALYSIS 2008;48(3):1042-
1045.
1074. Neumann C, Margo P. New perspectives in the use of ink evidence in
forensic science: Part I. Development of a quality assurance process for
forensic ink analysis by HPTLC. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL
2009;185(1-3):29-37.
1075. Neumann C, Margot P. New perspectives in the use of ink evidence in
forensic science Part II. Development and testing of mathematical
algorithms for the automatic comparison of ink samples analysed by
HPTLC. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2009;185(1-3):38-50.
1076. Peters FT, Drummer OH, Musshoff F. Validation of new methods.
FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2007;165(2-3):216-224.
1077. Willink R. Uncertainty in repeated measurement of a small non-negative
quantity: Explanation and discussion of Bayesian methodology.
ACCREDITATION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE 2010;15(3):181-188.
9.9 Sampling Plans:
1078. Alberink I, Bolck A, Stoel RD. Comparison of frequentist methods for
estimating the total weight of consignments of drugs. JOURNAL OF
FORENSIC SCIENCES 2010;55(2):508-512.
1079. Levy R, Zelkowicz A. Efficiency evaluation of a police operation to fight the
drug plague: Distribution unit weight as an objective index. JOURNAL OF
FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(4):909.
1080. Majid MA. Techniques in drug sampling. 2008 American Academy of
Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting.
1081. Mario JR. A probability-based sampling approach for the analysis of drug
seizures composed of multiple containers of either cocaine, heroin, or
cannabis. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 2010;197(1-3):105-
113.
833

9.10 Toolmarks:
1082. Buckleton J, Triggs C, Taroni F, Champod C, Wevers G. Experimental
design for acquiring relevant data to address the issue of comparing
consecutively manufactured tools and firearms. SCIENCE & JUSTICE
2008;48(4):178-181.
1083. Nichols RG. Defending the scientific foundations of the firearms and tool
mark identification discipline: Responding to recent challenges. JOURNAL
OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(3):586-594.
1084. Nichols RG. Defending the scientific foundations of the firearms and tool
mark identification discipline: responding to recent challenges - Response.
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 2007;52(6):1416-1416.
9.11 Other:
1085. Lynch JD, Arroyo SB. Risks to Colombian Amphibian Fauna from
Cultivation of Coca (Erythroxylum coca): A Geographical Analysis.
JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH-PART
A-CURRENT ISSUES 2009;72(15-16):974-985.
1086. Prevatt-Smith KM, Prisinzano TE. New therapeutic potential for
psychoactive natural products. NATURAL PRODUCT REPORTS
2010;27(1):23-31.
1087. Scherer UW, Jacobi M, Castillo J, Forstel DH. Ultra-low-level
measurements of 3H and 14C in wines and champagne. RADIATION
EFFECTS AND DEFECTS IN SOLIDS 2009;164(5-6):382-385.
1088. Virtanen S, Antikainen O, Raikkonen H, Yliruusi J. Granule Size
Distribution of Tablets. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
2010;99(4):2061-2069.
1089. Wang N, Shen C, ding P, Yi W, sun W, Liu K, Ding, X, Fu D, Yuan J. The
application of bomb C in forensics: Determination of date of birth for
unknown victims. DIQIU HUAXUE 2009;38(4):387-392.
1090. Wassenaar LI, Van Wilgenburg SL, Larson K, Hobson KA. A groundwater
isoscape for Mexico. JOURNAL OF GEOCHEMICAL EXPLORATION
2009;102(3):123-136.
1091. Wu JJ. In situ test for determining whether items of real or personal
property have been exposed to the manuf. of illegal drugs. APPLICATION:
US2008-13558 14 January 2008.
Notes:
All categories are subdivided by topic or category, then alphabetically by the first
author’s last name.
following reference is law enforcement restricted and is not available to the
general public: The Journal of the Clandestine Laboratory Investigating
Chemists Association (all years)
834