INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT CHINA Civilization seems to have ...

INTRODUCTION TO ANCIENT CHINA
Civilization seems to have arisen in China at least a thousand years after it first appeared in
Mesopotamia. Whether it arose independently or due to contact with existing civilizations
in India or farther west in Egypt and Mesopotamia remains an open question. One of the
basic requirements for civilization, as historians define the term, is a written language, but
there is very little evidence for Chinese writing of any kind before about 2000 BC, other
than primitive pictographs carved on cliff walls—none of which historians and
archaeologists regard as writing.
There is extensive evidence, however, for preliterate inhabitants of China during the
Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. Stone tools and skeletal remains from the Paleolithic have
been recovered, and it is clear that by the late Neolithic (7,000 to 5,000 years ago), various
forms of wheat and rice were already being grown in China's rich soil. Pottery was also
being produced, as indicated by its abundance in prehistoric archaeological excavations.
The ancient Chinese themselves believed that their civilization had begun with the Xia
(pronouned SHEE-ah) dynasty around 2100 BC and had lasted for about 500 years, but
evidence to support that claim is scanty, and the Xia may be more legend than fact. China's
second ruling family, the Shang dynasty, however, was clearly historical. It ruled an
extensive area of northeast China from about 1600 to 1000 BC, the fertile region extending
outward from the Yellow river valley. Because the first historically confirmed Chinese
civilization arose along the banks of the Yellow river, the river itself is often referred to as
"the cradle of Chinese civilization." It is called the Yellow river ("Hwang Ho" is a direct
Chinese translation) because it has long been a catch-basin for wind-blown soil called loess
(pronounced variously as LOW-us, LUSS, or LESS), which gives Chinese soil its fertile
character and the river its yellow color. The Yellow river's tendency to flood periodically,
sometimes with devastating effect, has led to its alternative nickname, "China's Sorrow."
China's third ruling family, the Zhou dynasty (pronounced JOE), ruled over the same
general area as the Shang before it, from about 1000 to 250 BC, making it the longest-lived
dynasty in Chinese history. The last 200 years of its reign were marked, however, by
considerable turmoil and are referred to by historians as "The Warring States Period."
Regional warlords who had once been loyal to the Zhou rulers rebelled, gained their
independence, and established their own kingdoms. By the end of the Zhou period,

ortheast China was split into seven states or kingdoms which were frequently at war with
one another. It was during these same tumultuous times that Chinese philosophies
developed which were to have a far-reaching impact. Laozi (or Lao-Tzu) laid the
foundation of Daoism (or Taoism), and Kong Fuzi (or Confucius) sought to end the endless
wars between the seven warring Chinese states by educating a new generation of cultured
gentlemen and by urging adoption at the state level of behaviors and principles which had
long made Chinese family life orderly and harmonious.
The fourth Chinese dynasty, the Qin (pronounced CHIN), ruled for the shortest time but
was arguably the most important. The word "China," in fact, is derived from the name of
this ruling family. The Qin state was one of the seven Chinese kingdoms during the
Warring States Period. In the 300's BC, a Qin statesman named Shang Yang introduced a
number of reforms which were to have significant consequences. First, he introduced a
new political philosophy called "legalism," which mandated the creation of an extensive
and ruthlessly enforced code of laws. The laws were made public so that everyone would
know what they were and the penalties for breaking them. Then the government set out to
enforce them rigidly and often without mercy. This new policy quickly brought a new level
of order out of what had been at times a political and social situation bordering on chaos.
Second, Shang Yang urged the Qin rulers to be secretive and devious in their dealings with
neighboring states. The age-old tradition of war in China as a contest between honorable
gentlemen was set aside, and war became a deadly struggle for advantage on the battlefield.
By remaining secretive about their plans, ambitions, and troop movements, the Qin rulers
and their generals hoped to outsmart and if possible trick their enemies. Third, Shang Yang
began appointing governmental officials and military officers on the basis of talent, rather
than on the basis of family or social connections, as had long been the case. Finally,
officials at the Qin court were subjected to the constant supervision of their ruler, who
rewarded them handsomely for their achievements and punished them brutally for their
failures. These policies in time made the Qin state the most efficient and ruthless of China's
warring kingdoms.
In 246 BC, Qin Shi Huang became ruler of the Qin state and was to become ancient
China's first and most famous emperor. Ironically, he does not seem to have actually been
the son of the previous Qin ruler. A powerful and influential merchant and statesman at the
Qin court named Lü Buwei (pronounced LOO boo-WAY) allegedly introduced a dancing
girl named Zhao Ji to the Qin ruler, and she subsequently bore a son who became Qin Shi
Huang. The Qin king assumed the boy was his son, but it appears that Lü Buwei actually

fathered the child. When the old king died, the boy, whose birth name was Zhao Zheng,
succeeded to the throne, although he was only thirteen years old and in need of a mature
advisor, a role which Lü Buwei gladly filled. The young king was carefully instructed in all
the skills a king would need and particularly in the finer points of legalism. In later years,
however, Lü Buwei became fearful that the young king would discover his true origins and
plotted to replace him with another son of Zhao Ji. The plot misfired, however, and in 235
BC, when Zhao Zheng was 24 years old, the young king took firm control of his destiny
and at the same time suppressed the secret of his birth. The step-brother who would have
replaced him was seized, tied to two wagons facing in opposite directions, and literally torn
apart. His mother, Zhao Ji, was confined to her rooms in the palace for the rest of her life,
and his father and mentor, Lü Buwei, committed suicide.
Five years later, in 230 BC, Zhao Zheng unleashed the Qin army against his neighbors.
The Han state fell to his forces that same year, the Zhao state fell in 228 (assisted by a
severe earthquake), followed by the majority of the Yan state in 226, the Wei state in 225,
and in 223 the Chu state, which was the largest of the seven. The last remnants of the Yan
kingdom were conquered in 222 BC, and the last of the Warring States, Qi (pronounced
CHEE), was overrun in 221 BC. Other areas, some as far away as Vietnam, were
conquered by Qin armies after 221 BC. With the fall of China's warring states and their
consolidation under Qin control, Zhao Zheng could legitimately claim to be China's first
emperor, whose authority extended over a vast region within northeast China. He was
afterward called Qin Shi Huang, meaning "First Qin Emperor."
Another achievement for which Qin Shi Huang is famous was the original construction of
China's Great Wall, built to keep northern nomadic warriors out of his domain. The present
Great Wall was not built until much later, but it follows the general path of the earlier and
less robust wall constructed in the 220's BC.
During his reign, Qin Shi Huang survived at least two assassination attempts and in his
later years became obsessed with finding the secret to eternal youth and life. He sent agents
across China in search of this magical substance and took many experimental potions to
fortify his health. Ironically, his death in 210 BC may have been due to a potion containing
mercury, now known to be a deadly poison. He was succeeded by one of his sons, who was
in no way the equal of his father, and the Qin dynasty collapsed in 207 BC.

Qin Shi Huang was also obsessed in his later years with his eventual burial arrangements.
For years, rumors abounded about his rich burial site, but it evaded discovery until 1974,
when the tomb site was accidentally stumbled upon by some Chinese farmers. Ancient
sources recorded that work began on the site when Zhao Zheng was thirteen years old and
that it continued through most of his life. Over 700,000 laborers worked on the site. The
emperor's kingdom was laid out in miniature detail within the tomb and supposedly
featured rivers of flowing mercury. Artisans created thousands of life-size soldiers, each
with unique physical characteristics and representing the diverse ethnic mix within the
emperor's army. They were arrayed in rows and ranks, as on the battlefield in life, and then
buried, to stand guard for eternity over the royal tomb. Each figure is made of terra cotta,
the same material from which pots are made. To date, over 8000 soldiers, 100 chariots, and
500 horses have been discovered, most of them still awaiting conservation by
archaeologists. The probable site of the emperor's tomb itself has been identified, but since
it resides beneath a literal mountain of earth, its excavation will be slow and difficult, and
will probably require the efforts of generations of archaeologists. The tomb of Qin Shi
Huang was thus as monumental as his career.
China's second empire was controlled by the Han dynasty (pronounced HAHN), which
ruled an area even more extensive than that of the Qin dynasty before it. Han emperors
ruled China for more than 400 years, from 206 BC to 220 AD, a period which is
considered ancient China's golden age. Even today, the people of China generally refer to
themselves as "the Han."
During the reign of the Han, Han armies were regularly employed in putting down
rebellions and in taming the barbarian nomads on China's northern border. Parts of central
and southern China were incorporated into the Chinese empire for the first time, including
the rich Yangtze river valley. Buddhism first entered China from India during the reign of
the Han, but the state officially sanctioned Confucianism, and education was focused on
detailed knowledge of classic Confucian literature. A new law code was introduced, some
of which was new and some of which was drawn from the laws of the previous Qin empire.
Coins were put into circulation, trade expanded, and the Han state grew rich and
prosperous. In addition, improvements were made in metal technology, and the first
manufacturing process for paper was invented. Advances in astronomy, medicine, and
mathematics were also made. In short, the Han dynasty witnessed a range of important
achievements for which ancient China is justifiably remembered and respected.