J07288 - AFMA - AFMA Matrix - March 2012.indd

MARCH 2012 

Volume 21 Nr 1 

AFMA 

A bumpy 2012 ahead 

Matrix 

Quarterly magazine of the Animal Feed Manufacturers Association 

 

The BIOMIN solutions 

 

 

 

 

Established product range: 

® ) 

® 

® ) 

® ® ) 

® 

 

 

 

 

 

Naturally ahead

www.graintech-makeway.com 

more than 100 years a reliable partner 

• Design 

• Engineering 

• Manufacturing 

• Completion 

• Feed mills 

• 

• Flour mills 

Pet Food plants 

• Aqua feedmills 

• Cereal Processing 

plants 

• Silos 

• Handling Systems 

• Electric control 

and automation 

Contact: Jan Kminek 

68 Fourth Street 

Booysens Reserve 

Johannesburg 

2091 

T +27 11 835-2064 

F +27 11 835-2816 

E jkminek@graintech-makeway.com 

CRAFTMANSHIP IN THE ANIMAL FEED AND FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY


Matrix 

CONTENTS 

MARCH 2012 

Volume 21 Nr 1 

EDITORIAL OFFICE 

Embankment Park, 194 Kwikkie Crescent, 

Centurion 0157 

Tel: +27 12 663 9097 

Tel: +27 12 663 9361 

Fax: +27 12 663 9612 

E-mail: admin@afma.co.za 

Website: www.afma.co.za 

PUBLISHER 


PO Box 8144 Centurion 0046 



Tel: +27 12 663 9097 

Tel: +27 12 663 9361 

Fax: +27 12 663 9612 



ADVERTISEMENTS 


PO Box 8144 Centurion 0046 



Tel: +27 12 663 9097 

Tel: +27 12 663 9361 

Fax: +27 12 663 9612 



DESIGN & LAYOUT 

Gecko Communications 

PO Box 11436 Erasmuskloof 0048 

Centurion Office Park, Block A, Ground Floor, 

Embankment Road, Centurion 0157 

Tel: +27 12 683 0231 

Fax: +27 86 626 7701 

E-mail: studio@geckocom.co.za 

Website: www.geckocom.co.za 

PRINTERS 

Beria Printers 

PO Box 48079 Hercules 0030 

14 Jacaranda Street, Dirk Smit Industrial Park, 

Section 7 & 8, Hennopspark X35, 


Tel: +27 12 653 2941 

Fax: +27 12 653 3487 

Opinions expressed in articles are not 

necessarily endorsed by AFMA. 

© Copyright. Articles may be used with the 

necessary acknow ledgement to the author 

and AFMA MATRIX. 

Roles of tryptophan 

in pig nutrition 

2 Preface: A bumpy 2012 ahead 

By Loutjie Dunn – AFMA Chairperson 

4 Advertorial: Mycotoxins. Challenges and 

solutions in modern agricultural operations 

6 Developing sustainable feed technologies: 

optimization of the gut microenvironment 

for improved animal production and health 

By David M. Bravo – Head of R&D, PANCOSMA 

14 Betaine, or Choline + Methionine 

What are the benefits 

By Tim Horne – Chemunique International and Janet Remus – 

Danisco Animal Nutrition, Malborough, Wiltshire, UK 

22 Roles of tryptophan in pig nutrition 

By Dr. J. Htoo and F. Crots – Evonik Industries 

26 Optimal grinding of barley-rich 

pig feed with hammers and rollers 

By Thorsten Lucht – Amandus Kahl, Reinbek, Germany 

34 • Coming Events 

• Industry News: 

- Meadow Feeds: New appointment 

- Astral Foods: New appointment 

- Taking mother nature’s lead 

35 Industry News: ADVIT Animal Nutrition celebrating 

a quarter of a century of making feed better 

March 2012 AFMA MATRIX 1

PREFACE 

A bumpy 2012 ahead 

By Loutjie Dunn – AFMA Chairperson 

In times of change people love to look 

into the crystal ball and attempt to 

predict whether things will improve 

or deteriorate. One such change is 

the advent of a new calendar year, 

and I am quite sure that in the animal 

feed industry there are quite a few 

very different opinions regarding the 

prospects for 2012. I gladly share my 

view. 

There are two things that are of great 

importance to the feed industry: the 

availability of sufficient raw materials, 

and a sustained demand for animal 

feed. Of course other factors such 

as price and raw material quality, 

the foreign exchange rate, current 

economic situation, political climate, 

food safety and security, etc., must all 

be taken into consideration. 

Manufacturers of animal feed are able 

to produce animal feed from expensive 

and poor quality raw materials, but 

without these raw materials there will 

be no feed production. This is why 

it is so important to look into this 

essential aspect of feed manufacturing. 

Maize, soybeans, sunflower and other 

by-products provide adequately for 

approximately 60-90% of the raw 

products used to manufacture animal 

feed. 

Local availability 

Locally produced raw materials 

benefit our country and ourselves. 

This is why the cultivation of 

protein sources, especially soya, has 

been encouraged for many years. 

We welcome the growth in soya 

production over the past few years. 

I expect more growth in the coming 

years. In respect of raw material 

supply, however, this is probably the 

only positive development in 2012. 

In the current season we are already 

experiencing a shortage of maize and 

at this stage we are not sure whether 

this shortage will be recovered in 

the coming season. Sunflower supply 

is already limited and I expect the 

availability of sunflower to decrease in 

the next season. 

Raw material prices are determined 

mostly by demand and supply, and 

this is exactly the reason for the 

sharp increase in the maize price over 

the past few months. The price is 

expected to remain high during the 

next season and in some cases, such 

as sunflower oilcake, the price may 

increase even more. Raw material 

prices are the strongest driver of 

animal feed prices, as it comprises 

more than 80% of the total cost. 

Further sharp increases in the price of 

feed can be expected during 2012. 

Poultry industry 

The biggest consumer of animal feed 

is the poultry industry, but even 

here the prospects are bleak. More 

than 20% of the broilers consumed 

in 2011 were imported. This trend 

will probably continue to haunt us 

in 2012. In addition, local poultry 

producers have been experiencing 

serious setbacks due to contagious 

bronchitis over the past two years. 

The disease had a negative effect on 

both performance and feed intake. 

Numerous poultry producers believe 

that this problem will be even greater 

in 2012 unless approval is granted for 

the importation of the correct 

vaccine. 

The price of broilers remain under 

pressure – a different scenario from 

red meat, which experienced major 

price hikes at the end of 2011. Imports 

will probably continue to put pressure 

on the local poultry meat price in 

2012. 

A positive outlook 

Fortunately all is not doom and 

gloom. We also have to look at those 

aspects that can help to improve the 

situation. A substantial maize crop 

during the next season, with lower 

maize exports than in 2011, can have 

a positive effect on both raw material 

and animal feed prices during the last 

quarter of 2012. The 2012 maize crop 

is far from over and it is way too early 

to talk of a large crop. However, a 

good harvest is still possible. 

Maize export contracts for the new 

season are already being entered into. 

It is still not clear what the effect of 

these contracts will be on our maize 

supplies by the end of the next season. 

Maize is not destined for animal feeds 

only – it remains a staple food in South 

Africa, which is why I am expecting 

the maize supply to improve. 

Exported maize is used to feed 

imported chickens (directly 

or indirectly). I trust that the 

government will react positively 

to the call to act on the dumping of 

cheap broiler meat in our market, 

as it will create an opportunity to 

improve local facilities. This will 

in turn relieve price pressure and 

create job opportunities. I also expect 

the correct vaccine for contagious 

bronchitis to become available some 

time during 2012. 

This is going to be a difficult year 

for the animal feed industry, with 

few or no prospects for volume 

growth during times of high raw 

material prices. It will put financial 

performance under great pressure. 

While 2012 started off on the difficult 

side, it can be expected that it will 

become even more difficult before 

improvements show their face during 

the last quarter. 

2 AFMA MATRIX March 2012

WHEN IT COMES TO HER SAFETY, 

WE TAKE A CLOSER LOOK 

ENSURING FEED SAFETY 

KEMIN FOOD SAFETY initiative 

For more information about Kemin’s Food Safety initiative, please contact : 

Kemin Industries South Africa (Pty.) Ltd. 

email: info.sa@kemin.com 

tel: 08610 KEMIN (08610 53646) 

© 2011 Kemin Industries, Inc. and it group of companies 2011 All rights reserved. ® Trademark Registered by Kemin Industries, Inc. USA

ADVERTORIAL 

Mycotoxins 

Challenges and solutions in 

modern agricultural operations 

Optimising productivity and health in dairy and beef cattle is a lot easier to talk about 

than to achieve. 

The challenges that cattle-managers are confronted with every day are many and 

diverse; from weather to mycotoxins to nutrition to housing and more. How well 

management handles these challenges determines the economical output of the farm. 

Today, managers can select a binder, 

if that is all what is needed, or they 

can select a product containing a 

mycotoxin de-activator together with 

a binder to ensure that whatever 

mycotoxin is in the ration it will be 

managed properly (Table 2). 

Mycofix ® product line represents a 

complex solution for the successful 

mycotoxin risk management. The 

biotransformation agents (biological 

constituent and inactivated protein) 

may become the technology of 

choice, as enzymatic reaction offer a 

specific, irreversible and very efficient 

way of detoxification that leaves 

neither toxic residues nor undesirable 

by-products. The elimination of 

adsorbable mycotoxins, such as 

aflatoxins and ergot alkaloids can be 

achieved through adsorption while 

selected plant and algae extracts that 

counteract effects of non-degradable 

mycotoxins complete the picture for 

successful control of mycotoxins 

(Table 1). 

Mycotoxins 

The contamination of animal feed with 

mycotoxins is a worldwide problem 

in animal production and one of the 

challenges the modern herd manager 

faces. The complex diet of ruminants, 

consisting of forages and concentrates 

can be a source of diverse mixtures of 

mycotoxins that will influence animal 

performance negatively. 

A number of factors influence the 

incidence of mycotoxins in feedstuffs. The 

greatest contributor is weather. Different 

moulds favour different weather 

conditions to flourish and produce 

mycotoxins. 

Agricultural practices such as no-till 

and reduced crop rotation favour the 

overwintering of mould spores, which 

results in a greater mould infestation of 

plants, and significantly contributes to 

the incidence of mycotoxins. 

Identifying mycotoxicoses 

Unfortunately, unless the mycotoxicoses 

causes dramatic changes as a precipitous 

drop in milk production or average 

daily weight gain, lower feed intake or 

even sudden death it is usually difficult 

to know whether mycotoxins are the 

single factor causing the problems or a 

combination of factors, which are leading 

to decreased performance. 

Subclinical effects 

These subclinical effects appear as 

subtle increases in what may be 

considered common cow problems, 

especially in postpartum cows. It is well 

acknowledged that mycotoxins surpress 

the immune system, affect ruminal 

digestion and interfere in the hormonal 

balances of the animal, even at low levels 

of contamination. 

Growing cattle may have slightly 

lower daily weight gains, they may 

fail to develop the full immunity or 

may experience premature sexual 

development. 

These subclinical effects tend to lead 

to higher veterinary expenses, higher 

production costs and increased culling 

rates, just to mention a few. 

Cost of diseases in dairy 

Knowing the cost of common diseases 

can help dairy farmers and their 

veterinarians plan treatment and 

prevention strategies that are likely to 

improve the profitability of the dairy. 

Table 1: Cost of disease per incidence. 

Incidence/ Cost/ 

lact (%) case ($) 

Milkfever 4 275 

Dystocia 21 228 

Retained placenta 15 315 

Ketosis 14 232 

Left displaced obamasum 4 494 

Mastitis 40 224 

Lameness 38 469 

Metritis 20 305 

Solutions 

Table 2: Binding possibilities of different 

mycotoxins. 

Mycotoxin Binding Deactivation 

Aflatoxins +++ 

Ochratoxins +– +++ 

Fumonisins +– +++ 

Zearalenone* +– – +++ 

DON (vomitoxin) +++ 

Nivalenol +++ 

T-2 toxin +++ 

DAS, MAS +++ 

Other trichothecenes +++ 

(3-AcDON, 14-AcDon, Fus X, HT-2 toxin, etc) 

* Some zearalenone may be bound but most 

must be deactivated enzymatically. 

If the cost of the problem and the 

components of that cost are known, it 

is easier to judge whether allocation of 

resources can be expected to reduce that 

cost and return a net profit. 

The economical losses caused by 

diseases are enormous and therefore a 

careful strategy should be implemented. 

The focus should be on prevention rather 

than curing the animal. Implementing 

feeding and management strategies to 

help the animal during stressful periods 

will help to prevent the unnecessary 

occurrence of diseases. 


More than just feed 

Since 1942 

At Meadow Feeds, we know and care about your production animals as much as you do. That’s why we 

continue to develop, produce and deliver high quality feed for the Southern African animal feed industry. 

As the market leader, you can be sure that you’re in safe hands when farming with Meadow Feeds, because 

we understand that in order to get the best out, you need to put only the best in. 

www.meadowfeeds.co.za

NUTRITION 

Developing sustainable feed technologies: 

optimization of the gut microenvironment 

for improved animal production and health 

By David M. Bravo – Head of R&D, PANCOSMA 

Introduction 

For centuries, physiologists have viewed 

the gut as a simple organ whose primary 

role was to digest ingested food and 

absorb nutrients. Consequently, the 

gut has always been considered an 

unsophisticated organ when compared 

to other organ systems of the body. 

More recently, however, modern tools 

and technologies have vastly improved 

our knowledge of gut function and the 

factors that regulate it. Importantly, 

the presence of a complex microbial 

ecosystem in the gut has been described, 

and this “ecosystem” clearly has a 

symbiotic relationship with the host. 

Recent reports have shown that the gut 

ecosystem – the microbiota – contains 

many more microbial cells than the entire 

number of eukaryotic cells in the host, 

and DNA from the microbial cells encodes 

10 16 genes compared to 10 14 eukaryotic 

genes encoded by host DNA (Eberl, 

2010). In addition, the metabolic activity 

of the microbiota – which is capable of 

metabolic functions not encoded by the 

host genome (Salzman et al., 2007) – is 

similar to that of the liver (Sansonetti, 

2011). Interestingly, recent scientific 

developments have revealed that the 

DIGESTIVE 

LUMEN 

APICAL 

MEMBRANE 

WITH SENSE 

RECEPTORS 

ENTEROCYTE 

interactions between the host and the 

microbiota position the gut as a major 

immune organ which plays a critical role 

in determining the overall health of the 

host (Feng et Elson, 2011). An additional 

level of complexity was also revealed 

when Furness et al. (1999) proposed that 

the intestine is in fact a sensory organ, 

and data are still accumulating in support 

of this hypothesis. Because it exists in 

a constantly changing environment, 

the gut has highly specialized cells that 

inform the rest of the body about the 

environment to which it is being exposed. 

The ability of the gut to sense molecules 

in its environment plays a critical role in 

controlling multiple functions within the 

gut itself, and it also initiates hormonal 

or neuronal signals that control many 

systemic functions (Rozengurt, 2006). 

Therefore, in addition to being a sensory 

organ, the gut is a highly complex organ 

of communication, in constant dialogue 

with its environment and the rest of the 

body. 

The objective of this paper was to discuss 

the process of discovery and innovation 

in nutritional strategies – and the 

development of novel feed additives – 

ENTEROENDO- 

CRINE 

ENTEROCYTE 

LAMINA 

PROPRIA 

BASO 

LATERAL WITH 

EXOCYTOSIS 

VESICLES 

EXOCYTOSE 

VESICLES 

CONTAINING 

GUT 

HORMONES 

Figure 1: Schematization of an enteroendocrine cell surrounded by enterocytes Enteroendocrine cells, 

which constitute only 1% of gut cells, are specialised sensors of the gastrointertinal tract. Their apical 

membrane, which is in contact with the gut luminal content, expresses chemo sensory receptors. Their 

basolateral membrane, which is in contact with the lamina propria, is responsible for the release of gut 

hormones by exocytosis. 

based on our understanding of normal 

gut physiology. In particular, this paper 

will be focused on emphasizing the 

intestine as a highly complex organ with 

its own sensory system and apparent 

autonomy. Application of this new 

knowledge to animal nutrition can 

lead to the development of novel and 

sustainable feeding technologies. The 

use of an intense sweetener as a feed 

additive for promoting feed intake of the 

weaning piglet will be discussed. 

The role of the gut as an endocrine 

and sensory organ 

In addition to its role in digestion and 

absorption, the gut acts as a sensory 

organ with three functioning systems: 

neurons, endocrine cells and immune 

cells (Furness et al., 1999). Recently, 

the importance of the enteric nervous 

system has been re-discovered. It is a 

component of the peripheral nervous 

system, made up of some 500 hundred 

neurons, and can operate independently 

of the central nervous system (Wood, 

2011). Importantly, it directly controls the 

function of the gastro-intestinal tract. It 

has long been thought that the detection 

of the nutrients and non-nutrients in 

the gut lumen was mediated directly by 

enteric neurons (Furness et Poole, 2012). 

It was also though that the sole role of 

intestinal mucosal cells was to prevent 

bacteria from entering into the body and 

absorbing nutrients. However, tracing 

studies showed that intestinal nerves 

do not penetrate the epithelium, which 

excludes the possibility that they sense 

anything from the intestinal contents 

directly (Berthoud et al., 1995). This 

suggested that something in the mucosa 

should be the missing link between the 

gut lumen and the enteric neurons. Our 

understanding of the intestinal mucosa 

has changed considerably as new 

categories of cells have been described, 

among them the enteroendocrine cells 

(see figure 1, Dockray, 2003). 

> 


Cargill operates on an integrated global basis to source, process, 

transport and distribute grain and oilseeds around the world. We also work 

closely with Cargill’s finance and risk management businesses to offer a 

range of hedging and financial products. 

We are committed to helping our customers succeed through collaboration 

and innovation and aspire to be your partner of choice. 

PO Box 864 

Sloane Park 

2152 

Building Number 2, Montagu Office Park 

Cnr Cedar Road & Cedar Lakes Boulevard 

Broadacres, Johannesburg, South Africa 

Tel +27 (11) 745 9600 

Fax +27 (86) 528 2600 up to 7 

www.cargill.co.za

NUTRITION 

Enteroendocrine cells are specialized 

epithelial cells originating from 

intestinal stem cells, and they are 

considered part of the secretory cell 

family, along with paneth and goblet 

cells (Moran et al., 2008). They are 

randomly distributed among mucosal 

cells of the gastro-intestinal tract and 

represent less than 1% of the entire 

gut epithelial cell population (Sternini 

et al., 2008). More than 10 known 

types of enteroendocrine cells are 

distributed along the gastro-intestinal 

tract (Sundler et al., 1988). Their main 

function is to sense the luminal contents 

and distinguish between nutrients and 

non-nutrients (Nozawa et al., 2009). 

For this reason, enteroendocrine cells 

are morphologically oriented cells 

with 2 different membranes. Their 

apical membrane expresses a variety of 

receptors, including many chemosensory 

receptors, for the detection of molecules 

in the digestive lumen. Receptors for 

cold sensation, odor, bile acid (Kidd et 

al., 2008), Toll-like receptors (Bogunovic 

et al., 2007; Palazzo et al., 2007), and a 

variety of others such as alpha2A, beta1 

adrenoreceptors, muscarinic M3 and 

the GABA-A receptors (Schäfermayer et 

al., 2004) have been described. Taste 

receptors, and in particular the dimeric 

sweet taste receptor T1R2 / T1R3, 

have also been detected on the apical 

membrane of the enteroendocrine cells 

in rodents and humans (Sutherland et 

al., 2007; Jang et al., 2007; Bezençon 

et al., 2007; Margolskee et al., 2007). 

In contrast to the apical membrane, 

the basolateral membrane of the 

enteroendocrine cell is an exocytosis 

membrane. When such a cell senses a 

particular component in the digestive 

lumen, it secretes into the lamina propria 

a peptide with endocrine properties 

called gut hormone (Konturek et al., 

2004). Together, these cells compose the 

largest endocrine organ of the human 

body with hundreds of thousands of 

enteroendocrine cells, producing more 

than 20 hormones (Furness et al., 

1999). Gastrin, ghrelin, somatostatin, 

cholecystokinin, serotonin, glucosedependant 

insulinotropic peptide, 

glucacon-like peptides, oxyntomodulin, 

and peptide Y are the main gut 

hormones secreted by enteroendocrine 

cells (Sternini et al., 2008). For a review 

of the gut peptides controlling intake 

and energy homeostasis the reader can 

refer to Murphy et al. (2006). These 

peptides then diffuse across the lamina 

propria to activate nearby vagal or 

spinal afferent neurons as well as enteric 

neurons, whereas others can enter into 

the bloodstream and act systemically 

as hormones (Cummings and Overduin, 

2007). In summary, the function of 

enteroendocrine cells is to act as sensors 

for distinguishing nutrients and nonnutrients 

within the luminal contents. 

They are specialized transepithelial 

transducers of physiochemical luminal 

signals, which result in basolateral 

exocytosis of biological mediators (Moran 

et al., 2008). These mediators then act 

on nerve fibres to influence other local or 

distant targets (Buchan, 1999; Hofer and 

Drenckhahn, 1999). Via their secreted 

peptides, the enteroendocrine cells 

regulate key physiological variables such 

as gut motility, feed intake (Savastano 

and Covasa, 2007), and others. For 

example, abnormal enteroendocrine cell 

function is associated with increased 

predisposition to gastrointestinal 

inflammatory disorders (Moran et 

al., 2008), and mice deficient in 

enteroendocrine cells have altered lipid 

and glucose metabolism (Mellitzer et al., 

2010). 

It is unknown whether the function of 

enteroendocrine cells can be altered 

by functional feed additives. This is 

particularly relevant because of the 

nature of the hormones that the 

enteroendocrine cells produce and 

their control of digestive processes. In 

human nutrition and health, Sternini et 

al. (2008) suggested that modification 

in the secretion of hormones from 

enteroendocrine cells could provide 

novel approaches to develop therapeutic 

agents. This was also emphasized by 

Moran et al. (2008) who noticed that 

these cells play a major role in several 

gastrointestinal pathologies. Finally, 

Rozengurt (2006) presented taste 

receptors expressed in enteroendocrine 

cells as major potential for discovery and 

design of novel molecules that modify 

responses elicited by the activation of 

these receptors. The same could be 

theorized for animal feed technologies 

(see figure 2). 

Classical use of intense sweeteners in 

feed: altering the sense of taste 

Intense artificial sweeteners are nonnutritional 

molecules which elicit a strong 

sweet taste. The main sweeteners used 

in animal feed are sodium saccharin 

(SS), sodium cyclamate, aspartame, 

acesulfame K, and neohesperidine 

dihydrochalcone (NHDC). For a review 

of the different types of sweeteners 

the reader can refer to Yang (2010). 

> 

ADDITIVE 

ENTEROCYTE 

ENTEROCYTE 

ENTEROCYTE 

CHEMOSENSORY 

RECEPTORS 

GUT 

HORMONE 

VAGUE 

NERVE 

CHEMOSENSORY 

RECEPTORS 

ADDITIVE 

GUT 

HORMONE 

CHEMOSENSORY 

RECEPTORS 

ADDITIVE 

GUT 

HORMONE 

VAGUE 

NERVE 

ENTEROENDOCRINE 



ENTERIC 

NEURON 

ADDITIVE 

ENTEROCYTE 

ENTERIC 

NEURON 

ENTEROCYTE 

GUT LOCAL 

RESPONSESE 

ENTEROCYTE 

ENTERIC 

NEURON 

AMPLIFICATION OF SIGNAL 

LEADING TO: CONTROL OF 

FEED INTAKE DIGESTIVE 

SECRETION IMPROVED 

ABSORPTION; GUT MOTILITY 

BETTER GUT MUCOSA; ETC. 

CHEMOSENSORY 

RECEPTORS 

ADDITIVE 

ENTEROCYTE 

GUT 

HORMONE 


ENTERIC 

NEURON 

GUT LOCAL 

RESPONSESE 

ENTEROCYTE 

CHEMOSENSORY 

RECEPTORS 

ADDITIVE 

ENTEROCYTE 


ENTEROCYTE 

GUT 

HORMONE 

GUT/BRAIN AXIS 

VAGUE 

NERVE 

CHEMOSENSORY 

RECEPTORS 

ADDITIVE 

ENTEROCYTE 

VAGUE 

NERVE 

GUT 

HORMONE 


ENTERIC 

NEURON 

ENTEROCYTE 

Figure 2: Possible effects of targeting chemosensory receptors on the apical membrane of the enteroendocrine cells, possible consequences and schematic mode 

of action. 


Unload up to 3 tonnes/minute

NUTRITION 

Interestingly, although the use of 

artificial sweeteners is practised in 

both animal and human nutrition, 

the desirable consequences are vastly 

different. Still, both applications rely on 

the fact that sweet taste and natural 

sweeteners are the main determinants 

of food palatability (Drewnowski 1999). 

It is interesting to note that in human 

nutrition, the addition of intense artificial 

sweeteners to a low-palatability diet 

should theoretically limit caloric intake. 

Because of this, both implicit and 

explicit messages from manufacturers 

have suggested that the use of artificial 

sweeteners would facilitate or even 

enhance weight loss, or, at least help 

prevent further gain (Fowler et al., 

2008). However, research to critically 

examine whether or not intense artificial 

sweeteners promote food intake or body 

weight gain in humans has been limited 

by the lack of a physiologically-relevant 

model that describes the mechanistic 

basis for these outcomes, and it is still a 

long-standing controversial issue (Rolls, 

1991). However, there is considerable 

anecdotal and scientific evidence to 

suggest that the introduction of food 

and beverages sweetened with artificial 

sweeteners is not associated with weight 

losses but is clearly linked to increased 

caloric intake and weight gain(Bellisle 

and Drewnowski, 2007). In laboratory 

animals, the consumption of aspartame 

(Blundell and Hill, 1986) or saccharine 

(Tordoff and Friedman, 1989a, b, c and 

d) in drinking water was associated 

with increased feed intake. Therefore, 

it is consistently argued that the use of 

intense artificial sweeteners increases 

the appetite for sweet foods, promotes 

overeating, and may lead to weight gain 

and obesity (Bellisle et Drewnowski, 

2007; Mattes et Popkin, 2009). In 

agreement with this, supplementation of 

rats with saccharin on a fixed yogurt diet 

was associated with increased weight 

gain and impaired caloric compensation 

relative to rats given the same amount 

of yogurt mixed with glucose (Swithers 

and Davidson, 2008). Increased body 

weight gain was also observed when 

laboratory animals consumed a yogurt 

diet sweetened with either acesulfame 

K, or saccharine, that were calorically 

similar but nutritionally distinct from 

low-fat yogurt (Swithers et al., 2009). 

Moreover, the body weight differences 

persisted after saccharin-sweetened diets 

were discontinued and the animals were 

put on a diet sweetened with glucose 

(Swithers et al., 2009). In addition, 

rats first exposed to a diet sweetened 

with glucose still gained additional 

weight when subsequently exposed to 

a saccharin-sweetened diet (Swithers 

et al., 2009). Finally, the same research 

group showed that intake of feed or 

liquid containing an artificial sweetener 

increased feed intake, body weight 

gain, accumulation of body fat, and 

weaker caloric compensation compared 

to consumption of foods and fluids 

containing glucose (Swithers et al., 

2010). Taken together, experiments in 

rodents have established a clear positive 

relationship between the use of artificial 

sweeteners in feed and body weight 

gain. These results are supported by 

epidemiological reports in humans, which 

revealed a correlation between negative 

health outcomes such as obesity, 

diabetes, and cardiovascular disease, and 

the consumption of beverages sweetened 

with intense artificial sweeteners. 

Specifically, Fowler et al. (2008) observed 

a positive dose–response relationship 

between the consumption of artificiallysweetened 

beverages and long-term 

weight gain. More recently, researchers 

have suggested that the reason behind 

the increase in energy balance and 

weight gain seen with the use of intense 

sweeteners could be due to a decrease 

in the ability of sweet tastes to evoke 

physiological responses that serve to 

regulate energy balance (Swithers et al., 

2010). 

The reason for the use of intense 

artificial sweeteners in animal nutrition 

is to improve palatability and enhance 

feed intake of either low- or normalpalatability 

diets. It is for this reason 

that medicated weaning piglet diets, 

which usually have a low palatability, 

are often supplemented with intense 

artificial sweeteners (Hellal, 2003). The 

use of artificial sweeteners in feed has 

been described in published studies 

in domestic animal nutrition. Most of 

them refer to the commercial product 

SUC (PANCOSMA, Geneva, Switzerland), 

which is an SS and NHDC based artificial 

sweetener. The use of SUC has been 

shown to elicit dietary preference in 

dairy calves (Schlegel et al., 2006), and 

increased feed intake of steer calves 

(Ponce et al., 2007). In addition, SUC 

increased feed intake (+19%) and 

tended to increase body weight gain 

(+23%) when fed to calves during a 56-d 

receiving period (Brown et al., 2004). 

This finding was confirmed by another 

experiment on newly received calves 

with a tendency for an increase in body 

weight at the end of the receiving period 

(McMeniman et al., 2006). In that study, 

the authors reported either significant 

or a tendency for improvement of the 

gain:feed ratio from day 1 to 28 and 

from day 1 to 56 after receiving. In a 

trial conducted on weaning piglets, 

Sterk et al. (2008) reported that the 

addition of SUC to the diet prevented 

digestive disorders, and they observed an 

improvement in fecal consistency. Finally, 

in piglets, the addition of SUC improved 

gut histology with an increase in the 

height of villi as well as the ratio of villi 

height to crypth depth (Da Silva et al., 

2001). These described effects of artificial 

sweeteners on increased feed intake, 

increased body weight gain and other 

outcomes such as gut histology are not 

easily understandable due to the paucity 

of knowledge and experimental data 

(Mattes and Popkin, 2009). However, 

new research findings, discussed below, 

might provide insight. 

New use of intense sweeteners in 

swine feed: exploiting gut sensing to 

optimize production performance 

Modern piglets are weaned and exposed 

to solid feed at as early as 3 to 4 weeks 

of life. It has been known for decades 

that early weaning causes a decrease 

in feed intake and sub-optimal piglet 

growth (Leibrandt et al., 1975). This 

post-weaning dramatic drop in feed 

intake can last several hours or even 

days (Le Dividich and Seve, 2000). It 

does not only limit the amount of energy 

and nutrients that the piglets receive, 

but it also depletes the gut mucosa of 

nutrients at a time when its growth and 

development are critical. This, in turn, 

creates a vicious cycle: nutrient intake 

is decreased; gut mucosa growth and 

development is stunted; and therefore 

the area available for the absorption of 

nutrients is decreased so that whatever 

nutrients are taken in, are not absorbed 

efficiently (Kelly and Coutts, 2000). In 

addition, low enteric stimulation seen 

with low feed intake is the main cause 

for compromised mucosal integrity in the 

piglet (Spreeuwenberg et al., 2001). The 

negative impact of early weaning on gut 

development and nutrient absorption 

has several implications for producers. 

First, decreased feed intake after 

weaning is associated with an increase 

> 


There is nothing like a challenge 

to bring out the best ... 

With nearly 1700 hours of fresh thinking, clean design and total re-engineering, 

the Wenger Drying Technology team has met unprecedented design parameters. 

The result Wenger’s all-new Enhanced Sanitary Dryer – featuring 

design innovations that: 

• increase sanitation 

• minimize cross-contamination risk 

• improve clean-out efficiency 

Get details now on this new standard in horizontal conveyor drying. 

info@wenger.com 

Enhanced Sanitary Dryer 

SABETHA, KANSAS USA 785-284-2133 INFO@WENGER.COM 

USA BELGIUM TAIWAN BRASIL CHINA TURKEY

NUTRITION 

in susceptibility to disease (Boudry et al., 

2004), and is also considered a risk factor 

for diarrhea (Madec et al., 1998). During 

bouts of diarrhea, nutrient absorption 

is further impaired, and the lack of 

nutrients has a marked negative impact 

on the immune system. Therefore, the 

health of the gut and the strength of the 

immune system are intimately linked. In 

the case that nutrient absorption and 

immunity are compromised, growth of 

the animal becomes sub-optimal, and 

this has serious economic consequences 

(Morméde and Hay, 2003) since body 

weight around the time of weaning is 

highly correlated with body weight at 

finishing and there does not appear to 

be growth compensation when animals 

are thrifty just after weaning (Williams, 

2003). Although there are strategies 

available for counteracting postweaning 

stress, few of them consider the 

physiology of gut development or factors 

that might stimulate gastrointestinal 

development in the neonate (Zabielski 

et al., 2008). Therefore, new strategies 

that exploit the normal physiology 

and development of the gut should be 

developed. In addition, as emphasised 

recently by Millet and Maertens (2010), 

the discovery and development of new 

feed additives must be accompanied 

by basic research so that there is a 

mechanistic understanding of how the 

product influences animal growth and 

health. 

A glucose-sensing system, made of 

the heterodimeric sweet taste receptor 

T1R2 and T1R3 and its partner taste 

G-protein, gusducin, is located in the 

apical membrane of enteroendocrine 

cells in piglets at weaning (Moran et al., 

2010; Shirazi-Beechey et al., 2011). This 

has already been reported in rodents 

(Dyer et al., 2007). In piglets at weaning, 

the sensing of SUC (intense sweetener) 

by T1R2 and T1R3 enteroendocrine cell 

receptors leads to the up-regulation of 

the intestinal glucose transporter (SGLT1) 

mRNA expression, as well as increased 

translation of the protein and glucose 

absorption capacity in piglets (Moran 

et al., 2010). Finally, Shirazi-Beechey et 

al. (2011) underlined the pivotal role 

of glucagon-like peptide 2 (GLP2) in 

this mechanism. This gut hormone is 

released into the lamina propria by the 

enteroendocrine cells once activated, and 

is responsible for several downstream 

effects. The knowledge that SUC evokes 

GLP-2 release in the gut mucosa is 

highly relevant, especially with respect 

to weaning piglets. The intestinotrophic 

effects of GLP-2 are mainly due to 

mucosal growth mediated by an increase 

in intestinal crypt cell proliferation and a 

reduction in villous cell apoptosis (Wallis 

et al. 2011). Administration of feed using 

total parenteral nutrition leads to atrophy 

of the gut mucosa, and this was reversed 

by treatment with GLP-2, which rapidly 

activated intracellular signals involved in 

cell survival and proliferation followed 

by atrophic cellular kinetic effects in 

intestinal epithelial cells (Burrin et al., 

2007). In addition, treatment with GLP- 

2 enhanced epithelial barrier capacity 

through decreases in transcellular and 

paracellular permeability, accelerated 

wound closure following injury, and 

stimulated intestinal blood flow and 

inhibited gastrointestinal motility (Dubé 

et Brubaker, 2007). Moreover, GLP-2 also 

regulates the size and integrity of the gut 

following insult, as well as in response 

to disease and altered nutrient status 

(Rowland et Brubaker, 2011). It plays 

a critical role in the adaptive intestinal 

growth that occurs in response to oral 

re-feeding after a period of nutrient 

deprivation (Rowland and Brubaker, 

2011). Finally, the interest in GLP-2 has 

recently been extended to ruminants 

with recent papers in ruminating calves 

(Taylor-Edwards et al., 2011) and on 

dairy cows (Connor et al., 2010). Among 

other responses to GLP-2, the improved 

glucose absorption is highly relevant 

with respect to weaning piglets (Moran 

et al., 2010). After being hydrolyzed by 

several enzymes (salivary and pancreatic 

amylases, brush-border membrane 

disaccharidases), complex dietary 

carbohydrates reach the gut absorption 

site under the form of monosaccharides. 

Among these, glucose is a major nutrient 

because it is the main energetic fuel for 

the brain and the cells of the body. The 

absorption of glucose from the gut is 

a critical step as it conditions the entry 

of the nutrient into the body and is the 

driving force behind energy homeostasis. 

Luminal glucose is mainly transported 

across the apical membrane of 

enterocytes by a specific protein: SGLT1. 

In fact, glucose per se plays a particularly 

critical role at weaning because it will be 

the major fuel for the gut mucosa, which 

uses glucose for growth. Moreover, 

glucose absorption decreases and 

reaches a minimum (-83%) on day 15 

post-weaning (Boudry et al., 2004). The 

absorption of glucose is very important 

because it is sodium dependant. This low 

absorptive capacity in the ileum could 

result in an increased risk of osmotic 

diarrhoea (Boudry et al., 2004). This 

suggests that active nutrient absorption 

in the piglet is not complete at weaning, 

and that when piglets are weaned 

earlier than at 3 weeks of age they are 

unable to sufficiently adapt to the new 

environment (Wijtten et al., 2011). 

Montagne et al. (2007) proposed that 

glucose absorption be used as a marker 

(together with others) for gut maturation 

in the postweaning piglet. Along these 

lines, the use of an intense sweetener 

in feed of weaning piglets presents an 

opportunity to potentially increase feed 

intake and growth efficiency. 

Conclusion 

Fundamental research on feed additives 

is essential for the development of 

efficient and innovative strategies to 

promote animal health and growth, and 

to provide us with a better understanding 

of the efficiency and mode of action 

of the product. The results of research 

on gut physiology revealed that 

the enteroendocrine cell of the gut 

itself acts as an extremely sensitive 

detection system, playing a critical 

role in the detection and the transfer 

of signals within the gut. However, 

the amplification of the signals by 

enteroendocrine cells is poor. In contrast, 

enteric neurons compose a highly 

efficient signal amplification system, 

but they are poor at signal detection. 

Therefore, enteroendocrine cells and the 

enteric neurons have a critical synergistic 

relationship which consists of signal 

detection by one and signal amplification 

by the other. Finally, enterocytes only 

know how to absorb nutrients. They obey 

to the signal which has been amplified 

sent by the enteric neurons following 

an order given by the enteroendocrine 

cells. Research in this area indicates 

that a potential opportunity, among 

many others, is the use of an intense 

sweetener for weaning piglets as a tool 

for improving feed intake and animal 

growth. Further elucidation of the 

interplay between gut cells, and how 

these react to signals from the diet could 

facilitate the discovery of novel feed 

additives and the design of sustainable 

technologies for improving production 

efficiency. 

For more information or references 

please contact the AFMA Office. 


NUTRITION 

Betaine, or Choline + Methionine 

What are the benefits 

By Tim Horne – Chemunique International and Janet Remus – Danisco Animal Nutrition, 

Malborough, Wiltshire, UK 

Introduction 

Betaine, the trimethyl derivative 

of the amino acid glycine, has long 

been known for its ability to provide 

significant performance benefits 

to commercial pig and poultry 

operations, particularly by allowing 

animals to maintain high levels of 

performance under times of heat and 

disease stress. These effects of betaine 

coupled with the ability of including 

it in diets at almost no additional cost 

through the replacement of added 

choline and methionine, has resulted 

in demand consistently outstripping 

supply of the product globally. 

However, recent investment in global 

betaine production facilities has 

allowed feed producers greater access 

to a more sustainable supply chain. 

This has in-turn resulted in renewed 

scientific and commercial interest in 

the benefits this molecule can provide 

to integrators. 

To understand the role of betaine in 

the feed, as well as its metabolism, 

an understanding of the molecular 

structure of the compound is required 

(Figure 1). Each betaine molecule has 

three methyl groups that are labile, 

and allow it to function as 

a methyl donor in metabolism. 

The second keypoint to consider is 

that the betaine molecule has both 

a positive and negative charge on 

the molecule, which means that it 

is non-perturbing to the cellular 

metabolism when accumulated to 

high levels. Along with other factors 

this lends it the characteristics of an 

osomlyte, meaning that the animal 

requires less water inside its cells, 

and consequently uses less energy to 

maintain osmotic balance. Although 

the benefits of betaine to the animal 

are numerous, essentially all of these 

have their origin in either the methyl, 

or the osmolytic capacities of the 

molecule. 

Betaine as a Methyl Donor 

As a methyl donor, betaine is more 

efficient than either methionine or 

choline, that are routinely added to 

broiler and pig diets. The greater 

efficacy of betaine is the result of 

choline chloride having to be first 

converted to betaine in metabolic 

processes to play a role as a methyl 

donor (Figure 2). Therefore, whilst 

there is a dietary specific minimum 

requirement for both choline and 

methionine to support non-methyl 

roles, directly adding betaine to the 

diet is more effective than adding 

synthetic choline. Several studies that 

have investigated the interchange of 

betaine and choline have concluded 

that supplemental choline chloride 

can, in most instances, be completely 

removed from the diet as the 

endogenous choline from the raw 

materials is usually sufficient to 

meet the animal’s choline-specific 

requirements (for non-methyl needs). 

This was illustrated by a study in 

Sweden with broilers using wheatbased 

diets, where the substitution of 

0,03% choline for a similar quantity 

of Betafin resulted in similar growth, 

but a significant reduction in FCR. 

A similar study at the Instituto 

Internacional de Investgacion Animal, 

Mexico confirmed these results using 

sorghum-based diets. In the case of 

methionine, dietary supplementation 

will still be required, although the 

levels may be significantly reduced. 

Trial work in Istanbul, Turkey 

showed that the replacement of 20% 

of total methionine and all added 

choline chloride by Betaine in broiler 

diets resulted in no significant 

reduction in performance relative to 

a positive control with maize-based 

diets. 

> 

Cysteine 

Specific requirement 

3 methyl 

groups 

H 

H 

C 

H 

H 

H 

H 

C 

N 

C 

H 

H 

H 

C 

H 

Osmolyte 

C 

O 

O 

Important functions: 

• DNA/RNA synthesis 

• Immunity functions 

• Protein synthesis 

• Choline synthesis 

• Other 

Methyl group 

Choline 

1 

Betaine 

4 

Homocysteine 

3 

CH 3 

2 

Methionine 

SAM 

H 

SAM = S-adenosyl methionine 

PP = pyrophosphate 

PI = inorganic phosphate 

ATP Protein synthesis 

PP + Pi 

Figure 1: Structure of the Betaine Molecule. 

Figure 2: The Methylation Cycle. 


NUTRITION 

Betaine reduces Osmotic Stress 

The osmolytic effects of betaine 

are well-documented, and provide 

substantially more benefits to poultry 

and swine than the simple role of 

betaine as a methyl donor. As a part of 

this function, betaine enables animals 

to maintain water balance in tissues 

and cells, whilst having no adverse 

effect on cell function. To appreciate 

the exact mechanism, it is necessary 

to understand what happens when 

animals are heat stressed, and as a 

result, marginally dehydrated. Cells 

are subjected to hyper-osmotic stress 

as a result of higher concentrations 

of ions outside of the cell. The loss of 

water from the cell and an increased 

concentration of ions inside the cell 

interfere with protein and enzyme 

structure, ATP production, and 

may ultimately cause cell death if 

uncorrected. In order to alleviate 

osmotic stress, cells activate Na / K 

pumps that attempt to rectify the ionic 

balance across the cell membrane. 

This is an energetically expensive 

process, as for every ion exchange 

one unit of ATP is used. By providing 

supplementary betaine and increasing 

intra-cellular betaine concentrations, 

there is a lower need for cells to pump 

ions to maintain osmotic balance, thus 

effectively reducing the maintenance 

energy requirements of the animal 

(Figure 3). This effect has been well 

demonstrated in pigs given betaine 

via feed where it was estimated that 

maintenance energy sparing due to 

dietary betaine was approximately 

10% of total maintenance energy, 

or 3,2% of total dietary energy 

(Partridge 2002). In situations 

where environmental heat stress is 

experienced, the beneficial effects of 

betaine’s osmotic properties become 

particularly apparent. Betaine can 

help maintain water balance in all 

cells but is used as a methyl source 

in the liver of farm animals, although 

some species can also use betaine 

methyl source in the kidney. So it is 

possible to obtain both methyl and 

osmotic benefits of betaine from the 

same inclusion. 

Work done by Mooney et al. (1998) 

demonstrated that water retention 

in broilers improved in diets 

supplemented with Betaine, and that 

the magnitude of this effect appeared 

to increase with environmental 

stress (Figure 4), either from heat 

or a coccidiosis challenge. Cronje 

(2006) suggested that exposure to 

heat results in the redistribution of 

blood to the periphery of the body and 

compensatory reduction in the blood 

supply to the gut, which damages 

the cell lining of the gut, permitting 

endotoxin to enter the body. This 

effect is potentially enhanced in 

production livestock where energy 

dense diets are known to cause 

damage to the gut lining. In summary, 

the osmolytic benefits of betaine not 

only ameliorate performance losses 

in heat-stressed animals, but also 

render them more resilient to episodes 

of heat stress. This effect is likely to 

be largely driven by the increased 

water-holding capacity of the cells 

at an intestinal level, reducing 

the overall maintenance energy 

requirement of the gut and improving 

its functionality. 

Osmolytic Effects of Betaine on 

Gut Health 

In addition to the functional 

properties of betaine as an osmolyte 

inside cells, multiple studies have 

shown improvements in the tensile 

strength of the gut following 

the addition of betaine to diets of 

broilers. This increased resilience 

of the gut wall can have extremely 

positive effects on its functionality 

to protect the animal from specific 

disease challenges. For example, 

work conducted at Colorado Quality 

Research, USA showed that dietary 

Betaine significantly increased 

gut tensile strength in Coccidiachallenged 

birds (Remus and Quarles, 

2000). This effect is further supported 

by work done on Coccidia-challenged 

broilers at PARC Institute, USA 

where it was shown that lesion scores 

at 21 days were reduced when betaine 

was supplemented to diets containing 

varying levels of Salinomycin. 

Similar positive effects on FCR were 

observed. 

These performance improvements 

from betaine are most likely 

driven by either a reduction in the 

maintenance requirement of the gut, 

or by improvements in the integrity 

of the intestine and an associated 

increase in the digestibility and 

absorption of dietary nutrients. For 

example, supplementing broiler diets 

with 1,5 kgs Betafin improved the 

digestibility of protein, lysine, fat, 

and carotenoids in broilers subjected 

to a cocci challenge (Figure 5, Remus 

et al. 1995). Other benefits related 

> 

Water 

balance 

maintained 

Cell 

volume 

maintained 

Lower 

energy 

cost 

H + 

Na + Stable 

0 

K + 

electrolyte 

concentration 

in the cell 

-10 

-20 

HCO 

Cl - 

3 

- Na + Stable 

metabolism 

-30 

-40 

Ion pumps 

Betaine 

-50 

-60 

-70 

No stress Heat stress Cocci stress Heat+Cocci 

Control 

Betafin 

Figure 3: The osmolytic effect of betaine reduces the energy 

requirements of the cells ion pumps 

Figure 4: Dietary betaine increases water retention in broilers 

(after Mooney et al. 1998) 


NUTRITION 

Digestibility % 

85 

80 

75 

70 

65 

60 

55 

b 

a 

Protein 

Figure 5: The effect of 1,5kg/t Betafin on nutrient digestibility during a cocci 

challenge, and in the presence of Salinomycin (Remus et al. 1995). 

to the role of betaine as an osmolyte 

have shown extremely positive 

effects on carcass composition, 

which is of significant importance 

to poultry and swine integrators 

that profit from supplying a leaner 

product. For example, Maghoul 

et al. (2009) found that replacing 

choline with betaine increased breast 

weight and reduced abdominal fat in 

broilers. A further trial conducted at 

Colorado Quality Research, USA also 

confirmed improved broiler FCR and 

increased breast yield where betaine 

replaced Choline without sparing 

methionine. In a trial done on pigs 

(Partridge 2002), supplementary 

betaine improved or maintained 

daily gain whilst improving lean 

meat percentage, meat thickness, 

and reducing drip loss. In layer hens, 

betaine tended to reduce the incidence 

of over-sized eggs in older hens 

(Castaing et al. 2002). 

Therefore, although enzymes have 

been shown for many years to have a 

proven record of improving nutrient 

digestibility, bird performance, and 

uniformity, other feed additives 

b 

a 

a 

a 

Fat Lysine Phosphorus Carotenoids 

b 

a 

b 

a 

Control 

Betafin 

a,b 

P

WM/78/ALPCOCC/2011/11/07/ADD 

1

NUTRITION 

Roles of tryptophan in pig nutrition 

By Dr. J. Htoo and F. Crots – Evonik Industries 

Key important functions associated 

with Tryptophan: 

• Required for protein synthesis 

• Precursor for serotonin 

• Maximizing feed intake and growth 

performance 

• Required in the immune response 

system 

Introduction 

Tryptophan (Trp) is one of the most 

complex essential amino acids (AA), 

and this complexity is due to the many 

different metabolic roles that Trp has 

in the body, despite the fact that the 

concentration of Trp is the lowest of all 

AAs in the body of the pig. In addition 

to its role as a building block of body 

protein, Trp is needed for the synthesis 

of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, which 

is known to be involved in the regulation 

of feed intake, aggression and stress 

response behaviour. A metabolite of 

serotonin degradation, melatonin, may 

act as a free radical scavenger and have 

antioxidant properties. Another pathway 

of Trp metabolism, quantitatively more 

important, is the kynurenine pathway 

which is associated with the immune 

response mechanism. 

In addition to its involvement in different 

roles in the body, Trp also is complex due 

to its low concentrations in several of the 

feedstuffs used in swine feed, apart from 

the difficulty associated with analyzing 

for Trp content. Unlike other AAs that are 

isolated by acid hydrolysis, Trp content 

has to be measured separately following 

alkaline hydrolysis, since it is destroyed 

during acidic hydrolysis with hydrochloric 

acid. The content and digestibility of Trp 

moreover varies widely among common 

feedstuffs. Ingredients that contain a 

relatively high Trp content include blood 

meal, casein, fish meal, whole egg, 

potato protein, and soybean meal. The 

tryptophan content is extremely low in 

corn, tapioca, and sorghum. Tryptophan 

is usually considered the 4 th limiting AA in 

typical cereal-based swine diets. 

There is considerable variation in the 

Trp requirements of the pig as well 

as ideal dietary Trp:Lys ratios among 

published data. Undoubtedly, the 

reasons for these inconsistencies may be 

attributed to many factors highlighted 

above. The aim of this review is not 

to give Trp requirement or ideal ratio 

recommendations (which will be 

addressed in another paper), but rather 

to focus on the following objectives: 

1) to describe metabolic pathways 

and roles of Trp besides that in body 

protein synthesis, 2) to review the 

effects of dietary Trp on brain serotonin 

concentration and its mechanisms 

in regulating feed intake and stress 

response, and 3) to review the effect of 

dietary Trp on immune response and 

related mechanisms. 

Role of tryptophan for serotonin 

synthesis 

As one of the dietary essential AAs, Trp 

plays an important role in body protein 

synthesis. A stimulatory effect of Trp 

on protein synthesis in the liver, muscle 

and skin of pigs has been demonstrated 

(Ponter et al., 1994). 

In addition to protein synthesis, Trp is 

also involved in many complex metabolic 

pathways. Once absorbed in the small 

intestine, Trp enters the portal vein and 

passes into the liver; a portion is used 

for protein synthesis and the remaining 

Trp not utilized for protein synthesis can 

follow two major metabolic pathways. 

Firstly, a small proportion of it is used 

to synthesize a neurotransmitter, 

serotonin, mainly in the gut, platelets 

and brain, while the second pathway, 

known as the kynurenine pathway, 

leads to the formation of various 

products including 3-hydroxykynurenine, 

3-hydroxyanthranilic acid, quinolinic acid, 

kynurenic acid, and niacin (Brown, 1995). 

N 

H 

H 

C 

H 

H 

C COOH 

NH 2 

Figure 1: Chemical structure of tryptophan. 

In the brain, serotonin synthesis 

mainly occurs in serotonergic nerves, 

enterochromaffinic cells, thrombocytes, 

and mast cells. It is also widely 

distributed in the hypothalamus 

(Saavedra et al., 1974). In mammals 

about 90 % of total plasma Trp is 

bound to albumin. The remaining Trp, 

which is in a free form, can enter the 

brain through the blood-brain barrier 

(BBB; Madras, et al., 1974) to be 

converted by the enzyme tryptophan 

hydroxylase in the pinealocytes into 

5-hydroxytryptophan, which is then 

converted by decarboxylation to 

serotonin (Figure 2). 

As a neurotransmitter, serotonin is 

involved in regulating a variety of 

behavioural processes such as appetite, 

feeding, impulsivity, aggression, sexual 

behavior, temperature regulation, pain 

perception, and mood control. As a 

neurohormone, melatonin plays a role in 

the control of the day-night rhythm, and 

serves as an intracellular scavenger of 

hydroxyl and peroxide radicals (Reiter et 

al., 1994). 

Role of tryptophan on appetite and 

feed intake regulation 

Voluntary feed intake determines nutrient 

intake levels and as such it is very 

important for efficient pig production 

especially in weaned piglets and lactating 

sows for which adequate feed intake 

is normally challenging. Due to its 

specific role in serving as a precursor of 

brain serotonin, Trp is involved in the 

regulation of feed intake. Many studies 

have demonstrated that feeding Trp 

deficient diets typically reduced feed 

intake and growth performance in piglets 

in growing-finishing pigs and in lactating 

sows. In these studies, the impact of 

dietary Trp was more marked for growth 

rate than for feed efficiency, suggesting 

that a portion of the enhanced growth 

was due to increased feed intake. 

A few theories have been postulated to 

explain the control of feed intake. First, 

dietary Trp content is closely correlated 

to brain serotonin concentration. 

> 


Would you be happy with less 

Expect the best Methionine source with 

100 % quality and reliability, backed by decades 

of experience. And more profit in your pocket. 

You know what really counts. 

Evonik Degus ssa Africa (Pty) Ltd. | IBG Business Park | Cnr. New & 6th Road 

Midridge Office 

Estate (South) | Cnr. Pioneer and Atlantis Road | Midrand | South Africa 

www.evonik.com/feed-additives | feed-additives@evonik.com

NUTRITION 

Although the mechanisms responsible for 

reduced feed intake induced by low brain 

serotonin are not fully understood, it 

has been proposed that serotonin might 

influence in selecting between protein 

and carbohydrate by acting as a sensor 

to detect the proportions of energy from 

protein and carbohydrate in the diet. 

The second theory is the role of Trp 

in modulating insulin secretion. It has 

been demonstrated that a Trp-adequate 

diet increased both plasma insulin and 

glucose concentrations compared with 

a Trp-deficient diet in piglets. This was 

supported by Ponter et al. (1994) who 

also observed increased plasma insulin 

in weaned pigs fed a Trp-adequate diet 

and concluded that higher levels of Trp 

increased the rate of glucose absorption 

and gastric emptying, thus stimulating 

feed intake. 

Thirdly, feed intake can be influenced by 

AA imbalances – a fast and marked drop 

in feed intake being a typical sign. In the 

event of AA imbalance, i.e., Trp nonspecific 

mechanism, the concentration 

of the limiting AA declines in both 

blood plasma and muscle. A change in 

the plasma AA pattern may provide the 

metabolic signal to appetite-regulating 

regions of the brain for suppressing feed 

intake (D’Mello, 2000). 

Role of tryptophan in immune 

response 

There is no doubt that the health 

status of animals greatly influences 

the efficiency of nutrient utilization 

and growth performance. Several AAs 

including Trp play important roles in 

the functioning of the immune system. 

Melchior et al. (2004) reported a decline 

in plasma Trp concentration in pigs 

suffering from inflammation and disease, 

suggesting an increased utilization of Trp 

in such situations. 

In addition to being involved in protein 

synthesis and serotonin regulation, Trp 

is also metabolized through a specific 

kynurenine pathway initiated by two 

enzymes. The enzyme tryptophan-2, 

3-dioxygenase in the liver regulates 

homeostatic plasma Trp concentration 

and is induced by glucocorticoids and 

Trp. The second enzyme, indoleamine-2, 

3-dioxygenase, is present in a variety 

of body tissues including the intestine, 

stomach, lungs and brain as well as 

in macrophages, and is induced by 

Tryptophan 

5 hydroxy tryptophan 

5 hydroxy tryptamine 

(Serotonin) 

N-acetylserotonin 

Melatonin 

Tryptophan 

hydroxylase 

Decarboxylase 

N-acetyl 

transferase 

Quinolinate 

transphosphoribosylase 

Figure 2: Metabolic pathway of serotonin and 

melatonin synthesis. 

interferon gamma during immune system 

stimulation, and during infection and 

tissue inflammation. The mechanisms 

that mediate immune tolerance are 

complex, and the role of Trp in the 

kynurenine metabolic pathway has been 

proposed as one of the mechanisms 

involved in the control of immune 

response (Takikawa et al. 1986; Moffett 

and Namboodiri, 2003). 

It has been estimated that only about 

1% of dietary Trp not utilized for protein 

synthesis is converted to serotonin, while 

more than 95% is metabolized via the 

kynurenine pathway. Thus, Trp metabolism 

through the kynurenine pathway is 

quantitatively the most important function 

after protein synthesis. 

Melchior et al. (2004) reported that 

plasma Trp levels were consistently lower 

in pigs induced with a lung inflammation 

compared to pair-fed healthy 

piglets. Interestingly, Trp was the only AA 

exhibiting such a response. This was supported 

by Le Floc’h et al. (2004) who also 

reported that pigs suffering from lung 

inflammation had higher IDO activity in 

lungs and associated lymph nodes than 

pair-fed healthy piglets. Furthermore, 

they observed that piglets fed a low Trp 

diet had a higher plasma concentration 

of a major acute phase protein haptoglobin 

(indicator of inflammation) compared 

with pigs fed a Trp-adequate diet. 

These results suggest that Trp catabolism 

via the kynurenine pathway is increased 

after immune challenge, and dietary Trp 

seems to alleviate the negative effect of 

lung inflammation in piglets. Thus, the 

Trp requirement for pigs may increase 

during inflammatory and immune system 

stimulation, e.g. during the period immediately 

after weaning or during lactation. 

Interestingly, feeding high dietary Trp 

(0,5%, total basis) diets to weaned piglets 

increased the intestinal villus to crypt 

ratio, which is an indication of improved 

gut health (Koopmans et al., 2006). 

In a review paper, Le Floc’h and Seve 

(2007) mentioned 3 major mechanisms 

that involve in the immune response via 

the kynurenine pathway. The first one 

is related to the antimicrobial effects by 

IDO induction, i.e., inhibiting the growth 

of pathogens, possibly through the 

ability of IDO to reduce Trp availability 

for the pathogens in the infected cell 

area. Secondly, cells expressing IDO such 

as macrophages and dendrite cells are 

capable of inhibiting T cell proliferation 

in response to antigenic challenge 

by reducing the supply of Trp. The 

third theory suggests that several Trp 

metabolites produced not only along the 

kynurenine pathway such as 3-hydroxy 

kynurenine and 3-hydroxy anthranilic 

acid, but also melatonin, a metabolite of 

the serotonin pathway, may act as free 

radical scavengers and have antioxidant 

properties. 

In addition, poor sanitary status of 

pig housing can induce a moderate 

inflammatory response in weaned 

piglets. Recently, Le Floc’h et al. (2007) 

demonstrated that weaned piglets kept 

under poor sanitary housing conditions 

resulted in reduced feed intake and 

growth rate, but the magnitude of 

responses in terms of feed intake and 

weight gain to increasing levels of Trp 

were higher compared with those kept 

under good sanitary conditions. These 

results suggest that the Trp requirement 

for optimum growth performance may 

be higher when pigs are kept under poor 

sanitary conditions. 

Overall, Trp plays a key role in swine 

nutrition. The multi-purpose roles of 

Trp in the body, in addition to protein 

deposition, such as serotonin synthesis, 

feed intake regulation, immune response, 

coping with stress and the impact of 

dietary Trp to LNAA ratio on serotonin 

should be considered in supplying dietary 

Trp for optimum growth and economic 

performance. 

For more information or references 

please contact the AFMA Office. 


PROCESSING 

Optimal grinding of barley-rich pig 

feed with hammers and rollers 

By Thorsten Lucht – Amandus Kahl, Reinbek, Germany 

Particle size in pig feed matters. This article describes how the particle size structure of a pig 

feed mixture with a high barley content can be optimised by means of stage grinding with a 

hammer mill and a downstream crushing roller mill. 

Animal nutrition research findings 

have shown that an increased content 

of fines in the pig feed meal can have 

a negative influence on the health 

and performance of the animals. This 

is caused by the formation of gastric 

ulcers in the animals, by a nonoptimal 

pH-regime in the stomach, 

and by health problems caused by 

pathogens in the gastrointestinal 

tract. From the technical point of 

view, a non-uniform particle size 

spectrum leads to segregation, and 

a high fines percentage to poor flow 

properties in the silo. 

Almost all feed mills are traditionally 

equipped with hammer mills which 

are mainly used in mixed grinding. 

Despite the use of stage grinding 

with pre-/post-mill and intermediate 

screening it is not possible to keep the 

fines content at an acceptable level. 

In flour (roller) milling, crushing 

of wheat and rye with a low fines 

content in the first grinding stage is 

customary. If, however, only roller 

mills are used for grinding pig feed, 

problems arise when crushing the 

husks of barley or oats. Very early it 

was realised that stage grinding with 

a roller mill in the second grinding 

stage is more suitable for the grinding 

of barley. 

For this reason it is necessary to find 

a compromise that combines grinding 

with a low fines content by means 

of rollers, and crushing by means of 

a hammer mill suitable for crushing 

husks. To this end, a compound 

feed manufacturer and German feed 

equipment builder, Amandus Kahl, 

Table 1: Grinding machines characteristics. 

Type of grinder 

Double Crushing 

roller mill 

initiated a project that was conducted 

by students of the German Milling 

School Braunschweig with the aim of 

producing pig feed rich in barley with 

a low fines content (max. 25%

Complete Plants and Machines 

for the Feed Industry 

Continuous mixer 

Annular gap expander 

Extruder OEE 

Flat die pelleting presses 

Reactor 

Rotospray ® 

High-capacity crumbler 

Special Plants for: 

Compound Feed, Shrimp and Fish Feed, Petfood, Premix/Concentrate, 

Roughage Feed, Untraditional Feed Mills. 

AMANDUS KAHL GmbH & Co. KG 

Dieselstrasse 5, D-21465 Reinbek / Hamburg, Germany 

Phone: +49 (0)40 727 71-0, Fax: +49 (0)40 727 71-100 

info@amandus-kahl-group.de 

www.akahl.de 

Johannes Schuback & Sons 

(S.A.) PTY Limited 

Johannesburg / RSA 

Phone: +27 11 7062270 

Fax: +27 11 7069236 

jsssa@mweb.co.za

PROCESSING 

Figure 1: Fast running (left) and slowly running roller (right). 

Figure 2: Undersize cumulative distribution curve BWS versus 

HM+HM versus HM+BWS 

firmly adjusted, although speed 

modification and a change of the lead 

during operation would be ideal. 

The particle size obtained with the 

crushing roller mill (Figure 2) is 

determined among other factors by 

the corrugation /circumference, the 

lead and the grinding gap. If the 

formulae are frequently changed, an 

automatic grinding gap measurement 

and remote adjustment of the 

roller distance are advantageous. 

It is important for the rollers to 

be fed over their entire width by a 

suitable feeding device to achieve a 

uniform load of the rollers and the 

highest possible throughput. The 

grinding machines that were used are 

illustrated in Table 1. 

Four variants were chosen for the 

study: 

1. BWS = Crushing roller mill, (two 

stages/twice) without intermediate 

screening 

2. HM + HM = Stage grinding: 

hammer mill, with pre-mill / postmill 

and intermediate screening 

3. HM + BWS = Stage grinding: 

hammer mill + crushing roller mill 

(single stage) with intermediate 

screening 

4. HM + LMW = Stage grinding: 

hammer mill + laboratory grinder 

with intermediate screening 

The variant crushing roller mill 

+ hammer mill with intermediate 

screening (BWS+HM) was not 

included in the comparison. 

Preliminary tests gave similar results 

for the crushing of husks using the 

arrangement hammer mill +crushing 

roller mill (HM+BWS), having a 

sequence that provides better results 

than the reverse order. A hammer mill 

in the second grinding stage produces 

more fines than a hammer mill in the 

first grinding stage. 

All tests were conducted under 

practice conditions and with high 

throughputs, excepting the test with 

the combination HM + LMW. 

In this case, the product was crushed 

at a high capacity in the first stage, 

and subsequently part of the material 

was post-crushed on a laboratory 

grinder. 

Results 

To assess the crushing results, 

particle sizes were rated fine ( 2,0 mm). The aim was to obtain 

a maximum accumulation in the 

medium range with a medium grain 

size of 1,0 – 1,1 mm. The percentage 

of fine particles should be as low as 

possible and not exceed 25 %. In this 

context it has to be pointed out that 

the indication “medium particle size” 

does not imply any information on 

the percentage of fines 


PROCESSING 

Figure 1: Fast running (left) and slowly running roller (right). 

Figure 2: Undersize cumulative distribution curve BWS versus 

HM+HM versus HM+BWS 

firmly adjusted, although speed 

modification and a change of the lead 

during operation would be ideal. 

The particle size obtained with the 

crushing roller mill (Figure 2) is 

determined among other factors by 

the corrugation /circumference, the 

lead and the grinding gap. If the 

formulae are frequently changed, an 

automatic grinding gap measurement 

and remote adjustment of the 

roller distance are advantageous. 

It is important for the rollers to 

be fed over their entire width by a 

suitable feeding device to achieve a 

uniform load of the rollers and the 

highest possible throughput. The 

grinding machines that were used are 

illustrated in Table 1. 

Four variants were chosen for the 

study: 

1. BWS = Crushing roller mill, (two 

stages/twice) without intermediate 

screening 

2. HM + HM = Stage grinding: 

hammer mill, with pre-mill / postmill 

and intermediate screening 

3. HM + BWS = Stage grinding: 

hammer mill + crushing roller mill 

(single stage) with intermediate 

screening 

4. HM + LMW = Stage grinding: 

hammer mill + laboratory grinder 

with intermediate screening 

The variant crushing roller mill 

+ hammer mill with intermediate 

screening (BWS+HM) was not 

included in the comparison. 

Preliminary tests gave similar results 

for the crushing of husks using the 

arrangement hammer mill +crushing 

roller mill (HM+BWS), having a 

sequence that provides better results 

than the reverse order. A hammer mill 

in the second grinding stage produces 

more fines than a hammer mill in the 

first grinding stage. 

All tests were conducted under 

practice conditions and with high 

throughputs, excepting the test with 

the combination HM + LMW. 

In this case, the product was crushed 

at a high capacity in the first stage, 

and subsequently part of the material 

was post-crushed on a laboratory 

grinder. 

Results 

To assess the crushing results, 

particle sizes were rated fine ( 2,0 mm). The aim was to obtain 

a maximum accumulation in the 

medium range with a medium grain 

size of 1,0 – 1,1 mm. The percentage 

of fine particles should be as low as 

possible and not exceed 25 %. In this 

context it has to be pointed out that 

the indication “medium particle size” 

does not imply any information on 

the percentage of fines 


PROCESSING 

Variant 1: Crushing using a crushing roller mill, BWS two stages 

The result shows that the fines content is lower than 25%. Yet there is a 

percentage of about 20 % in the “very coarse range” although this does not 

have to be considered negative. The structure is relatively broad. As there is 

no intermediate screening and no post-crushing, the coarse fraction mainly 

consists of husks. 

Stage grinding with crushing roller mill 

Variant 2: Crushing with hammer mill stage grinding, HM + HM 

Though a large screen perforation in the pre-mill and a low circumferential 

speed have been selected, a very high fines content is produced. 

Stage grinding with hammer mill 

Crushing roller 

mill, two stage 

First 

grinding stage 

Batch mixer 

Sampling 

Second 

grinding stage 

Batch mixer 

Result of stage grinding with crushing roller mill 

60 

Result of stage grinding with hammer mill 

60 

(%) 

30 

(%) 

30 

0 

fine medium coarse very coarse 

(mm) 

0 

fine medium coarse very coarse 

(mm) 

Variant 3: Stage grinding with hammer mill and crushing roller 

mill, HM + BWS 

With this variant a very good result is achieved which meets the objective 

in every respect. The percentage of fines

NAMIBIA 

VACANCY:FINANCIAL MANAGER 

An excellent career opportunity exists for interested and qualified 

candidates to apply for the above mentioned position at Feedmaster 

(Pty) Ltd in Windhoek. 

The candidate will form part of the company’s senior management team. 

KEY FUNCTIONS AND 

RESPONSIBILITIES 

• Coordinates financial and management 

accounting, and supplies statistical data. 

• Prepares and compiles annual IFRS financial 

statements and the annual budget. 

• Approves and authorises payments to service 

providers, verify assets and inventory register. 

• Releases and verifies salary payments to 

employees and the board of directors. 

• Responsible for the coordination, estimation, 

and calculation of all statutory tax returns. 

• Participates and reports on all financial matters. 

• Performs due-diligence exercises for any new 

investment opportunities. 

• Identify profit enhancement opportunities. 

• Stock control. 

• Raw material and final product costing. 

• Gross profit management. 

• Reconciliation of supplier contracts. 

• Compiles month-end journals. 

• Drafts monthly management statements. 

• Reconciles GL accounts on a monthly basis. 

• Conducts viability studies. 

• Compile board motivations. 

COMPETENCIES REQUIRED 

• Ability to work under pressure. 

• Interpersonal skills. 

• Problem solving skills. 

• Presentation skills. 

• Knowledge about SAFEX markets, and the 

functioning thereof. 

• Trading on SAFEX markets (maize). 

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR THIS 

POSITION 

• B.Comm Hons. with articles and preferably CA/ 

MBA. 

• Industry knowledge and at least five years’ 

experience in a similar position. 

• Strong general business/commercial acumen 

with the ability to enhance profitability. 

• Computer literate with a good mastering of 

Microsoft Word, Excel, Outlook, and PowerPoint. 

• Accpac experience will be an added advantage. 

• Namibian Citizen. 

The company offers a competitive salary and 

a range of employee benefits which are market 

related. 

CV’S WITH FULL DETAILS CAN BE 

DELIVERED OR FORWARDED TO: 

Sonja van der Hoven 

Feedmaster (Pty) Ltd, P.O. Box 20276, Windhoek 

Tel: +264 (0)61 290 1000 

Fax: +264 (0)61 290 1080 

E-mail: hr@namibmills.com.na 

ONLY SHORTLISTED CANDIDATES WILL BE 

CONTACTED FOR INTERVIEWS 

CLOSING DATE FOR APPLICATIONS: 

15 APRIL 2012 

FEEDMASTER (PTY) LTD 

Co. Reg. No: 83/052 

c/o Iscor & Dortmund St 

P.O. Box 20276 

Windhoek 

Tel: +264 61 218 713 

Fax: +264 61 262 056 

Siding 941875 

Windhoek 

info@feedmaster.com.na

PROCESSING 

• Grinding using a BWS or 

HM+BWS causes a significantly 

lower fines content compared to 

crushing using HM+HM. The 

intended set point value of max. 

25%

COMING EVENTS 

DATE EVENT VENUE ENQUIRIES 

15 - 18 May 2012 NAMPO Harvest Day NAMPO Park 

Bothaville 

South Africa 

29 - 31 May 2012 AVI Africa 2012 Emperors Palace 

Gauteng 

South Africa 

1 August 2012 AFMA / AFRI 

COMPLIANCE 

Annual Golf day 

Meadow Feeds 

New appointment 

Centurion Residential Estate 

and Country Club 

Highveld 

South Africa 

Wim Venter 

Tel: +27 56 515 2145 

Fax: +27 86 509 7274 

E-mail: wim@grainsa.co.za 

Website: www.nampo.co.za 

Hendrien Erasmus 

Tel: +27 11 795 2051 

Fax: +27 86 500 4149 

E-mail: hendrien@sapoultry.co.za 

Website: www.sapoultry.co.za 

Teresa Struwig 

Tel: +27 12 663 9097 

Fax: +27 12 663 9612 



Andy Crocker was appointed as Managing 

Director, Meadow Feeds on 2 February 2012. 

Having previously farmed in the KwaZulu-Natal 

midlands, Andy joined Meadow Feeds as a 

Technical Adviser in 1998 as part of the team that 

established the Eastern Cape operations. He holds 

a BSc. Agriculture (University of KZN) and a Masters 

in Business Management (Henley Management 

College, UK), and is a Registered Professional 

Scientist with the South African Council for Natural 

Scientific Professions. In 2000 he became the 

Technical Support Manager for the Eastern Cape 

before moving to Meadow Paarl as Sales Manager 

in 2002. Originally appointed as General Manager 

of the Port Elizabeth mill in March 2005 he became 

Chief Operating Officer of the Eastern Cape region 

in July 2006 before heading the formation of the 

Cape Region in November 2010 as Chief Operating 

Officer responsible for the Paarl, Ladismith and 

Port Elizabeth operations. Andy will serve as 

an Executive Director on the Board of Astral 

Operations from March 2012. 

Astral Foods 

New appointment 

Taking mother nature’s lead 

ADDCON Africa is proud to announce 

the arrival of PHYTOBIOTICS GmbH of 

Germany into the Southern African 

market. Both companies have just 

entered into an exclusive distribution 

agreement and ADDCON has already 

started the registration process of the 

new products becoming available to 

Roedolf Steenkamp was appointed to the 

position of Managing Director: Africa Operations 

for Astral Foods in February 2012. 

Roedolf is responsible for all the current feed 

and poultry operations in Africa and for all new 

developments in Africa. 

the local feed market. The well known 

product SANGROVIT ® will be the first to 

be introduced to South Africa. A 100% 

plant based product that is derived 

He joined the company on 2 April 2002 as General 

Manager of the Group’s feed milling operations 

in Zambia and Zimbabwe. In November 2005, he 

was promoted to Chief Operating Officer – Africa. 

In June 2009 he was promoted to the position 

of Managing Director: Feed Division of Astral 

Operations. 

from an extraordinary disease resistant 

perennial plant, which in turn produces 

the active substances used as protective 

agents to shield against various 

infections and diseases. The product is 

highly effective for all type of animals. 

For further information, please contact 

Johann@tega.co.za or 082 780 5240. 


INDUSTRY NEWS 

ADVIT Animal Nutrition 

Celebrating a quarter of a 

century of making feed better 

ADVIT Animal Nutrition is 

celebrating its 25 th anniversary 

in 2012. There have been a lot of 

changes and improvements since the 

company was first registered in 1987, 

but their vision still remains the same, 

to be the preferred supplier of vitamin 

and mineral premixes to the South 

African feed industry. ADVIT opened 

two depots in the last 2 years, one in 

Howick, Kwa-Zulu Natal (2010) and 

one in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape 

(2011) to enable them to ensure even 

better service to their clients in those 

areas. 

To celebrate their 25 th anniversary, 

ADVIT has a few exciting projects 

lined up for this year. They aim 

to expand their existing product 

portfolio with a few new ranges of 

premixes specifically designed for the 

ruminant industry. They will also be 

improving their quality system by 

implementing HACCAP and 

ISO 22000 in addition to their 

ISO 9001 certification. They are 

in the process of upgrading their 

production system by installing 

micro-bins which will be an 

integral part of their aim to 

have a fully automated production 

system. 

ADVIT sees this anniversary as 

merely the beginning of a new era 

of producing high quality research 

driven vitamin and mineral premixes 

to the animal feed industry and look 

forward to the next 25 years. 

A Partnership 

that makes a difference 

Healthy animals result in healthy people 

and ultimately a healthy, sustainable planet. 

Globally, approximately 60 million ton animal feed is produced annually; 

making the role of the animal feed manufacturer such a vital one. 

KK Animal Nutrition would like to join you in contributing to a sustainable 

planet. Therefore, enter into a partnership with us and experience the 

difference our top quality products and service can make. 

We specialise in the following products: 

Kynofos 21 – Reg. No. V2851 

Kimtrafos 12 Grandé – Reg. No. V18670 

PhosSure 12 – Reg. No. V12858 

PhosSure 6 – Reg. No. V11350 

Feed Grade Urea – Reg. No. V15681 

Kalorie 3000 – Reg. No. V2809 

Feed Grade Sulphur – Reg. No. V16738 

(All products are registered under Act 36 of 1947) 

Advanced solutions in animal nutrition! 

A04309/AM 

KK Animal Nutrition (Pty) Ltd. Reg. No. 2001/025850/07 • PO Box 449, Umbogintwini, 4120 

Tel: +27 (0)31 910-5100 • Fax: +27 (0)31 904-3741 • E-mail: kk@kkan.com 

www.kkan.com

8 to 12 April 2013 

Sun City, South Africa 

www.gffc2013.com

J07288 - AFMA - AFMA Matrix - March 2012.indd

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?