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720 KFIR ET AL.
They speculated that low densities, which may occur after the release of an arrhenotokus
parasitoid, might decrease chances of mate finding, thus leading to possible
extinction. However, C. flavipes and C. sesamiae mate with their siblings before
dispersal (21, 144, 157), and thus Allee effects will not influence establishment.
A high host-searching ability has been suggested as a factor involved in the
success of C. flavipes. Even at low host densities, C. flavipes successfully located
stem borer hosts (219). The high host-searching success of C. flavipes may in
part be due to its behavior of entering tunnels in plant stems to attack stem borer
larvae (182). Many larval parasitoids of stem borers remain on the outside of the
stem and attack their hosts by drilling, or locating breaches through the stem, with
their ovipositor (182). This strategy may be effective for attacking stem borers in
small-stemmed wild grasses, but in relatively larger-stemmed cultivated grasses,
the length of the ovipositor may limit the number of hosts susceptible to attack (74).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to the Illinois Natural History Survey, Department of Entomology, Department
of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, and the Office of
International Programs of the University of Illinois for support during a sabbatical
leave at INHS by the senior author while this article was prepared. Thanks
to Tharina Bird and Kerstin Krüger (ARC-PPRI) for help in sorting out the references.
R. Wiedenmann (INHS) constructively commented on an early draft of the
manuscript.
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