The Epic of Gilgamesh

Literature, Culture, and the Humanities 

The Beginnings of Civilization: The Epic of Gilgamesh 

Comment: The printed material that follows is a compilation created originally by Mike 

Wasilewski to aid in your study of Bablylonian mythology and The Epic of Gilgamesh. 

This material comes from a variety of sources but, most particularly, from English 

Literature, published by Ginn, (1981), Mythology by James Weigel, Jr. (1973) and 

Literature – World Masterpieces, published by Prentice-Hall (1991). In addition, the 

1972 Penguin Classics edition of The Epic of Gilgamesh provided unifying material. 

This packet will give you: 

As complete a version of the epic as possible. 

Some points of reference and background so that your reading of The Epic of 

Gilgamesh is more manageable. 

A guide to clarifying and to interpreting the reading so that you will be able to 

better analyze the epic. 

Helpful commentary on the epic 

Details so that you can better understand the significance of The Epic of 

Gilgamesh as a foundational work of world literature. 

Head of Akkadian Ruler 

Nineveh, 2,330 BC 

Bronze, Height 14 ¼ inches 

Iraq museum, Baghdad 

This head shows why Akkadian art has been 

praised for its realism. This work may be a 

likeness of the Akkadian King Sargon, who 

seized control of the city of Kish. 

c. 2334 BC 

Page 1 of 21



Babylonian Mythology: Introduction 

Most records of Babylonian myths date from approximately 700 BC, when they were 

transcribed in cuneiform, a wedge-shaped writing, on clay tablets and stored in the library 

of the Assyrian King, Ashurbanipal (As-er-BAN-i-pal) at Nineveh. However, two major 

Babylonian epics originated around 2,000 BC: 

• The Epic of Creation justifies the rule of the principal deity of the Babylonians, Marduk, 

over all the gods and over all men. The epic reflects political supremacy of Babylon in 

Mesopotamia, since Marduk was the chief god of that city. 

• The Epic of Gilgamesh, the focus of our study, showcases the importance of self-respect 

and accomplishment, the significance of friendship, and the inevitability of man’s death. 

Generally Babylonian mythology … is … earthbound and …materialistic. Death 

puts an end to the sensational pleasures of life, and the underworld of the dead is the most 

dismal place imaginable. The Babylonian gods themselves indulge in eroticism, feasting, 

and fighting (Weigel). 

What is the Gilgamesh Epic? 

The Gilgamesh epic is a long narrative poem about a Sumerian king named 

Gilgamesh who lived between 2, 700 and 2,500 BC—an era about twenty three times 

more distant from us than our own Revolutionary War. Although this poem is probably 

the oldest work you have ever read, its concerns are timeless and universal: how to 

become known and respected, how to cope with the loss of a dear friend, and how to 

accept one’s own inevitable death. 

Unlike modern books, this epic does not have a single author. Stories about King 

Gilgamesh were told and were handed down by Sumerians for hundreds of years after his 

death. By the twenty-first BC, however, these tales existed in written form. When the 

Babylonians conquered the Sumerians, soon afterwards, they usurped the Sumerian 

cultural tradition. A Babylonian author, borrowing from some of these tales, created a 

unified epic about the legendary Sumerian king. Other Babylonian writers modified the 

epic and, in the seventh century BC, it was included in the library of the Assyrian king, 

Ashurbanipal. 

The Gilgamesh epic was an international favorite of its time, translated into many 

ancient Near Eastern languages. After the fall of Babylon, however, the story survived 

only in folklore. The written epic was lost until archaeologists excavated Ashurbanipal’s 

library in the last century. They discovered the poem written on clay tablets. 

Archaeologists were especially excited by the portion of the epic describing a great flood, 

an account remarkably similar to the story of Noah’s ark in the Bible (Literature-World 

Masterpieces). 




The Key Players in the Epic: 

Enkidu (en’ key do) Gilgamesh’s friend and advisor –molded by the goddess Aruru, the 

goddess of creation, out of clay in the image and of the essence of Anu, the sky god, and 

of Ninurta, the war god. Enkidu is a wild or “natural” man; he was later considered a 

patron of god and animals. 

Gilgamesh (gil gah mesh) the hero of the epic, king of Uruk—son of the goddess Ninsun 

and of a priest of Kullab, fifth king of Uruk after the flood, famous as a great builder. 

Humbaba (heum bah ba) the giant who guards the cedar forest, a nature divinity. 

Ishtar (ish tar) the goddess of love, one of the most popular Babylonian deities, Ishtar is 

the goddess of sexuality, a potent force among beasts and men. She sanctified temple 

prostitution. Lustful herself, Ishtar had numerous lovers, most of whom had dreadful 

fates. Ishtar is also the goddess of war, and is often called the Queen of Heaven. She 

was the patroness of Uruk where she had a temple/ 

Ninsun (nin sun) the mother of Gilgamesh, a minor goddess whose house was in Uruk; 

she was noted for wisdom and was the wife of Lugulbanda (lew goal bahn da). 

Urshanabi (erh sha nah bee) Utnapishtim’s ferryman. Urshanabi ferries daily across the 

waters of death which divide the garden on the sun from the paradise where Utnapishtim 

lives forever. As such, Utnapishtim has eternal life. His fate, however, changes as a 

result of his accepting Gilgamesh as a passenger. 

Utnapishtim (eut nah piesh tem) the Mesopotamian “Noah”, survivor of the great flood 

who lives eternally at “the mouth of the rivers”—his name is usually translated as “He 

who saw Life” he is often referred to as the “Faraway”. 

Important Places in The Epic of Gilgamesh: 

Eanna (e anna) the temple precinct in Uruk sacred to Anu and Ishtar 

Shurrupak (sha rue peck) an ancient Sumerian city, eighteen miles northwest of Uruk; 

Utnapishtim lived here before the time of the flood 

Uruk (eugh rok [rhymes with crook]) an ancient Sumerian city on the Euphrates River 




Important gods in Babylonian Mythology 

Adad (ay dad) the god of storms and weather 

Anunnaki (ah knew nah key) gods of the underworld, judges of the dead 

Anu (ay knew) the father of the gods and god of the sky, reigned in the uppermost 

part of heaven and had an army of stars to destroy evildoers 

Aruru (ah ruh ruh) a goddess of creation, she created Enkidu from clay in the 

image of Anu 

Belit-Sheri (bell eat share ey) the scribe for the underworld gods 

Ea (ay ah) the god of the waters and of wisdom, carries all-encompassing 

wisdom, a patron of arts; one of the creators of man, towards whom he is usually 

well-disposed 

Enlil (en’ lil [rhymes with hill]) the god of earth, wind, and air, also the source of 

royal power who dealt out good and evil to men 

Irkalla (erh kah leh) the queen of the underworld [also known as Ereshkigal] 

Marduk (marr duck) a fertility god and the principal deity of Babylon. He 

established lordship over all the other gods by killing the malevolent and chaotic 

Tiamat and by creating the world out of Tiamat’s body 

Namtar (nam tar) the god of evil fate, bringer of disease and pestilence 

Samuqan (sam we can) the god of cattle 

Shamash (sha mahsh) the sun-god with some fertility attributes; judge and lawgiver 

pictured with a saw with which he cuts decisions; husband and brother of 

Ishtar 

Siduri (sih duhr E) the divine wine-maker and brewer; she lives on the shore of 

the sea in the garden of the sun 

(Weigel and Literature – World Masterpieces) 




Reading Critically: Sumerian, Egyptian, and Hebrew Culture 

The Historical Context 

Situated on the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, ancient Mesopotamia was 

simultaneously a region of plenty and of poverty, opportunity and danger. Frequent 

floods created rich soil. Yet floods could also be violent and unpredictable, and the 

summer droughts could turn the soil to dust and whither crops. With its two major rivers, 

the region was ideally situated for trade. However, the flat alluvial plain, without forest 

or other natural obstacles, left the region open to invaders. 

Between 2,500 and 500 BC, Mesopotamia was invaded repeatedly. Those who built the 

first great civilization on the two rivers, the Sumerians, gave way to the Babylonians and 

the Babylonians gave way to the Assyrians. As often happens, however, the conquerors 

adopted the culture of the conquered. The Epic of Gilgamesh itself is eloquent testimony 

to this fact: The Epic of Gilgamesh is the tale of the Sumerian ruler shaped by 

Babylonians and later preserved in the library of a great Assyrian king. 




The Cultural Context 

As a result of living in a region threatened by floods and invaders, ancient neareastern 

religion reflected the insecurities of life. Most everything was viewed 

pessimistically. Mesopotamians believed for example, that they were created only to 

serve the gods. These unpredictable, quarreling, working, eating, drinking, and all-toohuman 

gods had absolute control over human destiny with, often times, little regard for 

men. Another key influence coloring their perception was the Mesopotamian vision of 

the underworld as a dreary and inhospitable place. 

The Literary Context 

Both the Sumerians and the Babylonians had schools of scribes who created a 

varied and impressive literature. Among the works they produced were essays, proverbs, 

dialogues, myths, hymns, and epics. As the Gilgamesh tale passed through the hands of 

these authors, it was continually reshaped. The Babylonians, who fashioned the epic as 

we know it today, added the prologue and flood story emphasized the friendship between 

Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Most important, they gave the narrative its central theme: the 

search for immortality (Literature – World Masterpieces). 

Administrative tablet with cylinder seal 

impression of a male figure, hunting 

dogs, and boars, 3100–2900 B.C.; Jemdet 

Nasr period (Uruk III script) 

Mesopotamia 

Clay; H. 2 in. (5.3 cm) 

Purchase, Raymond and Beverly Sackler 

Gift, 1988 (1988.433.1) 




Epic: The Definition Known, Understood, and Used by 

Humanities Students 

(Yes, you should know this extremely well) 

The Epic is a long narrative poem presented in an elevated style, relating the 

heroic deeds of noble or semi-divine personages. Traditional or fold epics 

originated in traditional legends dating back to a remote past and handed 

down orally through generations of singers. At some point, an individual 

put all the pieces together in written form. Literary epics developed later 

and were modeled on the original oral epics. 

Seven features are associated with the epic: 

One: The characters are of noble birth, or they are supernatural beings from the past. 

If, for any reason, a person of a lower estate is introduced, the person’s name is never 

mentioned. 

Two: 

Three: 

Four: 

Five: 

Six: 

Seven: 

The action is on an immense scale and involves the fate of a whole people 

or even the entire human race. Gods or semi-divine creatures come to the 

aid of one side or another. 

The author usually announces the theme at the opening of the epic and … 

calls upon the muses to help him in his narration. 

The poem usually begins at a critical point in the action. 

The style is noble and majestic; with the characters often speaking 

ceremoniously in long set speeches. 

Literary inventories—listings and descriptions of characters or objects— 

often form part of the descriptive passages. 

Such features had become so predictable that a kind of anti-epic developed 

that became known as a mock epic. The mock epic uses all the epic elements 

in wrong or bizarre ways so that they appear ridiculous to the audience. 

Features of the mock epic are very common in contemporary comedy 

(English Literature). 




Note: The following text of The Epic of Gilgamesh is a compilation to give you as 

complete a version of the epic as possible. This material is not, however, totally 

complete. At times, as you move through this handout, you will be asked to go to your 

text and read some of the material from the epic given to you there. Going between this 

handout and your text will give you a relatively complete understanding of the epic, its 

plot, and its characters. 

The Epic Begins… 

I will proclaim to the world the deeds of 

Gilgamesh. This was the man to whom 

all things were known; this was the king 

who knew countries of the world. He 

was wise, he saw mysteries, and knew 

secret things, he brought us a tale of the 

days before the flood. He went on a 

long journey, was weary, and worn-out 

with labor. Returning, he rested and 

then engraved on a stone the whole 

story: 

When the Gods created Gilgamesh they 

gave him a perfect body. Shamash, the 

glorious sun-god, endowed him with 

beauty, Adad, the god of the storm, 

endowed him with courage. The great 

gods made his beauty perfect. Though 

Gilgamesh surpassed all others in 

beauty, in the minds and hearts of his 

people, he was terrifying like a great 

wild bull. Two-thirds he was made god 

and one-third man. 

In Uruk, he built walls, a great rampart, 

and the temple of blessed Eanna for the 

god of the firmament, Anu, and for 

Ishtar, the goddess of love. Look at it 

still today: the outer wall where the 

cornice runs, it shines with the brilliance 

of copper; and the inner wall, it has no 

equal. Touch the threshold, it is ancient. 

Approach Eanna, the dwelling of Ishtar, 

our lady of love and war, the like of 

which neither latter-day king, nor any 

man alive can equal. Climb upon the 

wall of Uruk; walk along it, I say: regard 

the foundation terrace and examine the 

masonry; is it not burnt brick and good? 

The seven sages laid the foundation. 

Gilgamesh was wise and powerful, 

famed for his exploits in war, and for his 

prowess as an unbeatable wrestler, 

however, he was tyrannical and arrogant 

as well as lustful. These traits concerned 

the people. Because of his lustfulness, 

Gilgamesh would abduct any woman 

who took his fancy whether she was 

single or married. The people of Uruk 

were greatly distressed at this for no one 

could overcome Gilgamesh. They 

prayed to the goddess Aruru to fashion a 

man who could overpower Gilgamesh in 

order that he would leave their women in 

peace. 

Aruru created the mighty Enkidu, a hairy 

man with legs like a bull. At first 

Enkidu lived like a wild animal and had 

no contact with other humans. As 




Enkidu roamed with the wild beasts, he 

enabled them to escape the traps of 

hunters. On hearing of Enkidu’s 

strength, Gilgamesh sent a courtesan to 

Enkidu’s watering place to entice him. 

Upon seeing Enkidu, the courtesan 

disrobed and exposed her breasts. 

Enticed, Enkidu went to live with her. 

After this, Enkidu’s animal companions 

shunned him because he had lost his 

natural innocence. Enkidu could do 

nothing but return to Uruk with the 

courtesan. 

Meanwhile, back in his palace, 

Gilgamesh had dreamed of struggling 

with a powerful man who could master 

him. When he told his dream to his 

mother, Ninsun, she said it meant that 

Enkidu, the hairy man with legs like a 

bull, and Gilgamesh would become close 

companions. Upon meeting, the two 

engaged in a wrestling match unlike any 

other seen before and though Enkidu 

eventually lost to Gilgamesh, the two 

became such friends that Gilgamesh 

invited Enkidu to live in the palace and 

to share his kingly honors. 

After many years of friendship, one 

night Enkidu had a nightmare in which 

he was snatched up by a strange, terrible 

creature with eagle claws, who cast him 

into the underworld of death. Because 

of his tormenting dreams, which were 

perceived as a sickness, Enkidu slept far 

removed from anyone else in the castle. 

[Bear in mind that the Mesopotamian 

view of the world of the dead was 

depressing and hopeless. The tombs of 

the famous contained treasures and 

human attendants sacrificed to 

accompany them, but the afterlife itself 

was dark and gloomy.] 

When Gilgamesh heard this dream, he 

offered a sacrifice to Shamash, the sungod, 

to find out what he should do to 

stop these dreams and save Enkidu from 

impending death. Shamash advised 

Gilgamesh to go and fight Humbaba the 

Strong, king of the Cedar Forest and of 

Cedar Mountain. Because of his great 

friendship with Enkidu, Gilgamesh 

immediately agreed to do this. When 

Enkidu, Ninsun, and the people of Uruk 

hear of Gilgamesh’s plan, they tried to 

dissuade Gilgamesh from a plan they 

saw as all too threatening and dangerous. 

Their pleas, however, were of no avail. 

Gilgamesh knew he must save Enkidu. 

Gilgamesh was determined to make the 

long arduous journey to battle Humbaba. 

Enkidu joined his friend, and the two 

went forth. 

Gilgamesh and Enkidu traveled 

northwest, leaving their fertile land 

behind, crossing a vast dessert, reaching 

the Amanus Mountains, and finally 

arriving at the resplendent Cedar 

Mountain and the stockade of the 

monster Humbaba. 

Gilgamesh issued a challenge to 

Humbaba but no answer came. They 

made a sacrifice to the gods and settled 

down for the night. During the night, 

Gilgamesh had a dream of victory, but 

the next morning, with his heart 

quailing, Enkidu expressed his fears: 

“Oh my lord, you do not know this 

monster and that is the reason you are 

unafraid. I who know him, I am 

terrified. His teeth are dragon’s fangs, 




his countenance is like a lion, his charge 

is the rushing of a flood, with his look he 

crushes alike the trees of the forest and 

the reeds in the swamp. O my lord, you 

may go on if you choose into this land, 

but I will go back to the city. I will tell 

the lady your mother all your glorious 

deeds till she shouts for joy; and then I 

will tell of the death that followed till 

she weeps for bitterness.” 

But Gilgamesh said, “Immolation and 

sacrifice are not yet for me, the boat of 

the dead shall not go down, nor the 

three-ply cloth be cut for my shrouding. 

Not yet will my people be desolate, nor 

the pyre be lit in my house and my 

dwelling burnt on the fire. Today, give 

me your aid and you shall have mine; 

what can go amiss with us two? All 

living creatures born of the flesh shall sit 

at last in the boat of the West, and when 

it sinks, when the boat of Magilum 

sinks, they are gone; but we shall go 

forward and fix our eyes on this monster. 

If your heart is fearful, throw away fear, 

if there is terror in it, throw away terror. 

Take your ax in your hand and attack. 

He who leaves the fight unfinished is not 

at peace.” 

Humbaba stood in front of his strong 

house of cedar. Enkidu called out, “O 

Gilgamesh, remember now your boasts 

in Uruk. Forward, attack, son of Uruk, 

there is nothing to fear.” When he heard 

these words, his courage rallied; he 

answered, “Make haste, close in, if the 

watchman is there, do not let him escape 

to the woods where he will vanish. He 

has put on the first of his seven 

splendors but not yet the other six; let us 

trap him before he is armed.” 

Like a raging wild bull, Humbaba 

snuffed the ground; the watchman of the 

woods turned full of threatenings, he 

cried out. He nodded his head and 

shook it, menacing Gilgamesh; and on 

him he fastened his eye, the eye of death. 

Then Gilgamesh called to Shamash and 

his tears were flowing, “O glorious 

Shamash, I have followed the road you 

have commanded but now if you send no 

succor how shall I escape?” Glorious 

Shamash heard his prayer and he 

summoned the great winds: the north 

wind, the whirlwind, the storm and the 

icy wind,, the tempest and the scorching 

wind; they came like dragons, like a 

scorching fire, like a serpent that freezes 

the heart, a destroying flood and the 

lightning’s fork. The eight winds rose 

up against Humbaba, they beat against 

his eyes; he was gripped, unable to go 

forward or back. Gilgamesh shouted, 

“By the life of Ninsun my mother and 

divine Lugulbanda my father, in the 

Country of the Living, in this land I have 

discovered your dwelling; my weak 

arms and my strong weapons I have 

brought to this land against you, and 

now I will enter your house.” Humbaba 

charged them and a terrific fight 

followed. 

Gilgamesh felled one cedar and they cut 

the branches and laid them at the foot of 

the mountain. At the first stroke 

Humbaba blazed out, but still they 

advanced. They felled seven cedars and 

cut and bound the branches and laid 

them at the foot of the mountain, and 

seven times Humbaba loosed his glory 

on them. As the seventh blaze died out, 

they reached his lair. Humbaba slapped 

his thigh in scorn but waited like a noble 




wild bull roped on the mountain, a 

warrior whose elbows are bound 

together. The tears started in his eyes 

and he was pale, “Gilgamesh, let me 

speak. I have never known a mother, no, 

nor a father who reared me. I was born 

of the mountain, he reared me, and Enlil 

made me the keeper of this forest. Let 

me go free, Gilgamesh, and I will be 

your servant, you shall be my lord; all of 

the trees of the forest that I tend on the 

mountain shall be yours. I will cut them 

down and build you a palace.” 

Humbaba took Gilgamesh by the hand 

and led him to his house, so that the 

heart of Gilgamesh was moved with 

compassion. Gilgamesh swore by the 

heavenly life, by the earthly life, by the 

underworld itself: “O Enkidu, should not 

the snared bird return to its nest and the 

captive man return to his mother’s 

arms?” Enkidu answered, “The 

strongest of men will fall to fate if he has 

no judgment. Namtar, the evil fate that 

knows distinction between men, will 

devour him. If the snared bird returns to 

his mother’s arms, and you, my friend, 

will never return to the city where the 

mother is waiting who gave you birth. 

He will bar the mountain road against 

you, and make the pathways 

impassable.” 

Humbaba said, “Enkidu, what you have 

spoken is evil: you, a hireling, dependent 

for your bread! In envy and for fear of a 

rival you have spoken evil words.” 

Enkidu said, “Do not listen Gilgamesh: 

this Humbaba must die! Kill Humbaba 

first and his servants after.” 

But Gilgamesh said, “If we touch him; 

the blaze and the glory of light will be 

put out in confusion, the glory and 

glamour will vanish, its rays will be 

quenched.” 

Enkidu said to Gilgamesh, “Not so, my 

friend. First entrap the bird, and where 

shall the chicks run then? Afterwards 

we can search out the glory and the 

glamour, when the chicks run distracted 

through the grass.” 

Gilgamesh listened to the word of his 

companion, he took the ax in his hand, 

he drew the sword from his belt and he 

struck Humbaba with a thrust of the 

sword to the neck, and Enkidu, his 

comrade, struck the blow. At the third 

blow, Humbaba fell. Then there 

followed confusion for this was the 

guardian of the forest whom they had 

felled to the ground. For as far as two 

leagues the cedars shivered when 

Gilgamesh and Enkidu felled the 

watcher of the forest, he at whose voice 

Hermon and Lebanon used to tremble. 

Now the mountains were moved and all 

the hills, for the guardian of the forest 

was killed. Gilgamesh and Enkidu 

attacked the cedars; they extinguished 

the seven splendors of Humbaba. So 

they pressed on into the forest bearing 

the sword of the eight talents. They 

uncovered the dwellings of the 

Anunnaki and while Gilgamesh felled 

the trees of the forest, Enkidu cleared 

their roots as far as the banks of the 

Euphrates. They set Humbaba before 

the gods, before Enlil; they kissed the 

ground and dropped the shroud and set 

the head before him. 

When he saw the head of Humbaba, 

Enlil raged at them. “Why did you do 

this thing? From henceforth may the fire 




be on your faces, may it eat the bread 

that you eat, may it drink where you 

drink.” Then Enlil took again the blaze 

and the seven splendors that had been 

Humbaba’s: he gave the first to the river, 

and he gave to the lion, to the stone of 

execration, to the mountain, and to the 

dreaded daughter of the Queen of Hell. 

The two heroes left Enlil. In homage, 

they bathed, dressed, and made offerings 

to the gods. Then the lustful Ishtar 

appeared to King Gilgamesh and tried to 

seduce him, but he spurned her, saying 

that her lovers usually had dire fates. 

When Gilgamesh and Enkidu returned to 

Uruk with the cedars, Ishtar had her 

vengeance planned. With the help of 

Anu, she loosed the bull of heaven 

against Uruk. In the course of wrecking 

the city, the bull was caught and 

slaughtered by Gilgamesh and Enkidu. 

Then in an act of utter rashness, Enkidu 

threw the bull’s hide in Ishtar’s face 

telling her that he’d do the same to her if 

he could. The goddess Ishtar then laid a 

mortal curse upon Enkidu. After twelve 

days of dire sickness, Enkidu dies! 

Question Time!!!! 

Follow the directions given to you in 

class regarding these questions. 

1. At the beginning of this reading, 

for what qualities and 

achievements was Gilgamesh 

praised? 

2. As the epic opened, what values 

did you recognize as being 

important to the ancient 

Mesopotamians? 

3. Gilgamesh is described as being 

two-thirds god and one-third 

man. What conflicts and/or 

benefits might result from such a 

combination? 

4. Gilgamesh and Enkidu have 

different ideas about how to 

interact with Humbaba. Review 

the thinking each undergoes and 

the strategy each proposes. What 

do you learn of Gilgamesh and of 

Enkidu as a result of examining 

their very different thoughts and 

strategies toward Humbaba? 

5. Gilgamesh and Enkidu differ in 

critical ways. Develop a list of at 

least four contrasts between these 

two friends. Be sure to offer text 

evidence to verify that your list is 

accurate. 




Understanding Literature: Archetype 

An archetype is something patterned after an original model or type. In literature, 

an archetype may be a descriptive detail, a plot pattern, a character type, or a theme that 

recurs often enough so that people within a culture as well as people outside of a culture 

may recognize the pattern. One archetype that appears in The Epic of Gilgamesh is the 

battle between the forces of good/light and the forces of evil/darkness. It is around this 

conflict, or struggle between two forces, that this episode of the epic is built. 

In the battle with the giant Humbaba, it should come as no surprise that 

Gilgamesh and Enkidu are on the side of goodness/light. They are, in fact, 

representatives of Shamash, the god of light himself. Similarly, because you are 

intuitively aware of archetypal patterns (even though you may not have known the 

literary term before), you should have no trouble identifying the character and setting 

representative of evil/darkness. 

6. How does Enkidu describe Humbaba? What about this description is archetypal? 

7. Humbaba is the guardian of a forest. Why is Humbaba placed in an archetypal 

setting? 




Commentary: The Hero and his Quest 

You have just read what is referred to as the turning point of the epic: the death of 

Enkidu. As your read further, you will learn that Gilgamesh is deeply troubled by his 

only friend’s death: 

Hear me, great ones of Uruk, I weep for Enkidu, my friend, Bitterly moaning like a 

woman mourning; I weep for my brother. 

The king cannot accept the inevitability of death, and with all the energy of his 

proud and restless nature, he begins a quest, or search, for everlasting life. He determines 

to find Utnapishtim, survivor of an ancient flood and the only man to whom the gods 

have granted immortality. Up until this time, Gilgamesh was ambitious for glory. 

He undertook the battle with the giant Humbaba in order to rid the land of evil 

and create a name for himself as he saved Enkidu from his threatening dreams. Now he 

is not concerned with fame. He does not want to survive in stories, songs and legends, 

but now wants immortal life for his own body. 

The hero’s quest – a search for immortal life or some kind of secret knowledge— 

is a theme found in the folklore and literature of many peoples. Usually, the hero must 

suffer a number of ordeals in the course of his search. This suffering leads to a special 

knowledge or to special privileges. 

Like any serious quest, Gilgamesh’s journey is dangerous because it takes him 

past the boundaries of the familiar worlds. He travels to distant places known only in 

legend, such as “the great mountains… which guard the rising and setting sun.” his 

appearance, too, becomes less and less civilized as he journeys farther from Uruk. He 

wears animal skins, and his cheeks look drawn. Ironically, he is now more of a wild 

man, just as Enkidu was wild when he roamed with the beasts. 

Not only does the king’s quest take him over the edge of the map, but it also takes 

him backward in time to an unimaginably ancient past. In speaking with Utnapishtim, 

Gilgamesh will encounter a man whose memories predate any known historical records. 

Gilgamesh will be journeying back to the legendary beginnings of his people… in fact, to 

the legendary beginnings of all people! 




The Epic continues… 

Gilgamesh was inconsolable over the 

death of his friend, for he realized that 

he must die one day as well. 

Determined to find the secret of 

immortality, Gilgamesh went in search 

of Utnapishtim, the man whose name 

means “he who saw life,” the man on 

whom Enlil had conferred life 

everlasting. 

Gilgamesh traveled west to the far-off 

Mount Mashu, which was guarded by 

Scorpion-Men. With a trembling heart, 

Gilgamesh approached the chief 

Scorpion-Man, who permitted him 

passage into the mountain. As he 

journeyed, Gilgamesh also encountered 

the sun-god, Shamash. Following 

Shamash’s advice, Gilgamesh traveled 

further and after a long time in a tunnel, 

he stepped out into the garden of a 

goddess. Siduri, the goddess, advised 

Gilgamesh to return home, enjoy life, 

and accept death gracefully; but 

Gilgamesh was insistent on finding 

Utnapishtim, so Siduri directed him to 

Utnapishtim’s boatman. The boatman 

warned of the turbulent waters of death 

that surrounded Utnapishtim’s dwelling. 

However, Gilgamesh would not be put 

off, and with the boatman’s help, he 

managed to cross the perilous waters and 

finally arrive at the home of the 

immortal man. 

Upon meeting Utnapishtim, Gilgamesh 

explained his quest for immortality. 

Utnapishtim laughed at his foolishness 

and told Gilgamesh of how he had 

earned immortality: 

“You know the city of Shurrapak; it 

stands on the banks of the Euphrates? 

The city grew old and the gods that were 

in it were old. There was Anu, the father 

of the gods and the god of the sky, as 

well as their father and warrior, Enlil, 

lord of the firmament. In addition, there 

was also wisdom. In those days the 

world teemed, the people multiplied, the 

world bellowed like a wild bull, and the 

great gods were aroused by the clamor. 

Enlil heard the clamor and he said to the 

gods, in the council, “The uproar of 

mankind is intolerable and sleep is no 

longer possible by reason of the babble.” 

So the gods agreed to exterminate 

mankind. Enlil did this, but Ea, because 

of an oath he had sworn with only me, 

Utnapishtim… my name means “he who 

saw life,” warned me of the destruction 

in a dream. He whispered the gods’ 

words to my house of reeds. “Reed 

house, reed house! Wall O wall, harken 

reed house, wall reflect: O man of 

Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu; tear 

down your house and build a boat, 

abandon possessions and look for life, 

despise worldly goods and save your 

soul alive. Tear down your house, I say, 

and build a boat. These are the 

measurements of the boat as you shall 

build her: let her beam equal her length, 

let her deck be roofed like the vault that 




covers the abyss, then take up into the 

boat the seed of all living creatures.” 

When I had understood, I said to my 

lord: “Behold, what you have 

commanded I will honor and perform, 

but how shall I answer the people, the 

city, the elders? 

Then Ea opened his mouth to me, his 

servant, “Tell me this: I have learnt that 

Enlil is wrathful against me, I dare no 

longer walk in his land nor live in his 

city; I will go down to the Gulf to dwell 

with Ea my lord. But on you he will rain 

down abundance, rare fish and shy 

wildfowl, a rich harvest tide. In the 

evening, the rider of the storm will bring 

you wheat in torrents.” 

In the first light of dawn, all my 

household gathered round me, the 

children brought pitch and the men 

whatever was necessary. On the fifth 

day, I laid the keel and the ribs, then I 

made fast the planking. The groundspace 

was measured one hundred and 

twenty cubits making a square. I built 

six decks below, seven in all; I divided 

them into nine sections with bulkheads 

between. I drove wedges where needed, 

I saw to the oars and paddles, and laid in 

supplies. The carriers brought oil in 

baskets, I poured pitch into the furnace 

and asphalt and oil; more oil was 

consumed in sealing the cracks, and 

more again the master of the boat took 

into his stores. I slaughtered bullocks 

for the people and everyday I killed 

sheep. I gave the shipwrights wine to 

drink as though it were river water, raw 

wine and red wine and oil and white 

wine. There was feasting then as there is 

at the time of the New Year’s Festival; I 

myself had anointed my head. On the 

seventh day, the boat was complete. 

Then was the launching full of difficulty; 

there was shifting of ballast above and 

below till two-thirds was submerged. I 

loaded into her all that I had of old and 

of living things, my family, my kin, the 

beasts of the field both wild and tame, 

and all the craftsmen. I sent them on 

board, for the time that Shamash had 

ordained was already fulfilled when he 

said, “In the evening when the rider of 

the storm sends down the destroying 

rain, enter the boat and batten her 

down.” The time was fulfilled, the 

evening came, and the rider of the storm 

sent down the rain. I looked out at the 

weather and it was terrible, so I too 

boarded the boat and battened her down. 

All was now complete, the battening and 

the caulking; so I handed the tiller to 

Puzur-Amurri the steersman, with the 

navigation and the care of the whole 

boat. 

Attention: Go to your text and read the 

section entitled “The Flood” on page 

38. After you complete reading this one 

paragraph section, return to the 

reading that follows… 

For six days and six nights the winds 

blew, torrent and tempest and flood 

overwhelmed the world, tempest and 

flood raged together like warring hosts. 

When the seventh day dawned, the storm 

from the south subsided, the sea grew 

calm, the flood was stilled; I looked at 

the face of the world and there was 

silence, all mankind was turned to clay. 

The surface stretched as flat as a rooftop; 

I opened a hatch and the light fell on my 

face. Then I bowed low, I sat down and 




I wept while the tears streamed down my 

face, for on every side was water. I 

looked for land in vain, but fourteen 

leagues distant there appeared a 

mountain of Nasir. The boat held fast, 

she held fast, and did not budge. One 

day she held, and a second day on the 

mountain of Nasir, she held fast and did 

not budge. A third day, and a fourth day 

she held fast on the mountain and did not 

budge; a fifth day and a sixth day she 

held fast on the mountain. 

When the seventh day dawned, I loosed 

a dove and let her go. She flew away, 

but finding no resting place she returned. 

Then I loosed a swallow, and she flew 

away but finding no resting place she 

returned. Then I loosed a raven, she saw 

that the waters had retreated, she ate, she 

flew around, she cawed, and she did not 

come back. Then I threw everything 

open to the four winds, I made a 

sacrifice and poured out a libation on the 

mountain top. Seven and again seven 

cauldrons I set up on their stands, I 

heaped up wood and cane and cedar and 

myrtle. When the gods smelled the 

sweet savor, they gathered like flies over 

the sacrifice. Then, at last, Ishtar also 

came; she lifted her necklace with the 

jewels of heaven that once Anu had 

made to please her. “O you gods, here 

present, by the lapis lazuli round my 

neck I shall remember these days as I 

remember the jewels of my throat: these 

last days I shall not forget. Let all the 

gods gather round the sacrifice except 

Enlil. He shall not approach this 

offering, for without reflection he 

brought the flood; he consigned my 

people to destruction.” 

When Enlil had come, when he saw the 

boat, he was wroth and swelled with 

anger at the gods, the host of heaven, 

“Has any of these mortals escaped? Not 

one was to have survived the 

destruction.” Then the god of the wells 

and canals, Ninurta, opened his mouth 

and said to the warrior Enlil, “Who is 

there of the gods that can devise without 

Ea? It is Ea alone who knows all 

things.” Then Ea opened his mouth and 

spoke to warrior Enlil, “Wisest of gods, 

hero Enlil, how could you so senselessly 

bring down the flood?” 

Lay down the sinner his sin 

Lay upon the transgressor his 

transgression, 

Punish him a little when he breaks loose, 

Do not drive him too hard or he 

perishes: 

Would that a lion had ravaged mankind 

Rather than the flood, 

Would that a wolf had ravaged mankind 


Would that famine had wasted the world 


Would that pestilence had wasted 

mankind 

Rather than the flood. 

It was not I that revealed the secret of 

the gods; the wise man learned it in a 

dream. Now take your counsel what 

shall be done with him.” 

Then Enlil went up to the boat, he took 

me by the hand and my wife and made 

us enter the boat and kneel down on 

either side, he standing between us. He 

touched our foreheads to bless us saying: 

“In time past, Utnapishtim was a moral 

man; henceforth he and his wife shall 

live in the distance at the mouth of the 




rivers.” Thus it was that the gods took 

me and placed me here to live in the 

distance, at the mouth of the rivers.” 

(World Masterpieces). 

Attention: Go to your text and read the 

section entitled “The Return of 

Gilgamesh” on pages 38 and 39. After 

you complete reading this section, you 

will have completed your reading of 

The Epic of Gilgamesh. 

Question Time 

Follow the directions given to you in class regarding these questions: 

8. When the serpent steals the plant, why doesn’t Gilgamesh return for more? 

Explain your reasoning. 

9. Explain Gilgamesh’s mood at the close of the section entitled, “The Return of 

Gilgamesh”. Give some evidence from to text to support your claim. 

10. How do the people of Uruk respond to Gilgamesh’s death? In what way have 

they given Gilgamesh immortality? 

11. One of the goals of literature is to provide insight into ourselves and into our 

lives. What insights do you think the ancient people who heard this epic gained? 

What insights have you gained by reading this epic? 




Understanding the Hero and his Quest 

A hero is a character whose actions are inspiring or noble. Deeply troubled by the 

death of his friend, Enkidu, Gilgamesh embarks on a selfish quest not for the glory of 

his people or his city, but for his own everlasting life in the flesh. Strangely, both his 

success and his failure in this quest can be connected with an accidental quality and a 

bit of luck. Utnapishtim gives him the secret of a magical, restorative plant not in 

answer to his request but as a parting gift, an afterthought. In a way, Gilgamesh gets 

lucky because Utnapishtim’s wife did not want him to go away empty-handed! 

Similarly, his loss of the plant to a serpent, described very briefly, is presented as a 

chance occurrence. 

A few more questions to consider… 

12. Find a passage from the reading of the epic that foreshadows the failure of 

Gilgamesh’s quest. Quote that passage here. 

13. Thinking biologically, explain why serpent a serpent might be an appropriate 

creature to steal the magical plant. How is the serpent an archetype? 

14. Was Gilgamesh’s quest a heroic quest or a selfish quest? Explain your rationale. 




Commentary: 

Babylonian myths appear dynamic and masculine in comparison to many other 

myths, particularly those of Egypt. The prominent gods are male except for Ishtar. In 

the creation myth, it is the male Marduk who slays the monster-goddess Tiamat and 

creates the cosmos. And Utnapishtim is a patriarch much like the biblical Noah. But 

beyond this, Gilgamesh is an imposing figure: Gilgamesh towers above others in his 

own legend. Gilgamesh is presented as a real man who is capable of both good and 

bad. If Gilgamesh is lecherous and headstrong, he is also manly, courageous, a true 

friend, a superb fighter, and a king who tries to give his people immortality. He 

suffers as we do, and he is obligated to face death as each of us must. 

Furthermore, Gilgamesh grows in maturity as the epic progresses. At first, he is a 

self-centered despot who cares only for fighting and women. Then he makes a friend 

of Enkidu and the two of them act partly for the benefit of Uruk in killing the monster 

Humbaba, bringing home the cedars and slaying the celestial Bull. Finally, 

Gilgamesh goes off to procure immortality for himself and his people, sparing 

himself nothing in the attempt. With the many legendary elements in the epic, we 

recognize Gilgamesh as an authentic hero (Weigel). 

Ishtar Gate, Babylon, 6 th cent. BC

The Epic of Gilgamesh

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