String Games of the Navajo

STRING Bulletin of GAMES the International OF THE String NAVAJO Figure Association, Vol. 7, 119-214, 2000 119 

String Games of the Navajo 

by 

WILL WIRT, Port Angeles, Washington 

MARK SHERMAN, Pasadena, California 

Cultural notes contributed by 

MIKE MITCHELL, Rough Rock, Arizona 

ABSTRACT 

In this article the authors describe seventy-four string figures and tricks 

known to the Navajo Indians of Arizona. Methods for making sixty of these 

were gathered during the winter of 1999-2000 on a series of visits to the 

Navajo reservation. Thirty-four of these are new additions to the published 

literature on Navajo string games. Remarkably, methods for twenty of the 

twenty-seven Navajo string figures gathered by Caroline Furness Jayne 

nearly a century ago were still remembered, suggesting that string games 

are a stable element of Navajo material culture. The significance of string 

games among the Navajo is examined in an appendix to this article. 

INTRODUCTION 

The prevalence of string games 1 among the Navajo 2 Indians of the American 

Southwest was established nearly a century ago by Alfred. C. Haddon 

(1903), Caroline Furness Jayne (1906), Stewart Culin (1907), and the Franciscan 

Fathers (1910). For many years Jayne’s collection of twenty-seven 

designs (1906:387), which incorporates Haddon’s collection of six, was the 

largest ever assembled from a single tribe. The size of her collection suggested 

that the Navajo Indians were once quite fond of them. But have any of 

these traditional games survived the onslaught of technology and Anglo culture? 

Have new designs been created or imported in the interim? Have any 

1Among the Navajo and many other Native American tribes, string figures are 

routinely referred to as string games: a request for string figures is often greeted 

with a blank stare. The Navajo word for string games is 1CbCV>bQb, meaning 

‘continuous weaving.’ 

2The Spanish word ‘Navajo’ is from the Tewa Pueblo Indian word ‘Navahú’ 

meaning ‘great planted fields’ or ‘take from fields.’ In the early part of the twentieth 

century the spelling was anglicized to ‘Navaho’ at the request of the Indians, who 

were tired of being called NavaJoes by white settlers. In recent years, the spelling 

has reverted to ‘Navajo’. Most Navajo prefer the native term ‘Dineh’ or ‘Diné’ 

meaning ‘The People’. For a detailed discussion see Haile (1949). 

119

120 

W. WIRT, M. SHERMAN, M. MITCHELL 

of the taboos once associated with their manufacture been maintained? These 

are the sorts of questions that inspired a series of three visits to the Navajo 

Reservation in the winter of 1999-2000 (November, late January, and early 

March). Visits were restricted to winter since traditionally this was the season 

in which string games were played (Toelken 1979:95). The principal investigator 

on all three 

visits was Will 

Wirt, accompanied 

by his wife Lillie. 

During the second 

visit Mark Sherman 

and David Titus 

were also present. 

On several occasions 

specific individuals 

known for 

their cultural expertise 

were sought 

out, these visits being 

scheduled far in 

advance by Lillie 

Monument 

Valley 

Navajo Land 

Kayenta 

Utah 

Arizona 

Hopi Land 

Window 

Rock 

 

Hubbel 

 

Seba Dalkai 

Colorado 

New Mexico 

50 Miles 

50 Kilometers 

Wirt. These informants, particularly Mike Mitchell at Rough Rock, provided 

valuable information on the tribal lore still associated with Navajo string 

games. But most often the games were gathered informally from chance acquaintances, 

either from students at various schools or from staff members at 

trading posts, restaurants, gas stations, and hotels. 

Methods for making fifty-six string figures and four tricks were gathered 

during our three visits. Of the twenty-seven designs described or listed by 

Jayne in 1906, methods for twenty were still remembered: eleven 3 were remembered 

at one of the seven locations visited and nine 4 were remembered 

at more than one location. Occasionally the name associated with the game 

in Jayne’s book had changed, 5 or alterations in its method of manufacture or 

extension had been introduced. 6 Sometimes the same name was applied to 

more than one game, 7 or several names were given to a single game. 8 No 

chants or songs were found associated with any of the games. 

3 # 5, #13, #14/#15, #17/#18, #20, #25, #32, #44, #45, #52, #61. 

4 #1, #9, #23, #27, #28, #35, #63, #66, #68. If #7 is considered the same as #6, the 

number increases to ten. 

5 #15, #25, #35, #63. 

6 #8(#6), #9, #17(#18), #35, #44, #49(#50), #64(#63). 

7 (#2, #29, #30), (#10, #33, #56, #57), (#21, #52), (#1, #53), (#47/#48, #63/#64), 

(#13, #54). 

8 #4, #20, #35, #39, #63/#64. 

 

 

Rough 

Rock Many 

Farms 

110° 

W 

0 

0 

Navajo 

and 

Non-Navajo 

Land 

Map of the Navajo Reservation showing sites visited 

during the winter of 1999-2000. 

36° 

N

STRING GAMES OF THE NAVAJO 121 

Variation in the method of extension was also observed. In most cases this 

was idiosyncratic, i.e., selected by the performers based on what was comfortable 

or customary for them. This was particularly true of designs in the 

‘Many Stars’ family. 9 Some informants extended these designs between their 

index and middle fingers, as described by Jayne (1906:51, step 7), whereas 

others used their thumb and index (Jayne 1906:51-52, step 7A). Extensions 

also varied for designs in the ‘Open the Gate’ family. 10 These were either 

extended with four fingers pointing toward the body, or with thumb and index 

(or thumb and little finger) pointing away from the body. Three extensions 

for ‘Lightning’ were recorded (see pages 128-129). Unusual extensions 

of ‘Navajo Rug’ (Apache Door) were also seen (see page 151). 

At most locations the seasonal taboo once associated with string games 

was still observed: string games could only be played in winter, the season in 

which spiders hibernate. Traditionalists we encountered defined winter as the 

period between the first snowfall and the first thunder of spring, a sound 

which awakens hibernating animals. This period most often corresponds to 

the months of December and January. Others were willing to extend the definition 

of winter to include November and February. Beyond that, a special 

ceremony was required to appease Spider Woman. Those violating the seasonal 

taboo were warned that they would either be struck by lightning, fall 

off a horse and die, or be urinated upon by spiders. 11 A pregnancy taboo was 

also noted at two separate locations. At one location the informant refused to 

demonstrate string games because she was pregnant. At another location an 

observer left the room because “pregnant women are not supposed to look at 

others playing string games.” 

The games and tricks presented here are arranged according to the opening 

employed. Within each category, games with similar movements are 

grouped together. For ease of presentation the games are listed with their 

English name. The Navajo name, when known, is given in the Notes that 

follow the method. A drawing of the finished pattern extended on the hands 

is provided for each game. Our report concludes with an essay on the cultural 

significance of Navajo string games. 

Photographs have been omitted entirely since many traditionalists feel that 

they capture the “soul” of the object or person being photographed, and 

viewing them at inappropriate times can violate seasonal taboos. Cultural 

9 #23, #24, #25, #26, #27, #28, #30, #31, #32, #33, #45, #51, #55, #56, #57. 

10 #34, #54, #60. 

11 Similar explanations appear in the literature. According to Page & Page 

(1995:111) playing string games in the summer will cause bad weather or bad luck, 

and Spider Woman will tie your eyes shut. Gifford’s Navajo informants stated that 

string games are played only in winter when spiders are not about, lest they bite 

(Gifford 1940:56,149). When a rattlesnake came after Son of Old Man Hat, his 

mother said “That’s what you get for making string figures in the summertime.” 

(Dyk 1938:213).

122 


notes gleaned from Mike Mitchell’s recent booklet (1999) are included 

whenever relevant. This excellent booklet, written mainly in Navajo, lacks 

methods but includes illustrations of twenty-nine string game designs, each 

clearly labeled with its Navajo name. During our visits it proved to be a great 

source of inspiration and an invaluable reference document. 

LIST OF STRING GAME TITLES 

Figures Beginning with the Navajo Opening 

1. Two Stars I (Twin Stars) 

2. Big Star I 

3. Three Stars 

4. Four Stars (Milky Way) 

5. Bow 

6. Lightning, Version A 

7. Lightning, Version B 

8. Lightning, Version C 

9. Standing Measuring Worm 

10. Owl I 

11. Male Arrowhead 

12. Female Arrowhead 

13. Butterfly I 

Figures Beginning with a Modification of the Navajo Opening 

14. Replica of a Cloud 

15. Pleiades 

16. Storm Clouds 

17. Chest 

18. Breastbone and Ribs 

19. Pinching Stars 

20. Horned Toad (Lizard, Big Snake) 

21. Arrow I 

Figures Beginning with Opening A 

22. Batten 

23. Many Stars 

24. Mexican Hat 

25. Milky Way (Owl) 

26. Ending to Milky Way 

27. Star with Horns 

28. Coyotes Running Opposite Ways 

29. Big Star II 

30. Big Star III 

31. North Star


32. Seven Stars 

33. Owl II 

34. Open the Gate 

35. Rug (Blanket, Apache Door) 

36. Open the Gate from Rug (Two Coyotes Running Away) 

37. Flip (Jump Over the Fence, Frog) 

38. Hair Tie 

39. Golden Eagle (Airplane) 

40. Upside-Down Golden Eagle 

41. Two Diamonds 

42. Four Diamonds 

43. Six Stars 

44. Opposite Hogans 

45. Carrying Wood 

46. Grinding 

47. Basket, Version A 

48. Basket, Version B 

49. Man Standing with Legs Apart 

50. A Man 

51. Bird 

52. Arrow II 

53. Two Stars II 

Figures Beginning with a Modification of Opening A 

54. Butterfly II 

55. Bat 

56. Owl III 

57. Owl IV 

58. Frog 

59. Drum 

60. Rocket 

Figures Beginning with Other Openings 

61. Measuring Worm 

62. Five-pointed Star 

63. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version A 

64. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version B 

65. Two Arrowheads 

66. Sweathouse (Sweatlodge, Hogan) 

67. Unnamed 

68. Unraveling (Train) 

69. Bull Snake 

70. Ribs

124 


International Figures 

71. Bottom 

72. Finger Trick 

73. Cut the Neck 

74. Hand Escape 

NAVAJO STRING GAMES 

The numbers in parentheses after each string figure title are location codes 

that indicate where each figure was observed during our three visits to the 

reservation. Navajo figures not seen by us but described in the literature are 

also included in this article for sake of completeness. 

1. Gouldings Lodge, Monument Valley, Utah 

2. Hubbell Trading Post National Historic Site, Arizona 

3. Many Farms Elementary School, Many Farms, Arizona 

4. Monument Valley High School, Monument Valley, Utah 

5. Navajo Nation Museum, Window Rock, Arizona 

6. Rough Rock Cultural Center, Rough Rock, Arizona 

7. Seba Dalkai School, Navajo Reservation, Arizona 

The terms and abbreviations used in this article are explained and illustrated 

on pages 357-366. 

Navajo Opening (1-7) 

1. Grasp the loop in both hands with the hands only a few inches apart. 1 

and 2 point toward the center and pinch the string while 345 hold lateral 

sections of the loop.


2. Wrap the section lying between the two hands around L2 by passing RH 

over L2, away from the body, then down and toward the body, and finally 

up. 

3. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2, but 

maintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into the L2 loop from the far side. 

4. Rotate 2 down, away from the body, and then up. 

5. As 2 completes its rotation 1 enters the 345 loop from the near side. 

Release the loop from 345 and extend, palms facing away, catching the 

released loop on 1. 

6. Return hands to normal position (palms facing each other). There are TV 

2n and 1f strings. An L2f-R1n string passes behind an L1n-R2f string. 

Notes: The method we observed is more direct than the method described by 

Jayne, in which a hanging loop is created (Jayne 1906:212). All of our informants 

used this method. 

Figures Beginning with the Navajo Opening 

1. Two Stars I (Twin Stars) (1, 3) 

1. Navajo Opening. 

2. 1, from below, removes 2 loop keeping it on the upper part of 1. 

3. 2, from above, passes through upper 1 loop, picks up lower 1f (a TV 

string) from the far side, and draws it through the upper loop. 

4. 5, from below, passes up through both 1 loops and hooks down upper 1n 

(a TV string) through the lower loop. 

5. Release 1 loops and extend. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Twin Stars’ (Jayne 1906:228- 

230). The Navajo know three variations of it (#2, #3, #4).

126 


2. Big Star 1 (1, 3) 


2. Rotate RH a full turn with R1 and R2 pointing first away from the body, 

then down, then toward the body and up. R1 and R2 do not catch up any 

strings during the rotation. (This move is equivalent to >>R1 and >>R2) 

3. Steps 2 to 5 of Two Stars I. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6b 7UQJ. It represents the planet 

Venus. Mike Mitchell writes: “There are actually two Big Stars. One is called 

Mother and is visible in the early morning and the other is called Father and 

is visible during evening twilight.” (Mitchell 1999:32). In sandpaintings and 

Navajo blankets Big Star appears as a square diamond (see page 208). This 

is one of many Navajo string games associated with starlore (see page 206). 

3. Three Stars (1, 3) 


2. Rotate LH a full turn with L1 and L2 pointing first away from the body, 

then down, then toward the body and up. L1 and L2 do not catch up any 

strings during the rotation. (This move is equivalent to >>L1 and >>L2.) 

3. Steps 2 to 5 of Two Stars I.


Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6b 7b. The three stars represent 

a family: father on the left, mother on the right, and baby in the center. 

(Mitchell 1999:18). At Many Farms this figure was called ]GbGUKU, meaning 

“belt.” The informant stated that the three diamonds represent the three stars 

in Orion’s belt. To others, this figure represents the Milky Way. In sandpaintings, 

Milky Way appears as a row of diamonds (see page 199). A third name 

for this figure is ]GGJ [KN\JQQ\J, “lined up in the ground.” This term refers 

to a food item that is popular during the harvest season. It consists of sweetened 

corn meal dough placed in corn husks that are tied at both ends with 

yucca fibers. The bundles are then lined up in a trench and covered with hot 

coals until thoroughly cooked (Young & Morgan 1980:516). 

4. Four Stars (Milky Way) (1, 3) 


2. Rotate both hands a full turn with 1 and 2 pointing first away from the 

body, then down, then toward the body and up. 1 and 2 do not catch up 

any strings during the rotation. (This move is equivalent to >>1 and 

>>2.) 

3. Steps 2 to 5 of Two Stars I. 1 pushes the center of the palmar strings 

toward the middle, causing the four diamonds to open up. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6b 'b (Four Stars). This figure 

is also called

128 


5. Bow (1) 


2. 1, over 2n, picks up 2f. 

3. 345 hook down 2n. 

4. 3 picks up lower 1f and points upward. Release 1 loops and extend. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Bow’ (Jayne 1906:212-216). 

The Navajo name for this figure is $>Vb. “When paired with the Arrow, the 

Bow has power” (Mitchell 1999:28). The creation of wholeness through 

pairing is a key concept in Navajo philosophy (see page 191). 

6. Lightning, Version A 



3. 3, over 2n, picks up lower 1f. 

4. 4, over 3f, picks up 2n. 

5. 5, over 4f, picks up 3f. 

6. Release 1 loops but do not extend. 1, under the loose 2f and 3n strings, 

enters the 5 loop, from below, but doesn’t return or extend. Flip 2f and 

3n over to far side of the figure and point fingers away while 1 raises the 

near string of the 5 loop (the 4f string).


Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:216-219) 

7. Lightning, Version B (3, 4) 

1. Steps 1 to 5 of Lightning, Version A. 

2. Release 1 loops but do not extend. 1, under the loose 2f and 3n strings, 

enters the 5 loop from above and rapidly pushes down on the near string 

(the 4f string). 

Notes: Versions A and B of ‘Lightning’ differ only in the way the design is 

extended. In version A the thumbs lift 4f, whereas in version B they press 

down on it. The method described by Jayne (1906:216-219) corresponds to 

version A. The method recorded by A.C. Haddon (1903:222-223) is version 

B. Kathleen Haddon describes version A in her book Artists in String 

(1930:54-55), but version B in String Games for Beginners (1942:28). In 

Pospisil’s paper, the informant is seen pressing down 4f (version B), but in 

Kluckhorn’s paper the informant is seen lifting 4f (version A). When done 

properly the extension is quite dramatic: a quick toss and the design suddenly 

appears out of nowhere. 

8. Lightning, Version C (4) 

1. Steps 1 to 5 of Lightning (Version A). 

2. Release 1 loops. 5 hooks down its near string (part of 4f) to the palm.

130 


1, under the loose 2f and 3n strings, passes under 4n. Flip 2f and 3n over 

to far side of the figure and point fingers away while 1 lifts the 4n string. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is $VUKPNV>bKUJ. The Navajo recognize 

many types of lightning, including sheet lightning, flash lightning, and zigzag 

lightning (Franciscan Fathers 1910:60). Symbols for each of these often appear 

in sandpaintings (see page 208). Male lightning has barbed ends, 

whereas female lightning is simply crossed at each end (Reichard 1977:40- 

41). Because it is so dangerous, only the symbol for lightning is depicted in 

string games (Mitchell 1999:17). 

9. Standing Measuring Worm (1, 2, 4) 

1. Navajo Opening. Note that 1n passes over 1f. 

2. Point thumb and fingers of both hands away from the body. Keeping the 

strings taut, the L hand immobilized, and the L palm facing right, swing 

the RH upward and then to the left of the LH, tracing out a 120° arc as 

it “orbits” the LH. At this point the LH strings touch the palmar surface 

of L1 and L2 rather than the dorsal surface; the R palm faces down. Now 

move the RH diagonally downward (i.e., toward the right foot), passing 

it close to the LH while drawing all the strings between L1 and L2 (the 

strings go slack as RH approaches L1 and L2, but recover their tension 

as the RH extends fully to the right). Repeat the same maneuver on the 

opposite side. Return both hands to the upright position. Now 1n passes 

under 1f. (Note: Among the Navajo, step 2 is a common method for 

rotating the 1 loop a full turn away). 

3. 345 enter the 2 loop from below. 45 hook down 2n and then 3 hooks 

down 1f. 

4. Bring the hands together, passing R2 behind the L2f string and R1 in 

front of the L1n string, then pinch their tips together so that R1 and R2 

encircle the L1n and L2f strings. Allow R1n and R2f to fall toward the 

center of the figure so that four strings pass over the pinched tips of R1 

and R2.


5. Withdraw L1 and L2 from their loops, pass L2 behind the hanging 

strings and L1 in front of them, then pinch their tips together so that they 

likewise encircle the four strings encircled by R1 and R2. Separate the 

hands to absorb the slack, but maintain the pinching position of 1 and 2 

on each hand. 

6. Slide the four strings onto 1, thus freeing 2. Pass 2 though the 1 loops 

from the far side, then pass 2 behind the string pinched between 3 and 4. 

Catch this string on the tip of 2 and draw it back though the 1 loops, 

rotating 2 toward the body and up. Release 1 and 3 loops, withdraw 4 

from 45 loop, and extend with 2 pointed upward. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘A Worm’ (Jayne 1906:222-228). 

The method she describes is much more difficult to follow. The Navajo name 

for this figure is :UK\P. Measuring worms cannot crawl backwards: when 

a measuring worm runs into an object it stands up in order to turn around 

(Mitchell 1999:23). Measuring Worm is also a Navajo constellation associated 

with the month of July (1942:59). 

10. Owl I (4) 

1. Steps 1 to 5 of Standing Measuring Worm. 

2. Slide the four strings onto 2, thus freeing 1. 1 passes through the 2 loops 

from the near side, picks up the string pinched between 3 and 4, and 

draws it through the 2 loops. Release 2 and 3 loops, withdraw 4 from 45 

loop, and extend with 1 pointed upward. 

Notes: Among the Wailaki Indians of Northern California, ‘Standing Measuring 

Worm’ (#9) and ‘Owl’ (#10) represent a boy and a girl, respectively, 

and are used to predict the sex of an unborn child (Foster 1941). The Navajo 

name for this figure is 1bGUJKCCb. Owl is a messenger and fortune teller 

(Newcomb et al. 1956:64). He is a great medicine man who can perform

132 


great magic, both good and evil. He carries a bundle of herbs, powders, and 

medicines which he brought from the lower world. Now they are used by 

medicine men in rites where peace is desired. Among his items are incense, 

tobacco, sedatives, and dream inducers (Newcomb 1967:97-99). 

11. Male Arrowhead (1, 4) 


2. 1, from above, removes 2 loop. 

3. 2, from above, passes through upper 1 loop, picks up lower 1f from the 

far side, and draws it through the upper loop. 


through the lower loop. 

5. Release 1 loop. Release the R5 loop, then pass R345, from below, into 

the R2 loop and close R2n to the palm. 

6. Extend. As the figure is extended, use L1 to temporarily lift the cluster 

of strings that are sliding along the lower TV string. This helps create a 

symmetrical arrowhead. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 

%UJbCUVbQIKK %KMbKK. A male arrowhead has a tail 

and looks like a spear point (Mitchell 1999:22). In 

sandpaintings male arrowheads often cap lightning 

bolts, sunbeams, and rainbows. These offer strong or 

aggressive protection (Reichard 1977: 64). 

12. Female Arrowhead (6) 

1. Form Male Arrowhead. 

2. Two loops pass over the upper TV string. Release RH loop, and with the 

RH grasp the upper TV string between the two loops. Extend.


Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is %UJbCUVbQIKK %KbCFKK (Mitchell 

1999:22). Female arrowheads lack tails. In sandpaintings female arrowheads 

also cap lightning bolts, sunbeams, and rainbows (a simple bar appears near 

the end). However, unlike male arrowheads, these 

only offer weak or “submissive” protection (Reichard 

1977: 64). Nearly all entities in the Navajo universe 

have male and female counterparts. Their union creates 

wholeness (see page 191). 

13. Butterfly 1 (2) 


2. Rotate 2, first toward the body and down, then away from the body and 

up. Repeat four more times. 

3. 1 picks up 2n. Navajo 1 loops. 

4. Touch the tips of R1 to L1 and of R2 to L2. Slide R1 loop onto L1 and 

R2 loop onto L2 and point L1 and L2 upward. 

5. R2 removes upper L1 loop from below. R1 removes remaining L1 loop 

from above.

134 


6. R1 and R2 grasp L2 loops close to L2. Remove L2 from its loops. L2 

enters the original upper L2 loop from below. L1 enters the original 

lower L2 loop from above. Separate R1 and R2 and extend slowly. 

7. From below, 345 hook down 2f and 1n. Point 1 and 2 upward. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Butterfly’ (Jayne 1906:219- 

221). The Navajo name for this figure is .bCCNIKK. A Navajo myth states that 

Butterfly was the first character to use body paint as a form of attraction. His 

brilliant colors are viewed as paint because they rub off easily. The resulting 

powder, called “butterfly pollen,” is very powerful and somewhat evil. It is 

never used by medicine men in healing ceremonies, only sorcerers 

(Newcomb et al. 1956:44). Butterfly is also a Navajo constellation (see page 

207). 

Figures Beginning with a Modification of the Navajo Opening 

14. Replica of a Cloud (1) 



sections of the loop. 



up. 

3. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2, but 

maintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into the L2 loop from the far side. 

4. Rotate 2 toward the body and up, and extend, releasing 345. There are 

upper and lower 2n TV strings and an upper L2f to lower R2f string 

passing behind a lower L2f to upper R2f string. 

5. L1, over the lower L2 loop and under upper L2n, picks up upper L2f and 

returns. 

6. R1, under the upper R2 loop and over lower R2n, picks up lower R2f 

and returns.


7. L345, up through the lower L2 loop, hook down just the upper L2n 

string while R345, behind lower R2n, enter the upper R2 loop from below 

and hook down just the upper R2n string. 

8. 3, from the far side, under a 2f string, passes over lower 2n and presses 

it against 4. 345, carrying the lower 2n string with them, withdraw from 

the loop surrounding them, thus drawing this string through the released 

loop. Press 3 against the palm behind and under all the other strings. 

9. 45 enter the 3 loop from the far side and press against the palm. Release 

the 1 loop and extend. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘One Storm Cloud’ (Jayne 

1906:236-243), and is part of a longer series (see #16). The opening for this 

figure begins like the Navajo Opening but 2 is rotated toward instead of away 

from the body. The Navajo name for this figure is .bQU

136 


Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two Storm Clouds’ (Jayne 

1906:236-243), and is part of a longer series (see #16). The informant who 

showed us this figure called it 'KN[J (The Pleiades). However, this name 

is most often applied to #32, otherwise known as ‘Seven Stars.’ 'KN[J is an 

important constellation among the Navajo (see pages 201-202). 

16. Storm Clouds 

1. Form Pleiades. 

2. Repeat steps 2 to 4 of Pleiades. 

3. 2 picks up the upper TV string from the far side (it is the lower L2f to 

middle R2f string). Extend with 2 pointing upward. 

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:236-243). If a 

long loop is used, a new cloud will be added each time steps 2 and 3 are 

repeated. If the string tension becomes unmanageable, release the upper 2 

loop just prior to step 3. See #14 for a discussion of cloud symbols in sandpaintings. 

17. Chest (1) 






up. 

3. Make a second wrap around R2 by passing the RH again over L2 and 

away from the body and then down and toward the body and finally 

upward. 

4. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2 but 

maintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into the L2 loops from the far side.


Rotate 2 toward the body and up. Release 345 loop and extend forming 

three loops around 2. Keep the loops separate so that none of the 2n TV 

strings overlap and the upper L2f string passes diagonally down to lowest 

R2f position. 

5. R345 hook down the right side of the L2f-R2f diagonal string while 

L345 pass under the lowest L2f string, reach upward between lowest L2f 

and the string above it (middle L2f), and hook down the left side of the 

L2f-R2f diagonal string. 

6. 3 hooks down the lowest 2n string through the 345 loop. This movement 

is easier if 1 temporarily enlarges the 45 loop. 45 withdraw from their 

loop and enter the 3 loop, from the far side, along side 3. 

7. Repeat step 6 with the middle 2n string, then with the upper 2n string and 

finally with the upper 2f string. 

8. 2 picks up one of the two upper 2f strings from the far side (these strings 

cross near the center of the design). Extend with 2 pointed upward. 

Notes: This figure is a simplified version of ‘Breastbone and Ribs’ (K. Haddon 

1942:35-36). The Navajo name for this figure is $[KF, meaning 

‘Sternum with Ribs’ (Franciscan Fathers 1910:84). Chest represents 

“protection of that which is vital to the body, something that all things have” 

(Mitchell 1999:19). These comments probably refer to P>EJb, the Holy 

Wind, the breath of life within all living things. The Navajo believe that 

breathing is a sacred act (see pages 190-191). 

18. Breastbone and Ribs 




2. Wrap the section lying between the two hands around L2 by passing RH

138 



up. 

3. Make two additional wraps around R2 by repeating step 2 two more 

times. 

4. Point L2 toward the body. Release the string held by R1 and R2 but 

maintain the grip of R345. Pass R2 into all the L2 loops from the far 

side. Rotate 2 toward the body and up. Release 345 loop and extend to 

create four loops on 2. Keep the loops separate so that none of the 2n TV 

strings overlap and the upper L2f string passes diagonally down to lowest 

R2f position. 

5. R34 hook down the right side of the diagonal string. L34 pass under the 

lowest L2f string, reach upward between the lowest L2f string and the 

string above it, and hook down the left side of the diagonal string. 

6. 34 pinch the lowest 2n string between them and draw it to the far side of 

the figure, through the 34 loop, which slips off. Press 3 against the palm 

to trap the retrieved string. 

7. Raise 4 and pass it forward along side 3. 3 and 4 pinch the next lowest 

2n TV string between them and draw it to the far side of the figure, 

through the 34 loop, which slips off. Press 3 against the palm to trap the 

retrieved string. 

8. Repeat step 7 two more times working up the remaining 2n strings then 

repeat it again with the next to uppermost 2f string and repeat it a final 

time with the upper 2f string. 

9. Transfer the 3 loop to 5, inserting 5 from the same direction as 3. 

10. 2 wraps one of the upper 2f TV strings an extra turn around 2 and extends 

the figure, 2 pointing upward, 5 pressed to the palm. 

Notes: This figure is simply a more elaborate version of ‘Chest’ (#17). The 

method described here is from Kathleen Haddon’s String Games for Beginners 

(K. Haddon 1942:35-36), which differs somewhat from the method 

given in her previous book (K. Haddon 1930:63-64). It was collected by Mrs. 

Jayne but was only mentioned in her book (Jayne 1906:387).


19. Pinching Stars (3) 

1. Do steps 1-4 of the Navajo Opening. 

2. Remove the loop from 2 and rotate it 180 degrees, the right side of the 

loop passing away from the body and to the left while the left side passes 

toward the body and to the right. Replace it on 2 so that 2n is a TV 

string. The 2f strings now interlock rather than cross. 

3. Position the twist so it is in the exact center of the figure, then finish the 

Navajo Opening (steps 5-6). 







Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 6bCJVUbKb, literally “stars, the 

ones that pinch together” (i.e., they are barely joined together, as by a slender 

thread, Young & Morgan 1980:69). The figure represents two stars of the 

Hyades cluster in the constellation Taurus. It is among the most symbolic of 

all Navajo string games. According to Mike Mitchell, the Pinching Stars represent 

the relationship between heaven and earth (Mitchell 1999:27). For a 

full discussion see pages 205-206. 

20. Horned Toad (Lizard, Big Snake) (1) 

1. Steps 1 and 2 of Pinching Stars. 

2. Position the twist so it is close to the RH, then finish the Navajo Opening 

(steps 5-6). 

3. Steps 4 to 7 of Pinching Stars.

140 


Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Lizard’ (Jayne 1906:230-233). 

The Navajo name for this figure is 1CbCUJbKK FKEJbK\JKK (Horned Toad) or 

7>bKKUJ VUQJ (Big Snake) (Mitchell 1999:8). A horned toad is a desertdwelling 

reptile covered with horny plates. His body and small head are flat 

and diamond-shaped. He symbolizes the dark, underneath world and is associated 

with divination. In sandpaintings he wears armor of arrow points and 

carries arrow-capped lightning bolts in his hands and feet (Newcomb et al., 

1956:22). In sandpaintings and pictographs Big Snake likewise appears as 

two linked diamonds, the head being smaller and more square than the body 

(see page 208). According to legend, Big Snake stays inside his hole and 

sucks people to him. Animals may be a long way off, but Big Snake will draw 

them closer and closer until they go faster and finally run to the Big Snake 

(Newcomb et al. 1956:62). There is also a Navajo constellation called Big 

Snake of the North, associated with the month of June (Klah 1942:59). 

21. Arrow I 

1. Navajo Opening but do not extend completely. 

2. L2 rotates away from the body, downward, and then toward the body 

without catching any strings. L3 enters the L2 loop from the far side. 

Pinch the L1n string between L2 and L3 and draw it away from the body 

through the L23 loop, which slips off as L2 returns to an upright position


(the captured string becomes a new L2 loop). 

3. Release R2 loop. R2 enters L2 loop from below and from the near side 

of the figure. Extend fully on 1 and 2 and adjust the figure so that it 

forms a fat hourglass shape. 







Notes: The figure appears in Mike Mitchell’s booklet. The method described 

here is a reconstruction based on Two Stars I (#1). The Navajo name for this 

figure is .CbCb. Arrows are used for hunting and protection. Arrow acquires 

power when paired with Bow (Mitchell 1999:26). Completeness through 

pairing is an important concept in Navajo philosophy (see page 191). 

Figures Beginning with Opening A 

22. Batten (4) 

1. Opening A. 


3. Navajo 1 loops. Release 5 loop. 

4. Extend with 1 pointed away from the body and 2 pointed downward. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is %GGbCbMbKPNV>KUJ A batten, used in 

weaving, is a flat wooden stick that resembles a boomerang with no bend. 

With a batten stick the weaver separates the warp strands by inserting it alternately 

between them. The stick is then twisted to turn it flat-wise. This creates 

a space large enough to pass a ball of yarn through. Once the yarn is in 

place, the stick is turned edge-wise and rammed down vigorously to force the 

new weft strand into place. The amount of force used to batten the weft 

strands determines the firmness and durability of the blanket (Franciscan Fa-

142 


thers 1910:241). The resemblance between this string figure and the object it 

represents is greatest when a long loop is used. Battens have other uses as 

well: mistakes in sandpaintings are rubbed out with a weaving batten 

(Griffin-Pierce 1992a:193). The Navajos of Black Mesa call this figure 

‘Bird’s Nest’ (Page and Page 1995:111). Presumably they use a short loop. 

23. Many Stars (1, 3, 4) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks up 

lower 1f. Release 1 loops. 

3. 1, over 2n, and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop. 

4. Using the tips of the fingers, 1 enters 3 loop from below and pinches 3n 

between 1 and 2. 3 withdraws from the loop. 2 removes the upper 1 loop 

from above by rotating toward the body and up. 

5. 1 enters upper 2 loop from below. 

6. Navajo the 1 and 2 loops. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f near 

the palmar surface of 1. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through the 

1 loop, which slips off. Extend with palms facing away. 

Notes: There are a number of ways of carrying out steps 4 and 5. One alternative 

is: 

4. 1, over 2 loop and under 3n picks up 3f, keeping it near the finger tip. 

Release 3 loop. 

5. 2 picks up upper 1f. 

The method of extension (step 6) also varies. A common alternative is: 


the palmar surface of 1. 3, from below, enters the design and hooks 

down this string, drawing it through the 1 loop. Release 1 loop and ex-


tend, palms facing each other, 2 pointing upward, 3 pressed against the 

palm. 

This alternative extension can be applied to any figure in the ‘Many Stars’ 

family (#25, #27, #30, #31, #32, #33, #45, #55, #56, #57). In Jayne’s book 

this figure is also called ‘Many Stars’ (Jayne 1906:48-53). Jayne describes 

both endings, but applies the alternative ending to most of the figures in her 

collection. The Navajo name for this figure is 6b>P. It represents the universe. 

This figure is used to teach children about constellations: “There are 

many stars in the heavens, and some are in groups” (Mitchell 1999:29). See 

pages 197-207 for a discussion of string games and starlore among the 

Navajo. 

24. Mexican Hat (1) 

1. Form Many Stars. 

2. 5 removes 1 loop from the far side. Press 5 against the palm. 

3. The 2n string passes through a loop in the upper part of the figure close 

to 2. 1, from the near side, enters the design and catches 2n just below 

that loop. 

4. Release 2 loop and extend with 1 pointed upward, 5 pressed to the palm.

144 


25. Milky Way (Owl) (1) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop picks up 


3. 1, under 2n, over 2f, and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 

5 loop. 








Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Third Owl’ (1906:55-56). Except 

for step 3, the steps in this figure are identical to those for ‘Many Stars’ 

(#23). At Monument Valley it was called ‘Milky Way’, probably because it 

has four diamonds like design #4. 

26. Ending to Milky Way (1) 

1. Form Milky Way. 

2. 5 removes 1 loop from the far side. Press 5 against the palm. 

3. The 2n string passes through a loop in the upper part of the figure close 

to 2. 1, from the near side, enters the design and catches 2n just below 

that loop. 

4. Release 2 loops and extend with 1 pointed upward, 5 pressed against the 

palm.


Notes: This is the same ending used for making ‘Mexican Hat’ (#24) from 

‘Many Stars’ (#23). 

27. Star with Horns (1, 3) 

1. Opening A. 



3. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop. 




5. Navajo 2 loops. 


7. On each hand a string runs from 1n to 1f near the palmar surface of 1. 1 

hooks down this string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which slips off. 

Extend with palms facing away. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two-Horned Star’ (1906:58-60). 

The first four steps in this figure are identical to those of ‘Many Stars’ (#23).

146 


It was placed in the sky by First Man (Klah 1942:66). The Navajo name for 

this figure is 6b%KFGGb. According to Mike Mitchell, the Star with Horns 

was made at the beginning of time. The constellation is a protector of the 

Navajo and is used in a ceremony (Mitchell 1999:4). Others claim it represents 

a comet (see page 207). In sandpaintings, horns are a symbol of power 

(Newcomb et al. 1956:25). 

28. Coyotes Running Opposite Ways (1, 3) 

1. Opening A. 



3. 1, under 2n, over 2f, and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 

5 loop. 


between 1 and 2. 3 withdraws from the loop. 2 removes upper 1 loop 







Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two Coyotes’ (1906:60-63). 

Steps 1 to 4 are identical to those for ‘Milky Way’ (#25). Steps 5 to 7 are 

identical to those for ‘Star with Horns’ (#27). The Navajo name for this figure 

is 0bKKbC>VUbb [KNYQ> (Coyotes Running Opposite Ways). The string 

figure represents what happens when you suddenly come upon two coyotes. 

(Mitchell 1999:10).


29. Big Star II (4) 

1. Opening A. 




4. 5 removes 3 loop from above. Release 2 loop and extend with fingers 

pointing away from the body. 

Notes: See #2 for the Navajo name and a description of what Big Star represents. 

30. Big Star III 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1, over 2n and under all intervening strings, picks up 5f. 

3. 3, over palmar string and 2 loop, picks up lower 1f. Release 1 loops. 





6. 1 enters upper 2 loop from below.

148 


7. Navajo the 1 and 2 loops. A single TV string passes across the upper 

surface of the design. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through the 1 

loop, which slips off. Extend with palms facing away. 

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:64). Except 

for step 2, the steps in this figure are identical to those for ‘Many Stars’ 

(#23). See #2 for the Navajo name and a description of what Big Star represents. 

31. North Star 

1. Opening A. 

2. 3, over 2 loop, removes 1 loop from below. 









Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:65). North 

Star is an important symbol in Navajo starlore. It represents a campfire. According 

to legend it also serves as a light source for stars in the Big Dipper 

and Cassiopeia. The Navajo have several names for North Star. See page 204 

for a full discussion.


32. Seven Stars (2) 

1. Opening A. 







5. 1 enters both 2 loops from below. 

6. Navajo the lowest 1 loop over the two upper 1 loops. 

7. On each hand a string runs from upper 1n to upper 1f near the palmar 

surface of 1. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through both 1 loops, 

which slip off. Extend with palms facing away. Wrap the upper TV 

string (a 2f string) once around the tip of 2 to open up the design. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Seven Stars’ (Jayne 

1906:56-58). Except for steps 5 and 6, the steps in this figure are identical to 

those for ‘Many Stars’ (#23). According to Jayne the Navajo name for this 

figure is 'KN[J, the Pleiades or ‘Seven Sisters’. 'KN[J is the most sacred 

of all the Navajo constellations, appearing on the mask of Black God, the 

creator of all constellations (Haile 1947:1-3). It is also used as a seasonal 

indicator and a time keeper. For a full discussion, see pages 201-202. 

33. Owl II 

1. Opening A. 

2. Rotate the 2 loop one complete turn by pointing 2 away from body, then 

down, then toward the body, then up. 


lower 1f. Release 1 loops.

150 










Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book, where the figure is 

called ‘A Second Owl’ (Jayne 1906:54-55). Except for step 2, the movements 

in this figure are identical to those for ‘Many Stars’ (#23). See #10 for 

the Navajo name and a description of owls in Navajo folk lore. This figure 

was not observed during our visits. However, a closely related figure called 

‘Bat’ (#55) was shown to us at Many Farms. 

34. Open the Gate (Two Coyotes Running Away) (1, 3)


1. Opening A. 

2. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5n. 5, over intervening strings picks 

up lower 1f. 

3. 2 hooks down palmar strings through 2 loop. Release 1 and 5 loops but 

do not extend. 

4. 345 enter the 2 loop from the same direction as 2. Extend with palms 

facing the body, 2 pointed upward, 345 pressed against the palm. Two 

triangles will move in opposite directions. 

Notes: An alternative method of extension in step 4 is to pass 1 and 5 into the 

2 loops from below, release the 2 loops, and extend with the fingers pointing 

away from the body. 

The Navajo name for this figure is 0bKKbC>VUbb [KNYQ> (Two Coyotes Running 

in Opposite Directions). At Many Farms, where it was known to nearly 

every child, it was most often called ‘Open the Gate.’ 

35. Rug (Blanket, Apache Door) (1, 3, 4, 7) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1 and 345 pass though the 2 loop from below. Allow the former 2 loop 

to fall onto the back of the wrist. 

3. 1 picks up 5n. 5 picks up lower 1f. 

4. Pass L1, from above, to the near side of the near wrist string, then under 

all the strings and raise it on the far side of the figure.

152 


5. Grasp the two original L1 loops on the far side of L1 with R1 and R2 and 

remove them from L1 but continue to hold them in the same position. L1 

passes under the figure and to the near side, then over the figure and 

reenters the former 1 loops from above. 

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 on the opposite side of the figure. 

7. Release the wrist loop and extend while moving the hands alternately up 

and down, allowing the loops on the TV strings to even themselves. Display 

with fingers pointing away. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Apache Door’ (Jayne 1906:12- 

16), a reference to the blanket that many Apaches hang over the front entrance 

to their homes as a privacy screen, especially in summer. In step 5, the 

method of resetting the double thumb loops differs from that described by 

Jayne (1906:15). Our informants reinserted their thumbs from above rather 

than below. This method was observed numerous times, especially at Many 

Farms. As a result the thumb loops lack a full twist in the final design and no 

longer match the little finger loops (i.e., the pattern becomes asymmetric). 

Inadequate loop length may be the cause of this alteration. This figure is 

difficult to weave with a loop that is appropriate for most other Navajo figures. 

If the loop is too short, the maker is forced to remove the double thumb 

loop with the index tip below it and thumb tip above it (i.e., palm facing up). 

The only way to reset a loop removed in this manner is to insert the thumb 

from above. Some informants actually untwisted the thumb and little finger 

loops after the pattern was formed to given a cleaner looking design. Examples 

of these can be found in the literature (Pospisil 1932, plates 349,350; 

and Culin 1907:765, fig. 1045). 

Nearly all of our informants called this figure ‘Navajo Rug’ (FK[QI) or 

‘Navajo Blanket’ (DGGNFN), even though the traditional Navajo name for this 

figure is ]GbGUKU, UKU meaning ‘sash’ or ‘woven belt’ (Wall & Morgan 1997). 

Traditional women’s belts measured four inches wide and were woven on a 

loom just like blankets (Franciscan Fathers 1910:248-249). At Many Farms 

we were told that this string figure represents the Milky Way (]GGb = ‘dirt, 

ashes’; UKU = ‘belt’ (Young & Morgan 1980); ]GbGUKU = ‘belt of ashes’, a 

reference to a legend in which Coyote steals ash bread and leaves a trail in 

the sky, see page 203). Other translations recorded in the literature include 

‘Small Stomach of a Sheep’ (Franciscan Fathers 1910:489) and ‘Poncho’ 

(Culin 1907:765). Since a poncho (sarape) is nothing more than an ornamental 

blanket with a slit in it, this translation is consistent with the current interpretation 

of this string figure. The quality and beauty of Navajo blankets is 

acknowledged worldwide. Today they are equally well known for their fine 

rugs, which they started weaving in the 1890s.


36. Open the Gate Ending to Rug (1, 4) 

1. On each side of the figure there are double palmar strings. 2, from the far 

side, hooks down only the palmar strings at their center. Release the 1 

loops and the 5 loops but do not extend. 


facing the body, 2 pointed upward and 345 pressed against the palm. 

Two triangles will move in opposite directions. 

Notes: A number of other extensions are possible in step 2 (see #34). 

37. Flip (Jump Over the Fence, Frog) (1, 3, 4) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 2 removes 1 loop from below. 

3. 1 enters lower 2 loop from below, passes to the near side of upper 2n, 

and hooks it down through lower 2 loop. 

4. 1, under intervening strings, picks up 5n. Release 5 loop. 

5. Release 1 loop but do not extend. Allow the ends of the former 1 loop to 

hang down. Be careful not to disturb them in step 6.

154 


6. 1 removes upper 2 loop from below. 2345, over 2 loop, enter 1 loop 

from above, hooking down 2f, 2n, and 1f. 

7. Apply gentle sideways tension to the strings. Gradually lift TV 1n with 

2 until the central hanging loops come free and spring back and forth. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is b$VUbPKKV>QJ (belly-turn-over). At 

Many Farms it was also called ‘Frog.’ When two Navajo men showed this 

figure to Greg Keith they called it ‘Somersault’ (Keith 1994:4-5,9-10). 

Among the Klamath Indians it represents the setting sun (Jayne 1906:82-84). 

38. Hair Tie (1, 3, 4) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5f. 

3. R1 and R2 remove the L5 loop and place it without twisting over L1 and 

L2. Repeat on the opposite side. 

4. Pass 1 and 2 down over their palmar strings and into their respective 

loops. Extend with palms facing away. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is 7UKKV>b>. 

It represents the strings used to hold together a 

man’s or woman’s hair bun (Mitchell 1999:11). 

Long ago, hair ties were woven on a small loom. 

They measured roughly two inches wide and resembled 

the garter strings used for fastening leggings 

(Franciscan Fathers 1910:249). Later, cords obtained 

from traders were also used. The modern hair 

tie consists of several cords knotted together at each 

end. Traditionally, women dressed the hair of both 

sexes. If a man was married his wife would form the 

bun and tie it; if not, his mother or sister performed 

the duty (Kluckhohn, Hill, and Kluckhohn 

1971:267-270). 

Hair Tie: Illustration 

from Newcomb (1967)


39. Golden Eagle (Airplane) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 2 passes away from the body, over 2f and 5 loop, then down behind the 

5 loop, then toward the body under all intervening strings and enters the 

1 loop from below. 2 catches up 1n and returns to position. 

3. Release 1 loop. 

4. 1 hooks down the lower 2n string, passes under the intervening strings, 

picks up 5f, and returns. 

5. 1 hooks down the upper 2n string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which 

slips off. Then 1 moves under the intervening strings and passes upward 

on the near side of 5n. Moving toward the center of the figure, 1 catches 

5n on its back then points downward on the near side of upper 2n 

(central segment). 

6. 1 moves upward and catches on its back the center section of upper 2n 

and draws it through the 1 loop, which slips off. Release the 2 loops and 

extend with the fingers pointed away from the body. 

Notes: This figure is also known to the Inuit of Alaska (Jayne 1906:362). 

The Navajo name for this figure is $VU 1KVUCC (Golden Eagle). Eagle feathers 

and bones are used in ceremonies. Today this figure has a different name 

&JKF 1CCVbCb (Airplane) (Mitchell 1999:20). In the early 1970s two Navajo 

men taught it to Greg Keith (1994:4,8-9). They called it ‘Eagle Diving upon 

its Prey’ or ‘Road Going into the Distance Between Two Mountains.’ 

40. Upside-Down Golden Eagle (2, 3) 

1. Opening A. 

2. Turn the palms toward the body. 345 hook down the 2 and 1 loops. 5f 

becomes a loose string emerging from between 4 and 5. 

3. 2 passes toward the body in front of all the strings, then away from the 

body under the held strings, catches the loose string (5f) on its tip and 

draws it to the front of the figure. Release the grip of 345, then release 

the 5 loop. Extend, rotating 2 toward the body and up.

156 


4. 5 hooks down lower 2f, passes under the intervening strings, picks up 1n 

and returns to the back of the figure. 

5. 5 hooks down upper 2f string, passes under the intervening strings and 

over 1f. 5 pulls 1f back over upper 2f string (central segment) and hooks 

it down. 

6. 5 picks up the upper 2f string where it crosses the 5 loop and draws it 

through the 5 loop, which slips off. Release the 2 loops and extend with 

the fingers pointed away from the body. 

Notes: The method described here is a reconstruction. 

41. Two Diamonds (1, 4) 

1. Opening A. 

2. Release 1 loop. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5f. 

3. Osage Ending. (1, from below, enters 2 loop near the base of 2. Navajo 

1 loops. 2, from above, enters triangle near base of 1. Release 5 loop. 

Rotate 2 a half turn away from you and extend, palms facing away.) 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Osage Two Diamonds’ (Jayne 

1906:28-30).


42. Four Diamonds (1) 

1. Opening A. 

2. Release 1 loop. 1, under intervening strings, picks up 5f. 

3. 1, over 2n, picks up 2f. Release 5 loop. 

4. 5, over 2n, picks up lower 1f. Release 1 loop. 

5. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 



Rotate 2 a half turn away from you and extend, palms facing away.) 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Osage Diamonds’ (Jayne 

1906:24-27). ‘Two Diamonds’ (#41) and ‘Four Diamonds’ (#42), although 

known worldwide, were not commonly encountered during our visits to the 

reservation. This made us question whether they are traditional Navajo figures. 

However, one informant insisted that she learned them from her mother, 

and both were photographed by ethnographer Pospisil sometime prior to 

1932 while working in the American Southwest (Pospisil 1932, plates 351 

and 352). 

43. Six Stars (1, 3)

158 


1. Opening A. 

2. Release 1 loop. 

3. 1, under 2 loop, picks up 2f, returns, and hooks down 2n. 

4. 1, under intervening strings, picks up 5f and pulls it through the loop 

originally held by hooked 1. Release 5 loop. 

5. 5, over 2 loop, picks up 1f. 



Rotate 2 a half turn away from you and extend, palms facing outward.) 

44. Opposite Hogans (3) 

1. Opening A. 

2. The teeth, from above, pick up the four strings that cross in the center of 

the figure and draw them toward the body. 

3. Release loops from 1 and 2 but do not extend. Pass both hands upward 

through the 5 loop while releasing it from 5, thus forming a wrist loop. 

4. Below the wrist loop three hanging loops are held in the teeth: two 

shorter loops and a longer loop. 5 passes over the far wrist string, down, 

toward the body, and under the long loop. 5 hooks up the free end of the 

long loop and returns over the far wrist string, pressing its tip against the 

palm to secure the retrieved string. 

5. On each hand a string runs from the mouth to the far wrist string. 5 picks 

up this string, drawing it through the loop hooked down by 5, which slips 

off as 5 is straightened. 

6. Release the mouth strings and extend. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘Two Hogans’ (Jayne 1906:121- 

123). Our informants at Many Farms did not extend the design by biting the 

center strings and displaying the hogans side-by-side, as described by Jayne. 

This may have something to do with the mother-in-law avoidance taboo illustrated 

by this figure. Mike Mitchell writes: “During early times Navajos were 

not allowed to look upon their in-laws. So an in-law would make his or her 

house (hogan) facing the opposite way to prevent any eye contact.” (Mitchell


1999:16). Even today a taboo prohibits two couples from sharing the same 

hogan (Newcomb 1966:156). The Navajo name for this figure is $>VUbb 

+QQIJCP. 

45. Carrying Wood (4) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1 and 2, pinched together, remove 5 loop from below. Separate 1 and 2. 

3. Navajo 1 loops and 2 loops. 

4. A single TV string passes across the upper surface of the design. 1 hooks 

down this string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which slips off. Extend 

with palms facing away. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Carrying Wood’ (Jayne 

1906:66-69). The Navajo name for this figure is &JK\J LQQ[>. It shows how 

firewood was bundled together with ropes in the early days (Mitchell 

1999:7). In her book Artists in String, K. Haddon explains that the fuel most 

commonly available in the desert is brushwood and small branches, items 

which are light enough for a human to carry. Navajo women would carry a 

large bundle of these on her back, supporting the load with a strap passing 

over the forehead. The straight strings in the center of this string figure represent 

the strap. (K. Haddon 1930:48-49). 

46. Grinding (2, 3, 4) 

1. Opening A. 

2. Point the fingers away from the body. Grasp 5f with the teeth and draw 

it toward the body. 

3. A second person reaches under the figure from the far side, grasps the 

center of 1n and draws it under the figure, away from the body of the 

first person.

160 


4. The first person 

releases 1 and 5 

loops and moves 

2 alternately to 

the side and the 

center, while the 

second person 

moves their 

hand toward and 

away from the 

figure producing 

a sawing action. 

Notes: The Navajo 

name for this twoplayer 

game is 

$LKMb. It illustrates 

the motion involved 

in grinding corn. 

47. Basket, Version A (7) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 2345 remove 1 loop from above. Allow the 2345f to fall down to a far 

wrist position. 

3. 1 picks up 2345n, thus forming a near wrist string. 

4. R1, under the near and far wrist strings, enters the 5 loop from below, 

catches 5f on its back, and returns by rotating down, toward the body, 

and up.


5. L1 enters the R1 loop from below and returns to position. 

6. 1, over intervening strings, picks up 5n. 3, over intervening strings, picks 

up lower 1f (not the palmar string). 

7. Release 1 and 5 loops and extend in three dimensions, fingers pointing 

upward. 

Notes: The native name for this figure is 7UbCCb meaning ‘wicker basket’. 

48. Basket, Version B (7) 

1. Opening A. 




4. 1 passes under the near and far wrist strings and enters the 5 loop from 

below. 1 rotates down, toward the body, and up, bringing the former 5f 

to a 1f position. 


up lower 1f (not the palmar string). 

6. Release 1 and 5 loops and extend in three dimensions, 1 pointing up, 

fingers pointing away. 

Notes: This figure is also an intermediate stage in the manufacture of #49. 

49. Man Standing with Legs Apart (3) 

1. Make Basket, Version B. 

2. 2, from below, removes 3 loop. 

3. Navajo 2 loops and extend, fingers pointing upward.

162 


A more direct method was occasionally seen: 

1. Steps 1 to 4 of Basket, Version B. 


up lower 1f. Release 1 and 5 loops. 

3. Navajo 2 loops and extend, fingers pointing upward. 

Notes: The Navajo name for this figure is +CUVKKP 6KMbCKb. It represents a 

constellation of great significance to the Navajo (Mitchell 1999:25). +CUVKKP 

6KMbCKb stands in the heavens, legs firmly planted, knees slightly bent, right 

hand raised to his brow, watching over us. When +CUVKKP 6KMbCKb appears in 

the early morning sky it is time to prepare for winter. For a full discussion see 

page 204. 

50. A Man


1. Opening A. 

2. R1 and R2 wrap L2n once around L2. L1 and L2 wrap R2n once around 

R2. 

3. R2 picks up the L2 palmar string. L2, through the upper R2 loop, picks 

up R2 palmar string. Keep the new loops on the tip of L2 and R2. There 

are now three loops on 2. The 1f string should lead to the middle loop on 

the opposite 2 and the highest 2n strings should lead the lowest opposite 

2n strings. Press 2 and 3 together to keep the 2 loops in their proper 

order during steps 4, 5, and 6. 




6. 1 passes under both wrist strings, picks up 5f from the far side, and returns 

to position so that 5f becomes a 1n string. 1 picks up the middle 

and upper 2n strings close to 2. 

7. 3, over the intervening strings, picks up the lowest 1f string close to 1. 

Release 1, 2, and 5 loops and extend with palms facing each other. 

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:184-188). A 

long loop is required. +CUVKKP 6KMbCKb ‘Man Standing with Legs Apart’ (#49) 

appears to be a simplified version of this difficult figure. The name recorded 

by Jayne is remarkably similar (+CUVKP FPP, meaning ‘Elderly Man’). 

During our visits we never encountered anyone who could still make Jayne’s 

version. 

51. Bird (3) 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1, under 2 loop, picks up 5n. 

3. 2 picks up upper 1f (a palmar string) 

4. Release 5 loop. Extend. 

5. Navajo 1 loops and 2 loops.

164 


6. A single TV string passes across the upper surface of the design. 1 hooks 

down this string, drawing it through the 1 loop, which slips off. Extend 

with palms facing away. 

Notes: Bird is a variation of ‘Carrying Wood’ (#45). The Navajo name for 

this figure is 7UFKK. Only one informant knew this figure. 

52. Arrow II (2) 

1. Opening A. 

2. Exchange the 2 loops by passing the R2 loop, from above, through the 

L2 loop. 

3. R1, under R2 loop and R5n, picks up R5f and returns. 

4. Grasp the upper R1 loop with the teeth, remove it, and draw it toward the 

body. Release the 5 loop and move the hands away from the body to 

absorb the slack. 

5. Locate the triangle formed by 1n and the two mouth-2f strings. 1 and 2 

enter the triangle from above and catch up the mouth- 2f strings as 1 and 

2 pass toward the body and up on either side of the triangle. Release the 

strings from the teeth and extend. 

6. Navajo 1 loops and 2 loops. A single TV string passes across the upper 

surface of the design. 1 hooks down this string, drawing it through the 1 

loop, which slips off. Extend with palms facing away. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Arrow’ (Jayne 1906:133- 

137). The Navajo name for this figure is .bCCb. For a description of its cultural 

significance refer to ‘Arrow I’ (#21).


53. Two Stars II 

1. Opening A. 

2. 1 removes 2 loop from below. 

3. 1 removes 5 loop from below. Keep the loops well separated on 1. 

4. 4 picks up lower and middle 1f strings. 

5. 4 hooks down remaining 1f string, drawing it down through the double 

4 loop, which slips off. Press 4 against the palm. 5 enters the 4 loop from 

the same direction as 4 and presses against the palm. 

6. 1 and 2 pass down through the two upper 1 loops. 1 and 2 then pinch the 

lower 1n string between them and, rotating away from the body and up, 

catch that string on the back of 2. Release 1 loops and extend. 

Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:129-131). 

This figure was not encountered during our visits. It is widely known among 

the Inuit of Alaska (Jenness 1924:49B-50B) and Indians of the Pacific Northwest 

Coast (Averkieva and Sherman 1992:64-65). The movements required 

in steps 4 and 5 are similar to those found in figures #1, #2, #3, #4, #11, #12, 

#19, #20, and #65, but opposite in direction (in #53, 1f is hooked down and 

1n is picked up). The Navajo name for this figure does not appear in Jayne’s 

book. 

Figures Beginning with a Modification of Opening A 

54. Butterfly II (1, 3) 

1. Position 1. 

2. R2, from above, hooks up the L palmar string and draws it to the right 

while rotating toward the body and up. 

3. L2, from above through the R2 loop, hooks up the R palmar string and 

draws it to the left while rotating toward the body and up. 

4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 5, over 2 loop, picks up lower 1f. 2 hooks 

down the double palmar sting through the 2 loop close to the palm.

166 


5. Release 1 loops and 5 loops but do not extend. 


facing the body, 2 pointed upward, 345 pressed against the palm. 

Notes: An alternative method of extension in step 6 is to pass 1 and 5 into the 

2 loops from below, release the 2 loops, and extend with the fingers pointing 

away from the body. In a third method, 2 rotates away and up, then 1 hooks 

down double 2f to widen the loops on 2 (Page and Page 1995:112). This 

inverts the design. The Navajo name for this figure is .bCCNIKK It represents 

an insect “that is only here for the summer” (Mitchell 1999:15). It may represent 

a constellation as well (see page 207). 

55 . Bat (3) 


2. R2, from above, hooks up L palmar string and draws it to the right while 

rotating toward the body and up.














Notes: Both the steps and the appearance of this figure are very similar to 

those of ‘Owl II’ (#33). The differences occur in the method and degree of 

rotation of the 2 loop during the early steps. The Navajo name for this figure 

is -CCbCDCP. Bat is a creature of darkness (Mitchell 1999:31). In sandpaintings 

he guards the eastern opening of the design and is added last (Griffin- 

Pierce 1992a:182). Bat’s power, though moderately disguised, is incalculable. 

He has the ability to be everywhere all the time: there is no place he 

cannot go. For this reason he is a good monitor, able to give warnings and 

suggest methods of escape (Reichard 1977:16). In Navajo folk tales Bat is 

cranky and carries a grudge. He is teased by birds and by mice: he acts like a 

bird but has no feathers; he looks like a mouse but can fly. His name means 

‘buckskin ears’ (Newcomb 1967:96-97). 

56. Owl III (3)

168 



2. R2, from above, hooks up L palmar string and draws it to the right while 

rotating toward the body and up. 










8. 1 picks up 2n. Navajo 1 loops 




Notes: This figure combines the early steps of ‘Bat’ (#56) with the ending 

steps of ‘Star with Horns’ (#27). The outermost loops encircling the upper 

transverse string represent the owl’s ears. See #10 for a description of Owl in 

Navajo folk tales. 

57. Owl IV 


2. R2, from above, hooks up L palmar string, draws it to the right, and 

rotates toward the body and up and then rotates a complete turn in the 

same direction. 

3. L2, from below, picks up R palmar string to the near side of R2 loop.




5. 1, over 2n and under intervening strings, picks up 5f. Release 5 loop. 








Notes: The method described here is from Jayne’s book (1906:53-54), where 

it is the first of three owls. The final steps of this figure are identical to those 

of ‘Many Stars’ (#23). See #10 for a description of Owl in Navajo folk tales. 

58. Frog (3) 


2. Rotate RH one full turn by pointing 

the RH fingers away from the body, 

down, toward the body and up, thus 

putting a twist in the center of the 

figure (allow R1 and R5 to slide 

freely within the loop during the rotation). 

3. R2 picks up L palmar string. L2, 

through R2 loop, picks up R palmar 

string. 

4. 1 and 345 pass though the 2 loop 

from below. Allow the former 2 

loop to fall onto the back of the 

wrist. 

5. 1 picks up 5n. 5 picks up lower 1f. 

6. Pass L1, from above, to the near 

side of the near wrist string, then 

under all the strings and raise it on 

the far side of the figure. 

7. Grasp the two original L1 loops on 

the far side of L1 with R1 and R2 

and remove them from L1 but continue 

to hold them in the same position. 

L1 passes under the figure and 

to the near side, then over the figure

170 


and reenters the former 1 loops from above. 

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 on the opposite side of the figure. 

9. Release the wrist loop and extend while moving the hands alternately up 

and down so that the loops distribute themselves evenly. Display vertically, 

one hand above the other. 

Notes: This is a simple variation of ‘Rug’(#35). Because of the twist introduced 

in step 2 the pattern is hour-glass shaped rather than rectangular. The 

Maricopa figure called ‘Turtle’ in Culin’s book appears to be the same (Culin 

1907:776, fig. 1066). The Navajo name for frog is EJb>. In sandpaintings 

frog, like bat, represents a guardian (Newcomb et al., 1956:22). In Navajo 

folk tales, Frog is credited with the creation of rain: after soaking up all the 

water in his swamp, he used it to put out forest fires while Crane carried him 

in a harness made of lily roots (Newcomb 1967:151-161). 

1. Suspend a loop on the L wrist. 

Give the free end a half twist 

and place it on the R wrist. 

Each wrist now has a loop on it. 

The strings in the center cross. 

2. Grasp the near L wrist string 

with the RH and wrap the string 

once around the L wrist. Repeat 

on the R wrist. 

3. 1 and 5 pick up the opposite 

wrist string (the one that 

crosses the palmar surface) so 

that the string on each hand resembles 

position 1. 

4. 2 picks up the opposite palmar 

string as in opening A. Extend. 

Display vertically, one hand 

above the other. 

59. Drum (1, 3, 7) 

Notes: This realistic three-dimensional figure is quite popular among Navajo 

children. In step 1, some omit the half twist while others complete a full twist. 

The Navajo name for this figure is UCCb. Drums are important ceremonial 

instruments among all Native Americans. 

60. Rocket (3) 

1. Grasp one end of a loop in the teeth.


2. Insert 1 and 5, away from you, into the hanging portion of loop to give 

Position 1. 

3. Opening A (pick up opposite palmar strings with 2). 

4. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 

5. 5, over 2 loop picks up lower 1f. 

6. 2 hooks down double palmar strings through 2 loop. 

7. Release double 1 loop and double 5 loop, then pull in opposite directions 

the double palmar string hooked under 2. As you separate the 

hands the original loop on 2 will slip off. Widen 2 loop by inserting 345 

into it from the same direction as 2. Display with 2345 hooked down, 

design centered over your chest. 

Notes: This figure is a variation of ‘Open the Gate’ (#34). If, in step 1, the 

loop is placed over the neck instead of held in the teeth, then the resulting 

figure is called ‘Bra’. 

Figures Beginning with Other Openings 

61. Measuring Worm (2) 

1. Place an untwisted loop around L1 and R1. 

2. 2, over 1f, picks up 1n. R1 picks up the L1n-L2n string. Extend. 

3. The teeth grasp the lower R1 loop, Navajo it, and extend it toward the 

body. 

4. 345, under 2 loop, enter the 1 loop from below. 345 pass over 1f and 2n

172 


then under 2f and hook 2f down through the 1 loop. 

5. Release the loop from the teeth and extend. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is called ‘A Second Worm’ (Jayne 

1906:299-301).The Navajo name for this figure is :UJK[KUJ, meaning 

‘Inch Worm’ or ‘Measuring Worm’. The measuring worm walks by bending 

then straightening out again. (Mitchell 1999:24). The angled figure in the 

center of the design represents a bent worm. Measuring Worm is also a constellation 

(Newcomb et al. 1956:26). 

62. Five-Pointed Star (2, 3) 

1. Place an untwisted loop around 1 and 2. 

2. R1 and R2, from above and from the left, catch the L dorsal string and 

draw it to the right between L1 and L2 while rotating a half turn toward 

the body and up. 

3. Repeat step 2 on the right side with L1 and L2 catching the lower dorsal


string. At this stage you have formed a figure resembling the Soldier’s 

Bed stage of Cat’s Cradle. 

4. 5, over intervening strings, picks up lower 1f. Release 1 loops. 

5. 1 picks up both 2n strings to widen the double 2 loop. Extend with fingers 

spread and pointing away from the body. 

Notes: Steps 2-3 are similar to steps 3-4 of ‘Two Arrowheads’ (#65). In sandpaintings 

five-pointed stars are rare — most have four points. Newcomb suggests 

that they were introduced recently, possibly adopted from stars in the 

American flag (Newcomb et al. 1956:25). Among the Navajo the number 

five is rather ambivalent: it is associated with witchcraft but can also be used 

to cure the effects of witchcraft (Reichard 1950:244-247). 

63. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version A (2, 3) 

1. Place an untwisted loop around L1, L5, and R5. 

2. R1 and R2 pass behind the L palmar string from above and hook it to the 

right about 3 inches to create L1f and L5n strings; Separate R1 from R2 

and return them to an upright position, picking up L1f on the back of R1 

and L5n on the back of R2 in the process. Extend forming L1f-R1f and 

L5n-R2n strings over an R1n-R2f palmar string. 

3. L2 passes to the far side of R2n, enters the tight R2 loop from below, and 

moves to the left forming an L2f-R2f string. 


lower 1f. 

5. Release 1 and 5 loops but do not extend. 4 and 5 hook down 2f while 1 

picks up 2n. Spread the 2 loop and extend gently to create a threedimensional 

figure. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is also called ‘Bird’s Nest’ (Jayne

174 


1906:314-317). An alternative extension was observed at Many Farms. After 

releasing the 1 and 5 loops in step 5, 1 hooks down 2f to create a threedimensional 

figure (5 does not participate in the extension). The figure was 

extended loosely with 2 pointing upward, 1 and 3 pointing away, 4 and 5 

against the palm. The Navajo name for this figure is 7UFKKVbQJ. Others 

called it 7UbCCb meaning ‘basket’ or ‘bowl’. 

64. Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version B (3) 

1. Steps 1 to 3 of Bird’s Nest (Basket), Version A. 

2. 1, over 2 loop, picks up 5n. 5, over 2 loop, picks up lower 1f. 

3. 2 enters double 5 loop from above and hooks up 2f (a TV string). 

4. Release 1 loops. Extend sharply. 

5. 1 hooks down lower 2n, thus extending the figure in three dimensions 

(thumbs hooked to the palm, fingers pointing away from you). 

Notes: Unlike version A (#63), this nest does not require a loose extension: 

the figure retains its three-dimensionality under tension. If, in step 5, 1 picks 

up (rather than hooks down) 2n, a deeper nest is formed. 

65. Two Arrowheads (2)


1. Place an untwisted loop around 1 and 2 and maintain lateral tension on 

the loop during the following moves. 

2. 1 passes over 2f. 1 and 2 point first away from the body, then down, then 

toward the opposite hand and up, each catching a TV string on its back. 

You now have 1f and 2n TV strings which pass over short palmar 

strings. 

3. R1 and R2 move left over the L palmar string then downward, catching 

the L palmar string on their tips. R1 and R2 draw the L palmar string to 

the right, and rotate with it toward the body and upward. 

4. Repeat on the opposite side using L1 and L2, passing these fingers down 

through the upper loop shared by R1 and R2 before retrieving the R 

palmar string. 

5. Touch the tips of 1 and 2 together. Plunge them down through the center 

of the figure on either side of the central X, then point them away from 

the body and up. Separate their tips, but do not extend. 1 removes 2 loop 

from below. Keep the strings loose. 

6. Pass 2 through the upper 1 loop from above. 2 picks up the lower 1f 

string next to 1 and draws it up through the upper loop. 

7. There are two 1n strings, one is a TV string. 4 enters the 1 loops from 

below and hooks down the non-TV string. 3 then enters the 4 loop from 

the same direction and hooks down the 1n TV string, drawing it through 

the 4 loop, which is released. 

8. Release 1 loop and extend. 

Notes: Step 2 is a bit hard to follow unless you have seen it done. Readers 

should refer to figs. 690 and 691 in Jayne’s book for assistance. Steps 1-5 

resemble steps used in making ‘Brush House’, a Pueblo Indian figure 

recorded by Jayne (1906:301-306). Steps 6-8 are borrowed from ‘Two Stars 

I’ (#1). The Navajo name for this figure is %UJ aCUVbQIKK aC>VUbb UKPKN, 

literally ‘Flint Arrowheads in Opposite Directions Lying’. According to 

Mike Mitchell, opposite arrowheads represent protection (Mitchell 1999:6). 

The name given at Many Farms was .bCCb C>VUb [KNYQ>, literally ‘Arrows 

in Opposite Directions Running Away.’ 

66. Sweathouse (Sweatlodge, Hogan) (3, 4) 

1. Place the loop over L23 and allow the other end to hang down. L palm 

faces the body. 

2. From the left side pass R2 under L2n and slide it up along the L palm 

until its tip is between L2 and L3. R2 hooks down the L dorsal string, 

drawing it down as far as possible until the hanging loop is fully absorbed. 

Release the R2 loop, allowing it to hang freely. L2f and L3n are 

crossed by a short palmar string (L2n-L3f) before becoming segments of 

the hanging loop.

176 


3. With L palm facing you, RH enters the 

hanging loop from the far side; R2 enters 

the small L3 loop from above, then the 

small L2 loop from below, catching the 

short L3n and L2f strings on its tip. Draw 

these strings down through the hanging 

loop as far as possible until the hanging 

loop is fully absorbed. Return hands to 

normal position (L palm facing left). 

Hooked R2 points toward the body. 

4. R345 enter the R2 loops from the far 

side. Press R2345 against the palm. 

5. There are now two upper and two lower 

strings grasped in the RH. Near the LH 

the strings pass through a tight loop that 

resembles a knot. To the right of that 

loop, L1 picks up the lower near string 

while L5 picks up the lower far string. 

6. The RH releases its loops. R1 and R2 

grasp the string which forms the tight 

loop and draw it upward. Display the figure 

vertically, RH above LH. 

Notes: This figure is known to most Navajo 

children. In Jayne’s book this figure is called 

‘One Hogan’ but she is mistaken in claiming 

that a hogan is a tent. The ancient hogan (JQQIJCP), called a “male” hogan 

by the Navajos, was a conical hut constructed from three forked poles covered 

with logs, brush, and mud. More common today is the “female” hogan, 

a circular or six-sided dwelling constructed of logs or stone. Both have a 

smoke hole and the doorway always faces east. A fire is built on the hardpacked 

dirt beneath the smoke hole. A flap or hinged door protects the occupants 

from the weather. Navajo ceremonies can only be conducted in a hogan 

(Locke 1992:13). 

The preferred Navajo name for this figure 

is 7EJJ, meaning ‘Sweatlodge’. The 

sweatlodge is a small-scale hogan made 

specifically for males. (Mitchell 1999:12). It 

resembles the old-style male hogan but lacks 

a smoke hole and is practically airtight. It is 

heated with hot rocks. Several blankets seal 

the door. In a land of scarce water, the sweatlodge 

provides excellent bathing and purifying 

facilities (Locke 1992:14). 

Sweatlodge illustration 

from Franciscan Fathers 

(1910)


67. Unnamed (3) 

1. Suspend the loop between the wrists. 

2. 5 picks up the near wrist string. 1, from below, picks up far wrist string. 

3. R2 picks up the two L palmar strings where they cross. L2, through the 

R2 loops, picks up the two R palmar strings where they cross. 

4. Using the opposite hand, release the wrist loops and extend to give a 

rounded figure (see illustration). 

5. Release 2 loops and extend. Two triangles will move in opposite directions. 

Notes: This figure is also known among the Quinault Indians of the Olympic 

Peninsula in Washington (Olson 1936). Its method closely resembles the 

Klamath Indian figure ‘Two Boys Fighting for an Arrow’ (Jayne 1906:317- 

320). 

68. Unraveling (Train) (1, 7) 

1. Hold LH with palm facing the body, fingers pointing to the right. Pass a 

loop over the five fingers of the LH so that it rests on the left thumbnail. 

The front hanging string is a palmar string; the back hanging string is a 

dorsal string. 

2. R2 passes in front of the palmar string, then behind it from left to right; 

R2 then passes between L1 and L2 and to the right of the dorsal string, 

where it catches the dorsal string and draws it toward the body a short 

distance until R2 is once again in front of the palmar string. 

3. R2 points upward and then to the right. Touch the tip of R2 to the tip of 

L2 and slide the R2 loop onto L2. 

4. R2 passes in front of the palmar string, then behind the palmar string 

from left to right; R2 then passes between L2 and L3 and to the right of 

the dorsal string, where it catches the dorsal string and draws it toward 

the body a short distance until R2 is once again in front of the palmar 

string.

178 


5. R2 points upward and then to the right. Touch the tip of R2 to the tip of 

L3 and slide the R3 loop onto L3. 

6. In a similar manner continue 

working down the LH placing 

loops on L4 and L5. Release the 

loop from L1 and draw the palmar 

string downward freeing the 

string from the LH. 

Notes: In Jayne’s book this figure is 

called ‘The Mouse’ (Jayne 1906:340- 

343). The Navajo name for this figure 

is :QQNVF, meaning ‘Unraveling’. 

Unraveling is the name of a healing 

ceremony in which knots in a string 

are quickly undone to relieve the patient 

of sickness (Mitchell 1999:9). 

Unraveling cords are found in the sacred 

bundles (LKUJ) of nearly every 

medicine man (Page and Page 

1995:125). The common name for 

this figure is 1bL>MCF or ‘Train’. 

69. Bull Snake (5) 

1. With LH fingers pointing upward, L palm facing to the right, hang a loop 

on L5. 

2. Pass R2, from below, into the L5 loop. Pinch the RH fingers together to 

trap L5n and rotate the R hand a three-quarter turn, R2345 moving down 

over L5f and then toward the body. L1 picks up L5n just before L5n 

passes between R2 and R3 (i.e., the segment to the right of the twist). 

Release RH strings. From the near side and from below, pick up L1n 

with R1 and R5, and extend. You now have Position 1 on both hands, 

but the L5 loop has a full twist at its base (as if you did


3. R2 picks up L palmar string. 

4. L1, under L5n, picks up L5f. 

5. L4, over L palmar string, picks up lower L1f. 

6. Release double L1 loop. 

7. L1, from below, enters the L4 loop, passes over L4f and L5n, and picks 

up L5f, returning through the L4 loop. 

8. L1 hooks down L4n; catch this string on its back by rotating L1 toward 

the body and up (the original L1 loop will slip off in the process). 

9. With fingers pointing away from you, release the R2 loop and extend 

slowly, allowing string to slip through fingers of the L hand. The snake 

will slither to the left. 

Notes: If the initial L5 loop twist is done in the wrong direction, the head of 

the snake will encircle the lower transverse string and the snake will fail to 

slither. In the photos of this figure in Barre Toelken’s book (The Dynamics 

of Folklore, 2nd edition), the informant releases the L4 loop before extending. 

The Navajo name for this figure is 7>bKKUJ. Bull (Garter) Snakes often 

appear in sandpaintings, mainly those of the Apacheway ceremony (Mitchell 

1999:14). They are also called FK[UJ “noiseless snakes” because they lack 

a rattle (Franciscan Fathers 1910:155). 

70. Ribs (3) 

1. Hold one end of a loop in the teeth. Pass one hand through the loop and 

clasp the hands together so that the fingers cross each other at a 90 degree 

angle. One segment of the hanging loop is now trapped between the 

arms. Move the the untrapped segment so that it hangs down between the 

interlocking fingers, with 5 fingers on each side of the segment. Point 

fingers upward and release the loop from the teeth. A segment of the

180 


loop now rests in the crevice formed by the interlocking fingers. The rest 

of the loop hangs freely, passing between the arms. 

2. Carefully separate the hands so that each finger catches a segment of the 

crevice string and loops begin to form on each finger. When the hands 

are fully separated and all the string is absorbed, you should have a series 

of 9 TV strings passing between the fingers, like rungs of a ladder. 

Assuming that the hands were clasped with L1 uppermost (see notes), 

the TV strings will be L1f to R1n, L2n to R1f, and so on down to L5n to 

R4f, L5f to R5n. When viewed with fingers pointing upward, the R5f 

string passes diagonally under all the other strings up to L1n. 

3. To facilitate the description, number the nine TV strings 1 through 9, 

with 1 being the nearest string. The nine TV strings can now be woven 

toward the body or away from the body. To weave toward the body: R1 

and R2, over all strings, grasp string 9 near the L hand and draw it towards 

the body over string 8; release string 9 and grasp string 8, drawing 

it toward the body over the released string and string 7; release string 8 

and grasp string 7, drawing it toward the body over the released string 

and string 6. Continue in this fashion until R1 and R2 hold string 1. 

Place that string over R1 and extend the figure. To weave away from the 

body: R1 and R2 grasp string 1 near the L hand and carry it away from 

the body over string 2; release string 1 and grasp string 2, carrying it 

away from the body over the released string and string 3; release string 

2 and grasp string 3, carrying it away from body over the released string 

and string 4. Continue in this fashion until R1 and R2 hold string 9. 

Place that string over L5 and extend. 

Notes: There are a number of variations of this figure. Some informants do 

not pass one hand through the loop before clasping their hands together in 

step 1. As a result, the oblique string that runs beneath the finished design 

crosses the back of one hand instead.


Also, a smaller loom is sometimes formed by catching the loops on fingers 2 

through 5 only. The weaving process is sometimes done by a second person. 

Furthermore, the direction of weaving varies, as indicated in step 3. The 

above descriptions assume that L1 folds over R1 when the hands are clasped 

together in step 1. Not everyone folds their hands this way: some fold their 

hands so that R1 folds over L1. This is, in fact, a genetically determined trait 

(try doing it opposite of the way you normally do it — it will feel very uncomfortable). 

If you are one of those people who fold their hands with R1 

over L1, then adjust the above instructions to account for that. The Navajo 

name for this figure is VUb. Ribs represent bodily strength. They protect all 

that is vital to the body (Mitchell 1999:30). 

International Figures 

These figures are known in many parts of the world. It is not clear how long 

the Navajo have known them. 

71. Bottom (2) (Wirt 1996:77) 

72. Finger Trick (7) (Averkieva and Sherman 1992:131-132) 

73. Hand Escape (7) (Jayne 1906:337-339) 

74. Cut the Neck (7) (Wirt 1998:139-140) 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

We would like to thank the following individuals who assisted us during our 

visits to Navajoland: Imogene Singer, Ella Chee, Roberta Cly, Alfred Johns, 

Bessie Holiday, Linda Litsui, Frances Shepherd, Greg Holiday, Pat Denny, 

Don Mose, Matthew Nelson, Alberta Freddy, Roderick Natani, Ryan Chee, 

Shannon Denetsosie, Christopher Wright, Lonnie Deswood, Laverne Jones, 

Ella Wagner, Dr. Robert Roessel, Ruth Roessel, Delray Redhair, Inez Nez, 

Mike Mitchell, Char Tullie, Marshall Natonabah, Marcie Slim, Pauline Halwood, 

Ben Davis, John Roanhorse, and the Billy Family (Cornelius, Wyona, 

Hershel, and Anna). We also wish to thank David Titus for supplying the 

multi-colored string loops we offered to informants as small gifts for their 

hospitality. 

LITERATURE CITED 

Averkieva J. and Sherman, M. (1992) Kwakiutl String Figures. Seattle: University of 

Washington Press. 

Culin, S. (1907) “Games of the North American Indians.” 24th Annual Report of the 

Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D.C. (Reprinted 1992, Lincoln: University 

of Nebraska Press.) 

Dyk, W. (1938) Son of Old Man Hat. New York: Harcourt Brace.

182 


Foster, G.M. (1941) “String Figure Divination.” American Anthropologist (n.s.) 

43:126-127. 

Franciscan Fathers. (1910) An Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language. St. 

Michael’s, Arizona: St. Michael’s Press. 

Gifford, E.W. (1940) “Culture Element Distributions. XII: Apache-Pueblo.” Anthropological 

Records 4(1). Berkeley: University of California Press. 

Haddon, A.C. (1903) “A Few American String Figures and Tricks.” American Anthropologist 

(n.s.) 5(2):213-223. 

Haddon, K. (1930) Artists in String. London: Methuen & Co. 

Haddon, K. (1942) String Games for Beginners. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Heffer. 

Haile, B. (1947) Starlore among the Navaho. Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremonial 

Art. 

Haile, B. (1949) “Navaho or Navajo?” Reprinted in: Tales of an Endishodi: Father 

Berard Haile and the Navajos. (Ed. M. Bodo). 1998. Albuquerque: University of 

New Mexico Press. 

Jayne, C.F. (1906) String Figures. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. (Reprinted 

1962 as String Figures and How to Make Them. New York: Dover Publications). 

Jenness, D. (1924) “Eskimo String Figures.” Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 

1913-1918. vol. 13, part B. Ottawa: F.A. Acland. 

Keith, G. (1994) “The Presence of String in the Post-Modern World.” Bulletin of the 

International String Figure Association 1:1-11 

Klah, H. (1942) Navajo Creation Myth: The Story of Emergence. Recorded by Mary 

C. Wheelwright. Navajo Religion Series, vol. 1. Santa Fe: Museum of Navajo Ceremonial 

Arts. 

Kluckhohn, C., Hill, W.W., and Kluckhohn, L.W. (1971) Navaho Material Culture. 

Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 

Locke, R.F. (1992) The Book of the Navajo. 5th Ed. Los Angeles: Mankind Publishing 

Co. 

Mitchell, Mike. (1999) Navajo String Games. Chinle, Arizona: Rough Rock Navajo 

Studies Press. 

Newcomb, F.J. (1967) Navaho Folk Tales. Santa Fe: Museum of Navaho Ceremonial 

Art. 

Newcomb, F.J. (1966) Navaho Neighbors. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 

Newcomb, F.J., Fishler, S. and Wheelwright, M.C. (1956) “A Study of Navajo Symbolism.” 

Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard 

University, vol. 32, no. 3. Cambridge: Peabody Museum Press. 

Olson, R. (1936) “The Quinault Indians.” University of Washington Publications in 

Anthropology 6(1):137-139. 

Pospisil, F. (1932) Ethnologické Materialie z Jihozápadu USA. Brno: Akciová 

Moravská Knihtiskárna. 

Reichard, G. (1950) Navaho Religion: A Study of Symbolism. Bollingen Series 18. 

Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 

Reichard, G.A. (1977) Navajo Medicine Man Sandpaintings. New York: Dover Publications 

(reprint of 1939 edition entitled Navajo Medicine Man) 

Toelken, B. (1979) The Dynamics of Folklore. 1st Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 

Toelken, B. (1996) The Dynamics of Folklore. 2nd Ed (revised and expanded), Logan, 

Utah: Utah State University Press. 

Wirt, W. (1996) “String Figures from Guyana.” Bulletin of the International String 

Figure Association 5:126-149.


Wirt, W. (1998) “String Figures from China and Tibet.” Bulletin of the International 

String Figure Association 5:126-149. 

Young, R.W., and Morgan, W. (1980) The Navajo Language: A Grammar and Colloquial 

Dictionary. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. 

CROSS INDEX 

There are several interesting reports of Navajo string games in the literature 

that do not include construction methods. Some of these only mention the 

titles of various Navajo string games, whereas other include illustrations of 

them. Most of the illustrated string figures correspond to figures in our collection. 

These are identified below (see numbers in parentheses). In addition, 

nearly all of the string game titles recorded by others correspond to figures in 

our collection, but since no illustration is provided their true identity remains 

unconfirmed. Probable candidates are likewise listed below. Please note that 

for Navajo names, the authors’ original orthography has been simplified. 

Tozzer, in Haddon (1903) - List only 

Man, dénné (#50) 

Sternum with ribs, ai-yít (#17, #18) 

Woman’s Belt, sís (#35) 

Carrying Wood, chiz-jó-yét-lí (#45) 

Bow, at l -ti (#5) 

Arrow, ka (#21, #52) 

Hogan, hogan (#66) 

Two Hogans, naki-hogan, at l -sa-hogan (#44) 

Sand-painting Figure, k os-shis-chi (#14) 

Coyote (prarie wolf), ma-í (?) 

Owl, nas-ja (#10, #33, #56, #57) 

Bird’s nest, a-to (#63, #64) 

Horned Toad, na-a-sho-í-di-chízi (#20) 

Butterfly, ga-hí-kí (#13, #54) 

Star, so-a-hinat l san- n tí-í (?) 

Large Star, so n -so (#2, #29, #30) 

Two Stars, so n -bí-teré (#1, #53) 

Many Stars, so n -tlani (#23) 

Lightning, atsiníl-klish (#6, #7, #8) 

Culin (1907) - Drawings 

Fig. 1035: Lightning, atsinlt’lish (#6, #7, #8) 

Fig. 1036: Big Star, sûtso (#31, upside down) 

Fig. 1037: Many Stars, sô’ lani (#23)

184 


Fig. 1038: Twin Stars, sô ahóts’ii (#19) 

Fig. 1039: Horned Stars, sô bide’ huloni (#27, upside down) 

Fig. 1040: Pleiades, dilyehe (#32, upside down) 

Fig. 1041: Coyotes Running Apart, mâ’i alts’ âyilaghuli (#28) 

Fig. 1042: Owl, nashja (#33, #55, #56, turned sideways) 

Fig. 1043; Snake, t’lish (#69) 

Fig. 1044: Horned Toad, nashúi dich’izhi (#20) 

Fig. 1045: Poncho, lesis (#35, loops untwisted) 

Fig. 1046: Hogan, hoghan (#66, #44) 

Fig. 1047: Carrying Wood, chizh joyeli (#45) 

Fig. 1048: Carrying Wood, chizh joyeli (#45) 

Franciscan Fathers (1910) - List only 

Morning or Evening Star, sôtso (#2, #29, #30) 

Feet Ajar, hastqín sak’aí (#49) 

Pleiades, dilyéhe (#15, #32) 

Many Stars, sô láni (#23) 

Pinching Stars, sôhóts’i (#19) 

The Horned Star, sô bidé huloni (#27) 

Snake, tl’ish (#20, #69) 

Coyote, má’i (?) 

Coyotes running in opposite directions, má’i alts’áyilaghúli (#28) 

Horned Toad, nashúi dich’ízhi (#20) 

The Owl, naéeshja (#10, #33, #56, #57) 

Zigzag Lightning, atsínltl’ish (#6, #7, #8) 

Bow, altqí (#5) 

Arrow, k’a’ (#21, #52) 

Cloud Effect, k’os’ishchín (#14) 

Nest, at’ó’ (#63, #64) 

A Single Hogan, hoghán dalaí sa’á (#66) 

Double Hogan, alts’áhoghán (#44) 

A Man, diné (#50) 

Wood Carrier, chízh joyéli (#45) 

A Woman’s Belt, sis (#35) 

Small Stomach of a Sheep, lésis (#35?) 

Sternum with Ribs, ayíd (#17, #18) 

A Standing Tooth, who sezíni (#9) 

A Bent Tooth, whoshiyíshi (#61) 

Pospisil (1932) - Photographs (no captions) 

Fig. 345 (#20) 

Fig. 346 (?)


Fig. 347 (?) 

Fig. 348 (#32) 

Fig. 349 (#35, loops untwisted) 

Fig. 350 (#35, loops partially untwisted) 

Fig. 351 (#42) 

Fig. 352 (#41) 

Fig. 353 (#7) 

Fig. 354 (#46) 

Fig. 355 (Jayne’s ‘Brush House’?) 

Fig. 356 (?) 

Kluckhohn, Hill, Kluckhohn (1971) - Photographs and List 

Photographs 

Fig. 259a, Two Cloud Peaks (#15) 

Fig. 259b, Many Stars (#23) 

Fig. 259c, Arrow (#52) 

Fig. 259d, Bird’s Nest (#63) 

Fig. 259e, Two Coyotes Running Apart (#28) 

Fig. 259f, Owl (?) 

Fig. 259g, First Hogan (#66) 

Fig. 259h, Lightning (#6) 

Games mentioned in text only 

Breastbone (#17, #18) 

Attached Stars (#19) 

Star with Horns (#27) 

Butterfly (#13, #54) 

Three Cloud Peaks (#16) 

Toelken (1979) - Photographs (some mislabeled) 

Fig. 29 (#35) 

Fig. 30 (#23) 

Fig. 31 (#27) 

Figs. 32-36 (#34) 

Figs. 77-82 (Cat’s cradle) 

Toelken (1996) - Photographs 

Pages 119-123 (#23, Cat’s Cradle, #69).

String Games of the Navajo

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