The Diversity of Sacred Lands in Europe - IUCN
The Diversity of Sacred Lands in Europe - IUCN
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<strong>The</strong> <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Third Workshop <strong>of</strong><br />
the Delos Initiative – Inari/Aanaar 2010<br />
Edited by Josep-Maria Mallarach, Thymio Papayannis and Rauno Väisänen
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Third Workshop<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative
<strong>The</strong> designation <strong>of</strong> geographical entities <strong>in</strong> this book, and the presentation <strong>of</strong> the material, do not imply the<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> any op<strong>in</strong>ion whatsoever on the part <strong>of</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong>, Metsähallitus Natural Heritage Services, <strong>The</strong><br />
Delos Initiative or other participat<strong>in</strong>g organisations concern<strong>in</strong>g the legal status <strong>of</strong> any country, territory,<br />
or area, or <strong>of</strong> its authorities, or concern<strong>in</strong>g the delimitation <strong>of</strong> its frontiers or boundaries.<br />
<strong>The</strong> views expressed <strong>in</strong> this publication do not necessarily reflect those <strong>of</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong>, Metsähallitus Natural<br />
Heritage Services, <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative or other participat<strong>in</strong>g organisations.<br />
This publication has been made possible by fund<strong>in</strong>g from the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> the Environment, F<strong>in</strong>land, and<br />
Metsähallitus Natural Heritage Services.<br />
Published by: <strong>IUCN</strong>, Gland, Switzerland <strong>in</strong> collaboration with Metsähallitus Natural Heritage Services,<br />
Vantaa, F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
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Mallarach, J.-M., Papayannis, T. and Väisänen, R. (eds) (2012). <strong>The</strong> <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
<strong>Lands</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>: Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Third Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative – Inari/Aanaar<br />
2010. Gland, Switzerland: <strong>IUCN</strong> and Vantaa, F<strong>in</strong>land: Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services. 292 pp.<br />
ISBN: 978-2-8317-1423-3<br />
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<strong>The</strong> <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Third Workshop<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative<br />
Inari/Aanaar, F<strong>in</strong>land, 1-3 July 2010<br />
Edited by Jose-Maria Mallarach, Thymio Papayannis and Rauno Väisänen
table <strong>of</strong> contents<br />
7 All creation groans and sighs…<br />
Kari Mäk<strong>in</strong>en<br />
15 Introduction to the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the third workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos<br />
Initiative <strong>in</strong> Inari/Aanaar, Lapland, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Josep-Maria Mallarach, Thymio Papayannis and Rauno Väisänen<br />
25 Part One: <strong>The</strong> Sámi people and their relation to nature<br />
27 Greet<strong>in</strong>gs from the Saami Parliament<br />
Juvvá Lemet – Klemetti Näkkäläjärvi<br />
33 Words <strong>of</strong> welcome<br />
Tarmo Jomppanen<br />
37 Indigenous Sámi religion: General considerations about relationships<br />
Jelena Porsanger<br />
47 Archaeology <strong>of</strong> sieidi stones. Excavat<strong>in</strong>g sacred places<br />
Ti<strong>in</strong>a Äikäs<br />
59 Part Two: Ancient, <strong>in</strong>digenous and m<strong>in</strong>ority sacred natural sites<br />
61 Conserv<strong>in</strong>g sacred natural sites <strong>in</strong> Estonia<br />
Ahto Kaasik<br />
75 Use and reuse <strong>of</strong> ancient sacred places <strong>in</strong> Mikytai, Žemaitija National Park,<br />
NW Lithuania<br />
Vyk<strong>in</strong>tas Vaitkevičius<br />
85 Zilais kalns – Blue Hill <strong>in</strong> Latvia<br />
Juris Urtāns<br />
95 Alevi-Bektashi communities <strong>in</strong> south-eastern <strong>Europe</strong>: spiritual heritage<br />
and environmental consciousness<br />
Ir<strong>in</strong>i Lyratzaki<br />
109 Part Three: Manag<strong>in</strong>g lands <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
111 <strong>The</strong> cultural and spiritual sites <strong>of</strong> the Parco Nazionale della Majella, Italy<br />
Vita de Waal<br />
125 Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne and the modern relevance <strong>of</strong> Celtic ‘Nature Sa<strong>in</strong>ts’.<br />
Robert Wild
139 <strong>Lands</strong>cape l<strong>in</strong>kages between cultural and spiritual values. <strong>The</strong> wetland <strong>of</strong><br />
Colfiorito and the Lauretana pilgrimage route <strong>in</strong> the Plestian Plateaus.<br />
Chiara Serenelli<br />
155 Part Four: Manag<strong>in</strong>g lands <strong>of</strong> monastic communities<br />
157 Monastic communities and nature conservation: Overview <strong>of</strong> positive<br />
trends and best practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the Middle East<br />
Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
175 Manag<strong>in</strong>g the heritage <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos<br />
Thymio Papayannis<br />
189 Special Nature Reserve Milesevka and the Mileseva Monastery<br />
Nadezda Pesic, Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac and Dimitrije Pesic<br />
203 Part Five: <strong>Europe</strong>: a wealth <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites<br />
205 <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> sacred lands and mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Northern <strong>Europe</strong>:<br />
Challenges for the managers <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
Rauno Väisänen<br />
217 <strong>The</strong> Carpathian Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, a realm <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites<br />
Sebastian Cătănoiu<br />
231 <strong>The</strong> ‘sacredness’ <strong>of</strong> natural sites and their recovery:<br />
Iona, Harris and Govan <strong>in</strong> Scotland<br />
Alastair McIntosh<br />
245 Synergies between spiritual and natural heritage for habitat<br />
conservation <strong>in</strong> the Barents Euro-Arctic Region<br />
Alexander N. Davydov<br />
259 Part Six: Other related issues<br />
260 Applicability <strong>of</strong> the <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected Area<br />
Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites: first assessment<br />
Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
271 Inputs and comments from the workshop<br />
275 Conclusions<br />
285 Appendices<br />
291 <strong>The</strong> ecological footpr<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> the Delos Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs
All creation groans and sighs...<br />
Humanity and borders<br />
In the F<strong>in</strong>nish language, the early semantic strata associated with the concept <strong>of</strong><br />
pyhä (’holy’) relate to a place on the landscape. <strong>The</strong> reference is to a border.<br />
Many place names, such as Pyhäjärvi or Pyhäjoki, bear this out. <strong>The</strong>se are particular<br />
places <strong>in</strong> the wild, as far as which people have been permitted to travel,<br />
though no further. Holy outl<strong>in</strong>es an area belong<strong>in</strong>g to man – demarcates it.<br />
<strong>The</strong> word <strong>in</strong> this sense is still valid today, although it is no longer literally associated<br />
with a place on the landscape. When we speak <strong>of</strong> the ‘holy’ we are still express<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> the borders <strong>of</strong> human existence. A holy day (for example Sunday)<br />
or holy object signifies a spiritual terra<strong>in</strong> isolated from others that speaks <strong>of</strong><br />
somewhere beyond, a place that does not belong to man. It is a border which demands<br />
that we step back – we have to pause, just as we do at a geographical one.<br />
It requires our humility, sensitivity and respect.<br />
A sense <strong>of</strong> the holy and its protection are essential if people are to understand who<br />
they are. To be human is to stand before what is holy and to relate to it. That is the<br />
only way we can identify the borders <strong>of</strong> humanity and human activity.<br />
Holy spaces are the doors to the mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>The</strong> Christian <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> life is not detached from these archaic, distant<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish word pyhä - holy – but actually relates to them. This is the<br />
case with the stories <strong>of</strong> creation <strong>in</strong> the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Bible, which are basic depictions<br />
<strong>of</strong> human existence. <strong>The</strong>y even use imagery that recalls the ancient mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
In the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, accord<strong>in</strong>g to the stories, man is part <strong>of</strong> the same reality <strong>in</strong> which<br />
God is walk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> cool <strong>of</strong> the afternoon. <strong>The</strong> holy is not somewhere on the outside.<br />
<strong>The</strong> world does not exist by chance but by the will <strong>of</strong> God. All creation is holy, because<br />
it reflects the hol<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> its Creator. But man’s tragic dest<strong>in</strong>y is to become<br />
separated from this, to be expelled from God’s garden. As is well known, it happens<br />
<strong>in</strong> the account <strong>of</strong> the Fall, the apple and the serpent act<strong>in</strong>g as its agents. Its<br />
core mean<strong>in</strong>g is that man will rise to the position <strong>of</strong> God and above everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
else. <strong>The</strong> stories describe the basis <strong>of</strong> existence. Man is totally dependent on his<br />
Creator and creation, and his relationship with these is the most fundamental <strong>of</strong> all.<br />
It is a relationship with what is holy. <strong>The</strong> relationship is not simple or calm; it is contradictory,<br />
broken.<br />
7
It is for this very reason - because <strong>of</strong> the hubris that shatters the basic relationship<br />
- that man needs to be able to identify and <strong>in</strong>terpret the holy and those symbols<br />
that denote its reality: there is someth<strong>in</strong>g more, someth<strong>in</strong>g beyond our reality.<br />
<strong>The</strong> separately def<strong>in</strong>ed spaces, times and places that are recognised as holy are<br />
those that allow people, and the whole <strong>of</strong> creation, to breathe out, groan and sigh<br />
and create someth<strong>in</strong>g new. <strong>The</strong>y are doors to the deep mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
Does the holy have a place <strong>in</strong> modern-day liv<strong>in</strong>g?<br />
From the perspective <strong>of</strong> those first stories, we might ask how <strong>in</strong> today’s western<br />
culture a person can understand his or her existence <strong>in</strong> relation to what is holy.<br />
As the foundations <strong>of</strong> the ecological system shake, there are good arguments for<br />
say<strong>in</strong>g that God plays no part <strong>in</strong> our culture. <strong>The</strong> basic dimension <strong>of</strong> human existence,<br />
a sense <strong>of</strong> the holy, is absent, and <strong>in</strong> its place are merciless consumerism<br />
and the logic <strong>of</strong> exploitation. Where God is absent, people and nature only have a<br />
utility value, and no other.<br />
Nevertheless, we should not succumb to romantic ideas about history and claim<br />
that people used to have a sense <strong>of</strong> what was holy but now God is conspicuous<br />
by his absence. <strong>The</strong> modernisation <strong>of</strong> western culture has not buried the holy, but<br />
its place has changed.<br />
In the western process <strong>of</strong> modernisation, what was understood as holy broke<br />
loose from the authoritative power structure. Gradually, one had to get used to the<br />
notion that the holy was worshipped totally differently from the way <strong>in</strong> which power<br />
was worshipped. It was a liberat<strong>in</strong>g process. For the Christian Church, this legacy<br />
means that, liv<strong>in</strong>g amidst the social and economic powers that are destroy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mank<strong>in</strong>d, we are called on to question radically what is go<strong>in</strong>g on and boldly stand<br />
up for human life itself.<br />
In the same process <strong>of</strong> modernisation, culture and society also became differentiated<br />
and fragmented. Politics, art, science, economics, bus<strong>in</strong>ess, education, religion<br />
all became their own separate areas <strong>of</strong> life. <strong>The</strong> area <strong>of</strong> religion became the<br />
reservation <strong>in</strong> which God was given a place to live. Talk <strong>of</strong> God and the holy was<br />
restricted to that place only. When religious life came to have a monopoly on the<br />
holy, as it were, other aspects <strong>of</strong> life could carry on as if they had no relationship<br />
to the holy or as if the borders <strong>of</strong> the existence <strong>of</strong> what was holy and <strong>of</strong> human activity<br />
did not concern them.<br />
8
<strong>The</strong> borders <strong>of</strong> science<br />
In two areas <strong>of</strong> life, this has been particularly clear to see. One is the scientific/<br />
technological doma<strong>in</strong>. With<strong>in</strong> its framework, western man has approached life as<br />
if there were no borders on the landscape, thus permitt<strong>in</strong>g him to go as far as his<br />
knowledge and ability allow.<br />
In the areas <strong>of</strong> biomedic<strong>in</strong>e, genetic eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g and virtual technology, we are at<br />
present <strong>in</strong> unknown territory. Here for once we have to ask whether there is a sacred<br />
border beyond which we may not go. <strong>The</strong> old maps provide no help. It is for<br />
this very reason that we need humility, sensitivity and respect so much, and they<br />
stem from an awareness <strong>of</strong> human borders and what is holy.<br />
This is a special challenge for Christian theology <strong>of</strong> creation. <strong>The</strong> challenge is on<br />
an altogether different scale compared to the conflicts between Christian belief<br />
and the natural sciences that date back to the 19 th century. Now it is <strong>of</strong> fundamental<br />
importance to ask whether the borders <strong>of</strong> mank<strong>in</strong>d are marked by anyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
more than <strong>in</strong>telligence and ambition. Should we be go<strong>in</strong>g on a voyage <strong>of</strong> discovery<br />
<strong>in</strong> all areas, or are there borders that cannot be crossed from the perspective<br />
<strong>of</strong> humanity and life, borders at which we have to stop, just like we do when we encounter<br />
the holy?<br />
<strong>The</strong> borders <strong>of</strong> economics, bus<strong>in</strong>ess and consumerism<br />
<strong>The</strong> other area is economics and bus<strong>in</strong>ess. <strong>The</strong>y now dom<strong>in</strong>ate our culture. It is on<br />
their terms that we decide what is important and what is not.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> this sphere <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence, the basic relations <strong>of</strong> human existence are shaped<br />
<strong>in</strong> a whole new way. How someone relates to economic activity is crucial. People<br />
are seen to be fundamentally dependent on it. It has a surplus value, with some<br />
features <strong>of</strong> the holy, but it does not po<strong>in</strong>t beyond mank<strong>in</strong>d. One’s relationship with<br />
it is not the same as that with the holy or God, which <strong>in</strong>dicates someth<strong>in</strong>g outside<br />
man. <strong>The</strong>re is <strong>of</strong> course room for God, but the limits <strong>of</strong> human activity or existence<br />
are not seen through Him, but through the economy.<br />
In the current climate, there is a danger that the holy, and symbols denot<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
holy, will simply become a commodity, like everyth<strong>in</strong>g else. <strong>The</strong>re will be products<br />
that people acquire <strong>in</strong> order to experience what is holy. <strong>The</strong>re is some demand for<br />
this, because a need for the sacred lies deep with<strong>in</strong> a person, just like the desire<br />
to live. But, at the same time, the holy ceases to be holy. It becomes banal and<br />
metamorphoses <strong>in</strong>to a momentary experience. It no longer allows us to identify human<br />
borders and territory.<br />
If people are primarily understood <strong>in</strong> relation to economic activity, the whole field <strong>of</strong><br />
human endeavour is <strong>in</strong> danger <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g perceived as one <strong>of</strong> market relations, pro-<br />
9
duction, consumption, buy<strong>in</strong>g and sell<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong>n a person also comes to be seen as<br />
a product <strong>in</strong> the social and f<strong>in</strong>ancial markets. Man, like creation, ceases to be valuable<br />
<strong>in</strong> himself, as someth<strong>in</strong>g created, <strong>in</strong> a relationship with his Creator. <strong>The</strong> borders<br />
<strong>of</strong> humanity are then those <strong>of</strong> the market, and there is noth<strong>in</strong>g beyond them.<br />
If the sense <strong>of</strong> what is holy disappears from our culture, so does the perspective<br />
from which human endeavour, mank<strong>in</strong>d’s own territory, can be exam<strong>in</strong>ed. This is<br />
the danger <strong>of</strong> a culture ruled by market ideology and consumerism. <strong>The</strong> consequences<br />
could be fateful. <strong>The</strong>y are already visible <strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> global environmental<br />
issues as well as <strong>in</strong> the shape <strong>of</strong> the grow<strong>in</strong>g worldwide gap between the<br />
survivors and those who are left to rely on their own luck. This affects the poorest<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the world the hardest, although those who brought about the situation are<br />
the rich <strong>in</strong>dustrialised countries.<br />
Where the holy places and spaces are<br />
It is <strong>in</strong> this western world, absorbed as it is by scientific/technological culture and<br />
consumerism, that we have a need for holy areas, a need to raise their pr<strong>of</strong>ile and<br />
protect them, and not just have them safely placed with<strong>in</strong> religion’s conventional<br />
realm.<br />
Holy places and spaces are places to stop at. <strong>The</strong>y are places for calm and silence.<br />
Silence is the doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> the holy; it is God’s doma<strong>in</strong>. When you can use<br />
words to sell anyth<strong>in</strong>g and they lose their mean<strong>in</strong>g, there is a need to turn to silence,<br />
to arrive at the real borders <strong>of</strong> human existence. <strong>The</strong> holy shuns the limelight,<br />
words and communication: it lives beyond them, where th<strong>in</strong>gs are left unsaid<br />
- there are no words.<br />
Silence and stillness are the key <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>of</strong> the Christian tradition, when everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stops before God. <strong>The</strong>y are the essence <strong>of</strong> prayer. F<strong>in</strong>ns get very close to<br />
this when they feel like turn<strong>in</strong>g their backs on everyth<strong>in</strong>g that seems fulfill<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
their daily lives but appears to conceal what is fundamentally true, and so they retreat<br />
to the seashore or the depths <strong>of</strong> the forest. <strong>The</strong>re where you believe that you<br />
can breathe the presence <strong>of</strong> God. It is a genu<strong>in</strong>e desire to acknowledge those fundamental<br />
relationships that have been put <strong>in</strong> place for man, the created be<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and to see mank<strong>in</strong>d’s place from the most basic <strong>of</strong> perspectives.<br />
<strong>The</strong> legacy <strong>of</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g one’s time, silence and stopp<strong>in</strong>g represents an attitude to life<br />
<strong>of</strong> someone that is calm, takes deep breaths and submits to prayer. Thus, like other<br />
religions, the Christian Church takes on the task <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a counterculture,<br />
amid all the efficiency, speed and cost-effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the modern world.<br />
In the silence, we also need to listen carefully to the voices <strong>of</strong> the limnologists, meteorologists<br />
and many other natural scientists, as well as the environmental move-<br />
10
ment. <strong>The</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>tention is the same as that <strong>of</strong> the prophets <strong>in</strong> the Old Testament, who<br />
rem<strong>in</strong>ded us <strong>of</strong> our basic relationship with the reality <strong>of</strong> God and its distortion.<br />
Those voices radically compel us to confront the fact that there are limits beyond<br />
which mank<strong>in</strong>d should not pass. <strong>The</strong>y call for humility when contemplat<strong>in</strong>g creation;<br />
they tell us to stop at the border <strong>of</strong> the holy.<br />
On the <strong>Europe</strong>an scene, where creation groans under the burden <strong>of</strong> weighty tarmac,<br />
there are signs that what is holy has not vanished. Even <strong>in</strong> the midst <strong>of</strong> everyth<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
there is a constant dialogue with God. We have church build<strong>in</strong>gs as a sign<br />
<strong>of</strong> this.<br />
Inside the churches, such po<strong>in</strong>tless and unproductive activities as religious services<br />
go on. <strong>The</strong>y do not have any particular appeal, and are given no public attention.<br />
<strong>The</strong> markets ignore them. Nonetheless, perhaps precisely because <strong>of</strong><br />
them, a cultural place on the landscape rema<strong>in</strong>s open, somewhere people take<br />
stock <strong>of</strong> the fundamental relationships associated with their existence and want to<br />
bow their heads, as they do when they are before someth<strong>in</strong>g holy.<br />
When people bow their heads before God <strong>in</strong> church, this is also a matter <strong>of</strong> confession:<br />
admitt<strong>in</strong>g that we cannot listen to the tragic sigh <strong>of</strong> creation as outside observers.<br />
We are deeply <strong>in</strong>volved, even the Christian Church. As human be<strong>in</strong>gs, we<br />
are part <strong>of</strong> the consumer culture that contam<strong>in</strong>ates everyth<strong>in</strong>g, and, as Christians,<br />
we have <strong>in</strong>terpreted our faith <strong>in</strong> such a manner that it has made way for the arrogant<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> creation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Church cannot, and is unwill<strong>in</strong>g to, dictate from on high how people should<br />
behave: <strong>in</strong>stead, it <strong>in</strong>vites them to common self-reflection, humility and the courage<br />
to change. In the F<strong>in</strong>nish Evangelical Lutheran Church’s Climate Programme,<br />
this <strong>in</strong>vitation can be summarised <strong>in</strong> just three words: gratitude, respect and<br />
moderation.<br />
Courage<br />
<strong>The</strong> Church’s approach derives from those fundamental stories about what is holy<br />
that are told <strong>in</strong> church services. Alongside the first stories <strong>in</strong> the Bible, another tale<br />
is told, one that gives another view <strong>of</strong> what is holy. It is the story <strong>of</strong> Christ, the central<br />
theme <strong>of</strong> the New Testament. It highlights the fact that the sacred, the reality <strong>of</strong><br />
God, is not just beyond this reality, beyond the gates <strong>in</strong> God’s own doma<strong>in</strong>, but is<br />
also fragmented radically amid humanity as a whole.<br />
<strong>The</strong> holy is not encountered solely <strong>in</strong> someth<strong>in</strong>g that reflects the identity <strong>of</strong> someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from the outside, someth<strong>in</strong>g else that is purer and more whole. It can also be<br />
found wherever people have suffered loss, been victims, lost their way, lost their<br />
identity or been broken.<br />
11
That is why this is not just about awareness and identification <strong>of</strong> the holy depend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on humility and respect amid the reality that surrounds us. <strong>The</strong>y also form a basis<br />
for the courage to stand up for all life at its weakest and most fractured po<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
¤ ¤ ¤<br />
<strong>The</strong> articles <strong>in</strong> this book highlight the notion <strong>of</strong> creation groan<strong>in</strong>g, someth<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
comes from different parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, their nature conservation sites, sacred areas<br />
and the life <strong>of</strong> prayer pursued <strong>in</strong> monasteries. It is the sound <strong>of</strong> an awareness <strong>of</strong><br />
what is holy, <strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g us to act with humility before creation and, at the same time,<br />
boldly resist the greedy world <strong>of</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess economy and the consumer culture. <strong>The</strong><br />
articles, written by specialists, give a picture <strong>of</strong> a world we all share, where man is<br />
bound to creation, <strong>in</strong>separably and fatefully. <strong>The</strong> worlds <strong>of</strong> different cultures and<br />
faiths have not shown a desire to withdraw or stay silent when it comes to acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the responsibility we all have for creation. <strong>Europe</strong>’s holy places and traditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> prayer are powerful voices that call on us all to be determ<strong>in</strong>ed and unyield<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> our defence <strong>of</strong> what is holy <strong>in</strong> life.<br />
To this groan, this call, and on behalf <strong>of</strong> the Evangelical Lutheran Church <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
I would like to add these words from Psalm 104: “When you send your Spirit,<br />
they are created, and you renew the face <strong>of</strong> the ground.”<br />
Kari Mäk<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Archbishop<br />
Pielpajärvi Wilderness Church <strong>in</strong> Inari. ><br />
12
Introduction to the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
third workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative <strong>in</strong><br />
Inari/Aanaar, Lapland, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Josep-Maria Mallarach, Thymio Papayannis and<br />
Rauno Väisänen<br />
In order to provide to the reader with<br />
an <strong>in</strong>troduction to the Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
the third workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative,<br />
it seems fitt<strong>in</strong>g, first, to present a<br />
short overview <strong>of</strong> what this Initiative is<br />
about, its goals, approach and accomplishments,<br />
and next, to discuss the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> the workshop, the reason<br />
for hold<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> Northern Lapland, its<br />
development and programme.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative: purpose,<br />
approach and accomplishments<br />
To contribute to improve the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites (SNS) <strong>in</strong> developed<br />
countries and thus to assist <strong>in</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g both their natural and spiritual<br />
values, the Delos Initiative was<br />
launched <strong>in</strong> 2004 <strong>in</strong> the framework <strong>of</strong><br />
the Task Force on Cultural and Spiritual<br />
Values <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong><br />
World Commission <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Initiative was named after the Aegean<br />
island <strong>of</strong> Delos, a sacred site for<br />
both Greeks and Romans, dedicated<br />
to Apollo, the god <strong>of</strong> light, which was<br />
the centre <strong>of</strong> a long last<strong>in</strong>g Athenian<br />
Alliance. In ancient Greek the name<br />
Delos means ‘towards the light’. Delos<br />
Island has no l<strong>in</strong>ks to any s<strong>in</strong>gle liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
faith.<br />
<strong>The</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative is to<br />
identify the pert<strong>in</strong>ence and mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
sacred natural sites and to <strong>in</strong>vestigate<br />
how spiritual values can contribute to<br />
< Dwarf Cornel (Cornus suecica)<br />
15
the conservation and wise use <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> developed countries. <strong>The</strong><br />
sacred natural sites <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
countries have received relatively<br />
much less public and scientific attention,<br />
e.g. by the <strong>IUCN</strong>/WCPA Task<br />
Force on Cultural and Spiritual Values<br />
<strong>of</strong> Protected Areas (Wild and McLeod,<br />
2008). <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative was born to<br />
rem<strong>in</strong>d and recognise that such sacred<br />
natural sites exist also <strong>in</strong> many<br />
protected areas <strong>of</strong> the technologically<br />
developed countries, though <strong>of</strong>ten neglected<br />
or overlooked, and that they<br />
are fac<strong>in</strong>g specific challenges and<br />
need action, if we are to conserve their<br />
heritage for the future.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative approach is ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
based on the standardised analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
specific sites, chosen based on the<br />
criteria <strong>of</strong> relevance and representativeness.<br />
<strong>The</strong> idea is that if best practices<br />
can be identified and developed<br />
<strong>in</strong> highly significant sacred natural<br />
sites, these practices will easily spread<br />
to other sites by means <strong>of</strong> their different<br />
layers <strong>of</strong> radiance. <strong>The</strong> case studies<br />
chosen may either be important for<br />
world religions, the local or folk variations<br />
<strong>of</strong> them, or for the spiritual traditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous people or local<br />
communities.<br />
Case studies are carefully analysed,<br />
usually by local experts, with the objective<br />
to assess their natural, cultural<br />
and spiritual values, to understand<br />
their specificities, how they are related<br />
to each other, what are their ma<strong>in</strong><br />
stakeholders, <strong>of</strong>ten different for the different<br />
dimensions <strong>of</strong> the heritage, and<br />
also to identify threats and opportunities<br />
for improvement. <strong>The</strong> draft diagnose<br />
is discussed with various local<br />
stakeholders, so that a deeper comprehension<br />
<strong>of</strong> the issues could be<br />
achieved. <strong>The</strong>n, a certa<strong>in</strong> number <strong>of</strong><br />
recommendations is proposed to overcome<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> issues identified, hopefully<br />
after discussion and consensus<br />
with the ma<strong>in</strong> stakeholders aga<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong><br />
results <strong>of</strong> this process are presented to<br />
a peer group and debated among its<br />
members, so that lessons <strong>of</strong> general<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest can be extracted from them.<br />
In parallel, theoretical work is carried<br />
out to understand the basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
that the spiritual tradition has about the<br />
symbolic character <strong>of</strong> nature and <strong>in</strong> the<br />
sacredness <strong>of</strong> natural spiritual manifestations.<br />
At this level, the Delos Initiative<br />
attempts to assess their relevance<br />
and <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> various contexts and<br />
to propose and validate analogies and<br />
potential relationships.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se two approaches and the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the lessons they provide<br />
have brought forward positive results<br />
for the conservation <strong>of</strong> sacred natural<br />
sites, <strong>in</strong> particular, as well as for nature<br />
<strong>in</strong> general <strong>in</strong> several countries.<br />
Current case studies <strong>of</strong> the Delos<br />
Initia tive <strong>in</strong>clude protected areas from<br />
virtually all <strong>IUCN</strong> management categories<br />
<strong>of</strong> protected areas. <strong>The</strong>y are found<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, North America, Africa, Asia<br />
and Oceania, and related to the largest<br />
world religions and several primal<br />
spiritual traditions and folk religions.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> these cases comb<strong>in</strong>e outstand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
natural, cultural and spiritual<br />
values. All these sacred natural sites<br />
16
have preceded the establishment <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas, <strong>of</strong>ten by several centuries,<br />
sometimes by thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
years, and many <strong>of</strong> them have traditional<br />
custodians or guardians. Some<br />
are known by small communities, and<br />
have restrictions for access to outsiders,<br />
whilst others receive large numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> pilgrims or visitors, number<strong>in</strong>g<br />
several million per year.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative has previously held<br />
two workshops, the first one at the holy<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> Montserrat, Catalonia,<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2006, and the second at<br />
Ouranoupolis, next to the monastic republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mount Athos, Greece, <strong>in</strong><br />
2007. <strong>The</strong> work carried out dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
first years was compiled <strong>in</strong> the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> both workshops (Mallarach<br />
and Papayannis, 2007; Papayannis<br />
and Mallarach eds, 2010) and<br />
encapsulated <strong>in</strong> the Montserrat (2006)<br />
and Ouranoupolis Statements (2007).<br />
Thus, the purpose <strong>of</strong> organis<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
third Delos workshop <strong>in</strong> Inari <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
Lapland, <strong>in</strong> the Sámi homeland, was to<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Northern <strong>Europe</strong>an dimension<br />
and, especially, and to familiarise<br />
with the culture <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi<br />
people.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conclusions <strong>of</strong> the work that has<br />
been done are be<strong>in</strong>g further evaluated<br />
and ref<strong>in</strong>ed, so that guidance can be<br />
provided, <strong>in</strong>itially to the managers <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
natural areas that <strong>in</strong>clude sacred<br />
sites, but which can also be <strong>of</strong> use to the<br />
custodians <strong>of</strong> these sites, and other concerned<br />
stakeholders. Specific Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
for sacred natural sites related to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions is a need recognised<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
for Protected Area Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites (Wild and McLeod, 2008),<br />
given that the exist<strong>in</strong>g guidel<strong>in</strong>es focus<br />
on the sacred natural sites <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
and local communities.<br />
Until the present day, most <strong>of</strong> the work<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative has been developed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, either at bioregional or<br />
national levels, together with organisations<br />
such as the <strong>IUCN</strong> <strong>Lands</strong>cape<br />
Task Force, the EUROPARC Federation,<br />
Eurosite, the Convention <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian<br />
Protected Areas, Mediterranean<br />
Ramsar sites, and the Protected<br />
Area Unit <strong>of</strong> the Romanian National Forest<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (Romsilva). For <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
the Spanish Section <strong>of</strong> Europarc<br />
agreed to <strong>in</strong>tegrate the cultural<br />
and spiritual values <strong>in</strong> the plann<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
management <strong>of</strong> protected areas <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Programme <strong>of</strong> Work for. Protected<br />
Areas <strong>of</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> 2009-13 (EUROPARC<br />
España, 2009), and currently specific<br />
guidance is be<strong>in</strong>g develop at the national<br />
level. Another example was the<br />
first Conference <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian Convention<br />
on Protected Areas <strong>in</strong> Romania<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2008, which approved the identification<br />
and characterisation <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian<br />
cultural identity <strong>in</strong> the protected<br />
areas, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g spiritual, cultural and<br />
natural values, <strong>in</strong> the Programme <strong>of</strong><br />
Work, and established a work<strong>in</strong>g group<br />
for the tangible and <strong>in</strong>tangible cultural<br />
heritage <strong>of</strong> protected areas.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Inari workshop<br />
<strong>The</strong> third workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative<br />
was held <strong>in</strong> Inari, Lapland, F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
from 30 June to 4 July 2010. <strong>The</strong> theme<br />
17
<strong>of</strong> the workshop was: <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
lands <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. <strong>The</strong> workshop<br />
was organised and supported by the<br />
Natural Heritage Services <strong>of</strong> Metsähallitus,<br />
the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> the Environment<br />
and the <strong>IUCN</strong> National Committee <strong>of</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
<strong>The</strong> workshop was attended by 30 participants<br />
from 14 countries: Estonia, F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Greece,<br />
Norway, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spa<strong>in</strong>,<br />
Switzerland, the Netherlands, and United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g both expert<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative and observers<br />
from F<strong>in</strong>land and Russia. This<br />
third workshop featured a higher number<br />
<strong>of</strong> case studies than the two previous<br />
workshops, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g many that<br />
were highly significant themselves and/<br />
or to widen the representativeness.<br />
<strong>The</strong> location<br />
A short explanation <strong>of</strong> the place names<br />
is also <strong>in</strong> place. <strong>The</strong> venue <strong>of</strong> the workshop<br />
is Inari <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish. Inari is called<br />
Aanaar <strong>in</strong> Inari Sámi, Anár <strong>in</strong> North<br />
Sámi and Aanar <strong>in</strong> Skolt Sámi. Inari’s<br />
name <strong>in</strong> Swedish, F<strong>in</strong>land’s second <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
national language is Enare.<br />
Inari is a F<strong>in</strong>nish Sámi village and the<br />
Sámi adm<strong>in</strong>istrative centre that has<br />
roughly the same area <strong>of</strong> the old siida,<br />
located at the shores <strong>of</strong> Lake Inari. <strong>The</strong><br />
word siida, mean<strong>in</strong>g Lapp village, was<br />
the basic unit <strong>of</strong> the Sámi community,<br />
consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle family units or extended<br />
families. Each siida had a<br />
clearly def<strong>in</strong>ed area. (Näkkäläjärvi,<br />
2002). Inari is situated some 300 kilometres<br />
<strong>of</strong> north <strong>of</strong> the Arctic Circle, <strong>in</strong><br />
the northern part <strong>of</strong> Lapland.<br />
Traditionally, the Inari Sámi have been<br />
fishermen, hunters and gatherers (Lehtola,<br />
2000). Nowadays, the traditional<br />
livelihoods are still important, but the<br />
Inari Sámi are ma<strong>in</strong>ly employed <strong>in</strong> similar<br />
occupations as the F<strong>in</strong>ns.<br />
<strong>The</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> Inari is multiple for<br />
the Sámi people. For many centuries<br />
this was the ‘land <strong>of</strong> the three k<strong>in</strong>gs’ <strong>of</strong><br />
Sweden, Norway and Russia, an important<br />
trade post located at the crossroads<br />
(Lehtola, 2000). It is for this<br />
Participants <strong>of</strong> the Delos3 Workshop visit<strong>in</strong>g the outdoor section <strong>of</strong> the Sámi Museum.<br />
18
unique position <strong>in</strong> Northern Lapland<br />
that Inari is the only village <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
where three Sámi languages coexist,<br />
i.e. North Sámi, Inari Sámi and Skolt<br />
Sámi. Significant efforts are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
done both by the Sámi communities<br />
and authorities and by the F<strong>in</strong>nish government<br />
to preserve this rich heritage<br />
<strong>in</strong> face <strong>of</strong> the pressures <strong>of</strong> standardisation<br />
and globalisation (Aikio, 2000).<br />
Moreover, Inari is the closest village to<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most important ancient Sámi<br />
sacred natural sites: Ukonsaari, i.e. the<br />
island <strong>of</strong> Ukko/Äijih, the ancient div<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the thunder. This relevant sacred natural<br />
site was presented as a case study<br />
at the workshop held <strong>in</strong> Montserrat,<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> 2006 (Norokorpi and Ojanlatva,<br />
2007).<br />
<strong>The</strong> venue <strong>of</strong> the workshop was the auditorium<br />
<strong>of</strong> Siida - <strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum<br />
and Nature Centre which is the <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
centre for the culture and the<br />
environment <strong>in</strong> Northern Lapland. This<br />
remarkable facility opened its doors <strong>in</strong><br />
1998, after long years <strong>of</strong> preparation<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g numerous Sámi researchers.<br />
It was a milestone for the Sámi people,<br />
and their self-esteem, as well as an<br />
outstand<strong>in</strong>g facility that provides one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the best exhibitions about the Sámi<br />
life and its relations to nature and the<br />
northern environment.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Northern countries<br />
Many people <strong>of</strong> the North, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Sámi are not very will<strong>in</strong>g to speak about<br />
spiritual matters, not because they are<br />
not significant to them, but because<br />
they are considered very personal, private<br />
and sacred. This is a quite common<br />
attitude <strong>in</strong> cultures with consistent shamanistic<br />
backgrounds, which are ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
based on experiences, supported by<br />
oral tradition, and have little, if any, written<br />
records, and very limited development<br />
<strong>of</strong> theology and philosophy.<br />
Studies conducted dur<strong>in</strong>g the last few<br />
years showed that most visitors are attracted<br />
to protected areas <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
and also to other Scand<strong>in</strong>avian countries,<br />
not only to view or observe nature<br />
(plants, animals, landscapes), but also<br />
to have an experience <strong>of</strong> peace, harmony,<br />
grandeur, etc. show<strong>in</strong>g that,<br />
even <strong>in</strong> those highly secularised countries,<br />
the immaterial values <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be highly significant for<br />
modern societies.<br />
It is possible that this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> attitude is<br />
also hidden <strong>in</strong> the spiritual motivation<br />
<strong>of</strong> many nature conservationists, although<br />
it may be covered by the science<br />
language and piles <strong>of</strong> technical<br />
data.<br />
<strong>The</strong> programme<br />
<strong>The</strong> workshop began on Thursday with<br />
the welcom<strong>in</strong>g speeches <strong>of</strong> Rauno<br />
Väisänen, Director <strong>of</strong> Metsähallitus<br />
Natural Heritage Services <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land;<br />
Tarmo Jomppanen, Director <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sámi Museum; and Klemetti Näkkäläjärvi,<br />
President <strong>of</strong> the Saami Parliament.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>itial speeches were not<br />
polite formalities, but conveyed important<br />
political and ethical messages,<br />
and for this reason they have been <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
verbatim.<br />
This was followed by a session devoted<br />
to the Sámi people and their rela-<br />
19
tion to nature. Jelena Porsanger began<br />
with an exploration about the Sámi religion<br />
and concept <strong>of</strong> nature; Ti<strong>in</strong>a Äikäs<br />
expla<strong>in</strong>ed the results <strong>of</strong> the excavations<br />
conducted <strong>in</strong> sacred sites <strong>of</strong> Lapland<br />
(sieidi), rais<strong>in</strong>g a significant discussion<br />
about the ethical implications<br />
and the ways how the ethical pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
were taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the research and afterwards.<br />
<strong>The</strong> afternoon session was devoted to<br />
native and <strong>in</strong>digenous sacred lands. It<br />
featured three presentations. <strong>The</strong> first,<br />
by Ahto Kaasik, talked about the Estonian<br />
national strategy for SNS protection<br />
and the challenges for conserv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi. Next, Vyk<strong>in</strong>tas<br />
Vaitkevičius presented the Žemaitija<br />
National Park and the ancient sacred<br />
places <strong>of</strong> Mikytai, Lithuania. <strong>The</strong> last<br />
presentation, the only one from overseas,<br />
was about the Mayo <strong>Lands</strong> and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
communities, Mexico, by Bas<br />
Verschuuren.<br />
On Friday, the first session was devoted<br />
to m<strong>in</strong>ority faiths <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an countries<br />
and safeguard<strong>in</strong>g natural and<br />
spiritual heritage. It featured a presentation<br />
about the little known Alevi-Bektashi<br />
Muslim communities found <strong>in</strong><br />
Greece, Albania, Bulgaria and Turkey,<br />
by Ir<strong>in</strong>i Lyratzaki. <strong>The</strong> next presentation,<br />
on Uvac-Milesevka Special Nature<br />
Reserve and Mileseva Monastery,<br />
Serbia, by Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>darac, discussed<br />
the rich and complex reality <strong>of</strong><br />
an outstand<strong>in</strong>g sacred natural site located<br />
<strong>in</strong> the holy region <strong>of</strong> Raska, the<br />
heart <strong>of</strong> old Serbia, and the current revival<br />
<strong>of</strong> its religious significance. Thirdly,<br />
Juris Urtāns, presented the Zilais<br />
Kalns (Blue hill) <strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong> other<br />
ancient cult sites <strong>of</strong> Semigallia, Latvia,<br />
featur<strong>in</strong>g a remarkable ancient holy<br />
natural site which is considered a national<br />
symbol by Latvian people, with a<br />
relevant record <strong>of</strong> actions for conservation,<br />
despite many pressures and<br />
impacts, and also a recent complex<br />
used for the rituals <strong>of</strong> followers <strong>of</strong> old<br />
Latvian traditions and neo-pagans.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second session focussed on the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> sacred lands by ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
churches. It featured three<br />
presentations. First, Vita de Waal presented<br />
an overview <strong>of</strong> the extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
number and diversity <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
natural sites at the Parco Nazionale<br />
della Majella, Italy, from prehistoric<br />
times to the present. Next, Rob Wild<br />
presented the case study <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne, one <strong>of</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>’s<br />
foremost Christian <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites, the only one where national ecological<br />
values overlap with national religious<br />
and historical values, discuss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the revival <strong>of</strong> the Celtic Christian<br />
spirituality and the role <strong>of</strong> nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
<strong>in</strong> it. F<strong>in</strong>ally, Chiara Serenelli presented<br />
a landscape approach to the wetland<br />
<strong>of</strong> Colfiorito, a Ramsar site connected<br />
with the Via Lauretana, an old pilgrimage<br />
trail <strong>in</strong> Italy discuss<strong>in</strong>g the role that<br />
landscape plann<strong>in</strong>g has and may have<br />
on the conservation and restoration <strong>of</strong><br />
the key heritage elements that make<br />
this site precious.<br />
<strong>The</strong> third session focussed on the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> monastic communities. Thymio<br />
Papayannis presented an update<br />
about the preparation <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
management study for Mount Athos,<br />
20
Greece, the only monastic republic <strong>of</strong><br />
the world, <strong>in</strong> accordance with World<br />
Heritage Site Committee requirements.<br />
Next, Josep-Maria Mallarach made an<br />
overview presentation on the best practices<br />
and new trends on the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> monastic lands <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and<br />
Middle Eastern countries, summariz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a sixteen-century-old experience <strong>of</strong><br />
community management which is still<br />
alive and vibrant <strong>in</strong> many countries.<br />
On Saturday, the first session was devoted<br />
to explore the diversity <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
natural sites <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g three<br />
presentations. <strong>The</strong> first dealt with the<br />
amaz<strong>in</strong>g diversity and number <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
natural sites found <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, Romania, Poland,<br />
Slovakia, Czech Republic, and Serbia,<br />
by Sebastian Catanoiu. <strong>The</strong> second,<br />
with the recovery <strong>of</strong> sacred sites <strong>in</strong><br />
Scotland, by Alastair McIntosh, where<br />
the author, through personal eloquent<br />
histories stressed the need to enter<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a dynamic relationship with <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites to become more fully<br />
alive, participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the responsibility<br />
to conserve and reactivate them,<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> spirituality <strong>of</strong> resurrection; <strong>of</strong><br />
that which gives life as love made<br />
manifest. <strong>The</strong> last presentation, by Alexander<br />
Davydov, was also an overview<br />
<strong>of</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> Orthodox Christian<br />
and <strong>in</strong>digenous sacred sites <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Barents Euro-Arctic Region, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the most northern regions <strong>of</strong> Russia,<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land, Sweden and Norway.<br />
<strong>The</strong> two last sessions were not devoted<br />
to more case studies but to discuss<br />
and assess the validation <strong>of</strong> the 2008<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected<br />
Area Managers <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites. This exercise allowed the active<br />
engagement <strong>of</strong> all the participants before<br />
and dur<strong>in</strong>g the workshop. In the<br />
first session the work was carried <strong>in</strong><br />
three parallel work<strong>in</strong>g groups, whilst <strong>in</strong><br />
the second one the results <strong>of</strong> the three<br />
groups were presented and discussed,<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g the draw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
conclusions. Despite its limitations,<br />
this first attempt <strong>of</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g the applicability<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites was an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
learn<strong>in</strong>g exercise.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conclud<strong>in</strong>g session was a lively<br />
discussion <strong>in</strong> order to identify the key<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts that were to be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Inari/Aanaar Statement, which was ref<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the next few days, until it<br />
reached consensus.<br />
<strong>The</strong> workshop <strong>in</strong>cluded a guided visit<br />
to Siida - <strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum and Nature<br />
Centre, which features the evolution<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sámi communities <strong>in</strong> this<br />
harsh but beautiful environment, their<br />
crafts and tools. In one <strong>of</strong> the rooms<br />
there was a temporary display <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
Sámi drums, pa<strong>in</strong>ted with symbolic<br />
designs and motives. <strong>The</strong>re was<br />
also a visit to the open air museum,<br />
which features a good sample <strong>of</strong> different<br />
types <strong>of</strong> log homes and build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
that have been used <strong>in</strong> the Sámi area.<br />
In addition, an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g field visit<br />
was organised, with two parts, enjoy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a sunny afternoon. <strong>The</strong> first part,<br />
by boat, took the participants to Lake<br />
Inari, sail<strong>in</strong>g to the Ukonsaari/Äijih Island,<br />
where there were some <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
discussions about the need to set<br />
21
limits to accessibility. <strong>The</strong> uniqueness<br />
<strong>of</strong> this ancient sacred natural site was<br />
made more apparent, as it were,<br />
thanks to the beautiful afternoon light<br />
and gorgeous views <strong>of</strong> the lake shores.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second part <strong>of</strong> the field trip, <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
a lovely walk through a wilderness<br />
area, from Pielpavuono Fjord to<br />
Pielpajärvi Wilderness Church, follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a fairy-tale landscape <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
forests, scattered with different types<br />
<strong>of</strong> wetlands. Once at the wilderness<br />
church, a wooden build<strong>in</strong>g dat<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
1760, Vicar Arto Seppänen gave a<br />
speech to the participants on the relation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sámi and the Lutheran<br />
Church. F<strong>in</strong>ally, after the last d<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>in</strong><br />
the Hotel Inar<strong>in</strong> Kultahovi a local cultural<br />
programme, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g traditional<br />
Sámi yoik s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g was <strong>of</strong>fered to the<br />
participants.<br />
<strong>The</strong> co-ord<strong>in</strong>ators <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative<br />
want to express their pr<strong>of</strong>ound gratitude<br />
to the F<strong>in</strong>nish Saami Parliament<br />
and to the Natural Heritage Services <strong>of</strong><br />
Metsähallitus for host<strong>in</strong>g the Workshop<br />
<strong>in</strong> Inari, with the support <strong>of</strong> the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Environment and the <strong>IUCN</strong> National<br />
Committee <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, and contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the Delos co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation to the organisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the workshop. In particular,<br />
they are especially pleased by the<br />
excellent <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> the Natural<br />
Heritage Services, the national agency<br />
<strong>in</strong> charge <strong>of</strong> protected areas, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the participation <strong>of</strong> the Director <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Natural Heritage Services to the entire<br />
workshop, as well as to the edit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the three editors want to thank<br />
for the effective coord<strong>in</strong>ation and the<br />
careful l<strong>in</strong>guistic review done by Liisa<br />
Nikula, Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services, which succeeded <strong>in</strong> produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a good quality English publication<br />
from manuscripts <strong>of</strong> very diverse<br />
quality.<br />
Rock on the path to Pielpajärvi Wilderness Church<br />
22
References<br />
Aikio, A. (2000). <strong>The</strong> geographical and sociol<strong>in</strong>guistic situation, pp. 34-40, <strong>in</strong> J.<br />
Pennanen and K. Näkkäläjärvi (Editors) (2003) SIIDDASTALLAN - From Lapp<br />
Communities to Modern Sámi Life. Siida Sámi Museum (Inari).<br />
EUROPARC España (2009). Programa de trabajo para las Áreas Protegidas 2009-<br />
2013. Ed. Fungobe, Madrid.<br />
Lehtola, T. (2000). <strong>The</strong> history <strong>of</strong> the Sámi <strong>of</strong> Inari, pp.122-137, <strong>in</strong> J. Pennanen and<br />
K. Nakkäläjärvi (Editors) (2003) SIIDDASTALLAN -From Lapp Communities to<br />
Modern Sámi Life. Siida Sámi Museum (Inari).<br />
Mallarach, J.-M. and Papayannis, T. (2007). Nature and spirituality <strong>in</strong> protected areas:<br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the 1 st Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative. Mallarach, T. Sant<br />
Joan les Fonts, Spa<strong>in</strong>: Abadia de Montserrat and <strong>IUCN</strong>.<br />
Näkkäläjärvi, K. (2003). <strong>The</strong> siida, or Sámi village, as the basis <strong>of</strong> community life.<br />
pp. 114-121, <strong>in</strong> J. Pennanen and K. Näkkäläjärvi (Editors) (2003) SIIDDASTALLAN<br />
- From Lapp Communities to Modern Sámi Life. Siida Sámi Museum (Inari).<br />
Papayannis, T. & Mallarach, J-M, eds. (2009). <strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Dimension <strong>of</strong> Protected<br />
Areas: Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Second Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative - Ouranoupolis<br />
2007 <strong>IUCN</strong>; Athens, Greece: Med-INA.<br />
Verschuuren, B; Wild, R; McNeely, J & Oviedo, G. (2010). <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural sites.<br />
Conserv<strong>in</strong>g Nature and Culture. Earthscan, London And New York.<br />
Wild, R. & McLeod, C. (Editors). (2008). <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites: Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected<br />
Area Managers. Gland, Switzerland: <strong>IUCN</strong>; Paris, France: UNESCO, Best<br />
Practice Protected Area Guidel<strong>in</strong>es Series, 16.<br />
23
Part One:<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi people and their<br />
relation to nature<br />
25
Greet<strong>in</strong>gs from the Saami Parliament<br />
Juvvá Lemet – Klemetti Näkkäläjärvi<br />
<strong>The</strong> Constitution <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land guarantees<br />
for the Saami the status <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people, the right to their own language<br />
and culture. <strong>The</strong> constitution<br />
grants Saami people cultural autonomy<br />
<strong>in</strong> Northern F<strong>in</strong>land <strong>in</strong> their homeland,<br />
which covers the municipalities<br />
<strong>of</strong> Enontekiö, Inari and Utsjoki and the<br />
northern part <strong>of</strong> Sodankylä.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami Language Act protects the<br />
language, and the responsibilities <strong>of</strong><br />
the Saami Parliament are specially set<br />
by law. <strong>The</strong> Saami are the only <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an Union. In F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
there are three Saami languages<br />
spoken: the North, Inari and Skolt<br />
Saami. All <strong>of</strong> the languages are spoken<br />
<strong>in</strong> Inari municipality. <strong>The</strong>re are around<br />
9300 Saamis liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are also Saami people liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Norway,<br />
Sweden and Russia and all together<br />
there are ca. 70 000 – 100 000 Saamis.<br />
<strong>The</strong> traditional Saami livelihoods are<br />
re<strong>in</strong>deer herd<strong>in</strong>g, fish<strong>in</strong>g, hunt<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
gather<strong>in</strong>g and Saami handicrafts, Sámi<br />
Duodji. <strong>The</strong> only viable traditional livelihood<br />
is re<strong>in</strong>deer herd<strong>in</strong>g. Hunt<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g have become secondary livelihoods.<br />
An important part <strong>of</strong> the Saami<br />
culture is the knowledge embedded <strong>in</strong><br />
the language on places, nature, flora<br />
and fauna and the community’s history.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami musical tradition, yoik, is an<br />
important part <strong>of</strong> our culture and the<br />
< <strong>The</strong> President <strong>of</strong> the Saami Parliament participated <strong>in</strong> the Sem<strong>in</strong>ar and wished all the participants<br />
welcome to Sápmi.<br />
27
yoik transmits the oral tradition to future<br />
generations. Although all the<br />
Saami people live <strong>in</strong> villages, attend<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish schools and many are occupied<br />
outside traditional Saami livelihoods,<br />
the Saami culture’s traditions<br />
are still very much alive.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami society is fac<strong>in</strong>g threats.<br />
Over sixty percent <strong>of</strong> the Saami <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
are liv<strong>in</strong>g outside the traditional<br />
Saami homeland and as many as 70%<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Saami children are liv<strong>in</strong>g outside<br />
the Saami homeland. For the future <strong>of</strong><br />
the Saami culture the situation is<br />
threaten<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> Saami liv<strong>in</strong>g outside<br />
the Saami homeland do not get education<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Saami language and culture<br />
with a few exceptions. <strong>The</strong> connection<br />
to the Saami traditions and the traditional<br />
Saami livelihoods weaken when<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g outside the Saami homeland.<br />
<strong>The</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish Saami Parliament was established<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1995. <strong>The</strong>re are Saami Parliaments<br />
<strong>in</strong> Norway and Sweden as<br />
well. <strong>The</strong> Saami Parliament is a political<br />
organ. Every four year 21 Saami are<br />
elected to the Saami Parliament. <strong>The</strong><br />
Saami Parliament ma<strong>in</strong>ly works by giv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
statements, and by negotiat<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficials. All the time the Parliament is<br />
try<strong>in</strong>g to improve the legal status <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Saami. It also provides fund<strong>in</strong>g for services<br />
provided <strong>in</strong> the Saami language<br />
<strong>in</strong> the social and health sector, to Saami<br />
organisations and culture, and for the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g materials <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Saami language. <strong>The</strong> Saami Parliament<br />
has an <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>in</strong> Inari and side <strong>of</strong>fices <strong>in</strong><br />
Enontekiö and Utsjoki. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
around 30 people work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Saami<br />
Parliament. A new Saami Cultural Centre<br />
is under construction <strong>in</strong> Inari. It is<br />
called Sajos and it should be completed<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2012. <strong>The</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g will also house<br />
the Saami Parliament and <strong>of</strong>fer other<br />
services as well.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami Parliament was very happy<br />
that the third Delos Workshop was organised<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Saami homeland and especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> Inari, which is a home <strong>of</strong> the<br />
three Saami cultures. <strong>The</strong> Áddjá, Ukko<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, is probably the most wellknown<br />
Saami sieidi <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. <strong>The</strong> sieidi<br />
is a sacred place for the Saami people.<br />
A sieidi is usually a natural object<br />
that is usually <strong>of</strong> stone and unshaped<br />
by human. <strong>Sacred</strong> sites and the mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
associated with them are a part <strong>of</strong><br />
the ethnic identity <strong>of</strong> the Saami, and<br />
they have played a role <strong>in</strong> the creation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Saami environmental relationship.<br />
Sieidis are evidence <strong>of</strong> social organisation<br />
and <strong>of</strong> a process <strong>of</strong> gett<strong>in</strong>g a grip <strong>of</strong><br />
the environment <strong>of</strong> the surround<strong>in</strong>g reality.<br />
Sieidis have functioned as part <strong>of</strong><br />
the Saami people’s environmental relationship.<br />
When ask<strong>in</strong>g the sieidi, for example,<br />
for help <strong>in</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g or fish<strong>in</strong>g, it is<br />
important that the sieidi as well will be<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered respect and benefit through<br />
sacrifice. <strong>The</strong> people and the Gods had<br />
mutual respect; and the Saami people<br />
would not try to control the force <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
or Gods at all. <strong>The</strong> Saami have <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
usually meat, fish, antlers, metal<br />
and co<strong>in</strong>s to the sieidi.<br />
Áddjá has been a sacred place for the<br />
Aanaar Saami people dur<strong>in</strong>g centuries.<br />
Àddjá is a perfect Delos case<br />
study site. Inari municipality is plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on hav<strong>in</strong>g a lot <strong>of</strong> tourist attractions<br />
and resort villages built around<br />
28
Lake Inari. Some <strong>of</strong> them are planned<br />
to be built near Áddjá. For the Saami<br />
people this development is unwelcome.<br />
It’s important that the religious<br />
site and its surround<strong>in</strong>g environment<br />
are protected from mass tourism.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami traditional religion, shamanism<br />
has evolved together with the<br />
Saami culture and livelihoods. Nature<br />
is an important part <strong>of</strong> the Saami shamanistic<br />
religion. <strong>The</strong> Saami attitude<br />
towards nature can be described as<br />
an attitude <strong>of</strong> unity, <strong>in</strong> other words, man<br />
is seen as a part <strong>of</strong> nature, not as hold<strong>in</strong>g<br />
power over it.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami religion that has helped the<br />
Saami people to survive <strong>in</strong> nature has<br />
almost disappeared. When the colonialists<br />
came to the Saami area, the<br />
Saami religion was rapidly forbidden<br />
and also the traditions l<strong>in</strong>ked to shamanism<br />
disappeared. <strong>The</strong> Saami people<br />
were forced to abandon their religion<br />
and convert to Christianity. Our<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> the Saami religion is th<strong>in</strong>,<br />
because the oral tradition was lost.<br />
And, that is someth<strong>in</strong>g that no science<br />
can br<strong>in</strong>g back. Luckily, at least sieidis<br />
and their mean<strong>in</strong>g have survived<br />
through the assimilation process.<br />
Although shamanism was replaced by<br />
Christianity, the sieidis cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be<br />
an important part <strong>of</strong> the Saami cultural<br />
heritage, and knowledge <strong>of</strong> the sieidis<br />
has been passed on from one generation<br />
to the other. Many <strong>of</strong> the Saami<br />
sieidis are well known. However, there<br />
are still many sieidis that are only<br />
known by members <strong>of</strong> the community.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Saami people have wanted to<br />
keep the knowledge private, and the<br />
privacy <strong>of</strong> the Saami people’s spiritual<br />
beliefs has to be respected. In recent<br />
years there has been quite a lot <strong>of</strong> discussion<br />
on who can study sacred sites<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous people, who should<br />
benefit from the studies and how the<br />
research should be conducted.<br />
<strong>The</strong> approval <strong>of</strong> the UN Declaration on<br />
the Rights <strong>of</strong> Indigenous Peoples <strong>in</strong><br />
2007 is mean<strong>in</strong>gful when consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />
guidance on how to conduct research<br />
<strong>in</strong> sacred sites. <strong>The</strong> Declaration states<br />
<strong>in</strong> article 11 that ‘<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
have the right to practice and revitalise<br />
their cultural traditions and customs. It<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes the right to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>, protect<br />
and develop the past, present and future<br />
manifestations <strong>of</strong> their cultures,<br />
such as archaeological and historical<br />
sites, artifacts, designs, ceremonies,<br />
technologies and visual and perform<strong>in</strong>g<br />
arts and literature’. Furthermore,<br />
article 12 states that ‘<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
have the right to manifest, practice,<br />
develop and teach their spiritual<br />
and religious traditions, customs and<br />
ceremonies; the right to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>, protect,<br />
and have access <strong>in</strong> privacy to<br />
their religious and cultural sites; the<br />
right to the use and control <strong>of</strong> their ceremonial<br />
objects; and the right to the<br />
repatriation <strong>of</strong> their human rema<strong>in</strong>s’.<br />
<strong>The</strong> UN Declaration on the Rights <strong>of</strong> Indigenous<br />
Peoples is a powerful document<br />
and it obligates different stakeholders<br />
to respect the spiritual beliefs<br />
and places <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples.<br />
I hope that the Declaration will be implemented<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land and <strong>in</strong> other<br />
countries as well.<br />
29
For researchers and <strong>in</strong>digenous people,<br />
it is important that common guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
are set on how sacred sites <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people should be studied.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land, like all <strong>of</strong> the other <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Union Countries, has ratified the UN<br />
Convention on Biological <strong>Diversity</strong>. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous people the Convention is<br />
highly important. Article 8(j) <strong>of</strong> the Convention<br />
protects the traditional knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> Saami l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>in</strong> natural resources.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land has begun the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Article 8(j) <strong>of</strong> the Convention<br />
on Biological <strong>Diversity</strong>. <strong>The</strong> purpose<br />
<strong>of</strong> the work is to secure the safeguard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the traditional Saami knowledge.<br />
<strong>The</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g group will complete<br />
its work <strong>in</strong> summer 2011. <strong>The</strong> Saami expect<br />
that the proposals to be made by<br />
the work<strong>in</strong>g group will help safeguard<br />
the traditional Saami knowledge.<br />
A code <strong>of</strong> ethical conduct was approved<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Conference <strong>of</strong> the Parties<br />
to the Convention on Biological <strong>Diversity</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> autumn 2010. <strong>The</strong> code gives<br />
guidance when work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> areas where<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous people are <strong>in</strong>habited,<br />
where their traditional areas are located<br />
or <strong>in</strong> connection to their sacred<br />
sites. When study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>digenous cultures<br />
and their heritage, it is important<br />
to take the research ethics <strong>in</strong>to serious<br />
consideration. For <strong>in</strong>digenous people it<br />
is especially important that they can<br />
approve the research methods and<br />
aims, and be aware <strong>of</strong> the research results.<br />
<strong>The</strong> code <strong>of</strong> ethical conduct<br />
states that the <strong>in</strong>formation obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
from the research with <strong>in</strong>digenous people<br />
should be shared with them <strong>in</strong> understandable<br />
and culturally appropriate<br />
formats, with a view to promote <strong>in</strong>ter-cultural<br />
exchanges, knowledge and<br />
technology transfer. Perhaps <strong>in</strong> future<br />
the Delos Initiative should consider<br />
these aspects as well.<br />
Drum at Sámi Museum. ><br />
30
Words <strong>of</strong> welcome<br />
Tarmo Jomppanen<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum Siida was founded<br />
as early as <strong>in</strong> 1959, and it opened for<br />
the public for the first time on Midsummer<br />
Day <strong>in</strong> 1963. For more than three<br />
decades, the Museum was a facility<br />
that stayed open only dur<strong>in</strong>g the summer.<br />
Today, the Open-Air Museum<br />
hosts almost 50 orig<strong>in</strong>al Sámi build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and constructions, as well as relevant<br />
reconstructions, and it still constitutes<br />
a popular part <strong>of</strong> the exhibitions that<br />
Siida provides to the public on the<br />
Sámi culture and northern nature.<br />
In 1998, when the new Siida Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was completed, the Sámi Museum became<br />
a facility that was able to run pr<strong>of</strong>essionally.<br />
At the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> 1999, the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Education granted the<br />
Sámi Museum Siida the status <strong>of</strong> a national<br />
special museum. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the past<br />
12 years, the museum assumed an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
number <strong>of</strong> new and diversified<br />
tasks. <strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum has launched<br />
regional activities <strong>in</strong> the Sámi Area: <strong>in</strong><br />
Western Lapland <strong>in</strong> Hetta <strong>in</strong> the municipality<br />
<strong>of</strong> Enontekiö and <strong>in</strong> Eastern Lapland<br />
<strong>in</strong> Sevettijärvi, which is the centre <strong>of</strong><br />
the Skolt Sámi culture. Our third regional<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice will be established <strong>in</strong> a few years<br />
time at the Ailigas Institute <strong>in</strong> Utsjoki <strong>in</strong><br />
the northern part <strong>of</strong> the Sámi Area.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum Siida aims at develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the activities <strong>of</strong> the museum so<br />
that it will take care <strong>of</strong> the tasks deal<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the Sámi <strong>in</strong> the museum field.<br />
As the cultural <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
are very young, this will, <strong>in</strong> practice, require<br />
a redistribution <strong>of</strong> the resources<br />
and the record<strong>in</strong>g and documentation<br />
responsibilities.<br />
33
At present, the Sámi Museum Siida is<br />
already responsible for collect<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
record<strong>in</strong>g the material cultural heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sámi related to historic times.<br />
<strong>The</strong> National Museum <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land does<br />
not expand its Sámi collections anymore,<br />
and there has been an agreement<br />
with the Prov<strong>in</strong>cial Museum <strong>of</strong><br />
Lapland that the Sámi Museum bears<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> responsibility <strong>in</strong> this sphere.<br />
At the moment, the Sámi Museum has<br />
not reached a f<strong>in</strong>al solution on how to<br />
divide the responsibilities <strong>of</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the prehistoric cultural heritage and<br />
cultural landscapes, but it is proceed<strong>in</strong>g<br />
towards an agreement.<br />
<strong>The</strong> entire Sámi Area, or Sámi Homeland,<br />
can be considered a Sámi cultural<br />
landscape. This wide region still has<br />
a great number <strong>of</strong> areas that have not<br />
been surveyed, as well as many cultural<br />
monuments and sites that have not<br />
been registered yet. <strong>The</strong> number <strong>of</strong> archaeological<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventory surveys conducted<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Sámi Area is small when<br />
compared to the number <strong>of</strong> such surveys<br />
carried out elsewhere <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, the <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
necessitated by tourism and the economic<br />
use <strong>of</strong> forests, the pressures on<br />
land use <strong>in</strong> Lapland have <strong>in</strong>creased.<br />
To survey the area archaeologically,<br />
we need both expertise and more resources<br />
than we have now.<br />
What is a Sámi cultural<br />
environment?<br />
In the Sámi community, the terms ‘cultural<br />
environment’ and ‘cultural landscape’<br />
are understood more comprehensively<br />
than <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
cultural landscapes. <strong>The</strong> cultural landscape<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sámi consists <strong>of</strong> an environment<br />
built by people, but also <strong>of</strong> immaterial,<br />
symbolic culture created by<br />
people. Such a cultural environment<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes, for example, the communal<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> the right to use certa<strong>in</strong><br />
areas and routes, place names, stories,<br />
yoik<strong>in</strong>g, beliefs and narratives –<br />
and a vocabulary <strong>in</strong> the native language<br />
which makes communication on<br />
these issues possible.<br />
Understand<strong>in</strong>g this necessity is extremely<br />
important, especially when the<br />
management and protection <strong>of</strong> the cultural<br />
environment and heritage <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sámi are concerned. It is also crucial<br />
to remember that, <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> culture,<br />
the Sámi Area is not homogenous.<br />
From the po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> cultural environments,<br />
there are differences <strong>in</strong> natural<br />
conditions and sources <strong>of</strong> livelihood;<br />
the Sámi groups are also different<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> their visual cultures, cultural<br />
contacts, belief traditions, customs<br />
and languages.<br />
Until now, tasks that deal with Sámi<br />
cultural environments have ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
been taken care <strong>of</strong> through relevant<br />
projects. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>ventory project,<br />
a clear need for a permanent Sámi cultural<br />
environment unit became<br />
evident.<br />
<strong>The</strong> mapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Sámi cultural heritage<br />
and the cultural environments related<br />
to it must be an ongo<strong>in</strong>g process.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a great number <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
environments <strong>in</strong> our area that are<br />
34
threatened. It is extremely important to<br />
locate the sites which no longer show<br />
any visual signs <strong>of</strong> use, but which we<br />
know that are still there accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
narrative tradition. One <strong>of</strong> the characteristics<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sámi cultural environments<br />
is that the old way <strong>of</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
mov<strong>in</strong>g did not necessary leave traces<br />
<strong>in</strong> nature – therefore, the natural surround<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> many cultural sites look<br />
completely untouched.<br />
For years, the found<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a Sámi Cultural<br />
Environment Unit has been one <strong>of</strong><br />
the most important goals <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
Museum. <strong>The</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish Sámi Parliament,<br />
too, has been very active <strong>in</strong> this regard,<br />
support<strong>in</strong>g the establishment <strong>of</strong><br />
such a unit <strong>in</strong> its statements to different<br />
authorities. We have now taken a step<br />
forward <strong>in</strong> this matter, as a three-year<br />
pilot project called Sámi Cultural Environments<br />
will be launched at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> 2011. As the name suggests,<br />
the project will carry out activities<br />
that deal with Sámi cultural<br />
environments.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum Foundation has<br />
been granted EU fund<strong>in</strong>g for 2.5 years<br />
by the Regional Council <strong>of</strong> Lapland for<br />
a project called Ealli biras – Elävä<br />
ympäristö (‘Liv<strong>in</strong>g Environment’). One<br />
<strong>of</strong> the objectives <strong>of</strong> the project is to<br />
draw up a Sámi Cultural Environment<br />
Programme for the Sámi Area. <strong>The</strong> project<br />
will employ a coord<strong>in</strong>ator with expertise<br />
<strong>in</strong> Sámi cultural environments.<br />
Through special fund<strong>in</strong>g from the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Education, the project will also<br />
engage an archaeologist.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Cultural Environment Unit will operate<br />
under the auspices <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
Museum Siida. It has already been<br />
agreed that dur<strong>in</strong>g the pilot project, the<br />
National Board <strong>of</strong> Antiquities will delegate<br />
tasks concern<strong>in</strong>g the management<br />
and protection <strong>of</strong> cultural environments<br />
to this <strong>of</strong>fice. In F<strong>in</strong>land, the<br />
National Board <strong>of</strong> Antiquities has so far<br />
made similar agreements with a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>cial museums.<br />
Another objective <strong>of</strong> the pilot project is<br />
to draw up an operations model for the<br />
Sámi Cultural Environment Unit together<br />
with the Sámi Parliament, the National<br />
Board <strong>of</strong> Antiquities, the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Education and the Centre for Economic<br />
Development, Transport and the<br />
Environment (ELY) <strong>in</strong> Lapland.<br />
Our goal is to ensure permanent fund<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for the Cultural Environment Unit so<br />
that its activities will be carried out on<br />
a permanent basis from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> 2014 onwards.<br />
I would like to welcome the Delos<br />
Workshop here <strong>in</strong> the midst <strong>of</strong> a Sámi<br />
cultural landscape, which has been <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
by all the three different Sámi<br />
cultures and ways <strong>of</strong> life that coexist <strong>in</strong><br />
the municipality <strong>of</strong> Inari: the Inari Sámi,<br />
the Skolt Sámi and the North Sámi<br />
cultures.<br />
35
Indigenous Sámi religion: General<br />
considerations about relationships<br />
Jelena Porsanger<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous religion <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
people displays the relationship between<br />
humans and everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> creation,<br />
which can be called by the concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘Nature’. This close relationship<br />
has traditionally been reciprocal, and<br />
can be considered as the very basis <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi religion.<br />
Indigenous Sámi religion<br />
Indigenous religion is a frequently<br />
used concept <strong>in</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> religion<br />
nowadays (see Harvey, 2000, 2002;<br />
Olupona, 2004). <strong>The</strong> concept <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
religions that do not have a historical<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>, such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism<br />
or other world religions, and that<br />
do not belong to any <strong>of</strong> the so-called<br />
revivalist movements.<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous religion<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts to the orig<strong>in</strong>al start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> a<br />
religion, its persistent nature and a dist<strong>in</strong>ctive<br />
tradition which is characteristic<br />
for a particular people, alongside an<br />
ongo<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>of</strong> change. In the history<br />
<strong>of</strong> research, terms and concepts<br />
like ‘the historical religions <strong>of</strong> literary<br />
cultures’ (Pentikä<strong>in</strong>en 1998) or ‘literary<br />
religions’ have been used to describe<br />
the world religions, while the concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>in</strong>digenous religions’ represents religions<br />
which have been practiced by<br />
peoples mostly without a tradition <strong>of</strong><br />
writ<strong>in</strong>g, e.g. Rydv<strong>in</strong>g (1993, 1995) and<br />
Braun and McCutcheon, 2000).<br />
< Drum at Sámi Museum.<br />
37
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous religions is<br />
used <strong>in</strong> Asia, America, Africa, Oceania,<br />
Australia and other parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world, where <strong>in</strong>digenous people are<br />
found practic<strong>in</strong>g their own religion. <strong>The</strong><br />
first part <strong>of</strong> the term ‘<strong>in</strong>digenous religion’<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts to the orig<strong>in</strong>al belong<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
a religion. ‘Home’ or ‘belong<strong>in</strong>g to a<br />
home place’ are connotations for the<br />
term <strong>in</strong>digenous. This concept leads<br />
to the notion <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g produced or liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
naturally <strong>in</strong> a particular region <strong>in</strong><br />
geographical, ethnic, or religious<br />
sense (Long 2004, 89).<br />
Present day researchers <strong>of</strong> religions<br />
have abandoned such terms as ‘primitive’,<br />
‘pre-Christian’, ‘heathen’, ‘illiterate’<br />
and ‘oral’. Academic religious research<br />
has traditionally focussed on issues<br />
that were quite distant from those<br />
that <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples themselves<br />
considered as <strong>in</strong>digenous religion. In<br />
connection with the Sámi <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
religion, a sample <strong>of</strong> abandoned descriptive<br />
terms would <strong>in</strong>clude the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
terms: ‘the Lapps’ idolarity’,<br />
‘witchcraft and superstitions’, ‘the<br />
Lapps’ religion’, ‘the earlier Sámi heathen<br />
belief and superstitions’, ‘the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
or ‘primitive’ heathen religion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Lapps’ or ‘Sámi Pre-Christian Religion’<br />
(Rydv<strong>in</strong>g (1993, 1995). <strong>The</strong>se concepts<br />
are no longer <strong>in</strong> use. For the<br />
study <strong>of</strong> the Sámi spiritual culture <strong>in</strong><br />
the Sámi language, us<strong>in</strong>g a Sámi approach,<br />
a new Sámi term has been<br />
proposed - sámi eamioskkoldat (<strong>in</strong> the<br />
North Sámi language, see Porsanger<br />
2007). <strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> the Sámi <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
religion emphasises the connection<br />
between the spiritual heritage<br />
and the ongo<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>of</strong> change <strong>in</strong><br />
the spiritual life <strong>of</strong> the Sámi people, the<br />
central importance <strong>of</strong> the elders and<br />
ancestors as the carriers and teachers<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sámi traditions, as well as embody<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an <strong>in</strong>separable unification <strong>of</strong><br />
people and nature.<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi have traditionally had a different<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> nature than, for example,<br />
urban people. <strong>The</strong> Sámi concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature implies relationships, reciprocity,<br />
and a notion <strong>of</strong> power, both for<br />
humans and for the whole surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />
world. <strong>The</strong>re is no one s<strong>in</strong>gle Sámi<br />
word, which is equivalent to the Western<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> nature. Instead, there is<br />
a variety <strong>of</strong> terms for what the Sámi<br />
considered as nature. That is why the<br />
term nature is used <strong>in</strong> this text <strong>in</strong> quotation<br />
marks. For nature one can f<strong>in</strong>d,<br />
for example, <strong>in</strong> North Sámi, the term <strong>of</strong><br />
luondu, which implies the character <strong>of</strong><br />
somebody or someth<strong>in</strong>g, like beatnaga<br />
luondu ‘the nature <strong>of</strong> a dog’, olbmo<br />
luondu ‘character <strong>of</strong> a human’, luonddubiras<br />
‘surround<strong>in</strong>g environment’ etc.<br />
<strong>The</strong> term meahcci implies territories<br />
and recourses outside peoples’ permanent<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g places, but there is a diversity<br />
<strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> this concept<br />
(Schanche, 2002).<br />
Nature traditionally has been for the<br />
Sámi both a physical and spiritual entity,<br />
and humans are a natural part <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
For the Sámi, nature represents at the<br />
same time a home, a way <strong>of</strong> life, the<br />
source <strong>of</strong> survival, cont<strong>in</strong>uity and oral<br />
history, the present and the future. Tra-<br />
38
ditionally, the aim <strong>of</strong> the Sámi people<br />
has not been to make the most efficient<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the natural resources as a<br />
source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come, but rather to use<br />
them rationally <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able way, as<br />
survival <strong>in</strong> the North depends on the<br />
renewal <strong>of</strong> the riches <strong>of</strong> nature.<br />
<strong>The</strong> values and norms regard<strong>in</strong>g nature<br />
that the Sámi learn already as children<br />
are especially crucial today both for the<br />
Sámi themselves and for the world, <strong>in</strong><br />
general. Many <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples nowadays<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g forward their values and<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> their relationships<br />
with the natural environment. <strong>The</strong>y emphasise<br />
that holistic understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
the relationships practised by many <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples can teach the world a<br />
lesson about susta<strong>in</strong>ability, balance and<br />
respect <strong>in</strong> the time <strong>of</strong> climate change<br />
and environmental problems.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi have traditionally had a holistic<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> relationships with<br />
nature. This can be exemplified by the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> ‘ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> life’, used<br />
<strong>in</strong> the daily language by the North Sámi<br />
nowadays. This is a concept <strong>of</strong> birgejupmi,<br />
which is associated with people<br />
(both <strong>in</strong>dividuals and collectives), natural<br />
resources, physical, spiritual and<br />
psychical health, and implies a close<br />
connection between the landscape,<br />
environment, and ecosystems and the<br />
social and spiritual healthy development<br />
and identity, belong<strong>in</strong>g. Birgejupmi<br />
for a person or community means<br />
ways to manage and to have good life<br />
socially, economically, spiritually and <strong>in</strong><br />
respect to health.<br />
Reciprocity and dialogue<br />
<strong>The</strong> traditional Sámi outlook on life is<br />
based on notions that reflect the relationship<br />
between humans, animals,<br />
non-human be<strong>in</strong>gs, nature, gods and<br />
other powers. In this relationship humans<br />
and nature are not opposed to<br />
each other. Rather, humans are an <strong>in</strong>tegral<br />
part <strong>of</strong> nature. On the other hand,<br />
nature – both physically and spiritually<br />
– is a part <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> humans and<br />
a source <strong>of</strong> strength for humans. <strong>The</strong><br />
weaken<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> this reciprocal relationship<br />
and disruption <strong>of</strong> this balance may<br />
decrease the strength <strong>of</strong> humans.<br />
On an <strong>in</strong>dividual and collective level,<br />
the relationship to the <strong>in</strong>ternal and external<br />
world is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed through rituals.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se rituals keep the order <strong>of</strong> life<br />
<strong>in</strong> balance, which is very important for<br />
the survival <strong>of</strong> the community. Balance<br />
has been traditionally ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by the<br />
Sámi people through rituals, by follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
normative patterns <strong>of</strong> behaviour,<br />
and established practices, by show<strong>in</strong>g<br />
respect, and through a dialogue on<br />
both an <strong>in</strong>dividual and collective level.<br />
By follow<strong>in</strong>g rules and normative patterns<br />
<strong>of</strong> behaviour people function,<br />
Sámi th<strong>in</strong>k and feel that they can<br />
achieve someth<strong>in</strong>g. Especially <strong>in</strong> the<br />
worldview <strong>of</strong> the northern people, the<br />
well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> both humans and nature<br />
depends on the balance between them.<br />
In Sámi spirituality and tradition both<br />
humans and nature are liv<strong>in</strong>g and active<br />
<strong>in</strong>terdependent be<strong>in</strong>gs. That is why<br />
a constant dialogue between these<br />
parts is necessary. Nature and everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that is part <strong>of</strong> it can be spoken to<br />
directly or <strong>in</strong>directly. For example, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
39
Kola Sámi oral tradition it is natural to<br />
say ‘You, my grandmother River’, ‘Thank<br />
you, old woman Lake’ etc. <strong>The</strong> relationship<br />
between humans and everyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> creation is not only personal, but also<br />
has a moral mean<strong>in</strong>g – the world around<br />
us is ethical and just.<br />
Natural phenomena and spirits<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature<br />
In Sámi cosmology, many natural phenomena<br />
were considered universal, <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
<strong>of</strong> people. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>cluded,<br />
for example, the Midnight Sun, the<br />
Northern lights (aurora borealis), and<br />
the thunder rumbl<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g short<br />
summer. In Sámi cosmography, each<br />
<strong>of</strong> these had a role <strong>in</strong> expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the orig<strong>in</strong><br />
and structure <strong>of</strong> the universe and<br />
the concept <strong>of</strong> time. It is worth mention<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that the traditional Sámi concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> time is not l<strong>in</strong>ear, but circular.<br />
For example, accord<strong>in</strong>g to oral tradition,<br />
cosmic hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a wild re<strong>in</strong>deer<br />
or elk has happened s<strong>in</strong>ce the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world and will never end.<br />
<strong>The</strong> hunters – <strong>in</strong> some stories the thunder<br />
god, <strong>in</strong> others the Sámi forefathers<br />
who <strong>in</strong>vented skis and became stars<br />
(Gállá bártnit ‘sons <strong>of</strong> Gállá’ <strong>in</strong> North<br />
Sámi, three stars <strong>in</strong> the star constellation<br />
known as the Orion Belt) – can<br />
never reach the animal. That is why the<br />
thunder god is shoot<strong>in</strong>g his arrows<br />
(lightn<strong>in</strong>g, tiirmes tool ‘fire <strong>of</strong> thunder<br />
god’ <strong>in</strong> Kild<strong>in</strong> Sámi) from year to year.<br />
<strong>The</strong> constellation <strong>of</strong> Gállá bártnit never<br />
comes closer to the constellation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Elk on the northern sky, but the hunters<br />
arise to the sky each even<strong>in</strong>g try<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
reach the Elk, which is constantly mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
away from them. <strong>The</strong>se movements<br />
and happen<strong>in</strong>gs are a part <strong>of</strong> the cycle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the universe.<br />
Sámi people are aware <strong>of</strong> natural spirits<br />
and the realms that they control<br />
(see for example Bäckman, 1975; Porsanger,<br />
1997a). In the names <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
spirits we f<strong>in</strong>d a reflection <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
philosophy: one <strong>of</strong> the North Sámi<br />
terms for spirit vuoigŋa is connected to<br />
the verb vuoiŋŋat ’breathe’, as it is <strong>in</strong><br />
many other cultures and languages. In<br />
the eastern Sámi languages names <strong>of</strong><br />
natural spirits are compounds <strong>in</strong> which<br />
the world for ‘natural spirit’ can be<br />
translated as liv<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>g, creature,<br />
dweller, and <strong>in</strong>habitant. <strong>The</strong> first part <strong>of</strong><br />
the compound comes from the place<br />
where the spirit lives: for example, ‘water<br />
creature’ or ‘mounta<strong>in</strong> dweller’.<br />
Natural spirits are not considered to be<br />
supernatural, physically <strong>in</strong>visible spirits<br />
or masters; they are creatures that<br />
live <strong>in</strong> the surround<strong>in</strong>g area; they are a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g nature. Nature follows its<br />
own laws, and people need to know its<br />
way <strong>of</strong> life. <strong>The</strong> natural spirits must be<br />
taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration when one settles<br />
on a new place, starts to fish, goes<br />
to hunt, or lives on a lake or a river.<br />
People need to follow certa<strong>in</strong> rules to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the balance <strong>of</strong> nature <strong>in</strong> their<br />
nearest environment. <strong>The</strong> natural spirits<br />
control the way humans use nature.<br />
Offer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>The</strong> relationship with nature and its<br />
forces is not submissive but active.<br />
40
Humans can, when necessary, <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
the powers <strong>of</strong> nature by giv<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g, shar<strong>in</strong>g, ask<strong>in</strong>g, promis<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g care <strong>of</strong>, show<strong>in</strong>g respect to, or<br />
assum<strong>in</strong>g the shapes <strong>of</strong> animals.<br />
Offer<strong>in</strong>gs were made to the natural<br />
spirits only when necessary: for example,<br />
when a spirit was known to be angry<br />
because people had broken some<br />
rule. One did not ask spirits for help,<br />
but for goodwill and patience while one<br />
stayed <strong>in</strong> their area. Every geographical<br />
place was considered an entity <strong>in</strong><br />
which the physical dimension was <strong>in</strong><br />
balance with the spiritual one. Both aspects<br />
needed to be taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration<br />
when mak<strong>in</strong>g a liv<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong>refore,<br />
the ideas about natural spirits are<br />
closely l<strong>in</strong>ked to the Sámi way <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
Human be<strong>in</strong>gs know that natural powers<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence their success <strong>in</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and fish<strong>in</strong>g, and they must therefore<br />
ask these powers to be k<strong>in</strong>d and helpful.<br />
That is why <strong>in</strong>dividuals, families<br />
and communities found places to worship<br />
these powers.<br />
<strong>The</strong> term bassebáiki ’sacred place’ <strong>in</strong><br />
North Sámi is <strong>of</strong>ten used <strong>in</strong> literature<br />
and means a place reserved for worship<br />
or considered sacred. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
places are meant for the establishment<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> a connection between<br />
humans, the natural environment<br />
and the powers <strong>of</strong> nature. <strong>The</strong><br />
term bálvvošbáiki can be translated as<br />
‘a place for <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g’. <strong>The</strong> term sieidi<br />
(North Sámi, but known <strong>in</strong> all Sámi languages)<br />
designates the object <strong>of</strong> worship,<br />
especially a rock. In sacred places,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs were made to enhance<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g and hunt<strong>in</strong>g, to protect re<strong>in</strong>deer<br />
herds, to br<strong>in</strong>g good weather, to ensure<br />
good health, to ask a certa<strong>in</strong> natural<br />
power to help people achieve what<br />
the people want.<br />
<strong>The</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> sacred places is<br />
not found <strong>in</strong> the spirit or god controll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the place or the livelihood, nor <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g or worship itself, but <strong>in</strong> the<br />
power <strong>of</strong> the th<strong>in</strong>g worshipped. People<br />
live through the powers or nature, but<br />
they also live with<strong>in</strong> these natural powers,<br />
as they do not separate themselves<br />
from nature and its powers. <strong>The</strong><br />
aim <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g is to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
reciprocal relationship between nature<br />
and the people by seek<strong>in</strong>g mutual<br />
benefit. When ask<strong>in</strong>g for goodwill or<br />
help <strong>of</strong> the natural powers, one must<br />
remember to strengthen the power<br />
through <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs and tokens <strong>of</strong> respect.<br />
Thus, the power <strong>of</strong> human be<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and the power <strong>of</strong> nature are seen<br />
as <strong>in</strong>terdependent.<br />
Experts<br />
<strong>The</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> a contact with the<br />
powers <strong>of</strong> nature can require special<br />
expertise. For this purpose there are<br />
experts who can act on behalf <strong>of</strong> a<br />
person, a family or a whole community.<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> the term <strong>of</strong> shamanism,<br />
which has been used <strong>in</strong> the study <strong>of</strong><br />
religions, the Sámi term <strong>of</strong> noaidevuohta<br />
was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the 1990s to<br />
the study <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi religion<br />
by Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Håkan Rydv<strong>in</strong>g (1993,<br />
1995). Noaidevuohta (‘shamanism’) is<br />
not considered a form <strong>of</strong> religion or a<br />
practical aspect <strong>of</strong> a special naturalis-<br />
41
tic religion today; it is thought to be<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked with the way <strong>of</strong> life and culture <strong>of</strong><br />
a people. <strong>The</strong> Sámi noaidevuohta is<br />
based on the worldview <strong>of</strong> a people<br />
who are dependent upon nature, and it<br />
is <strong>in</strong> harmony with the environment,<br />
and the economic and social structures.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi noaidevuohta is not<br />
just a collection <strong>of</strong> rites and practices<br />
and folklore that expla<strong>in</strong>s these structures,<br />
but a way <strong>of</strong> perceiv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
world around oneself and act<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> it.<br />
<strong>The</strong> term <strong>of</strong> shaman is not suitable for<br />
the Sámi tradition, s<strong>in</strong>ce there are own<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous terms for spiritual experts<br />
and leaders. In North Sámi, noaidi is a<br />
term for spiritual experts, men and<br />
women, who are better than others at<br />
contact<strong>in</strong>g the powers <strong>of</strong> nature and<br />
the world beyond. <strong>The</strong>re are also different<br />
k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> spiritual ‘experts’, ‘those<br />
who can see’, ‘those who know’, medic<strong>in</strong>e<br />
men etc., and there is a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
terms for different spiritual experts.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi noaidi was the most important<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the community. Noaidis<br />
were the ones who ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
world order among the people – <strong>in</strong> the<br />
life <strong>of</strong> the community and <strong>in</strong>dividuals.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y were <strong>in</strong> contact with the world beyond<br />
through their ecstatic experiences.<br />
In the Sámi tradition, as <strong>in</strong> the shamanistic<br />
tradition <strong>of</strong> many other northern<br />
peoples, the noaidi acted on behalf<br />
<strong>of</strong> the community <strong>in</strong> order to guarantee<br />
good luck <strong>in</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g and fish<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
to protect the community’s lands and<br />
waters, and to enhance the well-be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the community. <strong>The</strong>y foretold the future,<br />
made contact with the world beyond,<br />
<strong>in</strong>quired about secret th<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
and were healers.<br />
<strong>The</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> the Sámi noaidi traditionally<br />
lay <strong>in</strong> the fact that they had to<br />
master the laws <strong>of</strong> natural powers.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y had to understand how the surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />
forces and the <strong>in</strong>ternal power<br />
<strong>of</strong> people <strong>in</strong>fluence each other, so that<br />
they could use these forces for the<br />
good <strong>of</strong> their community, while at the<br />
same time <strong>in</strong>sur<strong>in</strong>g that powers <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
were not depleted.<br />
Holistic understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>The</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ition <strong>of</strong> religion can be connected<br />
to a clarification <strong>of</strong> how <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
and societies def<strong>in</strong>e their place <strong>in</strong><br />
respect to the power or powers which<br />
decide the fate and dest<strong>in</strong>ies <strong>of</strong> people<br />
(Rydv<strong>in</strong>g (1993, 1995). For more scholarly<br />
discussions about def<strong>in</strong>itions <strong>of</strong> religion,<br />
see Platvoet and Molendijk<br />
(1999), Braun and McCutcheon<br />
(2000). In the <strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi religion,<br />
a close and reciprocal relationship<br />
to the powers <strong>of</strong> nature plays a<br />
central role. Everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the world<br />
has been seen as <strong>in</strong>terrelated. <strong>The</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> the Sámi philosophy and<br />
worldview comes clearly from the Sámi<br />
religious tradition connected to <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
sacrificial places, sacred mounta<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
waters, natural phenomena and<br />
spirits, world <strong>of</strong> animals, spiritual experts<br />
and their activities. <strong>The</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />
forces <strong>of</strong> nature and the <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
power <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence each other. Individuals<br />
and communities need to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> bal-<br />
42
ance <strong>in</strong> order to make their liv<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
to ensure their well-be<strong>in</strong>g. This presupposes<br />
that people th<strong>in</strong>k about the<br />
world and themselves <strong>in</strong> a holistic and<br />
reciprocal way. This understand<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the present-day language<br />
use. <strong>The</strong> above mentioned concept <strong>of</strong><br />
birgejupmi, ‘ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> life’, describes<br />
a holistic Sámi understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> well-be<strong>in</strong>g and survival and <strong>in</strong>terdependence<br />
<strong>of</strong> everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the world.<br />
For a more complete explanation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi religion the author<br />
suggests the follow<strong>in</strong>g articles: Kulonen<br />
et al. (2005), Rydv<strong>in</strong>g (2003, 2004,<br />
and 2010), Pentikä<strong>in</strong>en (1997 and<br />
2002) and Porsanger (1997b, 1999,<br />
2000a, and 2000b).<br />
43
References<br />
Bäckman, L. (1975), Sájva: Föreställn<strong>in</strong>gar om hjälp- och skyddsväsen i heliga fjäll<br />
bland samerna [Sájva: Help<strong>in</strong>g spirits <strong>of</strong> the sacred mounta<strong>in</strong>s among the Sámi].<br />
(Stockholm Studies <strong>in</strong> Comparative Religion 13). Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.<br />
Braun, W. and McCutcheon, R. T. (eds.) (2000), Guide to the Study <strong>of</strong> Religion.<br />
London & New York: Cassell.<br />
Grim, John A. (1998, 2004), Indigenous Traditions and Ecology: Introduction to Indigenous<br />
Traditions (http://fore.research.yale.edu/religion/<strong>in</strong>digenous). <strong>The</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
publication: Earth Ethics 1998 (Fall): 10, 1.<br />
Harvey, G. (ed.) (2000), Indigenous Religions: A Companion. London: Cassell.<br />
Harvey, G. (ed.) (2000), Read<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Indigenous Religions. London: Cont<strong>in</strong>uum.<br />
Kulonen, U.-M., Seurujärvi-Kari, I. and Pulkk<strong>in</strong>en, R. (eds.) (2005), <strong>The</strong> Saami – A<br />
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SKS.<br />
Long, C.H. (2004), A postcolonial mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> religion: Some reflections from the<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous world. In Beyond Primitivism: Indigenous Religious Traditions and Modernity,<br />
pp. 89–98.<br />
Olupona, J. K. (ed.) (2004), Beyond Primitivism: Indigenous Religious Traditions<br />
and Modernity. New York: Routledge.<br />
Pentikä<strong>in</strong>en, J. (1997), Die Mythologie der Saamen. [Übersetzung aus dem F<strong>in</strong>nischen<br />
Angela Bartens]. (Ethnologische Beiträge zur Circumpolarforschung Bd.<br />
3). Berl<strong>in</strong>: Re<strong>in</strong>hold Schletzer Verlag.<br />
(1998). Shamanism and culture. Hels<strong>in</strong>ki: Etnika Co (ed) (2002). Fragments <strong>of</strong><br />
Lappish mythology / Lars Levi Læstadius. Translated by Börje Vähämäki. Beaverton,<br />
Ont.: Aspasia Books.<br />
Platvoet, Jan and Molendijk, Arie L. (eds.) (1999), <strong>The</strong> Pragmatics <strong>of</strong> Def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Religion.<br />
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Leiden: Brill.<br />
Porsanger [Sergejeva until 2002], J. (1997a), Ihm<strong>in</strong>en ja luonto koltta- ja kuolansaamelaisten<br />
maailmankuvassa [Man and Nature <strong>in</strong> the worldview <strong>of</strong> the Kola<br />
and Skolt Sámi]. Lisensiaat<strong>in</strong> työ. Hels<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> yliopisto, uskontotieteen laitos.<br />
(1997b), Noaidiene blant samene på Kola. – Ottar 1997: 217, 28–36. Tromsø. [<strong>The</strong><br />
Sámi noaidis (shamans)]<br />
(1999), Traditionell samisk tidsregn<strong>in</strong>g: årstider og navn på måneder/ Áigeipmárdus<br />
sámi árbevierus: jahkeáiggit ja mánnonamat [Traditional Sámi understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
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<strong>of</strong> time: the seasons and the names <strong>of</strong> months]. – Almanakk for Norge 2000: jubileumsutgave.<br />
Universitetet i Oslo. Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, pp. 167–177.<br />
(2000a), Noen samiske stjernebilder: et jaktfolks forestill<strong>in</strong>ger om stjernehimmelen<br />
[Traditional explanations <strong>of</strong> some Sámi star constellations]. – Almanakk for Norge<br />
2001. Universitetet i Oslo. Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag.<br />
(2000b), <strong>The</strong> Sun as Father <strong>of</strong> the Universe <strong>in</strong> the Kola and Skolt Sami Tradition.<br />
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Lule Saami, 1670s – 1740s (Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. Historia Religionum<br />
12). Uppsala: Uppsala universitet.<br />
(2003), Traditionell nordsamisk religion omkr<strong>in</strong>g år 1700 [Traditional North Sámi religion<br />
around the year 1700]. In Mytisk landskap: ved dansende skog og susende<br />
fjell. Ed. By Arvid Sveen and Håkan Rydv<strong>in</strong>g, pp. 9–23. Stamsund: Orkana.<br />
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(2010), Trac<strong>in</strong>g Sami traditions: In search <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous religion among the<br />
Western Sami dur<strong>in</strong>g the 17th and 18th centuries (Instituttet for sammenlignende<br />
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45
Archaeology <strong>of</strong> sieidi stones.<br />
Excavat<strong>in</strong>g sacred places<br />
Ti<strong>in</strong>a Äikäs<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>The</strong> sacred places <strong>of</strong> the Sámi <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people take myriad forms. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude sacred mounta<strong>in</strong>s and fells,<br />
lakes, and islands. <strong>The</strong> most well known<br />
phenomena are the <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g stones<br />
called sieidi (<strong>in</strong> North Sámi). Offer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
connected to livelihoods, such as fish<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g, and re<strong>in</strong>deer herd<strong>in</strong>g have<br />
been left to these stones. Archaeological<br />
research at sieidi sites has revealed<br />
a cont<strong>in</strong>uum <strong>of</strong> a liv<strong>in</strong>g and chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g tradition. Nevertheless, while<br />
excavat<strong>in</strong>g sacred sites, certa<strong>in</strong> th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
need to be taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>clude the possible reburial <strong>of</strong><br />
f<strong>in</strong>ds, the return<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> knowledge, and<br />
respect to the places. Discretion is <strong>in</strong><br />
place, s<strong>in</strong>ce Sámi sacred places are<br />
still important for different groups <strong>of</strong><br />
people. This raises questions about the<br />
use and protection <strong>of</strong> these places.<br />
Sieidi – an <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g stone <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sámi<br />
This paper <strong>of</strong>fers an archaeological<br />
perspective on the study <strong>of</strong> the sacred<br />
sites. <strong>The</strong> author is an archaeologist<br />
writ<strong>in</strong>g her dissertation on the sacred<br />
landscape <strong>of</strong> the Sámi. As a part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project, fieldwork has been conducted<br />
<strong>in</strong> Northern F<strong>in</strong>land excavat<strong>in</strong>g Sámi <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
places. This has led the author to<br />
reflect on the ethical issues concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
archaeology <strong>of</strong> the sacred places.<br />
< Researcher at the Sieddesaiva sieidi.<br />
47
A map <strong>of</strong> the distribution on Sámi sacred sites <strong>in</strong> Northern F<strong>in</strong>land and the present Sámi area,<br />
Sápmi.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi are the <strong>in</strong>digenous people <strong>of</strong><br />
northern F<strong>in</strong>land, Sweden, Norway,<br />
and the Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>in</strong> Russia. Traditionally,<br />
they have subsided on hunt<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g, gather<strong>in</strong>g food from nature,<br />
and later, re<strong>in</strong>deer herd<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong><br />
ethnic religion <strong>of</strong> the Sámi was, <strong>in</strong> general<br />
terms, characterised by personal<br />
as well as communal spirituality and its<br />
<strong>in</strong>terconnectivity with one’s own daily<br />
life, and a deep connection between<br />
the natural and spiritual worlds. <strong>The</strong><br />
term ethnic religion is used s<strong>in</strong>ce it describes<br />
best the worldview that was<br />
not pre-Christian, but survived also after<br />
contacts with Christianity. Another<br />
possible term would be <strong>in</strong>digenous religion,<br />
but it has connotations to a static<br />
belief system that could not have<br />
been preceded by another. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
also problems concern<strong>in</strong>g the term religion<br />
itself. It is a theoretical concept<br />
given from outside the culture by researchers<br />
and might not be the best<br />
term to describe the Sámi worldview.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Sámi ethnic religion was visible <strong>in</strong><br />
the landscape <strong>in</strong> myriad ways, and sacred<br />
and pr<strong>of</strong>ane activities were <strong>in</strong>tertw<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
(Äikäs et al., 2009). Carpelan<br />
(2003: 77–78) has divided Sámi sacred<br />
sites broadly <strong>in</strong>to three classes:<br />
terra<strong>in</strong> formation, natural objects, and<br />
structures. <strong>The</strong> first group consists <strong>of</strong><br />
48
fell tops, rock formations, islands,<br />
lakes, and headlands. Natural objects<br />
are stones, spr<strong>in</strong>gs, and small caves<br />
or clefts. <strong>The</strong> third group <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
carved stubs, erected stones, wooden<br />
poles, and stone circles. <strong>The</strong> latter are<br />
an exception s<strong>in</strong>ce Sámi sacred places<br />
usually have not been modified by<br />
human hand, as the Sámi saw sacredness<br />
<strong>in</strong> the landscape as it was.<br />
<strong>The</strong> feature that has raised most <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Sámi sacred landscape are<br />
the <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g stones called sieidi. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
consist <strong>of</strong> wooden poles or more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
<strong>of</strong> stones unshaped by human hand.<br />
<strong>The</strong> stones could vary <strong>in</strong> size and form.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y could be ten metres high rock<br />
formations or less than a metre high<br />
small stones. Sometimes they were anthropomorphic<br />
or took other peculiar<br />
forms. Sieidi stones were <strong>of</strong>ten situated<br />
on the slopes <strong>of</strong> fells or by the<br />
shores <strong>of</strong> lakes (Äikäs, 2011). Sacrifices<br />
at sieidi places were strongly<br />
connected to the livelihood <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
(Mebius, 2003: 11–12). Fish was sacrificed<br />
before fish<strong>in</strong>g expeditions, game<br />
meat before hunt<strong>in</strong>g, and re<strong>in</strong>deer<br />
meat was <strong>of</strong>fered by re<strong>in</strong>deer herders.<br />
In addition, cheese, porridge, alcohol,<br />
and metal objects were <strong>of</strong>fered and<br />
sacrifices also took place when help<br />
was asked, for example, dur<strong>in</strong>g sickness<br />
or pregnancy (Äimä, 1903: 115;<br />
Itkonen, 1948: 312; Manker, 1957: 88;<br />
Rydv<strong>in</strong>g, 1993: 104–106; Sköld, 1999:<br />
66; Mebius, 2003: 141). <strong>The</strong> relationship<br />
between a sieidi and a human<br />
was reciprocal (Schanche, 2004: 5).<br />
Hence sacrifices were usually promised<br />
before the hunt or fish<strong>in</strong>g trip, and<br />
A wooden pole on top <strong>of</strong> Kussuol<strong>in</strong>kivaara <strong>in</strong><br />
Sodankylä.<br />
if the trip was successful, the <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
were taken to the sieidi. But if the trip<br />
was not successful, the sieidi could be<br />
destroyed (Paulaharju, 1932: passim).<br />
<strong>The</strong> archaeological material that is left<br />
from the ritual activities at a sieidi usually<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> animal bones ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
from the same animals that were also<br />
important for livelihood. In the material<br />
from F<strong>in</strong>land e.g. re<strong>in</strong>deer (Rangifer<br />
tarandus), sheep (Ovis aries) or goat<br />
(Capra hircus), capercaillie (Tetrao<br />
urogallus), and fish bones, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pike (Esox lucius), trout (Salmo trutta)<br />
and perch (Perca fluviatilis) were found<br />
(Äikäs, 2011; Salmi et al., 2011). In<br />
Sweden and Norway metal objects, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
jewellery and co<strong>in</strong>s can also<br />
be found, but <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land there are only<br />
49
A sieidi stone with anthropomorphic features <strong>in</strong> Porv<strong>in</strong>iemi, Muonio.<br />
rare examples <strong>of</strong> metal f<strong>in</strong>ds from sieidis<br />
(Hedman, 2003: passim; Fossum,<br />
2006: passim; Okkonen, 2007). <strong>The</strong><br />
only metal f<strong>in</strong>ds from F<strong>in</strong>land come<br />
from the Inari area. <strong>The</strong>re are also <strong>in</strong>stances<br />
when ritual activities leave no<br />
traces <strong>in</strong> the archaeological material<br />
(Salmi et al., 2011).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the period 2008–2010 excavations<br />
were carried out at seven sieidi<br />
sites as a part <strong>of</strong> the project Humananimal<br />
relationships among F<strong>in</strong>land’s<br />
Sámi 1000–1800 A.D. (Academy <strong>of</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land:1122623). <strong>The</strong> sites excavated<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2008 were Sieiddakeädgi <strong>in</strong> Utsjoki,<br />
Näkkälä <strong>in</strong> Enontekiö, and Taatsi <strong>in</strong> Kittilä;<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2009 Koskikaltiojoen suu <strong>in</strong> Inari<br />
and Porv<strong>in</strong>iemi and Kirkkopahta <strong>in</strong> Muonio,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> 2010 Dierpmesvárri <strong>in</strong><br />
Enontekiö. In addition, a survey was<br />
conducted around a sacred lake or<br />
sáiva called Äkässaivo <strong>in</strong> Muonio.<br />
Ethical consideration on the<br />
studies <strong>of</strong> sacred places<br />
Even though sacred places are not always<br />
strictly set apart from, <strong>in</strong> Western<br />
terms, pr<strong>of</strong>ane activities (Äikäs, <strong>in</strong><br />
press A), sacredness is usually someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that demands special rules and<br />
ways <strong>of</strong> behaviour. <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
places can be controlled by norms<br />
and rules. For example, for the Australian<br />
aborig<strong>in</strong>als some places are so sacred,<br />
powerful, and dangerous that<br />
people should not visit them. Hence,<br />
archaeologists may give <strong>of</strong>fence just<br />
by wander<strong>in</strong>g around them. Even more<br />
disturb<strong>in</strong>g are excavations, where<br />
earth is removed and hidden objects<br />
are revealed. (Colley, 2002: 75.) This<br />
raises the question whether archaeologists<br />
can do research on sacred sites<br />
on an ethically sound basis.<br />
Nevertheless, not <strong>in</strong> all cases do the locals<br />
want to ban archaeologists from sacred<br />
sites. Sometimes people are keen<br />
50
to know more about the way their ancestors<br />
have used the <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g places and<br />
welcome the <strong>in</strong>formation that archaeological<br />
research can provide. <strong>The</strong>re can<br />
be different op<strong>in</strong>ions about how acceptable<br />
archaeological research is, even<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the same community. This is why<br />
it is important that archaeologists take a<br />
moment to consider the ethical framework<br />
<strong>of</strong> their research before they<br />
charge to study sacred sites.<br />
Before the fieldwork <strong>of</strong> the above-mentioned<br />
project started, the Saami Parliament<br />
(Sámediggi) was consulted. It<br />
was agreed that the local media should<br />
be primarily <strong>in</strong>formed about the results<br />
and that all bones were to be returned<br />
to the sieidis after the project. <strong>The</strong> reburial<br />
<strong>of</strong> the bones has been much debated<br />
especially where human rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
were concerned (e.g. Ubelaker & Guttenplan<br />
Grant, 1989; Goldste<strong>in</strong> & K<strong>in</strong>tigh,<br />
1990). <strong>The</strong> cultural context is also<br />
vital regard<strong>in</strong>g sacrificed objects which<br />
are left at sacred sites. For example,<br />
the Zunis <strong>of</strong> Pueblo tribes, USA, demanded<br />
the return<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> their sacred<br />
objects called Ahayu from museums to<br />
their sanctuaries, for they believed that<br />
the turmoil <strong>of</strong> the world was due to the<br />
removal <strong>of</strong> the Ahayu from their place<br />
(Ladd, 2001). In the case <strong>of</strong> the sieidi<br />
sites, the attitude towards sacrificial rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
might have been more situational.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are examples <strong>of</strong> sieidi stones<br />
from which the <strong>of</strong>fered bones have<br />
been cleared away. For example, <strong>in</strong><br />
Sieiddakeädgi the majority <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bones were found downhill further<br />
away from the sieidi and not directly by<br />
the stone where the <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs were<br />
most <strong>of</strong>ten placed (Salmi et al., 2011).<br />
Written sources give <strong>in</strong>formation about<br />
the removal <strong>of</strong> the bones, for example,<br />
<strong>in</strong> cases where there was no more<br />
room for new <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs. But there are<br />
also examples <strong>of</strong> misfortunes that followed<br />
those who had removed <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
from sieidis. (e.g. Paulaharju,<br />
1932: passim.) In the case <strong>of</strong> archaeological<br />
research, the return<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bones was seen proper. An osteologist<br />
participated <strong>in</strong> all excavations, and the<br />
identification <strong>of</strong> archaeological animal<br />
bone material was conducted <strong>in</strong> the<br />
field, aided by the osteology atlases<br />
and a photograph reference collection.<br />
<strong>The</strong>n, some bones were left at the sites,<br />
but when the number <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ds was big,<br />
all the bones were taken and samples<br />
for further analyses were selected at a<br />
later time. <strong>The</strong> bones that were re-<br />
A concentration <strong>of</strong> bones and the sieidi<br />
stone <strong>in</strong> Sieiddakeädgi, Utsjoki.<br />
51
Prior to the excavations, students participat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the fieldwork were advised<br />
to behave appropriately at the sites.<br />
<strong>The</strong> project team wanted to show respect<br />
to these places. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the excavations,<br />
the local media was <strong>in</strong>formed<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. <strong>The</strong><br />
results <strong>of</strong> the fieldwork were also<br />
shared with locals <strong>in</strong> public sem<strong>in</strong>ars.<br />
However, still more could be done to<br />
reach the locals more effectively, also<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Sámi language. Inform<strong>in</strong>g the local<br />
population <strong>of</strong> the results <strong>of</strong> a research<br />
is an important aspect when<br />
study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>digenous cultural heritage.<br />
Otherwise scientific colonialism may<br />
be considered as another form <strong>of</strong> colonialist<br />
practices (Kupia<strong>in</strong>en, 1997:<br />
passim; Nicholas & Hollowell, 2007:<br />
passim).<br />
Osteologist Anna-Kaisa Salmi identify<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
bones with archaeologist Eeva Miett<strong>in</strong>en photograph<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them <strong>in</strong> Koskikaltiojoen suu, Inari.<br />
moved from the sites will be returned to<br />
the sieidis when fieldwork comes to an<br />
end <strong>in</strong> the summer <strong>of</strong> 2011.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the excavations, the work was<br />
aimed at preserv<strong>in</strong>g as much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
site as possible <strong>in</strong>tact. <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>terventions<br />
were limited to small areas <strong>of</strong> approximately<br />
one square metre. While<br />
study<strong>in</strong>g the area <strong>of</strong> the ritual practices<br />
<strong>in</strong> Sieiddakeädgi, 30x30 cm test pits<br />
were made around the stone. <strong>The</strong> excavations<br />
were stopped whenever the<br />
researchers came across a bone. In<br />
this way the project researchers obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
the <strong>in</strong>formation about the location<br />
<strong>of</strong> the bones without mov<strong>in</strong>g them.<br />
Different visitors at sieidi sites<br />
Sieidi sites are <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest also to other<br />
groups than the local Sámi. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
excavations many marks were found, a<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> recent visits to these sites. <strong>The</strong><br />
bone f<strong>in</strong>ds evidence ceased <strong>in</strong> the seventeenth<br />
century (Äikäs, 2011; Salmi et<br />
al., 2011) but the sites were not abandoned<br />
by that time. <strong>The</strong> written sources<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate that people left, for example,<br />
co<strong>in</strong>s to the sieidis even <strong>in</strong> the twentieth<br />
century (Paulaharju, 1932: passim;<br />
Kjellström, 1987: 24–33). <strong>The</strong>re are no<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ds from F<strong>in</strong>land <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g the use <strong>of</strong><br />
sieidi sites dur<strong>in</strong>g the eighteenth century,<br />
but from the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century onwards<br />
the f<strong>in</strong>ds appear aga<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong><br />
green bottle glass from Sieiddakeädgi<br />
and four co<strong>in</strong>s from the end <strong>of</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century <strong>in</strong>dicate that these sites<br />
were used dur<strong>in</strong>g that time. <strong>The</strong> more<br />
recent, post-1950s, f<strong>in</strong>ds are more varied.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y <strong>in</strong>clude co<strong>in</strong>s, personal ob-<br />
52
jects, cigarettes, alcohol, candles, and<br />
quartzite. <strong>The</strong>se modern f<strong>in</strong>ds can<br />
broadly be divided <strong>in</strong>to two groups:<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them cont<strong>in</strong>ue the old <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tradition and others seem to mark new<br />
practices (Äikäs, 2011; Äikäs, <strong>in</strong> press<br />
B).<br />
<strong>The</strong> modern f<strong>in</strong>ds were left for different<br />
purposes. Some <strong>of</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
co<strong>in</strong>s, alcohol, personal objects, and<br />
meat are related to the old <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g traditions<br />
(cf. Paulaharju, 1932: 14; Sköld,<br />
1999: passim; Wallerström, 2000: 18;<br />
Fossum, 2006: passim). In some cases,<br />
the locals might want to respect the<br />
old ways <strong>of</strong> leav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs. On the<br />
other hand, for example, co<strong>in</strong>s and alcohol<br />
could also have been left by<br />
tourists. <strong>The</strong>re is a common habit to<br />
A slice <strong>of</strong> cold smoked re<strong>in</strong>deer meat from<br />
Äkässaivo, Muonio<br />
leave co<strong>in</strong>s as a part <strong>of</strong> touristic civic<br />
ritual to founta<strong>in</strong>s and other special<br />
places. Among tourists that go fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
it is not unusual to make alcohol <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
(http://www.eralehti.fi/keskustelu/<br />
t4986). Additionally, fish<strong>in</strong>g lures that<br />
are left to some sieidi stones are most<br />
likely left by fishermen – either tourists<br />
or locals (Hirvonen, 2007: 85). Pieces<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>rmos flask and rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> energy<br />
dr<strong>in</strong>k bottles at sieidi sites on fell region<br />
tell about visits dur<strong>in</strong>g hik<strong>in</strong>g trips.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also f<strong>in</strong>ds that might imply<br />
new <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g traditions. Three <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most well marked and most easily accessible<br />
sacred places, Äkässaivo,<br />
Taatsi and Kirkkopahta, revealed f<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
that can have similarities with neo-pagan<br />
customs. <strong>The</strong>se discoveries <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
cones, a quill, a tied bunch <strong>of</strong><br />
spray, candles, and quartzite that<br />
could be considered as a local version<br />
<strong>of</strong> rock crystal. F<strong>in</strong>ds are similar with<br />
those that are used by neo-pagans <strong>in</strong><br />
Brita<strong>in</strong> (Wallis 2003: passim; Bla<strong>in</strong> &<br />
Wallis 2007: passim). Neo-pagans are<br />
known to give similar <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs also <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land and to visit the well known sieidi<br />
sites (Informant 2009, pers. comm.).<br />
Whose heritage?<br />
<strong>The</strong> fact that sieidi sites have been and<br />
still are important for a number <strong>of</strong> different<br />
people raises the question <strong>of</strong> access:<br />
who is allowed to use them and<br />
how. As archaeological sites, they are<br />
protected by law and this might be<br />
seen as contradictory to their modern<br />
use. Are the new <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs that locals<br />
and tourists leave at the sites rubbish<br />
53
<strong>The</strong> participants <strong>of</strong> the Delos3 Workshop and the wooden constructions <strong>in</strong> Ukonsaari/Äijih Island,<br />
Inari.<br />
destroy<strong>in</strong>g the sacred site (cf. Wallis,<br />
2003: 170) or a vital part <strong>of</strong> the site’s<br />
biography?<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to tradition, at some sites<br />
there might also be limitations concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
who is allowed to visit the sieidi.<br />
Written sources mention sacred<br />
sites where access to women is forbidden<br />
and others that were only used by<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals (Paulaharju, 1932;<br />
Itkonen, 1948). Should modern visitors<br />
still obey these rules or should they be<br />
only applied to traditional custodians<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred sites? In some cases visitors<br />
can also damage the environment at<br />
the sites. In Ukonsaari (Äijih <strong>in</strong> Inari<br />
Sámi), the erosion brought about by<br />
the groups <strong>of</strong> tourists has been prevented<br />
by construct<strong>in</strong>g wooden steps<br />
and platforms. On the other hand,<br />
these might also be seen as unnecessary<br />
additions to a sacred site.<br />
Tourists and other visitors can advance<br />
the destruction <strong>of</strong> a sacred place, but<br />
<strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> conditions they can also give<br />
new mean<strong>in</strong>gs to a place. Visits to sacred<br />
sites can also <strong>in</strong>crease the knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the local culture and lead to<br />
more effective protection. Tourism can<br />
be seen as part <strong>of</strong> ethnographic exploitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the local culture (Ruotsala,<br />
1998: 95) or as someth<strong>in</strong>g that should<br />
be encouraged but only on the condition<br />
that the locals consent and <strong>in</strong> cooperation<br />
with them (Magga, 2007: 14).<br />
<strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> sacred places evokes<br />
strong emotions. It leads to a situation<br />
where certa<strong>in</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs attached to<br />
these places are considered to be<br />
more valuable than others, and then<br />
the value <strong>of</strong> other mean<strong>in</strong>gs is denied<br />
all together. Modern mean<strong>in</strong>gs attributed<br />
to sacred sites should not be contested,<br />
because then the sites might<br />
be ‘protected’, not just from ‘outsiders’,<br />
but also from local people (cf. Byrne,<br />
2009: 68). When protect<strong>in</strong>g sacred<br />
sites, the rights <strong>of</strong> the locals to use the<br />
54
place have been considered important.<br />
For example, <strong>in</strong> Kakadu National<br />
Park <strong>in</strong> Australia the traditional owners<br />
have been given a right to re-work on<br />
the rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs (Mercer, 1995: 136).<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> sieidi sites, the local<br />
people do not consist <strong>of</strong> a heterogeneous<br />
group. F<strong>in</strong>ns might also value<br />
these places, but they could have different<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs for them than for the<br />
traditional custodians, the Sámi. On<br />
the other hand, some sieidi places<br />
were only used by certa<strong>in</strong> families or<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals. Should the traditional custodians<br />
<strong>in</strong> these cases be seen as<br />
even a more limited group? Consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the multiple mean<strong>in</strong>gs attached to<br />
the Sámi sacred places by Sámi and<br />
non-Sámi people perhaps also the<br />
right <strong>of</strong> other groups to use these sites<br />
might be taken <strong>in</strong>to account. Sámi sacred<br />
places have a long history and<br />
they cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be alive and<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gful.<br />
References<br />
Äikäs, T. (<strong>in</strong> press A), <strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> lim<strong>in</strong>ality and Sámi sacred landscapes, <strong>in</strong>:<br />
Archaeological Imag<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> Religion, ed. T. Meier & P. Tillessen, Budapest:<br />
Archaeol<strong>in</strong>gua.<br />
Äikäs, T. (<strong>in</strong> press B), Quartzite at a sieidi: a new life <strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g site? British Archaeological<br />
Reports.<br />
Äikäs, T. (2011), Rantakiviltä tuntureille. Pyhät paikat saamelaisten rituaalisessa<br />
maisemassa. [<strong>Sacred</strong> places <strong>in</strong> Sámi ritual landscape], Studia Archaeologica Septentrionalia<br />
5.<br />
Äikäs, T., Puputti, A-K, Núñez, M., Aspi, J. & Okkonen, J. ( 2009), <strong>Sacred</strong> and pr<strong>of</strong>ane<br />
livelihood. Animal bones from sieidi sites <strong>in</strong> Northern F<strong>in</strong>land, Norwegian Archaeological<br />
Review, 42(2), 109–22.<br />
Äimä, F. (1903). Muutamia muistotietoja Inar<strong>in</strong> lappalaisten vanhoista uhrimenoista<br />
[Some memory knowledge <strong>of</strong> the old sacrificial services <strong>of</strong> Inari Lapps], Virittäjä 8,<br />
pp. 113–6.<br />
Bla<strong>in</strong>, J. & Wallis, R. (2007), <strong>Sacred</strong> Sites Contested Rites/Rights. Pagan Engagements<br />
with Archaeological Monuments, Brighton – Portland: Sussex Academic<br />
Press.<br />
Byrne, D. (2009), Archaeology and the fortress <strong>of</strong> rationality, <strong>in</strong> Cosmopolitan Archaeologies,<br />
ed. L. Meskell, Durham - London: Duke University Press, pp. 68–88.<br />
55
Carpelan, C. (2003). Inarilaisten arkeologiset vaiheet [<strong>The</strong> archaeological phases<br />
<strong>of</strong> people <strong>in</strong> Inari], <strong>in</strong> Inari – Aanaar. Inar<strong>in</strong> historia jääkaudesta nykypäivään, ed.<br />
V-P Lehtola, Oulu: Pa<strong>in</strong>otalo Suomenmaa, pp. 28–95.<br />
Colley, S. (2002), Uncover<strong>in</strong>g Australia. Archaeology, Indigenous People and the<br />
Public, Crows Nest: Allen & Unw<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Fossum, B. (2006), Förfädernas land. En arkeologisk studie av rituella lämn<strong>in</strong>gar i<br />
Sápmi, 300 f.Kr.–1600 e.Kr. [<strong>The</strong> land <strong>of</strong> the forefathers. An archaeological study<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ritual sites <strong>in</strong> Sápmi, 300 BC–1600 AD], Studia Archaeologica Universitatis<br />
Umensis 22.<br />
Goldste<strong>in</strong>, L. & K<strong>in</strong>tigh, K. (1990), Ethics and the reburial controversy, American<br />
Antiquity, 55(3), 585–91.<br />
Hedman, S. D. (2003), Boplatser och <strong>of</strong>ferplatser. Ekonomisk strategi och boplatsmönster<br />
bland skogssamer 700–1600 AD [Dwell<strong>in</strong>g places and <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g places.<br />
Economical strategy and dwell<strong>in</strong>g pattern among Forest Sámi 700–1600 AD],<br />
Studia archaeologica Universitatis Umensis 17.<br />
Hirvonen, V. (2007), Paikan muisti ja muistot paikoista [Place’s memory and remembrances<br />
<strong>of</strong> places], <strong>in</strong> Eletty, koettu maisema. Näkökulmia saamelaiseen kulttuurimaisemaan,<br />
ed. T. Elo & P. Magga, Suomen ympäristö 34/2007, pp. 77–89.<br />
Itkonen, T.I. (1948), Suomen lappalaiset vuoteen 1945 [F<strong>in</strong>land’s Lapps till the year<br />
1945], Porvoo: Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö.<br />
Kjellström, R. (1987), On the cont<strong>in</strong>uity <strong>of</strong> old Saami religion, <strong>in</strong> Saami Religion.<br />
Based on Papers read at the Symposium on Saami Religion held at Åbo, F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
on the 16 th -18 th <strong>of</strong> August 1984, ed. T. Ahlbäck, Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis<br />
XII, pp. 24–33.<br />
Kupia<strong>in</strong>en, J. (1997), Antropolog<strong>in</strong> suorituspa<strong>in</strong>eet Salomonsaarilla [<strong>The</strong> achievment<br />
pressures <strong>of</strong> an anhtropologist at Salomon islands], <strong>in</strong> Kaukaa haettua. Kirjoituksia<br />
antropologisesta kenttätyöstä, ed. A. M. Viljanen & M. Lahti, Vammala:<br />
Suomen antropolog<strong>in</strong>en seura, pp. 213–22.<br />
Ladd, E. J. (2001), A Zuni perspective on repatriation, <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> Future <strong>of</strong> the Past.<br />
Archaeologists, Native Americans, and Repatriation, ed. T. L. Bray, New York: Garland<br />
Publish<strong>in</strong>g, pp. 107–15.<br />
Magga, P. (2007), Rakennuksia, kotasijoja, muistoja. Saamelaista kulttuuriympäristöä<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventoimassa [Build<strong>in</strong>gs, goahti places, memories. Survey<strong>in</strong>g Sámi<br />
cultural landscape], <strong>in</strong> Eletty, koettu maisema. Näkökulmia saamelaiseen kulttuurimaisemaan,<br />
eds. T. Elo & P. Magga, Suomen ympäristö 34/2007, pp.11–24.<br />
56
Manker, E. (1957), Lapparnas heliga ställen. Kultplatser och <strong>of</strong>ferkult i belysn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
av nordiska museets och landsantikvariernas fältundersökn<strong>in</strong>gar [<strong>The</strong> sacred<br />
places <strong>of</strong> the Lapps. Cult places and <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g cult <strong>in</strong> the light <strong>of</strong> the fieldwork <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nordiska museet and landsantikvarier], Acta Lapponica XIII.<br />
Mebius, H. (2003), Bissie. Studier i samisk religionshistoria [Studies <strong>of</strong> the Sámi<br />
history <strong>of</strong> religion], Östersund: Berndtssons Tryckeri AB.<br />
Nicholas, G. & Hollowell, J. (2007), Ethical challenges to a postcolonial archaeology.<br />
<strong>The</strong> legacy <strong>of</strong> scientific colonialism, <strong>in</strong> Archaeology and Capitalism. From Ethics<br />
to Politics, ed. Y. Hamilakis & P. Duke, Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press, pp.<br />
1–23.<br />
Okkonen, J. (2007), Archaeological <strong>in</strong>vestigations at the Sámi sacrificial site <strong>of</strong><br />
Ukonsaari <strong>in</strong> Lake Inari, Fennoscandia Archaeologica, xxiv, 29–38.<br />
Paulaharju, S. (1932), Seitoja ja seidan palvontaa [Sieidis and sieidi worship], Hels<strong>in</strong>ki:<br />
Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.<br />
Ruotsala, H. (1998), Mie kotona kentällä ja kentällä kotona [I home <strong>in</strong> field and <strong>in</strong><br />
field at home], <strong>in</strong> Integraatio, identiteetti, etnisyys. Tarkastelukulmia kulttuuriseen<br />
vuorovaikutukseen, ed. M. Mäkikalli & P. O<strong>in</strong>onen, Kulttuurisen vuorovaikutuksen<br />
ja <strong>in</strong>tegraation tutkijakoulun julkaisuja, Turun yliopisto Unipaps, pp. 88–117.<br />
Rydv<strong>in</strong>g, H. (1993), <strong>The</strong> End <strong>of</strong> Drum-Time. Religious Change among the Lule<br />
Saami, 1670s–1740s, Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Historia Religionum 12.<br />
Salmi, A-K, Äikäs, T. & Lipponen, S. (2011), Animat<strong>in</strong>g rituals at Sámi sacred sites<br />
<strong>in</strong> Northern F<strong>in</strong>land, Journal <strong>of</strong> Social Archaeology, 11(2), 212–35.<br />
Schanche, A. (2004), Horizontal and vertical perceptions <strong>of</strong> Saami landscapes, <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Lands</strong>cape, Law and Customary Rights. Report from a symposium <strong>in</strong> Guovdageaidnu-Kautoke<strong>in</strong>o<br />
26-28 March 2003, ed. M. Jones & A. Scanche, Diedut, 3,<br />
pp. 1–10.<br />
Sköld, P. (1999), Seime staembe. Brännv<strong>in</strong>et i den samiska religionen [Spirits <strong>in</strong><br />
the Sámi religion], Oknytt, 20(1–4), 63–84.<br />
Ubelaker, D. H. & Guttenplan Grant, L. (1989), Human skeletal rema<strong>in</strong>s: Preservation<br />
or reburial? American Journal <strong>of</strong> Physical Anthropology, Vol. 32(S10),<br />
249–87.<br />
Wallerström, T. (2000), <strong>The</strong> Saami between east and west <strong>in</strong> the Middle Ages: an<br />
archaeological contribution to the history <strong>of</strong> re<strong>in</strong>deer breed<strong>in</strong>g, Acta Borealia,<br />
17(1), 3–39.<br />
Wallis, R. J. (2003), Shamans/Neo-Shamans. Ecstasy, Alternative Archaeologies<br />
and Contemporary Pagans, London: Routledge.<br />
57
Part Two:<br />
Ancient, <strong>in</strong>digenous and<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ority sacred natural sites<br />
59
Conserv<strong>in</strong>g sacred natural sites<br />
<strong>in</strong> Estonia<br />
Ahto Kaasik<br />
Introduction<br />
In 2008, the Estonian M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Culture<br />
approved the national conservation<br />
plan ‘<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites <strong>in</strong> Estonia:<br />
Study and Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance 2008 – 2012’.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conservation plan <strong>in</strong>dicates that<br />
nowhere else <strong>in</strong> Western <strong>Europe</strong> have<br />
sacred natural sites (SNSs) and the traditions<br />
associated with them been preserved<br />
so well and vividly as <strong>in</strong> Estonia.<br />
SNSs are a dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g and valuable<br />
part <strong>of</strong> Estonian native culture, form<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a part <strong>of</strong> Estonians’ national identity.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to ma<strong>in</strong>ly historical data,<br />
there are approximately 2500 SNSs<br />
known <strong>in</strong> Estonia. Of these, about 500<br />
are sacred groves (hiis) cover<strong>in</strong>g larger<br />
areas. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to regional fieldwork<br />
data gathered so far, the total number<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs is likely to be as high as 7000.<br />
This is heritage <strong>of</strong> great significance,<br />
help<strong>in</strong>g to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> both biological and<br />
spiritual diversity <strong>in</strong> Estonia.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites <strong>in</strong> Estonia<br />
Even though the total area <strong>of</strong> Estonia is<br />
only 47 000 square kilometres, it <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> unique native l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
and cultural regions. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
regional differences also <strong>in</strong> the types<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs. For example, stones and<br />
trees that have been used for heal<strong>in</strong>g<br />
< A grove-basswood, West-Viru county. When pray<strong>in</strong>g or thank<strong>in</strong>g gods, heal<strong>in</strong>g or ask<strong>in</strong>g<br />
bless<strong>in</strong>g for marriage a ribbon or yarn is given as an oblation to the sacred trees.<br />
61
purposes are more common <strong>in</strong> western<br />
Estonia, and groves for communal<br />
prayers are more common <strong>in</strong> northern<br />
and western parts <strong>of</strong> the country. <strong>The</strong><br />
unique funeral tradition <strong>of</strong> cross-trees<br />
has only survived <strong>in</strong> southeast<br />
Estonia.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> groves (hiied; hiis) are probably<br />
the best known and popular <strong>of</strong> the<br />
SNSs <strong>in</strong> Estonia. <strong>The</strong> users <strong>of</strong> a sacred<br />
grove have historically been the <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
<strong>of</strong> a village, sometimes <strong>of</strong> a parish<br />
or county. <strong>The</strong>re can be found<br />
many different traditions, beliefs and<br />
folklore that are connected to the sacred<br />
groves. Till nowadays a warm attitude<br />
towards the sacred groves has<br />
been preserved as well as the knowledge<br />
that look<strong>in</strong>g at a sacred grove or<br />
pray<strong>in</strong>g to it gives support.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to historical data, about 500<br />
sacred groves are known <strong>in</strong> Estonia.<br />
<strong>The</strong> area <strong>of</strong> a grove can reach from 1<br />
to 100 hectares and several significant<br />
spots can be found with<strong>in</strong> its boundaries,<br />
such as sacred spr<strong>in</strong>gs and trees,<br />
funeral places, fireplaces, grove saunas,<br />
dance places etc.<br />
Ow<strong>in</strong>g to traditional customs, the ecosystems<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred groves have had<br />
the possibility to develop quite freely<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g centuries or even millennia.<br />
Nowadays, be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>ten situated <strong>in</strong> cultural<br />
landscapes, the groves have become<br />
stores <strong>of</strong> biodiversity.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> stones have been brought to<br />
Estonia dur<strong>in</strong>g the Weichsel glaciations<br />
by glaciers arriv<strong>in</strong>g from Scand<strong>in</strong>avia.<br />
Currently around 500 historical sacred<br />
stones are known, which can range<br />
from ten centimetres to ten or more metres.<br />
On rare occasions cup-marks<br />
made by humans can be found <strong>in</strong><br />
them. Even though around 1700 cupmarked<br />
stones are known, less than 20<br />
<strong>of</strong> them have been considered sacred.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> trees are most <strong>of</strong>ten oaks<br />
(Quercus robur), lime trees (Tilia cordata),<br />
p<strong>in</strong>es (P<strong>in</strong>us sylvestris), birches<br />
(Betula pendula) and spruces (Picea<br />
<strong>The</strong> eye-cur<strong>in</strong>g spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Üügu, Saare county, Muhu isle. Healers and other visitors have trod a<br />
path lead<strong>in</strong>g to the spr<strong>in</strong>g. This is a place <strong>of</strong> habitation for many orchid species.<br />
62
abies), but they can also be from other<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous tree species. Choice <strong>of</strong><br />
species shows considerable regional<br />
variation. For example, <strong>in</strong> Põlva parish,<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the known historical sacred<br />
trees have been junipers (Juniperus<br />
communis).<br />
Cross-trees are considered an exceptional<br />
type <strong>of</strong> historical SNS. <strong>The</strong> tradition<br />
to cut a cross on a tree that grows<br />
on the way to cemetery used to be<br />
widespread <strong>in</strong> Estonia as well as other<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. Today, this tradition has<br />
only been ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> four counties <strong>of</strong><br />
Estonia: Põlva, Võru, Tartu and Valga.<br />
Even though the cross that is carved <strong>in</strong><br />
the tree has the shape <strong>of</strong> a Lat<strong>in</strong> cross,<br />
the church does not recognise this tradition<br />
as its own. A cross-tree becomes<br />
the soul-tree <strong>of</strong> the deceased one and<br />
also a k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> bulwark which protects<br />
the liv<strong>in</strong>g from visits <strong>of</strong> the souls, except<br />
for the specific folk calendar events<br />
when spirits are welcome.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> waters can be mar<strong>in</strong>e areas,<br />
lakes, rivers, creeks, yet most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
they are spr<strong>in</strong>gs. People go to the<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>gs ma<strong>in</strong>ly for heal<strong>in</strong>g or for soul refresh<strong>in</strong>g<br />
purposes, but also to pledge<br />
ones faithfulness, ask bless<strong>in</strong>g for marriage,<br />
to tell fortunes and give name to<br />
babies. Nearby a sacred spr<strong>in</strong>g, a sacred<br />
tree or stone is <strong>of</strong>ten found. People<br />
use to take holy spr<strong>in</strong>g water home<br />
for dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g and heal<strong>in</strong>g purposes. In<br />
return for the water people throw co<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the spr<strong>in</strong>g or scratch silver dust<br />
from objects made <strong>of</strong> silver.<br />
Other sacred natural sites. <strong>The</strong><br />
above-mentioned types <strong>of</strong> SNSs are<br />
the most common <strong>in</strong> Estonia, but other<br />
types are found as well. For example<br />
sacrificial sites, slid<strong>in</strong>g stones to aid <strong>in</strong><br />
fertility, and sometimes old trees that<br />
grow on stone graves.<br />
Historical and religious<br />
background<br />
In Estonia, unlike <strong>in</strong> many other technologically<br />
developed countries, the traditions<br />
connected to nature religion are still<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g followed today. People leave <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
to and gather health and power <strong>of</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>d from tens, even hundreds <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
sites. <strong>The</strong> native SNSs <strong>of</strong> Estonia enrich<br />
Estonian society ow<strong>in</strong>g to the fact that<br />
they have not been demonised under the<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> Christianity as they were <strong>in</strong><br />
other countries, such as F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
Estonians’ religious beliefs that are<br />
connected to valu<strong>in</strong>g SNSs stand out<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Europe</strong>an context. Several<br />
pro<strong>of</strong>s for it can be found from sociological<br />
studies named below.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to an Eurobarometer survey<br />
‘Social Values, Science and Technology’<br />
conducted <strong>in</strong> 2005, Estonia has the<br />
lowest rate <strong>of</strong> people believ<strong>in</strong>g there is<br />
a s<strong>in</strong>gle God (16%) and the highest rate<br />
<strong>of</strong> people believ<strong>in</strong>g that there are different<br />
spiritual forces (54%) <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
(http://ec.europa.eu/public_op<strong>in</strong>ion/<br />
archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf).<br />
A public op<strong>in</strong>ion poll f<strong>in</strong>anced and ordered<br />
by the Parliament <strong>of</strong> Estonia <strong>in</strong><br />
2002 showed that 11% <strong>of</strong> Estonian population<br />
consider the Estonian native religion<br />
and Taara faith nearest to their<br />
heart (Lepane, 2002).<br />
63
<strong>The</strong>re are more studies affirm<strong>in</strong>g Estonians’<br />
deep conviction for nature religion.<br />
In 1994, the Estonian University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Life Science made a sociological<br />
survey which showed that 65% <strong>of</strong> people<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> South-Estonia believe that<br />
trees have souls (Moor, 1998). In 2002,<br />
Tall<strong>in</strong>n University carried out an all-Estonian<br />
study ‘Environment and us’ accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to which 82% <strong>of</strong> Estonian <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d nature to be holy and<br />
animate (Raudsepp, 2005).<br />
Another public op<strong>in</strong>ion poll ordered <strong>in</strong><br />
2010 by the Estonian Council <strong>of</strong><br />
Churches showed that 20% <strong>of</strong> Estonians<br />
consider ’maausk’ (Estonian native<br />
religion) as the true religion <strong>of</strong> the Estonian<br />
people (A Conference <strong>of</strong> Sociology<br />
<strong>of</strong> Religion ’Elust, usust ja usuelust<br />
2010’, Lea Altnurme’s presentation<br />
’What should church know about the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual religiousness <strong>of</strong> Estonians’).<br />
Ensur<strong>in</strong>g consistency <strong>of</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
traditions <strong>of</strong> native people and freedom<br />
<strong>of</strong> religion has direct connection<br />
with Estonian SNSs. <strong>The</strong> followers <strong>of</strong><br />
Estonian native religion can practice<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> customs only <strong>in</strong> historical sacred<br />
sites where a perceptible bond<br />
with ancestors exists.<br />
<strong>The</strong> sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Kunda Hiiemägi, West-Viru county. Women are s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g folksongs and cook<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a holy porrige for the prayer held for the souls <strong>of</strong> the anchestors.<br />
64
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites and customs<br />
In Estonian native religion, nature’s<br />
sanctity is tied to its animism. Just like<br />
human be<strong>in</strong>gs, also plants, animals and<br />
landscape objects have soul or spiritual<br />
dimension. In old Estonian creation<br />
songs, man and everyth<strong>in</strong>g else <strong>in</strong> the<br />
world is born from the eggs <strong>of</strong> first bird<br />
(swallow). In addition, the Earth is perceived<br />
as a life-giv<strong>in</strong>g mother (Maaema<br />
– Mother Earth) who is thus source <strong>of</strong><br />
both biological and, through human<br />
mediation, cultural diversity. Man is not<br />
the ruler <strong>of</strong> nature but a mere part <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
Likewise, fairies and gods form part <strong>of</strong><br />
nature. Perception <strong>of</strong> the sanctity <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
is characterised by <strong>in</strong>timacy and<br />
cordiality. For <strong>in</strong>stance when referr<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the gods, dim<strong>in</strong>utive form is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
to convey endearment (the suffix -kene<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g added to the name <strong>of</strong> a god:<br />
Maaemakene, Veeemakene, Äikene,<br />
jumalukene).<br />
<strong>The</strong> traditions connected to sacred<br />
groves (hiis) and other sites <strong>of</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d<br />
have been quite similar over Estonia<br />
from the first written records up to<br />
modern times - one cannot break<br />
branches, mow lawn, dig earth or herd<br />
cattle there and has to keep spiritual<br />
and physical purity. <strong>The</strong>re are many<br />
cases known where those who have<br />
damaged SNSs get punished with a<br />
severe illness or even death.<br />
For historical reasons, Estonian native<br />
religion (maausk) has developed<br />
largely <strong>in</strong>to a familial, personal and secret<br />
belief. People go to SNSs to pray,<br />
heal, get bless<strong>in</strong>g for marriage, give<br />
name to a baby, hold meet<strong>in</strong>gs, celebrate<br />
folk calendar events, perform<br />
magical practices and make <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Sometimes the ash <strong>of</strong> the deceased is<br />
scattered there. Offer<strong>in</strong>gs and objects<br />
used for heal<strong>in</strong>g give evidence that sacred<br />
sites are <strong>in</strong> use.<br />
Not all <strong>of</strong> the practices associated with<br />
the sacred sites are easily def<strong>in</strong>ed as<br />
religious. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>clude stay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a<br />
sacred site, be<strong>in</strong>g connected with ancestors,<br />
contemplation and gather<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spiritual strength.<br />
A significant practice that must be emphasised<br />
when talk<strong>in</strong>g about spiritual<br />
heritage is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a spiritual connection<br />
with a SNS. As a result <strong>of</strong> urbanisation,<br />
most <strong>of</strong> Estonian native people<br />
have moved to towns. Stay<strong>in</strong>g spiritually<br />
connected with the SNS <strong>of</strong> one’s birthplace<br />
over the distance <strong>of</strong>fers important<br />
spiritual support and confidence.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the past few decades, attempts<br />
have been made to restore the communal<br />
customs connected to SNSs. To<br />
celebrate certa<strong>in</strong> folk calendar events,<br />
members <strong>of</strong> a community gather <strong>in</strong><br />
their sacred grove to jo<strong>in</strong>tly pray to<br />
gods and ancestors, br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and follow other traditional customs.<br />
From time to time, communal prayers<br />
are organised together with other<br />
F<strong>in</strong>no-Ugrian nature worshippers.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites <strong>in</strong> change<br />
<strong>The</strong> beliefs and customs <strong>of</strong> Estonian<br />
nature religion are an <strong>in</strong>separable part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Estonian contemporary culture,<br />
yet it has not significantly touched either<br />
Estonian higher culture or the<br />
65
state <strong>in</strong>stitutions. Till recently the values<br />
and customs connected to SNSs<br />
where not taught <strong>in</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ficial education<br />
system. <strong>The</strong>refore, it is not surpris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that appropriate term<strong>in</strong>ology is<br />
miss<strong>in</strong>g from legal acts.<br />
Established <strong>in</strong> 1918 and suffered for 50<br />
years under the Soviet occupation,<br />
young Estonia is still recover<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
mentalities that were forcibly brought <strong>in</strong><br />
by the Christian and Communist regimes<br />
<strong>of</strong> the foreign occupants. We are<br />
relearn<strong>in</strong>g to recognise our SNSs and<br />
the rights <strong>of</strong> native people for them. Till<br />
recently the state has not seen SNSs as<br />
holy sites, but has only handled the<br />
natural or archaeological aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
them. For example, <strong>in</strong> 2005 the National<br />
Heritage Board approved a project<br />
to build a w<strong>in</strong>d mill park to the sacred<br />
hill <strong>of</strong> Kunda Hiiemägi, which had been<br />
taken under protection as cultural monument<br />
many years earlier.<br />
In Estonia, 450 SNSs have been designated<br />
as cultural monuments. <strong>The</strong> exact<br />
number <strong>of</strong> sacred sites under nature<br />
protection is not known, because<br />
they have not been mapped. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the last decades, a number <strong>of</strong> smaller<br />
regional fieldwork projects have been<br />
carried out, which have shown that<br />
most <strong>of</strong> SNSs placed under state protection<br />
are <strong>in</strong> a poor state. At the same<br />
time it has been proved that many protected<br />
species and other natural values<br />
can be found at those sacred<br />
sites, which have preserved at least <strong>in</strong><br />
a satisfactory state.<br />
Thus on one hand, the SNSs and the<br />
spiritual traditions preserved <strong>in</strong> Estonia<br />
are <strong>of</strong> important natural, cultural and<br />
social value, on the other hand they<br />
are very scarcely researched and underprotected<br />
on national level. Estonia<br />
is lack<strong>in</strong>g a thorough overview on the<br />
locations <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> our SNSs and their<br />
situation.<br />
Native local communities have been<br />
weakened dur<strong>in</strong>g the occupation times<br />
and have not yet gathered their powers<br />
enough to assemble. That is also a reason<br />
why sacred sites get damaged or<br />
destroyed by different agricultural, touristic<br />
and other development activities.<br />
New era<br />
In 1995 the followers <strong>of</strong> Estonian native<br />
religion <strong>of</strong>ficially formed their religious<br />
associations. A new period <strong>of</strong> legal acceptance<br />
began for Estonian native<br />
people and SNSs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Estonian House <strong>of</strong> Taara and Native<br />
Religions (Taarausuliste ja Maavalla<br />
koda; MK) started to br<strong>in</strong>g together<br />
historians, natural scientists and folklorists<br />
who are <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> study<strong>in</strong>g<br />
SNSs. <strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> Maavalla koda is to<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g the research <strong>of</strong> SNSs to a new<br />
modern level, ensure complex and <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
scientific treatment <strong>of</strong><br />
SNSs and, through this, direct the state<br />
to recognise the importance <strong>of</strong> SNSs.<br />
For the followers <strong>of</strong> maausk SNSs are<br />
important as <strong>in</strong>tact and unfragmented<br />
cultural and natural areas.<br />
In a few years the research and management<br />
situation <strong>of</strong> SNSs was<br />
mapped, a research methodology was<br />
compiled and several pilot projects<br />
66
were carried out. It was concluded that<br />
a national conservation plan was needed<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to organise emergency rescue<br />
works as quickly as possible.<br />
National conservation plan for<br />
sacred natural sites<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> thorough explanations<br />
from the followers <strong>of</strong> maausk, the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Culture formed <strong>in</strong> 2005 an <strong>in</strong>terdiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g group with the aim<br />
to prepare a national conservation plan<br />
for SNSs. <strong>The</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g group was put<br />
together by representatives <strong>of</strong> different<br />
m<strong>in</strong>istries, universities, scientific research<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions and Maavalla koda.<br />
While tak<strong>in</strong>g part <strong>in</strong> the preparation <strong>of</strong><br />
the conservation plan, Maavalla koda<br />
was collaborat<strong>in</strong>g with other scientific<br />
organisations to improve the study<br />
methodology <strong>of</strong> sacred sites, perform<br />
field works on the pilot areas and <strong>in</strong>troduce<br />
this topic <strong>in</strong> the media. A first<br />
comprehensive overview <strong>of</strong> the Estonian<br />
SNSs was published <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
compilation <strong>of</strong> articles (Kaasik, 2007).<br />
Followers <strong>of</strong> maausk also organised<br />
protection <strong>of</strong> several SNSs which received<br />
quite a lot <strong>of</strong> media attention:<br />
Tammealuse grove, sacred grove hills<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kunda Hiiemägi and Ebavere Hiiemägi<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lääne-Viru County, Purtse Hiiemägi<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ida-Viru county, sacred grove<br />
hill <strong>of</strong> Paluküla Hiiemägi <strong>in</strong> Rapla County<br />
and Panga grove <strong>in</strong> Saare County.<br />
On 1 April 2008, as a result <strong>of</strong> years <strong>of</strong><br />
preparation, the Estonian M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Culture<br />
approved the national conservation<br />
plan ‘<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites <strong>in</strong> Estonia:<br />
Study and Conservation 2008–2012’. It<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> a historical overview <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
<strong>in</strong> Estonia, an analysis <strong>of</strong> the current situation,<br />
and also presents several concrete<br />
conservation measures and <strong>in</strong>structions<br />
on how to apply them.<br />
Conservation measures<br />
<strong>The</strong> conservation plan aims to reta<strong>in</strong> all<br />
extant SNSs under national protection,<br />
as well as change the protection management<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to cover all the values<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sacred sites: <strong>in</strong>tangible and<br />
tangible cultural heritage, natural values<br />
and freedom <strong>of</strong> religion. As the sacred<br />
sites help to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the traditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> local people (and some traditions<br />
can only be performed <strong>in</strong> the sacred<br />
sites), they are also important <strong>in</strong><br />
enrich<strong>in</strong>g the liv<strong>in</strong>g environment and<br />
support<strong>in</strong>g local development.<br />
<strong>The</strong> coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g steer<strong>in</strong>g committee <strong>of</strong><br />
the Conservation Plan consists <strong>of</strong> representatives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the M<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>of</strong> the Environment,<br />
Agriculture, Internal Affairs, and<br />
Education and Research; the National<br />
Heritage Board and Maavalla koda. <strong>The</strong><br />
University <strong>of</strong> Tartu is the implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
agency. Measures <strong>of</strong> the Conservation<br />
Plan are designed to handle all aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs and the associated values.<br />
As SNSs are one <strong>of</strong> the most endangered<br />
features among Estonian cultural<br />
heritage, it is essential to study and<br />
save them. SNSs as historical objects<br />
are endangered by perish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
lore, on one hand, and by lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
on their existence, on the other.<br />
Often only a few old people remember<br />
the locations or existence <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
67
sites. Unless researchers <strong>in</strong>terview<br />
these people <strong>in</strong> the forthcom<strong>in</strong>g years,<br />
many significant and valuable sites will<br />
disappear from the heritage landscape<br />
and be forever lost for society.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Conservation Plan foresees creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a database which supports research<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and manag<strong>in</strong>g SNSs. <strong>The</strong><br />
database would consist <strong>of</strong> folkloric, archaeological,<br />
natural, historical and<br />
other data on SNSs and provide <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
on the exact location, condition<br />
and form <strong>of</strong> ownership <strong>of</strong> each site.<br />
In the first phase <strong>of</strong> fieldwork, the researchers<br />
will make <strong>in</strong>terviews with local<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants to specify the locations<br />
and borders <strong>of</strong> SNSs. <strong>The</strong> second<br />
phase would ideally take place <strong>in</strong> the<br />
landscape where SNSs are situated. It<br />
focuses on details and the personal<br />
bond <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terviewees with SNSs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g phases comprise tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the GPS coord<strong>in</strong>ates, first demarcation,<br />
and its natural scientific, archaeological<br />
and ethnographic description.<br />
<strong>The</strong> received audio and video record<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
and pictures (photos, draw<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
schemes, maps) will be systematised,<br />
analysed and archived. Subsequently<br />
suggestions on demarcation, protection<br />
and management <strong>of</strong> the SNSs<br />
found will be made. In order to safeguard<br />
confidential <strong>in</strong>formation on sacred<br />
sites the <strong>in</strong>formation about endangered<br />
SNSs will not be disclosed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Conservation Plan foresees to perform<br />
a revision <strong>of</strong> the Estonian legal<br />
regulations and to formulate suggestions<br />
<strong>of</strong> amendments or prepare a new<br />
legal act about SNSs. Currently, the Estonian<br />
legislation not only lacks direct<br />
regulation <strong>of</strong> SNSs, but does not even<br />
mention their existence. Consideration<br />
should be given to def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g SNSs as a<br />
separate category <strong>of</strong> monuments.<br />
Yet, effective legal regulation and protection<br />
measures are not sufficient<br />
when society <strong>in</strong> general does not value<br />
sacred sites. <strong>The</strong> plan foresees to<br />
launch media projects, dissem<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
on the television and radio,<br />
books, exhibitions, lectures and other<br />
activities. It also proposes to supplement<br />
school curricula with relevant <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
about the SNSs.<br />
Recent advances<br />
<strong>The</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial help from the state has so<br />
far been 197 000 euros, form<strong>in</strong>g 11,6%<br />
from the general budget <strong>of</strong> the Conservation<br />
Plan. With this f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g the coord<strong>in</strong>ators<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Conservation Plan<br />
have been hired and they have so far<br />
led the follow<strong>in</strong>g works. A research<br />
methodology has been compiled and<br />
the methodology for demarcation and<br />
conservation are be<strong>in</strong>g prepared. <strong>The</strong><br />
database project is ready. An expert<br />
group has been put together to raise<br />
the necessary competence <strong>in</strong> the National<br />
Heritage Board.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first fieldwork studies have been<br />
performed so far <strong>in</strong> Muhu parish on the<br />
West coast <strong>of</strong> Estonia and a partial <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />
<strong>in</strong> Juuru and Kuusalu parishes<br />
<strong>of</strong> North Estonia. Altogether there are<br />
102 parishes <strong>in</strong> Estonia.<br />
A total <strong>of</strong> 21 researchers participated <strong>in</strong><br />
Muhu fieldwork. <strong>The</strong> local community<br />
68
<strong>The</strong> sacred grove (hiis) <strong>of</strong> Tammealuse, West-Viru county. A ribbon is tyed as <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a sacred<br />
natural site form<strong>in</strong>g a bond between generations and this way keep<strong>in</strong>g spiritual consistency<br />
with anchestors.<br />
network helped to organise the work.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the research period more than<br />
200 <strong>in</strong>habitants were <strong>in</strong>terviewed, 120<br />
hours <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terviews were recorded and<br />
more than 3000 photos were taken. Before<br />
start<strong>in</strong>g the fieldwork, accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the collected historical and folkloristic<br />
data the researchers were aware <strong>of</strong> 28<br />
SNSs <strong>in</strong> this area, and 11 <strong>of</strong> them placed<br />
under national protection. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
fieldwork, participants had collected <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
about 81 historical sacred<br />
sites and additionally about 30 potential<br />
sacred sites. <strong>The</strong>y managed to f<strong>in</strong>d and<br />
perform an <strong>in</strong>ventory <strong>of</strong> 67 sacred sites.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the previously unknown sacred<br />
sites were heal<strong>in</strong>g stones and spr<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> greatest surprise that came up as<br />
a result <strong>of</strong> the Muhu project was the<br />
understand<strong>in</strong>g that researchers are<br />
still unaware <strong>of</strong> a considerable number<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred sites. <strong>The</strong> reason for that is<br />
that bearers <strong>of</strong> the liv<strong>in</strong>g traditions, the<br />
users <strong>of</strong> sacred sites, do not want to<br />
share their knowledge with strangers<br />
whom they do not trust. Historical experience<br />
has taught local people that if<br />
strangers knew about your sacred<br />
place, it would be destroyed or <strong>in</strong>terfered.<br />
People also believe that when<br />
strangers know about your sacred<br />
place, its powers weaken.<br />
Values and knowledge<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce 2008, Maavalla koda has organised<br />
campaigns (Hiie sõber) to f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
people or organisations who are dedicated<br />
to protect<strong>in</strong>g the SNSs. This also<br />
serves an educational purpose: the<br />
best practices <strong>of</strong> sacred natural site<br />
management and the good <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
examples are shown to the public.<br />
Annual photo contest, organised by<br />
Maavalla koda, aims to document the<br />
current situation <strong>of</strong> Estonian SNSs and<br />
draw public attention to this topic.<br />
69
A photo exhibition on Estonian SNSs<br />
has been made with explanatory texts.<br />
This has been already shown <strong>in</strong> 16<br />
towns and villages.<br />
More than a 100 articles have been<br />
published <strong>in</strong> the media and many lectures<br />
have been delivered addressed<br />
to Estonian <strong>of</strong>ficials, school children<br />
and other <strong>in</strong>terest groups.<br />
For the first time <strong>in</strong> history, the Estonian<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Life Sciences and University<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tartu <strong>of</strong>fer elective courses on<br />
SNS. Sets <strong>of</strong> lectures addressed to <strong>of</strong>ficials<br />
who are daily deal<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
questions connected to SNS management<br />
will be delivered <strong>in</strong> the next few<br />
years aim<strong>in</strong>g to raise their competence<br />
and, through this, help to ameliorate<br />
the situation <strong>of</strong> SNS conservation.<br />
Case study: <strong>The</strong> sacred hill <strong>of</strong><br />
Hiiemägi <strong>in</strong> Paluküla<br />
<strong>The</strong> case discusses a SNS <strong>in</strong> a situation<br />
<strong>of</strong> conflict<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terests. <strong>The</strong> local<br />
government plans to build a recreational<br />
sports and tourist centre on the<br />
site. Despite the fact that the site is under<br />
nature protection, followers <strong>of</strong><br />
maausk have done serious efforts dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the past ten years to protect the<br />
spiritual and cultural values connected<br />
to the sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi. This is<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most long-last<strong>in</strong>g conflicts<br />
connected with conservation <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
<strong>in</strong> Estonia and has ga<strong>in</strong>ed lots <strong>of</strong> media<br />
attention. Unfortunately no satisfactory<br />
solution has been found so far.<br />
Natural and spiritual values<br />
Hiiemägi (sacred grove hill) is located<br />
<strong>in</strong> Paluküla, Kehtna parish, Rapla<br />
county, Estonia with<strong>in</strong> a National <strong>Lands</strong>cape<br />
Protection Area (<strong>IUCN</strong> category<br />
V), which protects landforms from the<br />
glaciations period and wild species. Its<br />
total surface encompasses 5713 ha, <strong>of</strong><br />
which the sacred hill covers only 25<br />
hectares. <strong>The</strong> area has been <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Natura 2000 network, as a spe-<br />
A signboard <strong>in</strong> front <strong>of</strong> sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Paluküla Hiiemägi, Rapla county. Often natural and spiritual<br />
values suffer the pressures <strong>of</strong> economic <strong>in</strong>terests.Ahto Kaasik
cial conservation area (<strong>IUCN</strong> Category<br />
V), (Dudley, 2008).<br />
In the area <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi a Natura 2000<br />
natural habitat type <strong>of</strong> Community <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
has been <strong>in</strong>ventoried. It is composed<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘Semi-natural dry grasslands<br />
and scrubland facies on calcareous<br />
substrates (Festuco-Brometalia) *important<br />
orchid sites’. It is also registered<br />
as the location <strong>of</strong> a large population<br />
(around 50 nests) <strong>of</strong> a protected<br />
ant species Formica polyctena.<br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritual and cultural values <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi<br />
form an <strong>in</strong>separable part <strong>of</strong> its<br />
natural environment. Dur<strong>in</strong>g its long<br />
history this place has developed <strong>in</strong>to<br />
what it is today due to hav<strong>in</strong>g been<br />
used and regarded as a sacred site.<br />
Followers <strong>of</strong> maausk use Hiiemägi even<br />
today as a natural sanctuary as much<br />
as the worsen<strong>in</strong>g conditions allow.<br />
Regular communal and <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
prayers and rituals are be<strong>in</strong>g held there<br />
and people leave <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs on the hill.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the expert op<strong>in</strong>ions <strong>of</strong> acknowledged<br />
Estonian folklorists, the<br />
sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi <strong>in</strong> Paluküla is a<br />
SNS, which must be conserved and<br />
protected as a whole.<br />
Pressures and impacts<br />
<strong>The</strong> landowner, the local government,<br />
sees mostly the economic potential <strong>of</strong><br />
Hiiemägi, which should be used to develop<br />
forest, sports and tourist bus<strong>in</strong>esses.<br />
Approximately one third <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi has already<br />
been turned <strong>in</strong>to ski trails and grasslands<br />
that are ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed with different<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>es. That is also the reason why<br />
the frequency <strong>of</strong> visitors to the sacred<br />
hill has gone up and the biodiversity <strong>of</strong><br />
this place has significantly decreased.<br />
Moreover, next to Hiiemägi and on its<br />
hillside the local government plans to<br />
construct a sports and recreation centre<br />
with stadiums, ski lifts, motels etc.<br />
Hand <strong>in</strong> hand with the impoverish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong> the environment, the possibilities<br />
to follow spiritual traditions on<br />
Hiiemägi have substantially worsened.<br />
Followers <strong>of</strong> maausk feel that their sacred<br />
object has been attacked and<br />
their right <strong>of</strong> freedom <strong>of</strong> religion is<br />
violated.<br />
<strong>The</strong> National Heritage and Environmental<br />
Boards, which are directly <strong>in</strong><br />
charge <strong>of</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g this protected<br />
area, have given permissions to the<br />
recreation centre projects, refus<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
discuss the questions connected to<br />
spiritual aspects <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi.<br />
Native people and followers <strong>of</strong> maausk<br />
and Maavalla koda f<strong>in</strong>d it essential to<br />
conserve the spiritual and cultural values<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi and keep it as a natural<br />
sanctuary. <strong>The</strong>y have cleaned garbage<br />
from the hill, <strong>in</strong>formed the public,<br />
carried out supervision and used all<br />
court and adm<strong>in</strong>istrative means and<br />
even physical <strong>in</strong>tervention to obstruct<br />
the construction activities on the sacred<br />
hill. <strong>The</strong> local groups have also<br />
participated <strong>in</strong> the implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
the development plans <strong>of</strong> the sacred<br />
hill, carried out monitor<strong>in</strong>g, negotiated<br />
with the landowner and developers,<br />
National Heritage and Environmental<br />
Boards, conducted research and hired<br />
71
esearchers, organised a public collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> signatures and media campaigns.<br />
Many folklorists, historians,<br />
conservationists and cultural celebrities<br />
have supported these activities.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the most dramatic events took<br />
place on 8 November 2004, when<br />
Maavalla koda called people to gather<br />
to Hiiemägi for a protest meet<strong>in</strong>g with a<br />
purpose to barricade the tractors mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
up the hill. Probably it was the outcome<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive media attention that<br />
prevented the conflict. As a result <strong>of</strong><br />
negotiation, both the mach<strong>in</strong>es and<br />
police forces left the sacred hill.<br />
After the <strong>in</strong>cident, the protectors <strong>of</strong> the<br />
grove hill filed a court suit, went<br />
through all Estonian court <strong>in</strong>stances<br />
and lost <strong>in</strong> the Supreme Court. Currently<br />
they are expect<strong>in</strong>g an answer<br />
from the <strong>Europe</strong>an Court <strong>of</strong> Human<br />
Rights about the case <strong>of</strong> the sacred hill<br />
<strong>of</strong> Paluküla Hiiemägi as violation <strong>of</strong><br />
freedom <strong>of</strong> religion.<br />
Perspectives<br />
<strong>The</strong> protectors <strong>of</strong> the Hiiemägi sacred<br />
hill have repeatedly suggested several<br />
compromise solutions accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
which the hill could be used both for<br />
recreational sports and ecotourism.<br />
<strong>The</strong> protectors cannot accept the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs, vehicular traffic<br />
and mass events tak<strong>in</strong>g place <strong>in</strong> this<br />
sacred site. <strong>The</strong> local government has<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered, from their side, to leave a<br />
small reservation area for the followers<br />
<strong>of</strong> maausk.<br />
It seems so far that no satisfactory<br />
compromise can be found through negotiation.<br />
A solution could lie <strong>in</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Conservation Plan. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the Conservation Plan, the<br />
whole sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi should<br />
be placed under heritage protection to<br />
ensure constitutional freedom <strong>of</strong> religion<br />
and possibility to perform historical<br />
customs. <strong>The</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Manag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites (Wild and McLeod, 2008) will<br />
hopefully be <strong>of</strong> help as well.<br />
Websites<br />
Estonian House <strong>of</strong> Taara and Native Religions, http://www.maavald.ee/eng/<br />
Website <strong>of</strong> the sacred hill <strong>of</strong> Palukyla Hiiemägi, http://palukyla.maavald.ee/<br />
Conservation plan ‘<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites <strong>in</strong> Estonia: Study and Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance 2008<br />
– 2012’ (English version), http://hiis.ee/sacred-sites/sns_devplan<br />
72
Glossary<br />
Looduslik pühapaik - a SNS, a site associated with sacrifice, worship, heal<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
prayer or other religious or ritual activities accord<strong>in</strong>g to folkloric, archaeological,<br />
historical, ethnological or other data which dates back before the 20th century.<br />
Loodus – ‘nature’ <strong>in</strong> written Estonian. For the followers <strong>of</strong> maausk the word loodus<br />
has a shade <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g referr<strong>in</strong>g that nature is a product or outcome, with a concrete<br />
creator, giv<strong>in</strong>g the word a monotheistic connotation<br />
Loond – a term that was used <strong>in</strong> ancient Estonian to signify ‘nature’. It harmonises<br />
better with Estonian myth <strong>of</strong> creation, accord<strong>in</strong>g to which the world was born from<br />
bird’s eggs and is a self-creat<strong>in</strong>g, constantly chang<strong>in</strong>g liv<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Hiis – sacred grove, a SNS <strong>in</strong> communal use, compris<strong>in</strong>g a larger and complex<br />
area. People <strong>in</strong>tervene <strong>in</strong> its natural succession as little as possible<br />
Maausk – Estonian native religion, based on nature worship<br />
Maarahvas – historical ethnonym for the Estonians<br />
Taarausk – Taara religion, a monotheistic belief, created <strong>in</strong> 1930s, banned and<br />
vanished dur<strong>in</strong>g Soviet occupation<br />
References<br />
Dudley, N. (editor) (2008) Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Apply<strong>in</strong>g Protected Area Management<br />
Categories. Gland, Switzerland, <strong>IUCN</strong>.<br />
Kaasik, A. and Valk, H. (eds.) (2007) Looduslikud pühapaigad, väärtused ja kaitse<br />
[<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites. Values and protection]. Commentationes Litterarum Socientatis<br />
Esthonicae XXXVI. Tartu: Maavalla koda, Tartu Ülikool, Õpetatud Eesti Selts,<br />
http://maavald.ee/hiis/raamat2007/hiiekogumik.pdf, English abstracts, http://hiis.<br />
ee/sacred-sites/sns2007<br />
Lepane, L. (2002) Avaliku arvamuse uur<strong>in</strong>gu tulemused [Results <strong>of</strong> a public survey].<br />
Tall<strong>in</strong>n: Riigikogu and Ariko Market<strong>in</strong>g, pp. 18, 58, 59<br />
http://www.riigikogu.ee/doc.php?46237<br />
Moor, A (1998) H<strong>in</strong>gepuu, vanade müütide jälgedes [Soul tree <strong>in</strong> ancient myths].<br />
Tartu: Elmatar, p. 104.<br />
Raudsepp, M. (2005) Eestlaste loodusesuhe keskkonnapsühholoogia vaatenurgast<br />
[Estonians’ relationship to nature from the viewpo<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> environmental psychology].<br />
In Eesti Looduskultuur, ed. T. Maran and K. Tüür. Tartu: Eesti Kultuuriloo<br />
ja Folkloristika Keskus, Eesti Kirjandusmuuseum, pp. 379–420.<br />
73
Use and reuse <strong>of</strong> ancient sacred places<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mikytai, Žemaitija National Park,<br />
NW Lithuania<br />
Vyk<strong>in</strong>tas Vaitkevičius<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>The</strong> study <strong>of</strong> the ancient sacred places<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lithuania was a rather slow process<br />
<strong>in</strong> the twentieth century. Many ideological<br />
and methodological controversies<br />
surrounded the subject. <strong>The</strong> multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
character <strong>of</strong> the ancient sacred<br />
places and ambivalent ideological attitudes<br />
towards them were the factors<br />
that affected the issue greatly.<br />
Nowadays nearly 2500 ancient sacred<br />
places have been recorded <strong>in</strong> Lithuania.<br />
This figure <strong>in</strong>cludes hills, arable fields and<br />
meadows, groves and trees, rivers and<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>gs, lakes and wetlands, stones, hollows.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are also some known caves<br />
located <strong>in</strong> exposures on riverbanks.<br />
Ancient sacred places are a highly<br />
characteristic type <strong>of</strong> monuments <strong>in</strong><br />
Lithuania’s protected areas, which cover<br />
the most natural lands. Usually sacred<br />
places located <strong>in</strong> protected areas<br />
are well preserved, and therefore they<br />
deserve special consideration.<br />
<strong>The</strong> complex <strong>of</strong> ancient sacred places<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mikytai is located <strong>in</strong> North-western<br />
Lithuania, with<strong>in</strong> Žemaitija National<br />
Park. As many other protected areas <strong>of</strong><br />
the country, this national park was<br />
founded <strong>in</strong> 1991, soon after the <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
<strong>of</strong> Lithuania was declared.<br />
<strong>The</strong> core <strong>of</strong> the Žemaitija National Park<br />
is Lake Plateliai, located <strong>in</strong> the middle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the site, although numerous other<br />
< An oak with holes and two trunks grown together on the north-eastern slope <strong>of</strong> the Alka Hill.<br />
75
<strong>The</strong> location <strong>of</strong> the Mikytai Site <strong>in</strong> the Baltic Sea Region.<br />
places <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest are located <strong>in</strong> its periphery.<br />
Žemaitija (Samogitia – <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong>)<br />
is a renown region for its history and<br />
cultural heritage.<br />
Although Christianity has been <strong>of</strong>ficially<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to Žemaitija <strong>in</strong> the early<br />
fifteenth century (Jucas, 2007: 31-38),<br />
real changes <strong>in</strong> the worldview <strong>of</strong> the local<br />
population took place only <strong>in</strong> the<br />
late sixteenth century, dur<strong>in</strong>g the Reformation<br />
and the reaction aga<strong>in</strong>st it.<br />
Syncretism <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>herited Baltic (and also<br />
Indo-<strong>Europe</strong>an) spiritual traditions and<br />
Christianity is highly characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
the religion <strong>of</strong> the Žemaitija region. It is<br />
sometimes described by the term ‘Folk<br />
Christianity’ that <strong>in</strong>cludes ancient sacred<br />
places: sacred trees, sacred<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>gs, and sacred stones be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
passive or active use today. Especially<br />
the votive treatment and <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
this k<strong>in</strong>d are prevalent and practised <strong>in</strong><br />
Žemaitija. Small wooden chapels,<br />
crosses <strong>of</strong> different size, figur<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong><br />
the Sa<strong>in</strong>ts as well as numerous other<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs are brought to the ancient sacred<br />
places.<br />
76
Mikytai sacred places and the<br />
Alka Hill<br />
<strong>The</strong> case <strong>of</strong> the ancient sacred places <strong>in</strong><br />
Mikytai is quite different from other Lithuanian<br />
sacred sites. <strong>The</strong> Devil’s name that<br />
appears <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the place names <strong>of</strong><br />
Mikytai as well as <strong>in</strong> the local legends referr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the Alka Hill does <strong>in</strong>dicate that<br />
the orig<strong>in</strong>al sacredness <strong>of</strong> the pre-Christian<br />
site has been transformed <strong>in</strong>to fear<br />
and fright a long time ago. <strong>The</strong> name <strong>of</strong><br />
the village ‘Mikytai’ might have derived<br />
from a surname, but at the same time,<br />
folk etymology draws attention to the<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Lithuanian word mikyta<br />
‘the goat’, because the ghost <strong>of</strong> the goat<br />
plays the central role <strong>in</strong> the numerous<br />
place legends related to the Mikytai Alka<br />
Hill (Vaitkevičius, 1998: 22).<br />
From an archaeological po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, the<br />
hill fort <strong>in</strong>-between the sites Mikytai and<br />
Šlikt<strong>in</strong>e is a significant mark <strong>in</strong> the prehistoric<br />
landscape dat<strong>in</strong>g back to the first<br />
millennium – early second millennium AD<br />
(Baubonis and Zabiela, 2005: 372-373).<br />
Couronian settlements covered a huge<br />
area from North-western Lithuania to<br />
South-western Latvia (Žulkus, 2004: 41).<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no <strong>in</strong>formation about a burial site<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mikytai. However, several f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
were discovered dur<strong>in</strong>g the reclamation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Šata River valley <strong>in</strong> 1938 and 1970<br />
(arms, jewellery, pieces <strong>of</strong> rider’s equipment,<br />
etc.) and their appearance is characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sacrificial sites all around<br />
Northern <strong>Europe</strong>. In a marshy area located<br />
to the north <strong>of</strong> the hill fort some hundreds<br />
<strong>of</strong> items from the n<strong>in</strong>th to eleventh<br />
centuries AD have been found <strong>in</strong> two<br />
compact concentrations (Rimantiene,<br />
1977: 132-133).<br />
In historical times, at least for four or<br />
five centuries, the Mikytai village (akalica<br />
– <strong>in</strong> Polish) at the roads cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was a settlement <strong>in</strong>habited by noblemen.<br />
For this reason there were no<br />
regulations <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that the villages<br />
were the property <strong>of</strong> the State (e.g.<br />
Grand Duchy <strong>of</strong> Lithuania). <strong>The</strong> representatives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the noblemen were the<br />
keepers <strong>of</strong> old customs <strong>in</strong> some cases.<br />
This might be supported by recent research<br />
carried out <strong>in</strong> Lithuania and<br />
Latvia. In both cases a k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> religious<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>of</strong> the noblemen related<br />
to the ancient sacred places was discussed,<br />
and build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> sacred places<br />
next to the villages that were <strong>in</strong>habited<br />
by the noblemen were presented<br />
(Vaitkevičius 2008; Laime 2009).<br />
Alka Hill (whose literal translation<br />
would be ‘hill <strong>of</strong> the Alka’) is the most<br />
significant landmark <strong>in</strong> the surround<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mikytai and it possesses the<br />
common Lithuanian name alka (fem<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e).<br />
For a long time Alka was widely<br />
accepted as the name for ‘a sacred<br />
grove’, ‘a place where sacrifices were<br />
burnt’, or ‘sacrifice’ itself (Vaitkevičius,<br />
2004: 7). It is worth mention<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
Alka is one <strong>of</strong> the few Baltic religious<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the pre-Christian period. Numerous<br />
‘hills <strong>of</strong> Alka’ are highly characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Žemaitija region <strong>in</strong> Lithuania<br />
and the Couronia region <strong>in</strong> Latvia<br />
(Vaitkevičius 2004: 9-10). Usually they<br />
belong to archaeological complexes<br />
dated from the early fourteenth to the<br />
early fifteenth century, the same period<br />
when the Northern Crusades and Conversion<br />
ends. Evidently, the Mikytai<br />
Alka Hill was somehow connected with<br />
77
<strong>The</strong> Mikytai Alka Hill <strong>in</strong> the landscape (view from the west).<br />
the Mikytai hill fort, at least <strong>in</strong> a visual<br />
way, but the key po<strong>in</strong>t is the location <strong>of</strong><br />
the complex <strong>of</strong> the ancient sacred<br />
places <strong>in</strong> the watershed area.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mikytai Alka Hill (184 m above sea<br />
level) is located <strong>in</strong> a woody and marshy<br />
watershed area <strong>in</strong>-between the bas<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Rivers M<strong>in</strong>ija, Bartuva, and Varduva.<br />
It has a shape <strong>of</strong> a large irregular<br />
cone, and it represents the ground mora<strong>in</strong>es<br />
– the gently roll<strong>in</strong>g hills. All these<br />
are related to the glaciers which have<br />
disappeared some thirteen thousands<br />
years ago <strong>in</strong> Žemaitija.<br />
<strong>The</strong> slopes stretch<strong>in</strong>g from 28 to 32 m<br />
are particularly important features <strong>of</strong><br />
the site; the southern slope rises gradually,<br />
while the northern one is extremely<br />
steep. <strong>The</strong> Devil’s Stone (red<br />
granite, 3.6 m <strong>in</strong> length, and 3 m <strong>in</strong><br />
width) is located <strong>in</strong> the middle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
northern slope. On the top <strong>of</strong> the boulder<br />
there is a depression <strong>of</strong> 7–16 cm x<br />
34 cm <strong>in</strong> size, the so-called Devil’s<br />
footpr<strong>in</strong>t. <strong>The</strong> Prayer’s Well, the second<br />
well-known feature <strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Mikytai Alka Hill, is placed on the eastern<br />
side. Currently, the dry 0.6 m deep<br />
hollow that has a diameter <strong>of</strong> 2.2 m<br />
and is paved with stones, is regarded<br />
to be the former place <strong>of</strong> the sacred<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>g (Vaitkevičius, 1998: 225-227).<br />
Apart from the Devil’s Stone and Prayer’s<br />
Well mentioned <strong>in</strong> the place-legends,<br />
some other elements <strong>of</strong> the site should<br />
be mentioned. Namely, an oval-shaped<br />
pond full <strong>of</strong> water (10 x 25 m <strong>in</strong> size); a<br />
formation <strong>of</strong> two stones (<strong>of</strong> unknown orig<strong>in</strong>),<br />
one on top <strong>of</strong> the other, both <strong>of</strong> remarkable<br />
shape and appearance as<br />
well as a table-shaped stone (1.4 x 1.6<br />
m, 0.1 m high) surrounded by a circle <strong>of</strong><br />
fourteen other stones.<br />
Recently other new discoveries were<br />
made dur<strong>in</strong>g the field-survey that took<br />
place <strong>in</strong> April 2011. Attention was<br />
drawn to certa<strong>in</strong> trees bear<strong>in</strong>g holes.<br />
Holes <strong>of</strong> different size and form were<br />
shaped <strong>in</strong> many trunks and (or)<br />
branches grown together. <strong>The</strong> species<br />
78
<strong>of</strong> the trees varied, and <strong>in</strong>cluded an<br />
oak, a bird cherry, two spruces, two<br />
maples, a pair consist<strong>in</strong>g p<strong>in</strong>e tree and<br />
a maple; they were recorded mostly <strong>in</strong><br />
the north – north-western side <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alka Hill. Those trees were used <strong>in</strong><br />
special heal<strong>in</strong>g rituals and are known<br />
<strong>in</strong> Lithuania, the former territory <strong>of</strong><br />
Prussia, as well as <strong>in</strong> Belarus, Russia<br />
and other countries. <strong>The</strong> holes <strong>in</strong> the<br />
trees represent gates <strong>in</strong> which the<br />
clothes <strong>of</strong> patients or sometimes sick<br />
children were put.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, some other landmarks, such as<br />
earth mounds and a particular k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong><br />
ditch discovered with<strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alka Hill, might be regarded as a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> human activity dur<strong>in</strong>g the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
and the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the twentieth<br />
century.<br />
Legends and beliefs<br />
An important part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tangible cultural<br />
heritage <strong>of</strong> the Mikytai Alka Hill is a<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> narrations, place legends<br />
and beliefs which were compiled dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the twentieth century. In 1926 Juozas<br />
Mickevicius (1900–1984) authored<br />
the first publication on the subject<br />
(Mickevicius, 1926). Later on he was<br />
followed by Jurgis Dovydaitis (1907–<br />
2001), Juozas Šliavas (1930–1979),<br />
and Antanas Šle<strong>in</strong>ys (1897–?). <strong>The</strong> latter<br />
is a story teller and folklore collector,<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitant <strong>of</strong> the Kruopiai village, and<br />
deserves special attention. His place<br />
legends are famous <strong>in</strong> Lithuania and<br />
are characterised by the author’s very<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual style, uncommon among the<br />
other story tellers. At the same time,<br />
however, his stories have a traditional<br />
form and character.<br />
Generally there are a number <strong>of</strong> motives<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d place legends. For <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
the Mikytai Alka Hill is considered<br />
the dwell<strong>in</strong>g place <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
goat that is usually depicted as a ghost<br />
that misleads local peasants, and<br />
frightens them. By bleat<strong>in</strong>g, the goat<br />
stays <strong>in</strong> a k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> active communica-<br />
An <strong>in</strong>direct illum<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> the northern slope <strong>of</strong> the Mikytai Alka Hill as well as the Devil’s Stone<br />
<strong>in</strong> the even<strong>in</strong>g sunsh<strong>in</strong>e<br />
79
<strong>The</strong> topography <strong>of</strong> sacred places <strong>in</strong> Mikytai: (1) the Devil’s Stone on the northern slope <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alka Hill, (2) the Prayer’s Well on the eastern foot. <strong>The</strong> scheme on the right implicates the mythological<br />
model <strong>of</strong> the complex <strong>of</strong> sacred places <strong>in</strong> Mikytai referr<strong>in</strong>g to the general mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
the world’s directions <strong>in</strong> the Baltic religion.<br />
tion with the residents <strong>of</strong> the Mikytai village.<br />
This is a reciprocal relation. It is<br />
known that men used to produce a<br />
drone while blow<strong>in</strong>g the boss <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wheel <strong>in</strong> a particular way, <strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
goat to the village (Šliavas, 1978: 74).<br />
Another significant concept related to<br />
the Alka Hill concerns the mist. It is<br />
broadly believed that the Alka Hill produces<br />
smoke. This phenomenon is not<br />
related to a specific time <strong>of</strong> the year;<br />
the key po<strong>in</strong>t is that smoke over the<br />
Alka Hill always predicts considerable<br />
weather changes – the ra<strong>in</strong>y weather<br />
will change <strong>in</strong>to sunny, the coolness<br />
<strong>in</strong>to warmness, and so on (Vaitkevičius,<br />
1998: 224).<br />
<strong>The</strong> extraction <strong>of</strong> salt on the Mikytai<br />
Alka Hill is discussed <strong>in</strong> numerous narrations<br />
as well (Vaitkevičius, 1998:<br />
222-223). <strong>The</strong> motif <strong>of</strong> the extraction <strong>of</strong><br />
salt is very characteristic <strong>of</strong> the Lithuanian<br />
tales; people are look<strong>in</strong>g for salt<br />
<strong>in</strong> heaven, because salt resources are<br />
under control by God (Dievas) or Thunder<br />
(Perkunas) (Vaitkevičiene, 2001:<br />
77-81). But <strong>in</strong> relation to ancient sacred<br />
places, salt is known to be found<br />
on the most remarkable sacred hills<br />
only.<br />
In the Mikytai Alka Hill not much emphasis<br />
is placed on the period and rituals<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pre-Christian religion.<br />
Sometimes place legends do mention<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs sacrificed to the Prayer’s Well<br />
(Vaitkevičius, 1998: 226-227) and<br />
wash<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the dead at the well before<br />
cremation (the well was sometimes<br />
called the Death’s Well – Šliavas, 1978:<br />
73-74). <strong>The</strong> latter subject is unique<br />
and needs to be thoroughly exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong> the future. Archaeological excava-<br />
80
tions (precisely test pits) took place <strong>in</strong><br />
Mikytai Alka Hill <strong>in</strong> 1971 under the<br />
leadership <strong>of</strong> Vytautas Urbanavicius.<br />
Neither structures nor artefacts referr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to ancient rituals were revealed<br />
(Urbanavicius, 1972: 15-17).<br />
One very important factor for the mythological<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> the complex<br />
<strong>of</strong> ancient sacred places <strong>in</strong> Mikytai is<br />
the morphology <strong>of</strong> the Alka Hill itself.<br />
<strong>The</strong> geographical position, topography,<br />
and shape are as important for<br />
our exam<strong>in</strong>ation as all material evidences.<br />
Surpris<strong>in</strong>gly, the shape <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alka Hill, and its north-south direction,<br />
fits exactly the model <strong>of</strong> the Baltic<br />
worldview: the northern slope is as<br />
dark, cold, and wet as the southern<br />
is bright, warm, and dry (cf.<br />
Vaitkevičiene, 2001: 120-130). Tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to account the accessibility <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Alka Hill (none <strong>of</strong> the old paths lead to<br />
the northern side) it might be reasonably<br />
stated that the northern slope and<br />
the marshy foot look eerie and unworldly,<br />
<strong>in</strong> comparison to the southern<br />
area which was the ma<strong>in</strong> arena for every<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> action and activity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> prelim<strong>in</strong>ary analysis <strong>of</strong> the road<br />
network around the Alka Hill proves<br />
what was just stated; the ma<strong>in</strong> road<br />
(also designed for transport) leads to<br />
the hill’s top from the southern side,<br />
and the ma<strong>in</strong> path (designed for walk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
only) stretches from the west to the<br />
east approach<strong>in</strong>g the Prayer’s Well<br />
(aga<strong>in</strong> a symbolic expression).<br />
<strong>The</strong> opposition east-west is slightly expressed<br />
but the Prayer’s Well, the former<br />
site <strong>of</strong> the sacred spr<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
that, very likely, east was connected to<br />
life and west was connected to death.<br />
Water flow<strong>in</strong>g to the east has a special<br />
positive impact on people; accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the Baltic religion such water br<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
life, health, and beauty (Vaitkevičius,<br />
2004: 45-46). In a particular way the<br />
trees bear<strong>in</strong>g holes <strong>in</strong> the north-western<br />
area <strong>of</strong> the Alka Hill do represent a<br />
connection with the otherworld – dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the rituals the holes <strong>of</strong> the trees used to<br />
play the role <strong>of</strong> a gate; while cross<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the l<strong>in</strong>e between the two worlds every<br />
expected change is possible.<br />
A complex <strong>of</strong> ancient sacred<br />
sites<br />
To sum up, the features <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
around the hill, its location <strong>in</strong> relation to<br />
the watershed area, its topography<br />
and morphology, the place legends related<br />
to the mist and the extraction <strong>of</strong><br />
salt <strong>in</strong>dicate that the complex <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
sacred places <strong>in</strong> Mikytai, although<br />
not thoroughly <strong>in</strong>vestigated yet,<br />
was used dur<strong>in</strong>g the Iron Age and the<br />
Middle Ages as a sacred place <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terregional<br />
character, one <strong>of</strong> the central<br />
places <strong>in</strong> the Couronian region (cf.<br />
Vaitkevičius, 2004: 51-52). <strong>The</strong> prehistoric<br />
sacred site lost its sacredness<br />
with the arrival <strong>of</strong> Christianity, most<br />
likely <strong>in</strong> the late sixteenth or seventeenth<br />
century – <strong>in</strong> course <strong>of</strong> the reaction<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the Reformation as well as<br />
all pagan elements led by the Jesuits.<br />
Another turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the history <strong>of</strong><br />
the Žemaitija region is the decimation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the local population dur<strong>in</strong>g several<br />
outbreaks <strong>of</strong> plague <strong>in</strong> the period from<br />
81
the mid-seventeenth to the first half <strong>of</strong><br />
the eighteenth century (its last occurrence<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1709–1711).<br />
Indications <strong>of</strong> the former sacredness <strong>of</strong><br />
the Alka Hill <strong>in</strong> Mikytai can be found <strong>in</strong><br />
the orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> its – name composed <strong>of</strong><br />
the archaic religious term alka, a collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> place legends, and some<br />
particular features like the Devil’s<br />
Stone and the Prayer’s Well, which belong<br />
to the same complex. <strong>The</strong> cultural<br />
activities promoted by the managers <strong>of</strong><br />
the national park have already<br />
changed the social attitudes towards<br />
the Alka Hill. <strong>The</strong> passive approach<br />
(general knowledge without further<br />
particular <strong>in</strong>terest) became an active<br />
one. In the last decade, a Mikytai cognitive<br />
path (approximately 1 km <strong>in</strong><br />
length <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the wooden tower designed<br />
for sightsee<strong>in</strong>g) became one <strong>of</strong><br />
the most favoured trails <strong>in</strong>side the protected<br />
area. Žemaitija National Park<br />
hosts approximately 60 000 visitors<br />
every year, <strong>of</strong> which probably 1000 visit<br />
the Mikytai Alka Hill, too (Mrs. A. Kuprelyte,<br />
personal communication).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mikytai Alka Hill was an attractive<br />
ancient sacred place without any religious<br />
connotations, which is characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
cultural heritage <strong>in</strong> Lithuania. Two factors,<br />
however, are positively affect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the perception <strong>of</strong> this ancient sacred<br />
place <strong>in</strong> Mikytai. Firstly, the Alka Hill is<br />
easily accessed by car, because it is<br />
located only some hundred metres<br />
from the park<strong>in</strong>g area. Secondly, the<br />
cognitive path established by the managers<br />
<strong>of</strong> the National Park is equipped<br />
with the necessary <strong>in</strong>frastructure: special<br />
props mark the path course, <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
for the public is provided <strong>in</strong><br />
Lithuanian and English, and sightsee<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts are located on the top <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hill. In this way the fear and scare related<br />
to the Alka Hill <strong>in</strong> Mikytai have been<br />
transformed <strong>in</strong>to tourist <strong>in</strong>terest and<br />
education opportunities, creat<strong>in</strong>g another<br />
natural and cultural attraction<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the national park. It is one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
few examples <strong>of</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> modern<br />
Lithuania.<br />
82
References<br />
Baubonis, Z. and Zabiela, G. (2005), Atlasas. Lietuvos piliakalniai [<strong>The</strong> Atlas <strong>of</strong><br />
Lithuanian Hillforts], 2, Vilnius: Krašto apsaugos m<strong>in</strong>isterija.<br />
Juђas, M. (2004), Lietuvos parapijos XV–XVIII a. [<strong>The</strong> Lithuanian Parishes <strong>in</strong> the<br />
15th–18th cc.], Vilnius: Aidai.<br />
Laime, S. (2009), <strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Groves <strong>of</strong> the Curonian Ķoniņi: Past and Present,<br />
Folklore. Electronic Journal <strong>of</strong> Folklore, 42, 67-80.<br />
Mickevičius, J. (1926), Alkos kalnas [<strong>The</strong> Alka Hill], Trimitas, 44, 1376-1377.<br />
Rimantienė, R., ed. (1977), Lietuvos archeologijos atlasas. I–XIII a. pilkapynai ir<br />
senkapiai [<strong>The</strong> Atlas <strong>of</strong> Lithuanian Archaeology. Barrows and Burial Grounds <strong>of</strong> the<br />
1st–13th cc. AD], 3, Vilnius: Mokslas.<br />
Šliavas, J. (1978), Žemė ir žmogus [<strong>The</strong> Earth and the Man], Žeimelis. <strong>The</strong> manuscript<br />
stored at Vilnius University Library (Department <strong>of</strong> Manuscripts, No<br />
152-15).<br />
Urbanavičius, V. (1972), Senovės lietuviu˛ spėjamu˛ kulto vietu˛ kas<strong>in</strong>ėjimai [Exam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Possible Cult Sites Used by Old Lithuanians], Vilnius. Excavation report<br />
stored at Institute <strong>of</strong> Lithuanian History (Department <strong>of</strong> Manuscripts, No<br />
1-351).<br />
Vaitkevičienė, D. (2001), Ugnies metaforos. Lietuviu˛ ir latviu˛ mitologijos studija<br />
[Metaphors <strong>of</strong> Fire. A Study <strong>of</strong> Lithuanian and Latvian Mythology], Vilnius: Lietuviu˛<br />
literatūros ir tautosakos <strong>in</strong>stitutas.<br />
Vaitkevičius, V. (1998), Senosios Lietuvos šventvietės. Žemaitija [Ancient <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Places <strong>of</strong> Lithuania. <strong>The</strong> Samogitia Region], Vilnius: Diemedžio leidykla.<br />
Vaitkevičius, V. (2004), Studies <strong>in</strong>to the Balts’ <strong>Sacred</strong> Places, BAR International Series,<br />
1228, Oxford: John and Erica Hedges Ltd.<br />
Vaitkevičius, V. (2008), Perkūnakiemio mitu˛ pėdsakais [On the Traces <strong>of</strong> the Myths<br />
<strong>of</strong> Perkūnakiemis Site], Tautosakos darbai, 36, 51-63.<br />
Žulkus, V. (2004), Kuršiai Baltijos jūros erdvėje [Couronians <strong>in</strong> the Baltic Sea Region],<br />
Vilnius: Versus Aureus.<br />
83
Zilais kalns – Blue Hill <strong>in</strong> Latvia<br />
Juris Urtāns<br />
Introduction<br />
Zilais kalns, Valmiera municipality, is<br />
the highest po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> NW Vidzeme, Latvia.<br />
Geologically it has formed as the<br />
result <strong>of</strong> the movements <strong>of</strong> the glacier<br />
and under-ice streams. <strong>The</strong> top <strong>of</strong><br />
Zilais kalns rises 127 m above the sea<br />
level. <strong>The</strong> relative height <strong>of</strong> the hill is 66<br />
m, which is significant for the topography<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latvia. <strong>The</strong> hill is surrounded by<br />
boggy areas. Zilais kalns by itself is a<br />
block <strong>of</strong> hills, which extends ca. 1.6 km<br />
<strong>in</strong> W–E direction, and about 2 km <strong>in</strong><br />
N–S direction. <strong>The</strong> top <strong>of</strong> the hill is<br />
pla<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong> northern side <strong>of</strong> the hill is<br />
very steep and 36 m high, whilst the<br />
other sides are gently slop<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Latvian name Zilais kalns means<br />
Blue Hill. Blue colour <strong>in</strong> place names is<br />
very <strong>of</strong>ten one <strong>of</strong> the marks to identify<br />
a place as holy, not only <strong>in</strong> Latvia, but<br />
also <strong>in</strong> many other parts <strong>of</strong> Northern<br />
<strong>Europe</strong> (Kursīte, 2008). <strong>The</strong> blue colour<br />
was associated with sky, hol<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
nobleness, etc. In Baltic German literature<br />
Zilais kalns has been mentioned<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the end <strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century<br />
(Börger, 1778; Hupel, 1782).<br />
Folklore and written records on<br />
Zilais kalns<br />
Several hundreds <strong>of</strong> folklore records<br />
about Zilais kalns have been collected<br />
< Upurkalns (Offer<strong>in</strong>g Hill) on the top <strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns.<br />
85
<strong>in</strong> the Archive <strong>of</strong> Folklore <strong>of</strong> Latvia. <strong>The</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> motifs <strong>in</strong> folklore are connected<br />
with the hill as an ancient holy place.<br />
Very <strong>of</strong>ten a holy spr<strong>in</strong>g was mentioned,<br />
which was used <strong>in</strong> folk medic<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
When the spr<strong>in</strong>g dried up, the<br />
people cont<strong>in</strong>ued to use the sand from<br />
the spot <strong>of</strong> the spr<strong>in</strong>g for heal<strong>in</strong>g. See<br />
folklore collections <strong>in</strong> German and Latvian<br />
languages (Balodis, 1909; Hunnius,<br />
1912; Ancelāne, 1988; Ruberte,<br />
1999) and numerous folklore reviews<br />
(Ašmanis, 1930; Cukurs, 1930; Cukurs,<br />
1936; Meisters, 1971; etc.).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Blue Hill as the un<strong>of</strong>ficial cemetery<br />
<strong>of</strong> local peasants was mentioned <strong>in</strong> the<br />
seventeenth century written records. In<br />
this cemetery the local people have<br />
been buried without acceptance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Church (Bregžis, 1931). This cemetery<br />
was situated on the top <strong>of</strong> the hill,<br />
where archaeological f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs and human<br />
bones have been discovered<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1874 (Grew<strong>in</strong>gk, 1876). In 1973,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g trial archaeological excavations<br />
conducted <strong>in</strong> the place <strong>of</strong> forthcom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tower, 28 burials from sixteenth to seventeenth<br />
centuries were unearthed<br />
(Cimermane, 1974). <strong>The</strong>re are written<br />
records <strong>of</strong> the seventeenth century<br />
mention<strong>in</strong>g the hill as a meet<strong>in</strong>g place<br />
<strong>of</strong> witches (Straubergs, 1992). <strong>The</strong><br />
same was evidenced also <strong>in</strong> folklore<br />
records (Šmits, 1937; Ruberte, 1999).<br />
It is quite possible that a Christian<br />
chapel or cross once stood on the hill<br />
(see Kurtz, 1924; Bregžis, 1931; Mannhardt,<br />
1936). This was the praxis for<br />
Christianis<strong>in</strong>g an ancient ‘pagan’ holy<br />
place throughout <strong>Europe</strong>. In folklore<br />
big and regular markets are described<br />
close to Zilais kalns, which go back to<br />
medieval times or even earlier. Those<br />
markets were connected with orphans,<br />
who came to this holy place from very<br />
distant places. <strong>The</strong> rule was that the<br />
visitors <strong>of</strong> the market had to give donations<br />
to the orphans (Abbuls, 1921; Ruberte,<br />
1991, etc.). Those folklore texts<br />
have been partly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the socalled<br />
folk Christianity. Perhaps the existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> a medieval chapel on Zilais<br />
kalns has also provided basis for the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> folk Christian tradition.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a lot <strong>of</strong> folklore records tell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about several objects with sacral<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g, like Upurkalns (Offer<strong>in</strong>g Hill),<br />
Svētavots (Holy Spr<strong>in</strong>g), stones, trees,<br />
etc. on Zilais kalns. <strong>The</strong>re are folklore<br />
records tell<strong>in</strong>g that the local people<br />
used mud from the bogs close to Zilais<br />
kalns for heal<strong>in</strong>g purposes (Ruberte,<br />
1999). Unfortunately those places <strong>in</strong><br />
the bogs have not been localised.<br />
Part <strong>of</strong> folklore is connected with the<br />
stories about witches, who used Zilais<br />
kalns as an assembl<strong>in</strong>g place (Šmits,<br />
1937, 263; Ancelāne, 1988, 102;<br />
Ancelāne, 1991; Ruberte, 1999; etc.).<br />
Perhaps it may not be a co<strong>in</strong>cidence<br />
that <strong>in</strong> the 1960–1980s not far from<br />
Zilais kalns lived a woman who practiced<br />
heal<strong>in</strong>g and was famous all over<br />
Latvia. Her nickname was Zilā kalna<br />
Marta (Marta <strong>of</strong> Blue Hill). Her memory<br />
is liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> present day folklore and<br />
also <strong>in</strong> literature (Zālītis, 2001; Plaudis,<br />
2002; Plaudis, 2008; Plaudis, 2011),<br />
exhibitions and theatre performances.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the end <strong>of</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century<br />
Baltic German and Latvian <strong>in</strong>vesti-<br />
86
gators <strong>in</strong> many publications have been<br />
accept<strong>in</strong>g the general op<strong>in</strong>ion that<br />
Zilais kalns is one <strong>of</strong> the holy places <strong>of</strong><br />
ancient Latgalians with more central<br />
significance, the place for different folk<br />
assemblages, which dates back to the<br />
Late Iron Age, i.e. to the first centuries<br />
<strong>of</strong> II M AD (Olavs, 1892; Ballod, 1910;<br />
Balodis, 1911; Balodis, 1936;<br />
Adamovičs, 1937; Malvess, 1937; Balodis,<br />
Tentelis, 1938,; Latvijas PSR<br />
arheolog’ ija, 1974; Johansons, 1975;<br />
Urtāns, 1993, ; Latvijas senākā vēsture<br />
9. g. t. pr. Kr. – 1200. g., 2001, 363;<br />
Skutāns, 2010, 14; etc.). Unfortunately<br />
this has not been proved by any archaeological<br />
or historical material. It is<br />
quite possible that the role and mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns was enlarged only <strong>in</strong><br />
the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, under the <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
<strong>of</strong> romanticism literature, but <strong>in</strong><br />
fact Zilais kalns was an important holy<br />
site only for the surround<strong>in</strong>g parishes<br />
(Laime, 2011, 14). Despite <strong>of</strong> that the<br />
magnificent hill Zilais kalns, which is<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g over the extended pla<strong>in</strong><br />
and its surround<strong>in</strong>gs, has been discussed<br />
as a sacral landscape (Kursīte,<br />
2001).<br />
A national symbol<br />
Zilais kalns has the role <strong>of</strong> a national<br />
symbol or even cliché. From the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century Zilais<br />
kalns, as a direct and well-known symbol<br />
<strong>of</strong> freedom, was used <strong>in</strong> Latvian literature<br />
(see Jansons, 1972; Laime,<br />
2011; etc.). Folklore about Zilais kalns<br />
has been collected not only <strong>in</strong> the vic<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the hill, but all over Latvia, and<br />
BALTIC<br />
SEA<br />
Liepaja<br />
Gulf <strong>of</strong> Riga<br />
Valmiera<br />
RIGA<br />
A map <strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns.<br />
Zilais kalns<br />
Latvia<br />
it usually reflects the ideas <strong>of</strong> national<br />
romanticists (Laime, 2011). On the basis<br />
<strong>of</strong> folklore, written records, records<br />
about the archaeological f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs and<br />
results <strong>of</strong> archaeological excavation,<br />
Zilais kalns has been <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
list <strong>of</strong> Protected Archaeological Monuments<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latvia.<br />
Zilais kalns as the ancient holy place<br />
has been widely accepted by Latvian<br />
people <strong>in</strong> all times. In Soviet time, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the 1950s, close to Zilais kalns, a<br />
Soviet village was built for the migrants<br />
used as a labour force <strong>in</strong> peat bogs,<br />
which degraded and dim<strong>in</strong>ished the<br />
significance <strong>of</strong> the holy place. <strong>The</strong> Latvian<br />
people justifiably felt that this was<br />
an action by Soviet regime to underm<strong>in</strong>e<br />
the perception <strong>of</strong> the holy place.<br />
Later, at the end <strong>of</strong> 1990s, the authorities<br />
planned to build a big rubbish landfill<br />
close to Zilais kalns, but this project<br />
faced big protests from Latvian people<br />
and therefore was discarded (Jakovičs,<br />
1999). Later on voices rose suggest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that Zilais kalns should be denom<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
a national holy place like famous Catholic<br />
basilica <strong>in</strong> Aglona (Dzērve, 2006).<br />
87
Unfortunately the religious activities<br />
have resulted <strong>in</strong> unauthorised mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Offer<strong>in</strong>g stone from its previous<br />
place, and erect<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong> a new place.<br />
In addition, several stone structures,<br />
like stone circles and stone sett<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
have been built, and a number <strong>of</strong><br />
stones have been unearthed from their<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al spots and ga<strong>in</strong>ed a new visual<br />
image. This is what has caused a conflict<br />
between heritage protection authorities<br />
and the followers <strong>of</strong> neo-pagan<br />
beliefs. This conflict exists also <strong>in</strong><br />
the neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>of</strong> Lithuania<br />
and Estonia.<br />
On the other hand, Zilais kalns as a<br />
popular place and symbol obta<strong>in</strong>s also<br />
commercial value and the image <strong>of</strong> the<br />
old sacred hill has also been used on<br />
labels, names <strong>of</strong> companies, etc.<br />
Natural heritage<br />
<strong>The</strong> label on a liquor bottle.<br />
Religious activities and conflicts<br />
<strong>The</strong> first ideas about the significance<br />
<strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns as a holy place <strong>in</strong> renewed<br />
folk religion appeared already<br />
after World War I (Brastiņš, 1986. From<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> 1990s to the present,<br />
Zilais kalns has been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
used for the rituals <strong>of</strong> followers <strong>of</strong> old<br />
Latvian traditions, dievturisms or<br />
neo-pagans.<br />
Zilais kalns is also one <strong>of</strong> the first listed<br />
nature reserves <strong>of</strong> Latvia. <strong>The</strong> status <strong>of</strong><br />
Zilais kalns as Nature Reserve was<br />
adopted on 14 November 1924, for an<br />
area <strong>of</strong> 85 ha. At the present the Nature<br />
Reserve covers 118 ha and has<br />
been declared a Natura 2000 site. It<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s different forest types, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
protected habitats def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Union Habitat Directive 92/43/<br />
EEC as Western taiga (9010) and Tilio-<br />
Acerion forests <strong>of</strong> slopes, screes and<br />
rav<strong>in</strong>es (9118). Zilais kalns has been<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated geologically to establish<br />
the process <strong>of</strong> its geological development<br />
(Markots, Zelčs, 2005).<br />
Zilais kalns is rich <strong>in</strong> biodiversity. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are records <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
flora species <strong>of</strong> the Republic <strong>of</strong> Latvia,<br />
consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> lycopsids (Huperzia selago,<br />
Lycopodium clavatum), mosses<br />
(Anastrophyllum hellerianum, Geocalyx<br />
graveolens, Lejeunea cavifolia, Neckera<br />
pennata), lichens (Arthonia byssacea,<br />
Arthonia leucopellea, Arthonia<br />
spadicea, Arthonia v<strong>in</strong>osa, Chaenotheca<br />
chlorella, Lobaria pulmonaria), and<br />
vascular plants (Lathyrus niger).<br />
88
It is worth to mention that the richness<br />
and diversity <strong>of</strong> plant species is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the significant marks <strong>of</strong> ancient holy<br />
places <strong>in</strong> Latvia. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to old folk<br />
songs and say<strong>in</strong>gs, some <strong>of</strong> these<br />
plants were used <strong>in</strong> folk medic<strong>in</strong>e. For<br />
example, <strong>in</strong> 1866 A. Bielenste<strong>in</strong> noted<br />
the great variety <strong>of</strong> plants and the<br />
great fertility on the other old sanctuary<br />
particularly on the hill Elku kalns (Idol<br />
Hill) <strong>in</strong> Central Latvia. <strong>The</strong> local farmers<br />
used the plants collected <strong>in</strong> Midsummer<br />
as medic<strong>in</strong>al herbs. <strong>The</strong>y considered<br />
the hill a natural pharmacy<br />
(Bielenste<strong>in</strong>, 1866). Scientific study<br />
has been made <strong>of</strong> the plants grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on Idol Hill and their medic<strong>in</strong>al value<br />
has been confirmed by botanical research<br />
(Ledus, 1938).<br />
Management<br />
From a management viewpo<strong>in</strong>t, the nature<br />
reserve <strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns needed to<br />
limit the stream <strong>of</strong> the visitors, therefore<br />
at the foot <strong>of</strong> the hill a park<strong>in</strong>g place for<br />
cars has been established. <strong>The</strong> park<strong>in</strong>g<br />
place is provided with toilets and<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation signs. <strong>The</strong> landscape <strong>of</strong><br />
Zilais kalns was partly destroyed by a<br />
concrete tower built <strong>in</strong> the 1970s as<br />
the watchtower for fire guard<strong>in</strong>g. Recently,<br />
a project has been elaborated<br />
to repair the tower, change its use for<br />
sightsee<strong>in</strong>g and open it to the visitors.<br />
Conclusions<br />
Zilais kalns, an ancient holy place<br />
probably s<strong>in</strong>ce prehistoric times, has<br />
become a national symbol, and a liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and significant place <strong>in</strong> present day<br />
Latvia. Zilais kalns <strong>in</strong>cludes historical<br />
values, e.g. ancient traditions and archaeological<br />
sites; significant natural<br />
heritage values, e.g. geological features,<br />
rich and rare plant species and<br />
a beautiful landscape, as well as newly<br />
established and develop<strong>in</strong>g traditions,<br />
which are claimed to be related with<br />
the old pre-Christian religion. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
values have been carefully studied<br />
and are fully acknowledged, and have<br />
prompted the government to adapt<br />
several legal norms for protect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong> the holy hill, like Nature Reserve,<br />
Nature 2000 site. Some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
challenges for conserv<strong>in</strong>g the rich heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns <strong>in</strong> front <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
visitor pressures have been solved<br />
by adequate management measures,<br />
but others, especially those related<br />
with ceremonial uses, pose new<br />
threats, ironically com<strong>in</strong>g from emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
social attitudes related to the immemorial<br />
hol<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> this site.<br />
89
References<br />
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den Götzenberg am Sebbersee. [Report about stone circle from Gross-Autz-<br />
Elisenh<strong>of</strong> and Idol Hill at Sebbersee] Magaz<strong>in</strong> herausgegeben von der Lettischeliterärische<br />
Gesellschaft. 13,3. Mitau, 1866, pp. 1–14.<br />
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Brastiņš, E. (1986). Mūsu dievestības tūkstošgadīgā apkarošana. [Thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
years <strong>of</strong> struggle aga<strong>in</strong>st our religion] Latvju dievturu sadraudze.<br />
Bregžis, K. (1931). Baznīcu vizitāciju protokoli. Izraksti par jautājumu: kristīg ā s<br />
ticības cīņa ar latvju tautas relig’ iju. [Protocols <strong>of</strong> church visitations. Excerpts about<br />
the question: the fight <strong>of</strong> Christianity aga<strong>in</strong>st the folk religion <strong>of</strong> Latvians] Rīga.<br />
Cimermane, I. (1974). Izrakumi Zilākalna kapsētā. [Excavations <strong>in</strong> cemetery <strong>of</strong><br />
Zilais kalns] Z<strong>in</strong>ātniskās atskaites sesijas materiāli par arheologu un etnogrāfu<br />
1973. gada pētījumu rezultātiem. Rīga: Z<strong>in</strong>ā tne. 20.<br />
Cukurs, R. (1930). Burtnieku ezers un tā upes. [Lake Burtnieki and its rivers] Rīga.<br />
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Cukurs, R. (1936). Valmiera – Burtnieki – Mazsalaca. Rīga.<br />
Dzērve, L. (2006). Grib pielīdz<strong>in</strong>āt Aglonai. [Wanted to equal to Aglona] Diena.<br />
23.04.<br />
Grew<strong>in</strong>gk, K. (1876). Sitzungsberichte der gelehrten estnischen Gesellschaft zu<br />
Dorpat. 1875. Dorpat, pp. 142–143.<br />
Hunnius, C. (1912). Schloss Burtneck am See und der Blauberg. [<strong>The</strong> castle Burtneck<br />
at the lake and Zilais kalns] Heimatstimmen. V. Reval – Leipzig.<br />
Hupel, A. W. Topographische Nachrichten von Lief= und Ehstland, [Topographic<br />
description <strong>of</strong> Livonia and Estonia] 3. Riga.<br />
Jakovičs, A. (1999). Zilais kalns briesmās. [Zilais kalns <strong>in</strong> danger] Vides Vēstis. Nr.<br />
1, p. 39.<br />
Jansons, A. (1972). Piezīmes par Garlība Merḳeḷa ‘Vanema Imantas’ avotiem. [Remarks<br />
about the sources <strong>of</strong> Garlib Merkel’s ‘Vanems Imanta’] LPSR Z<strong>in</strong>ātņu<br />
Akadēmijas Vēstis. 10.<br />
Johansons, A. (1975). Latvijas kultūras vēsture 1710–1800. [<strong>The</strong> history <strong>of</strong> culture<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latvia 1710-1800] Stokholma.<br />
Kursīte, J. (2001). Blaue Berge. Sakrale <strong>Lands</strong>chaften Lettlands. [Zilais kalns. Sacral<br />
landscapes <strong>of</strong> Latvia] Hagi Chora. Zeitschrift für Geomantie. No. 8. pp.<br />
28–29.<br />
Kursīte, J. (2008). Sfumato nesfumato. Ekspedīciju ceḷi un neceḷi. [Sfumato nonsfumato.<br />
<strong>The</strong> roads and non-roads <strong>of</strong> expeditions] Rīga: Madris.<br />
Kurtz, E. (1924). Verzeichnis alter Kultstätten <strong>in</strong> Lettland. [List <strong>of</strong> ancient cult sites<br />
<strong>in</strong> Latvia] Mitteilungen aus der livländischen Geschichte. Bd. 22. H. 2. Riga. pp.<br />
17–119.<br />
Laime, S. (2011). Centrality <strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns <strong>in</strong> Northern Latvia reconsidered. Location<br />
and Relations <strong>of</strong> Natural Holy Places <strong>in</strong> the Baltic Sea Region. 5th conference<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Natural Holy Places <strong>in</strong> the Baltic Sea Region, Kȩtrzyn, May 5–8, 2011. pp.<br />
13–14.<br />
Latvijas senākā vēsture 9. g. t. pr. Kr. – 1200. g. [Ancient history <strong>of</strong> Latvia. 9 MBC<br />
– 1200 AD] (2001). Rīga: Latvijas vēstures <strong>in</strong>stitūta apgāds.<br />
Latvijas PSR arheolog’ ija [Archaeology <strong>of</strong> Latvian SSR] (1974). Rīga: Z<strong>in</strong>ātne.<br />
Ledus, H (1938). Pie Zebrus ezera. [At Lake Zebrus] Daba un z<strong>in</strong>ātne. 6. 1938.<br />
pp. 167–177.<br />
Malvess, R. (1937). Latviešu pulcēšanās 13. gadsimtā. [Latvian assemblages <strong>in</strong><br />
the thirteenth century] Senatne un Māksla. II. 1937. pp. 23–31.<br />
91
Mannhardt, W. (1936). Letto–preussische Götterlehre. [Latvian – Prussian mythology]<br />
Magaz<strong>in</strong> der Lettisch – literärischen Gesellschaft. Bd. p. 21. Riga.<br />
Markots, A., Zelčs, V. (2005). Aizsargājamo dabas teritoriju g’ eolog’ iski<br />
g’ eomorfolog’ iskās sadaḷas saturs un nodroš<strong>in</strong>ājums: Zilā kalna dabas lieguma<br />
piemērs. [<strong>The</strong> content and safeguard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the geological-geomorphological division<br />
<strong>of</strong> protected areas. Example <strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns nature reserve] g’ eolog’ ija,<br />
g’ eogrāfija, vides z<strong>in</strong>ātnes. Referātu tēzes. LU Akadēmiskais apgāds. pp.<br />
189–190.<br />
Meisters, J. (1971). Zilais kalns. Dabas un vēstures kalendārs 1972. Rīga: Z<strong>in</strong>ātne.<br />
pp. 267–268.<br />
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Jelgava.<br />
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Zilais kalns] Rīga: Ameija SIA.<br />
Plaudis, A.J. (2002). Leg’ endārā Zilākalna Marta. [Legendary Marta <strong>of</strong> Zilais kalns]<br />
Rīga: Aplis.<br />
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Baltic. Water, Borders and Boundaries. 4th Conference on Holy Places <strong>in</strong> the Baltic<br />
Sea Region. May 6th–8th 2010. Abstracts. Ed. R. Ruohonen. Turku, pp.<br />
14–15.<br />
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Т. p. 8. Москва.<br />
Lobaria pulmonaria is one <strong>of</strong> the protected species <strong>in</strong> Latvia. ><br />
92
Alevi-Bektashi communities <strong>in</strong> southeastern<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>: spiritual heritage and<br />
environmental consciousness<br />
Ir<strong>in</strong>i Lyratzaki<br />
Introduction<br />
Alevi and Bektashi are Sufi, non-Sunni<br />
Islamic orders that orig<strong>in</strong>ate from the<br />
Middle East and Anatolia. From the thirteenth<br />
century and onwards they spread<br />
to Asia M<strong>in</strong>or and the Balkans, <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a wide array <strong>of</strong> elements from the<br />
many beliefs and religious practices<br />
they encountered, acquir<strong>in</strong>g a syncretistic<br />
character. Defy<strong>in</strong>g ‘orthodox’ Muslim<br />
religious practices and reflect<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
tribal system <strong>of</strong> social organisation,<br />
what differentiates them from the ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
Muslim doctr<strong>in</strong>e and practices is<br />
a deep respect and love <strong>of</strong> nature. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
number many millions ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Turkey<br />
and the Balkans, and dur<strong>in</strong>g the last<br />
decades they have started to play a<br />
crucial role <strong>in</strong> the emergence <strong>of</strong> environmental<br />
movements.<br />
In the seventeenth century, Ottoman<br />
traveller Evliya Çelebi witnessed someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unexpected while visit<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Turkmen nomads <strong>of</strong> the Karakoyunlu<br />
tribe: Muslims worshipp<strong>in</strong>g trees, light<strong>in</strong>g<br />
candles next to them and plac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pieces <strong>of</strong> iron as <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>gs on their<br />
barks. Two centuries later, one <strong>of</strong> Abdul<br />
Hamid II’s agents reported nomad<br />
peoples from Anatolia worshipp<strong>in</strong>g ‘the<br />
great trees and monumental rocks that<br />
are touched by the first rays <strong>of</strong> the ris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sun’. Ethnologists <strong>in</strong> the twentieth<br />
century discovered the same phenom-<br />
< Bektashi Tekke on the Kuz-Baba Hill, Vlore, Albania.<br />
95
ena <strong>in</strong> Anatolia and the Balkans and<br />
even <strong>in</strong>vented the term ‘dendrolatry’<br />
(tree worship) to describe this practice<br />
(Zarcone, 2005).<br />
What those people witnessed was a<br />
special relationship <strong>of</strong> these Muslim<br />
populations with nature, which does not<br />
exist among other Muslim believers <strong>in</strong><br />
the Middle East and North Africa. This<br />
relation was the outcome <strong>of</strong> a cross-fertilisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> beliefs and practices <strong>in</strong>spired,<br />
on the one hand, by Islam (and<br />
especially the Arab-Muslim philosophy<br />
and Ibn S<strong>in</strong>a and al-Farabi) and Sufism<br />
and, on the other, by animism, shamanism<br />
and Buddhism (Zarcone, 2005).<br />
Islam and the natural<br />
environment<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi-Bektashi religious traditions,<br />
although ‘heterodox’ (i.e. non-Sunni or<br />
orthodox Shi’a), are Islamic. Hence, it<br />
would be useful to review the positions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Islamic faith regard<strong>in</strong>g nature<br />
and its protection.<br />
Islam is the easiest religion to understand,<br />
yet imperfectly understood by<br />
non Muslims. It is the faith <strong>of</strong> one God,<br />
whose will was revealed to Muhammad<br />
and was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the sacred book,<br />
the Holy Qur’an. It is not well understood<br />
because <strong>in</strong> the West its name is associated<br />
with terrorism and <strong>in</strong>tolerance. In<br />
Arabic it means peace through surrender<br />
or submission to the will <strong>of</strong> God, and<br />
Muslim, is the one who is at peace<br />
through submission to God. Islam is a<br />
Dîn (Tradition) embrac<strong>in</strong>g all aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
life (as <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> H<strong>in</strong>duism). <strong>The</strong>re is<br />
Allah’s name by 17th century Ottoman artist<br />
Hâfız Osman.<br />
no dist<strong>in</strong>ction <strong>in</strong> Islam between th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ane and th<strong>in</strong>gs sacred. Everyth<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
Muslim does is to please God, so all his<br />
good actions are be<strong>in</strong>g seen as worship.<br />
<strong>The</strong>refore, all social, political, legal, adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
and economic activities <strong>in</strong><br />
the Islamic society are as sacred as<br />
pray<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Mosque (Norcliffe, 1999).<br />
In addition, man’s position <strong>in</strong> the world<br />
is tw<strong>of</strong>old: he is at the same time ‘abd<br />
– slave, or even better abd-Allah – the<br />
slave <strong>of</strong> God, and also khalifah – vice<br />
regent, or representative, which elevates<br />
humans above all other creatures<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Creation (NasseJ, 1986).<br />
Prophet Muhammad taught ‘<strong>The</strong> world<br />
is green and beautiful, and God (Allah)<br />
has appo<strong>in</strong>ted you his guardian over it’.<br />
Muslims believe that Allah created humans<br />
to be the khalifah, the vice regents<br />
<strong>of</strong> the creation. By that, it is stated<br />
that nature is not ours and we can not<br />
do with it as we please. Instead, we<br />
must act as its protectors (ARC, 2011).<br />
96
Additionally, the central concept <strong>of</strong> Islam<br />
is tawheed, which means Oneness<br />
<strong>of</strong> God. Everyth<strong>in</strong>g that exists<br />
comes from and depends on the one<br />
and only Creator. One <strong>of</strong> the names <strong>of</strong><br />
God <strong>in</strong> the Qur’an is Al-Haqq, which<br />
means both Truth and Reality. Allah is<br />
unity and this unity should be mirrored<br />
<strong>in</strong> the relation between humans and<br />
the natural world. It is the duty <strong>of</strong> humans<br />
to safeguard this unity, by protect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong> the Earth, its flora<br />
and fauna, its wildlife and environment.<br />
It is their duty to preserve the<br />
balance and harmony <strong>in</strong> Allah’s creation<br />
(Norcliffe, 1999).<br />
Given that humans are khalifah-guardians,<br />
they are also accountable for<br />
their actions and their omissions – as<br />
responsibility is a direct consequence<br />
<strong>of</strong> this status. On the Day <strong>of</strong> Reckon<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Islam teaches that everyone created<br />
by Allah will return to Allah for Judgment<br />
and humans will be judged for<br />
the way they treated what was entrusted<br />
to them. This concept is called akhirah<br />
– the Hereafter and describes the<br />
accountability <strong>of</strong> the khalifah. Moreover,<br />
it is clearly stated <strong>in</strong> the Qur’an<br />
that Allah <strong>in</strong>vites everyone to enjoy the<br />
fruits <strong>of</strong> the earth, but to avoid excess<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g to waste, ‘for Allah does not<br />
love wasters’ (ARC, 2011).<br />
<strong>The</strong> concepts <strong>of</strong> trusteeship, unity, accountability<br />
and the avoidance <strong>of</strong><br />
wastefulness are the ma<strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong><br />
the environmental ethics <strong>of</strong> Islam. <strong>The</strong>y<br />
are not abstract values, but they are all<br />
translated <strong>in</strong> practical directions on<br />
how to live, <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> Shari’ah, the<br />
sacred law <strong>of</strong> Islam, and the Sunna, the<br />
example set by the Prophet Muhammad,<br />
compiled <strong>in</strong> his Hadith (say<strong>in</strong>gs).<br />
For example, there are laws <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Shari’ah mandat<strong>in</strong>g animal’s protection<br />
and avoid<strong>in</strong>g all form <strong>of</strong> cruelty, as well<br />
as the conservation <strong>of</strong> forests. <strong>The</strong><br />
prophet Muhammad established large<br />
reserves around Mecca and Med<strong>in</strong>a<br />
where all liv<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>gs are protected.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to his say<strong>in</strong>g: ‘Whosoever<br />
plants a tree and diligently looks after it<br />
until it matures and bears fruit is rewarded’<br />
and ‘If a Muslim plants a tree<br />
or sows a field and men and beasts<br />
and birds eat from it, all <strong>of</strong> it is a charity<br />
on his part’ (Norcliffe, 1999).<br />
Orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the Alevi-Bektashi<br />
orders<br />
<strong>The</strong> ‘Alevi-Bektashi’ is a term used for<br />
a large number <strong>of</strong> different heterodox<br />
communities, spread <strong>in</strong> the Anatolia region,<br />
the Balkans and other parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the world. In Turkey alone, where they<br />
number at least 15 million, they are divided<br />
by ethnicity (Kurdish, Turkic and<br />
Arabic Alevis) and language (speak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Turkish, Kurdish, Kurmanji, Zaza and<br />
Arabic) (Ignatov, 2008).<br />
Although some Bektashi scholars and<br />
Alevis believe that there are certa<strong>in</strong> differences<br />
and variances, they have<br />
been generally regarded as parts <strong>of</strong> an<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated Alevi-Bektashi culture (Mavrommatis,<br />
2008; Kress<strong>in</strong>g, 2002; Doja,<br />
2006a, Melik<strong>of</strong>f, 1998). In the past,<br />
Alevis lived <strong>in</strong> rural or more isolated areas,<br />
while the Bektashis lived <strong>in</strong> urban<br />
centres. Today the name ‘Alevi’ is usually<br />
used <strong>in</strong> Turkey, and the name ‘Bek-<br />
97
tashi’ <strong>in</strong> the Balkans. What characterises<br />
these orders is their deep respect<br />
and love for nature and beauty, which<br />
is evident <strong>in</strong> their dances, music and<br />
poetry.<br />
Both the Alevi and Bektashi orders<br />
consider as their founder Haji Bektash<br />
Veli, an Islamic mystic and philosopher<br />
from Khorasan prov<strong>in</strong>ce who lived <strong>in</strong><br />
1209–1271 <strong>in</strong> North-eastern Iran, <strong>in</strong><br />
Anatolia (Karamustafa, 1994). His<br />
name can be translated as ‘<strong>The</strong> Pilgrim<br />
Sa<strong>in</strong>t Bektash’ and was probably not<br />
the actual founder <strong>of</strong> the orders but a<br />
patron-sa<strong>in</strong>t, selected at a later time<br />
(Doja, 2006a). <strong>The</strong> Khorassan prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
was home to Turkic tribes, and elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> their religious tradition that<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded pre-Islamic and non-Islamic<br />
elements that orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> shamanism,<br />
Buddhism, Manichaeism, Christianity<br />
and other antique religions were<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong> the Bektashi practices.<br />
As they spread towards the Balkans,<br />
they additionally <strong>in</strong>corporated Neo-<br />
Platonist, Christian and Nestorian <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
(Kress<strong>in</strong>g, 2002).<br />
Be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluenced by Sufi approaches,<br />
they sought direct religious experiences<br />
as opposed to ma<strong>in</strong>stream Islamic<br />
practices orig<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g from prophetic<br />
revelations. Although they did not object<br />
to the mediat<strong>in</strong>g role <strong>of</strong> earthly<br />
representatives <strong>of</strong> God, <strong>in</strong> practice<br />
they defied Shiite hierarchies and performed<br />
rituals without <strong>in</strong>termediaries<br />
(Doja, 2006b). Before the establishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> their Empire (the Sunni triumphs<br />
over Shiite dynasties, which co<strong>in</strong>cided<br />
with the foundation <strong>of</strong> the Ottoman<br />
Empire), and dur<strong>in</strong>g times <strong>of</strong> social,<br />
political and military crisis, Ottomans<br />
were not themselves identified<br />
with Sunni Islam doctr<strong>in</strong>e, but went<br />
through a period <strong>of</strong> assimilation with<br />
the heterodox Islam (Doja, 2006a).<br />
Common ground must have been<br />
found those times between them and<br />
the Alevi-Bektashi followers.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevists <strong>in</strong> particular, allied with<br />
Kizilbash – partisans <strong>of</strong> the Safavids,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most important rul<strong>in</strong>g dynasties<br />
<strong>of</strong> Iran, responsible for the<br />
spread <strong>of</strong> Shi’a Islam <strong>in</strong> Iran as well as<br />
major localities <strong>of</strong> the Caucasus and<br />
Indian subcont<strong>in</strong>ent – and expressed<br />
the resistance <strong>of</strong> Turcoman chiefs<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the Ottoman State. Bektashism<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated the Kizilbash ideology,<br />
which reflected their tribal system <strong>of</strong><br />
social organisation, and later transformed<br />
the Bektashi order to a dervish<br />
one (Doja, 2006a). <strong>The</strong> Kizilbash-Alevists<br />
were isolated mostly <strong>in</strong> Anatolia,<br />
<strong>in</strong> an attempt <strong>of</strong> the State to suppress<br />
Turkey’s ethnic heterogeneity (Ignatow,<br />
2008), and preserved rituals and practices<br />
that dist<strong>in</strong>guished them from other<br />
religious communities. <strong>The</strong> Bektashi<br />
resided mostly <strong>in</strong> urban centres and<br />
were characterised by a more organised<br />
structure, although both orders<br />
consider their beliefs identical (Melik<strong>of</strong>f,<br />
1998).<br />
As the Ottoman Empire spread, so did<br />
the Alevi-Bektashi orders and they<br />
were even associated with the Janissaries<br />
troops (Melik<strong>of</strong>f, 1998). This<br />
spread was supported by the Byzant<strong>in</strong>e<br />
emperors <strong>in</strong> the fourteenth century,<br />
who used Ottoman troops dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the civil wars that menaced the Byzan-<br />
98
t<strong>in</strong>e state. By the eighteenth century,<br />
Bektashi numbers <strong>in</strong> the Balkans had<br />
risen considerably, and a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> tekkes (build<strong>in</strong>gs designed specifically<br />
for prayer gather<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> Sufi<br />
brotherhoods) was function<strong>in</strong>g (Zeg<strong>in</strong>is,<br />
2001).<br />
Start<strong>in</strong>g from the sixteenth century,<br />
their beliefs were considered radical<br />
and clashed with the ‘orthodox’ Sunni<br />
and Shia Islam. In 1826 the Jannisaries<br />
troops were dismissed and the Bektashis<br />
were driven to the periphery <strong>of</strong><br />
the Empire (Kress<strong>in</strong>g, 2002). In 1925,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the revolution led by Mustafa<br />
Kemal Atatürk - the founder <strong>of</strong> the secular<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> Turkey, that put an end<br />
to the Ottoman Caliphate - the Sufi orders<br />
were <strong>of</strong>ficially banned. <strong>The</strong> Bektashi<br />
tekkes were closed and their dervishes<br />
were exiled. <strong>The</strong> Bektashi community’s<br />
headquarters were then<br />
moved from Hacıbektaş <strong>in</strong> central Anatolia<br />
to Tirana, Albania (Kress<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
2002).<br />
Alevi-Bektashi doctr<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Both orders are Sufi or otherwise<br />
called Dervishes. <strong>The</strong>ir primary difference<br />
to Sunni Muslims is the fact that<br />
the latter believe that dur<strong>in</strong>g their lives<br />
they are on their pathway to God and<br />
that after the ‘F<strong>in</strong>al Judgment’ they will<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally be closer to Him, while Sufis believe<br />
that it is possible to be close to<br />
God and to fully embrace the Div<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Presence <strong>in</strong> this life, liv<strong>in</strong>g a primarily<br />
ascetic life (analogously to monastic<br />
orders <strong>of</strong> Christianity and Buddhism).<br />
<strong>The</strong> beliefs <strong>of</strong> the Alevis and Bektashis<br />
are syncretic and received <strong>in</strong>fluences<br />
from the people they were <strong>in</strong> contact<br />
with. <strong>The</strong>se religious cultures share a<br />
lot <strong>in</strong> common with other Islamic mystical<br />
movements, such as the need for<br />
an experienced spiritual guide called a<br />
baba as well as the doctr<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the four<br />
gates that must be traversed: Shari’ah<br />
(sacred law), Tariqah (the spiritual<br />
path), Ma’rifah (true Knowledge) and<br />
Haqiqah (Div<strong>in</strong>e Reality) (Kress<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
2002). <strong>The</strong>ir key characteristics<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
• love and respect for all people<br />
• tolerance towards other religions and<br />
ethnic groups<br />
• respect for work<strong>in</strong>g people<br />
• equality <strong>of</strong> men and women who pray<br />
side by side, and the practice <strong>of</strong> monogamy<br />
(Leaman and Nasr, 2001).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi-Bektashi worship takes<br />
place <strong>in</strong> tekkes, not mosques. <strong>The</strong> hierarchical<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> the orders consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> the grades <strong>of</strong> ashik, muhip<br />
(novice), dervish, baba (similar to a<br />
guru) and dede. S<strong>in</strong>ce the order is<br />
mystic, only <strong>in</strong>itiated members are allowed<br />
to participate <strong>in</strong> the ceremonies<br />
(Zeg<strong>in</strong>is, 2001).<br />
In the sixteenth century, an emblematic<br />
personality and great reformer <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Bektashi order, Balim Sultan, <strong>in</strong>itiated a<br />
series <strong>of</strong> reformations that further favoured<br />
syncretism. In an attempt to survive<br />
and spread, Bektashism <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> Christian <strong>in</strong>fluences,<br />
such as the conception <strong>of</strong> the triadic<br />
God-Muhammad-Ali that is non-existent<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Qur’an, the prohibition <strong>of</strong> divorce,<br />
99
the correlation <strong>of</strong> the worship <strong>of</strong> the 12<br />
imams with the worship <strong>of</strong> the 12 Disciples,<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> w<strong>in</strong>e and bread, as <strong>in</strong><br />
the Christian holy communion and<br />
many others (Zeg<strong>in</strong>is, 2001). Turkish<br />
scholars, however, have heavily criticised<br />
the <strong>in</strong>fluences between the two<br />
faiths and support the Turkish orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
Bektashism (Doja, 2006b).<br />
Veneration and protection <strong>of</strong><br />
nature <strong>in</strong> the Alevi-Bektashi<br />
religious tradition<br />
While many references are mentioned<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Qur’an about the protection <strong>of</strong><br />
nature, they are at the same time dictated<br />
separately and not <strong>in</strong> a unified<br />
manner. Just like <strong>in</strong> Christianity and<br />
other faiths, people tend to <strong>in</strong>terpret<br />
the guardianship <strong>of</strong> the natural world –<br />
entrusted as a sacred duty to humans<br />
by God – as their right to dom<strong>in</strong>ate and<br />
over-exploit natural resources. As a result,<br />
they have separated themselves<br />
from the natural world, break<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
powerful bond.<br />
<strong>The</strong> need <strong>of</strong> humans to keep a strong<br />
connection with nature was fulfilled by<br />
the approaches <strong>of</strong> Bektashism and<br />
Alevism. <strong>The</strong>y responded to the desire<br />
expressed by many for a pantheistic<br />
faith, a faith <strong>of</strong> the heart more than a<br />
faith <strong>of</strong> the book and a faith <strong>of</strong> collectivity<br />
(Ignatow, 2008).<br />
Although accord<strong>in</strong>g to the teach<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
many religions, nature should be respected,<br />
it is usually treated as ord<strong>in</strong>ary,<br />
a place where humans, the only<br />
species worthy <strong>of</strong> salvation, are liv<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
It is considered by many scholars that<br />
this approach is generally supplementary,<br />
and does not come close to the<br />
appreciation and esteem most Asian<br />
religions show towards nature, whose<br />
views are basically <strong>in</strong>fluenced by animism<br />
and shamanism (Zarcone, 2005).<br />
In the framework <strong>of</strong> animism, and as it<br />
is also mentioned <strong>in</strong> the theory <strong>of</strong> ‘Supernature’,<br />
all natural be<strong>in</strong>gs have a<br />
soul similar to that <strong>of</strong> humans. In simple<br />
words, all be<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> nature have the<br />
same worth and status among them<br />
and none is superior to the other. <strong>The</strong><br />
doctr<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the ‘Oneness <strong>of</strong> Be<strong>in</strong>g’ –<br />
that is the belief that everyth<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>in</strong><br />
God, even space and the whole universe<br />
–, central to the Neoplatonic philosophy<br />
but also seen under the perspective<br />
<strong>of</strong> Islam and Sufism, comes<br />
close to the concept <strong>of</strong> the tawheed,<br />
the unity the Qur’an teaches, and<br />
stresses the importance <strong>of</strong> the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> community among all th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> nature<br />
(Doja, 2006b).<br />
<strong>The</strong> doctr<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the Oneness <strong>of</strong> Be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is symbolically depicted <strong>in</strong> the choreography<br />
<strong>of</strong> the whirl<strong>in</strong>g dance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Mevlevi dervishes (evleviye), represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the descent and return <strong>of</strong><br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs that went through all the phases<br />
<strong>of</strong> existence. <strong>The</strong>se doctr<strong>in</strong>es strongly<br />
connect to the re<strong>in</strong>carnationism, an <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
directly derived from Buddhism.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Bektashis believe that<br />
when people die, if they lived do<strong>in</strong>g<br />
good deeds, they will take a human<br />
form <strong>in</strong> their next life, and if they did<br />
the opposite, they will re<strong>in</strong>carnate as<br />
animals (Zarcone, 2005).<br />
100
<strong>The</strong> most venerated natural elements<br />
by the Turkic people s<strong>in</strong>ce the eleventh<br />
century have been trees and forests.<br />
People commonly address trees, call<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them Mr (bay) and this is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
demonstrated <strong>in</strong> toponyms (Mr Tree,<br />
Bay Yïgaç). A ritual prayer mentions<br />
‘may your tree with the generous<br />
shade not be cut down’. And <strong>in</strong> Western<br />
Muslim Anatolia a prayer is addressed<br />
to all elements ‘mounta<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
stones, great trees and rivers, carry<br />
away the sickness my child is suffer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from’ (Zarcone, 2005).<br />
Objects <strong>of</strong> veneration are also rocks<br />
and stones; isolated piles <strong>of</strong> rocks between<br />
hills and valleys are <strong>of</strong>ten attributed<br />
the name dede, a title associated<br />
with revered elders. Veneration <strong>of</strong> trees<br />
and stones is also met, <strong>in</strong> sa<strong>in</strong>ts’<br />
graves which are commonly surrounded<br />
by holy groves or <strong>in</strong> sanctuaries<br />
and holy places. A tree or grove may<br />
be worshiped but it is understood that<br />
it is the barakah (spiritual <strong>in</strong>fluence or<br />
bless<strong>in</strong>g) <strong>of</strong> the holy person that<br />
makes it sacred and not that the tree is<br />
<strong>in</strong> itself sacred (Zarcone, 2005). <strong>The</strong><br />
differentiat<strong>in</strong>g factor between the two<br />
spiritual traditions is that <strong>in</strong> Islam specific<br />
natural elements are venerated<br />
because <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> attributes each element<br />
disposes, while <strong>in</strong> the Alevi-Bektashi<br />
tradition all natural elements are<br />
equally valued (Ignatow, 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi semi-nomad tribe <strong>of</strong> Tahtacï<br />
that live <strong>in</strong> the Taurus Mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
Southern Turkey are so closely bound<br />
up with trees, because as they say<br />
‘they love them so much’ and perta<strong>in</strong><br />
that they never harm them. S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong>evitably<br />
they have to fall some <strong>of</strong> them,<br />
they perform a very complicat<strong>in</strong>g ritual,<br />
ask<strong>in</strong>g for their forgiveness (Zarcone,<br />
2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi societies develop special relations<br />
with representatives <strong>of</strong> the animal<br />
k<strong>in</strong>gdom, ma<strong>in</strong>ly deer and birds, a<br />
practice deriv<strong>in</strong>g from animism, as well<br />
as the theory <strong>of</strong> ‘Supernature’. <strong>The</strong><br />
Yürük and Tahtacï tribes that still reside<br />
<strong>in</strong> present-day Turkey, firmly believe<br />
that the deer society has a similar<br />
structure with the human society, with<br />
its own laws, organisation and chiefs,<br />
a remnant <strong>of</strong> ancient Turkic beliefs<br />
where human clans ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed relations<br />
with animal clans (ibid.).<br />
It has been stated that contrary to Renaissance<br />
and Enlightment philosophies,<br />
the Alevi-Bektashi theology is<br />
<strong>in</strong>herently friendly to the environment<br />
and the Alevi way <strong>of</strong> life is ecologically<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able (Endirce, 1998).<br />
Alevis-Bektashis <strong>in</strong><br />
south-eastern <strong>Europe</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevis and Bektashis number<br />
many millions <strong>in</strong> present-day Turkey<br />
and the Balkan countries <strong>of</strong> Greece,<br />
Albania, FYR <strong>of</strong> Macedonia, Bulgaria,<br />
Romania and Bosnia. Three <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
examples <strong>of</strong> the Bektashis <strong>in</strong> the contemporary<br />
era are discussed bellow.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Pomak Bektahis <strong>of</strong> Greece<br />
Among the Islamic Greek populations<br />
that <strong>in</strong>habit the Northern Rodopi Mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> Eastern Thrace, Greece, there<br />
are Slavic speak<strong>in</strong>g people called the<br />
101
place <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage (Mavromatis,<br />
2008). Nowadays, ca. 30 000 Pomaks<br />
are liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Greece, all <strong>of</strong> them <strong>in</strong> Eastern<br />
Thrace (Alexiou, 2009).<br />
It is rather fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g that even today,<br />
a large number <strong>of</strong> Thracians consider<br />
many natural elements (mounta<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
dolmens, rocks, spr<strong>in</strong>gs) holy and try<br />
to protect them from unsusta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
management practices.<br />
Roussa Tekke, Evros Greece.<br />
Pomaks. Many <strong>of</strong> them are Bektashis<br />
and what makes their case special is<br />
that the wider area they occupy has<br />
been endowed with a rich cultural heritage,<br />
which <strong>in</strong>fluenced their own culture.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are <strong>in</strong>dications that the region<br />
has been cont<strong>in</strong>uously <strong>in</strong>habited<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the early Iron Age (1100–900<br />
BC), and there is a plethora <strong>of</strong> elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ancient Thracian tradition<br />
(which also comb<strong>in</strong>es Orphic and Dionysian<br />
elements) that testifies it, such<br />
as rock engrav<strong>in</strong>gs depict<strong>in</strong>g humans,<br />
birds and reptiles, as well as other<br />
symbols with magical and avert<strong>in</strong>g evil<br />
properties, as well as open-air shr<strong>in</strong>es<br />
(sacred mounta<strong>in</strong> tops) and dolmens<br />
(Aslanis and Arvanitidou, 2001). It is<br />
believed that one <strong>of</strong> the older oracles<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ancient world was situated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity, the Oracle <strong>of</strong> Dionysus.<br />
In this area, the second most important<br />
Bektashi tekke <strong>of</strong> the world is situated,<br />
near the Roussa Village and it is fortunately<br />
still <strong>in</strong> operation. It was founded<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1402 by Kizil-Deli and it is the local<br />
Bektashis’ most pr<strong>of</strong>oundly venerated<br />
<strong>The</strong> Bektashis <strong>of</strong> Albania<br />
In 1925, when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficially banned the dervish orders,<br />
the Bektashi community’s headquarters<br />
were then moved from Hacıbektaş<br />
<strong>in</strong> central Anatolia to Tirana, Albania.<br />
While by and large ethnicity <strong>in</strong> Southeastern<br />
<strong>Europe</strong> is closely related to<br />
specific faiths (Serbs, Bulgarians,<br />
Greeks and Romanians are Christian<br />
Orthodox, Slovenians, Croats and<br />
Hungarians are Roman Catholics, Bosnians,<br />
Pomaks and Turks are Muslims),<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> Albania is different. People<br />
<strong>in</strong> the North are Catholics, <strong>in</strong> the South<br />
Orthodox and Bektashi and <strong>in</strong> the Central<br />
and Eastern parts are Sunni Muslims.<br />
It is generally agreed that religion<br />
<strong>in</strong> Albania tends to be syncretistic. Elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> the autochthonous folk religions<br />
have been preserved <strong>in</strong> the<br />
country, <strong>in</strong> a much greater extent than<br />
<strong>in</strong> other regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. It is very<br />
common for Albanians to participate <strong>in</strong><br />
religious ceremonies as a form <strong>of</strong> social<br />
gather<strong>in</strong>g, regardless <strong>of</strong> their own<br />
faith. Approximately 20% <strong>of</strong> the Albanians<br />
claim to have some connection to<br />
the Bektashis (approximately 635 000<br />
102
people) (Kress<strong>in</strong>g, 2002) and Bektashism<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the four religions recognised<br />
by the Albanian State.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevis <strong>of</strong> Turkey<br />
<strong>The</strong> Turkic Alevis, despite their persecution<br />
by the Kemalist government,<br />
have managed to survive <strong>in</strong> great numbers,<br />
especially s<strong>in</strong>ce they occupied<br />
remote areas, away from the capital<br />
and the central authority. In addition to<br />
the fact that they were firmly rooted <strong>in</strong><br />
the Balkans for centuries through the<br />
Turkish Diaspora they can be nowadays<br />
traced to France and Northern<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>. In Turkey, it is estimated that,<br />
at m<strong>in</strong>imum, they reach a population <strong>of</strong><br />
10 million people and, at maximum, 20<br />
million people (a range <strong>of</strong> 14 to 27 per<br />
cent <strong>of</strong> the country’s population) (Ignatow,<br />
2008).<br />
Nowadays, the Alevis ally with the<br />
democratic secularists and oppose the<br />
fundamentalist <strong>in</strong>fluence and the Muslim<br />
extremists. <strong>The</strong>y demand Alevism<br />
to be recognised as an <strong>of</strong>ficial Islamic<br />
community, equal to but different from<br />
Sunnism.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi religious notions about nature<br />
have taken a political character <strong>in</strong><br />
the 1990s <strong>in</strong> Turkey, <strong>in</strong>spir<strong>in</strong>g a spiritual<br />
type <strong>of</strong> ecology among some <strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />
circles, as a response to ris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
environmental dangers from <strong>in</strong>dustrialisation<br />
and urbanisation (Zarcone,<br />
2005). Follow<strong>in</strong>g the military coop <strong>of</strong><br />
1980 and the constitutional changes <strong>in</strong><br />
the 1990s, a large number <strong>of</strong> hemşire<br />
(hometown) organisations were established<br />
<strong>in</strong> large Turkish cities and <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
cities, which strengthen ties <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>ternal migrants with their homelands.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se organisations, along with Alevi<br />
NGOs with close ties to Greenpeace,<br />
Friends <strong>of</strong> the Earth and many other<br />
environmental groups have brought to<br />
the fore environmental issues and concerns,<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong> a ris<strong>in</strong>g globalisation<br />
process (Ignatow, 2008).<br />
In his book <strong>The</strong> Environment <strong>in</strong> Alevism<br />
and Bektashism (1998), Nukret Endirçe<br />
urges the political authorities and<br />
Map depict<strong>in</strong>g the Alevi population <strong>of</strong> Turkey.<br />
Black Sea<br />
Istanbul<br />
Ankara<br />
TURKEY<br />
Mediterranean Sea<br />
103
the environmental organisations to protect<br />
the environment by adopt<strong>in</strong>g specific<br />
measures. Annual festivals associated<br />
with devotional sites, where<br />
veneration is given equally to sa<strong>in</strong>ts,<br />
animals, plants and m<strong>in</strong>erals, <strong>of</strong>fer pilgrims<br />
the opportunity to demand<br />
measures aga<strong>in</strong>st the destruction <strong>of</strong><br />
nature. Participants <strong>in</strong> this movement<br />
<strong>in</strong>sist that the Bektashi-Alevi thought<br />
sees nature (doga) as a unit; it sees a<br />
harmony that unites all th<strong>in</strong>gs (Zarcone,<br />
2005).<br />
In the framework <strong>of</strong> contemporary<br />
global environmental movements, a<br />
network <strong>of</strong> environmental and cultural<br />
organisations has been developed,<br />
with the purpose to oppose the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> dams <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Tunceli region <strong>of</strong> Anatolia. Tunceli (or<br />
Dersim) rema<strong>in</strong>s Turkey’s only prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
with an almost exclusively Alevi population,<br />
and is renowned for its natural<br />
beauty. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the project, eight<br />
dams are go<strong>in</strong>g to be built <strong>in</strong> the Munzur<br />
Valley. Anti-dam activists believe<br />
that if the dams will be built, the rise <strong>in</strong><br />
water will reach the foot <strong>of</strong> the city and<br />
will flood many already isolated regions,<br />
cutt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>f the locals and depopulat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the region. A wide network<br />
<strong>of</strong> Turkish Alevi migrants <strong>in</strong> Germany,<br />
Denmark, the Netherlands, Brita<strong>in</strong> and<br />
Australia have jo<strong>in</strong>ed forces and created<br />
the necessary structures with the<br />
aim <strong>of</strong> help<strong>in</strong>g the Alevis <strong>in</strong> Turkey both<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancially and <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> organisational<br />
support (Ignatow, 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi activists schedule protests<br />
around the annual Tunceli Festival,<br />
which is held <strong>in</strong> August and lasts for<br />
four days. In August 2004, apart from<br />
the usual discussion panels organised<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the festival (<strong>in</strong> which scientists<br />
and civic leaders also participated argu<strong>in</strong>g<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the construction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dams), a theatre play was staged, present<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> an orig<strong>in</strong>al manner the spiritual<br />
qualities the Alevi place on the river<br />
and valley. <strong>The</strong> actors cloaked <strong>in</strong> sacred<br />
animals’ costumes (deer and<br />
trout) told old village stories about the<br />
river (Ignatow, 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are <strong>in</strong>dications, though, that<br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs might start to change, regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the recognition <strong>of</strong> their identity, their religious<br />
rights, the legal stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
their places <strong>of</strong> worship, and their wider<br />
acceptance by the Turkish government<br />
(Alt<strong>in</strong>taş, 2009).<br />
Conclusions<br />
<strong>The</strong> Alevi-Bektashi religious culture is<br />
unique. Ow<strong>in</strong>g to its syncretistic nature<br />
it comprises centuries-old beliefs and<br />
practices from a vast territory and unifies<br />
them <strong>in</strong>to a spiritual tradition that<br />
teaches love and respect for all th<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>in</strong> nature, animate and <strong>in</strong>animate.<br />
Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g elements from <strong>in</strong>stitutionalised<br />
religions and native faiths, it has<br />
acquired dist<strong>in</strong>ctive qualities and a<br />
very unique character. Rooted <strong>in</strong> two<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ents and tested <strong>in</strong> different social<br />
and political surround<strong>in</strong>gs and circumstances,<br />
it has proved its resilience<br />
surviv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the hearts and m<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
<strong>of</strong> the faithful.<br />
Although considered a religious m<strong>in</strong>ority,<br />
their number is quite large <strong>in</strong> the<br />
104
Balkans and Asia M<strong>in</strong>or. Most <strong>of</strong> them<br />
live <strong>in</strong> Anatolia and for many years<br />
have been neglected by the central<br />
authorities. In Albania, as well, their<br />
community is rather large, and smaller<br />
numbers <strong>of</strong> Alevis and Bektashis can<br />
be found all over the Balkans, but also<br />
<strong>in</strong> other parts <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
Not well-known <strong>in</strong> the Western world,<br />
their respectful attitude to nature could<br />
serve as an example <strong>of</strong> good practice.<br />
<strong>The</strong>ir teach<strong>in</strong>gs should become better<br />
known and their message <strong>of</strong> harmonious<br />
life with nature should be further<br />
promoted. <strong>The</strong>ir voice should be heard<br />
by the governments <strong>of</strong> their countries<br />
more clearly and appropriate measures<br />
for the susta<strong>in</strong>able management<br />
<strong>of</strong> protected areas and the environment<br />
could be taken.<br />
<strong>The</strong> natural environment we <strong>in</strong>herited<br />
from our fathers will be probably delivered<br />
to our children <strong>in</strong> a much worse<br />
condition. So, as Celal Arslan, an Alevi<br />
dede, mentioned dur<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>terview <strong>in</strong><br />
2004 (Ignatow, 2008): ‘We give primary<br />
importance to the environment all<br />
the time for our and our children’s future.<br />
Our ancestors planted a tree<br />
wherever they saw water. <strong>The</strong> importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees has come down to us.<br />
When we were young our elders used<br />
to say ‘Plant trees as long as you live.<br />
Even if you yourself cannot benefit,<br />
other liv<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs such as birds and<br />
wolves can benefit’, and they planted a<br />
love <strong>of</strong> nature <strong>in</strong> us. But over time, the<br />
slaughter <strong>of</strong> nature <strong>in</strong>creased. I am tell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
you as an Alevi, as a dede, we<br />
should give environmental consciousness<br />
to our children.’<br />
105
References:<br />
Alexiou, K. (2009), Οι Πομάκοι της Θράκης, [Pomaks <strong>of</strong> Thrace], http://www.mavriki.eu/meionotites.html,<br />
checked 25 May 2011, (<strong>in</strong> Greek).<br />
Alt<strong>in</strong>taş, E. B. and Haydar Gözlü, ’Tunceli embraces President Gül’, Todays Zaman,<br />
6 November 2009, http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.<br />
action?load=pr<strong>in</strong>t&l<strong>in</strong>k=192139&yazarAd, checked 25 May 2011.<br />
ARC, What do Muslims teach us about ecology?, Alliance <strong>of</strong> Religions and Conservation,<br />
http://www.arcworld.org/faiths.asp?pageID=6, checked 25 May 2011.<br />
Aslanis, I. and Arvanitidou, S. (2001), Roussa <strong>in</strong> Ancient times, Electronic thesaurus<br />
<strong>of</strong> Thrace, http://www.xanthi.ilsp.gr/thraki/history/his.asp?perioxhid=H0005,<br />
checked 26 May 2011 (<strong>in</strong> Greek).<br />
Doja, A. (2006a), A Political History <strong>of</strong> Bektashism from Ottoman Anatolia to Contemporary<br />
Turkey, Journal <strong>of</strong> Church & State, 48 (2), 423–450.<br />
Doja, A. (2006b), Spiritual Surrender: From Companionship to Hierarchy <strong>in</strong> the History<br />
<strong>of</strong> Bektashism. Numen: International Review for the History <strong>of</strong> Religions, 53(4),<br />
448–510.<br />
Endirce, N. (1998), <strong>The</strong> Environment <strong>in</strong> Alevism and Bektashism, Istanbul: Can<br />
Yay<strong>in</strong>lari.<br />
Ignatow, G. (2008), Transnational environmentalism at <strong>Europe</strong>’s boundaries: identity<br />
movements <strong>in</strong> Lithuania and Turkey, Current Sociology, 56(6): 845–864.<br />
Karamustafa, A. T. (1994), God’s Unruly Friends: Dervish Groups <strong>in</strong> the Islamic<br />
Later Middle Period 1200–1550, Salt Lake City, UT: University <strong>of</strong> Utah Press.<br />
Koukos, M. (1991), Στα βήματα του Ορφέα, Οδοιπορικό της Θράκης, In the steps<br />
<strong>of</strong> Orpheas, Travel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Thrace, http://alex.eled.duth.gr/Eldoseis/Koukos/orfeas/<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex.htm, checked 26 May 2011, (<strong>in</strong> Greek).<br />
Kress<strong>in</strong>g, F. (2002), A Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary account <strong>of</strong> research regard<strong>in</strong>g the Albanian Bektashis<br />
– Myths and unresolved questions, <strong>in</strong> Albania – A Country <strong>in</strong> Transition. Aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chang<strong>in</strong>g Identities <strong>in</strong> a South-east <strong>Europe</strong>an Country, ed. K. Kaser and<br />
F. Kress<strong>in</strong>g, Baden-Baden, pp. 65–92.<br />
Leaman, O. and Nasr, S. H. (ed.) (2001), History <strong>of</strong> Islamic Philosophy (Routledge<br />
History <strong>of</strong> World Philosophies), New York: Routledge.<br />
Mavrommatis, G. (2008), Bektashis <strong>in</strong> 20 th century Greece, Turcica, pp. 40,<br />
219–251.<br />
106
Mélik<strong>of</strong>f, I. (1998), Bektashi/Kizilbas: historical bipartition and its consequences,<br />
<strong>in</strong>, Alevi Identities. Cultural, Religious and Social Perspectives, Papers read at a<br />
Conference held at the Swedish Research Institute <strong>in</strong> Istanbul, November 25–27<br />
1996 ed. T. Olsson, E. Özdalga and Kathr<strong>in</strong> Raudvere, Swedish Research Institute<br />
Transactions 8, pp. 1–7.<br />
NasseJ, A. O. (1986), Muslim declaration, <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> Assisi Declarations: Messages<br />
on Man and Nature from Buddhism, Christianity, H<strong>in</strong>duism, Islam and Judaism,<br />
WWF, Gland: WWF International.<br />
Norcliffe, D. (1999), Islam, <strong>in</strong> World Religions: an Introduction for Students ed. J.<br />
Fowler, M. Fowler, D. Norcliffe, N. Hill and D. Watk<strong>in</strong>s, Brighton: Sussex Academic<br />
Press.<br />
Zarcone, T. (2005), Stone people, tree people and animal people <strong>in</strong> Turkic Asia<br />
and Eastern <strong>Europe</strong>, Diogenes 207: 35–46.<br />
Zeg<strong>in</strong>is, E. (2001), Ο Μπεχτατισμός στη Δ. Θράκη: Συμβολή στην Ιστορία της<br />
διαδόσεως του Μουσουλμανισμού στον Ελλαδικό χώρο [Bektashi Religion <strong>in</strong><br />
Western Thrace: Contribution to the History <strong>of</strong> the Spread <strong>of</strong> Islam <strong>in</strong> Greece],<br />
<strong>The</strong>ssaloniki: Institute for Balkan Studies (<strong>in</strong> Greek).<br />
107
108
Part Three:<br />
Manag<strong>in</strong>g lands <strong>of</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
109
110
<strong>The</strong> cultural and spiritual sites <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Parco Nazionale della Majella, Italy<br />
Vita de Waal<br />
Intangible heritage<br />
<strong>The</strong> Majella National Park is a protected<br />
area with an abundance <strong>of</strong> diverse and<br />
<strong>in</strong>trigu<strong>in</strong>g sites spann<strong>in</strong>g at least 800<br />
000 years. <strong>The</strong>se cultural sites are not<br />
just physical sites but have deep historic,<br />
cultural and spiritual significance<br />
that cannot easily be conveyed to people<br />
who are not <strong>of</strong> that culture or spiritual<br />
view. Furthermore, some cultural<br />
traditions have their source <strong>in</strong> civilisations<br />
that have long s<strong>in</strong>ce disappeared,<br />
but whose traditions are still alive today,<br />
as they have been passed on, either<br />
orally or <strong>in</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
A further difficulty is that <strong>in</strong>tangible cultural<br />
criteria mean different th<strong>in</strong>gs to differ-<br />
ent people, thereby mak<strong>in</strong>g it difficult to<br />
establish a clear-cut def<strong>in</strong>ition. It is therefore<br />
<strong>of</strong> the utmost importance for such<br />
work to be multi-tasked, to have different<br />
approaches and to <strong>in</strong>clude a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
peoples, especially <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those<br />
whose traditions are be<strong>in</strong>g considered.<br />
This case study will raise a number <strong>of</strong><br />
questions, but might also present an<br />
example <strong>in</strong> which many cultural, spiritual<br />
and historic contexts converge<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the contemporary context.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Abruzzo Region<br />
<strong>The</strong> sites <strong>of</strong> Majella National Park need<br />
to be set aga<strong>in</strong>st the historical, cultural<br />
< San Giovanni all’Orfento: Very remote site to which Pietro Angeleri<br />
retreated at the age <strong>of</strong> 69 and where he stayed for n<strong>in</strong>e years.<br />
111
Eremo San Bartolomeo <strong>in</strong> Legio (n<strong>in</strong>th century – still <strong>in</strong> use): Located next to a prehistoric lithic site.<br />
and geographical background <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Abruzzo Region. Situated <strong>in</strong> the centre<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Italian pen<strong>in</strong>sula and with over<br />
one-third <strong>of</strong> its territory protected, this<br />
region is considered one <strong>of</strong> Italy’s<br />
greenest. With<strong>in</strong> its territory there are<br />
Majella National Park, Gran Sasso-Laga<br />
National Park, Abruzzo National<br />
Park and the Regional Park <strong>of</strong><br />
Sirente-Vel<strong>in</strong>o.<br />
While the Italian pen<strong>in</strong>sula has seen diverse<br />
peoples and cultures pass<strong>in</strong>g<br />
through its territory, many f<strong>in</strong>ds confirm<br />
that Homo erectus <strong>in</strong>habited the Abruzzo<br />
area s<strong>in</strong>ce the Lower Paleolithic.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the last glacial period the permanent<br />
snow l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> this area went<br />
down to 1200m. <strong>The</strong> hunter-gatherers<br />
had to move down to the coastal pla<strong>in</strong>s<br />
while the animals were forced to migrate<br />
southwards to f<strong>in</strong>d new habitats.<br />
<strong>The</strong> glacial period ended about 10 000<br />
years ago with the milder weather<br />
open<strong>in</strong>g new grassland corridors allow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
new migration patterns and<br />
people from different regions.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the new foreigners that settled<br />
<strong>in</strong> the area brought with them new cultural<br />
<strong>in</strong>puts, metal smelt<strong>in</strong>g techniques,<br />
domesticated sheep, goats,<br />
agricultural knowledge and a tradition<br />
<strong>of</strong> transhumance that would mark the<br />
Abruzzo region for millennia to come.<br />
Milder weather conditions allowed the<br />
transition from a more mobile society<br />
to the development <strong>of</strong> nascent and<br />
more permanent agricultural settlements<br />
coupled with seasonal movements<br />
<strong>of</strong> transhumant activity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> transition from a society <strong>of</strong> huntergatherers<br />
to an agricultural society did<br />
not occur <strong>in</strong> a consistent manner and<br />
for a period Palaeolithic, Neolithic and<br />
Bronze Age cultures appear side-byside.<br />
By contrast, one element that can<br />
be found to persist uniformly is the importance<br />
given to Mother Earth, to<br />
Maja, the giver <strong>of</strong> life. However, many<br />
clay figur<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> her <strong>in</strong> burial sites show<br />
that she does not only accompany <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
<strong>in</strong> this life but also <strong>in</strong>to the afterlife.<br />
It is to her that the Majella Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
112
has been dedicated and s<strong>in</strong>ce time immemorial<br />
the Majella is considered a<br />
sacred mounta<strong>in</strong>, the Mother Mounta<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Transhumance<br />
Majella National Park is <strong>in</strong>tr<strong>in</strong>sically related<br />
to Abruzzo’s culture <strong>of</strong> transhumance.<br />
Two <strong>of</strong> the millennia-old<br />
drovers’ roads (tratturi) used by shepherds<br />
and their herds for their seasonal<br />
migration traverse Majella National Park<br />
and Abruzzo’s remote, majestic and<br />
dramatic landscapes <strong>in</strong>to Apulia, and<br />
over 1000 tholoi-type shepherd huts still<br />
dot the Majella landscape to this day.<br />
Transhumance was practiced <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Abruzzo Region s<strong>in</strong>ce the Copper<br />
Ages till the 1950s, mark<strong>in</strong>g society,<br />
traditions, as well as its tangible and<br />
<strong>in</strong>tangible culture. In 1605, and with<br />
only a work<strong>in</strong>g population <strong>of</strong> 50 000<br />
people, five million bov<strong>in</strong>es were<br />
counted <strong>in</strong> the Abruzzo region alone to<br />
which need to be added millions <strong>of</strong><br />
sheep and goats. A s<strong>in</strong>gle shepherd<br />
could be mov<strong>in</strong>g as many as 10 000<br />
animals along drovers’ roads that<br />
would be either 55 m or 111.6 m wide,<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on whether he was mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cattle or ov<strong>in</strong>e. <strong>The</strong> distances travelled<br />
per day would be 40 km for cattle and<br />
10-15 km for ov<strong>in</strong>e. Shepherds had to<br />
pay a toll for the use <strong>of</strong> the tracks and<br />
for each animal; the <strong>in</strong>come <strong>of</strong> these<br />
taxes to the Aragon crown was considerable.<br />
Farmers welcomed the herds<br />
as they benefitted from the passage <strong>of</strong><br />
the animals. Archival records show<br />
that wheat yields from fields fertilised<br />
by herds were well above average.<br />
<strong>The</strong> 250 km journey to the south took<br />
two to three weeks and every three or<br />
five km along the drovers’ road the<br />
shepherds would f<strong>in</strong>d rest<strong>in</strong>g places<br />
that were strategically located, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
wide open spaces that <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
shadow, ample water<strong>in</strong>g opportunities<br />
for the herds, cook<strong>in</strong>g areas and stone<br />
huts. <strong>The</strong> routes were also extensively<br />
used by all need<strong>in</strong>g to reach the South<br />
<strong>of</strong> Italy or by those travell<strong>in</strong>g northwards.<br />
Today, these highways <strong>of</strong> the<br />
past are once aga<strong>in</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g used as<br />
trekk<strong>in</strong>g and pilgrimage routes.<br />
Shepherds would build shr<strong>in</strong>es to protector<br />
deities or even churches along these<br />
tracks which made these the preferred<br />
way for pilgrims to travel to/from the Holy<br />
Land. <strong>The</strong> commercial opportunities<br />
these migrations presented allowed people<br />
to organise markets, build taverns<br />
and houses and, over time, lively market<br />
villages would come <strong>in</strong>to be<strong>in</strong>g, as the<br />
most important requirements for mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a liv<strong>in</strong>g existed through the availability <strong>of</strong><br />
water, roads, and a barter and trade network<br />
with neighbour<strong>in</strong>g regions. This was<br />
kept alive through the seasonal migration<br />
<strong>of</strong> shepherds that allowed goods to be<br />
transported, exchanged and sold. On 8<br />
May the shepherds would return home<br />
along a different route to the summer<br />
pastures <strong>of</strong> their mounta<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>of</strong>ten jo<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by their families.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Majella, mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
sites<br />
It might seem a contradiction that the<br />
abundance and diversity <strong>of</strong> sites is also<br />
the challenge Majella National Park fac-<br />
113
es. Another po<strong>in</strong>t is that the same sites<br />
have been used and reused by many<br />
subsequent cultures. However, beneath<br />
it all there is a powerful force that has<br />
expressed itself cont<strong>in</strong>ually, re<strong>in</strong>forc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the liv<strong>in</strong>g matrix <strong>of</strong> this mounta<strong>in</strong> that<br />
has expressed itself as a Mother Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
by giv<strong>in</strong>g birth to diverse cultures<br />
and spiritual expressions.<br />
To use an ecological word, sites have<br />
been ‘recycled’ and adapted to meet new<br />
requirements and <strong>in</strong>terpretations and<br />
therefore conta<strong>in</strong> many historical, cultural<br />
and spiritual layers. Which one is to be<br />
brought to the fore? Or is it the result<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sacred landscape that needs focuss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on with this cultural and natural diversity<br />
just an outcome <strong>of</strong> much deeper forces?<br />
Context <strong>of</strong> monasticism and the<br />
Abruzzo<br />
Monasticism <strong>in</strong> the Abruzzo region is<br />
characterised by a number <strong>of</strong> key dates.<br />
• 4th–6th century AD: Christianity arrives<br />
<strong>in</strong> Abruzzo. <strong>The</strong> Valner<strong>in</strong>a Hagiographic<br />
texts mention Christians<br />
who fled Syria and Anatolia arriv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> Valner<strong>in</strong>a. Here they lived as hermits,<br />
founded Anchoritic settlements,<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced the hermitic tradition and<br />
reclaimed the marshy valley.<br />
• 501 AD: St Benedict retreats to a<br />
cave at Subiaco, while monasteries<br />
already exist nearby.<br />
• St Benedict creates his Rule based<br />
on the writ<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> St Basil and the<br />
early church fathers.<br />
• 6th century: <strong>The</strong> hermitage abbey <strong>of</strong><br />
S. Salvatore a Majella was built on top<br />
<strong>of</strong> Roman settlement. Documents from<br />
this hermitage state that hermits were<br />
already liv<strong>in</strong>g then on the Majella.<br />
• 639 AD: Monks escape the Persian<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasions <strong>of</strong> Egypt, Palest<strong>in</strong>e, Syria,<br />
Armenia and Sicily.<br />
• 726/739: Byzant<strong>in</strong>e Emperor Leo III<br />
issues edicts aga<strong>in</strong>st the worship <strong>of</strong><br />
images. Pope Gregory III condemns<br />
the Emperor’s decision and the iconoclasts<br />
escape to Southern Italy.<br />
• 732: Leo III transfers Illyricum and<br />
Southern Italy from Papal governance<br />
to the Patriarch <strong>of</strong> Constant<strong>in</strong>ople.<br />
Monks escape northwards and<br />
to Rome.<br />
• 820: Saracens <strong>in</strong>vade Abruzzo.<br />
Monks retire to remote areas to lead<br />
an eremitic way <strong>of</strong> life<br />
• 1042: <strong>The</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> maritime l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
between South Italy, Syria and Palest<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and the advent <strong>of</strong> the Crusades<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1093 br<strong>in</strong>g more monastics to Italy<br />
<strong>The</strong> Majella National Park<br />
<strong>The</strong> Majella National Park territory covers<br />
74 094 ha with<strong>in</strong> the three prov<strong>in</strong>ces<br />
<strong>of</strong> Pescara, L’Aquila and Chieti and<br />
comprises 39 townships.<br />
What sets the Majella National Park<br />
apart from the other national parks is<br />
the fact that 55% <strong>of</strong> its territory is situated<br />
above 2000 m (6562 ft). This also<br />
means that certa<strong>in</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> the park<br />
are not easily accessible from late autumn<br />
to spr<strong>in</strong>g, thereby giv<strong>in</strong>g nature<br />
some respite from visitors.<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Management<br />
<strong>The</strong> Resolution for the creation <strong>of</strong> Majella<br />
National Park was adopted on 6<br />
114
December 1991. It was founded <strong>in</strong><br />
1993 and the <strong>in</strong>stitutional organ came<br />
<strong>in</strong>to be<strong>in</strong>g by presidential decree on 5<br />
June 1995. <strong>The</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong> Category is II.<br />
<strong>The</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration comprises a Board<br />
<strong>of</strong> Directors, an Executive Board, Auditors,<br />
and the Park Community that is<br />
constituted by the presidents <strong>of</strong> the regions<br />
and <strong>of</strong> the prov<strong>in</strong>ces, the town<br />
mayors, and the presidents <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> communities <strong>in</strong> whose territory<br />
the areas <strong>of</strong> the park are situated.<br />
With over six million visitors the Majella<br />
National Park was the most visited National<br />
Park <strong>of</strong> the Abruzzo <strong>in</strong> 2008. <strong>The</strong><br />
Park has four visitor centres; five <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
centres; two museums, <strong>of</strong><br />
which one is dedicated exclusively to<br />
the Marsican brown bear; two botanical<br />
gardens and four hostels.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are over 500 km <strong>of</strong> hik<strong>in</strong>g trails,<br />
and the Park attracts visitors that enjoy<br />
climb<strong>in</strong>g, trekk<strong>in</strong>g, mounta<strong>in</strong> bik<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and ski<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
<strong>The</strong> trails are well ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed and signposted<br />
with length <strong>of</strong> hike, estimation<br />
<strong>of</strong> time and degree <strong>of</strong> difficulty. Benches<br />
and/or picnic areas can be found<br />
along some <strong>of</strong> the trails.<br />
Sites are <strong>of</strong>ten located <strong>in</strong> remote areas.<br />
Directions to the sites are sign-posted.<br />
Information panels are displayed at the<br />
site. No facilities or shops are to be<br />
found at any site.<br />
Natural heritage<br />
<strong>The</strong> Park is host to a wealth <strong>of</strong> rare and<br />
endemic species related to both fauna<br />
and flora from southern <strong>Europe</strong> as well<br />
as those from the alp<strong>in</strong>e regions thereby<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g the essential elements for<br />
the survival <strong>of</strong> highly mobile populations<br />
<strong>of</strong> carnivores, specifically the<br />
Marsican brown bear. Some <strong>in</strong>dicators<br />
testify<strong>in</strong>g to the natural wealth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
• Fauna: 78% <strong>of</strong> the mammal species<br />
<strong>of</strong> Abruzzo and 45% <strong>of</strong> those <strong>of</strong> Italy<br />
are found on its territory.<br />
• Birds: 130 species<br />
• Flora: 65% <strong>of</strong> the Abruzzo’s, 37% <strong>of</strong><br />
Italy’s and 22% <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>’s species<br />
<strong>of</strong> flora is located here.<br />
Cultural and spiritual heritage<br />
<strong>The</strong> Park conta<strong>in</strong>s a wealth <strong>of</strong> sites that<br />
testify to the migration <strong>of</strong> peoples and<br />
tribes <strong>of</strong> cultural diversity. <strong>The</strong>y conta<strong>in</strong><br />
archaeological sites dat<strong>in</strong>g back<br />
to the Lower Palaeolithic (old/early<br />
Stone Age), caves used extensively<br />
from Early Neolithic times, pagan, Italic,<br />
Roman and Christian sanctuaries<br />
and temples, Roman habitats, at least<br />
1000 tholoi-type huts used for transhumant<br />
activities, sacred wells, lakes,<br />
and rocks, rock burial chambers, hermitages,<br />
coenobites, monasteries,<br />
sanctuaries, abbeys, churches and<br />
numerous fortified medieval towns.<br />
Although much can still be viewed, most<br />
<strong>of</strong> the archaeological and artistic treasures<br />
that were found at these sites have<br />
been moved to museums outside the<br />
Park’s boundaries as the f<strong>in</strong>ds were <strong>of</strong><br />
great importance and <strong>of</strong> relevance to the<br />
cultural heritage <strong>of</strong> the Italian nation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritual sites at Majella were so<br />
numerous that Petrarch, the famous<br />
Italian humanist and poet, called the<br />
115
Majella Mounta<strong>in</strong> the ‘domus Christi’<br />
(the house <strong>of</strong> Christ).<br />
<strong>The</strong> deep forested gorges with an<br />
abundance <strong>of</strong> caves, water and<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>gs have made this an ideal location<br />
for hermits. It is known that hermits<br />
stayed here well before 1000 AD. However,<br />
it is mostly through the hermit Pietro<br />
Angeleri (1210–1296) that the Majella<br />
hermitages are known, as he lived<br />
here for over 60 years restor<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
amplify<strong>in</strong>g many <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g spiritual<br />
sites.<br />
Cont<strong>in</strong>uity <strong>of</strong> cultural and spiritual<br />
heritages<br />
<strong>The</strong> arrival <strong>of</strong> Christianity was seen as<br />
an additional belief available to the people<br />
and tribes liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the area that had<br />
a long history rich <strong>in</strong> culture that was<br />
permeated with a variety <strong>of</strong> spiritual traditions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> people simply <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> this new faith and, for a period,<br />
all these cultural and spiritual practices<br />
were <strong>in</strong>terwoven and found expression<br />
without any conflict. Christianity<br />
added an element <strong>of</strong> hope, salvation,<br />
and rebirth with<strong>in</strong> the human realm.<br />
<strong>The</strong> people <strong>of</strong> Abruzzo have kept many<br />
<strong>of</strong> their traditional beliefs alive, because<br />
the region was ‘<strong>of</strong>f the beaten<br />
track’, the high mounta<strong>in</strong> range mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this region <strong>in</strong>accessible and remote,<br />
while it was also considered to be one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the economically poorest regions <strong>in</strong><br />
Italy.<br />
Still today age-old rituals are be<strong>in</strong>g acted<br />
out and each town has its own traditions<br />
and contributes to the rich tapestry <strong>of</strong><br />
cultural expressions that make this land<br />
unique. Many <strong>of</strong> the rituals are l<strong>in</strong>ked to<br />
elemental forces, such as earth, rocks,<br />
fire, water or animals, like snakes, that<br />
will l<strong>in</strong>k people to the deeper forces that<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence and shape human life and<br />
mark the changes <strong>of</strong> seasons on earth.<br />
Festivals to celebrate these forces and to<br />
<strong>in</strong>voke their protection are still attended<br />
by all, young and old alike, and all participate<br />
with equal delight and <strong>in</strong>tensity.<br />
Such an example can be seen at Cocullo,<br />
eight km west <strong>of</strong> the Park when <strong>in</strong> May<br />
the statue <strong>of</strong> St Dom<strong>in</strong>ic is brought out after<br />
Mass and paraded through the<br />
streets completely covered <strong>in</strong> snakes<br />
(which were considered potent guardians<br />
<strong>of</strong> temples and other sacred spaces)<br />
followed by the Serpari (local snake expert)<br />
who is also draped with serpents.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Serpari are a hereditary brotherhood<br />
<strong>of</strong> snake-charmers who play a major role<br />
<strong>in</strong> the festival and to this day they are<br />
held <strong>in</strong> high regard. However, this festival<br />
has much older roots and is related to a<br />
much older rite, that <strong>of</strong> the snake deity/<br />
witch Angitia. <strong>The</strong> snake-charmers were<br />
<strong>in</strong> pagan times the priests at the sanctuary<br />
<strong>of</strong> Angitia.<br />
Selected sites<br />
Valle Giument<strong>in</strong>a is an Old Stone Age<br />
site dat<strong>in</strong>g back 350 000 years that is<br />
situated on the edge <strong>of</strong> what was once<br />
a lake <strong>in</strong> the Valle Giument<strong>in</strong>a. Paleolithic<br />
humans took care <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>firm and weak<br />
companions, they buried their dead,<br />
had spiritual beliefs and engaged <strong>in</strong> ritual.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y were hunter-gatherers. <strong>The</strong><br />
wildlife that surrounded them <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
116
ison, elephants, rh<strong>in</strong>oceroses, lions,<br />
hippopotami, water birds, tortoises and<br />
amphibians <strong>in</strong>habit<strong>in</strong>g the marsh areas<br />
while the forests sheltered deer, wild<br />
horses, bears and boars.<br />
Caporciano <strong>in</strong>cludes 67 shaft tombs<br />
from seventh-sixth century BC.<br />
Grotta dei Porci is a cave used s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Middle Paleolithic times for habitat,<br />
burial, cult, and for mak<strong>in</strong>g tools. A 12<br />
600 year old skeleton was found here,<br />
the skull <strong>of</strong> which can be seen <strong>in</strong> one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the museums.<br />
Grotta dei Piccioni, 6500 BC, is considered<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most important Neolithic<br />
sanctuaries <strong>in</strong> this area.<br />
Grotta della Cont<strong>in</strong>enza is a cave that<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes 37 burials with features common<br />
to most burials <strong>of</strong> this period: the<br />
burials conta<strong>in</strong>ed pierced deer can<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
shells and ochre. However, there were<br />
also characteristics that were less common:<br />
the skeletons were placed <strong>in</strong><br />
stone circles; the skeleton’s head <strong>in</strong> a<br />
few <strong>in</strong>stances was replaced by a stone<br />
(as <strong>in</strong> the nearby Grotta Maritza); there<br />
were quartz crystals <strong>in</strong> the burial sites<br />
and some burials were found with deer<br />
antlers fragments near their head.<br />
Grotta del Colle is a huge cave rectangular<br />
40 x 60 m wide and 4-12 m high<br />
that was used <strong>in</strong> Paleolithic times as a<br />
shelter, and only s<strong>in</strong>ce the italic era did<br />
it come <strong>in</strong>to use as a Sanctuary. In the<br />
sixth century BC it was an Italic temple<br />
dedicated to the Goddess Cerfia, the<br />
Mother and Nutrix who gives fertility to<br />
the land. A small statuette <strong>of</strong> Goddess<br />
Cerfia has been found and it is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to note that dur<strong>in</strong>g the Procession <strong>in</strong><br />
honour <strong>of</strong> the Madonna di Carp<strong>in</strong>eto, all<br />
young girls are dressed like Cerfia, with<br />
three quarter long tunics over long<br />
tiered dresses and flowers <strong>in</strong> their hair.<br />
Votive deposits and co<strong>in</strong>s dat<strong>in</strong>g back<br />
to the third century BC confirm this as<br />
an important sacred space for the<br />
Marucc<strong>in</strong>i tribe. Also found <strong>in</strong> the same<br />
cave was the famous bronze tablet,<br />
called the Tabula Rap<strong>in</strong>ensis from the<br />
same period, which is exhibited today<br />
<strong>in</strong> Moscow’s Pusk<strong>in</strong> Museum.<br />
In Longobard times (568 to 774 AD) the<br />
cave was a shr<strong>in</strong>e to Archangel Michael<br />
while <strong>in</strong> later Christian times it was dedicated<br />
to Santa Maria <strong>in</strong> Cryptis.<br />
Temple <strong>of</strong> Ercole Curr<strong>in</strong>o, adjacent to the<br />
National Park headquarters, is a sanctuary<br />
dat<strong>in</strong>g back to the fourth century BC<br />
dedicated to Ercole Cur<strong>in</strong>o. An exquisite<br />
bronze statue represent<strong>in</strong>g a Rest<strong>in</strong>g Ercole<br />
from 300 BC and many ex-voti have<br />
been found and are now at the Archaeological<br />
Museum <strong>of</strong> Chieti. <strong>The</strong> sacred<br />
well, located <strong>in</strong>side the cave, is still <strong>in</strong><br />
use today. An avalanche covered this<br />
site <strong>in</strong> 200 BC. Stones used to build the<br />
Abbazia di S. Spirito al Morrone, (Badia<br />
Morronese) at Sulmona and St.On<strong>of</strong>rio<br />
uncovered the Sanctuary <strong>in</strong> 1259.<br />
Badia San Liberatore a Majella is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the oldest medieval Benedict<strong>in</strong>e<br />
monastery churches, already documented<br />
<strong>in</strong> 884 <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>ventory <strong>of</strong> Benedict<strong>in</strong>e<br />
properties. It was destroyed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the earthquake <strong>of</strong> 990, but rebuild<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1007. <strong>The</strong> magnificent and impressive<br />
mosaic floor from 1275 has<br />
been restored.<br />
117
San Giuannelle near the shore <strong>of</strong> River<br />
Alento is made up <strong>of</strong> rock burial chambers,<br />
a niche, a small chapel and a sacred<br />
pool. It is thought that a group <strong>of</strong><br />
hermits came here <strong>in</strong> the eighth century<br />
AD.<br />
Grotta Sant’Angelo, a large cave with a<br />
church built <strong>in</strong>side, was already documented<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1221. However, oral traditions<br />
mention this as be<strong>in</strong>g the site <strong>of</strong><br />
an older pagan temple dedicated to<br />
Bona, the Goddess <strong>of</strong> Fertility. Women<br />
would make the trek through the forests<br />
to bathe their breasts <strong>in</strong> the special<br />
waters pray<strong>in</strong>g for an abundant<br />
milk flow for their new-born child and<br />
the many water bas<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the rocks<br />
would confirm this ancient tradition.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Church <strong>of</strong> Sant’ Agata that is currently<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g excavated was built on a<br />
pagan temple where women who did<br />
not have enough milk for their newborn<br />
would come . Women still pray at<br />
the altar stone.<br />
Abbazia di Santo Spirito al Morrone, at<br />
Sulmona was founded <strong>in</strong> 1259 by Pietro<br />
Angeleri, a holy man who later became<br />
Pope Celest<strong>in</strong>e V. <strong>The</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrative <strong>of</strong>fices<br />
and headquarters <strong>of</strong> Majella National<br />
Park are currently located here.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Hermitage <strong>of</strong> San Bartolomeo, located<br />
next to a prehistoric site, is<br />
known to have existed <strong>in</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>th century.<br />
Pietro Angeleri stayed here and<br />
was engaged <strong>in</strong> its restoration and extension.<br />
His piety and fame drew many<br />
visitors and he decided to move further<br />
up the mounta<strong>in</strong>, to the Orfento.<br />
Many miracles are attributed to Pietro<br />
Angeleri while he lived here.<br />
Miraculous powers are attributed to<br />
the statue <strong>of</strong> San Bartolomeo which is<br />
housed above the altar. In times <strong>of</strong><br />
need, especially when people were<br />
very ill, <strong>in</strong>dividuals were allowed to<br />
come and take the statue home until<br />
the patient recovered. However, the<br />
rules have changed and <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
statue, people today are allowed to<br />
take home the knife that San Bartolomeo<br />
holds <strong>in</strong> his hands. This site is still<br />
<strong>in</strong> use today, and several ceremonies<br />
and rituals are performed.<br />
Santo Spirito a Majella is a monastic<br />
complex with rich legacy <strong>of</strong> history and<br />
traditions. It is one <strong>of</strong> the most famous<br />
and biggest monasteries <strong>of</strong> the Park.<br />
Dauferius stayed here with a fellow<br />
group <strong>of</strong> hermits <strong>in</strong> 1053. Pietro da<br />
Morrone resided here for about three<br />
years around the 1250s and his disciple,<br />
the Blessed Roberto da Salle, was<br />
Prior from 1310 to 1317. It still reta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
its charm and majesty due to its superb<br />
position and to the atmosphere <strong>of</strong><br />
mystery that shrouds it.<br />
Eremo San Giovanni all’Orfento. Pietro<br />
Angeleri stayed at this remote and<br />
austere site from 1284 to 1293. <strong>The</strong><br />
water harvest<strong>in</strong>g techniques used here<br />
were applied extensively to all sites<br />
and provide examples that could be<br />
utilised <strong>in</strong> the twenty-first century.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Eremo Sant’On<strong>of</strong>rio sul Morrone was<br />
built <strong>in</strong> 1265, though Pietro Angeleri retreated<br />
to this hermitage only <strong>in</strong> 1293. It<br />
is probably the most historic site. Elected<br />
by the card<strong>in</strong>als to succeed Pope<br />
Nicholas IV, he refused to accept the Papacy.<br />
In 1293 a delegation <strong>of</strong> card<strong>in</strong>als<br />
118
<strong>The</strong>se places <strong>of</strong>ten became places <strong>of</strong><br />
pilgrimages that were visited on 29<br />
September and 8 May, both days dedicated<br />
to the Great Protector Michael,<br />
the Patron Sa<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> Shepherds.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Santuario di San Michele is a cave<br />
sanctuary near a rest<strong>in</strong>g place which<br />
water makes this an important rest<br />
stop and gather<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t for shepherds<br />
and their herds. Ceramic f<strong>in</strong>ds from<br />
various epochs testify to its extensive<br />
use over time. It is situated on a strategic<br />
position on the drovers’ road near<br />
Pescocostanzo, a well-known fortified<br />
medieval hill-top town.<br />
Santo Spirito a Majella<br />
and bishops accompanied by the K<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> Naples and the K<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Hungary<br />
made their way to the hermitage to conv<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
him. F<strong>in</strong>ally he accepted and was<br />
crowned Pope Celest<strong>in</strong>e V at S. Maria di<br />
Collemaggio <strong>in</strong> Aquila.<br />
He issued a number <strong>of</strong> papal bulls,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> these declar<strong>in</strong>g the right <strong>of</strong> any<br />
Pope to abdicate, a right that he exercised<br />
with<strong>in</strong> six months to return to<br />
Sant’On<strong>of</strong>rio. However, his successor,<br />
Pope Boniface VIII, decided to imprison<br />
him <strong>in</strong> the castle <strong>of</strong> Fumane where<br />
he died on 19 May 1296. It is believed<br />
that Boniface had him killed. He was<br />
canonised <strong>in</strong> 1313.<br />
Sites related to transhumance<br />
Along the drovers’ routes one can f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
caves with shr<strong>in</strong>es dedicated to Archangel<br />
Michael, many with heal<strong>in</strong>g wells.<br />
Challenges and<br />
recommendations<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a number <strong>of</strong> challenges, some<br />
<strong>of</strong> which paradoxically, stem from the<br />
successful manner the Park developed<br />
various programmes, e.g. breed<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
protect<strong>in</strong>g its wildlife, its visitor and educational<br />
facilities. <strong>The</strong> National Park attracts<br />
over six million visitors yearly and<br />
people <strong>of</strong> the neighbour<strong>in</strong>g townships<br />
realise the importance to the local economy<br />
<strong>of</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g these visitors <strong>in</strong> the<br />
area. This has led to an encroach<strong>in</strong>g urbanisation<br />
<strong>in</strong> areas <strong>in</strong>side the park.<br />
Larger visitor numbers create more<br />
waste. A rubbish dump and a toxic<br />
waste discharge now exist <strong>in</strong> an adjacent<br />
border area, threaten<strong>in</strong>g both<br />
people and wildlife.<br />
<strong>The</strong> people <strong>of</strong> the Abruzzo have a great<br />
affection for their brown bear, the Marsican<br />
Brown Bear (Ursus arctos marsicanus),<br />
also known as the Appenn<strong>in</strong>e<br />
119
Duration <strong>of</strong> Use <strong>of</strong> Majella National Park Sites<br />
Sites - Used s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
800 000 to<br />
20 000 BC<br />
12 000 to<br />
9 500 BC<br />
6000<br />
BC<br />
4000 BC<br />
Bronze Age<br />
Eremo Sant’On<strong>of</strong>rio sul Morrone<br />
Eremo di San Bartolomeo<br />
Abbazia S.to Spirito al Morrone<br />
Eremo Sant’On<strong>of</strong>rio<br />
Badia San Liberatore a Majella<br />
Tombe Rupestri San Giuannelle<br />
Grotta Sant’Angelo<br />
Chiesa Madonna Buon Camm<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Drovers Road and Sites √ √<br />
Grotta del Colle √ √ √ √<br />
Sanctuary San Michele<br />
Santo Spirito a Majella<br />
Chiesa Sant’Agata<br />
Eremo San Giovanni all’Orfento<br />
Grotta della Cont<strong>in</strong>enza √ √ √ √<br />
Sanctuary Ercole Curr<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Grotta dei Piccioni √ √ √<br />
Grotta dei Porci √ √ √ √<br />
Roccamorice Lithic Site √ √ √<br />
Valle Giument<strong>in</strong>a Site √ √ √<br />
120
1200 BC to<br />
AD Iron<br />
AD to 476<br />
Roman<br />
568 to 1017<br />
Lombard<br />
Middle Ages<br />
500 - 1400<br />
Renaissance<br />
1500 - 1700<br />
Still <strong>in</strong> use <strong>in</strong><br />
20th Century<br />
Age Italic<br />
culture<br />
Empire Empire<br />
√ √ √<br />
√ √ √<br />
√ √ √<br />
√ √ √<br />
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121
own bear, an endangered subspecies<br />
<strong>of</strong> the brown bear. <strong>The</strong>ir habitat is ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
restricted to Abruzzo National Park,<br />
though a number have also been seen<br />
at Majella National Park. <strong>The</strong> total population<br />
<strong>of</strong> this subspecies is estimated to<br />
be only around 40 bears. Big roads and<br />
motorways divide Abruzzo National<br />
Park from Majella National Park and<br />
Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National<br />
Park. <strong>The</strong>re is an urgent need for wildlife<br />
corridors between these parks.<br />
<strong>The</strong> numerous sacred sites also pose<br />
challenges, though these are more related<br />
to restoration, ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and safety<br />
measures. While many <strong>of</strong> these sites<br />
(caves, hermitages, churches, abbeys<br />
and monasteries) are still <strong>in</strong> use, not all<br />
are used on a daily basis. <strong>The</strong>re might<br />
therefore be a question <strong>of</strong> who is to look<br />
after these sites, many still consecrated.<br />
Another po<strong>in</strong>t is that while these sites are<br />
remote, the Abruzzo w<strong>in</strong>ter also delivers<br />
much snow and with over 55% <strong>of</strong> its territory<br />
above 2000 m many sites are <strong>in</strong>accessible<br />
from November till March. Nor<br />
is the weather gentle with the frescoes<br />
and statues and it is amaz<strong>in</strong>g that after<br />
hundreds <strong>of</strong> years we are still able to admire<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs. Unfortunately<br />
many people th<strong>in</strong>k that it is acceptable<br />
to scribble their name over pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs, on<br />
statues and even on altars. An educational<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiative that values the uniqueness<br />
<strong>of</strong> Abruzzo’s special natural, cultural<br />
and spiritual heritage might help <strong>in</strong><br />
safeguard<strong>in</strong>g its importance to future<br />
generations.<br />
Only recently has some money been<br />
made available by the government,<br />
and excavations have resumed at<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the Palaeolithic and Neolithic<br />
sites. Recently a 14 000 year old<br />
hearth was discovered, mak<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the best-preserved hearths <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong>. While a number <strong>of</strong> caves today<br />
have the necessary legal safeguards<br />
(because they are related to<br />
paleosurfaces) there are still a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> caves that people can just walk <strong>in</strong>to.<br />
It is <strong>of</strong> note to mention that only recently<br />
(2004) Palaeolithic surfaces <strong>in</strong> Italy<br />
received protection through Legislative<br />
decree no. 42/2004, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
’Code on Cultural Heritage and <strong>Lands</strong>cape’<br />
- Title I, Section 10. However,<br />
no such regulation exists related to<br />
caves, and <strong>of</strong> consequence hermitages<br />
will suffer further deterioration. Although<br />
many <strong>of</strong> these sites have beautiful<br />
frescoes fund<strong>in</strong>g might be hard to<br />
be obta<strong>in</strong>ed for any restoration work.<br />
At present the panels at sites do mention<br />
their history and use, but more <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
is still at hand; it might be<br />
worth speak<strong>in</strong>g with those who still<br />
hold the memory <strong>of</strong> how people used<br />
these sites, about the sites used for the<br />
water cult, <strong>of</strong> those used for litho-therapy<br />
(the rubb<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st stone walls or<br />
ly<strong>in</strong>g on rocks and slabs), the rituals <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
with these and the dates which<br />
were considered the most beneficial.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se are the cultural traditions and<br />
related knowledge that are be<strong>in</strong>g lost.<br />
Some sites need safer access, e.g.<br />
San Giovanni all’Orfento. If this is not<br />
possible then there needs to be at<br />
least a sign <strong>in</strong>form<strong>in</strong>g visitors that they<br />
should not access the site or do it at<br />
their own risk and peril.<br />
122
As was mentioned above, there is a need<br />
for wildlife corridors and for feed<strong>in</strong>g programmes<br />
for the Marsican Brown Bear.<br />
In 2001, the Board <strong>of</strong> Majella National<br />
Park sent a request to Dr G. Proietti, Director<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Permanent Work<strong>in</strong>g Group<br />
for the UNESCO World Heritage List at<br />
the M<strong>in</strong>istero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali,<br />
ask<strong>in</strong>g for the Park to be <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong> the list <strong>of</strong> Italian sites to be presented<br />
to the World Heritage Committee. It is a<br />
pity that this was refused, as the Parco<br />
Nazionale della Majella would be an<br />
outstand<strong>in</strong>g world heritage site, <strong>of</strong>fer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a variety <strong>of</strong> sites rarely found elsewhere<br />
and spann<strong>in</strong>g from Paleolithic times to<br />
the Middle Ages and to the present.<br />
<strong>The</strong> above-mentioned list <strong>of</strong> sites conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
only few examples <strong>of</strong> the many sacred<br />
and natural sites that can be found<br />
there. This National Park is remarkable<br />
as the natural aspect is almost overshadowed<br />
by the great and diverse variety <strong>of</strong><br />
sacred natural sites, many or which are<br />
not restricted to the historic period.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Parco Nazionale della Majella,<br />
with its protected natural landscape<br />
dotted by sacred and historic sites<br />
comprises hermitages, monasteries,<br />
churches and abbeys. <strong>The</strong> millennia<br />
old traditions <strong>of</strong> transhumance have <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
the culture <strong>of</strong> the Abruzzo<br />
and the caves, tholoi-huts, drovers’<br />
roads, sacred wells and lakes are testimony<br />
to a spirituality that is still very<br />
alive today. Festivals and celebrations<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to reflect the sacred and are<br />
related to the earth, the abundance <strong>of</strong><br />
harvests and peoples’ gratitude for the<br />
gifts and the heal<strong>in</strong>g power <strong>of</strong> nature.<br />
Around this colourful tapestry <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
traditions those related to the cul<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
arts, to food preparation and to<br />
food preservation are bountiful. <strong>The</strong><br />
sacred mother is still very much present<br />
and it is hoped that the Majella<br />
National Park Board will once aga<strong>in</strong><br />
consider br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g the Park to the attention<br />
<strong>of</strong> the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Culture for <strong>in</strong>clusion<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Italian UNESCO World Heritage<br />
List.<br />
References<br />
N. Cim<strong>in</strong>i, (2008), L’economia Della Vita – Un Esempio: il Valore del Parco Nazionale<br />
della Majella, Edizioni Parco Nazionale della Majella, p. 106 (In Italian).<br />
Websites<br />
www.parcomajella.it/LgENG/home.asp<br />
www.borghitalia.it/html/borgo_en.php?codice_borgo=222<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
I want to extend my thanks to Dr N. Cim<strong>in</strong>i, Director <strong>of</strong> the Parco Nazionale della<br />
Majella, for the hospitality extended and to Dr G. Marcantonio and Mr J. Forcone<br />
for hav<strong>in</strong>g been my experienced guides and for hav<strong>in</strong>g shared their wealth <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge that allowed me to see and live the sites while visit<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
123
124
Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne and the<br />
modern relevance <strong>of</strong> Celtic ‘Nature<br />
Sa<strong>in</strong>ts’.<br />
Robert Wild<br />
‘All places and all people are sacred.<br />
We have to recapture that, and respect<br />
even the smallest wood as well as the<br />
largest ra<strong>in</strong>forest’ Rev. Canon David<br />
Adam, Vicar <strong>of</strong> Holy Island 1995-2003<br />
(personal communication, 2009).<br />
‘… has shown how much livel<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
there is on the island, how much will<strong>in</strong>gness<br />
to accommodate new ventures,<br />
but also how much determ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
there is for the future to be shaped<br />
by and for the island people. We are<br />
not ready to become anyone’s theme<br />
park, now or ever!’ (Tristram, 2009).<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>The</strong> Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne is located<br />
on the north east coast <strong>of</strong> England, on<br />
the border with Scotland. It is accessible<br />
at low tide, across sand and mud flats,<br />
which carry an ancient pilgrim’s way and<br />
a modern road causeway. It is surrounded<br />
by the 3541 ha L<strong>in</strong>disfarne National<br />
Nature Reserve which protects the island’s<br />
sand dunes and the adjacent <strong>in</strong>ter-tidal<br />
habitats (Natural England,<br />
2005), that support a wide variety <strong>of</strong><br />
plant life and attract vast numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
birds. Almost 300 bird species have<br />
been recorded and the w<strong>in</strong>ter<strong>in</strong>g wildfowl<br />
population is estimated at 60 000.<br />
< <strong>The</strong> Parish Church <strong>of</strong> St Mary’s thought to be on the site <strong>of</strong> St Aiden’s<br />
monastery, and the ru<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> the L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Benedict<strong>in</strong>e Priory.<br />
125
L<strong>in</strong>disfarne National Nature Reserve with Holy Island at its centre.<br />
Holy Island, L<strong>in</strong>disfarne was founded<br />
<strong>in</strong> AD 635 as the first monastic community<br />
<strong>in</strong> England and for 240 years it<br />
was a centre <strong>of</strong> Christian learn<strong>in</strong>g. It is<br />
associated with several Sa<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
St. Cuthbert. Desecrated by the<br />
first Vik<strong>in</strong>g raid on England <strong>in</strong> AD 793,<br />
the Abbey removed St Cuthbert’s relics<br />
<strong>in</strong> 875 and they were located at Durham<br />
where a medieval Cathedral was<br />
built <strong>in</strong> his honour.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> settlement on Holy Island is a<br />
traditional Northumbrian village <strong>of</strong> about<br />
150 residents once reliant on fish<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g but <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly engaged <strong>in</strong><br />
tourism. <strong>The</strong> island receives <strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong><br />
half a million visitors per year, many <strong>of</strong><br />
whom are attracted by nature and the island’s<br />
religious and secular history.<br />
This paper builds on the modern conservation<br />
situation <strong>of</strong> Holy Island as<br />
described by Wild (2010). It outl<strong>in</strong>es<br />
the life <strong>of</strong> St Cuthbert and expands on<br />
the nature spirituality <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong> ‘nature<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts’ <strong>of</strong> which St Cuthbert is an<br />
important exemplar. It exam<strong>in</strong>es elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> a revival <strong>in</strong> ‘Celtic spirituality’.<br />
It then discusses some <strong>of</strong> the challeng-<br />
126
es fac<strong>in</strong>g Holy Island L<strong>in</strong>disfarne. It<br />
asks the question; is it legitimate to <strong>in</strong>voke<br />
the lives <strong>of</strong> long dead, and largely<br />
forgotten sa<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> contemporary<br />
environmental concerns?<br />
Mammals extant <strong>in</strong> Northern Brita<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
St. Cuthbert’s time.<br />
Species<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an Wolf<br />
(Canis lupus)<br />
Eurasian Beaver<br />
(Castor fiber)<br />
Wild Boar<br />
(Sus scr<strong>of</strong>a),<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an Brown Bear<br />
(Ursus arctos arctos)<br />
Date extirpated<br />
<strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong><br />
c. AD 1740<br />
16 th century<br />
13 th century<br />
10 th century<br />
St Cuthbert <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne<br />
Two hagiographies <strong>of</strong> St Cuthbert survive,<br />
one was written anonymously (c.<br />
700), the other by St. (the Venerable)<br />
Bede between AD 716 and 726 (Bede,<br />
731; Magnusson, 1984; Farmer, 1998).<br />
St Cuthbert lived from 634 to 687,<br />
when the Britons (ancestors <strong>of</strong> the<br />
modern Welsh), English, Picts and Dalriada<br />
(Irish) were vy<strong>in</strong>g for territory and<br />
power <strong>in</strong> northern Brita<strong>in</strong>. We first hear<br />
<strong>of</strong> him at 16 years old, upon the hills <strong>of</strong><br />
what is now southern Scotland. On that<br />
night <strong>in</strong> AD 651 Cuthbert was defend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a flock <strong>of</strong> sheep, at a time when<br />
northern Brita<strong>in</strong> was under larger areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> natural forest and with exist<strong>in</strong>g populations<br />
<strong>of</strong> wolf, bear and other large<br />
mammals. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his watch he saw a<br />
bright stream <strong>of</strong> light descend<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
heaven to the south. This signalled the<br />
death and ascension <strong>of</strong> St Aidan, the<br />
remarkable founder <strong>of</strong> the monastery<br />
on L<strong>in</strong>disfarne, whose generosity and<br />
humility is considered to have established<br />
the spiritual pattern <strong>of</strong> Holy Island.<br />
On witness<strong>in</strong>g this event Cuthbert<br />
was moved to become a monk.<br />
St Cuthbert’s legacy and <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
Cuthbert excelled as a student and<br />
ga<strong>in</strong>ed a reputation as a preacher and<br />
healer.<br />
‘A hermit, prior and then bishop to the<br />
monastic community <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne,<br />
Cuthbert became on his death <strong>in</strong> 687<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most important medieval<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and one <strong>of</strong> the foremost<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>of</strong> Medieval England.’<br />
(Marner, 2000).<br />
Cuthbert, when alive, was visited by<br />
Ecgfrith, K<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Northumbria (670-<br />
685), he miraculously ‘appeared’ to<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g Alfred at Glastonbury, and his<br />
shr<strong>in</strong>e was visited by three English<br />
k<strong>in</strong>gs (Aethelstan 934, Edmund 945<br />
and Cnut 1027). By the late eleventh<br />
century his feast days were celebrated<br />
<strong>in</strong> many monasteries <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, and<br />
many copies <strong>of</strong> his hagiographies were<br />
produced. Forty-five copies are <strong>in</strong> existence<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g their popularity (Farmer,<br />
1998). Many churches <strong>in</strong> England were<br />
dedicated to him, as was Durham Cathedral,<br />
where his relics were entombed.<br />
(Marner, 2000). <strong>The</strong> Cathedral<br />
is now a World Heritage Site and is considered<br />
‘the largest and most perfect<br />
monument <strong>of</strong> ‘Norman’ style architecture<br />
<strong>in</strong> England’, (UNESCO, 2011).<br />
127
Political divisions <strong>of</strong> northern Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> St Cuthbert’s era.<br />
<strong>The</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Gospels, produced <strong>in</strong><br />
his honour, are recognised as one <strong>of</strong><br />
the world’s greatest masterpieces <strong>of</strong><br />
manuscript pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g (Backhouse,<br />
1981, Brown, 2003) and one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
best documented (Backhouse, 1981).<br />
As well as <strong>in</strong>ternational fame, Cuthbert<br />
amassed a body <strong>of</strong> local folklore, perhaps<br />
larger than any other English<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>t (Doel and Doel, 2009).<br />
‘Cuthbert was not only a historical figure<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g cont<strong>in</strong>uity with the community’s<br />
ancient roots at L<strong>in</strong>disfarne<br />
but was also considered a protector <strong>of</strong><br />
both his community and ‘his people’.....<strong>The</strong><br />
very physical presence <strong>of</strong><br />
Cuthbert, <strong>in</strong> all areas <strong>of</strong> Northumbria<br />
both while alive and after his death, is<br />
a fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g example <strong>of</strong> the way <strong>in</strong><br />
which the corporal presence <strong>of</strong> a sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />
128
somehow helps sanctify a geographical<br />
region and affirms and strengthens<br />
its boundaries (Marner, 2000).<br />
Cuthbert and nature<br />
St Cuthbert had a close relationship<br />
and aff<strong>in</strong>ity with nature (McManners,<br />
2008). For Christian preachers <strong>of</strong> the<br />
time this was not unusual. Cuthbert<br />
was an ascetic and would spend all<br />
night <strong>in</strong> the sea. Once he was observed<br />
emerg<strong>in</strong>g at daybreak he knelt<br />
on the sand to pray.<br />
‘And immediately there followed <strong>in</strong> his<br />
footsteps two little sea-animals (fourfooted<br />
creatures, which are called otters<br />
– Bede) humbly prostrat<strong>in</strong>g themselves<br />
on the earth; and lick<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
feet, they rolled upon them wip<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them with their sk<strong>in</strong>s (fur-Bede) and<br />
warm<strong>in</strong>g them with their breath. After<br />
this service and m<strong>in</strong>istry had been fulfilled<br />
and his bless<strong>in</strong>g had been received<br />
they departed <strong>in</strong>to their haunts<br />
<strong>in</strong> the waves <strong>of</strong> the sea.’ <strong>The</strong> Anonymous<br />
Life (annotated by Bede’s Life) <strong>in</strong><br />
Magnusson, 1984.<br />
Cuthbert spend several years (676-<br />
684) on the island <strong>of</strong> Inner Farne, close<br />
to L<strong>in</strong>disfarne. He was particularly<br />
fond <strong>of</strong> the seabirds and is attributed<br />
with establish<strong>in</strong>g England’s first ever<br />
bird protection rules relat<strong>in</strong>g to the kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> wildfowl. <strong>The</strong> Eider Duck (Somateria<br />
mollissima) is associated with<br />
him, and locally nicknamed ‘Cuddy<br />
Ducks’. He was said to allow them to<br />
nest on the steps <strong>of</strong> his altar on Farne.<br />
(National Trust, 2011).<br />
‘Tales about St Cuthbert’s love for all<br />
creatures, furred or feathered, great or<br />
small, are legion. One gets the impression<br />
from the Lives (hagiographies)<br />
that he virtually declared L<strong>in</strong>disfarne a<br />
Nature Reserve 1300 years before the<br />
Nature Conservancy Council. (Magnusson,<br />
1984).<br />
Sources <strong>of</strong> St. Cuthbert’s nature<br />
spirituality<br />
St Cuthbert’ nature spirituality can be<br />
attributed to a Christian nature tradition<br />
and to a pre-Christian Celtic nature<br />
spirituality described <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sections.<br />
A tradition <strong>of</strong> Christian ‘nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts’<br />
St. Cuthbert was one <strong>of</strong> a dispersed<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> spiritual transmission from the<br />
fourth century ‘Desert Fathers’ <strong>of</strong> Middle<br />
East and North Africa, start<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the eremitic St. Anthony. This<br />
group is termed here as ‘nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts’<br />
and def<strong>in</strong>ed here as sa<strong>in</strong>ts whose<br />
lives demonstrate a particular aff<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
or love <strong>of</strong> nature. Nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts are<br />
found <strong>in</strong> many Christian traditions and<br />
the early Church abounds with their<br />
stories. <strong>The</strong> Orthodox Church is an<br />
especially rich branch from the same<br />
Middle Eastern desert root, and the<br />
three named here spann<strong>in</strong>g some<br />
1300 years, are St Yared (505–571) <strong>of</strong><br />
the Ethiopian Orthodox, St Ivan <strong>of</strong> Rila<br />
(876 to c. 946) Bulgarian Orthodox, St<br />
Seraphim <strong>of</strong> Sarov (1759–1833) Russian<br />
Orthodox. <strong>The</strong> most well-known<br />
‘nature sa<strong>in</strong>t’ <strong>in</strong> the Catholic tradition<br />
is St Francis <strong>of</strong> Assisi (1181–1226),<br />
the patron sa<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> ecology and some<br />
consider that he may have been <strong>in</strong>flu-<br />
129
From St Anthony to St Cuthbert: A transmission <strong>of</strong> a nature spirituality<br />
c. 251–356 St Anthony <strong>of</strong> One <strong>of</strong> the early desert monks/fathers.<br />
the Desert<br />
316–397 St Mart<strong>in</strong> Gaul <strong>of</strong> Tours (modern Brittany) developed his spiritual<br />
practice based on a hagiography <strong>of</strong> St. Anthony, he meditated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the ‘dessert’ and rejected urban ways.<br />
c. 360–432 St N<strong>in</strong>ian Briton (Old Welsh), K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> Strathclyde. Inspired by<br />
St. Mart<strong>in</strong> founded Casa Candida, AD 397 the first Christian<br />
centre <strong>in</strong> what was then Brita<strong>in</strong> and is now Scotland.<br />
c. 490–d.543 St Serf Pict, tra<strong>in</strong>ed at Casa Candida.<br />
521–597 St Columba Irish/Dal Riada (563 founds Iona)<br />
528–612 St Kerntigern<br />
(St Mungo)<br />
Brition/Pict. Old Welsh K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> Strathclyde, founder <strong>of</strong><br />
Glasgow.<br />
d. 651 St Aidan Irish/Dal Riada, St. Columba’s pupil, founder <strong>of</strong><br />
L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Abbey <strong>in</strong> 635<br />
635–687 St Cuthbert English Abbot <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne<br />
(Note: Derived from Leatham, 1948 and other sources, there are many other sa<strong>in</strong>ts that could<br />
be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this table).<br />
enced by the missionary sa<strong>in</strong>ts from<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong> that established Christian centres<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> (Simpson, 1995: 172;<br />
Brown, 2003).<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the Celtic sa<strong>in</strong>ts are connected<br />
with nature related miracles, locat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their centres based on signs from<br />
nature, or the appearance <strong>of</strong> specific<br />
animals. To take just one other, <strong>of</strong> many<br />
examples, St Kentigern was led to the<br />
site <strong>of</strong> his religious community or<br />
‘mu<strong>in</strong>ntir’ <strong>in</strong> North Wales by a miraculous<br />
white boar. Before it departed the<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>t blessed the animal. ‘<strong>The</strong>n the<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>t, scratch<strong>in</strong>g the head <strong>of</strong> the brute,<br />
and strok<strong>in</strong>g his mouth and teeth, said:<br />
God Almighty, <strong>in</strong> Whose power are all<br />
the beasts <strong>of</strong> the forests, the oxen, the<br />
birds or the air and the fishes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sea, grant for thy conduct such rewards<br />
as He knoweth is best for thee’.<br />
(Leathem, 1948: 121). St Kentigern<br />
founded a community - Glesgu (Happy<br />
Family), now city <strong>of</strong> Glasgow. His daily<br />
rout<strong>in</strong>e, and his habit <strong>of</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> separate<br />
huts were seen a direct l<strong>in</strong>e from<br />
St Anthony, St Mart<strong>in</strong> and St N<strong>in</strong>ian’<br />
(Leatham, 1948). His Pictish mu<strong>in</strong>ntir<br />
(attendants) founded missionaries <strong>in</strong><br />
Orkney, Iceland and Norway.<br />
Celtic nature spirituality<br />
<strong>The</strong> other source <strong>of</strong> Celtic nature spirituality<br />
is the Celtic pre-Christian religion.<br />
Pre-Christian Celts believed that<br />
all aspects <strong>of</strong> the natural world conta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
spirits. Three areas <strong>of</strong> evidence<br />
for an adoption <strong>of</strong> Celtic nature spiritu-<br />
130
ality <strong>in</strong>to early Christian forms are identified<br />
as follows.<br />
Pictish Scultpured Stones<br />
A seem<strong>in</strong>g transition <strong>of</strong> Celtic nature<br />
spirituality to a Christian form is evidenced<br />
<strong>in</strong> the art <strong>of</strong> the Pictish stand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stones found through central Scotland.<br />
Leatham attributes the carv<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
to St. Kentigerns mu<strong>in</strong>ntir, where carv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was amongst the skills practiced.<br />
<strong>The</strong> wild animals depicted <strong>in</strong> the carv<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude wolf, snake, salmon, eagle,<br />
stag, bear and boar (as illustrated<br />
<strong>in</strong> Fraser, 2008). Figure on the right<br />
shows the Drosten Stone which shows<br />
an <strong>in</strong>tricately woven cross and the enigmatic<br />
Pictish symbols, wild animals<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g bear and boar, the latter be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
aimed at by a hunter, a domestic<br />
goat, an osprey with a salmon and a<br />
beautiful carved fawn suckl<strong>in</strong>g a doe.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Gospels<br />
Beautifully illustrated, the L<strong>in</strong>disfarne<br />
Gospels also exhibit a rich nature imagery.<br />
‘<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>itial letters are filled with a<br />
throng <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terlac<strong>in</strong>g birds and beasts<br />
partak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the word <strong>of</strong> God, and with<br />
a vortex <strong>of</strong> swirl<strong>in</strong>g Celtic spiral work recall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
water, air and fire. For centuries<br />
Celtic and Germanic peoples had signalled<br />
status and power by the metalwork<br />
that they wore… <strong>The</strong>se ornaments<br />
and symbols were now applied to the<br />
ultimate authority <strong>of</strong> the Word <strong>of</strong> God…<br />
This is not direct observation perhaps<br />
from the natural world...but this is totally<br />
at one with creation and build<strong>in</strong>g upon<br />
that <strong>in</strong> the way that we know that certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
the Celtic tradition was very <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to do’ (Brown, 2000). Thus the<br />
<strong>The</strong> Drosten Stone (839-42), front and back.<br />
Historic Scotland Museum, Abroath, Scotland.<br />
art <strong>of</strong> the L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Gospels <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> Celtic, Anglo Saxon, and<br />
Coptic art (Blackhouse, 1981; Brown,<br />
2003).<br />
Folk Christianity<br />
Further examples <strong>of</strong> the meld<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
traditions derive from the Celtic folk<br />
Christianity <strong>of</strong> Ireland, Scotland and<br />
Wales. For example the Scottish collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> poems, prayers and <strong>in</strong>cantations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Carm<strong>in</strong>a Gadelica (Carmichael,<br />
1900) is an extended collection,<br />
and <strong>in</strong>cludes much related to nature.<br />
This is <strong>of</strong> more recent orig<strong>in</strong> and is not<br />
necessarily directly l<strong>in</strong>ked to the era <strong>of</strong><br />
the early sa<strong>in</strong>ts. It mostly consists <strong>of</strong><br />
what is sometimes pejoratively called<br />
‘folk’ religion but can be considered<br />
‘cultural variants’ <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream faiths.<br />
131
An example <strong>of</strong> a prayer follows.<br />
It were as easy for Jesu<br />
To renew the withered tree<br />
As to wither the new<br />
Were it His will so to do<br />
Jesu! Jesu! Jesu!<br />
Jesu! meet it were to praise Him.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no plant <strong>in</strong> the ground<br />
But is full <strong>of</strong> His virtue.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no form <strong>in</strong> the strand<br />
But it is full <strong>of</strong> His bless<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Jesu! Jesu! Jesu!<br />
Jesu! meet it were to praise Him.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no life <strong>in</strong> the sea,<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is not creature <strong>in</strong> the river,<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is naught <strong>in</strong> the firmament<br />
But proclaims His goodness<br />
Jesu! Jesu! Jesu!<br />
Jesu! meet it were to praise Him.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no bird on the w<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is no star <strong>in</strong> the sky,<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is noth<strong>in</strong>g beneath the sun<br />
But proclames His goodness<br />
Jesu! Jesu! Jesu!<br />
Jesu! meet it were to praise Him.<br />
(Carmichael, 1900)<br />
<strong>The</strong>se cultural or folk variants <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
conta<strong>in</strong> valuable elements <strong>of</strong> the previous<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous faith, and can be an<br />
important source <strong>of</strong> reviv<strong>in</strong>g a nature<br />
spirituality.<br />
Celtic Christianity - a caution<br />
<strong>The</strong> Celtic Christianity revival, however,<br />
has its critics, and Donald Meek, <strong>in</strong><br />
particular, a Celtic Scholar and Gaelicspeak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Hebridean Islander, questions<br />
the existence <strong>of</strong> a unique ‘Celtic<br />
Christianity’, and suggests much <strong>of</strong> it<br />
is a modern creation. He considers it<br />
not well rooted <strong>in</strong> scholarship that it re<strong>in</strong>vents<br />
and embellishes the facts, and<br />
it is separated from the orig<strong>in</strong>al Gaelic<br />
and Welsh sources. He considers<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the promoters <strong>of</strong> Celtic Christianity<br />
are ‘construct<strong>in</strong>g and alternative<br />
Celtic tradition’. One <strong>of</strong> the claims he<br />
counters is that Celtic Christianity is<br />
unique <strong>in</strong> the Christian world. ‘<strong>The</strong> ideals<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Egyptian desert father lasted<br />
long <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>sular Celtic context as<br />
elsewhere <strong>in</strong> the West…it is quite unacceptable<br />
to see them as purely <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
or unique to the Celtic areas’<br />
(Meek, 2000:147).<br />
Meek also challenges the portrayal <strong>of</strong><br />
‘Celtic Christianity’ as friendly to nature<br />
and to the environment, <strong>in</strong> contrast to<br />
modern environmental degradation. He<br />
considers that they had little choice other<br />
than liv<strong>in</strong>g close to nature, but does<br />
concede that ‘Celtic literature across<br />
the centuries show a ‘lively response to<br />
nature’ (p. 85), he does not see this a<br />
unique to Celtic Christianity, and modern<br />
writers, ‘weave the body <strong>of</strong> ‘hermit<br />
nature verse’ <strong>in</strong>to an <strong>in</strong>terpretive pastiche<br />
which covers it with a subjective,<br />
highly romantic, eco-friendly, and frequently<br />
pagan-friendly glow (p. 86)’.<br />
He warns; ‘As a result the quest for the<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts may be motivated by factors<br />
rang<strong>in</strong>g from general curiosity to a<br />
special concern for the local economy<br />
or the environment. It is important to<br />
recognise the diversity <strong>of</strong> approaches<br />
with<strong>in</strong> contemporary ‘sa<strong>in</strong>t seek<strong>in</strong>g’,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce it is the preconceived expectation<br />
will almost <strong>in</strong>evitably lead to a de-<br />
132
gree <strong>of</strong> reconstruction <strong>of</strong> the (rediscovered)<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts’. Meek admits that, ‘the<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts, however, are not strangers to<br />
reconstruction’ (Meek, 2000:162).<br />
‘Most people who <strong>in</strong>voke the sa<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
nowadays will not be concerned so<br />
much with the pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> the sa<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the<br />
past; their ma<strong>in</strong> concern will be with<br />
the power and efficacy <strong>of</strong> the sa<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong><br />
the present’ (Meek, 2000:163). Meek is<br />
particularly dismissive <strong>of</strong> the collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> Carmichael. ‘..the Carm<strong>in</strong>a may represent<br />
essentially ‘folk religion,’ blend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
folklore with sa<strong>in</strong>t-lore, pagan and<br />
Christian, <strong>in</strong> ways that ought not to be<br />
confused with the formal teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
any ‘Celtic Church’…This popular demotic<br />
[i.e. colloquial] Christianity which<br />
has come down through the centuries<br />
with <strong>in</strong>evitable reshap<strong>in</strong>g and admixture…<br />
It shows the type <strong>of</strong> syncretism,<br />
which can be found readily across the<br />
globe <strong>in</strong> similar contexts (p. 70). Despite<br />
his criticisms he states ‘Even so<br />
no amount <strong>of</strong> warn<strong>in</strong>g will prevent people<br />
from believ<strong>in</strong>g what they wish to<br />
believe especially s<strong>in</strong>ce ‘Celtic Christianity’<br />
seems to be <strong>in</strong> tune with the<br />
moods <strong>of</strong> the age’ (Meek, 2000:22).<br />
Modern L<strong>in</strong>disfarne, Holy Island<br />
and commercial success<br />
As mentioned the contemporary situation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Holy Island is discussed more<br />
fully <strong>in</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites: Conserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Nature and Culture (Wild 2010), and<br />
readers are referred there for more <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Island is surrounded by<br />
coastal and mar<strong>in</strong>e habitats, and supports<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternationally important wildfowl<br />
species and an outstand<strong>in</strong>g assemblage<br />
<strong>of</strong> plants. Due to these wildlife<br />
values the coastal area that surrounds<br />
Holy Island has been legally declared a<br />
National Nature Reserve and is also a<br />
Ramsar Wetland <strong>of</strong> International Importance.<br />
It is registered as an <strong>IUCN</strong> category<br />
IV protected area <strong>in</strong> the World Database<br />
<strong>of</strong> Protected Areas, considered<br />
a ‘habitat/species management area’.<br />
Spiritual values, churches and retreats<br />
<strong>The</strong> Anglican or Episcopalian Church is<br />
the oldest church on the Island and is<br />
the Parish Church. <strong>The</strong> Church is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the key visitor sites, and <strong>of</strong>ten hosts<br />
large groups <strong>of</strong> several thousand people.<br />
Due to decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g parishioners the<br />
United Reformed Church was converted<br />
to St. Cuthbert’s Centre open to visitors<br />
and hosts a variety <strong>of</strong> religious, spiritual<br />
and cultural events, some related<br />
to nature. <strong>The</strong>se mostly <strong>in</strong>clude bird<br />
watch<strong>in</strong>g weekends titled, for example,<br />
‘Faith and Feathers’ and ‘Bible and<br />
Birds’, as well as exhibitions <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
art. <strong>The</strong>re is a Catholic Church on the island<br />
and a resident Catholic Sister<br />
(Daughter <strong>of</strong> the Cross) who welcomes<br />
pilgrims. Two retreat centres are on the<br />
island, Marygate and <strong>The</strong> Open Gate.<br />
<strong>The</strong> former is an <strong>in</strong>dependent charitable<br />
trust, while the Open Gate focuses on<br />
Celtic Christianity and runs retreats <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
one called ‘God <strong>in</strong> Nature’ and<br />
another ‘Sa<strong>in</strong>ts and Seabirds’. <strong>The</strong>se explore<br />
nature beauty and spirituality <strong>of</strong><br />
Holy Island and other areas such as the<br />
Farne Isles and St Abbs Head (http://<br />
www.aidanandhilda.org). Holy Island<br />
has a strong ecumenical movement.<br />
133
Holy Island has, along with Iona <strong>in</strong> Scotland,<br />
been the node <strong>of</strong> the revival <strong>of</strong><br />
‘Celtic spirituality’ discussed above. David<br />
Adam, a native <strong>of</strong> the Northumbrian<br />
coast and vicar <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne from 1995<br />
to 2003, is one <strong>of</strong> the foremost proponents<br />
and closely associated with the<br />
Island. He has written numerous books<br />
and prayers <strong>in</strong> the Celtic style (e.g.<br />
Adam, 1989, 1991). While Celtic Christianity<br />
has its sceptics (see section 2.4),<br />
it is clear from its remarkable popularity,<br />
that it is fill<strong>in</strong>g a need for a form <strong>of</strong> Christianity<br />
with a clear concern for the Earth<br />
and its ecological community.<br />
Community, tourism and ownership<br />
L<strong>in</strong>disfarne is also a Northumbrian village<br />
typical <strong>of</strong> the area, with a small fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
harbour and traditional build<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> traditional village community consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> long-established<br />
families that have deep-rooted cultural<br />
ties to the island and unique traditions.<br />
Unfortunately the local population has<br />
been decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g over recent years.<br />
While no <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics are kept, it is<br />
estimated that more than half a million<br />
visitors a year visit Holy Island, and <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
much <strong>of</strong> the island’s economy<br />
is built on tourism, now estimated<br />
at 70-80% <strong>of</strong> the island’s <strong>in</strong>come (Tristram,<br />
2009). <strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> heritage sites<br />
depend largely on entrance fees to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their properties. Other bus<strong>in</strong>esses<br />
on the island <strong>in</strong>clude hotels,<br />
cafes, shops and kiosks. <strong>The</strong> Island<br />
runs a website record<strong>in</strong>g web-hits up<br />
from 1.5 million <strong>in</strong> 2001 to 11 million <strong>in</strong><br />
2008 (http://www.l<strong>in</strong>disfarne.org.uk/<br />
webmaster/statistics1.htm).<br />
<strong>The</strong> government owns about 30% <strong>of</strong><br />
land with<strong>in</strong> National Nature Reserve,<br />
and the rema<strong>in</strong>der falls with<strong>in</strong> 17 private<br />
hold<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ter-tidal area.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> the village properties are privately<br />
owned by many people. Much<br />
<strong>of</strong> the personal wealth <strong>of</strong> Britons is dependent<br />
on property values, a critical<br />
element <strong>in</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g Holy Island.<br />
Rapid <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> house prices dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the decade to 2008 have meant<br />
that low-<strong>in</strong>come households have<br />
been priced out <strong>of</strong> their own communities.<br />
This situation is not unique to<br />
L<strong>in</strong>disfarne and affects many villages<br />
<strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>. When no long-stand<strong>in</strong>g community<br />
members rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> a village it<br />
might be said to have lost its heart.<br />
Discussion and<br />
Recommendations<br />
Conservation management<br />
<strong>The</strong> National Nature Reserve staff engage<br />
<strong>in</strong> management, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g livestock<br />
graz<strong>in</strong>g, visitor management and<br />
<strong>in</strong>terpretation. <strong>The</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> a<br />
causeway (1954–64) has perhaps<br />
caused the biggest changes to the National<br />
Nature Reserve, reduc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
area <strong>of</strong> habitats important for wildfowl<br />
(English Nature, 2005).<br />
Community trust fund<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly considered that a<br />
strengthen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> community action is a<br />
key element <strong>in</strong> tackl<strong>in</strong>g some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
key social and environmental issues<br />
that face us today (McIntosh, 2008). In<br />
response to the lack <strong>of</strong> affordable<br />
134
hous<strong>in</strong>g the islanders established <strong>The</strong><br />
Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Community<br />
Development Trust <strong>in</strong> 1996. <strong>The</strong> Trust<br />
established a Visitor Centre us<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
revenue to build 11 community houses.<br />
This <strong>in</strong>dicates the way <strong>in</strong> which the<br />
island community is counter<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
challenges <strong>of</strong> high property values.<br />
Manag<strong>in</strong>g tourism<br />
While tourism is the ma<strong>in</strong>stay <strong>of</strong> the island’s<br />
economy, host<strong>in</strong>g over half a<br />
million visitors per year puts a stra<strong>in</strong> on<br />
the 150 island residents. Peak visitors<br />
occur dur<strong>in</strong>g the summer school and<br />
public holidays and at weekends. <strong>The</strong><br />
tidal nature and limited accommodation<br />
does mean regular quieter times<br />
and quieter places once one is away<br />
from the village centre. <strong>The</strong> National<br />
Nature Reserve is under less pressure<br />
than other areas <strong>of</strong> the island although<br />
park<strong>in</strong>g is a problem at peak times.<br />
Seek<strong>in</strong>g balance between nature,<br />
religion, community and commerce<br />
<strong>The</strong> Holy Island is managed by a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions. Agree<strong>in</strong>g to a common<br />
course <strong>of</strong> action is challeng<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
because the key players, while shar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
common <strong>in</strong>terests, have their own remits.<br />
Over the past two years a ‘L<strong>in</strong>disfarne<br />
Partnership’ has been put <strong>in</strong><br />
place and is becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
important <strong>in</strong> implement<strong>in</strong>g a collective<br />
and holistic vision for the management<br />
the Island (Andrew Craggs, Natural<br />
England, personal communication,<br />
June 2011).<br />
Conclusion and discussion<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> ‘nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts’ is not<br />
very well known with<strong>in</strong> the Christian<br />
Church, yet the stories <strong>of</strong> these sa<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
conta<strong>in</strong> strong associations with local<br />
places, native animals and nature <strong>in</strong><br />
general. Many <strong>of</strong> the miracle stories,<br />
while touch<strong>in</strong>g, are not factual but do<br />
tell <strong>of</strong> a close relationship with wildlife<br />
and wild places. Rather than be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unique to the British Isles ‘nature<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts’ are part <strong>of</strong> a wider Christian tradition<br />
that deserves further research.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Eastern Orthodox Church has perhaps<br />
best ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed this ‘nature’ ethic<br />
as liv<strong>in</strong>g tradition and it may be no<br />
accident that it has <strong>in</strong> fact shown the<br />
greatest level <strong>of</strong> Christian leadership <strong>in</strong><br />
the face <strong>of</strong> the current environmental<br />
crisis. <strong>The</strong> British Isles and especially<br />
the Celtic fr<strong>in</strong>ge seems particularly<br />
rich <strong>in</strong> these sa<strong>in</strong>ts from the early<br />
Christian era. While not unique these,<br />
and the folk component <strong>of</strong> British<br />
Christianity, roots religion <strong>in</strong> a national<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g and provide strong connection<br />
to local places, local wildlife and local<br />
culture. A greater tolerance and embrac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the cultural and folk variants<br />
by religious orthodoxies is advocated,<br />
especially when it comes to the care <strong>of</strong><br />
nature, which seem better developed<br />
locally than centrally.<br />
Contemporary Brita<strong>in</strong> has a predom<strong>in</strong>antly<br />
secular, multi-cultural urban population<br />
largely separated from nature.<br />
<strong>The</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest on Celtic (or Insular<br />
Christianity as some prefer) <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
that these sa<strong>in</strong>ts do reach across<br />
the centuries and hold mean<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
135
modern peoples <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong>, the Anglo-<br />
Celtic diaspora and beyond. It does<br />
seem important, while rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g true to<br />
what we know <strong>of</strong> their lives, that these<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>ts are <strong>in</strong>terpreted and revitalised to<br />
new generations, as their vigour, frugality<br />
and closeness to nature are values<br />
needed by modern society. ‘<strong>The</strong> tales<br />
are ancient but the underly<strong>in</strong>g sentiments<br />
speak directly to us today. We<br />
have much to learn from a spirituality<br />
that works with the gra<strong>in</strong> and rhythm <strong>of</strong><br />
the natural world and rejoices <strong>in</strong> the<br />
whole <strong>of</strong> creation’ (McManners, 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Holy island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne is one <strong>of</strong><br />
Brita<strong>in</strong>’s foremost Christian <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites and one where national<br />
ecological values overlap with national<br />
religious and historical values. <strong>The</strong> revival<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> ‘Celtic’ as an <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
branch <strong>of</strong> Christianity may <strong>in</strong>fuse<br />
the conservation movement with a<br />
spiritual dimension and has contributed<br />
to the Island’s tourism economy.<br />
Conversely, it may have added to the<br />
risk to local community values and put<br />
the Island’s fabric under stra<strong>in</strong>. It is encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
therefore that the key <strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />
are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly work<strong>in</strong>g together<br />
to ensure that the island ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
its <strong>in</strong>tegrity, community and multiple<br />
values <strong>in</strong>to the future.<br />
References<br />
Adam, D. (1989), Tides and Seasons: Modern Prayers <strong>in</strong> the Celtic tradition, London:<br />
Triangle.<br />
Adam, D. (1991), Border <strong>Lands</strong>: <strong>The</strong> Best <strong>of</strong> David Adam’s Celtic Vision, Wiscons<strong>in</strong>:<br />
Sheed and Ward.<br />
Backhouse, J. (1981), <strong>The</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Gospels, London: Phaidon Press Ltd.<br />
Bede. (1994), An Ecclesiastical History <strong>of</strong> the English People, ed. McClure and<br />
Coll<strong>in</strong>s, Oxford: Oxford World Classics, OUP.<br />
Brown, M. P. (2003), Pa<strong>in</strong>ted Labyr<strong>in</strong>th: <strong>The</strong> World <strong>of</strong> the L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Gospels, London:<br />
<strong>The</strong> British Library.<br />
Carmichael, A. (1900), Carm<strong>in</strong>a Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations Collected <strong>in</strong><br />
the Highlands and Islands <strong>of</strong> Scotland, (repr<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> 1992), Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh: Floris<br />
Books.<br />
Doel, F. and Doel, G. (2009), Folklore <strong>of</strong> Northumbria, Stroud: <strong>The</strong> History Press<br />
Ltd.<br />
136
UNESCO, (2011), Durham Castle and Cathedral - World Heritage List<strong>in</strong>g: http://<br />
whc.unesco.org/en/list/370 last accessed June 2011.<br />
Farmer, D.H. (ed.) (1998). <strong>The</strong> Age <strong>of</strong> Bede, London: Pengu<strong>in</strong> Classics. (First Published<br />
1965).<br />
Fraser, I. (ed.) (2008), <strong>The</strong> Pictish Symbol Stones <strong>of</strong> Scotland, Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh: Royal<br />
Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments <strong>of</strong> Scotland.<br />
Leatham, D. (1948), <strong>The</strong>y Built on Rock: Stories <strong>of</strong> the Celtic Sa<strong>in</strong>ts, London: Hodder<br />
and Stoughton.<br />
Magnusson M. (1984), L<strong>in</strong>disfarne, <strong>The</strong> Cradle Island, London: Oriel Press.<br />
Marner, D. (2000), St Cuthbert – His Life and Cult <strong>in</strong> Medieval Durham, London:<br />
<strong>The</strong> British Library.<br />
McIntosh, A. (2008), Rek<strong>in</strong>dl<strong>in</strong>g Community: Connect<strong>in</strong>g People, Environment and<br />
Spirituality, Schumacher Brief<strong>in</strong>gs 15, Totnes: Green Books.<br />
Meek, D. (2000), <strong>The</strong> Quest for Celtic Spirituality, K<strong>in</strong>card<strong>in</strong>e: Handsel Press.<br />
McManners, J. (2008), St Cuthbert and the Animals, Gem<strong>in</strong>i Productions: Bishop<br />
Auckland.<br />
National Trust (2011), <strong>The</strong> Farne Isles: a brief history, http://www.nationaltrust.org.<br />
uk/ma<strong>in</strong>/w-vh/w-visits/w-f<strong>in</strong>daplace/w-farnes/w-farneislands-history.htm.<br />
Natural England, (undated), L<strong>in</strong>disfarne National Nature Reserve. A visitors guide<br />
(also as web text).<br />
Natural England (2005), Management plan <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne National Nature Reserve,<br />
Natural England, <strong>The</strong> Quadrant: Newcastle upon Tyne.<br />
Shepherd, W. R. (1923). Map <strong>of</strong> the political divisions <strong>of</strong> northern Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dicative<br />
<strong>of</strong> St. Cuthbert’s era. http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/british_<br />
isles_802.jpg<br />
Simpson, R. (1995), Explor<strong>in</strong>g Celtic Spirituality: Historic Roots for Our Future,<br />
London: Hodder and Stoughton.<br />
Tristram, K. (2009), <strong>The</strong> Story <strong>of</strong> Holy Island: An Illustrated History, Norwich: Canterbury<br />
Press.<br />
Wild, R.G. (2010), Nature sa<strong>in</strong>t and holy island, ancient values <strong>in</strong> a modern economy:<br />
<strong>The</strong> endur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> St Cuthbert and L<strong>in</strong>disfarne, UK, <strong>in</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites: Conserv<strong>in</strong>g Nature and Culture, ed. B. Verschuuren, R.G Wild, J.A. Mc-<br />
Neely, and G. Oviedo, London: Earthscan.<br />
137
Lauretana Pilgrimage Route <strong>in</strong> Italy and protected areas<br />
along the route<br />
National and Regional Parks<br />
Sites <strong>of</strong> Community Importance (SCI)<br />
XVI cent. Lauretana postal route <strong>of</strong> the Stato Pontificio<br />
Plestian Plateaus and Colfiorito Regional Park<br />
Zone <strong>of</strong> Special Protection<br />
Colfiorito Regional Park<br />
Sanctuary <strong>of</strong><br />
Santa Maria<br />
<strong>of</strong> Plestia (1)<br />
Marsh <strong>of</strong><br />
Colfiorito (2)<br />
Colfiorito<br />
(1)<br />
0<br />
Km<br />
10 20<br />
40<br />
(2)<br />
<strong>The</strong> Lauretana Pilgrimage Route and the Colfiorito Regional Park.<br />
138
<strong>Lands</strong>cape l<strong>in</strong>kages between cultural<br />
and spiritual values. <strong>The</strong> wetland <strong>of</strong><br />
Colfiorito and the Lauretana pilgrimage<br />
route <strong>in</strong> the Plestian Plateaus.<br />
Chiara Serenelli<br />
This article constitutes part <strong>of</strong> a research<br />
aim<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the utility<br />
<strong>of</strong> historical cultural and spiritual routes<br />
<strong>in</strong> promot<strong>in</strong>g landscape management<br />
and conservation at local level. <strong>Lands</strong>cape<br />
is the prom<strong>in</strong>ent feature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
project. <strong>The</strong> research takes <strong>in</strong>to consideration<br />
the landscapes <strong>of</strong> Central Italy<br />
crossed by the Lauretana pilgrimage<br />
route connect<strong>in</strong>g Rome with the<br />
Sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Loreto, <strong>in</strong> the East Coast<br />
<strong>of</strong> Italy. <strong>The</strong> pilgrimage creates a network<br />
<strong>of</strong> territorial and local l<strong>in</strong>kages<br />
based on traces <strong>of</strong> ancient roads that<br />
can operate as cultural and ecological<br />
connections between people and<br />
landscape mosaics. While cultural values<br />
are rendered by the historical<br />
landscapes shaped by the pilgrimage<br />
dynamics, ecological ones are also<br />
given by the presence <strong>of</strong> Natural Protected<br />
Areas and Regional or National<br />
Parks along the ancient route.<br />
Cultural and spiritual l<strong>in</strong>kages<br />
across the Plestian <strong>Lands</strong>cape<br />
Along the Lauretana Pilgrimage Route,<br />
ca. 150 km north from Rome, the traveller<br />
reaches one <strong>of</strong> the crucial stages<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Camm<strong>in</strong>i Lauretani, the city <strong>of</strong><br />
Foligno. Embedded <strong>in</strong> the landscape<br />
matrix <strong>of</strong> the Umbrian Valley, the town<br />
had been an important cross<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Flam<strong>in</strong>ia Roman road. Cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
Foligno towards Loreto, the Lauretana<br />
enters the Menotre Valley and then<br />
crosses the mounta<strong>in</strong>ous cha<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> Appenn<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Umbro-Marchigiano through<br />
the Colfiorito mounta<strong>in</strong> pass, beyond<br />
139
which lies the ample plateau <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito.<br />
It is named Plestian after the ancient<br />
settlement <strong>of</strong> Plestia, and its ecological<br />
and cultural values make it one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the most characteristic areas <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pilgrimage.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Plateau is a system <strong>of</strong> seven<br />
karstic tectonic pla<strong>in</strong>s. While once they<br />
all were lake bas<strong>in</strong>s, they were later<br />
dra<strong>in</strong>ed as outcome <strong>of</strong> natural mechanisms<br />
and human activities. Even today,<br />
however, they appear flooded<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g some periods <strong>of</strong> the year, depend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on seasonal precipitation. <strong>The</strong><br />
dra<strong>in</strong>age <strong>of</strong> water is caused only<br />
slightly by the network <strong>of</strong> ditches and<br />
canals, while the seasonal variation <strong>in</strong><br />
water levels is due to a sub-surface<br />
capitation system that relies on the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ghiottitoi, i.e. natural<br />
ground pits also used <strong>in</strong> agriculture.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Plestian system is one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g natural areas <strong>in</strong> the Central<br />
Apenn<strong>in</strong>es (Orsomando and Catorci,<br />
1997). It conta<strong>in</strong>s the l<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> the Umbria-Marche<br />
watershed and is surrounded<br />
by mounta<strong>in</strong>s overlook<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Mount Sibill<strong>in</strong>i National Park on<br />
the eastern side. It <strong>in</strong>cludes biotopes<br />
that are very important for the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> biodiversity <strong>in</strong> Italy, i.e. the<br />
marsh <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito, legally protected<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1970 (Pedrotti, 1996), <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />
recognised as a Ramsar site<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1976 and made a Regional Park<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1995. Around the 355 ha <strong>of</strong> wetland,<br />
located at the centre <strong>of</strong> the Bas<strong>in</strong>,<br />
the landscape opens out from the<br />
Colfiorito Pla<strong>in</strong> onto five surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pla<strong>in</strong>s located at an altitude <strong>of</strong> 750–<br />
800 m above sea level. <strong>The</strong> only pla<strong>in</strong><br />
not communicat<strong>in</strong>g with the others is<br />
located a few kilometres south-west<br />
from the marsh and is separated from<br />
the rest by a narrow ridge. <strong>The</strong> whole<br />
plateau system is well visible from the<br />
top <strong>of</strong> Mount Trella, overlook<strong>in</strong>g the archaeological<br />
site <strong>of</strong> Plestia, from<br />
which the relations between the pla<strong>in</strong>s<br />
and the layout <strong>of</strong> the roads that cross<br />
them are well discernible.<br />
<strong>The</strong> road commonly known as Lauretana,<br />
which is also named Romana, can<br />
nowadays be identified with the course<br />
<strong>of</strong> the National Road 77 (Val di Chienti<br />
Road). It crosses the Pla<strong>in</strong>s from the<br />
south-western to the north-eastern side,<br />
runn<strong>in</strong>g along the southern side <strong>of</strong> the<br />
marsh <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito. Pilgrimages toward<br />
Loreto began <strong>in</strong> the fourteenth century,<br />
but it was from the sixteenth century that<br />
it was possible to use the postal road <strong>of</strong><br />
Stato Pontificio, suitable for carriages.<br />
Today Road 77 is a highway, unsuitable<br />
for walk<strong>in</strong>g. It is possible to recognise,<br />
though, other traces <strong>of</strong> ancient routes, <strong>in</strong><br />
many cases unpaved country roads<br />
cross<strong>in</strong>g the Pla<strong>in</strong>s, stretch<strong>in</strong>g among<br />
hilly pastures broken out by herbaceous<br />
crops and woods <strong>of</strong> Turkey oak. <strong>The</strong><br />
whole road network connect<strong>in</strong>g the Plateau<br />
with its surround<strong>in</strong>gs is <strong>of</strong> historical<br />
and scenic <strong>in</strong>terest. While the network <strong>of</strong><br />
ancient roads that cross the Plateaus<br />
from west to east ma<strong>in</strong>ly corresponds to<br />
the Lauretana pilgrimage network itself,<br />
other important roads cross the Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
lengthwise, whose ancient courses can<br />
still be discerned on the Pla<strong>in</strong>s’ landscape<br />
they cross. Still nowadays, this<br />
route system allows the ancient settlement<br />
<strong>of</strong> Plestia located <strong>in</strong>to the Plestian<br />
140
as<strong>in</strong> to be connected with other numerous<br />
landmarks that def<strong>in</strong>e the Plestian<br />
landscape’s history and keep convey<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stories <strong>of</strong> popular traditions and<br />
religious devotion. All along these trails<br />
we can reconstruct the route <strong>of</strong> the ritual<br />
processions to the places <strong>of</strong> worship <strong>of</strong><br />
the Pla<strong>in</strong>s and the near Menotre Valley.<br />
Religion has <strong>of</strong>fered the much-needed<br />
social cohesion for a population that has<br />
always been subjected to consecutive<br />
episodes <strong>of</strong> conquest and change <strong>of</strong><br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrative organisation. <strong>The</strong> trails,<br />
therefore, have always been <strong>of</strong> great importance<br />
for the locals (Sensi, 1984).<br />
Signs <strong>of</strong> historical evolution and<br />
spiritual values <strong>of</strong> the landscape<br />
<strong>The</strong> diachronic evolution <strong>of</strong> the land<br />
and its settlements, together with an<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation <strong>of</strong> its religious traditions,<br />
can surely contribute to the under-<br />
A scheme <strong>of</strong> the Plestian Plateau System.<br />
Vigna valley<br />
M. Faeto<br />
Chienti River valley<br />
Geographic boundaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Plestian Plateau<br />
system surrounded by<br />
hills and mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
and the northern,<br />
eastern, south-western<br />
open<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
M.<br />
Prefoglio<br />
Perimeter <strong>of</strong> the 7<br />
tectonic-karstic pla<strong>in</strong>s<br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g the system<br />
Boundaries <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the Plestian system<br />
Boundaries <strong>of</strong><br />
Colfiorito Regional<br />
Park<br />
Menotre River valley<br />
M.<br />
le Macchie<br />
M.<br />
Tolagna<br />
M.<br />
della Civitella<br />
Marsh <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito<br />
Colfiorito village<br />
Sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Plestia<br />
Layout <strong>of</strong> the upcom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
motorway cross<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Pla<strong>in</strong>s, above and<br />
under ground and the<br />
junction <strong>of</strong> Plestia<br />
141
1<br />
Sanctuary <strong>of</strong><br />
Madonna del Piano<br />
2 3<br />
Sanctuary <strong>of</strong><br />
Madonna di Ricciano<br />
4<br />
Hermitage <strong>of</strong><br />
Santa Maria Giacobbe<br />
Sanctuary <strong>of</strong><br />
Madonna delle Grazie<br />
Left: <strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> sacred sites <strong>in</strong> and next to the bas<strong>in</strong> form<strong>in</strong>g the system <strong>of</strong> ‘<strong>The</strong>rapeutic sanctuaries’<br />
Right: Present-day rituals and processions <strong>of</strong> local people and religious confraternities.<br />
stand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the current structure and<br />
layers <strong>of</strong> the landscape.<br />
Traces <strong>of</strong> pre-Roman settlements characterise<br />
the area surround<strong>in</strong>g Mount<br />
Orve. In Roman times, however, the<br />
most important centre certa<strong>in</strong>ly became<br />
Plestia, built on the bank <strong>of</strong> the Plestian<br />
Lake, which was dra<strong>in</strong>ed to obta<strong>in</strong> agricultural<br />
lands (Sensi, 1984). <strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong><br />
public spaces were once situated<br />
around the lake. A historical sign <strong>of</strong> the<br />
latest republican Roman Age can still be<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> a domus, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
archaeological site <strong>of</strong> the Casone Pla<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g the barbaric <strong>in</strong>vasions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
High Middle Ages and the destruction<br />
<strong>of</strong> Plestia, the population moved to the<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g hills and started the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> castles <strong>in</strong> defence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> roads. This fostered the particular<br />
hillock settlement system that still<br />
characterises the area.<br />
142
<strong>The</strong> only remnant <strong>of</strong> the ancient Plestia<br />
is the sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Mary an early<br />
Christian basilica which became cathedral<br />
<strong>in</strong> the eleventh century. In effect,<br />
because <strong>of</strong> its location at an important<br />
crossroads, the sanctuary came to represent<br />
a prom<strong>in</strong>ent centre for religious<br />
participation and the spread<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
Christianity. In the Middle Ages, the<br />
area where the Basilica was located became<br />
a junction where the rivalries for<br />
the sett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> boundaries among the<br />
townships <strong>of</strong> Camer<strong>in</strong>o (Marche), Foligno<br />
and Spoleto (Umbria) developed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> townships were all striv<strong>in</strong>g for the<br />
control <strong>of</strong> the Plateaus, and thus caus<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their adm<strong>in</strong>istrative, civil and religious<br />
fragmentation. <strong>The</strong>refore, whereas<br />
once all pivoted around Plestia, by<br />
the twelfth century the Bas<strong>in</strong> was divided<br />
along the two ma<strong>in</strong> defence l<strong>in</strong>es –<br />
Camer<strong>in</strong>o on the one hand, Foligno on<br />
the other. Both display traces <strong>of</strong> fortifications,<br />
as the ru<strong>in</strong>s on the top <strong>of</strong> some<br />
hills still reveal.<br />
Nowadays, the regional boundary between<br />
Marche and Umbria runs all along<br />
the buffer zone which lies between these<br />
two ancient frontier l<strong>in</strong>es. Nonetheless, a<br />
strong factor <strong>of</strong> social cohesion can be<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the cultural identity <strong>of</strong> the local<br />
population, their sense <strong>of</strong> places’ historic<br />
depth and <strong>in</strong> a solid religious component<br />
that stayed unscathed through all<br />
the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative divisions, <strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong><br />
the reiterated frictions concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> the local resources<br />
(Sensi, 1984; Sensi, 1998).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the sixteenth century, an important<br />
element <strong>of</strong> social cohesion<br />
stemmed from the frontier therapeutic<br />
sanctuaries (Sensi, 1984: 207-231), that<br />
is, places <strong>of</strong> worship generally <strong>of</strong> very<br />
old orig<strong>in</strong>s, whose denom<strong>in</strong>ation derives<br />
from their religious and spiritual function<br />
and their position. <strong>The</strong>y are <strong>in</strong> fact told<br />
to have apothropaic powers (therapeutic<br />
sanctuaries) and they are located at<br />
the confluence <strong>of</strong> lands belong<strong>in</strong>g to different<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrators (sanctuaries <strong>of</strong><br />
frontiers). Even today, their presence<br />
and role is acknowledged as they<br />
helped people conserve a certa<strong>in</strong> degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> religious freedom and a dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
cultural identity. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> these<br />
sanctuaries are dedicated to the Virg<strong>in</strong><br />
Mary and are located along the Menotre<br />
Valley and the Plestian Highlands. <strong>The</strong>ir<br />
presence has facilitated the establishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> a network <strong>of</strong> small pilgrimages<br />
from the surround<strong>in</strong>g villages, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
along the ancient routes connect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
settlements.<br />
Even today, on the occasion <strong>of</strong> local<br />
festivities people from the different villages<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Pla<strong>in</strong>s f<strong>in</strong>d religious references<br />
<strong>in</strong> many <strong>of</strong> these sanctuaries,<br />
which cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be dest<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>of</strong> local<br />
pilgrimages and processions (Sensi,<br />
personal communication, 2010.<br />
Santa Maria <strong>of</strong> Plestia has become<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> a multifunctional centre <strong>of</strong> religious,<br />
economic and social events, as<br />
it hosts an annual exhibition <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
dairy products. Many sanctuaries<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue also to be the focus <strong>of</strong> local<br />
religious festivities <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g people<br />
<strong>of</strong> every age. Over time, certa<strong>in</strong> sanctuaries<br />
have been abandoned and decayed,<br />
such as the sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Madonna<br />
di Ricciano (<strong>in</strong> the Ricciano<br />
Pla<strong>in</strong>, one <strong>of</strong> the seven karst pla<strong>in</strong>s).<br />
143
<strong>The</strong> spatial distribution <strong>of</strong> the sanctuaries<br />
largely derives from the pre-existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> older religious architectures,<br />
such as tabernacles, hermitages, monasteries,<br />
etc., related to miraculous<br />
events or the religious history <strong>of</strong> a local<br />
community. It thus seems possible to<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>of</strong> those as ‘places <strong>of</strong> memory’<br />
that enable communities to remember<br />
their past and cultural values, <strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong><br />
the physical transformations <strong>of</strong> the land<br />
(Sensi, personal communication, 2010).<br />
Sometimes such places <strong>of</strong> worship are<br />
located at the top <strong>of</strong> a castelliere, i.e. a<br />
pre-historic type <strong>of</strong> settlement fortified<br />
by an embankment – which rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
recognisable still today - abandoned <strong>in</strong><br />
Roman times and sometime restored<br />
and re-used <strong>in</strong> the Middle Ages (Sensi,<br />
1984: 3-27; Sensi, 1998: 6-8).<br />
<strong>The</strong> proto-historical system <strong>of</strong> castellieri<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g the Pla<strong>in</strong>s represents<br />
another def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g element <strong>of</strong> the Plestian<br />
landscape, a clear sign <strong>of</strong> a long<br />
history <strong>of</strong> human habitation and their<br />
role <strong>in</strong> the transformation <strong>of</strong> the natural<br />
ecosystems. <strong>The</strong> therapeutic sanctuaries,<br />
which are ma<strong>in</strong>ly located <strong>in</strong> the<br />
valleys and pla<strong>in</strong>s, the hillside villages<br />
and the castles erected on the very top<br />
<strong>of</strong> the hills, all comprise components <strong>of</strong><br />
the local history. Together they def<strong>in</strong>e a<br />
specific cultural and land-use system,<br />
a sign <strong>of</strong> human presence <strong>in</strong> these<br />
lands and a landscape organisation<br />
typical <strong>of</strong> the Bas<strong>in</strong>, characteris<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
cultural diversity, charged with pr<strong>of</strong>ound<br />
spiritual values and enriched<br />
with natural resources.<br />
In such a structure, the ma<strong>in</strong> connection,<br />
at the cultural, religious and functional<br />
level, is given by the web <strong>of</strong><br />
roads and pathways, def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g also the<br />
flows <strong>of</strong> pilgrims directed to the Sanctuary<br />
<strong>of</strong> Loreto. If the l<strong>in</strong>ear network <strong>of</strong><br />
human connection between historical<br />
and cultural elements <strong>of</strong> the Plestian<br />
landscape can be found <strong>in</strong> these local<br />
roads, a deeper structure subtend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
also the latter ones can be identified <strong>in</strong><br />
the agricultural landscape, which has<br />
shaped the land patterns <strong>of</strong> the area<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to the human needs.<br />
Biodiversity <strong>in</strong> the rural<br />
landscape<br />
<strong>The</strong> lands <strong>of</strong> the Pla<strong>in</strong>s are ma<strong>in</strong>ly used<br />
as croplands. <strong>The</strong> cultivation <strong>of</strong> legumes<br />
and potatoes is predom<strong>in</strong>ant, and<br />
along with gra<strong>in</strong> and forage they form<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> the local agricultural production.<br />
In the valleys, although dra<strong>in</strong>age<br />
and reclamation works have turned<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the ground <strong>in</strong>to cultivated lands<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the Roman Age, wet meadows,<br />
marsh and lake formations still are a<br />
very important natural resource. <strong>The</strong><br />
hills surround<strong>in</strong>g the pla<strong>in</strong>s, aga<strong>in</strong>, are<br />
characterised by the presence <strong>of</strong> copses,<br />
the Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L.),<br />
the Hop hornbeam (Ostrya carp<strong>in</strong>ifolia<br />
Scop.), as well as the Downy oak<br />
(Quercus pubescens Willd.) be<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant species <strong>in</strong> the sunnier areas,<br />
and the beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) on<br />
the higher relieves. <strong>The</strong> arboreal vegetation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the hills alternates with the herbaceous<br />
vegetation types <strong>of</strong> the hill and<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> pastures, which def<strong>in</strong>e the<br />
landscape mosaic shaped by another<br />
important local human activity: farm<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
144
<strong>The</strong> Quadrilatero Project, threats<br />
Historic roads <strong>of</strong> possible pedestrian connection<br />
village <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito<br />
archaeological site and sanctuary <strong>of</strong> Plestia<br />
junction area<br />
tunnel entrance<br />
Future road with risk <strong>of</strong> traffic <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Real risks <strong>of</strong> landscape fragmentation<br />
Entrance <strong>of</strong> the tunnel near Mount Trella<br />
march, 2010<br />
Works on the buffer zone <strong>of</strong> Selva di Cupigliolo<br />
march, 2009<br />
Some effects <strong>of</strong> motorway construction <strong>in</strong> the Plestian Bas<strong>in</strong>.<br />
and stock-breed<strong>in</strong>g, though nowadays<br />
traditional graz<strong>in</strong>g is decreas<strong>in</strong>g. On<br />
some hills conifer reforestations made<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Sixties can also be recognised<br />
(Orsomando and Sensi, 2002).<br />
<strong>The</strong> ‘landscape units’ def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Plestian landscape create a variegated<br />
system <strong>of</strong> resources that the local<br />
communities have used over time, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
associat<strong>in</strong>g them with social participation<br />
events, such as exhibitions,<br />
festivals and religious festivities, their<br />
tim<strong>in</strong>g mark<strong>in</strong>g important moments <strong>of</strong><br />
the agricultural cycle. This has turned<br />
the local landscape <strong>in</strong>to a primary element<br />
<strong>of</strong> cultural and spiritual, as well<br />
as ecological, importance def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g together<br />
with the network <strong>of</strong> sanctuaries<br />
and pilgrimage routes, the ‘landscapes<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sacred’ (Tosco, 2009: 166).<br />
Additionally, the rural matrix also hosts<br />
natural areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational significance,<br />
ow<strong>in</strong>g to the presence <strong>of</strong> rare<br />
and endangered habitats or species.<br />
145
<strong>The</strong>se constitute the nodes <strong>of</strong> the Natura2000<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an Ecological Network.<br />
Moreover, sometimes shr<strong>in</strong>es<br />
and religious build<strong>in</strong>gs are associated<br />
with the presence <strong>of</strong> protected areas.<br />
<strong>The</strong> l<strong>in</strong>k between protected areas and<br />
therapeutic sanctuaries is probably<br />
co<strong>in</strong>cidental. No historical references<br />
connect their location to particular natural<br />
elements (Sensi, personal communication,<br />
2010), although sometimes<br />
they are related to the cult <strong>of</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
water (Sensi, 1984) and they are actually<br />
built along watercourses or <strong>in</strong> particularly<br />
scenic natural sett<strong>in</strong>gs. And it<br />
is also argued (Ant<strong>in</strong>ori, 2009) that<br />
some Christian sacred places traces<br />
out older pagan temples and sacred<br />
sites, <strong>of</strong>ten connected to the natural<br />
characters <strong>of</strong> landscape (presence <strong>of</strong><br />
spr<strong>in</strong>g water and mounta<strong>in</strong>s). What rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> is that the shr<strong>in</strong>es and religious<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs are <strong>of</strong>ten associated<br />
with ‘outstand<strong>in</strong>g landscapes’. Anyway<br />
the spontaneous manifestations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
devotion <strong>of</strong> locals and their familiarity<br />
with the place make these outstand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
landscapes part <strong>of</strong> their everyday life.<br />
Threats for the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> landscape connections and<br />
visions for future management<br />
Despite the presence <strong>of</strong> a significant<br />
number <strong>of</strong> protected areas, nonetheless,<br />
the Plestian landscape rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
open to threats and transformations.<br />
<strong>The</strong> complexity <strong>of</strong> the relationships between<br />
the different parts <strong>of</strong> the region,<br />
whether they are <strong>of</strong> natural or cultural/<br />
spiritual relevance adds to the problem.<br />
<strong>The</strong> mere presence <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas does not always guarantee a<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>in</strong>tegrated management <strong>of</strong><br />
the entire landscape, nor does it halt<br />
the loss <strong>of</strong> biodiversity. Sometime functional<br />
choices imposed on by the national<br />
government, respond<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
current economic global system’s<br />
needs, actually represent threats for<br />
biodiversity conservation, despite the<br />
protection <strong>of</strong> specific sites.<br />
A first threat to the conservation <strong>of</strong> local<br />
ecosystems comes from methodologies<br />
<strong>of</strong> management that are only apparently<br />
coherent with the aims <strong>of</strong> biodiversity<br />
conservation, but actually far<br />
from a holistic, <strong>in</strong>tegrated and systemic<br />
vision that takes <strong>in</strong>to account delicate<br />
ecological balances and dynamics<br />
(Pedrotti, 1996) together with their<br />
relations with human activities. This is<br />
especially true as regards the marsh,<br />
where part <strong>of</strong> the wetland was dra<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
between 1963-1992, because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
agricultural reconversion, the extraction<br />
<strong>of</strong> peat, and <strong>in</strong>terventions aimed at<br />
the naturalistic and touristic ‘revitalisation’<br />
<strong>of</strong> the protected area, such as the<br />
closure <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ghiottitoio (see<br />
above) to stabilise the water level (Pedrotti,<br />
1996; Pedrotti personal communication,<br />
2010). <strong>The</strong> second threat<br />
comes from modern agricultural and<br />
zoo-technical practices, e.g. the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
use <strong>of</strong> fertilisers, the reduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ear elements <strong>of</strong> ecological<br />
connectivity, such as hedges and rows<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees, <strong>in</strong> addition to the spread <strong>of</strong> urbanised<br />
areas at the valley bottoms.<br />
Also for these reasons, the protected<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> the Pla<strong>in</strong>s do not yet represent<br />
146
an ensemble, as they lack connectivity<br />
and the management practices <strong>in</strong>side<br />
the protected areas <strong>of</strong>ten clash with<br />
unsusta<strong>in</strong>able practices outside these<br />
areas.<br />
Moreover, the adm<strong>in</strong>istrative division <strong>of</strong><br />
the Plestian territory risks divid<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
unified landscape with divergent management<br />
choices. <strong>The</strong> Plestian Bas<strong>in</strong><br />
is still shared by three Municipalities,<br />
two Districts and two Regions, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the same tools for land plann<strong>in</strong>g, but<br />
have sometimes different priorities, especially<br />
as the regional trends are<br />
adapted to the local levels.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Umbria Region employs two ma<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>struments <strong>of</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g and governance:<br />
Territorial Urban Plan (Piano Urbanistico<br />
Territoriale) 1 and Regional<br />
<strong>Lands</strong>cape Plann<strong>in</strong>g (Piano Paesaggistico<br />
Regionale) 2, both strongly oriented<br />
to the conservation <strong>of</strong> landscapes<br />
and particular natural values.<br />
<strong>The</strong> former recognises the Plestian<br />
Plateaus as a high-<strong>in</strong>terest area for its<br />
particular and rare flora; the latter underl<strong>in</strong>es<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> the Plestian<br />
system as a pivotal component <strong>of</strong> the<br />
regional identity, where natural, historical<br />
and symbolic elements <strong>in</strong>teract to<br />
def<strong>in</strong>e a manifold landscape, which<br />
has also an economic and social value.<br />
Also the Marche Region with the<br />
Regional <strong>Lands</strong>cape Plann<strong>in</strong>g (Piano<br />
Paesaggistico Regionale) 3 grounds<br />
1 Regional Act no. 27, 24 March 2000<br />
2 Regional Act no. 13, 24 March 2009<br />
3 Regional Decree no. 197, 3 November 1989<br />
and updat<strong>in</strong>g accord<strong>in</strong>g to the National Code<br />
<strong>of</strong> Cultural Heritage and <strong>Lands</strong>cape<br />
(Legislative Decree no. 42/2004)<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> the Plestian landscape<br />
on its cultural values and typical<br />
agricultural productions, l<strong>in</strong>ked to the<br />
local manifestations <strong>of</strong> faith and<br />
spirituality.<br />
Recognition <strong>of</strong> the high landscape value,<br />
<strong>in</strong> def<strong>in</strong>itive, is shared by both Regions,<br />
and today is even stronger<br />
thanks to the Regional Ecological Network<br />
project 4 , which aims to become a<br />
set <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>spir<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for regional<br />
and local programm<strong>in</strong>g and plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(Sargol<strong>in</strong>i, 2006).<br />
In particular, the role <strong>of</strong> the Plestian<br />
Plateaus can be seen as strategy for<br />
the national ecological connectivity,<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g a possible junction <strong>in</strong> the<br />
greater mounta<strong>in</strong>ous system <strong>of</strong> Central<br />
Apenn<strong>in</strong>e, the north-south axis structur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the ecological cont<strong>in</strong>uity at a national<br />
level between Lazio-Abruzzo’s<br />
and Toscana-Emilia Romagna’s areas<br />
(Romano, 2010) form<strong>in</strong>g a part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Appenn<strong>in</strong>o Parco d’Europa project.<br />
Furthermore, the Plestian Bas<strong>in</strong> can<br />
also be seen as an area <strong>of</strong> transversal<br />
connection with both cultural and ecological<br />
values, strengthen<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>, at<br />
the ecological level, its ancient role as<br />
a road-l<strong>in</strong>k between the Tirrenic and<br />
Adriatic coasts. But do such guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
really become operative plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and management actions?<br />
Translat<strong>in</strong>g recommendations <strong>in</strong>to actions<br />
at the local level is not always<br />
simple, and the Plestian landscape is<br />
4 Rete Ecologica Regionale Umbra, Regional<br />
Act 13/2009 and REM, Rete Ecologica<br />
Marche, project from competition, Legislative<br />
Decree 163/2006, art. 108<br />
147
<strong>of</strong>ten subjected to threats <strong>of</strong> ecological<br />
landscape fragmentation that also <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
the application <strong>of</strong> the Ecological<br />
Network project. <strong>The</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> connectivity<br />
was <strong>in</strong>fluenced by various local<br />
parameters; on top <strong>of</strong> them one<br />
can add the decreas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the social<br />
cohesion caused by weak f<strong>in</strong>ancial cooperation<br />
strategies and possibly by<br />
the erosion <strong>of</strong> the religious impr<strong>in</strong>t; additionally,<br />
the fragmentation might be<br />
caused by plann<strong>in</strong>g choices at the national<br />
level, and especially those l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />
to the development <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructures.<br />
<strong>The</strong> problem <strong>of</strong> road barriers, already<br />
existent <strong>in</strong> the Plestian region (Romano,<br />
2010), is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with the upcom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
project <strong>of</strong> a four-lane motorway<br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g Foligno and the Adriatic<br />
coast that is go<strong>in</strong>g to cross the Plestian<br />
Plateaus from its south-western to<br />
its north-eastern side (called the<br />
Quadrilatero Project.<br />
While it is planned not to be constructed<br />
<strong>in</strong> the proximity <strong>of</strong> the wetland so as<br />
not to compromise the ecosystem directly,<br />
it is nonetheless likely that it will<br />
constitute, even dur<strong>in</strong>g the construction<br />
phase, a concrete threat to the unity <strong>of</strong><br />
the entire system at both the ecological<br />
and cultural levels, risk<strong>in</strong>g also the loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> historical connections between parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Plestian landscape.<br />
To add <strong>in</strong>sult to <strong>in</strong>jury, the decision to<br />
construct a road junction <strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong><br />
Plestia, near the archaeological site<br />
and the sanctuary, could also <strong>in</strong>itiate<br />
urbanisation processes for the broader<br />
area. <strong>The</strong> dangers <strong>of</strong> such a prospect<br />
might be even more evident, if one<br />
takes <strong>in</strong>to account the fact that the dispersion<br />
<strong>of</strong> urban settlements is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the major causes <strong>of</strong> fragmentation and<br />
loss <strong>of</strong> connectivity (Romano, 2010).<br />
It may be argued that the Quadrilatero<br />
Project could be an opportunity for the<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong> the region, as it will improve<br />
the communication with more<br />
developed areas, favour tourism and<br />
decrease traffic with<strong>in</strong> the villages. A<br />
more likely outcome, however, will be<br />
an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> high-speed traffic, pollution<br />
and soil consumption <strong>in</strong> these<br />
fragile areas, once characterised by a<br />
slow velocity road network <strong>in</strong> balance<br />
with the features <strong>of</strong> the landscape. In<br />
order to be susta<strong>in</strong>able, the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> these lands should be founded<br />
on very different bases.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Lauretana pilgrimage route restoration<br />
project can have a favourable outcome,<br />
if its natural and cultural resources<br />
are <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able management<br />
plan. <strong>The</strong> improvement <strong>of</strong><br />
‘slow’ travel <strong>in</strong>frastructures and the creation<br />
<strong>of</strong> naturalistic and historical-cultural<br />
routes, embrac<strong>in</strong>g the whole Plestian<br />
region and pivot<strong>in</strong>g around the<br />
therapeutic sanctuaries network, can<br />
be the key concepts, upon which the<br />
ecological connectivity and the creation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a system <strong>of</strong> protected areas around<br />
the Regional Park can be rescheduled.<br />
In fact, by <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g the idea <strong>of</strong> recover<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the historical road network <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
greater plan at the landscape scale, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
both conservation and development,<br />
one could guarantee a truly<br />
multifunctional delivery <strong>of</strong> services,<br />
rang<strong>in</strong>g from the restoration and con-<br />
148
servation <strong>of</strong> the wetland ecosystem as<br />
a ‘all-encompass<strong>in</strong>g reserve’ (Pedrotti,<br />
1996), to the optimisation <strong>of</strong> the local<br />
economic resources, whether they are<br />
agricultural, tourist or educational.<br />
This can be feasible only by promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an idea <strong>of</strong> a Natural Park far from the<br />
patterns <strong>of</strong> command-and-control as<br />
typical <strong>of</strong> the Italian conservation tradition,<br />
already proposed and refused by<br />
local populations. A new model is<br />
needed, related to the ‘new paradigms’<br />
developed by recent Italian research<br />
conducted by Valerio Giacom<strong>in</strong>i<br />
(Giacom<strong>in</strong>i and Romano, 1982) to<br />
Roberto Gamb<strong>in</strong>o (Gamb<strong>in</strong>o, 2010). It<br />
proposes a vision that makes local<br />
communities and their environmental<br />
culture the fulcrum around which projects<br />
can be built, and systemic and<br />
reticular logics the guid<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
for their implementation. In order to<br />
satisfy the need to conserve and manage<br />
the l<strong>in</strong>kages between natural and<br />
human systems with important historical<br />
connections, a new model <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Park has to operate at different and <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> landscape protection.<br />
It is, <strong>of</strong> course, a vision that <strong>in</strong>volves<br />
more complex procedures, but<br />
it is <strong>in</strong> the acceptance <strong>of</strong> complexity<br />
that the new vision <strong>of</strong> reality must be<br />
founded upon (Mor<strong>in</strong>, 1993).<br />
<strong>The</strong> possibility to recover/salvage the<br />
relationship between humans and nature<br />
underlies also <strong>in</strong> the <strong>IUCN</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiative<br />
for <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Protected <strong>Lands</strong>capes<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the categories <strong>of</strong> biodiversity<br />
conservation. That can be an important<br />
example and reference for the<br />
Plestian landscape itself.<br />
A possible model <strong>of</strong> an ‘Interregional<br />
Park’ was drafted as part <strong>of</strong> a master<br />
thesis on ‘Lauretana Route as <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Cultural Route’. It <strong>in</strong>dicated that the<br />
area <strong>of</strong> Plestia that <strong>in</strong>cludes the archaeological<br />
park and sanctuary,<br />
could be the centre from which the<br />
‘cultural system’ <strong>of</strong> the Plateaus can<br />
cast its light on the rest <strong>of</strong> the land,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce it is the historical meet<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
<strong>of</strong> the roads that enter the Bas<strong>in</strong> from<br />
its natural entryways, which could thus<br />
become the ‘gates’ <strong>of</strong> the Park.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Lauretana Route, as the ‘backbone’<br />
<strong>of</strong> a low speed travel through the<br />
area, could become the ma<strong>in</strong> axis <strong>of</strong><br />
distribution <strong>of</strong> local products and cultural<br />
and traditional knowledge, also<br />
through the ancient hospitalia located<br />
along the way. In fact, today the little<br />
park<strong>in</strong>g bays along Road 77 are used<br />
by local producers to sell renowned local<br />
products, such as the red potato <strong>of</strong><br />
Colfiorito. In this case, the completion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the motorway project could paradoxically<br />
contribute to the redef<strong>in</strong>ement<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong> road as a<br />
slow velocity road network. But evidently,<br />
it needs a critical revision <strong>of</strong><br />
each <strong>of</strong> the project’s stages.<br />
In the Pla<strong>in</strong>s, which are characterised<br />
by important biodiversity values, all activities<br />
will have to be compatible with<br />
the conservation <strong>of</strong> the wet meadow<br />
vegetation and the marsh ecosystem.<br />
In general, all <strong>of</strong> the agricultural practices<br />
will have to conserve at least small<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> ecological connectivity,<br />
threatened by mechanised agriculture.<br />
<strong>The</strong> natural entryways <strong>of</strong> the Park will<br />
149
ensure communication with neighbour<strong>in</strong>g<br />
protected areas, thus enforc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ecological connectivity aga<strong>in</strong>st the effect<br />
<strong>of</strong> the current ecological barriers –<br />
mostly, the ma<strong>in</strong> roads cross<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Apenn<strong>in</strong>e landscape.<br />
In a unitary but not homogeneous<br />
structure, elements <strong>of</strong> the historical<br />
memory will create an expand<strong>in</strong>g cultural<br />
system, its spiritual components<br />
discernible <strong>in</strong> the cluster <strong>of</strong> therapeutic<br />
sanctuaries, further consolidated by<br />
the presence <strong>of</strong> the Park. <strong>The</strong> natural<br />
and spiritual components will be visibly<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked together <strong>in</strong> the Lauretana Pilgrimage<br />
Route network.<br />
It is precisely this strong <strong>in</strong>terrelation<br />
between the natural and cultural-spiritual<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> the Plestian landscape<br />
that will guide the planner to develop<br />
models <strong>of</strong> landscape management,<br />
which take <strong>in</strong>to account the importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> local communities and let<br />
them become the focus <strong>of</strong> conservation<br />
and development projects, by promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the preservation <strong>of</strong> spiritual traditions<br />
and strengthen<strong>in</strong>g the local<br />
ecological and landscape culture.<br />
A recent Degree thesis has suggested<br />
how an Ecomuseum can be used as a<br />
cultural model to be taken <strong>in</strong>to account<br />
for the local development <strong>of</strong> projects, a<br />
tool <strong>of</strong> both knowledge-analysis and<br />
land use plann<strong>in</strong>g, where the community<br />
becomes the real subject <strong>of</strong> the local<br />
actions and its cultural heritage the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> object <strong>of</strong> local development (De<br />
Var<strong>in</strong>e, 2005).<br />
Of course, different <strong>in</strong>struments, such<br />
as the Regional Park, the Ecomuseum,<br />
and the Protected <strong>Lands</strong>cape can be<br />
used together <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated manner,<br />
provided that the local community becomes<br />
the first referent <strong>of</strong> the project<br />
and dynamic conservation its first<br />
objective.<br />
Moreover, <strong>in</strong> order to connect the Plestian<br />
landscape unit with landscapes<br />
belong<strong>in</strong>g to the regions <strong>of</strong> Marche<br />
and Umbria, one has to consider,<br />
whether the Cultural Route 5 can be<br />
used as another tool <strong>of</strong> the valorisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the natural and cultural resources,<br />
not bound with<strong>in</strong> the specific context<br />
but guarantee<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terrelationships at<br />
a larger territorial scale. <strong>The</strong>refore, the<br />
Cultural Route becomes a territorial<br />
system connect<strong>in</strong>g its local nodes (the<br />
Parks, Ecomuseums and Protected Areas)<br />
along the thematic and geographic<br />
‘conductor’ <strong>of</strong> the Marian pilgrimage<br />
route towards Loreto.<br />
5 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the def<strong>in</strong>ition given by both the<br />
Council <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Resolution CM/<br />
Res(2010)53 and the International Scientific<br />
Committee <strong>of</strong> Cultural Routes <strong>of</strong> ICOMOS/CIIC<br />
with the 2008 Charter <strong>of</strong> Cultural Routes.<br />
150
<strong>The</strong> wetland. Steps <strong>of</strong> protection.<br />
1969 Date <strong>of</strong> first requirement <strong>of</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> the wetland <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito by pr<strong>of</strong>. F.<br />
Pedrotti (University <strong>of</strong> Camer<strong>in</strong>o). He proposed a Managed Nature Reserve (Riserva<br />
Naturale Guidata)<br />
1971 <strong>The</strong> area is <strong>in</strong>dicated as Fauna Oasis (Oasi faunistica)<br />
1976 <strong>The</strong> wetland is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the Ramsar list that gives it the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
acknowledgement as Natural Protected Area<br />
1983 <strong>The</strong> wetland is <strong>in</strong>cluded among the Areas <strong>of</strong> particular naturalistic <strong>in</strong>terest (Area<br />
di particolare <strong>in</strong>teresse naturalistico-ambientale) by Umbria Region, with L.R. n. 52,<br />
after <strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> great public <strong>in</strong>terest (notevole <strong>in</strong>teresse pubblico) by E.<br />
Orsomando and F Pedrotti <strong>in</strong> 1980/81<br />
1995 Date <strong>of</strong> birth <strong>of</strong> the Regional Park <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito (Parco Regionale di Colfiorito) with<br />
L.R. n. 9<br />
1994-97 With Bioitaly Project the wetland is recognised as ASP (Area <strong>of</strong> Special<br />
Protection, Directive 79/409/EEC) and SCI (Site <strong>of</strong> Community Importance, Directive<br />
92/43/EEC)<br />
Present days <strong>The</strong> Plestian system is considered as an area <strong>of</strong> public <strong>in</strong>terest (Area di<br />
notevole <strong>in</strong>teresse pubblico) accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Italian Code <strong>of</strong> Cultural Heritage and<br />
<strong>Lands</strong>cape (Codice dei Beni Culturali e del Paesaggio, D. lg 42/2004).<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Lands</strong>cape. Mean<strong>in</strong>gs and importance.<br />
the Bas<strong>in</strong> the Wetland<br />
Uniqueness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the wetland <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito <strong>in</strong><br />
the system<br />
(there is no other similar<br />
wetland <strong>in</strong> the Bas<strong>in</strong>)<br />
Rarity<br />
Uniqueness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the system <strong>in</strong> the national<br />
contest (consider<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational importance)<br />
Multiplicity <strong>of</strong> its representative<br />
ecosystems<br />
(the wetland is representative <strong>of</strong> a<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g number <strong>of</strong> different ecosystems<br />
(Pedrotti, 1965))<br />
to be conserved<br />
Richness <strong>of</strong> the system<br />
(as a cultural heritage and natural resource)<br />
Biodiversity<br />
Unity<br />
<strong>of</strong> its vital function<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(the system as a whole based on<br />
<strong>in</strong>terconnection between<br />
parts (Lippi Boncampi, 1940))<br />
151
References<br />
Ant<strong>in</strong>ori, A. (2009), I sentieri del silenzio. Guida agli eremi rupestri ed alle abbazie<br />
dell’Appenn<strong>in</strong>o umbro-marchigiano [Pathways <strong>of</strong> silence. A guide to hermitages<br />
and abbeys <strong>of</strong> the Apenn<strong>in</strong>e Mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Umbria-Marche], Folignano, Ascoli Piceno:<br />
Società Editrice Ricerche.<br />
De Var<strong>in</strong>e, H. (2005), Les rac<strong>in</strong>es du futur: Le patrimo<strong>in</strong>e au service du développement<br />
local, it. ed. (2005), Le radici del futuro: il patrimonio culturale al servizio dello<br />
sviluppo locale it. trans. by Daniele Jalla, Bologna: Clueb.<br />
Gamb<strong>in</strong>o, R. (2010), Parchi e paesaggi d’Europa. Un programma di ricerca territoriale<br />
[Parks and landscapes <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. A regional research programme], <strong>in</strong> Rivista.<br />
Ricerche per la progettazione del paesaggio, 14/2010, luglio/dicembre,<br />
anno 8, numero monografico, <strong>in</strong> http://www.unifi.it/ri-vista/14ri/14r.html<br />
Giacom<strong>in</strong>i, V. and Romani, V. (1982), Uom<strong>in</strong>i e Parchi [Man and Parks], Milano:<br />
Franco Angeli.<br />
Mor<strong>in</strong>, E. (1990), Introduction à la pensèe complexe, it. ed. (1993), Introduzione al<br />
pensiero complesso. Gli strumenti per affrontare la sfida della complessità, it.<br />
trans. by Monica Corbani, Milano: Sperl<strong>in</strong>g & Kupfer.<br />
Orsomando, E., and Catorci, A. (1997), Fisiografia [Physiography], <strong>in</strong> Gli Altipiani<br />
di Colfiorito. Appenn<strong>in</strong>o Umbro-marchigiano. Storia e ambiente [<strong>The</strong> Colfiorito Plateaus.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Apenn<strong>in</strong>e Range <strong>in</strong> Umbria-Marche. History and environment], ed. E.<br />
Orsomando, Comunità Montana del Monte Subasio, Ente Parco Regionale di Colfiorito,<br />
pp. 13-15.<br />
Orsomando, E. and Sensi, M. (eds.) (2002), Studi sull’ambiente naturale degli Altipiani<br />
di Colfiorito [Studies on the natural environment <strong>of</strong> the Colfiorito Plateaus],<br />
Colfiorito, Foligno: Quaderni della ‘Sagra della patata rossa’, with a map <strong>of</strong><br />
vegetation.<br />
Pedrotti, F. (1996), Gestione su base scientifica dei sistemi ecologici per la loro<br />
conservazione e recupero [Science-based management <strong>of</strong> ecological systems for<br />
their conservation and recovery], <strong>in</strong> Società Italiana di Ecologia, 17: 549-554, Ecologia.<br />
Atti del VII Congresso Nazionale della Società Italiana di Ecologia. Napoli,<br />
11-14 Settembre, 1996.<br />
Romano, B. (2010), Le <strong>in</strong>terferenze <strong>in</strong>sediative [Human settlements’ <strong>in</strong>trusions], <strong>in</strong><br />
AA.VV. RERU. Rete Ecologica Regionale dell’Umbria. Proposte per la costruzione<br />
di una rete ecologica regionale [RERU. Ecological Network <strong>of</strong> Umbria Region. Proposals<br />
for the plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a regional ecological network], Città di Castello: Petruzzi<br />
Editore.<br />
152
Sargol<strong>in</strong>i, M. et al. (2006), Reti Ecologiche e Siti Natura 2000. Il caso studio delle<br />
Marche [Ecological Networks and Natura2000 sites. Case study <strong>in</strong> Marche],<br />
Roma: Ed. Kappa.<br />
Sensi, M. (1984), Vita di pietà e vita civile di un altopiano tra Umbria e Marche<br />
(secc. XV-XVI) [Religious and civil life <strong>of</strong> the High <strong>Lands</strong> between Marche and Umbria<br />
Regions (fifteenth to sixteenth centuries)], Storia e Letteratura, Raccolta di<br />
studi e testi: Roma.<br />
Sensi, M. (ed.) (1998), Plestia si racconta. Dalla ‘fiera’ alla ‘sagra della patata rossa’<br />
[Tales from Plestia. From the ‘fair to the ‘festival <strong>of</strong> the red potato’], Colfiorito,<br />
Foligno: Quaderni della ‘Sagra della patata rossa’.<br />
Tosco, C. (2009), Il paesaggio storico. Le fonti e i metodi di ricerca tra medioevo<br />
ed età moderna [Historic landscape. References and methods <strong>of</strong> research between<br />
the Middle and Modern Ages], Bari: Laterza.<br />
Other references used for produc<strong>in</strong>g maps:<br />
Lippi Boncampi, C. (1939), Il Bac<strong>in</strong>o carsico di Colfiorito [<strong>The</strong> karst Bas<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito],<br />
<strong>in</strong> Orsomando, E., Sensi, M. (2002), op. cit., pp. 160-164<br />
Lippi Boncampi, C. (1940), Osservazioni morfologiche sul Bac<strong>in</strong>o di Colfiorito e<br />
presupposti idrogeologici della sua bonifica [Observations on the morphology <strong>of</strong><br />
the Colfiorito Bas<strong>in</strong> and the hydro geological conditions for its dra<strong>in</strong>age], <strong>in</strong> Orsomando,<br />
E., Sensi, M. (2002), op. cit., pp. 61-87.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Special thanks to Pr<strong>of</strong>. Enrico Falqui, Pr<strong>of</strong>. Gabriele Paol<strong>in</strong>elli, Pr<strong>of</strong>. Franco Pedrotti,<br />
and Father Mario Sensi as well as Fabrizio Frascaroli, Damiano Galeotti, Silvia<br />
M<strong>in</strong>ich<strong>in</strong>o, Federica and Dante Santoni from Colfiorito, and Ms Milena from<br />
Rasiglia.<br />
153
154
Part Four:<br />
Manag<strong>in</strong>g lands <strong>of</strong><br />
monastic communities<br />
155
156
Monastic communities and nature<br />
conservation: Overview <strong>of</strong> positive<br />
trends and best practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and<br />
the Middle East<br />
Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
<strong>The</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> a resilient lifestyle<br />
close to nature<br />
<strong>The</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> Christian monasticism is<br />
to be found eighteen centuries ago <strong>in</strong><br />
the deserts <strong>of</strong> Egypt, Palest<strong>in</strong>e and<br />
Syria, dur<strong>in</strong>g the time these countries<br />
formed part <strong>of</strong> the Roman Empire. Indeed,<br />
it is <strong>in</strong> the Egyptian deserts<br />
where the oldest Christian monasteries<br />
are still thriv<strong>in</strong>g. From the earliest<br />
times, the ideal <strong>of</strong> the monastic life was<br />
closely connected to an aspiration to<br />
return to the terrestrial Paradise. More<br />
or less complete solitude <strong>in</strong> the wilderness<br />
– usually associated with asceti-<br />
cism, under harsh conditions – was<br />
sought so that an aspirant might progress<br />
spiritually and atta<strong>in</strong> to hol<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g a deep harmony with nature<br />
by approach<strong>in</strong>g, or even recover<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
‘the Adamic state’. <strong>The</strong> idea expressed<br />
by St John Damascene, a<br />
Church Father, that ‘Nature is the icon<br />
<strong>of</strong> the face <strong>of</strong> God’ is highly significant<br />
when one recalls the sacramental nature<br />
accorded to icons <strong>in</strong> the Eastern<br />
Christian Churches and the veneration<br />
they receive.<br />
From the first centuries <strong>of</strong> monasticism,<br />
two ma<strong>in</strong> lifestyles developed,<br />
< Rila Natural Park, Bulgaria. <strong>The</strong> outstand<strong>in</strong>g alp<strong>in</strong>e forests around the<br />
Rila Monastery bear testimony <strong>of</strong> the long-last<strong>in</strong>g ‘holy unity between<br />
Nature and the monastery’, wished for by its founder Sa<strong>in</strong>t Ivan <strong>of</strong> Rila.<br />
157
Well tended vegetable gardens and orchards like those near the monastery <strong>of</strong> Xenophontos,<br />
Athos.<br />
which have rema<strong>in</strong>ed almost unchanged<br />
until the present day: community<br />
life – cenobitic – and isolated<br />
life – hermitic. Hermitism and cenobitism<br />
are usually seen as complementary<br />
paths. Hermits are <strong>of</strong>ten fed by monastic<br />
communities, and <strong>in</strong> some monasteries<br />
all monks become hermits<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g some part <strong>of</strong> their lives. In other<br />
communities, a hermitic life is an option<br />
only for those who feel attracted to<br />
it. In any case, a hermit devoted to silent<br />
prayer and contemplation <strong>in</strong> solitude<br />
is the prototype <strong>of</strong> the human be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> deep harmony with nature. In<br />
the words <strong>of</strong> one hermit, ‘hermits live a<br />
cosmic experience <strong>of</strong> communion with<br />
nature’ (Mouizon, 2001). No wonder,<br />
therefore, that from the fourth century<br />
onwards numerous historical records<br />
describe the lives and feats <strong>of</strong> holy<br />
monks and hermits who befriended<br />
wild animals, such as lions, bears,<br />
wolves or poisonous snakes, and it is<br />
recorded that some were even fed by<br />
them (Macaire, 1993). Similar phenomena<br />
are found <strong>in</strong> Asia, where monasticism,<br />
both cenobitic and heremitic,<br />
developed much earlier with<strong>in</strong> different<br />
branches <strong>of</strong> Buddhism and H<strong>in</strong>duism.<br />
<strong>The</strong> expansion <strong>of</strong> monastic settlements<br />
occurred rapidly, and by the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
first millennium thousands <strong>of</strong> monasteries<br />
were thriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the<br />
Middle East. <strong>The</strong> impact <strong>of</strong> these monastic<br />
communities on spirituality, art,<br />
science and culture has been widely<br />
acknowledged and documented<br />
(Krüger et al. 2007; K<strong>in</strong>der, 2002, etc.),<br />
and their legacy has been, and still is,<br />
a research topic for numerous journals.<br />
However, the positive impact <strong>of</strong> these<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> the management <strong>of</strong><br />
natural resources and nature conservation<br />
has received much less attention,<br />
despite the fact that the monasteries<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten developed very successfully<br />
what we would currently call ‘susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
practices’.<br />
Given the fact that the founders <strong>of</strong> monasteries<br />
deliberately sought out solitary<br />
158
or ‘wild’ terra<strong>in</strong>, the longevity <strong>of</strong> many<br />
communities is impressive. Obviously,<br />
<strong>in</strong> desert or arid areas, the survival <strong>of</strong><br />
the community depended on the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> highly sophisticated and efficient<br />
water management and garden<strong>in</strong>g<br />
techniques. <strong>The</strong> first Christian<br />
monastery, St Cather<strong>in</strong>e’s, founded <strong>in</strong><br />
337 AD, is located at the foot <strong>of</strong> Mount<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ai, an extremely arid region. It has<br />
been cont<strong>in</strong>uously active ever s<strong>in</strong>ce,<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g under the protection <strong>of</strong> Islamic<br />
law <strong>in</strong> the seventh century. In 2002 the<br />
monastery itself was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Sa<strong>in</strong>t Kather<strong>in</strong>e Protectorate, one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
largest protected areas <strong>of</strong> Egypt<br />
(Gra<strong>in</strong>ger and Gilbert, 2008). A further<br />
example is St Anthony’s, founded <strong>in</strong><br />
356 AD, shortly after the sa<strong>in</strong>t’s death.<br />
Situated on al-Qalzam Mounta<strong>in</strong> near<br />
Al Zaafarana, Egypt, the monastery<br />
has enjoyed cont<strong>in</strong>ual occupancy and<br />
today is a self-conta<strong>in</strong>ed village with<br />
gardens, a mill, a bakery, and five<br />
churches. Similarly to other Egyptian<br />
Coptic monasteries, St Anthony’s is<br />
currently experienc<strong>in</strong>g a revival; its monastic<br />
population has grown considerably<br />
<strong>in</strong> recent years, attract<strong>in</strong>g a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> pilgrims. Many monks <strong>of</strong> St<br />
Anthony’s monastery nowadays spend<br />
the last part <strong>of</strong> their lives as hermits <strong>in</strong><br />
nearby caves.<br />
Such examples are not unique. <strong>The</strong> result<br />
<strong>of</strong> centuries <strong>of</strong> prudent resource<br />
management by monasteries was the<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> a wide variety <strong>of</strong> extensive<br />
and harmonious monastic landscapes,<br />
well adapted to different ecosystems,<br />
from the taiga <strong>of</strong> Siberia to the North<br />
African deserts, from the Alps or the<br />
Carpathian mounta<strong>in</strong>s to the coastal<br />
wetlands <strong>of</strong> the Mediterranean, many<br />
<strong>of</strong> which have been well conserved until<br />
the present day. In actuality, hundreds<br />
<strong>of</strong> modern protected areas have<br />
been established over ancient monastic<br />
landscapes that still reta<strong>in</strong> their<br />
quality and biodiversity. Most <strong>of</strong> these<br />
protected areas are managed as Protected<br />
<strong>Lands</strong>capes, equivalent to the<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong> category V, which is the most<br />
common category <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> (Mallarach, 2008). This<br />
noteworthy fact provides an additional<br />
pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> the effectiveness <strong>of</strong> these<br />
types <strong>of</strong> community-conserved areas.<br />
Almost 50 monasteries (usually <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the lands they historically<br />
managed) have been <strong>in</strong>scribed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
UNESCO List <strong>of</strong> World Heritage Sites<br />
to this day, additional evidence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
global significance <strong>of</strong> these monastic<br />
settlements. Even though most <strong>of</strong><br />
these sites are classified as ‘Cultural’,<br />
some are Mixed – ‘Natural and Cultural’<br />
– such as Mount Athos, Greece, or<br />
Studenica, Serbia; and <strong>in</strong> fact, more<br />
could also be classified as ‘Mixed’, as<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites reta<strong>in</strong> significant<br />
natural heritage value at either<br />
global or national levels.<br />
Indeed, susta<strong>in</strong>ability went hand <strong>in</strong><br />
hand with monasticism from an early<br />
time. Among the Benedict<strong>in</strong>es, for example,<br />
whose order was established<br />
by St Benedict <strong>in</strong> the sixth century<br />
(and whose flourish from the eleventh<br />
to the fourteenth centuries led to the<br />
birth <strong>of</strong> orders such as the Cistercians,<br />
Camaldolensians, Carthusians, etc.),<br />
agricultural and forestry management<br />
159
practices were sophisticated and diverse.<br />
St Benedict set an early example<br />
<strong>of</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ability; the Benedict<strong>in</strong>e<br />
communities had to pass on their<br />
lands <strong>in</strong> at least as fertile a state as<br />
when they found them. Experts nowadays<br />
can s<strong>in</strong>gle out a forest which was<br />
managed by a Benedict<strong>in</strong>e, Cistercian<br />
or Camaldolensian monastic community<br />
identify<strong>in</strong>g good-practice techniques<br />
that were used. In fact, the<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able forest practices <strong>of</strong> the Camaldolensians,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the extensive forest<br />
lands <strong>of</strong> the Apenn<strong>in</strong>es, were the foundation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Italian legislation on forestry<br />
(Fr. P. Hughes, pers. comm.), and<br />
the area around the monastery <strong>of</strong> Camaldoli,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g its Sacro Eremo –<br />
hermitage – has been <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
National Park <strong>of</strong> the Casent<strong>in</strong>e Forests.<br />
Cistercians, on the other hand, established<br />
their settlements <strong>in</strong> lowlands,<br />
usually next to rivers and water bodies,<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g sophisticated systems for<br />
harness<strong>in</strong>g the renewable energy <strong>of</strong><br />
water (Leroux-Dhuys, 1999).<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> the alms and donations<br />
they received, coupled with careful<br />
and efficient management, many monasteries<br />
ended up manag<strong>in</strong>g large<br />
tracts <strong>of</strong> land and water reserves,<br />
sometimes hundreds <strong>of</strong> square kilometres<br />
<strong>in</strong> size. It is estimated that <strong>in</strong> many<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an and Middle East countries<br />
monastic communities were responsible<br />
for 10 to 25 per cent <strong>of</strong> the productive<br />
area. Moreover, medieval monastic<br />
gardens set the example for the establishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> botanical gardens and<br />
pharmaceutical gardens <strong>in</strong> post-medieval<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an and Middle Eastern<br />
towns (MacDougall, 1986). Follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the rule <strong>of</strong> ‘Ora et Labora’ (Pray and<br />
Work), monastic communities have always<br />
been eager to develop efficient<br />
self-sufficient strategies which allow<br />
them to devote most <strong>of</strong> their time to<br />
prayer, meditation and contemplation.<br />
Hermitages, on the other hand, have<br />
been traditionally located <strong>in</strong> wild or<br />
rugged country, provid<strong>in</strong>g solitude and<br />
<strong>The</strong> Miracle Monastery, Spa<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g bless<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> water is held at dawn, after a long silent<br />
walk listen<strong>in</strong>g to the birds s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g, dur<strong>in</strong>g the spr<strong>in</strong>g session <strong>of</strong> the course on Nature and Spirituality,<br />
<strong>in</strong> El Miracle Nature Reserve.<br />
160
natural shelter, such as <strong>in</strong> caves. <strong>The</strong><br />
hermitic doma<strong>in</strong>s can be considered a<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> nature reserve, i.e. <strong>IUCN</strong> protected<br />
area categories I or III. <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusion<br />
<strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> these hermitages<br />
on the periphery <strong>of</strong> the monastic protected<br />
landscapes resulted <strong>in</strong> a very<br />
balanced ecological pattern, which<br />
can be still found <strong>in</strong> many regions.<br />
Monastic settlements conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g scattered<br />
small monasteries <strong>of</strong> different<br />
sizes, with assorted hermitages and<br />
monks’ cells, <strong>in</strong> some cases created or<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed astonish<strong>in</strong>g landscapes,<br />
like those <strong>of</strong> Cappadocia <strong>in</strong> Turkey,<br />
and <strong>in</strong> other cases led to the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> impos<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the midst<br />
<strong>of</strong> almost prist<strong>in</strong>e natural areas, like the<br />
Grand Chartreuse, France. <strong>The</strong> well<br />
known ‘Carmelitan deserts’ usually located<br />
<strong>in</strong> rugged and isolated natural<br />
areas, are a special type <strong>of</strong> hermiticbased<br />
landscape, established from<br />
the seventeenth century to host a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
number <strong>of</strong> temporary hermits <strong>in</strong><br />
solitary places <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong>, where a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> modern protected areas have<br />
been established, such as the Natural<br />
Parks <strong>of</strong> Desert de les Palmes and Las<br />
Batuecas (Ruiz & Husillos, 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> historical peak <strong>of</strong> monastic expansion<br />
varied among regions. While <strong>in</strong><br />
the Middle East, North Africa, and Ireland<br />
the zenith was reached <strong>in</strong> the fifth<br />
and sixth centuries, the apogee <strong>of</strong> monasticism<br />
<strong>in</strong> many Western and Central<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an countries was not reached<br />
until the eleventh to the fourteenth centuries;<br />
Russia also enjoyed its heyday<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1500–1600s. However the<br />
history <strong>of</strong> monasticism is not, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, one <strong>of</strong> steady evolution. Aside<br />
from occasional disruptions due to<br />
wars or pillage, the worse setbacks<br />
suffered by monastic communities <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong> came after the French Revolution<br />
(and the secularisation movements),<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth and<br />
twentieth centuries. For political or<br />
economic reasons, the governments <strong>of</strong><br />
many <strong>Europe</strong>an countries – liberal or<br />
communist – banned religious organisations<br />
or enforced severe prohibitions<br />
on their activities, usually confiscat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
monastic properties. As a result, many<br />
monasteries were abandoned, sacked<br />
or destroyed. <strong>The</strong>se measures had severe<br />
repercussions not only on monasticism<br />
itself, as is well known, but also<br />
on nature conservation – a fact which<br />
has been less well documented. Some<br />
monastic forests carefully managed for<br />
centuries were razed to the ground <strong>in</strong><br />
few decades (Urteaga, 1989), numerous<br />
traditional varieties <strong>of</strong> vegetables<br />
were lost, and much ‘traditional ecological<br />
knowledge’ and many related<br />
best practices, which had been prudently<br />
developed over centuries, were<br />
rapidly forgotten.<br />
Later, when the political situation improved,<br />
and a certa<strong>in</strong> tolerance for religion<br />
was redeveloped, a monastic resurgence<br />
occurred <strong>in</strong> most <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
countries, which led to the partial – <strong>in</strong><br />
most places – recovery <strong>of</strong> what had<br />
been lost.<br />
Nowadays, it is estimated that there are<br />
more than 5000 monastic communities<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the Middle East, and<br />
over 80 000 monks and nuns, clear<br />
pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> the amaz<strong>in</strong>g resilience <strong>of</strong> this<br />
161
way <strong>of</strong> life. This figure does not <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
the Catholic friar orders, which usually<br />
are located <strong>in</strong> urban areas, although<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them, like the Franciscans, had<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ally very tight bonds with nature.<br />
Currently, most <strong>of</strong> the former <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
communist countries are experienc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a recovery and/or expansion <strong>of</strong> monasticism,<br />
as can be seen <strong>in</strong> Belarus, Bulgaria,<br />
Romania, Russia, the Ukra<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
etc. <strong>The</strong> largest monastic population <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong> is actually to be found with<strong>in</strong><br />
the Natural Park <strong>of</strong> Vanatori-Neamt, <strong>in</strong><br />
northeast Romania, which <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
over 2000 monks and nuns (Catanoius,<br />
2007), organised <strong>in</strong> self-sufficient communities,<br />
either <strong>in</strong> monasteries or small<br />
monastic villages. New foundations<br />
are frequent, and the expansion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
historic monasteries is currently common<br />
<strong>in</strong> this part <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. On the other<br />
hand, the only monastic republic <strong>of</strong><br />
the world, Mount Athos (the Garden <strong>of</strong><br />
the Holy Virg<strong>in</strong>, as it is called by its <strong>in</strong>habitants),<br />
located <strong>in</strong> north-eastern<br />
Greece, reached its lowest ebb <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1970s. S<strong>in</strong>ce that time, however, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>take has been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g steadily,<br />
and it currently has about 1700 monks,<br />
with all its 20 autonomous monasteries<br />
fully restored (Speake, 2002).<br />
Despite the general trend <strong>of</strong> secularisation,<br />
and the decl<strong>in</strong>e that a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> monastic communities are still experienc<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
new monastic settlements are<br />
currently be<strong>in</strong>g established <strong>in</strong> different<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the Middle East<br />
(<strong>of</strong>ten with<strong>in</strong> protected areas), and new<br />
efforts are underway to recover and<br />
protect sacred natural sites. Some examples<br />
are briefly discussed below.<br />
• With<strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> protected areas <strong>of</strong> Romania<br />
new monastic settlements are<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g established, e.g. Skitul Sihla,<br />
Agapia Veche, etc. At the same<br />
time, new monastic villages are develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
around the old monasteries<br />
<strong>of</strong> Agapia and Varatec, these be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the largest monasteries <strong>of</strong> the Orthodox<br />
world and yet unable to cope<br />
with the large numbers <strong>of</strong> new<br />
aspirants.<br />
• Some monasteries <strong>in</strong> the Balkans are<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g restored, after many years or<br />
even centuries <strong>of</strong> neglect, e.g. those<br />
<strong>of</strong> Skadar Lake, Montenegro; moreover,<br />
some abandoned monasteries <strong>in</strong><br />
Muslim dom<strong>in</strong>ant countries are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
recovered, e.g. Mar Musa <strong>in</strong> Syria.<br />
• <strong>The</strong>re is an unexpected recovery and<br />
renewal <strong>of</strong> hermitism <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>of</strong> many <strong>Europe</strong>an countries,<br />
but, as well as <strong>in</strong> Lebanon, where for<br />
example <strong>in</strong> Ouadi Qashida (the Holy<br />
Valley) the Maronite Church’s spiritual<br />
cradle people from different religious<br />
backgrounds make retreats <strong>in</strong><br />
natural caves guided by Maronite<br />
nuns (Mngr Samir Mazloum, pers.<br />
comm.). In Italy alone it is estimated<br />
that over 300 hermits are permanently<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the wilderness, and over<br />
2000 temporary hermits take retreats<br />
<strong>in</strong> natural areas, stay<strong>in</strong>g there for a<br />
period that varies from a few months<br />
to a few years (Denwahl, 2004).<br />
• Several new Orthodox monasteries<br />
have been established <strong>in</strong> Western,<br />
culturally Catholic <strong>Europe</strong>an countries,<br />
such as the Solan, Sa<strong>in</strong>t Anto<strong>in</strong>e-le-Grand,<br />
and Cantauque monasteries<br />
<strong>in</strong> France.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> recovery and restoration <strong>of</strong> di-<br />
162
verse ancient Coptic monasteries <strong>in</strong><br />
desert areas, e.g. those <strong>of</strong> Wadi Mur,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Egypt.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> recent establishment <strong>of</strong> new monastic<br />
orders with ascetic lifestyles<br />
with<strong>in</strong> or very close to nature, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
referred as the Green Cathedral, e.g.<br />
the Little Sisters/Brothers <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Lamb, France, whose members live<br />
from alms.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> unexpected recovery <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
pilgrimage routes, connect<strong>in</strong>g old and<br />
new monasteries, e.g. a number <strong>of</strong><br />
branches <strong>of</strong> the Way <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t James<br />
(Cam<strong>in</strong>o de Santiago) <strong>in</strong> northern<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>, and many more <strong>in</strong> the Carpathians,<br />
Romania and Hungary.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> efforts by the<br />
Franciscan Custody <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Land, among others, to conserve<br />
sites sacred to Christianity, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
some outstand<strong>in</strong>g sacred natural<br />
sites, like Mount Tabor, the Mount <strong>of</strong><br />
the Bless<strong>in</strong>gs, or the shores <strong>of</strong> Lake<br />
Tiberias, threatened by development<br />
pressures and projects.<br />
Despite this impressive resurgence <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> monasticism and the value<br />
<strong>of</strong> community spiritual life <strong>in</strong> nature,<br />
one must also acknowledge the fact<br />
that dur<strong>in</strong>g the twentieth century a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g or new monastic<br />
communities adopted lifestyles not fully<br />
coherent with spiritual pr<strong>in</strong>ciples regard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nature and the environment.<br />
<strong>The</strong> reasons for this are diverse, and<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude such factors as the <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong><br />
the surround<strong>in</strong>g secular society, a lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> discernment concern<strong>in</strong>g the environmental<br />
and social impact <strong>of</strong> new<br />
technologies and practices, and <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
it must be admitted, an <strong>in</strong>sufficient theology<br />
<strong>of</strong> Creation.<br />
Nowadays, most monastic communities<br />
are aware <strong>of</strong> these contradictions<br />
and many are work<strong>in</strong>g to improve their<br />
coherency, follow<strong>in</strong>g the guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong><br />
their spiritual leaders. <strong>The</strong> size <strong>of</strong><br />
these communities may vary widely,<br />
from a few members to a few hundred<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals, either male or female, but<br />
usually are made <strong>of</strong> a few dozen men<br />
or women. <strong>The</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> self-sufficiency<br />
is widespread, especially<br />
among Orthodox and Coptic communities.<br />
In former times the same could<br />
be said <strong>of</strong> the monastic communities <strong>of</strong><br />
the Roman Church, but some have<br />
now abandoned manual labour for <strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />
work.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> leadership and vision, the<br />
highest spiritual authorities also have<br />
demonstrated a commitment to nature<br />
conservation. H.A.H. Bartholomew I is<br />
widely known as the ‘Green Patriarch’,<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g developed numerous and very<br />
significant <strong>in</strong>itiatives at different levels<br />
(Bartholomew I, 2003), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g some<br />
for improv<strong>in</strong>g the awareness <strong>of</strong> monastic<br />
communities <strong>of</strong> environmental issues<br />
(Nantsou, 2009), while the last<br />
two Catholic Popes have co<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
key concept <strong>of</strong> ‘ecological conversion’,<br />
<strong>in</strong>sist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> their messages on the need<br />
for a radical change <strong>of</strong> lifestyle to reduce<br />
consumption and <strong>in</strong>crease respect<br />
for Creation (Benedictus XVI,<br />
2010).<br />
In fact, monastic communities nowadays<br />
are <strong>in</strong> a very good position to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> or develop best practices re-<br />
163
lated to nature conservation. After all,<br />
such practices are part <strong>of</strong> their history,<br />
and most communities have kept records<br />
<strong>of</strong> this; and many monastic communities<br />
are produc<strong>in</strong>g very f<strong>in</strong>e organic<br />
products, such as cheese, beer,<br />
w<strong>in</strong>e, liqueur, herbal remedies, <strong>in</strong>cense,<br />
etc., or outstand<strong>in</strong>g quality<br />
crafts, like icons, rosaries, or pottery.<br />
Others are still engaged <strong>in</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
animal husbandry, fish<strong>in</strong>g or forestry.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these activities, naturally, presuppose<br />
a spiritual and ecologically responsible<br />
approach to the relationship<br />
between man and nature, which is, as<br />
we have seen, at the very heart <strong>of</strong> the<br />
monastic life.<br />
Values and pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
Christian monastic communities have<br />
been established for more than ten<br />
centuries <strong>in</strong> most <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the<br />
Middle East. <strong>The</strong>y are, without question,<br />
the oldest democratic and self-organised<br />
communities <strong>of</strong> this part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world to have a cont<strong>in</strong>uous positive impact<br />
on nature conservation. This significant,<br />
but <strong>of</strong>ten overlooked, historical<br />
fact can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed, <strong>in</strong> part, because<br />
monastic communities are<br />
based on pr<strong>in</strong>ciples which are deeply<br />
coherent with environmental susta<strong>in</strong>ability,<br />
such as:<br />
• Stability, discipl<strong>in</strong>e, asceticism, sobriety,<br />
‘poverty’<br />
• Reduc<strong>in</strong>g material needs; <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
time for prayer, contemplation and<br />
meditation<br />
• Orientation not to material pr<strong>of</strong>it, but<br />
to spiritual benefit<br />
• <strong>The</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> communal rather than<br />
private property; the concept <strong>of</strong><br />
monks as custodians or stewards,<br />
never owners<br />
• Cherished values which <strong>in</strong>clude: sacredness,<br />
silence, solitude, harmony,<br />
beauty<br />
• Aim<strong>in</strong>g for perfection, or excellence,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the spiritual and material doma<strong>in</strong>s<br />
• Creation/Nature as an image/manifestation<br />
<strong>of</strong> God/Div<strong>in</strong>ity/the <strong>Sacred</strong>,<br />
or as a Teacher. Creation as a gift to<br />
be safeguarded and bestowed on future<br />
generations<br />
• All natural liv<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>gs liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> permanent<br />
praise <strong>of</strong> their Creator<br />
<strong>The</strong> values that monastic communities<br />
embrace are, therefore, very removed<br />
from the ma<strong>in</strong>stream values <strong>of</strong> Western<br />
materialistic societies, and <strong>in</strong>deed <strong>in</strong><br />
this sense the monks may be said to<br />
share common ground with most traditional<br />
communities or <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
Some have criticised the <strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>of</strong><br />
monastic communities for ‘abandon<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the world’, which is <strong>of</strong> course partially<br />
true, but what is even more true is the<br />
fact that seclud<strong>in</strong>g themselves from<br />
society, these men and women strive<br />
to live <strong>in</strong> spiritual communion not only<br />
with other human be<strong>in</strong>gs, but with the<br />
entire existence. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the authorities<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Mar Mousa monastery,<br />
Syria, ‘the second priority is Evangelical<br />
simplicity, a way for liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> harmony<br />
and complete responsibility with the<br />
Creation and the society that surround<br />
us (...) with an aesthetic <strong>of</strong> justice and<br />
gratification’ (excerpt from the <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
web site).<br />
164
<strong>The</strong>refore, ‘the actuality <strong>of</strong> monasticism<br />
is that – like it or not – it embodies with<strong>in</strong><br />
the religion that which is <strong>of</strong> a spiritual<br />
and contemplative essence, extreme<br />
and absolute (…), [that which]<br />
shows to the world that happ<strong>in</strong>ess is<br />
not <strong>in</strong> some remote place, outside ourselves<br />
(...) but now and here, where we<br />
are with God. In the face <strong>of</strong> a dehumanised<br />
world, the monk represents<br />
what our true measures are’ (Schuon,<br />
1967).<br />
Except for a few orders that have chosen<br />
to rema<strong>in</strong> completely silent, like<br />
the Carthusians, most monastic communities<br />
use a variety <strong>of</strong> tools and<br />
strategies to communicate their values<br />
to society, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the way they understand<br />
the Creation and their virtuous<br />
relationship with all liv<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y may choose to use traditional<br />
channels, new technologies, or both,<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on orders, context and circumstances,<br />
although they usually aim<br />
at exclusive audiences. Traditional religious<br />
tools, like retreats, sem<strong>in</strong>ars,<br />
counsell<strong>in</strong>g, publication <strong>of</strong> books, articles,<br />
and sacred art, are <strong>of</strong>ten comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with modern tools, like symposia,<br />
websites (see a short selection<br />
below), DVDs, CDs, guided tours, <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
centres, etc. Although few<br />
monasteries have explicit communication<br />
goals related to nature conservation,<br />
it is <strong>in</strong>disputable that all the values<br />
they communicate (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
own example) have a positive impact<br />
on their target audience, by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
respect for nature and encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
others to adopt simpler, more susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
lifestyles.<br />
Protected areas and monastic<br />
communities: diversity <strong>of</strong><br />
contexts<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the oldest and largest rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
monastic lands <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> are<br />
found <strong>in</strong>side protected areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
value (like the Natura 2000<br />
network, established by the <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Union based on bioregional criteria),<br />
such as the entire Athos pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>in</strong><br />
Greece, or Sa<strong>in</strong>t Otilia <strong>in</strong> Germany. Indeed,<br />
many monastic lands are effectively<br />
managed as protected areas,<br />
even without designation, as clear examples<br />
<strong>of</strong> community-conserved areas.<br />
Some protected areas have been<br />
promoted or created by monastic authorities,<br />
such as the Natural Park <strong>of</strong><br />
Rila, Bulgaria, nested <strong>in</strong>side the national<br />
park, or the Natural Area <strong>of</strong> National<br />
Significance <strong>of</strong> Poblet, Spa<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Land ownership is partially be<strong>in</strong>g devolved<br />
to some monastic communities<br />
<strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the former communist countries,<br />
which may <strong>in</strong>clude portions <strong>of</strong> already<br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g protected areas, such<br />
as <strong>in</strong> the Natural Park <strong>of</strong> Vanatori-Neamt,<br />
Romania, or <strong>in</strong> the National Park <strong>of</strong><br />
Rila, Bulgaria.<br />
Some monastic communities have<br />
been recover<strong>in</strong>g sacred sites, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sacred natural sites, like the Franciscan<br />
Custody <strong>of</strong> the Holy Land, that<br />
manages numerous sacred sites <strong>in</strong> Israel/Palest<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
Jordan, Syria, Lebanon,<br />
Egypt, Cyprus, and Greece, or the<br />
Benedict<strong>in</strong>es who manage a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> calvaries, like the landscape complex<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, <strong>in</strong> Poland,<br />
a World Heritage Site. Other mo-<br />
165
nastic communities are at the service<br />
<strong>of</strong> pilgrimages, like the Way <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />
James (the first pilgrimage <strong>in</strong> the world<br />
to become a World Heritage Site),<br />
which stretches for more than one<br />
thousand kilometres through Northern<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>, foster<strong>in</strong>g the development <strong>of</strong><br />
numerous protected areas along the<br />
way (Mallarach, 2005).<br />
On the other hand, protected areas <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
monastic communities have<br />
very diverse ownership and governance<br />
systems and styles, <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
boards, plann<strong>in</strong>g and management<br />
regulations, public use requirements,<br />
etc. For <strong>in</strong>stance, the territory <strong>of</strong> Mount<br />
Athos is the largest Natura 2000 and<br />
Mixed World Heritage Site <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
fully managed by monastic communities.<br />
In most cases, however, monastic<br />
communities are not allowed to participate<br />
<strong>in</strong> the boards <strong>of</strong> governance.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Natural Park <strong>of</strong> Montserrat, Spa<strong>in</strong>,<br />
where the Abbot <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> monastery<br />
is the Vice-President <strong>of</strong> the Board, or the<br />
Poblet Nature Reserve, Spa<strong>in</strong>, where<br />
the Prior <strong>of</strong> the Monastery <strong>of</strong> Poblet was<br />
recently elected President <strong>of</strong> the Board,<br />
are quite exceptional, but could be replicated<br />
<strong>in</strong> other protected areas with monastic<br />
communities. Of all the <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
and Middle East Christian monasteries<br />
that have been declared Cultural and/or<br />
Natural-Cultural World Heritage Sites by<br />
UNESCO, only 40 per cent <strong>of</strong> them are<br />
managed by monastic communities, the<br />
rest be<strong>in</strong>g managed by governmental<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions responsible for cultural heritage.<br />
Such <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>of</strong>ten consider<br />
monastic complexes as museums or<br />
cultural facilities.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, another trend that needs to be<br />
addressed when discuss<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
context is the recent creation <strong>of</strong><br />
some Buddhist monasteries (mostly related<br />
to Zen and Tibetan Buddhism) to<br />
which an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g number <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>ans<br />
feel attracted. Almost all <strong>of</strong><br />
these new monasteries are very committed<br />
towards nature conservation<br />
and environmental respect. At the<br />
same time, however, there is an <strong>in</strong>trigu<strong>in</strong>g<br />
complementary trend: the creation<br />
<strong>of</strong> new Roman Catholic monasteries <strong>in</strong><br />
Asian countries, such as Vietnam or<br />
Korea, where Buddhism has been the<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ant religion for many centuries.<br />
Positive trends<br />
From the environmental po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view, a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> significant positive trends<br />
can be identified among the monastic<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the Middle<br />
East dur<strong>in</strong>g the last years. A selection<br />
<strong>of</strong> these trends, each with a few examples,<br />
is briefly discussed next.<br />
• Development <strong>of</strong> organic farm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> numerous<br />
monasteries, such as the Rieunette<br />
and Solan monasteries, France;<br />
Hosios Lukas and Chrysopigi monasteries,<br />
Greece; Santa Croce <strong>in</strong> Gerusalemme,<br />
Italy; Solan, France, and many<br />
monasteries <strong>of</strong> Romania, guided by<br />
Pierre Rabhi, the French leader and<br />
activist on organic farm<strong>in</strong>g, under the<br />
patronage <strong>of</strong> the Orthodox Patriarch <strong>of</strong><br />
Romania (Rabhi, 1996). Other monasteries<br />
like those <strong>of</strong> Frauenthal and<br />
Hauterive Switzerland, or Cystersów,<br />
Poland, have been develop<strong>in</strong>g best<br />
practices <strong>in</strong> animal husbandry.<br />
166
<strong>The</strong> Holy Island <strong>of</strong> Arran, UK. Tibetan Buddhist Pilgrimages walk<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> silence across the hills<br />
have become a feature <strong>of</strong> this Scottish landscape.<br />
• Development <strong>of</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able practices<br />
on forestry, for <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>in</strong>vert<strong>in</strong>g<br />
coppice oak wood to high forest,<br />
comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g susta<strong>in</strong>ed yield with biodiversity<br />
and beauty concerns, such<br />
as <strong>in</strong> Simonopetra Monastery, Mount<br />
Athos (Kakouros, 2010), or Stift Heiligenkreuz,<br />
Austria.<br />
• Sensitis<strong>in</strong>g visitors vis-à-vis nature<br />
and the environment, e.g. <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spiritual pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and connect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spirituality and nature <strong>in</strong> all educational<br />
and retreat activities, for <strong>in</strong>stance<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Buddhist monasteries<br />
<strong>of</strong> Plum Village, France, or the Holy<br />
Island <strong>of</strong> Arran, United K<strong>in</strong>gdom, and<br />
the monasteries <strong>of</strong> Camaldoli, Italy,<br />
and the Virg<strong>in</strong> Mary <strong>of</strong> Rodia,<br />
Greece; Solan, France; plus a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-religious <strong>in</strong>itiatives, like<br />
the Ecosite <strong>of</strong> Avalon developed by<br />
the Institute Karma L<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> France.<br />
• Reduc<strong>in</strong>g fossil fuel use as much as<br />
possible, sometimes with the explicit<br />
goal to reach zero consumption and<br />
emissions, e.g. Münsterschwarzach<br />
or Marienstatt <strong>in</strong> Germany; establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
or ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g efficient water<br />
management, e.g. monasteries <strong>of</strong><br />
Wadi el-Natroun, Egypt; or <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
strict environmental criteria <strong>in</strong> all new<br />
monastic build<strong>in</strong>gs, such as the monasteries<br />
<strong>of</strong> Siloe, Italy, and Himmerod,<br />
Germany.<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g, restor<strong>in</strong>g or adapt<strong>in</strong>g hermitages<br />
or places for retreats with<strong>in</strong><br />
protected areas, provid<strong>in</strong>g an additional<br />
layer <strong>of</strong> protection, e.g. Les Ermites<br />
de Marie, with<strong>in</strong> the Nature<br />
2000 site <strong>of</strong> Les Albères, France.<br />
• Restor<strong>in</strong>g ancient medic<strong>in</strong>al gardens<br />
and old herbal pharmaceutical remedies<br />
and processes, e.g. <strong>in</strong> Vatopedi,<br />
Mount Athos or Stična and Prečastiti<br />
Gospod Opat Janez Nowak, Slovenia.<br />
• Includ<strong>in</strong>g spiritual pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong> the<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g and management <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas, e.g. <strong>in</strong> Poblet, Spa<strong>in</strong>,<br />
167
and Rila, Bulgaria. <strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> aim <strong>of</strong><br />
the Natural Park <strong>of</strong> Rila is ‘to guarantee<br />
and preserve the holy unity between<br />
nature and the Monastery,<br />
[and] its rebirth as spiritual and cultural<br />
centre <strong>of</strong> the country’.<br />
• It is also worth not<strong>in</strong>g the creation <strong>of</strong><br />
new monastic orders with<strong>in</strong> the Roman<br />
Church go<strong>in</strong>g back to their<br />
Christian roots, emphasis<strong>in</strong>g harmony<br />
with nature, simplicity, and life <strong>in</strong><br />
nature, with m<strong>in</strong>imal resources and<br />
impact, like the Monastic family <strong>of</strong><br />
Bethlehem (a new formulation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Carthusians); the Little Sisters/Brothers<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Lamb, or the Franciscan<br />
Friars <strong>of</strong> the Renewal.<br />
• Some monastic communities have<br />
decided mov<strong>in</strong>g from urban sett<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
to protected areas, to develop an<br />
eco-friendly lifestyle, such as the<br />
Benedict<strong>in</strong>e Stanbrook Abbey that<br />
moved to North York Moore National<br />
Park, England.<br />
• At the same time, an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the<br />
theology <strong>of</strong> nature has blossomed,<br />
as has also the dialogue between<br />
science, specially frontier discipl<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
and theology. <strong>The</strong>se trends<br />
are not conf<strong>in</strong>ed to <strong>Europe</strong> or the<br />
Middle East, but are more or less<br />
global. For <strong>in</strong>stance, it is noteworthy<br />
that the theme <strong>of</strong> the third Inter-religious<br />
Dialogue between Christian<br />
and Buddhist monastic orders held<br />
<strong>in</strong> the monastery <strong>of</strong> Gethsemani,<br />
Kentucky, USA, <strong>in</strong> 2008, was ‘Monasticism<br />
and the Environment’ (Mitchell<br />
& Skudlarek, 2010). It is appropriate<br />
to recall that the Benedict<strong>in</strong>e Community<br />
<strong>of</strong> Montserrat welcomed the<br />
first workshops <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative,<br />
and that the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
workshop were the first jo<strong>in</strong>t publication<br />
between the Abbey <strong>of</strong> Montserrat<br />
– which has the oldest pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g<br />
house <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> – and <strong>IUCN</strong>, a clear<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> cooperation (Mallarach, & Papayannis,<br />
2007)<br />
<strong>The</strong> Vatopedi Monastery, Athos, Greece. To feed the large vegetarian community <strong>of</strong> the monastery<br />
and her guests, the large greenhouse, heated with wood from nearby forests, makes<br />
vegetable production possible dur<strong>in</strong>g the long w<strong>in</strong>ter.<br />
168
Conclusion<br />
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
resources by monastic communities<br />
<strong>in</strong> diverse ecosystems, throughout<br />
history, is <strong>of</strong> great <strong>in</strong>terest from a nature<br />
conservation po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view. Such<br />
an analysis provides one <strong>of</strong> the best<br />
documented examples, <strong>in</strong> this part <strong>of</strong><br />
the world, <strong>of</strong> effectively managed community-conserved<br />
areas that have created,<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed for centuries, a<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> beautiful, harmonious, productive<br />
and biodiverse landscapes, <strong>in</strong><br />
very different ecosystems, from the<br />
Arctic to the tropics.<br />
In particular, those concerned with<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong> Category V – Protected <strong>Lands</strong>capes<br />
– could benefit greatly from the<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> monastic communities<br />
over the ages <strong>in</strong> the management <strong>of</strong><br />
forests, pastures, and croplands, not<br />
to mention the use <strong>of</strong> renewal energy,<br />
<strong>in</strong> particular, hydro-power.<br />
Furthermore, the renewed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />
environmental coherence <strong>of</strong> many<br />
Christian – and also Buddhist – monasteries<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and Middle East is a<br />
promis<strong>in</strong>g trend. <strong>The</strong>ir message,<br />
grounded <strong>in</strong> solid spiritual pr<strong>in</strong>ciples,<br />
and extensive traditional management<br />
practices that cover many centuries,<br />
provides a liv<strong>in</strong>g example <strong>of</strong> resilient<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able life for many other communities<br />
to follow.<br />
For all these reasons, the conservation<br />
community ought to pay more attention<br />
to this endur<strong>in</strong>g class <strong>of</strong> community<br />
conserved areas, to identify the lessons<br />
that may be learned for other protected<br />
landscapes <strong>in</strong> general, as well<br />
as for other types <strong>of</strong> protected areas,<br />
especially those with religious or spiritual<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g or significance, such as<br />
sacred natural sites or sacred landscapes.<br />
In particular, the practices that<br />
many monastic communities have developed<br />
so as to be as coherent as<br />
possible from an environmental po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
<strong>of</strong> view, with<strong>in</strong> technologically developed<br />
countries that are ostensibly follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
opposite trends, should be encouraged<br />
and widely dissem<strong>in</strong>ated.<br />
169
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Selected websites<br />
Carmelitan Desert <strong>of</strong> Las Palmas http://www.desiertodelaspalmas.com/<br />
Franciscan Custody <strong>of</strong> the Holy Land: http://198.62.75.4/opt/xampp/custodia<br />
Ecosite Avalon: http://www.rimay.net/spip.php?page=sommaireECO<br />
Holy Island <strong>of</strong> Arran: http://www.holyisland.org/<br />
Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas. http://www.iccaforum.org/<br />
Monastère de Solan. http://www.monasteredesolan.com<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Anthony, Egypt: http://stantonymonastery.com/<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Mar Musa, Syria: http://www.deirmarmusa.org<br />
Hermitism: http://www.hermitary.com/<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Camaldoli: http://www.camaldoli.it/<br />
Münsterschwarzach: http://www.abtei-muensterschwarzach.de/ams/kloster/konventl<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Macarius the Great, Egypt: http://www.stmacariusmonastery.<br />
org/<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Cantauque: http://www.monastere-cantauque.com/englishl<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Poblet: www.poblet.cat/<br />
Monastic Inter-religious Dialogue on the Environment, 2008: http://monasticdialog.<br />
com/conference.php?id=117<br />
Monastery <strong>of</strong> Plum Village: http://www.plumvillage.org/<br />
Monastic Orders and Monasteries: http://www.religiousworlds.com/mystic/orders.<br />
html<br />
Stanbrook Abbey: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/oct/30/<br />
stanbrook-abbey-eco-friendly-nuns.<br />
172
Acknowledgements<br />
I am deeply <strong>in</strong>debted to the follow<strong>in</strong>g people:<br />
Br Carles-Xavier Noriega, O.S.B. Montserrat Monastery, Spa<strong>in</strong>: Benedict<strong>in</strong>e monasteries<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>.<br />
Fr Artemio Vitores, O.C: Catholic Franciscan Custody <strong>of</strong> the Holy Land, Jerusalem,<br />
Israel.<br />
Fr Lluc Torcal, O.C, Poblet Monastery, Spa<strong>in</strong>: Cistercian monasteries <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>.<br />
Fr Peter Hughes: Catholic monasteries <strong>of</strong> Italy.<br />
Fr Samuel, Cantauque monastery: Orthodox monasteries <strong>of</strong> France.<br />
Fr Ignacio Husillos Tamarit, OCD: Carmelitan monastery <strong>of</strong> Desert de Les Palmes,<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>.<br />
HM Makarios, Holy Monastery <strong>of</strong> Simonopetra: Orthodox monasticism and nature.<br />
HM Maximos: Holy Monastery <strong>of</strong> Simonopetra, Athos, Greece.<br />
Mngr Samir Mazloum: Maronite Patriarchate, Qadisha Valley, Lebanon.<br />
Mother Hypandia: Orthodox Monastery <strong>of</strong> Solan, France.<br />
Mr Sebastian Catanoiu, Vanatory-Neamt Natural Park: Orthodox monasteries <strong>of</strong><br />
Romania.<br />
Mr Vangel Agramov, Rila Natural Park: Orthodox Monastery <strong>of</strong> Rila, Bulgaria.<br />
Ms Anne McIvor: Plum Village Zen Monastery, France.<br />
Ms Chiara Serenelli: Loreto pilgrimage and related monasteries, Italy.<br />
Ms Isabel Soria: Carmelitan monasteries <strong>of</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong>, and the Holy Island <strong>of</strong> Arran,<br />
Scotland, Tibetan Buddhist retreat centre.<br />
Ms Marie Helène Faure: Orthodox Monastery <strong>of</strong> Cantauque, France.<br />
Ms Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac: Orthodox monasteries <strong>of</strong> Serbia and Montenegro.<br />
Sr Nicodème: Orthodox Monastery <strong>of</strong> Solan / Tour du Valat.<br />
Sr Odile: Cistercian Abbey <strong>of</strong> Rieunette, France.<br />
173
174
Manag<strong>in</strong>g the heritage <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos<br />
Thymio Papayannis 1<br />
Introduction<br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritual, cultural and natural heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mt Athos dates back to the end<br />
<strong>of</strong> the first millennium AD, through ten<br />
centuries <strong>of</strong> un<strong>in</strong>terrupted monastic life,<br />
and is still vibrant <strong>in</strong> the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
the third millennium. <strong>The</strong> twenty Christian<br />
Orthodox sacred monasteries that<br />
share the Athonite pen<strong>in</strong>sula – <strong>in</strong><br />
Halkidiki to the East <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>ssaloniki –<br />
are quite diverse. Established dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Byzant<strong>in</strong>e times, and <strong>in</strong>spired by<br />
the monastic traditions <strong>of</strong> Eastern Christianity,<br />
they have developed through the<br />
ages <strong>in</strong> parallel paths and even have<br />
different ethnic backgrounds with<br />
Greek, Russian, Serbian, Bulgarian and<br />
< <strong>The</strong> approach to the Stavronikita Monastery.<br />
Cypriot monastic communities (Tachiaios,<br />
2006). Yet all the monks on Mt<br />
Athos are recognised as citizens <strong>of</strong><br />
Greece resid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a self-governed part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the country (Kadas, 2002).<br />
Already <strong>in</strong> 885 Emperor Basil I declared<br />
Mt Athos as ‘…a place <strong>of</strong> monks,<br />
where no laymen nor farmers nor cattle-breeders<br />
were allowed to settle’.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the Byzant<strong>in</strong>e Period a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> great monasteries were established<br />
<strong>in</strong> the area. <strong>The</strong> time <strong>of</strong> prosperity for<br />
the monasteries cont<strong>in</strong>ued even <strong>in</strong> the<br />
early Ottoman Empire period. However,<br />
the heavy taxation gradually <strong>in</strong>flicted<br />
on them led to an economic crisis dur-<br />
1 <strong>The</strong> views <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this paper are <strong>of</strong> its author<br />
and do not represent necessarily those <strong>of</strong><br />
the Holy Community <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos.<br />
175
Cape Arapis<br />
Chilandariou<br />
Esfigmenou<br />
Ouranoupoli<br />
Cape Agios <strong>The</strong>odori<br />
Frangokastello<br />
Vatopediou<br />
Pantokratoros<br />
Zografou<br />
Stavronikita<br />
Konstamonitou Karyes<br />
Dovhiariou<br />
Koutloumousion<br />
Xen<strong>of</strong>ondos<br />
Iviron<br />
Agiou Panteleimonos<br />
Philotheo<br />
Dafni<br />
Xiropotamou<br />
Karakalou<br />
Simonos Petras<br />
Megistis<br />
Osiou Grigoriou<br />
Lavra<br />
Dionysiou Mt Athos<br />
Agiou Pavlou<br />
Cape<br />
Timiou Prodros<br />
Cape P<strong>in</strong>es<br />
<strong>in</strong>g the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries<br />
and made them abandon the<br />
coenobitic and embrace the idiorrhythmic<br />
system (where monks come together<br />
but are able to own th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong>dividually<br />
and not be<strong>in</strong>g obliged to work<br />
for the common good). Despite their<br />
impoverished situation dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
eighteenth century, Mt Athos took a<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g role <strong>in</strong> the Greek enlightenment,<br />
found<strong>in</strong>g the Athonite Academy<br />
near Vatopedi Monastery (<strong>The</strong>odorou<br />
and Dana, 2003). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the Greek<br />
War <strong>of</strong> Independence <strong>in</strong> the early n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century, the Holy Mounta<strong>in</strong> became<br />
a shelter for the suffer<strong>in</strong>g Greek<br />
population, and was plundered by the<br />
Ottomans. After the end <strong>of</strong> the war,<br />
many Slavonic countries <strong>in</strong> an attempt<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease their <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> the area<br />
donated large sums <strong>of</strong> money to rebuild<br />
old monasteries and the numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monks <strong>in</strong>creased. <strong>The</strong> world<br />
wars and the civil war that followed dim<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
their numbers considerately.<br />
Near the end <strong>of</strong> the twentieth century,<br />
Mt Athos monasticism experienced a<br />
re-vitalisation through an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong><br />
younger and well-educated monks (Sideropoulos,<br />
2000) whose number has<br />
been doubled dur<strong>in</strong>g the past forty<br />
years. It is up to them to cont<strong>in</strong>ue the<br />
spiritual traditions <strong>of</strong> the area dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the third millennium.<br />
<strong>The</strong> heritage <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos<br />
It is important to note that the heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mt Athos is multiple and <strong>in</strong>tegrated,<br />
and that it is <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong> a liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
millennial tradition (Smyrnakis, 1903).<br />
In parallel, this tradition is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
while the monastic communities <strong>of</strong><br />
Athos adapt contemporary techniques<br />
to their needs. Thus, state-<strong>of</strong>-the-art<br />
methods are be<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>in</strong> restor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and protect<strong>in</strong>g priceless icons and ancient<br />
manuscripts, while the monks<br />
use mobile telephony and the <strong>in</strong>ternet<br />
to communicate, although their use is<br />
<strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciple restricted.<br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritual heritage <strong>of</strong> the area orig<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
from the Byzant<strong>in</strong>e Orthodox tradition<br />
with the Ecumenical Patriarch <strong>of</strong><br />
Constant<strong>in</strong>ople still ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
spiritual leadership <strong>of</strong> Athos (Papachrysanthou,<br />
1992). <strong>The</strong> strong religious<br />
faith <strong>of</strong> the monks and their devotion<br />
to ascetic life dedicated to prayer<br />
is an <strong>in</strong>spiration for the Christian Orthodox<br />
faithful, which is estimated now to<br />
200-250 million people distributed <strong>in</strong><br />
many countries (McGuck<strong>in</strong>, 2011).<br />
Part <strong>of</strong> this spiritual tradition is the avaton,<br />
which forbids the entrance <strong>of</strong> women<br />
and children, as well as female animals<br />
to Mt Athos. S<strong>in</strong>ce its <strong>of</strong>ficial establishment<br />
<strong>in</strong> 969 AD by Ioannis Tsi-<br />
176
miskis, the area has been dedicated to<br />
the Virg<strong>in</strong> Mary and has been known as<br />
Her ‘little garden’. Thus, no other woman<br />
has ever been allowed to enter.<br />
<strong>The</strong> cultural heritage consists <strong>of</strong> a<br />
unique architecture, which melds<br />
many different styles from various epochs<br />
and countries, perfectly <strong>in</strong> harmony<br />
with each other and very well <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the rich natural environment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. It is<br />
complemented by <strong>in</strong>valuable collections<br />
<strong>of</strong> artefacts, frescoes and icons,<br />
manuscripts and old editions, objects<br />
<strong>of</strong> religious art and other precious gifts<br />
from devout leaders and pilgrims. Most<br />
<strong>of</strong> these are now properly ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />
although fires and <strong>in</strong>sensitive restorations<br />
have caused occasionally serious<br />
damage (Papayannis, 2007).<br />
<strong>The</strong> natural heritage is also unique due<br />
to a rapid succession <strong>of</strong> diverse climatic<br />
conditions and ecosystems from Mediterranean<br />
along the coasts to alp<strong>in</strong>e at<br />
the tip <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos, which exceeds 2000<br />
m (Ganiatsas, 2003). <strong>The</strong> variety <strong>of</strong> climate<br />
types provides a habitat for a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> plant and animal species, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
quite a few endemic to the region<br />
(Kakouros, 2006). <strong>The</strong> absence <strong>of</strong><br />
graz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the entire pen<strong>in</strong>sula has allowed<br />
the existence <strong>of</strong> a dense forest, <strong>of</strong><br />
deciduous and coniferous and maquis<br />
vegetation (Dafis et al., 1996).<br />
That is why Mt Athos has been recognised<br />
by UNESCO as a Mixed World<br />
Heritage property for both nature and<br />
culture <strong>in</strong> September 1988. <strong>The</strong> entire<br />
area has been <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the Natura<br />
2000 <strong>Europe</strong>an Union network <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas, both for its habitats and<br />
birds. Both <strong>of</strong> these designations have<br />
been proposed unilaterally by the<br />
Greek State, without the participation<br />
and the agreement <strong>of</strong> the monastic<br />
communities and have been approved<br />
by the World Heritage Committee and<br />
the <strong>Europe</strong>an Commission. <strong>The</strong> Holy<br />
Community <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos has accepted<br />
these designations ipso facto, but only<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the historic and legal framework<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>ner courtyard <strong>of</strong> the Vatopedi Monastery.<br />
177
Management responsibilities<br />
<strong>The</strong> requirements <strong>of</strong> the two protection<br />
regimes under UNESCO and the <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Union have created occasional<br />
friction between government services<br />
and the Mt Athos authorities, who feel<br />
strongly that they have the full responsibilities<br />
for the management <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula. This is based on<br />
the long tradition <strong>of</strong> the area, and has<br />
been recognised by the Decree<br />
10/16.09.1926 on the ratification <strong>of</strong> ‘the<br />
Constitutional Charter <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos’, as<br />
well as by article 105, paragraphs 1–3,<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Greek Constitution. It is also recognised<br />
by the 1981 Treaty <strong>of</strong> adhesion<br />
<strong>of</strong> Greece <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Europe</strong>an Union,<br />
which recognises Mt Athos as part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an Union member state, but<br />
with certa<strong>in</strong> special considerations.<br />
In accordance with the exist<strong>in</strong>g legal<br />
framework, Mt Athos is governed by the<br />
Holy Community, which consists <strong>of</strong> representatives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the 20 monasteries <strong>in</strong><br />
the area. Each monastery has jurisdiction<br />
for the management <strong>of</strong> their property,<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> general matters, however, are<br />
decided at the level <strong>of</strong> the Holy Community,<br />
such as open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> roads, or<br />
entry <strong>of</strong> automobiles for the transport <strong>of</strong><br />
goods and people. For major matters,<br />
the Holy Community meets with 20 Abbots<br />
also participat<strong>in</strong>g (Elissaios, 2007).<br />
<strong>The</strong> State is represented by a Governor<br />
– appo<strong>in</strong>ted by the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Foreign<br />
Affairs – who is responsible for<br />
security matters and the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Greek laws.<br />
In this context, the diachronic views <strong>of</strong><br />
the Holy Community <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos are<br />
clearly presented <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g excerpt<br />
from a letter sent to UNESCO <strong>in</strong><br />
October 2010:<br />
‘Naturally, the monks <strong>of</strong> Mount<br />
Athos are themselves the unremunerated<br />
custodians, protectors, and<br />
preservers <strong>of</strong> the pen<strong>in</strong>sula’s natural<br />
and cultural treasures. <strong>The</strong>y are,<br />
<strong>in</strong> addition, the bearers and practitioners<br />
<strong>of</strong> a spirituality that is both<br />
traditional and contemporary; they<br />
are the ones who live <strong>in</strong> and shape<br />
the <strong>in</strong>stitutions and established orders.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Athonite adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
authorities (the Holy Community<br />
and the Twenty Holy Monasteries),<br />
manage their own affairs and struggle<br />
to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>stitutions and<br />
traditions. From their own funds, but<br />
occasionally with state and private<br />
grants, they care for the various<br />
monuments, and, either through<br />
services that they organize, or that<br />
they entrust to outside collaborators,<br />
they oversee various studies<br />
and restoration projects, plans for<br />
the management <strong>of</strong> the environment,<br />
and, with the cooperation<br />
and approval <strong>of</strong> the appropriate<br />
government services, they see that<br />
these projects are carried out.’<br />
<strong>The</strong> relations <strong>of</strong> Greece with UNESCO<br />
for all World Heritage Convention matters<br />
have been ensured through the<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Culture and the Permanent<br />
Delegation <strong>of</strong> Greece to UNESCO. Often<br />
the Holy Community has been ignored,<br />
while the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> the Environment<br />
(responsible for nature protection)<br />
has shown little <strong>in</strong>volvement.<br />
This has been strongly protested by<br />
178
the Athos authorities who have attempted<br />
to communicate directly with<br />
the World Heritage Committee with<br />
mixed results. It should be noted that<br />
<strong>in</strong> spite <strong>of</strong> recommendations from the<br />
World Heritage Committee, the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Culture and the Holy Community<br />
have been submitt<strong>in</strong>g separate reports<br />
on the conditions <strong>of</strong> the Mt Athos site<br />
(Holy Community, 2008). However, recently<br />
there has been progress towards<br />
a better understand<strong>in</strong>g and collaboration<br />
on all sides.<br />
Thus, <strong>in</strong> November 2010, at the <strong>in</strong>vitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> UNESCO and the Government <strong>of</strong><br />
Ukra<strong>in</strong>e, the Holy Community participated<br />
formally <strong>in</strong> a workshop on the role<br />
<strong>of</strong> religious communities <strong>in</strong> the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> World Heritage Sites with religious<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g. In January 2011, the<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Culture <strong>of</strong> Greece <strong>in</strong>vited the<br />
Coord<strong>in</strong>ator <strong>of</strong> the Athos Study to participate<br />
<strong>in</strong> a workshop on the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Greek World Heritage properties.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, on 2–5 June 2011, Francesco<br />
Bandarín, Assistant Director-<br />
General <strong>of</strong> UNESCO was the first World<br />
Heritage <strong>of</strong>ficial to visit Mt Athos at the<br />
<strong>in</strong>vitation <strong>of</strong> the Holy Community.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated management<br />
study<br />
Objectives<br />
It should be clear that the <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
management study for the Mt Athos<br />
spiritual, cultural and natural heritage<br />
has been requested by the World Heritage<br />
Committee, after a fact-f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mission <strong>in</strong> 2006 (UNESCO, 2006).<br />
Thus, decision WHC-06/30.COM/7B <strong>of</strong><br />
the Committee meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Paris <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
‘<strong>The</strong> highest priority for improvement<br />
<strong>of</strong> conservation <strong>of</strong> the World<br />
Heritage property is the preparation,<br />
approval and implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated and multi-discipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
management plan for the entire<br />
area <strong>of</strong> Mt. Athos, which should<br />
cover the follow<strong>in</strong>g issues:<br />
• Evaluation <strong>of</strong> the current situation,<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the coexistence<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature and spirituality/culture<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mt. Athos s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
end <strong>of</strong> the first millennium, and<br />
the legitimate needs <strong>of</strong> the Monastic<br />
Brotherhoods;<br />
• Circulation and transportation<br />
network <strong>of</strong> Mt. Athos;<br />
• Integrated management <strong>of</strong> the<br />
natural environment;<br />
• Susta<strong>in</strong>able management <strong>of</strong> the<br />
forests;<br />
• Protection <strong>of</strong> the property with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
cultural landscape perspective;<br />
• Resolution <strong>of</strong> the problem <strong>of</strong> solid<br />
and liquid wastes;<br />
• Improv<strong>in</strong>g management <strong>of</strong> risks,<br />
especially <strong>of</strong> fires and earthquakes,<br />
as well as eventual impacts<br />
from climate change;<br />
• <strong>The</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
consistent approach to conservation<br />
decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g from monastery<br />
to monastery.’<br />
However, the monastic authorities <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Athos have accepted will<strong>in</strong>gly this recommendation<br />
as they believed it would<br />
contribute to the effective conservation<br />
179
<strong>of</strong> the Athonite heritage and would also<br />
strengthen their claims for responsible<br />
management, with full respect to the<br />
national legislation and the acquis communautaire.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y also recognise that<br />
the spiritual, cultural and natural heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> the area is <strong>in</strong>extricably <strong>in</strong>terrelated<br />
and this necessitates its <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
and systematic management.<br />
Structure<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mt Athos study will, therefore, address<br />
a variety <strong>of</strong> issues, among which<br />
are the follow<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
It would start with an honest and objective<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> contemporary<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> the Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula on<br />
all heritage aspects. <strong>The</strong>se would <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
not only positive development,<br />
but also threats to heritage and problems<br />
to be faced. It would also identify<br />
the human and f<strong>in</strong>ancial resources<br />
available for the eventual needs <strong>of</strong> effective<br />
management.<br />
A key issue would be the study <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
land use for worship, habitation,<br />
and productive activities, especially for<br />
the cultivations and forestry, energy<br />
production and <strong>in</strong>frastructure networks.<br />
Future needs will be analysed<br />
and proposals for the future distribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> land use will be developed.<br />
Transport and communication for access<br />
to Mt Athos and with<strong>in</strong> its boundaries<br />
will have to be reconsidered, so<br />
that it serves efficiently the daily needs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monastic communities and the<br />
visitors. It should also be economical<br />
<strong>in</strong> energy and reduces pollution and<br />
noise, while ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a peaceful milieu,<br />
which is an imperative requirement<br />
for worship and ascetic life.<br />
A major productive activity, forestry <strong>in</strong><br />
Mt Athos has been practiced <strong>in</strong> traditional<br />
ways. However, <strong>in</strong> recent times<br />
social and f<strong>in</strong>ancial developments <strong>in</strong><br />
Greece have rendered some <strong>of</strong> these<br />
practices obsolete and have encouraged<br />
more aggressive exploitation techniques.<br />
It is necessary, therefore, to<br />
re-evaluate forestry practices with<strong>in</strong><br />
the framework <strong>of</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ability (Dafis,<br />
Restored w<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Hilandar Monastery.<br />
180
1992), and to promote the certification<br />
<strong>of</strong> wood products from the forests <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Athos. As an example, Kakouros (2009)<br />
reports that the implementation <strong>of</strong> selective<br />
<strong>in</strong>version th<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g reduces the risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> wildfires and promotes species diversity.<br />
Furthermore, a monitor<strong>in</strong>g system<br />
allows a more sufficient ecological and<br />
economical assessment <strong>of</strong> this method.<br />
<strong>The</strong> high biodiversity <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos (its flora<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes 1453 taxa and its fauna 131<br />
bird species, 37 mammals, 14 reptiles<br />
and 8 species <strong>of</strong> amphibians) (Dafis,<br />
1992), is characterised also by an important<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> endemism (22 taxa<br />
endemic to Greece, 14 local endemics<br />
and six to the Balkan Pen<strong>in</strong>sula).<strong>The</strong><br />
rich biodiversity must be identified, <strong>in</strong>ventoried<br />
and conserved through appropriate<br />
science-based methods and<br />
measures, also <strong>in</strong> accordance with <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Union requirements and especially<br />
the Birds and Habitats Directives.<br />
A system <strong>of</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g key biodiversity<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators on a periodic basis must also<br />
be established and managed by the<br />
Holy Community.<br />
At the <strong>in</strong>terface between nature and<br />
culture are the majestic landscapes <strong>of</strong><br />
Mt Athos, formed through the ages by<br />
natural processes and human endeavours<br />
<strong>in</strong> total harmony. In recent times,<br />
however, some <strong>of</strong> these cultural landscapes<br />
have been blighted by <strong>in</strong>sensitive<br />
<strong>in</strong>frastructure works, especially<br />
road construction. Although vehicle<br />
traffic is very limited, the roads themselves<br />
have had negative impacts not<br />
only on the sensitive landscapes <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Athos, but also on the historic network<br />
<strong>of</strong> pedestrian trails that have served<br />
both monks and pilgrims through centuries.<br />
Remedial measures need to be<br />
carefully designed to restore the landscapes<br />
affected (Papayannis, 2008).<br />
Extensive work has already been done<br />
on the restoration <strong>of</strong> historic build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and facilities and their immediate environment<br />
<strong>in</strong> nearly all <strong>of</strong> the 20 monasteries<br />
(Penn<strong>in</strong>gton, 1978). Most <strong>of</strong> it<br />
has been based on sound restoration<br />
practices, with few exceptions. A more<br />
systematic approach is now necessary,<br />
so that further restoration work<br />
will be based on scientific research<br />
and documentation and is carried out<br />
at the highest <strong>in</strong>ternational levels <strong>of</strong><br />
quality; an approach that should take<br />
seriously <strong>in</strong>to consideration the liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs permanently <strong>in</strong>habited<br />
by the monastic communities.<br />
This is merited by the uniqueness <strong>of</strong><br />
the Mt Athos architectural heritage.<br />
A considerable part <strong>of</strong> the cultural heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> the area resides <strong>in</strong> the artefacts,<br />
icons and other objects <strong>of</strong> religious<br />
arts, written or pr<strong>in</strong>ted documents,<br />
and the utilitarian objects from<br />
past epochs. <strong>The</strong>ir careful ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
and enhancement is well advanced<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mt Athos and <strong>in</strong> quite a few<br />
monasteries state-<strong>of</strong>-the-art facilities<br />
for protect<strong>in</strong>g and exhibit<strong>in</strong>g them<br />
have been constructed. However, a<br />
systematic <strong>in</strong>ventory and programme<br />
<strong>of</strong> conservation is needed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> management <strong>of</strong> liquid and solid<br />
wastes <strong>in</strong> Mt Athos does not present<br />
major problems. It must be resolved,<br />
however, <strong>in</strong> a decisive manner us<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> traditional knowledge<br />
181
Integration <strong>of</strong> Simonopetra Monastery <strong>in</strong> the surround<strong>in</strong>g landscape.<br />
and modern technology. Preventive<br />
measures to decrease packag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
imported products and the extensive<br />
use <strong>of</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g should be strongly<br />
encouraged.<br />
As to energy, Mt Athos is not l<strong>in</strong>ked to<br />
the power networks <strong>of</strong> the country, but<br />
relies on its own production. Part <strong>of</strong> it is<br />
renewable (hydroelectric and solar<br />
energy), but most <strong>of</strong> it is produced<br />
through thermal generators. For the future,<br />
ecological practices should be<br />
promoted, primarily through systematic<br />
energy economy, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> passive measures <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Production should be redirected<br />
to renewable sources, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account,<br />
however, the need to protect<br />
cultural landscapes.<br />
Be<strong>in</strong>g a depository <strong>of</strong> great heritage<br />
wealth, Mt Athos must seriously face<br />
the need to manage risks. As proven<br />
by its history, forest and build<strong>in</strong>g fires<br />
are the ma<strong>in</strong> threats and they require<br />
preventive measures, equipment, organisation<br />
and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. For <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
<strong>in</strong> August 1990 a large wild fire destroyed<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the forested areas <strong>of</strong><br />
Mt Athos and menaced the Simonopetra<br />
Monastery. Also, the Hilandar Monastery<br />
was partly burned by a build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fire <strong>in</strong> 2004 and is undergo<strong>in</strong>g restoration.<br />
As Mt Athos is <strong>in</strong> a dangerous<br />
seismic zone, the threats from earthquakes<br />
must also be considered. In<br />
addition, climate change impacts will<br />
be felt on the availability <strong>of</strong> water, on<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> ecosystems and flora and<br />
fauna species and through sea level<br />
rise. <strong>The</strong>y should be carefully monitored<br />
and adaptive measures taken<br />
when proven necessary.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the Athos Management Study<br />
will address the related adm<strong>in</strong>istrative<br />
issues, which concern ma<strong>in</strong>ly the appropriate<br />
organisation <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Community and its Committees <strong>in</strong><br />
manag<strong>in</strong>g effectively the Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula.<br />
<strong>The</strong> process <strong>of</strong> approvals and<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> the Management<br />
Study will also be <strong>in</strong>cluded, as well as<br />
182
the necessary arrangements for monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
developments and for corrective<br />
measures whenever needed.<br />
Key aspects<br />
<strong>The</strong> approach considered by the Holy<br />
Community has certa<strong>in</strong> key aspects,<br />
which may be considered as highly <strong>in</strong>novative<br />
<strong>in</strong> view <strong>of</strong> the specific conditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> a highly sensitive area managed<br />
by monastic fraternities.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fully <strong>in</strong>tegrated approach to spiritual,<br />
cultural and natural heritage is a key<br />
constituent, quite uncommon <strong>in</strong> Greece,<br />
where <strong>of</strong>ten the M<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>of</strong> Culture<br />
and Environment barely collaborate. It<br />
requires the establishment <strong>of</strong> a multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
study team, which will appreciate<br />
not only the technical and scientific<br />
parameters but also the spiritual<br />
dimensions that govern them <strong>in</strong> Mt<br />
Athos. An <strong>in</strong>creased understand<strong>in</strong>g will<br />
also be required from the responsible<br />
monastic authorities, so that they can<br />
comprehend the study proposals and<br />
be able to implement them effectively.<br />
In this important matter, the perception<br />
<strong>of</strong> the study, as an open learn<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
educat<strong>in</strong>g process for both sides,<br />
might facilitate the work and ensure its<br />
success. Thus, consultation is planned<br />
on three levels. Firstly, and most critical<br />
one, with the 20 monastic fraternities<br />
and the Holy Community. Secondly,<br />
with national public services and<br />
authorities <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> Mt Athos, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Governor, the M<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>of</strong><br />
Culture and Environment and the Centre<br />
for the Protection <strong>of</strong> the Athonite<br />
Heritage. Thirdly, with UNESCO and its<br />
World Heritage Convention and Centre,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g its technical advisors<br />
(<strong>IUCN</strong>, ICCROM and ICOMOS), as<br />
well as the <strong>Europe</strong>an Commission, <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to the Natura 2000 Network.<br />
<strong>The</strong> advice <strong>of</strong> these <strong>in</strong>ternational bodies<br />
would be highly valuable for the preparation<br />
and implementation <strong>of</strong> the Athos<br />
Management Study. In turn, the experience<br />
ga<strong>in</strong>ed through it – properly dissem<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
– may be valuable for similar<br />
sacred sites <strong>in</strong> other parts <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
Basic management pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
To allow the monastic community <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Athos to appreciate the challenges<br />
posed and to reach a consensus, a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> basic management pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
were proposed <strong>in</strong> the first phase<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Management Study. Once approved,<br />
they will govern decisively the<br />
preparation <strong>of</strong> the Management Study;<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st them, the Study proposals and<br />
recommendations will be judged before<br />
f<strong>in</strong>al approval.<br />
<strong>The</strong> primary pr<strong>in</strong>ciple and objective for<br />
the Study is to contribute to a modest<br />
extent to the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and<br />
strengthen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the millennial Christian<br />
Orthodox monastic traditions <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Athos, and to encourage their evolution<br />
<strong>in</strong> a world <strong>in</strong> which the simplicity<br />
and sobriety <strong>of</strong> the ascetic approach<br />
to life ga<strong>in</strong>s new pert<strong>in</strong>ence.<br />
In turn, the architectural heritage <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Athos be<strong>in</strong>g unique <strong>in</strong> its historic development,<br />
diversity and wealth, and<br />
its <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>in</strong>to the natural environment,<br />
must be respectfully restored<br />
and sensitively adapted to the needs<br />
183
<strong>of</strong> the monastic fraternities that <strong>in</strong>habit<br />
it. This is complemented by a dense<br />
system <strong>of</strong> footpaths and trails, whose<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uity has been partially blocked<br />
and needs to be re-established.<br />
This should be complemented by the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and safekeep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> all<br />
the elements <strong>of</strong> cultural heritage <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
art work, imported gifts <strong>of</strong> a religious<br />
and secular character, and objects<br />
that testify to a millennium <strong>of</strong> monastic<br />
life, as well as the liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tangible<br />
heritage <strong>of</strong> oral traditions, liturgical<br />
Byzant<strong>in</strong>e music and psalms and related<br />
practices, all imbued by a strong<br />
religious dimension. In this context, the<br />
conclusions <strong>of</strong> the 2003 ICCROM Forum<br />
on Conserv<strong>in</strong>g the Liv<strong>in</strong>g Religious<br />
Heritage can be useful and especially<br />
their focus on <strong>in</strong>tegrity and authenticity<br />
(Stovel et al, eds., 2005).<br />
<strong>The</strong> protection <strong>of</strong> the natural environment<br />
is also an imperative consideration,<br />
as it is part <strong>of</strong> the early Byzant<strong>in</strong>e<br />
tradition (S<strong>in</strong>acos, 2003). This should<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude the ecosystems (such as forest,<br />
coastal and mar<strong>in</strong>e, alp<strong>in</strong>e), landscapes<br />
and efforts to <strong>in</strong>crease biodiversity<br />
and avoid the loss <strong>of</strong> species,<br />
which is already happen<strong>in</strong>g. Many species<br />
<strong>of</strong> the flora and fauna species <strong>of</strong><br />
the area are <strong>in</strong>cluded the <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Red Data List (endangered, vulnerable<br />
and rare) (Philippou and Kontos, 2009).<br />
A control <strong>of</strong> the terrestrial, mar<strong>in</strong>e and<br />
aerial boundaries <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos must be<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed, <strong>in</strong> order to protect the monastic<br />
character <strong>of</strong> the area and its focus<br />
on worship.<br />
<strong>The</strong> afore-mentioned pr<strong>in</strong>ciple is related<br />
to the careful management <strong>of</strong> pilgrims<br />
and visitors, and it aims at<br />
reach<strong>in</strong>g a balance between the tradition<br />
<strong>of</strong> hospitality that governs Athos<br />
and the need <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g peace<br />
and quiet. Measures to control the flow<br />
<strong>of</strong> visitors have already been <strong>in</strong>stituted<br />
and can be further improved.<br />
In the same spirit, the technical <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
must be planned <strong>in</strong> a highly<br />
effective and ecological manner, accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to contemporary standards <strong>of</strong><br />
performance, but also respect<strong>in</strong>g monastic<br />
considerations.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are a few productive activities <strong>in</strong><br />
the Athonite Pen<strong>in</strong>sula, with various<br />
cultivations for self-consumption –<br />
mostly us<strong>in</strong>g organic agricultural practices<br />
– and a limited export <strong>of</strong> timber<br />
and w<strong>in</strong>e, while fish<strong>in</strong>g by the monks<br />
plays a marg<strong>in</strong>al role. <strong>The</strong>se, and any<br />
additional activities <strong>in</strong> the future, must<br />
be carried out <strong>in</strong> a framework <strong>of</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ability,<br />
so that they do not degrade<br />
the natural environment and will rema<strong>in</strong><br />
feasible for future generations.<br />
Similar susta<strong>in</strong>ability pr<strong>in</strong>ciples must<br />
be applied to all natural resources,<br />
and especially space, water and energy,<br />
as well as the treatment <strong>of</strong> waste.<br />
<strong>The</strong> environmental responsibility and<br />
the long-term care for the Athonite environment<br />
and the generations that will<br />
<strong>in</strong>habit it <strong>in</strong> the next centuries should<br />
be <strong>in</strong> harmony with the mentality <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Athonite monastic fraternities (Papayannis<br />
and Elissaios, 1994).<br />
A f<strong>in</strong>al key consideration is the <strong>in</strong>tention<br />
to encourage and ensure the ac-<br />
184
tive – and decisive – <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> the<br />
monastic community and other permanent<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants <strong>in</strong> every step <strong>of</strong> the<br />
management process, through a system<br />
<strong>of</strong> consultation and collaboration<br />
with the Study Team and a voice <strong>in</strong> the<br />
evaluation <strong>of</strong> options and approvals.<br />
Implementation<br />
Through active participation, it is expected<br />
that the Management Study will<br />
have good chances <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g implemented,<br />
once approved. Some other<br />
choices will also contribute to the implementation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Study Team will cultivate<br />
close collaboration with the scientific<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions, so that its proposals<br />
are the result <strong>of</strong> a broad consultation.<br />
Similarly, it <strong>in</strong>tends to <strong>in</strong>itiate contacts<br />
with the appropriate public services<br />
and take seriously <strong>in</strong>to account their<br />
views. <strong>The</strong> Study will <strong>in</strong>clude a detailed<br />
action plan <strong>of</strong> necessary measures,<br />
regulations and <strong>in</strong>terventions,<br />
provid<strong>in</strong>g a brief description, responsible<br />
driver, time schedule and <strong>in</strong>dicative<br />
cost for each. <strong>The</strong> major issue that<br />
needs to be considered here is the f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> all these actions, especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> view <strong>of</strong> the dire state <strong>of</strong> the Greek<br />
national economy. This should be considered<br />
carefully by the Holy Community,<br />
which has the overall responsibility<br />
for management implementation,<br />
and discussions on fund<strong>in</strong>g options<br />
should be held with the state authorities<br />
and the <strong>Europe</strong>an Union.<br />
It is clear that the <strong>in</strong>tegrated and systemic<br />
Management Study <strong>of</strong> the Athos<br />
spiritual, cultural and natural heritage<br />
is a critical step <strong>in</strong> the long history <strong>of</strong><br />
the area. <strong>The</strong> difficulty <strong>in</strong> prepar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
reasonable and balanced proposals<br />
and obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g agreement on them<br />
should not be underestimated. On the<br />
other hand, if all goes well through the<br />
wise guidance <strong>of</strong> the Holy Community,<br />
the Study can play a significant role <strong>in</strong><br />
the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and strengthen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
the traditions <strong>of</strong> this unique sacred<br />
place.<br />
Vegetable garden and outhouses <strong>of</strong> Simonopetra.<br />
185
References<br />
Ντάφης, Σ. κ.ά. (1992), Μελέτη Oικολογικής Διαχείρισης Περιοχής Ι. Μ. Σίμωνος<br />
Πέτρας, Θεσσαλονίκη. [Dafis, S. et al. (1992), Ecological Management <strong>of</strong> the Simonos<br />
Petras Holy Monastery Area, <strong>The</strong>ssaloniki (<strong>in</strong> Greek).]<br />
Ελισαίος, Αρχιμανδρίτης (2007), ‘Ο κοινοτικός και οικουμενικός χαρακτήρας του<br />
Αγίου Όρους’, Στο ο, Εκκλησία - Οικουμένη - Πολιτική , Αθήνα: Ίνδικτος, σελ. 201-<br />
230. [Elissaios, Archimandrite (2007), ‘<strong>The</strong> communal and ecumenical character <strong>of</strong><br />
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Greek).]<br />
Γκανιάτσας, Κ. (2003), Η Βλάστησις και η Χλωρίς της Χερσονήσου του Αγίου<br />
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and the Flora <strong>of</strong> the Pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>of</strong> the Holy Mounta<strong>in</strong>, Mt. Athos: Athonite Library, (<strong>in</strong><br />
Greek).]<br />
Holy Community <strong>of</strong> Mt. Athos (2008), ‘Report to the World Heritage Committee’.<br />
Caryes, Mt. Athos.<br />
Kadas, S. (2002), Mount Athos - An Illustrated Guide to the Monasteries and their<br />
History, Athens: Ekdotike Athenon SA.<br />
Kakouros, P. (2006), Layman’s Report for the Life-Nature Project ‘Rehabilitation <strong>of</strong><br />
Coppice Quercus fra<strong>in</strong>etto Woods (9280) and Quercus ilex Woods (9340) to High<br />
Forest’, Greek Biotope-Wetland Centre, <strong>The</strong>rmi.<br />
Kakouros, P. (2009), <strong>Lands</strong>cape conservation actions on Mount Athos, Halkidiki,<br />
Greece, <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Dimension <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas, Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Second<br />
Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative, ed. T. Papayannis and J.M. Mallarach, Gland:<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong> and Athens: Med-INA<br />
McGuck<strong>in</strong>, J.A. (2011), <strong>The</strong> Orthodox Church: An Introduction to its History, Doctr<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
and Spiritual Culture, Wiley-Blackwell.<br />
Philippou, I. and Kontos, K. (2009), <strong>The</strong> protected area <strong>of</strong> the pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Athos Holy Mounta<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Dimension <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas, Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Second Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative, ed. T. Papayannis and J.M. Mallarach,<br />
Gland: <strong>IUCN</strong> and Athens: Med-INA<br />
Παπαχρυσάνθου, Δ. (1992), Ο Αθωνικός Μοναχισμός: Αρχές και Οργάνωση,<br />
Αθήνα: Μορφωτικό Ίδρυμα Εθνικής Τράπεζας. [Papachryssanthou, D. (1992),<br />
Athonite Monasticism: Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and Organisation, Athens: National Bank Educational<br />
Foundation (<strong>in</strong> Greek).]<br />
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Παπαγιάννης, Θ. και Ιερομόναxος Ελισαίος (1994), Φυσικός Xώρος και Mοναxισμός:<br />
Η Διατήρηση της Βυζαντινής Παράδοσης στο Άγιον Όρος, Αθήνα: Ίδρυμα<br />
Γουλανδρή-Χορν. [Papayannis, T. and Fr. Elissaios, (1994), Nature and Monasticism:<br />
<strong>The</strong> Preservation <strong>of</strong> the Byzant<strong>in</strong>e Tradition on Mount Athos, Athens: Goulandris-Horn<br />
Foundation (<strong>in</strong> Greek).]<br />
Papayannis, T. (2007), Mount Athos, <strong>in</strong> Protected Areas and Spirituality: Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the First Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative - Montserrat 2006, ed. J.-M. Mallarach,<br />
and T. Papayannis, Barcelona: <strong>IUCN</strong> - Abadia de Montserrat, 2007, pp.<br />
263-278.<br />
Papayannis, T. (2008), Characteristic Mt. Athos landscapes: <strong>The</strong> case <strong>of</strong> the Holy<br />
Simonopetra Monastery, Greece, <strong>in</strong> Protected <strong>Lands</strong>capes and Cultural and Spiritual<br />
Values, ed. J.-M. Mallarach, Barcelona: <strong>IUCN</strong>/WCPA, Spa<strong>in</strong>, pp. 51-63.<br />
Penn<strong>in</strong>gton, B. (1978), O Holy Mounta<strong>in</strong>! Journal <strong>of</strong> a Retreat on Mt. Athos, New<br />
York: Doubleday.<br />
Σιδηρόπουλος, Γ. (2000), Άγιον Όρος: Αναφορές στην Ανθρωπογεωγραφία, Αθήνα:<br />
Εκδόσεις Καστανιώτη ΑΕ. [Sideropoulos, G. (2000), Mt. Athos: Reference to Cultural<br />
Geography, Athens: Castaniotis Publications, (<strong>in</strong> Greek).]<br />
Σινάκος, Α. (2003), Άνθρωπος και Περιβάλλον στην Πρωτοβυζαντινή εποχή,<br />
Θεσσαλονίκη: University Studio Press. [S<strong>in</strong>acos, A. (2003), Man and Environment<br />
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Liv<strong>in</strong>g Heritage. Papers from the ICCROM 2003 Forum on ‘Liv<strong>in</strong>g Religious Heritage:<br />
conserv<strong>in</strong>g the sacred’. Rome, Italy: ICCROM (ICS03).<br />
Ταχιάιος, Α. και Αιμίλιος Ν. (2006). Βυζάντιο, Σλάβοι, Άγιον Όρος, Αθήνα: University<br />
Studio Press. [Tachiaios, A. and Aimilios N. (2006). Byzantium, Slavs, Holy Mounta<strong>in</strong>,<br />
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187
188
Special Nature Reserve Milesevka and<br />
the Mileseva Monastery<br />
Nadezda Pesic, Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac and Dimitrije Pesic<br />
Introduction and history <strong>of</strong> the<br />
legal protection <strong>of</strong> the site<br />
In south-western Serbia, on the territory<br />
<strong>of</strong> the former state <strong>of</strong> Raska, on the<br />
banks <strong>of</strong> River Milesevka, lies a spiritually,<br />
culturally, historically and artistically<br />
very important monument <strong>of</strong> the<br />
country’s past, the Mileseva Monastery.<br />
It became the most holy place <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Serbian Orthodox Church, and people<br />
after the relics <strong>of</strong> St Sava have been<br />
transferred there from Trnovo (Bulgaria)<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1236. From that time on the Mileseva<br />
Monastery became a place <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Serbian people and other<br />
Orthodox nations from the Balkans. It<br />
was declared a ‘Cultural property <strong>of</strong> exceptional<br />
national significance’ <strong>in</strong> 1979<br />
by the Institute for the Protection <strong>of</strong> Cultural<br />
Monuments <strong>of</strong> Serbia.<br />
<strong>The</strong> protected natural environment<br />
adds to the character and the beauty<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monastery. <strong>The</strong> surround<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
Mileseva are dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the canyon<br />
<strong>of</strong> River Milesevka, with a mediaeval<br />
fortification on the rocky top and monastic<br />
cells high above the river. <strong>The</strong><br />
area <strong>of</strong> 290 ha is protected as a natural,<br />
cultural and historic complex. In<br />
1990, the Institute for Nature Protection<br />
<strong>of</strong> Serbia declared the surround<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
the monastery as a protected area <strong>of</strong><br />
natural and cultural importance called<br />
the Protected Natural Surround<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
the Mileseva Monastery, managed by<br />
the Serbian Orthodox Church.<br />
< <strong>The</strong> White Angel from the scene the Holy Women at the Sepulchre.<br />
189
<strong>The</strong> Special Nature Reserve Milesevka and the Protected Natural Surround<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Mileseva<br />
Monastery.<br />
<strong>The</strong> gorge <strong>of</strong> River Milesevka was designated<br />
as a Regional Nature Park <strong>in</strong><br />
1976. Now, the protected area is<br />
planned to be designated as a Special<br />
Nature Reserve <strong>of</strong> 1236 hectares <strong>in</strong><br />
size. <strong>The</strong> State Enterprise for Forest<br />
Management `Srbijasume` is <strong>in</strong> charge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> Milesevka Regional<br />
Nature Park.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Milesevka Gorge is proposed for<br />
designation as an <strong>IUCN</strong> Category IV.<br />
As a site <strong>of</strong> national and <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance, the Milesevka Gorge is <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong> the list <strong>of</strong> ‘Important Birds<br />
Areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, BirdLife 2000’ (YU 21<br />
SE). It is also <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the ecological<br />
network ‘Emerald’, this be<strong>in</strong>g a preparatory<br />
step towards an <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>in</strong><br />
the Natura 2000 network. <strong>The</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
<strong>of</strong> Environment and Spatial Plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and the Institute for Nature Conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Serbia are responsible for monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and protection <strong>of</strong> the protected<br />
area.<br />
Natural values<br />
<strong>The</strong> Special Nature Reserve Milesevka<br />
is situated between the two mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Zlatar (1627 m) and Jadovnik (1734 m).<br />
<strong>The</strong> canyon is characterised by unique<br />
wild and rough nature, picturesque<br />
landscapes, <strong>in</strong>accessible paths and the<br />
steep rock formations that sometimes<br />
rise to a height <strong>of</strong> 300 m and descend<br />
almost vertically towards the riverbed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> gorge is 24 km long and it ends<br />
near the Mileseva Monastery. Walk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
through the gorge is possible only via a<br />
narrow path carved <strong>in</strong>to the cliffs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> flagship species <strong>of</strong> the protected<br />
area is the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus).<br />
<strong>The</strong> bird is protected as a rare<br />
species as it had almost disappeared.<br />
Thanks to the efforts <strong>of</strong> experts and<br />
volunteers, the number <strong>of</strong> birds has<br />
multiplied, and currently, Serbia has<br />
the largest griffon vulture populations<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Balkan countries. <strong>The</strong> vulture is<br />
considered a holy bird among the<br />
190
Serbs. From the eleventh century to<br />
the present times, it has been on the<br />
Serbian state coat <strong>of</strong> arms.<br />
On the other hand, there are 30 endemic<br />
taxa <strong>in</strong> the gorge’s flora (Matovic,<br />
1992). Eight species are considered<br />
rare. <strong>The</strong> fauna is represented by<br />
24 species <strong>of</strong> mammals, many <strong>of</strong> those<br />
considered rare (bear, otter, wild<br />
boar…). <strong>The</strong>re are 73 species <strong>of</strong> birds,<br />
38 <strong>of</strong> those rare and <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational importance<br />
(such as Gyps fulvus, Aquila<br />
chrysaetos, Falco t<strong>in</strong>nunculus, Crex<br />
crex, Falco peregr<strong>in</strong>us, Alectoris graeca,<br />
Bubo bubo, Alauda arvensis, Tichodroma<br />
muraria, Lanius collurio…).<br />
<strong>The</strong> activities <strong>in</strong> the Reserves are generally<br />
focused on supervis<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the protected areas. Tourist<br />
activities <strong>in</strong>clude trekk<strong>in</strong>g, bird watch<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
adrenal<strong>in</strong> tours through Milesevka<br />
gorge, photo safaris, visits to spiritual,<br />
historic and cultural monuments, rural<br />
tourism etc. Visit to the Reserves is restricted<br />
to small groups. <strong>The</strong> local population<br />
does not endanger the griffon<br />
vultures with their everyday activities.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Milesevka Gorge is considered a<br />
sacred place by the Orthodox Christians,<br />
because St Sava’s body rested<br />
there. His spirit has been protect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the gorge and all visitors with good <strong>in</strong>tentions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> opposite is true as well:<br />
all actions that could impair the gorge<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g misfortune.<br />
Cultural heritage<br />
<strong>The</strong> Raska region has been considered<br />
holy s<strong>in</strong>ce the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mileseva Monastery (1219-1235).<br />
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twelfth century, when the first Serbian<br />
state had been established by the sacrosanct<br />
Nemanjic dynasty. It had ruled<br />
over the Serbian lands cont<strong>in</strong>uously<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the period <strong>of</strong> more than two<br />
centuries (1166–1371). K<strong>in</strong>gs from the<br />
holy Nemanjic dynasty established the<br />
Serbian spirituality: the Serbian Orthodox<br />
church, Svetosavlje (Sa<strong>in</strong>tsavaism),<br />
literacy, literature, legislation and<br />
school system. Deeply religious and<br />
devoted to Orthodoxy, all the rulers <strong>of</strong><br />
this family were generous donors who<br />
erected many magnificent monasteries<br />
and churches all over Serbia and even<br />
on Mount Athos (Hilandar). Until present<br />
times all <strong>of</strong> them are important<br />
spiritual places, with valuable monuments<br />
<strong>of</strong> medieval construction and architecture<br />
and galleries <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
beautiful fresco pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mileseva Monastery was erected<br />
between 1219 and 1235 by K<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Vladislav Nemanjic. Although the monastery<br />
was already important and wellknown<br />
as the burial place <strong>of</strong> its founder,<br />
it became the most holy place <strong>of</strong><br />
Serbia after the transfer <strong>of</strong> the relics <strong>of</strong><br />
St Sava. St Sava (1174–1235) is widely<br />
considered as the most important figure<br />
<strong>of</strong> Serbian history and is canonised<br />
and venerated by the Serbian Orthodox<br />
Church. St Sava was an Orthodox<br />
monk, the first Archbishop <strong>of</strong> the Serbian<br />
Orthodox Church, a diplomat, writer,<br />
legislator and founder <strong>of</strong> several important<br />
medieval monasteries.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce that time the Mileseva Monastery<br />
has been the spiritual and cultural centre<br />
<strong>of</strong> this region and a place <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage<br />
for the Serbians and other Orthodox<br />
nations from the Balkans (Kandic,<br />
1995). This tradition has never<br />
been <strong>in</strong>terrupted throughout the centuries<br />
until present times, despite many<br />
different historical <strong>in</strong>fluences (the Turkish<br />
occupation, wars, communism…).<br />
Thus, Mileseva became a centre <strong>of</strong><br />
hope, courage, and <strong>in</strong>spiration for the<br />
Serbian struggle aga<strong>in</strong>st the Turkish<br />
occupation. Many miracles took place<br />
at the grave <strong>of</strong> St Sava <strong>in</strong> the Mileseva<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mileseva Monastery, the Milesevac fortress, the River Milesevka Gorge and the village <strong>of</strong><br />
Hisardzik make up a natural, cultural and historical complex.<br />
192
monastery. <strong>The</strong> Venetian diplomat<br />
Ramberty, who visited Mileseva <strong>in</strong><br />
1534, wrote that not only Serbs, but<br />
also Muslims and Jews were visit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the monastery and ask<strong>in</strong>g for heal<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Mileseva was ranked second among<br />
all Serbian monasteries. In the golden<br />
age <strong>of</strong> Serbia, dur<strong>in</strong>g the Nemanjic dynasty,<br />
the monastic community <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Mileseva Monastery counted around<br />
300 monks. In 1377 the church saw the<br />
coronation <strong>of</strong> Stjepan Tvrtko Kotromanic<br />
as the k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Bosnia and Serbia,<br />
while <strong>in</strong> 1466 Stephan Vukcic Kosaca<br />
received the title the `Duke <strong>of</strong> St Sava’.<br />
<strong>The</strong> monastery, an artistic and ecclesiastical-political<br />
centre, situated at one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the chief stopp<strong>in</strong>g places on an important<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational trade route served<br />
as the <strong>in</strong>tersection <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluences from<br />
Eastern and Western <strong>Europe</strong> for<br />
centuries.<br />
<strong>The</strong> church <strong>of</strong> Mileseva is dedicated to<br />
the Ascension <strong>of</strong> the Lord and is built<br />
<strong>in</strong> the traditional style <strong>of</strong> the Raska region.<br />
Mileseva’s thirteenth century<br />
frescoes are considered to be one <strong>of</strong><br />
the best samples <strong>of</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> that time (Cmiljanovic, 2009). One <strong>of</strong><br />
the most famous Mileseva frescoes is<br />
the White Angel from the scene <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Holy Women at the Sepulchre, as well<br />
as a fresco with the portraits <strong>of</strong> family<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the Nemanjics. <strong>The</strong><br />
Mileseva portraits <strong>of</strong> the first Nemanjic<br />
family members were made while they<br />
were still alive and therefore are <strong>of</strong><br />
great historical value.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the time <strong>of</strong> its foundation, the<br />
Mileseva Monastery has been an important<br />
spiritual and cultural centre<br />
with a scriptorium and a library, where<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al works <strong>of</strong> Serbian literature<br />
were copied. Also, one <strong>of</strong> the oldest<br />
schools <strong>of</strong> Serbia existed <strong>in</strong> the monastery.<br />
In 1544, one <strong>of</strong> the first pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g<br />
houses <strong>in</strong> Serbia was established <strong>in</strong><br />
the monastery (Nemirovski, 1996). <strong>The</strong><br />
monks pr<strong>in</strong>ted two books: the Psalter<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1544 and the Prayer Book <strong>in</strong> 1546. A<br />
second edition <strong>of</strong> the Psalter was pr<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1557. <strong>The</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g house was located<br />
and assembled <strong>in</strong> a secret hid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
place <strong>in</strong> the sub-dome area <strong>of</strong> the<br />
outer narthex. Manuscripts and pr<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
books were dissem<strong>in</strong>ated throughout<br />
<strong>Europe</strong> ow<strong>in</strong>g several destructions <strong>of</strong><br />
the monastery, the migrations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Serbian population dur<strong>in</strong>g the rule <strong>of</strong><br />
the Ottoman Turks, the riots aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />
Ottoman Turks, and wars. Today, only a<br />
few manuscripts and pr<strong>in</strong>ted books are<br />
kept <strong>in</strong> the renewed treasury.<br />
<strong>The</strong> monastery was torn down many<br />
times <strong>in</strong> its history, as also other Serbian<br />
holy places. <strong>The</strong> first time the monastery<br />
was ru<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> 1459 by the Ottoman<br />
Turks. It was renewed and reconstructed<br />
with the help <strong>of</strong> the Grand Vizier<br />
Mehmed Pasha and his close relative<br />
Patriarch Makarije Sokolovic. In<br />
1624 the rag<strong>in</strong>g stream took a part <strong>of</strong><br />
the yard away together with some objects.<br />
<strong>The</strong> monks completely reconstructed<br />
the church and other build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
with the help <strong>of</strong> the Russian emperors.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the Austrian-Turkish<br />
War <strong>of</strong> 1689–90, the Mileseva Monastery,<br />
like other Serbian churches and<br />
monasteries, was plundered and devastated.<br />
A large number <strong>of</strong> monks, to-<br />
193
gether with thousands <strong>of</strong> Serbian families,<br />
moved to the Austro-Hungarian<br />
Empire. <strong>The</strong> monastery was left <strong>in</strong> ru<strong>in</strong>s<br />
and without monks. In 1863 some<br />
prom<strong>in</strong>ent local families were allowed<br />
by the Turkish Vizier to restore the<br />
monastery and the work was completed<br />
<strong>in</strong> six years time by local builders<br />
(who used traditional build<strong>in</strong>g techniques?).<br />
<strong>The</strong>re was a great flood at<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteen century, which<br />
once more caused major damage to<br />
the monastery. After World War II, the<br />
Serbian communist government confiscated<br />
all monastery property, and<br />
only one monk stayed there for more<br />
than 20 years without any f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
support from the authorities.<br />
In 1974, the Serbian Institute for the<br />
Protection <strong>of</strong> Cultural Monuments started<br />
excavations and conservation<br />
works. <strong>The</strong> church was repaired, the<br />
frescoes cleaned and conserved. Detailed<br />
activities were <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong> 1980<br />
(Lukic, 2004) with regard to the church,<br />
monastery premises and monastery<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
In 1992 the Mileseva Eparchy was established;<br />
monks and a Bishop settled<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> the monastery. In 2002 Mileseva<br />
became a female monastery. At present,<br />
the monastic community consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> seven nuns, one monk and four<br />
novices.<br />
On the steep cliff over the depths <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Milesevka Gorge there are the remnants<br />
<strong>of</strong> twelfth century town Milesevac,<br />
which has been declared a Cultural<br />
Monument. Below the town, on the<br />
north side <strong>of</strong> the cliff, there are three<br />
A plethora <strong>of</strong> monastic hermitages <strong>in</strong> the<br />
cliffs <strong>of</strong> the River Milesevka Gorge.<br />
hermitages founded <strong>in</strong> natural caves.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y are called ‘fast<strong>in</strong>g cells’ and are<br />
located <strong>in</strong> natural spots thought to be<br />
God’s creation. <strong>The</strong> first written reference<br />
to these ‘fast<strong>in</strong>g cells’ is a manuscript<br />
from 1508 (Spasic, 1996). Fast<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cells are significant elements <strong>of</strong> the<br />
medieval spiritual heritage and <strong>in</strong>valuable<br />
monuments <strong>of</strong> the period. In the<br />
largest hermitage named after St Sava<br />
there is a spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> holy water. <strong>The</strong>re are<br />
no written records about when exactly<br />
the hermits stopped liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Mileseva<br />
fast<strong>in</strong>g cells. Today, they are considered<br />
as a cult place, but monks do not<br />
use them any longer.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mileseva Monastery, the Milesevac<br />
fortress, the St Sava hermitage and the<br />
village Hisardzik constitute a natural,<br />
cultural and historical complex, appreciated<br />
alike by the Christian and the<br />
194
Muslim populations <strong>of</strong> the region, who<br />
are liv<strong>in</strong>g together harmoniously?<br />
Visitors and pilgrims who come to the<br />
monastery attend religious services.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> them walk through the canyon,<br />
and climb a path up to the hermitage<br />
<strong>of</strong> St Sava, where they wash their<br />
face and dr<strong>in</strong>k the holy water.<br />
Spiritual values<br />
<strong>The</strong> ethnical and cultural identity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population <strong>of</strong> the local communities <strong>in</strong><br />
the Raska region is marked by Svetosavlje<br />
(Sa<strong>in</strong>tsavaism). Svetosavlje’s<br />
ethic implies a historical normative<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> social behaviour and collective<br />
effort <strong>of</strong> the Serbs as Orthodox<br />
Christians that imbues all areas <strong>of</strong> human<br />
practice (Mitrovic, 1995).<br />
St Sava spiritually united the Serbs and<br />
that feel<strong>in</strong>g still persists despite a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> different <strong>in</strong>fluences they received.<br />
St Sava became a myth and a constant<br />
<strong>in</strong>spiration for the Serbian people. <strong>The</strong><br />
veneration <strong>of</strong> St Sava was supported by<br />
a whole dynasty, a powerful church organisation<br />
and the people <strong>of</strong> Serbia,<br />
and that strengthened his cult back <strong>in</strong><br />
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the period <strong>of</strong> the Ottoman dom<strong>in</strong>ation,<br />
St Sava was a central figure <strong>in</strong><br />
both the formal religious and traditional<br />
cultures, which were responsible for<br />
keep<strong>in</strong>g the national spirit <strong>of</strong> the Serbs<br />
alive. His miracle-work<strong>in</strong>g body <strong>in</strong> the<br />
monastery <strong>of</strong> Mileseva was venerated<br />
by pilgrims who came from near and far<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ations to implore his <strong>in</strong>tercession.<br />
<strong>The</strong> monks from the Mileseva Monastery<br />
had always emphasised their role as<br />
guardians <strong>of</strong> the tomb <strong>of</strong> St Sava and<br />
his cult, even after S<strong>in</strong>an Pasha took St<br />
Sava’s relics to Belgrade (<strong>in</strong> 1594 or<br />
1595), and burned them <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
break the Serbian rebellion aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />
Turks. For the Serbian Church and St<br />
Sava cult promoters on the other hand,<br />
the burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the St Sava relics became<br />
<strong>of</strong> utmost importance, through<br />
which the Sa<strong>in</strong>t ga<strong>in</strong>ed a posthumous<br />
martyrdom status. His cult was strengthened<br />
and his burial place <strong>in</strong> the Mileseva<br />
Monastery augmented its value as a<br />
pilgrimage site, which survives until<br />
today.<br />
In Serbian oral tradition dur<strong>in</strong>g the Medieval<br />
and the Ottoman periods, St Sava’s<br />
role was to watch always over the<br />
Serbian people. In many popular legends<br />
and folk tales he is the creator <strong>of</strong><br />
miraculous spr<strong>in</strong>gs, a master <strong>of</strong> the<br />
forces <strong>of</strong> nature. Numerous sites have<br />
been named after St Sava and considered<br />
holy places (water spr<strong>in</strong>gs, rocks,<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> peaks etc.) and they are always<br />
marked with a cross. This l<strong>in</strong>ks<br />
folk spirituality with nature, and nature<br />
conservation.<br />
St Sava’s Day (27 January) is the ‘slava’<br />
(the patron sa<strong>in</strong>t’s day) for the<br />
Mileseva Monastery and is celebrated<br />
with holy liturgy, the operation <strong>of</strong> a spiritual<br />
academy <strong>in</strong> the monastery and a<br />
large gather<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> people.<br />
Christianity was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> Serbia <strong>in</strong><br />
the n<strong>in</strong>th century, but the Serbs ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
a lot <strong>of</strong> pre-Christian rituals. St<br />
Sava Christianised those customs and<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked them to Christian sa<strong>in</strong>ts. Many<br />
195
pre-Christian Serbian tribal customs,<br />
cults and myths are preserved <strong>in</strong> Svetosavlje,<br />
not only as secondary relicts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the old spirituality, but also as fundamental<br />
pillars <strong>of</strong> Svetosavlje. <strong>The</strong><br />
Church <strong>of</strong> Svetosavlje orig<strong>in</strong>ated from<br />
the people and it is expressed <strong>in</strong> people’s<br />
language. Religious service is<br />
performed not only <strong>in</strong> churches and<br />
monasteries, but also at the sacred<br />
sites <strong>in</strong> nature, near zapis (holy trees)<br />
at the fields where some big battles<br />
were fought and the Serbian people<br />
suffered their own calvary. Some other<br />
pre-Christian rituals and customs <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
<strong>in</strong> Svetosavlje are:<br />
Krsna Slava: the celebration <strong>of</strong> the Patron<br />
Sa<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> the home is most typical <strong>of</strong><br />
the national and religious life <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Serbian people, and is an exclusively<br />
Serbian custom. Dur<strong>in</strong>g its construction,<br />
every house is sanctified with a<br />
religious ritual, and a sanctuary lamp<br />
and an icon are brought <strong>in</strong>to the house.<br />
On the day <strong>of</strong> the Patron each family<br />
celebrates, and neighbours and<br />
friends gather. After the religious service,<br />
which is performed by the local<br />
priest, bread made especially for this<br />
occasion is parted and everybody celebrates<br />
with food, dr<strong>in</strong>ks and toasts for<br />
the well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the family.<br />
Sabor: the gather<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> people and<br />
priests dur<strong>in</strong>g religious celebrations are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten placed <strong>in</strong> beautiful natural sett<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
near holy places. <strong>The</strong>y have been held<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the sixteenth century and have a<br />
vast social significance. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the Sabor,<br />
a religious service is performed<br />
and is followed by a popular feast.<br />
Zavet<strong>in</strong>a: a holiday devoted to the patron<br />
<strong>of</strong> each village. It is an important<br />
social event dur<strong>in</strong>g which a religious<br />
procession takes place. <strong>The</strong> litany<br />
comprises <strong>of</strong> cross bearers and their<br />
co-villagers who visit the village’s sacred<br />
sites (usually beautiful natural<br />
sites). <strong>The</strong> litany arrives at the holy site<br />
(holy spr<strong>in</strong>g, holy hill or holy tree<br />
[zapis]) and pray. After traditional food<br />
has been served, the ritual cont<strong>in</strong>ues.<br />
Zapis: (Inscription) – sacred trees, have<br />
been important long-last<strong>in</strong>g natural elements<br />
and respected through the centuries<br />
until the present day. <strong>The</strong> selected<br />
tree becomes a zapis through the<br />
rite <strong>of</strong> consecration performed by a Serbian<br />
Orthodox priest <strong>in</strong> which a cross is<br />
<strong>in</strong>scribed <strong>in</strong>to its bark. <strong>The</strong> Zapis is <strong>in</strong>violable:<br />
it is believed that great misfortune<br />
will befall anyone who dares to cut<br />
it down. If the tree fell naturally, the tree<br />
had to rema<strong>in</strong> at the spot and that place<br />
was marked with a wooden cross. People<br />
gathered <strong>in</strong> prayer and sought prevention<br />
from misfortune. In Serbian<br />
popular religion these rituals have an<br />
important role, b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g and strengthen<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the local communities and evok<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the respect <strong>of</strong> nature. It is important to<br />
preserve the beauty and orig<strong>in</strong>al character<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Raska district customs as a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a centuries-old tradition and a<br />
special way <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
Conservation perspectives and<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability<br />
Today, the spiritual heritage <strong>in</strong> this region<br />
is very well preserved and it is<br />
fostered <strong>in</strong> the families and the local<br />
196
community. Thanks to the enormous<br />
efforts <strong>of</strong> the monastic community, the<br />
clergy <strong>of</strong> the Mileseva Eparchy and<br />
Bishop Filaret, the spiritual, cultural<br />
and economic life <strong>of</strong> the whole eparchy<br />
has been improved. <strong>The</strong>re is a<br />
good cooperation among Bishop Filaret,<br />
sisterhood <strong>of</strong> the Mileseva monastery<br />
and the clergy <strong>of</strong> Mileseva Eparchy,<br />
on the one hand, and the management<br />
authorities <strong>of</strong> the natural reserve,<br />
on the other.<br />
Bishop Filaret is very active <strong>in</strong> renovation<br />
and strengthen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the economy<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monasteries, and the erection <strong>of</strong><br />
new churches. He also enhances spiritual<br />
activities and promotes the <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
<strong>of</strong> the numbers <strong>of</strong> monks and<br />
nuns. In the monastery complex, on the<br />
foundations <strong>of</strong> the old build<strong>in</strong>g, a library<br />
and treasury have been constructed. A<br />
new build<strong>in</strong>g for the accommodation <strong>of</strong><br />
pilgrims and religious visitors was built,<br />
as well as a new dormitory for nuns.<br />
Also, s<strong>in</strong>ce the bishop plans to develop<br />
tourist activities <strong>in</strong> all protected areas <strong>in</strong><br />
his eparchy, a tourist facility was built<br />
on Zlatar Mounta<strong>in</strong>, some 14 km away<br />
from the monastery <strong>in</strong> order to reduce<br />
the pressure <strong>of</strong> tourists on the monastery<br />
complex and its surround<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is a café near the gate <strong>of</strong> the<br />
monastery complex. A radio station<br />
called ‘Mileseva’ has also been established.<br />
Bishop Filaret’s enthusiasm for<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g constructions, and his management<br />
capacities caused conflicts <strong>in</strong><br />
the cultural and religious fields; and a<br />
question was raised, when the build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> new facilities <strong>in</strong> the monastic complex<br />
should stop?<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are no <strong>of</strong>ficial records <strong>of</strong> the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> pilgrims, religious visitors<br />
and tourists who are currently visit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the monastery. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to a rough<br />
estimation <strong>of</strong> Mother Ana, the prioress<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monastery, approximately 70<br />
000 persons visit the complex annually.<br />
Several thousand people are attend<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the religious celebrations -<br />
and around 1500 people arrive there<br />
each weekend.<br />
At the moment, archaeological research<br />
and pre-conservation works are<br />
conducted on several locations under<br />
the supervision <strong>of</strong> the Institute for the<br />
Protection <strong>of</strong> Cultural Monuments <strong>of</strong><br />
Serbia.<br />
Despite its successive destructions<br />
and deterioration caused <strong>in</strong> the course<br />
<strong>of</strong> time, the Mileseva Monastery preserved<br />
a fair part <strong>of</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al frescoes,<br />
which today stand out characterised<br />
by great beauty and orig<strong>in</strong>al expression.<br />
After conservation works<br />
were completed, the frescoes were<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> good condition. In 1996, an<br />
em<strong>in</strong>ent pr<strong>of</strong>essional jury consist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
over one hundred academics, pa<strong>in</strong>ters,<br />
art critics and art historians, with a<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> votes announced the White<br />
Angel from Mileseva as the most important<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the millennium <strong>in</strong><br />
the area <strong>of</strong> former Yugoslavia (Cmiljanovic,<br />
2009). <strong>The</strong> art <strong>of</strong> the Mileseva<br />
frescoes <strong>in</strong>fluenced artistic ideas,<br />
which flow there more impulsively and<br />
strongly than <strong>in</strong> other regions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Mileseva artistic colony was set up<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1974 <strong>in</strong> the monastery. It has established<br />
spiritual cont<strong>in</strong>uity, f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g key<br />
197
<strong>in</strong>spiration <strong>in</strong> Mileseva fresco pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the monastery’s architecture and <strong>in</strong><br />
nature that surrounds the monastery.<br />
Pressures and impacts<br />
<strong>The</strong> Raska region is one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
undeveloped parts <strong>of</strong> Serbia. <strong>The</strong> dis<strong>in</strong>tegration<br />
<strong>of</strong> Yugoslavia, the sanctions,<br />
the ethnic conflicts <strong>in</strong> the Balkans<br />
and NATO strikes caused economic<br />
stagnation. <strong>The</strong> poor economy<br />
and bad <strong>in</strong>frastructure cause permanent<br />
migrations <strong>of</strong> local population to<br />
the more developed parts <strong>of</strong> Serbia.<br />
Agriculture is extensive and it is practised<br />
<strong>in</strong> a traditional way. Food is <strong>of</strong><br />
very good quality, produced ma<strong>in</strong>ly to<br />
fulfil personal needs and feed local<br />
markets. <strong>The</strong> population <strong>in</strong> the villages<br />
generally is ag<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> local authorities<br />
are not capable <strong>of</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g rural development<br />
and the Serbian government<br />
has not taken any systematic<br />
measures <strong>in</strong> that direction so far. <strong>The</strong><br />
Serbian government is very <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> exploit<strong>in</strong>g the natural resources, as it<br />
desperately needs economic development<br />
and <strong>in</strong>vestments. For that reason,<br />
the Government neglects the protection<br />
<strong>of</strong> these natural resources.<br />
Spatial plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the region has not<br />
been carried out so far, which creates<br />
management problems <strong>in</strong> the protected<br />
areas.<br />
Poverty, <strong>in</strong>stitutional and personal irresponsibility,<br />
as well as <strong>in</strong>competence,<br />
lead <strong>in</strong> some cases to illegal behaviour.<br />
For <strong>in</strong>stance, a large number <strong>of</strong> licenses<br />
for wood exploitation and new build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
have been issued, and waste disposal<br />
sites on the edge <strong>of</strong> the protected zone<br />
have been tolerated. Recently, the Serbian<br />
government approved research for<br />
the reopen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the copper, lead and<br />
z<strong>in</strong>c m<strong>in</strong>e ‘Cad<strong>in</strong>ja’ that is only 7 km<br />
away from the Mileseva Monastery. Furthermore<br />
there are pressures to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
the <strong>in</strong>dustrial exploitation <strong>of</strong> a decorative<br />
stone with<strong>in</strong> the protected area. Moreover,<br />
the amounts <strong>of</strong> wild berries and<br />
herbs picked exceed set limits.<br />
Currently, the ma<strong>in</strong> threat to the monastery<br />
and the monastic landscape is<br />
the illegal build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> private houses <strong>in</strong><br />
its surround<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Grow<strong>in</strong>g pressure is put on the hydropower<br />
potential <strong>of</strong> River Lim Bas<strong>in</strong>, which<br />
River Milesevka is part <strong>of</strong>, where many<br />
important cultural and historical sites are<br />
located, although the Institute for Nature<br />
Conservation <strong>of</strong> Serbia and the Institute<br />
for the Protection <strong>of</strong> Cultural Monuments<br />
have prepared projects for the preservation<br />
and protection <strong>of</strong> those sites.<br />
On the other hand, many cultural<br />
events are be<strong>in</strong>g organised, which fulfil<br />
the spiritual needs <strong>of</strong> the pilgrims.<br />
After consultation with the ma<strong>in</strong> stakeholders,<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> recommendations<br />
have been made, cover<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
wide range <strong>of</strong> issues from plann<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
specific management aspects, that<br />
can affront the ma<strong>in</strong> challenges and<br />
pressures the site is receiv<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Recommendations<br />
<strong>The</strong> preservation <strong>of</strong> any protected value<br />
is, to some extent, dependent on the<br />
198
different needs <strong>of</strong> the stakeholders. A<br />
vital and prosper<strong>in</strong>g local community,<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> the value and significance <strong>of</strong><br />
its heritage, is the best guardian <strong>of</strong> the<br />
natural values, and it is <strong>of</strong> great importance<br />
to <strong>of</strong>fer to it an alternative to the<br />
present socio-economic development.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are possibilities for development<br />
<strong>in</strong> several traditional areas, such as traditional<br />
agricultural practices (production<br />
<strong>of</strong> organic food), old crafts and <strong>in</strong> a<br />
few new ones (such as tourism), but<br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g always under consideration the<br />
free spirit and pride <strong>of</strong> local people. Patience<br />
and careful dialogue among all<br />
local stakeholders are necessary.<br />
In light <strong>of</strong> the above analysis and diagnosis<br />
we suggest the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
actions:<br />
• <strong>The</strong> preparation <strong>of</strong> a spatial plan for<br />
the region should be the top priority.<br />
This plan should aim to conserve this<br />
precious heritage as a whole, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
all the religious, spiritual, cultural<br />
and natural values.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> management <strong>of</strong> the protected area<br />
<strong>in</strong> cooperation with local authorities<br />
should seek markets <strong>in</strong> Serbia<br />
and abroad for high-quality organic<br />
food and promote <strong>in</strong> that way sales <strong>of</strong><br />
local products, which will <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
the <strong>in</strong>come <strong>of</strong> the villagers. With the<br />
support <strong>of</strong> the authorities, projects<br />
should be launched and encourage<br />
young people from urban centres to<br />
return to their homeland and renew<br />
the production <strong>of</strong> local organic food.<br />
• It is <strong>of</strong> the great importance to promote<br />
waste reduction and to construct<br />
a regional waste disposal and<br />
recycl<strong>in</strong>g plant.<br />
• Ecotourism is the way forward, as it<br />
would contribute to the economic <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
<strong>of</strong> the local population.<br />
It should be based on promot<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
natural beauty and the preservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the traditional spiritual and ethical<br />
values, associated to skills and<br />
knowledge about life <strong>in</strong> nature, organic<br />
products and traditional handicrafts.<br />
<strong>The</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g actions are<br />
recommended:<br />
1) <strong>The</strong> establishment <strong>of</strong> a network <strong>of</strong><br />
walk<strong>in</strong>g trails and cycl<strong>in</strong>g tracks<br />
connect<strong>in</strong>g the natural protected<br />
sites with the places <strong>of</strong> spiritual, cultural<br />
and historical importance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
area. This action should follow the<br />
identification <strong>of</strong> viewpo<strong>in</strong>ts (lookouts)<br />
and rest<strong>in</strong>g places. One or several<br />
tourist <strong>in</strong>formation booths should be<br />
placed on strategic po<strong>in</strong>ts along the<br />
trails.<br />
2) <strong>The</strong> reconstruction <strong>of</strong> the walk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trail which leads to Sa<strong>in</strong>t Sava’s<br />
hermitage.<br />
3) <strong>The</strong> reconstruction <strong>of</strong> the walk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trail through the Milesevka Gorge.<br />
4) <strong>The</strong> restoration <strong>in</strong>terventions needed<br />
to prevent the collapse <strong>of</strong> some<br />
portions <strong>of</strong> the walls <strong>of</strong> the fortified<br />
town <strong>of</strong> Milesevac, which is <strong>in</strong> a bad<br />
condition.<br />
5) <strong>The</strong> conservation and revitalisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> cultural heritage and its natural<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>gs, either <strong>in</strong> situ (<strong>in</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ethnological complexes with<br />
traditional rural architecture) or <strong>in</strong><br />
designed ethno parks, such as<br />
open-air museums are needed. <strong>The</strong><br />
199
uild<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the new houses and tourist<br />
facilities should be done respect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples and styles <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
architecture.<br />
6) <strong>The</strong> capacity build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the local<br />
human resources for tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> organic<br />
food production, ecotourism,<br />
traditional crafts and skills (carpentry,<br />
weav<strong>in</strong>g, beekeep<strong>in</strong>g, wool process<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
and the nurtur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> cultural<br />
and spiritual identity.<br />
7) <strong>The</strong> set up <strong>of</strong> a unique website<br />
that should promote the whole region<br />
and facilitate access to <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
about the area.<br />
• Raise the awareness <strong>of</strong> the local <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
and entrepreneurs about<br />
the great value <strong>of</strong> nature and culture<br />
they <strong>in</strong>herited and the necessity for<br />
conservation, protection and restoration<br />
<strong>of</strong> these values.<br />
• Establishment <strong>of</strong> cooperation with<br />
other protected areas with significant<br />
spiritual and cultural values at<br />
the <strong>in</strong>ternational level.<br />
To accomplish all <strong>of</strong> the above-mentioned<br />
goals, help and support by the<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational community is needed.<br />
200
References<br />
Cmiljanovic, M. (2009), Art gather<strong>in</strong>g Mileseva Prijepolje 35 years <strong>of</strong> work, Prijepolje:<br />
Prijepolje Cultural Centre.<br />
Kandic, O., Popovic, S., Zaric, R. (1995), <strong>The</strong> Mileseva Monastery, Belgrade: Republican<br />
Institute for the Protection <strong>of</strong> Cultural Monuments<br />
Lukic, M. (2004), Integrated Rehabilitation Project Plan / Survey <strong>of</strong> the Architectural<br />
and Archaeological Heritage (IRPP/SAAH), Serbia and Montenegro (Serbia)-<strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
Commission-Council <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> Jo<strong>in</strong>t Programme.<br />
Matovic, M. (1992), Relic Flora and Vegetation <strong>in</strong> Canyon <strong>of</strong> the Milesevka River<br />
[Serbia, Yugoslavia] are Endangered, Kragujevac: the Faculty <strong>of</strong> Mathematics and<br />
Natural Sciences, Institute <strong>of</strong> biology.<br />
Mitrovic, M. (1995), Ethic <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>tsavaism and the Spirit <strong>of</strong> Modernism <strong>in</strong> Symposium:<br />
`Village days <strong>of</strong> Sreten Vukosavljevic XIV` Prijepolje: <strong>The</strong> Cultural Centre <strong>of</strong><br />
the Municipality <strong>of</strong> Prijepolje.<br />
Nemirovski, J. (1996), First and second pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g houses <strong>of</strong> the Mileseva Monastery<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mileseva Writ<strong>in</strong>gs 2, Prijepolje: Museum <strong>in</strong> Prijepolje.<br />
Spasic, D. (1996), Medieval fortified towns <strong>of</strong> the middle Polimlje <strong>in</strong> Mileseva Writ<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
2, Prijepolje: Museum <strong>in</strong> Prijepolje.<br />
Subotic, V., Skovran, A., Vlahovic, P. (2010), Biseri stare Raske [Highlights <strong>of</strong> Old<br />
Raska], Belgrade: Homeland society <strong>of</strong> People from Nova Varos <strong>in</strong> Belgrade.<br />
201
202
Part Five:<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>: a wealth <strong>of</strong><br />
sacred natural sites<br />
203
204
<strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> sacred lands and mean<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>in</strong> Northern <strong>Europe</strong>: Challenges for the<br />
managers <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
Rauno Väisänen<br />
Introduction<br />
In this paper based on the open<strong>in</strong>g<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> the third workshop <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Delos Initiative, the sacred natural<br />
sites are considered from the protected<br />
area practitioner’s po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view.<br />
Why should the protected areas, national<br />
parks and protected area agencies<br />
be <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the sacred dimension<br />
<strong>of</strong> the protected areas? How can<br />
the spiritual values be taken <strong>in</strong>to account<br />
<strong>in</strong> the design, management and<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the protected areas? <strong>The</strong><br />
aim is to show that, although the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong> sacred natural<br />
sites may be challeng<strong>in</strong>g, it provides<br />
parks pr<strong>of</strong>essionals with a lot <strong>of</strong><br />
opportunities and may br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> new<br />
and reward<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>sights <strong>in</strong>to the <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
and communication <strong>of</strong> the diverse<br />
values <strong>of</strong> the parks.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the examples and experiences<br />
presented <strong>in</strong> this paper come from<br />
Northern <strong>Europe</strong> and, especially, from<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land, a sparsely populated forested<br />
country with a small <strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ority <strong>in</strong> the north. In F<strong>in</strong>land, most<br />
protected areas lie on the state-owned<br />
lands and are managed by a s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
agency, i.e. Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services. <strong>The</strong> management is<br />
based on standardised and regularly<br />
updated pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong> the management<br />
<strong>of</strong> protected areas, as well as on legis-<br />
< Koli National Park is <strong>of</strong> great historical significance as a sacred site and has contemporary<br />
significance as a national landscape, both contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the F<strong>in</strong>nish identity<br />
205
lation and management plans compiled<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g the participatory approach, which<br />
emphasises the role <strong>of</strong> local and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
communities. Altogether the Natural<br />
Heritage Services manages four<br />
million hectares <strong>of</strong> lands, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 37<br />
national parks, 19 strict nature reserves,<br />
500 other nature reserves and 12 wilderness<br />
areas, as well as three million<br />
hectares <strong>of</strong> public waters, mostly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
coastal areas <strong>of</strong> the Baltic Sea. In order<br />
to <strong>in</strong>vestigate and preserve cultural heritage,<br />
Natural Heritage Services works<br />
<strong>in</strong> close cooperation with the M<strong>in</strong>istries<br />
and the National Board <strong>of</strong> Antiquities.<br />
<strong>The</strong> overlooked sacred<br />
dimension <strong>of</strong> protected areas <strong>in</strong><br />
Northern <strong>Europe</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> spiritual values <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
have been largely overlooked by the<br />
park managers and protected area<br />
agencies <strong>in</strong> developed countries, although<br />
the spiritual values <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries<br />
has received a reasonable amount <strong>of</strong><br />
attention. <strong>The</strong>re may not be any <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
reason for that, but it is possible<br />
to f<strong>in</strong>d an explanation from the predom<strong>in</strong>antly<br />
materialistic worldview related<br />
to the modern western culture.<br />
In Northern <strong>Europe</strong>, many people belong<br />
to the predom<strong>in</strong>ant Lutheran<br />
Church just for practical or purely traditional<br />
reasons. <strong>The</strong> culture is highly<br />
secularised. Consequently, it is difficult<br />
to communicate on religious or spiritual<br />
matters, especially for natural scientists<br />
like biologists or foresters, without<br />
los<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>of</strong>essional credibility. <strong>The</strong><br />
managers <strong>of</strong> protected areas are usually<br />
biologists and foresters. So it is not<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g that the natural resources<br />
and species <strong>of</strong> protected areas are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
systematically <strong>in</strong>vestigated and<br />
their features and values are generally<br />
relatively well-known and communicated,<br />
while the cultural and landscape<br />
values are not, and the sacred dimension<br />
has been largely neglected.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Kalevala, the national epic <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
is a n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century work <strong>of</strong><br />
epic poetry compiled by Elias Lönnroth<br />
from the F<strong>in</strong>nish and Karelian oral folklore<br />
and mythology. It has played an <strong>in</strong>strumental<br />
role <strong>in</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish national identity. Even the ancient<br />
poems <strong>of</strong> the Kalevala emphasise<br />
the role <strong>of</strong> common sense, practical<br />
knowledge, skills and understand<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>stead<br />
<strong>of</strong> metaphysics or religion. In spite<br />
<strong>of</strong> this, people still used to show great respect<br />
to nature, e.g. when ask<strong>in</strong>g politely<br />
nature for some catch for hunters and<br />
fishermen and forgiveness when kill<strong>in</strong>g<br />
wild animals. It was only Christianity, first<br />
the Roman Catholic and then the Lutheran<br />
Church, that started the alienation<br />
from nature and changed the relationship<br />
towards a more utilitarian one. Parallel<br />
ideological impacts were caused by<br />
the development <strong>of</strong> positivism, materialism<br />
and modern materialistic science.<br />
<strong>The</strong> alienation process was greatly enhanced<br />
by the <strong>in</strong>dustrialisation and associated<br />
urbanisation and ‘virtualisation’,<br />
which together have reduced the role <strong>of</strong><br />
nature to be ma<strong>in</strong>ly a source <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
resources for people and bus<strong>in</strong>esses,<br />
hardly with anyth<strong>in</strong>g sacred for the politicians<br />
and decision-makers.<br />
206
A rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g portray<strong>in</strong>g an elk from Kolovesi National Park <strong>in</strong> Eastern F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
However, at a very personal level, the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ns as a nation seem to have an unusually<br />
pious and ardent, and at the same<br />
time very practical, connection to nature.<br />
Thus, visitors <strong>of</strong> the parks commonly experience<br />
at the personal level someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spiritually valuable, unity with nature,<br />
and maybe with God present <strong>in</strong> nature.<br />
Protected areas clearly have more value<br />
for the people than the sum <strong>of</strong> their species,<br />
habitats and ecosystems.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to an expert <strong>of</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
protected areas agency, dur<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the values <strong>of</strong> parks, ‘we<br />
proudly present our cultural and historical<br />
sites, but strictly avoid all connections<br />
to the Lutheran church or other<br />
religious matters’. In order to make it<br />
easier to communicate the sacred dimension<br />
<strong>of</strong> protected areas to visitors<br />
and the public at large <strong>in</strong> a culturally<br />
appropriate way, it may be helpful to<br />
notice the fa<strong>in</strong>t dist<strong>in</strong>ction between the<br />
concepts ‘religious’ and ‘spiritual’. <strong>The</strong><br />
latter can be used <strong>in</strong> context when referr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the personal perception <strong>of</strong><br />
nature without caus<strong>in</strong>g sensitive confrontations<br />
with a person’s religious<br />
op<strong>in</strong>ions. Tools, best practices and<br />
techniques are needed to better understand,<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigate, manage and<br />
communicate the spiritual and cultural<br />
values <strong>of</strong> protected areas.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites <strong>in</strong> the<br />
management plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites are taken <strong>in</strong>to account<br />
at vary<strong>in</strong>g degrees <strong>in</strong> Northern<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an protected areas. In F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
there are three cases <strong>in</strong> which the spiritual<br />
dimension plays an important role:<br />
(1) ancient monuments and sites, (2) areas<br />
culturally or spiritually valuable for<br />
the Sámi people, and (3) special natural<br />
attractions or landscape formations<br />
which were used as sacred sites and/or<br />
have contemporary spiritual values.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ancient monuments and sites <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Sámi and other F<strong>in</strong>ns are all automati-<br />
207
cally protected by the law, and the protection<br />
is complemented by social respect.<br />
Some rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs apparently<br />
have had a spiritual role. <strong>The</strong>re are a lot<br />
<strong>of</strong> rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs known, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
from Kolovesi National Park and Hossa<br />
National Recreational Area. For example,<br />
the elk is considered to be a sacred<br />
animal and there are a lot <strong>of</strong> rock<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs portray<strong>in</strong>g it. Rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
may have had also ‘practical’ objectives,<br />
such as mark<strong>in</strong>g the boundaries<br />
between different groups <strong>of</strong> people and<br />
improv<strong>in</strong>g hunt<strong>in</strong>g success.<br />
Spectacular natural attractions or landscape<br />
formations <strong>of</strong>ten had earlier significance<br />
as sacred sites as shown by<br />
both the etymological analyses <strong>of</strong> the<br />
site names and the archaeological<br />
studies <strong>of</strong> the sites. <strong>The</strong>y are also commonly<br />
considered special places by<br />
experts and the public at large because<br />
<strong>of</strong> their beauty, cultural or landscape<br />
values. It is not only the sacred<br />
site itself <strong>in</strong> the strict sense, but also<br />
the wider landscape around it which<br />
contributes to the experience <strong>of</strong> the<br />
spiritual dimension provid<strong>in</strong>g placid<br />
space with silence, scenery and dark<br />
skies with stars and northern lights.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Western <strong>Europe</strong>an national romantic<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> national landscapes is also<br />
strong <strong>in</strong> present-day F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
It may be noted that even though large<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> the Sámi homeland have been<br />
legally designated as wilderness areas<br />
(<strong>IUCN</strong> Category Ib or VI, depend<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> the criteria), national<br />
parks (<strong>IUCN</strong> Category II) or strict<br />
nature reserves (<strong>IUCN</strong> Category Ia),<br />
they <strong>in</strong>clude sites and wider landscapes<br />
which are <strong>of</strong> a great cultural or<br />
spiritual value for the Sámi people.<br />
Such values are, by no means, restricted<br />
to the <strong>IUCN</strong> Category V protected<br />
landscapes which have received much<br />
more attention (Mallarach 2008).<br />
<strong>The</strong> names <strong>of</strong> places reveal the<br />
sacred nature <strong>of</strong> sites<br />
Although largely forgotten and overlooked,<br />
the sacred sites are not rare <strong>in</strong><br />
Pyhä-Häkki National Park <strong>in</strong> Central F<strong>in</strong>land is known for its impressive old-growth forests.<br />
208
the protected areas <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. In fact,<br />
they are amaz<strong>in</strong>gly common. This is<br />
clearly <strong>in</strong>dicated by the names <strong>of</strong> sites<br />
and their etymology. Many sites have<br />
been sacred to our ancestors, and<br />
many <strong>of</strong> them still have some spiritual<br />
significance to contemporary people.<br />
<strong>The</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the names referr<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
spiritual values has <strong>of</strong>ten changed or<br />
been forgotten dur<strong>in</strong>g the centuries.<br />
Sometimes the conceptual changes<br />
have been l<strong>in</strong>ked with historical events<br />
and associated with cultural and religious<br />
changes. In many cases, there<br />
are contrast<strong>in</strong>g and fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terpretations<br />
by various experts. <strong>The</strong><br />
words ‘pyhä’ and ‘hiisi’ provide illustrative<br />
examples.<br />
<strong>The</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish word ’pyhä’ means ’sacred’<br />
or ’holy’. It is a Germanic loan<br />
from around 3000 years ago. In F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
there are at least 42 lakes, 26<br />
hills (’mäki’, ’vaara’), 22 pen<strong>in</strong>sulas, 18<br />
ponds, 15 rivers, 11 bays and 9 mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
with the prefix ’pyhä’ (Lounema<br />
2003). Examples <strong>in</strong>clude Pyhätunturi<br />
Fell <strong>in</strong> Pyhä-Luosto National Park and<br />
Pyhäkero Fell <strong>in</strong> Pallas-Yllästunturi National<br />
Park, as well as Pyhä-Häkki National<br />
Park <strong>in</strong> Central F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to one <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
(Lounema 2003), the orig<strong>in</strong>al mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘pyhä’ for the ancient F<strong>in</strong>ns was a<br />
clearly visible landscape character<br />
border<strong>in</strong>g the familiar <strong>in</strong>habited area<br />
and the external wilderness. This<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g may have been associated<br />
with or gradually changed towards<br />
dangerous or forbidden. ‘Pyhä’ may<br />
also have referred to someth<strong>in</strong>g sacred,<br />
with a restricted access permitted<br />
only to a small circle <strong>of</strong> people,<br />
e.g. shamans (Y. Norokorpi, personal<br />
communication, 2010). Similarly, ‘sacred’<br />
has the connotation <strong>of</strong> set aside,<br />
separated or restricted <strong>in</strong> many other<br />
languages, e.g. Greek and Lat<strong>in</strong> and<br />
its derivatives. Some parts <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
groves may have been forbidden and<br />
fenced, so that only sacrifices may<br />
have been thrown there from outside.<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to notice that <strong>in</strong> the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish language, the word ‘pyhä’ is<br />
related to the word ‘piha’, mean<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
yard, courtyard or garden. While the<br />
constitutional everyman’s right <strong>of</strong> free<br />
access covers almost all public and<br />
private areas <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, the right excludes<br />
‘piha’ areas which are received<br />
only for private use. Thus, the concept<br />
‘piha’ seems to have reta<strong>in</strong>ed some<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al elements <strong>of</strong> ‘pyhä’.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Christian mission <strong>in</strong> the present<br />
Nordic countries was started <strong>in</strong> the<br />
eighth century. It took a longer time for<br />
the Christian faith to get an <strong>of</strong>ficial position<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land than elsewhere <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Nordic countries, which became Christian<br />
<strong>in</strong> the tenth century. In a papal letter<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1209, F<strong>in</strong>land was mentioned to<br />
have been recently converted to Christianity.<br />
However, it was a long process,<br />
and the elim<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the old<br />
‘pagan’ beliefs was gradual, only complemented<br />
by the Lutheran Church<br />
several centuries later. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the process,<br />
the Christian faith successfully<br />
reserved the word ’pyhä’ for itself and<br />
for God. In the Christian context, the<br />
prefix ‘pyhä’ means good, respected<br />
and holy (even a Sa<strong>in</strong>t and holidays).<br />
209
Hiidenportti National Park with its deep gorges <strong>in</strong> Eastern F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
Thus, the concept ‘pyhä’ seem to have<br />
evolved <strong>in</strong>to a ‘positive’ direction and it<br />
has lost most <strong>of</strong> its mean<strong>in</strong>g as someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
forbidden or dangerous.<br />
Another example, the nowadays less<br />
common word ‘hiisi’, is similar to ‘pyhä’<br />
<strong>in</strong> many respects, but its conceptual<br />
evolution has been strik<strong>in</strong>gly different.<br />
<strong>The</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> ‘hiisi’ is an ancient<br />
sacred grove, a place <strong>of</strong> sacrifice<br />
and burial (but it has also a commonly<br />
known mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a spiritual be<strong>in</strong>g). In<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land, there are at least 50 hills, 36<br />
pen<strong>in</strong>sulas, 32 ponds, 29 mounta<strong>in</strong>s, 25<br />
bays, 16 islands, 12 mires and 12 natural<br />
’gates’ or gorges with the prefix ’hiisi’<br />
or its genitive ’hiiden’ (Lounema 2003).<br />
In 1229, when F<strong>in</strong>land was under the<br />
protection <strong>of</strong> the Holy Seat (and not yet<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> Sweden), Pope<br />
Gregorius IX prescribed by a papal<br />
bull that all the ‘pagan’ sacred groves<br />
had to be confiscated by the Church.<br />
And, so it happened at least <strong>in</strong> the<br />
southern part <strong>of</strong> the country, where the<br />
great majority <strong>of</strong> the very small population<br />
lived. However, the sites could still<br />
serve as graveyards, when they were<br />
consecrated for Christianity. Consequently,<br />
the concept changed <strong>in</strong>to<br />
someth<strong>in</strong>g remote and scary, rocky wilderness,<br />
and f<strong>in</strong>ally Devil! <strong>The</strong> say<strong>in</strong>g<br />
’Hiisi vieköön!’ means ’What the dickens!’,<br />
and ’Pa<strong>in</strong>u hiiteen!’ means ’Go to<br />
blazes! Interest<strong>in</strong>gly, the ancient<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the word ‘hiisi’ has not recovered<br />
<strong>in</strong> the secularised F<strong>in</strong>nish society,<br />
whereas the latter negative<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the word is still commonly<br />
used.<br />
Challenges <strong>in</strong> conserv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong> sacred sites<br />
<strong>The</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> the protected<br />
areas is to conserve the <strong>in</strong>tegrity<br />
<strong>of</strong> natural and cultural values <strong>of</strong> the<br />
areas. <strong>The</strong> management should be science-based.<br />
In F<strong>in</strong>land, the <strong>in</strong>ventory,<br />
210
management and conservation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>of</strong> valuable cultural and sacred<br />
sites is an on-go<strong>in</strong>g process associated<br />
with the management plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual protected areas<br />
(He<strong>in</strong>onen, 2007). In addition, a nationwide<br />
systematic <strong>in</strong>ventory <strong>of</strong> the cultural<br />
values <strong>of</strong> forests is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land’s National<br />
Forest Programme 2015. However,<br />
some spiritual management-related issues<br />
go beyond <strong>in</strong>ventories and are<br />
more connected to the perception <strong>of</strong><br />
sites by the people, and consequently,<br />
easily neglected by park managers.<br />
In the Sámi homeland, comprehensive<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventories <strong>of</strong> the values <strong>of</strong> the areas<br />
are carried out, associated with the<br />
management plann<strong>in</strong>g cycle <strong>of</strong> the wilderness<br />
areas, national parks and other<br />
protected areas. <strong>The</strong> management<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g is a participatory process <strong>in</strong><br />
which the sacred sites are taken <strong>in</strong>to<br />
account <strong>in</strong> a way usually proposed by<br />
the Saami Parliament. Due to the privacy<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sacred sites, it is not certa<strong>in</strong><br />
that all the sites are known to the authorities.<br />
However, the management <strong>of</strong><br />
the areas is based on management<br />
plans, and prior to all changes <strong>in</strong> the<br />
management plans, the Saami Parliament<br />
and other stakeholders are consulted<br />
so that these values are respected<br />
and not harmed. However, it rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
an open question, whether some areas<br />
should be classified as sacred natural<br />
sites for the Sámi people. It might have<br />
some significance, for example, when<br />
design<strong>in</strong>g the protected area network<br />
or the management activities and visitor<br />
management <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual parks. If a<br />
natural site has a remarkable contemporary<br />
value as a sacred site, it would<br />
be reasonable to restrict its use for <strong>in</strong>appropriate<br />
purposes.<br />
Often <strong>in</strong>dividual people or groups <strong>of</strong><br />
people feel a strong belong<strong>in</strong>g or spiritual<br />
<strong>in</strong>terconnectedness to some natural<br />
sites or protected areas. For example,<br />
Ranger Doug Follett from the Glacier<br />
National Park, U.S.A., feels from<br />
watch<strong>in</strong>g visitors over the last 50 years,<br />
that ‘the American people feel that their<br />
National Park System is the basis <strong>of</strong> a<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> religion. And that the national<br />
parks are the cathedrals where they<br />
come to worship. And that the people <strong>in</strong><br />
big hats [i.e. rangers] are the high<br />
priests who have been given the responsibility<br />
to protect these sacred land<br />
trusts’ (Anonymous, 2010a). <strong>The</strong> same<br />
seems to be true <strong>in</strong> Northern <strong>Europe</strong>.<br />
How should such experienced hol<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
placidity, peace <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d, beauty<br />
or other spiritual values affect the management<br />
policies and practices? <strong>The</strong><br />
answer may have far-reach<strong>in</strong>g consequences<br />
<strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
and communication strategies <strong>of</strong> the<br />
protected areas and park agencies. It is<br />
essential to know why visitors come to<br />
any specific protected area, and what<br />
the key motivators <strong>of</strong> the visits are (Kajala<br />
et al., 2007). <strong>The</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> services<br />
and different functions <strong>of</strong> the area can<br />
be developed <strong>in</strong> the direction that the<br />
visitors consider important. A conscious<br />
attempt can be made to <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
visitors a chance for natural, cultural<br />
and spiritual experiences that they consider<br />
important and expect from their<br />
visits, and to avoid conflicts between<br />
211
and with<strong>in</strong> visitor groups, e.g. by channell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spatial and temporal distribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> visitor flows.<br />
Why are the sacred sites<br />
important?<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>tangible values <strong>of</strong> nature, such as<br />
beautiful landscapes and opportunities<br />
to experience nature, are <strong>in</strong>variably the<br />
most important motives for the recreational<br />
use <strong>of</strong> protected areas, accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to all visitor surveys carried out <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
(Sulkava et al., 2004, He<strong>in</strong>onen<br />
2007). A doctoral thesis (Järviluoma,<br />
2006) on the responses <strong>of</strong> visitors to<br />
four tourist centres <strong>in</strong> Lapland, three <strong>of</strong><br />
which are closely connected to national<br />
parks, showed, consistently with the<br />
visitor surveys, that peace and quiet,<br />
beautiful landscapes, and nature <strong>in</strong><br />
general are the most important attractions<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluenc<strong>in</strong>g visitor’s choice <strong>of</strong> dest<strong>in</strong>ation.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the study, women<br />
emphasise the importance <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
more than men on average. For older<br />
age groups natural features were more<br />
important reasons for their choice <strong>of</strong><br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ation than visitors on average. On<br />
the basis <strong>of</strong> the visitor surveys, for <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
hikers <strong>in</strong> protected areas, the<br />
most important recreational motives are<br />
landscapes and natural features, and<br />
the next most important ones are relaxation,<br />
break<strong>in</strong>g away from everyday life,<br />
and mental well-be<strong>in</strong>g (He<strong>in</strong>onen, 2007:<br />
105).<br />
Consequently, the sacred dimension <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas provides remarkable<br />
opportunities for the managers <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas, although the park pr<strong>of</strong>essionals<br />
may feel certa<strong>in</strong> uneas<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
when deal<strong>in</strong>g with these matters. <strong>The</strong><br />
benefits <strong>of</strong> a wider approach are<br />
evident.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> the spiritual and<br />
cultural values <strong>of</strong> protected areas <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
and deepens the relevance<br />
<strong>of</strong> parks and nature to people. It is<br />
very narrow-m<strong>in</strong>ded to try to def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
the significance <strong>of</strong> nature <strong>in</strong> the conventional<br />
utilitarian or purely natural<br />
scientific way, when a multidimensional<br />
approach would make nature conservation<br />
sensible even to such people<br />
who don’t care about the identification<br />
<strong>of</strong> species or even about the<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> birds or beetles.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> benefits <strong>of</strong> nature and protected<br />
areas for the physical and mental<br />
health are evident and diverse<br />
(Anonymous 2010b, Stolton and<br />
Dudley, 2010, see also the Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Conference ‘Healthy<br />
Parks, Healthy People’, http://www.<br />
healthyparkshealthypeoplecongress.<br />
org/). <strong>The</strong>re seems to be a relationship<br />
between the personal, and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
quite spiritual, experiences <strong>in</strong> impressive<br />
natural environments, such<br />
as the national parks, and the mental<br />
health and general well-be<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> spiritual, cultural, social,<br />
economic and ecological values<br />
<strong>in</strong> protected area management is likely<br />
to help the park managers to avoid<br />
losses <strong>of</strong> cultural and spiritual values.<br />
Such losses may be un<strong>in</strong>tentional,<br />
merely due to the lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
Unfortunately, many <strong>of</strong> the cultural<br />
losses may also be irreversible.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> enhancement <strong>of</strong> the liv<strong>in</strong>g Sámi<br />
212
culture is a part <strong>of</strong> the duties <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Natural Heritage Services <strong>of</strong> Metsähallitus<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
legislation, the use, management<br />
and conservation <strong>of</strong> natural resources<br />
<strong>in</strong> the state-owned areas <strong>in</strong> the Sámi<br />
homeland shall be <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong> a<br />
manner that favourable conditions for<br />
the liv<strong>in</strong>g Sámi culture can be guaranteed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> sacred natural sites form an<br />
important part <strong>of</strong> the Sámi culture and<br />
identity. <strong>The</strong> Natural Heritage Services<br />
is work<strong>in</strong>g closely with the Saami Parliament<br />
and the re<strong>in</strong>deer herders <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to enhance the liv<strong>in</strong>g Sámi culture.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> the sacred natural<br />
sites and the spiritual values <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas may <strong>in</strong>crease cooperation<br />
with ‘new’ customers and build<br />
up a wider constituency for conservation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> sacred dimension <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas has a considerable potential<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease the benefits there<strong>of</strong><br />
for human well-be<strong>in</strong>g and mental<br />
and physical health. In the national<br />
parks, it is possible for visitors to<br />
stop, to slow down, to calm down, to<br />
reconnect to nature, to feel the touch<br />
<strong>of</strong> the prist<strong>in</strong>e wilderness, to revitalise<br />
the personal feel<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> responsible<br />
ownership and belong<strong>in</strong>g somewhere.<br />
It would be desirable to develop<br />
enhanced tourism and recreation<br />
products that comb<strong>in</strong>e nature<br />
and culture creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tegrated attraction<br />
elements and reconnect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
people with nature through their culture.<br />
In a modern society, such a<br />
mental recovery is urgently needed.<br />
Ukonsaari Island <strong>in</strong> Inari is a well-known sacred place for the Sámi people.<br />
213
214
References<br />
Anonymous (2010a), <strong>The</strong> voice <strong>of</strong> Glacier. Ranger Doug Follett reflects on 50<br />
years at Glacier National Park. National Parks, Spr<strong>in</strong>g 2010, pp. 10-13.<br />
Anonymous (2010b), <strong>The</strong> Nature Experience and Mental Health. Report <strong>of</strong> the<br />
‘Outdoor Life and Mental Health’ Nordic Project. Report extract <strong>in</strong> English. Norwegian<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> the Environment and Nordic Council <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters.<br />
He<strong>in</strong>onen, M. (ed.) (2007), State <strong>of</strong> the Parks <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land. F<strong>in</strong>nish Protected Areas<br />
and <strong>The</strong>ir Management from 2000 to 2005. Nature Protection Publications <strong>of</strong><br />
Metsähallitus, Series A, 170: 1-313.<br />
Järviluoma, J. (2006), Turist<strong>in</strong> luonto. [Tourist’s nature]. Acta Universitatis Lapponiensis,<br />
96, 1-214.<br />
Kajala, L., Almik, A., Dahl, R., Dikšaité, L., Erkkonen, J., Fredman, P., Søndergaard<br />
Jensen, F., Karoles, K., Sievänen, T., Skov-Petersen, H., Vistad, O.I. and Wallsten,<br />
P. (2007), Visitor Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Nature Areas – a Manual based on experiences<br />
from the Nordic and Baltic Countries. TemaNord 2007:534. Stockholm, Sweden:<br />
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and Alfa Pr<strong>in</strong>t.<br />
Lounema, R. (2003), Suomen kansan pyhät paikat. [<strong>Sacred</strong> Sites <strong>of</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
People]. Hämeenl<strong>in</strong>na, F<strong>in</strong>land: Yhtyneet Kuvalehdet Oy.<br />
Mallarach, J.-M., (ed.) (2008), Protected <strong>Lands</strong>capes: Cultural and Spiritual Values.<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong>, GTZ and Obra Social de Caixa. Heidelberg: Kasparek Verlag.<br />
Stolton, S. and Dudley, N. (2010), Arguments for Protection. Vital Sites. <strong>The</strong> Contribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> Protected Areas to Human Health. A research report by WWF and Equilibrium<br />
Research. Gland, Switzerland: WWF.<br />
Sulkava, P., Hatanpää, M. and Ollila, E. (2004), Pallas-Ounastuntur<strong>in</strong> kansallispuiston<br />
kävijät 2003. [Visitors to Pallas-Ounastunturi National Park <strong>in</strong> 2003]. Hels<strong>in</strong>ki,<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land: Metsähallitus.<br />
< A Lake Inari island where Inari Sámi people were buried as late as early 1900s.<br />
215
216
<strong>The</strong> Carpathian Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, a realm <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites<br />
Sebastian Cătănoiu<br />
<strong>The</strong> Carpathian context<br />
<strong>The</strong> Carpathian Mounta<strong>in</strong>s form an arc<br />
roughly 1 500 km long across Central<br />
and Eastern <strong>Europe</strong>, mak<strong>in</strong>g them the<br />
longest, largest and most twistedshaped<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> range <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>.<br />
From the Danube Gap, near Bratislava,<br />
Slovakia, they sw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a wide crescent-shaped<br />
arc, surround<strong>in</strong>g Transcarpathia<br />
and Transylvania, to Orşova,<br />
Romania, at the section <strong>of</strong> the Danube<br />
valley called the Iron Gate. With an the<br />
average elevation <strong>of</strong> around 850 m and<br />
its highest peak, Gerlach, <strong>in</strong> Slovakia,<br />
ris<strong>in</strong>g at 2 655 m above sea level the<br />
elevation <strong>of</strong> the Carpathians is much<br />
lower than this <strong>of</strong> the Alps. <strong>The</strong> total<br />
surface area <strong>of</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong> cha<strong>in</strong> is<br />
190 000 sq km, while the area <strong>of</strong> the<br />
broader Carpathian region is 470 000<br />
sq km.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Carpathians are considered to be a<br />
reservoir with the highest biodiversity <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g around 60 000 wild<br />
species. <strong>The</strong> wooded areas <strong>in</strong>clude the<br />
largest prist<strong>in</strong>e forests on the cont<strong>in</strong>ent,<br />
while some primeval beech forests <strong>in</strong><br />
the Carpathians were designated as a<br />
UNESCO World Heritage Site. <strong>The</strong> fauna<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes the most significant population<br />
<strong>of</strong> large carnivores <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
(bears, wolves, lynx), <strong>in</strong> addition to bisons,<br />
deer, boars, chamois, marmots<br />
and numerous bird species. <strong>The</strong> rich<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> the endemic plants and animals,<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian<br />
< Nature and spirituality <strong>in</strong> Pien<strong>in</strong>y National Park, Poland<br />
217
A map <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian Ecoregion<br />
ecosystems, form a relevant part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an biodiversity. Beside the large<br />
forest patches, areas <strong>of</strong> other land use<br />
types, such as grasslands, cultivated<br />
fields and pastures are small; the related<br />
agro-biodiversity, though, is very<br />
significant due to a long-established<br />
agricultural tradition, its most prom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
elements be<strong>in</strong>g seasonal pastur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
mounta<strong>in</strong> meadows and the cultivation<br />
<strong>of</strong> local plants and trees varieties.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are seven countries <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian<br />
region, and the total population<br />
<strong>of</strong> around 20 million people is divided<br />
among seven nations: the Hungarians,<br />
Ukra<strong>in</strong>ians, Slovaks, Czechs,<br />
Poles, Romanians, Serbs and several<br />
other ethnic groups. A dist<strong>in</strong>ctive feature<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Carpathian region is that <strong>in</strong><br />
each country m<strong>in</strong>ority groups from<br />
neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries live. This ethnically<br />
diverse and multicultural region is<br />
further enriched by Russians, Jews,<br />
Germans, Greeks, Armenians and<br />
Roma. However, specific m<strong>in</strong>orities,<br />
such as the Rusyns, Lemkos, Bojkos,<br />
Hutsuls, Górals, Szeklers, Csángos,<br />
and Moţi consider themselves different<br />
from the Carpathian nations (Nikit<strong>in</strong> et<br />
al., 2009; Eberhardt, 2003). <strong>The</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
ranges have divided and isolated<br />
these populations from each other for<br />
centuries, and as a result they have<br />
developed and kept their own beliefs,<br />
dialects and ethnic identities.<br />
218
Throughout history, the Carpathian region<br />
has been a ‘border area’ for the<br />
large empires, such as the Ottoman,<br />
Habsburg, or Russian/Soviet. Solidarity<br />
rather than jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> forces was <strong>in</strong> the<br />
political agenda and strategies <strong>of</strong> the<br />
smaller nations <strong>in</strong> this ‘border area’;<br />
moreover, the great powers susta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
hostility among these nations. <strong>The</strong> state<br />
borders changed many times, and <strong>in</strong><br />
some areas even the ethnic composition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the population changed substantially.<br />
For all these reasons, the border<br />
areas rema<strong>in</strong>ed deliberately underdeveloped<br />
and were not <strong>in</strong>dustrialised;<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the communist era even the collectivisation<br />
was not carried out <strong>in</strong> some<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>ous areas, so the direct impact<br />
<strong>of</strong> modernity, with all its implications,<br />
is quite low, even today.<br />
Ancient sacred natural sites<br />
Lepenski Vir, situated <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s near Danube <strong>in</strong> Djerdap<br />
National Park, Serbia, is considered<br />
the oldest urban settlement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>.<br />
It was a permanent settlement established<br />
at a time when elsewhere <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
only temporary shelters <strong>of</strong> nomadic<br />
hunters were <strong>in</strong> use. Lepenski<br />
Vir was a Mesolithic site <strong>of</strong> significant<br />
religious importance. <strong>The</strong> fishlike humanoid<br />
figural sculptures discovered<br />
are related to primeval religion, and<br />
represent one <strong>of</strong> the oldest stone<br />
sculptures <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. <strong>The</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
numerous sacral build<strong>in</strong>gs dat<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
6500 BC to 5500 BC have been found.<br />
Artefacts covered with pictograms dated<br />
around 5000 BC, constitute another<br />
reason to rank Lepenski Vir as one <strong>of</strong><br />
the most outstand<strong>in</strong>g spiritual sites <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Europe</strong>an and world prehistory.<br />
Around 1000 BC, the Geto-Dacian civilisation<br />
had spread through the entire<br />
Carpathian Mounta<strong>in</strong>s region. <strong>The</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong> deity <strong>of</strong> the Geto-Dacians was<br />
Zamolxe, its name deriv<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />
words ‘zelmo’ that means sk<strong>in</strong> and ‘olxis’<br />
that means bear. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to mythology,<br />
after his birth he was blanketed<br />
<strong>in</strong> a bearsk<strong>in</strong> and spent long parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> his life liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an underground<br />
cave, appear<strong>in</strong>g and teach<strong>in</strong>g people<br />
occasionally. This is why each ancient<br />
sacred place <strong>in</strong> the Carpathians is associated<br />
with caves or tunnels. <strong>The</strong><br />
centre <strong>of</strong> this civilisation, located now<br />
<strong>in</strong> Grădiştea Muncelului Cioclov<strong>in</strong>a Nature<br />
Park, Romania, is a colossal complex<br />
<strong>of</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> temples, sanctuaries<br />
and fortresses spread over an area<br />
<strong>of</strong> around 3000 square kilometres. All<br />
the mounta<strong>in</strong>s around this complex are<br />
terraced and walled. <strong>The</strong> Dacian build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and complexes are positioned follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
precise geometrical patterns,<br />
occult symbols, and maps <strong>of</strong> the sky.<br />
<strong>The</strong> greatest achievement and mystery<br />
<strong>of</strong> this ancient civilisation is the capital,<br />
Sarmisegetuza, called also the ‘City<br />
Calendar’. ‘Sanctuarul Mare Rotund’<br />
(Big Round Sanctuary) has an identical<br />
structure with Stonehenge, whereas<br />
another sanctuary, called ‘Soarele<br />
de Andezit’ (<strong>The</strong> Andesito Sun), resembles<br />
strongly the famous Maya calendar.<br />
(Daicoviciu, 1991).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Romanian Carpathians are famous<br />
for their cultic anthropomorphic rocks,<br />
the most famous be<strong>in</strong>g the ‘Sphynx’<br />
219
(which has the same height as the<br />
Egyptian one), the ‘Babele’ (<strong>The</strong> Old<br />
Women) <strong>in</strong> Bucegi Nature Park, and<br />
‘<strong>The</strong> Twelve Apostles’ <strong>in</strong> Călimani National<br />
Park. For ancient Romanians, the<br />
sky, ‘cerul’ <strong>in</strong> Romanian, was called<br />
’Caelus Manus’, ‘Kerus Manus’, or ‘Duonus<br />
Cerus’ that means the Lord Sky. <strong>The</strong><br />
actual name <strong>of</strong> some Romanian mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
such as ‘Căli-man’ and ‘Carai-man’<br />
represent not only the mounta<strong>in</strong>, but<br />
also Div<strong>in</strong>ity (Geticus, 2003). In Romania,<br />
there are three Caraiman Mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
and four Calimani Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, all <strong>of</strong> them<br />
considered sacred.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Bucegi Mounta<strong>in</strong>, located <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Bucegi Nature Park, Romania, is believed<br />
to be one <strong>of</strong> the possible locations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Dacian holy mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
Koga<strong>in</strong>on, <strong>in</strong> which Zalmoxe resided <strong>in</strong><br />
a cave. In that mounta<strong>in</strong>, there are<br />
some amaz<strong>in</strong>g and mysterious places<br />
like the Omu Peak, known as ‘Zamolxe<br />
throne’, which <strong>in</strong>cludes the name ‘om’<br />
that is also the sacred syllable <strong>of</strong> H<strong>in</strong>duism<br />
and Buddhism as well as the<br />
Caraiman Peak and a vast system <strong>of</strong><br />
caves, some <strong>of</strong> them not yet explored.<br />
<strong>The</strong> top <strong>of</strong> Caraiman, due to its numerous<br />
anthropomorphic rocks positioned<br />
<strong>in</strong> a specific way, is considered to be<br />
an immense stellar temple, compared<br />
with Glastonbury (Geticus, 2003). <strong>The</strong><br />
Bucegi Mounta<strong>in</strong> is considered to be<br />
an <strong>in</strong>tersection <strong>of</strong> Earth energy l<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
an area <strong>of</strong> very strange magnetic abnormality.<br />
It has been discovered that<br />
a specific site near the Ialomicioara<br />
Cave had positive effects on human<br />
bodies, resett<strong>in</strong>g physical and chemical<br />
bodily functions to normal state<br />
and restor<strong>in</strong>g energy levels. In the<br />
popular Romanian tradition this site is<br />
called the ‘Gura de Rai’ (the Mouth <strong>of</strong><br />
Heaven), and is considered to be sacred,<br />
a gate between different worlds,<br />
a road to Heaven. Because <strong>of</strong> the comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> these unique features and<br />
its natural beauties, Bucegi Nature<br />
Park is currently the most visited park<br />
<strong>in</strong> Romania, receiv<strong>in</strong>g around one million<br />
visitors per year.<br />
Mosul, Calimani National Park, Romania. <strong>The</strong> Romanian word Mosul means the Old Man, but it<br />
is also a popular name for the Div<strong>in</strong>ity.<br />
220
In Ceahlău National Park, Romania, the<br />
Ceahlău Mounta<strong>in</strong>, called the ’Romanian<br />
Olympus’ is considered s<strong>in</strong>ce times<br />
immemorial a holy mounta<strong>in</strong>. It is visible<br />
from the Black Sea coast, 500 km<br />
away. A strange phenomenon occurs<br />
regularly: <strong>in</strong> the first week <strong>of</strong> August, at<br />
sunrise, the shadow <strong>of</strong> two <strong>of</strong> its peaks<br />
forms, for one hour and half, a spectacular<br />
hologram <strong>of</strong> a pyramid. At the<br />
same period <strong>of</strong> time, above the Toaca<br />
Peak, which has a perfect square pyramidal<br />
shape, for some m<strong>in</strong>utes, an <strong>in</strong>tense<br />
light pillar goes up towards the<br />
sky. Some researchers believe that<br />
Ceahlău Mounta<strong>in</strong> is traversed by one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the energetic axes <strong>of</strong> the Earth<br />
(www.2012en.wordpress.com). <strong>The</strong><br />
’Dobogókő’ (<strong>The</strong> Pulsat<strong>in</strong>g Stone), Pilis<br />
area, Duna-Ipoly National Park, Hungary,<br />
is considered to be the Earth’s heart<br />
chakra. It is <strong>in</strong> the same place that Attila<br />
the Hun chose to place the centre<br />
<strong>of</strong> his great empire. When the Dalai<br />
Lama visited Hungary he declared:<br />
‘<strong>The</strong> approach and behaviour <strong>of</strong> Tibet,<br />
similarly to other holy knowledge, sees<br />
and experiences the eternity as unity.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this, the so-called power<br />
and energy centres are be<strong>in</strong>g counted,<br />
not only <strong>in</strong> a human body, but on the<br />
Earth as well. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the tradition,<br />
the Earth heart chakra is <strong>in</strong> Hungary,<br />
more exactly <strong>in</strong> the area called<br />
Pilis.’ (www.docstoc.com)<br />
An amaz<strong>in</strong>g mixture <strong>of</strong> beliefs<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g nature<br />
Recognis<strong>in</strong>g the importance and the<br />
value <strong>of</strong> the ancient sacred sites, ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
religions established their own<br />
shr<strong>in</strong>es and places <strong>of</strong> worship <strong>in</strong> their<br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ities. It is the Ceahlău Mounta<strong>in</strong>,<br />
which, due to its ancient age and the<br />
actual monastic life, is considered the<br />
second holiest mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> Christian<br />
Orthodoxy, after Mt Athos. Another example<br />
is the S<strong>in</strong>aia Monastery, also<br />
called ‘the cathedral’ <strong>of</strong> the Bucegi<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, which was built on the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
road to the Bucegi Plateau, where the<br />
ancient sacred site was located. <strong>The</strong><br />
entrance to the famous Lalomicioara<br />
cave, the place from where Zamolxe<br />
supposedly has disappeared, is nowadays<br />
guarded by an Orthodox Monastery.<br />
Another outstand<strong>in</strong>g sacred<br />
place is Dobogókő, which is frequently<br />
visited by high-level priests, Buddhist<br />
monks, and healers from around the<br />
world. Even the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Shaol<strong>in</strong> order<br />
has created its Eastern <strong>Europe</strong>an monastery<br />
close to this sacred site.<br />
<strong>The</strong> highly spiritual sites up <strong>in</strong> the<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s, the processions, the calendars,<br />
and even the physical locations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the early churches were clearly the<br />
same <strong>of</strong> those <strong>of</strong> the ancient shr<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Many significant names also testify to<br />
their long history. For <strong>in</strong>stance, Sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Andrew, who <strong>in</strong>troduced Christianity<br />
to Romania, is locally known as<br />
the ‘Apostle <strong>of</strong> the wolves’ - a name<br />
charged with pr<strong>of</strong>ound connotations,<br />
given that the wolf was one <strong>of</strong> the spiritual<br />
ancestors <strong>of</strong> Dacians and its head<br />
was both a significant ethnic and a military<br />
symbol for them. Another example<br />
is the myth <strong>of</strong> Rusalii, accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
which the souls <strong>of</strong> the girls who die<br />
young can be seen sail<strong>in</strong>g through the<br />
221
sky or <strong>in</strong> the forest, <strong>in</strong> a gracious<br />
dance. If they happen to be seen or<br />
heard by someone, that person<br />
shouldn’t move or speak to the spirits.<br />
For Hutsul people (<strong>of</strong> Ukra<strong>in</strong>e) the Carpathian<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s are the land <strong>of</strong><br />
’bisytsyas’, beautiful ethereal women<br />
who, with their song, lure men to their<br />
demise. This myth was assimilated<br />
with the Christian Post-Pascal feast<br />
day <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Fiftieth Day, which became<br />
the Pentecost ‘Rusalii’ Sunday. ‘Rusalii’<br />
is the traditional feast day which is celebrated<br />
on the same day with the Fiftieth<br />
Day, be<strong>in</strong>g devoted especially to<br />
the celebration <strong>of</strong> the spirits <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dead.<br />
Zamolxe, the brown bear, known <strong>in</strong> folk<br />
beliefs as ‘Mart<strong>in</strong>’, ‘Mart<strong>in</strong> the crone’ or<br />
‘the elder’, was a sacred animal for the<br />
Geto-Dacians. Even today <strong>in</strong> the popular<br />
calendar, which comb<strong>in</strong>es phenology<br />
with pre-Christian and Christian<br />
events, the brown bear is well represented;<br />
24 March is the ‘Saturday <strong>of</strong><br />
the bear’, 31 July, 1, 2 and 13 August<br />
are the ‘Days <strong>of</strong> the Bear’. <strong>The</strong> most<br />
important period for the bear is 1–3<br />
February, which is called ‘Sretenie’<br />
(W<strong>in</strong>ter Mart<strong>in</strong>s). Offer<strong>in</strong>gs consist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> meat and honey are left <strong>in</strong> the forest,<br />
near a passage <strong>of</strong> the bear, on 2 February,<br />
which is called ‘<strong>The</strong> big Mart<strong>in</strong>’.<br />
For all Carpathians the twelve cosmogonic<br />
days from Christmas to Epiphany<br />
represent the clearest example <strong>of</strong><br />
syncretism between Christianity and<br />
pre-Christian faiths. In accordance<br />
with pagan heritage, masks are used<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the w<strong>in</strong>ter feasts <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
avoid malevolent spirits. <strong>The</strong> game <strong>of</strong><br />
bear masks, which is very spectacular<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Moldavia region, represents the<br />
death and resurrection <strong>of</strong> nature, also<br />
demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g vitality, f<strong>in</strong>esse and<br />
force. Given the fact that these ancient<br />
beliefs are deeply rooted and frequently<br />
met <strong>in</strong> local traditions, the bear<br />
is currently quite abundant <strong>in</strong> forested<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> Romania; their population accounts<br />
for two thirds <strong>of</strong> the entire <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
brown bear population. (Gorovei,<br />
2003).<br />
In the Carpathians some ancient Pre-<br />
Christian rituals and beliefs are still<br />
alive, and have survived Christianity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ‘molfars’ (for Hutsul people, Vysnytsky<br />
National Park, Ukra<strong>in</strong>e), are<br />
wise botanical healers who gather medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
plants from the mounta<strong>in</strong>scape,<br />
and use chant<strong>in</strong>g and music from a<br />
small <strong>in</strong>strument known as ’drimba’ <strong>in</strong><br />
the heal<strong>in</strong>g process. <strong>The</strong>y have an <strong>in</strong>timate<br />
and lov<strong>in</strong>g relationship with all<br />
components <strong>of</strong> the natural world, from<br />
Earth to water, fire to forest and all <strong>of</strong><br />
the animal and plant life <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian<br />
environment. <strong>The</strong> Goddesses<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kopanice or the Mystery Wise Women<br />
(White Carpathians Protected <strong>Lands</strong>cape<br />
Area, Czech Republic) can heal<br />
a person us<strong>in</strong>g only curative herbs,<br />
can f<strong>in</strong>d lost or stolen th<strong>in</strong>gs or give<br />
good advice <strong>in</strong> partnership relation<br />
problems. With<strong>in</strong> the isolated communities<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Romanian Carpathians<br />
(Apuseni Nature Park, Munţii<br />
Maramureşului Nature Park) certa<strong>in</strong><br />
people, especially old women, know<br />
and use magic <strong>in</strong>cantations aga<strong>in</strong>st illness,<br />
bad luck, hex, etc.<br />
222
Christian sacred natural sites<br />
Nowadays, the majority <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Carpathian area are Christians,<br />
and many <strong>of</strong> them are strong believers.<br />
A large part <strong>of</strong> the Polish, Slovak,<br />
Czech and Hungarian population<br />
is Roman Catholic. <strong>The</strong>re are also Hungarian<br />
Calv<strong>in</strong>ists and German Lutherans.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Szeklers belong to the Transylvanian<br />
Unitarian Church, which is a<br />
religion established <strong>in</strong> and spread from<br />
the Carpathian area. <strong>The</strong> majority <strong>of</strong><br />
the Ukra<strong>in</strong>ians, Romanians and Serbs<br />
are Eastern Orthodox Christians. <strong>The</strong><br />
Greek Catholic Church has a special<br />
significance <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian region,<br />
because the greatest part <strong>of</strong> its adherents<br />
live <strong>in</strong> this part <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, mostly<br />
Ukra<strong>in</strong>ians and Romanians, but also<br />
Slovaks and Hungarians. In all countries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the region, ow<strong>in</strong>g to the current<br />
deterioration <strong>of</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions, the<br />
collapse <strong>of</strong> earlier systems and ideals<br />
contributes to the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> the number<br />
<strong>of</strong> adherents <strong>of</strong> new Christian religious<br />
movements.<br />
Characteristic <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian region<br />
are the centuries-old wooden churches,<br />
adapted perfectly to the landscape<br />
and to the small local communities,<br />
scattered <strong>in</strong> the forests. <strong>The</strong> most significant<br />
wooden churches <strong>in</strong> Romania<br />
(Bârsana, Budeşti, Deseşti, Ieud, Plopiş,<br />
Poienile Izei, Rogoz, şurdeşti), Slovakia<br />
(Hervartov, Tvrdošín, Hronsek,<br />
Lešt<strong>in</strong>y, Kežmarok, Bodružal, Ruská<br />
Bystrá, Ladomirová) and <strong>in</strong> Poland<br />
(B<strong>in</strong>arowa, Blizne, Dȩbno, Haczów,<br />
Lipnica Dolna, Sȩkowa) have been declared<br />
World Heritage Sites. <strong>The</strong> architectural<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> these churches represent<br />
a marvellous blend <strong>of</strong> Western<br />
and Eastern <strong>in</strong>fluences; there are Romanian<br />
Orthodox churches with a<br />
Gothic architecture, but also Polish Romano-Catholic<br />
churches with Orthodox<br />
onion shaped spires. <strong>The</strong> craftsmen<br />
were able to build these amaz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs only with wood, without us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
any iron nails or any written plans, just<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g their knowledge, a secret transmitted<br />
only to chosen members <strong>of</strong> their<br />
guild.<br />
Another old custom <strong>of</strong> the region,<br />
which is still preserved nowadays, was<br />
that monks built small hermitages <strong>in</strong><br />
the vic<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> their monastery. Along<br />
the years, many <strong>of</strong> these hermitages<br />
have grown, becom<strong>in</strong>g new monasteries<br />
with their own priors.<br />
Because there were many <strong>in</strong>vasions,<br />
wars and riots dur<strong>in</strong>g the Middle Ages,<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian churches and<br />
monasteries were strongly fortified.<br />
Outstand<strong>in</strong>g examples are the German<br />
fortified churches <strong>in</strong> Transylvania that<br />
have been declared World Heritage<br />
Sites (Biertan, Câlnic, Dârjiu, Prejmer,<br />
Saschiz, Valea Viilor, and Viscri).<br />
<strong>The</strong> number <strong>of</strong> Christian <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites <strong>of</strong> the Carpathians is very<br />
large, although, at this moment a complete<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventory does not exist. Only <strong>in</strong>side<br />
the legally established protected<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> Romania, there are 198 operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
churches, monasteries and hermitages,<br />
populated by around 1800<br />
monks and nuns. It suffices to mention<br />
only some protected areas where<br />
these k<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>of</strong> sites exist at a higher<br />
concentration:<br />
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• Vânători Neamţ Nature Park, Romania,<br />
the spiritual heart <strong>of</strong> Romania: 16<br />
monasteries and hermitages (Neamţ,<br />
Secu, Sihăstria, Sihla, Vîratec,<br />
Agapia, etc) are located <strong>in</strong>side the<br />
Park boundaries as well as around<br />
40 churches, small hermitages, and<br />
monasteries <strong>in</strong> the proximity.<br />
• Munţii Maramureşului Nature Park,<br />
Romania: it hosts over 60 churches.<br />
• Grădiştea Muncelului Cioclov<strong>in</strong>a Nature<br />
Park, Romania: 10 churches are<br />
situated with<strong>in</strong> its boundaries.<br />
• Porţile de Fier Nature Park Nature<br />
Park, Romania: more than 30 churches,<br />
monasteries and hermitages can<br />
be found <strong>in</strong> its territory.<br />
• Polon<strong>in</strong>y National Park, Slovakia, has<br />
the highest number <strong>of</strong> old wooden<br />
churches among all national parks <strong>in</strong><br />
Slovakia: Uličské krivé, Jalová, Ruský<br />
Potok, Topol’a, Kalná Roztoka.<br />
Another characteristic feature <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites <strong>in</strong> the Carpathians is<br />
that they are not only alive but also<br />
strongly connected with the local communities<br />
and those beyond them as<br />
well, <strong>of</strong>ten through pilgrimages. As regards<br />
the mounta<strong>in</strong> range <strong>of</strong> the Carpathians,<br />
it is estimated that there are<br />
more than 400 places <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage,<br />
while <strong>in</strong> the whole Carpathian region<br />
their number is approximately 700. Most<br />
<strong>of</strong> these pilgrimage sites are small and<br />
only <strong>of</strong> local significance, but 50 to 60 <strong>of</strong><br />
them have national significance, and<br />
some 10 to 15 are <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
importance.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most famous and the most frequented<br />
pilgrimage sites <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian<br />
region are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
• In the Polish Carpathian region: the<br />
Jasna Góra monastery <strong>in</strong> Czestochowa,<br />
visited every year by several<br />
million pilgrims; the Calvary Sanctuary<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, the<br />
biggest compound <strong>of</strong> its k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
and Poland’s second most important<br />
historic dest<strong>in</strong>ation for pil-<br />
<strong>The</strong> Agapia Veche Convent, Vână tori Neamţ Nature Park, Romania is a holy place dedicated to<br />
cenobitic life. Destroyed and rebuilt many times dur<strong>in</strong>g the centuries, the Agapia Veche Convent<br />
(Old Agapia) was established <strong>in</strong> the fourteenth century.<br />
224
grims; Wadowice, the birthplace <strong>of</strong><br />
Pope John Paul II visited by around<br />
200 000 pilgrims yearly, etc (Borsa<br />
et al., 2009).<br />
• In the Czech Carpathian region the<br />
most significant sites <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage<br />
are: Velehrad and Křt<strong>in</strong>y (White<br />
Carpathians).<br />
• In the Slovakian Carpathian region,<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> national pilgrimage places<br />
are Nitra, related with the Sa<strong>in</strong>ts Cyril<br />
and Methodius, the creators <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Glagolitic alphabet which was created<br />
to transcribe the Old Church Slavonic<br />
language; the Zobor Mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
where the first monastery <strong>in</strong> Slovakia<br />
was built; Hronský Beňadik, related<br />
with the Benedict<strong>in</strong>e abbey established<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1075, all <strong>in</strong> or close to Ponitrie<br />
Protected <strong>Lands</strong>cape Area; the<br />
Levoča Marianská Hora church, close<br />
to Slovenský Raj National Park; Litmanová,<br />
the place <strong>of</strong> an apparition <strong>of</strong><br />
Virg<strong>in</strong> Mary, <strong>in</strong> Pien<strong>in</strong>y National Park.<br />
• In the Hungarian Carpathian region<br />
the most famous pilgrimage sites are<br />
Máriapócs, Máriaremete, Márianosztra,<br />
and Bélapátfalva all situated <strong>in</strong><br />
Bukk National Park.<br />
• In the Romanian Carpathian region,<br />
the Orthodox monasteries are the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> pilgrimage dest<strong>in</strong>ations. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are four ma<strong>in</strong> concentration areas <strong>of</strong><br />
monasteries: those <strong>of</strong> Bucov<strong>in</strong>a (Humor,<br />
Voroneţ, Moldoviţa, and<br />
Suceviţa), Neamţ region and<br />
Vânători Neamţ Nature Park (Neamţ,<br />
Secu, Vovidenia, Agapia, Sihăstria,<br />
Văratec, etc), the valley <strong>of</strong> River Olt,<br />
Buila Vânturariţa National Park and<br />
Cozia National Park (Hurezi, Curtea<br />
de Argeş, Cozia, Bistriţa) and Munţii<br />
Maramureşului Nature Park (Moisei,<br />
Bogdan Voda, Rozavlea, and Bârsana).<br />
<strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> pilgrimage place <strong>of</strong><br />
the Catholic Hungarians <strong>in</strong> Romania<br />
is the church and monastery <strong>in</strong><br />
şumuleu Ciuc (around 300 000 pilgrims<br />
yearly).<br />
• In the Ukra<strong>in</strong>ian Carpathian region<br />
pilgrimage dest<strong>in</strong>ations are Krekhiv<br />
(miracle work<strong>in</strong>g icons), Hrushiv (apparition<br />
<strong>of</strong> Virg<strong>in</strong> Mary) etc.<br />
<strong>The</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> the monastic communities<br />
and hermits liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> solitude <strong>in</strong><br />
the wilderness is another characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Carpathians. Only <strong>in</strong> the Romanian<br />
Carpathians, monastic communities<br />
are found with<strong>in</strong> 13 National<br />
and Nature Parks. <strong>The</strong> life <strong>of</strong> these monastic<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> forested areas,<br />
usually liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> harsh conditions, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes an efficient use <strong>of</strong> pasture<br />
lands, hay fields, and glades. <strong>The</strong> monastic<br />
communities have a long-established<br />
tradition <strong>of</strong> wise use <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
resources, <strong>in</strong> order to cover only their<br />
essential needs, giv<strong>in</strong>g to the natural<br />
elements found <strong>in</strong> the Carpathians<br />
some utilitarian, cultural and spiritual<br />
value. Thanks to the ancient monastic<br />
recipes, the plants and herbs that<br />
grow near the monasteries are famous<br />
for their medic<strong>in</strong>al qualities. Brother<br />
Cyprian, an eighteenth century monk<br />
from červený Kláštor, Slovakia (Pien<strong>in</strong>y<br />
National Park), who was a famous<br />
pharmacist, is only one <strong>of</strong> many wellknown<br />
examples. Each monastic community<br />
practises a number <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
activities without a significant negative<br />
impact on the environment, such<br />
as livestock farm<strong>in</strong>g, woodcraft, fruit<br />
225
grow<strong>in</strong>g, pick<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mushrooms and<br />
forest fruits, apiculture, weav<strong>in</strong>g, produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> traditional dr<strong>in</strong>ks from fruits,<br />
bakery, and fish<strong>in</strong>g from ponds.<br />
This resilient model, characterised by<br />
a susta<strong>in</strong>able consumption and production,<br />
has not served to produce<br />
large amounts <strong>of</strong> food; the small surpluses<br />
are sold <strong>in</strong> the monastic stores<br />
or used as alms dur<strong>in</strong>g the religious<br />
feasts. <strong>The</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> years <strong>of</strong> the<br />
monastic ownership <strong>of</strong> the land, and<br />
the cont<strong>in</strong>uous presence <strong>of</strong> the monastic<br />
communities dur<strong>in</strong>g that time,<br />
shaped the Carpathian landscapes <strong>in</strong><br />
particular ways.<br />
In some cases (Agapia Convent and<br />
Văratec Convent, Vânători Neamţ Nature<br />
Park, Romania) the monastic communities<br />
are not organised <strong>in</strong> monasteries<br />
but <strong>in</strong> monastic villages, developed<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to self-sufficiency rules.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se villages have their own post <strong>of</strong>fices,<br />
dispensaries, mills and stores, and<br />
are almost entirely self-sufficient.<br />
Modern sacred natural sites<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the World Wars, the Carpathians<br />
region was the scene <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong><br />
the largest and desperate battles.<br />
Only <strong>in</strong> World War I nearly two million<br />
soldiers died on the Galician and Romanian<br />
fronts. Because <strong>of</strong> changes <strong>of</strong><br />
borders and translocation <strong>of</strong> populations<br />
related with the disappearance <strong>of</strong><br />
the Austro-Hungarian Empire after<br />
World War I, as well as the Soviet dom<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
after World War II, the graves <strong>of</strong><br />
the solders are not cared for, while<br />
many <strong>of</strong> them are not even marked<br />
(Borsa et al., 2009). Nowadays, these<br />
cemeteries represent places <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage<br />
and self-communion. This has<br />
happened all around the Carpathians;<br />
an astonish<strong>in</strong>g characteristic example<br />
is the establishment <strong>of</strong> the Sfânta Cruce<br />
(<strong>The</strong> Holy Cross) Hermitage <strong>in</strong><br />
Vânători Neamţ Nature Park, Romania,<br />
a place where thousands <strong>of</strong> Romanian,<br />
German and Russian soldiers were<br />
killed dur<strong>in</strong>g a battle <strong>of</strong> WW II. <strong>The</strong><br />
corpses <strong>of</strong> the soldiers were not buried;<br />
they were simply left there decay<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
because their number was great,<br />
the front l<strong>in</strong>e moved rapidly and the<br />
political situation changed; as a result<br />
the surround<strong>in</strong>g forest has become a<br />
sacred one. <strong>The</strong> Heroes Cross on the<br />
Caraiman Mounta<strong>in</strong> (Bucegi Natural<br />
Park, Romania), 28 m high, is the tallest<br />
structure <strong>in</strong> the world dedicated to<br />
the heroes who died dur<strong>in</strong>g World War<br />
I, situated at an altitude <strong>of</strong> over 2000<br />
metres. Nowadays this cross is also a<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> pilgrimage, not only for<br />
those who want to pay their respects<br />
or honour the heroes, but also to worship<br />
the Div<strong>in</strong>ity on the top <strong>of</strong> a sacred<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>.<br />
At the end <strong>of</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century,<br />
the Jewish population <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian<br />
region was estimated at around 5<br />
million people. S<strong>in</strong>ce then, especially<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g and after World War II, their<br />
number rapidly decreased, and as a<br />
result, the old synagogues and Jewish<br />
cemeteries are now an object <strong>of</strong> attention<br />
for their descendants, which<br />
spread all around the world. <strong>The</strong> Carpathian<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s are related with the<br />
226
<strong>The</strong> Dacian K<strong>in</strong>g Decebalus, Porţile de Fier Nature Park, Romania. This statue, started <strong>in</strong> 1994<br />
and f<strong>in</strong>ished <strong>in</strong> 2004, is the tallest rock sculpture <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> (40 m high), located on the rock<br />
bank <strong>of</strong> River Danube.<br />
birth <strong>of</strong> the ’Hasidic’ (the word deriv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from the Hebrew word ‘Hasid’ mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pious, righteous, <strong>in</strong>vigorated and<br />
alive). It is an important mystical movement<br />
founded by Baal Shem Tov <strong>in</strong> the<br />
seventeenth century, one <strong>of</strong> the greatest<br />
lum<strong>in</strong>aries <strong>of</strong> the Jewish people.<br />
His later followers said that go<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
to nature to speak to God <strong>in</strong> our own<br />
language is the secret to spiritual<br />
growth for every Jew and every human<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g. Based on the teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Baal<br />
Shem Tov, his great grandson, Rebbe<br />
Nachman wrote: ‘When a person meditates<br />
<strong>in</strong> the fields, all the grasses jo<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
his prayer and <strong>in</strong>crease its effectiveness<br />
and power.’<br />
In Domogled-Valea Cernei National<br />
Park, Romania, near Herculane, 3000 to<br />
5000 yoga adepts from all over <strong>Europe</strong><br />
meet every spr<strong>in</strong>g, to do several meditative<br />
practices together, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
yang spiral. On the other hand, the New<br />
Age movements are <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the<br />
resurrection <strong>of</strong> the ancient Pre-Christian<br />
beliefs, even <strong>of</strong> the Zamolxe cult.<br />
Not only the former sanctuaries and<br />
worship places are used, but also new<br />
artistic creations became the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> spiritual <strong>in</strong>terest, like the statue <strong>of</strong><br />
the Dacian K<strong>in</strong>g Decebalus, carved <strong>in</strong><br />
stone, <strong>in</strong> Porţile de Fier Nature Park,<br />
Romania.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites, local<br />
communities and nature<br />
conservation<br />
A characteristic feature <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian<br />
area is that there are several<br />
places <strong>in</strong>habited by more than one nationality,<br />
with dist<strong>in</strong>ctive cultural heritage,<br />
while there are areas which were<br />
<strong>in</strong>habited <strong>in</strong> the past by national and<br />
religious groups who do not live there<br />
anymore. Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g especially about<br />
the ancient <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites, it is<br />
227
obvious that the sacredness <strong>of</strong> some<br />
<strong>of</strong> them does not present a spiritual <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
for contemporary local communities,<br />
and preservation works <strong>in</strong> these<br />
sites is carried out only for touristic<br />
purposes. Even <strong>in</strong> this case, however,<br />
local communities are usually <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g unchanged the environmental<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> these sites.<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>disputable that <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites which are currently important for<br />
the local communities play a key role<br />
<strong>in</strong> nature conservation, because each<br />
<strong>of</strong> them conveys respect for Nature as<br />
a div<strong>in</strong>e creation, and allows raise <strong>of</strong><br />
awareness for environmental matters<br />
and dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> sound nature<br />
protection practices. But more importantly,<br />
visits <strong>in</strong> these sacred natural<br />
sites require not only external cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
but also <strong>in</strong>ternal purity and a reverential<br />
attitude. <strong>The</strong>refore, affirm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the sacred values <strong>of</strong> landscapes, sites<br />
and species is a necessary step to<br />
protect nature, emphasis<strong>in</strong>g thus the<br />
amaz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tegration <strong>of</strong> the natural and<br />
spiritual features <strong>of</strong> the Carpathian<br />
region.<br />
228
References<br />
Borsa, M., Chifelea, C., Egerer, H., Gal, Z., Glowacki, W., Halas, M., Hopfgartner,<br />
V., Illes, I., Niewiadomski, Z., Ptacek, P. and Wiederwald, D. (2009), VASICA - Visions<br />
and Strategies <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian Area, Bolzano: Pr<strong>in</strong>team, pp. 93-115.<br />
Daicoviciu, H. (1991), Dacii, Chiş<strong>in</strong>ău: Hyperion.<br />
Eberhardt, P. (2003), Ethnic Groups and Population Changes <strong>in</strong> Twentieth-century<br />
Central-Eastern <strong>Europe</strong>, London: M. E. Sharpe.<br />
Geticus (2003), La Dacie Hyperboreenne, Puiseaux: Pardes.<br />
Gorovei, A. (2003), Cred<strong>in</strong>ti si superstitii ale poporului roman [Beliefs and superstitions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Romanian people], 2nd edn, Bucuresti: Grai si suflet-Cultura<br />
Nationala.<br />
Nikit<strong>in</strong>, A.G., Kochk<strong>in</strong>, I.T., June, C.M., Willis, C.M., McBa<strong>in</strong>, I. and Videiko, M.Y.<br />
(2009), Mitochondrial DNA sequence variation <strong>in</strong> Boyko, Hutsul and Lemko populations<br />
<strong>of</strong> Carpathian highlands. Human Biology 81 (1): 43–58.<br />
http://www.2012en.wordpress.com/2008/07/20/misterele-Ceahlăului-fenomeneparanormale-pe-muntele-lui-zamolxis/,<br />
accessed 28 October 2010.<br />
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/46748553/Pulsat<strong>in</strong>g-stone-(Dobogk)--where-thehearth-<strong>of</strong>-the-Earth-beats,<br />
accessed 28 October 2010.<br />
229
230
<strong>The</strong> ‘sacredness’ <strong>of</strong> natural sites and<br />
their recovery: Iona, Harris and Govan<br />
<strong>in</strong> Scotland<br />
Alastair McIntosh<br />
Science and the sacred:<br />
a necessary dichotomy?<br />
It is a pleas<strong>in</strong>g irony that sacred natural<br />
sites (SNSs), once the preserve <strong>of</strong> religion,<br />
are now draw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g recognition<br />
from biological scientists (Verschuuren<br />
et al., 2010). At a basic level<br />
this is utilitarian. SNSs frequently comprise<br />
rare rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ecological ‘islands’<br />
<strong>of</strong> biodiversity. But the very existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs is also a challenge to science.<br />
It poses at least two questions.<br />
Does the reputed ‘sacredness’ <strong>of</strong> these<br />
sites have any significance for science<br />
beyond the mere utility by which they<br />
happen to conserve ecosystems? And<br />
is this reputed ‘sacredness’ a feature<br />
with which science can, and even<br />
should, mean<strong>in</strong>gfully engage?<br />
In address<strong>in</strong>g these questions science<br />
most hold fast to its own sacred value –<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>in</strong> the pursuit <strong>of</strong> truth. One approach<br />
is to say that science and the<br />
sacred cannot connect because the former<br />
is based on reason while the latter<br />
is irrational. But this argument <strong>in</strong>variably<br />
overlooks the question <strong>of</strong> premises.<br />
Those who level it make the presumption<br />
that the basis <strong>of</strong> reality is materialistic<br />
alone. <strong>The</strong> religious, by contrast, argue<br />
that the basis <strong>of</strong> reality, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material reality, is fundamentally spiritual.<br />
Both can apply impeccable logic<br />
based on these respective premises<br />
< Scots P<strong>in</strong>e (P<strong>in</strong>us sylvestris)<br />
231
and as such, both are ‘rational’ from<br />
with<strong>in</strong> their own terms <strong>of</strong> reference.<br />
This leads some philosophers <strong>of</strong> science<br />
to the view that science and religion<br />
should co-exist <strong>in</strong> mutual but<br />
compartmentalised respect, separated,<br />
as it were, by an impermeable<br />
membrane. <strong>The</strong> evolutionary biologist<br />
Stephen Jay Gould advanced this view<br />
where he wrote:<br />
‘No such conflict should exist [between<br />
science and religion] because<br />
each subject has a legitimate<br />
magisterium, or doma<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
teach<strong>in</strong>g authority - and these<br />
magisteria do not overlap (the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple<br />
that I would like to designate<br />
as NOMA or ‘non-overlapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
magisteria’). <strong>The</strong> net <strong>of</strong> science<br />
covers the empirical realm: what is<br />
the universe made <strong>of</strong> (fact) and<br />
why does it work this way (theory).<br />
<strong>The</strong> net <strong>of</strong> religion extends over<br />
questions <strong>of</strong> moral mean<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
value. <strong>The</strong>se two magisteria do not<br />
overlap. (Gould 2007: 594)’.<br />
But is such a position good enough,<br />
especially when the scientist is <strong>in</strong>vited<br />
to engage with the ‘sacred’ because<br />
sacred groves, mounta<strong>in</strong>s, lakes, etc.<br />
might be just about the only rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
semi-<strong>in</strong>tact areas <strong>of</strong> biodiversity<br />
around on account <strong>of</strong> the ravishes <strong>of</strong><br />
materialism? Such a scientist will<br />
doubtless have the generosity to concede<br />
the biological utility <strong>of</strong> the sacred,<br />
but is there also ground for her or<br />
him to enterta<strong>in</strong> the root phenomenon<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘sacredness’ itself? It is true that<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the claims <strong>of</strong> religion prima facie<br />
rule themselves out <strong>of</strong> court from a<br />
scientific perspective. For example,<br />
idea that God (as the ‘ground <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g’)<br />
created the world <strong>in</strong> six days is<br />
manifestly preposterous. But scratch a<br />
little deeper and most modern theologians<br />
view such imagery as poetic or<br />
metaphorical truth rather than literal<br />
truth. <strong>The</strong> one speaks the truth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
‘heart’, the other <strong>of</strong> the ‘head’, and we<br />
need both to be fully human and thereby<br />
to engage the ‘hand’ <strong>in</strong> active management.<br />
Every time a scientist speaks<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘parallel universes’, or even <strong>of</strong> the<br />
school textbook construction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
atom, they too are us<strong>in</strong>g metaphor.<br />
More than just reflect<strong>in</strong>g on the structures<br />
<strong>of</strong> logic and language, we might<br />
also ask, if we are to be scientific,<br />
whether the sacred might actually be<br />
amenable to scientific <strong>in</strong>quiry. If people<br />
claim that the sacred is someth<strong>in</strong>g ‘experienced’,<br />
and if it appears to be an<br />
experience with consistencies, why<br />
should that not be studied empirically<br />
like any other perceptual phenomenon<br />
that purports to shed light on reality?<br />
Who said that religion must be conf<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to be<strong>in</strong>g the straw man <strong>of</strong> bl<strong>in</strong>d faith?<br />
What <strong>in</strong>terests are served by keep<strong>in</strong>g it<br />
there? Is it not so that, as with other scientific<br />
phenomena, if you don’t look you<br />
won’t see? Is it therefore not <strong>in</strong>cumbent<br />
upon science at least to enterta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the claims derived from religious<br />
experience, especially where<br />
these appear to f<strong>in</strong>d a measure <strong>of</strong> consensual<br />
validation? This is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g undertaken <strong>in</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e where<br />
advances <strong>in</strong> neuroscience have opened<br />
up new vistas <strong>of</strong> research <strong>in</strong>to spiritual<br />
232
experience as part <strong>of</strong> the heal<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
body (Clarke 2010). Why should it not<br />
also be a new field for conservationists<br />
who have a responsibility for planetary<br />
health? So do<strong>in</strong>g can allow park managers<br />
to optimise their assets. It can synergise<br />
benefits across an extended spectrum,<br />
thereby ultimately strengthen<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the political will to susta<strong>in</strong> and resource<br />
nature conservation.<br />
In h<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g that ‘nature is good for the<br />
soul’ the hard-pressed biological scientist<br />
should not be expected to become<br />
an authority <strong>in</strong> spiritual matters. However,<br />
it may be useful to know that an extensive<br />
body <strong>of</strong> research and literature<br />
has build up over the past century, culm<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the field <strong>of</strong> consciousness<br />
research. An early milestone was William<br />
James’s classic study, <strong>The</strong> Varieties<br />
<strong>of</strong> Religious Experience, first presented<br />
as the Gifford Lectures <strong>in</strong> ‘natural religion’<br />
at Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh University between<br />
1900 and 1902. <strong>The</strong> twentieth century<br />
saw further experimental and conceptual<br />
advances. A f<strong>in</strong>e review <strong>of</strong> the literature<br />
is Varieties <strong>of</strong> Anomalous Experience:<br />
Exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the Scientific Evidence<br />
published the American Psychological<br />
Association (Cardena et al. 2000). Especially<br />
relevant is the last chapter by<br />
Wulff on mystical experience.<br />
Weak and strong sacred<br />
experience<br />
A range <strong>of</strong> terms have been devised to<br />
describe religious and related ‘anomalous’<br />
experiences such as might be associated<br />
with either the found<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘sa<strong>in</strong>tly’ figures beh<strong>in</strong>d SNSs, or with<br />
subsequent experiences reported by<br />
visitors. <strong>The</strong> theologian may speak <strong>of</strong><br />
experiences as ‘visionary’ or ‘mystical’.<br />
Rudolf Otto used the word ‘num<strong>in</strong>ous’<br />
<strong>in</strong> popularis<strong>in</strong>g ‘the idea <strong>of</strong> the holy’.<br />
<strong>The</strong> humanistic psychologist Abraham<br />
Maslow, best known for his hierarchy<br />
<strong>of</strong> human needs, devised the term<br />
‘peak experience’. This latter term allows<br />
the <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> experiences that<br />
may not have an explicit religious connotation<br />
but is still perceived as uplift<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the ‘spirit’. All <strong>of</strong> these comprise<br />
an area <strong>of</strong> study known as ‘transpersonal<br />
psychology’ For our purposes it<br />
is helpful to follow Wulff (<strong>in</strong> Cardena et<br />
al. 2000: 397–460) <strong>in</strong> recognis<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uum from mild to extreme (or<br />
weak to strong) transpersonal experiences<br />
– so-called because they suggest<br />
a realm <strong>of</strong> experience that lifts<br />
consciousness beyond normal egobounded<br />
limitations.<br />
Weak peak experience (to use Maslow’s<br />
term) is very common outdoors.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>clude mildly <strong>in</strong>tensified aesthetic<br />
experiences with nature and<br />
close bond<strong>in</strong>g with fellow humank<strong>in</strong>d.<br />
For example, a mildly euphoric feel<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> closeness to one’s friends might be<br />
memorably felt while mutually witness<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a breath-tak<strong>in</strong>g sunset.<br />
R<strong>in</strong>ger and Gillis (1995) have <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> outdoor tra<strong>in</strong>ers understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that such weak experiences<br />
can readily escalate to strong levels<br />
<strong>of</strong> psychological depth. <strong>The</strong>y propose<br />
an eight-po<strong>in</strong>t scale rang<strong>in</strong>g from surface-level<br />
aesthetic experiences,<br />
through deepen<strong>in</strong>g levels <strong>of</strong> identity formation,<br />
all the way to the ‘universal lev-<br />
233
el’ <strong>of</strong> mystical experience – someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that is widely experienced by <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people. <strong>The</strong>y suggest that levels<br />
<strong>of</strong> depth should be managed dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
adventure tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> order to respect<br />
the implicit contract <strong>of</strong> what groups<br />
have signed up for. In an important anthology<br />
Gr<strong>of</strong> and Gr<strong>of</strong> (1989) also highlight<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> recognis<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
‘spiritual emergence’ can become a<br />
‘spiritual emergency’; an ontological<br />
crisis. This, perhaps, is one reason why<br />
the sacred is <strong>of</strong>ten held at arms length.<br />
That recognised, some people actively<br />
seek out strong experience. Robert<br />
Greenway, a pioneer <strong>of</strong> ecopsychology,<br />
<strong>in</strong>voked what he calls the ‘wilderness<br />
effect’ to facilitate this with some <strong>of</strong> his<br />
students. In his studies cover<strong>in</strong>g 1380<br />
people, 90 percent described ‘an <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> aliveness, well-be<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
and energy’ and 38 percent described<br />
life-changes that ‘held true’ five years<br />
after their return from what he led them<br />
through. Greenway <strong>of</strong>fers as fairly typical<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g account from a group<br />
<strong>of</strong> twelve people near the end <strong>of</strong> a twoweek<br />
trip up the Eel River <strong>in</strong> northern<br />
California (Greenway 1995).<br />
‘We had gone as deep <strong>in</strong>to the center<br />
<strong>of</strong> the wilderness as we could,<br />
and as deep <strong>in</strong>to our hearts and<br />
m<strong>in</strong>ds. We had adopted games and<br />
structures we knew would open us<br />
beyond our familiar constra<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
Now, <strong>in</strong> the fullness <strong>of</strong> our open<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
our ability to feel and understand<br />
reached unexpected depths.... We<br />
came upon a huge pool that<br />
seemed bottomless - shad<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
blue-green darken<strong>in</strong>g almost too<br />
black <strong>in</strong> the depths.... We knew<br />
without speak<strong>in</strong>g that we had found<br />
‘the place’. We fell silent at the sight,<br />
know<strong>in</strong>g that this would be the turn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t, ‘the most sacred’, the<br />
place <strong>of</strong> deepest wilderness, for this<br />
day, for this trip, for this time <strong>in</strong> our<br />
lives, and perhaps <strong>in</strong> our entire<br />
lives.... We swam, crawled onto the<br />
hot rocks ... most <strong>of</strong> us slept for a<br />
time. Later some spoke <strong>of</strong> amaz<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
vivid dreams.... Distance disappeared<br />
and there was an openness<br />
<strong>in</strong>to ourselves that was an openness<br />
to each other that embraced the<br />
pool, the river, and further out <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the wilderness, the ‘other world’, the<br />
whole Earth, the universe’.<br />
Such an example is not tied to any<br />
specific religion. An example <strong>of</strong> a<br />
strong mystical experience that is tied<br />
would be the follow<strong>in</strong>g from George<br />
Fox, the founder <strong>of</strong> the Quaker<br />
movement.<br />
‘I now came up <strong>in</strong> the spirit past the<br />
flam<strong>in</strong>g sword <strong>in</strong>to the paradise <strong>of</strong><br />
God. Everyth<strong>in</strong>g was new. And the<br />
whole creation gave <strong>of</strong>f another<br />
smell to what I knew before, beyond<br />
what I could ever express <strong>in</strong><br />
words. I knew noth<strong>in</strong>g but purity<br />
and <strong>in</strong>nocence and rightness as I<br />
was renewed <strong>in</strong> the image <strong>of</strong> God<br />
by Jesus Christ, so that, as I say, I<br />
entered the state that Adam was <strong>in</strong><br />
before he fell. <strong>The</strong> creation was<br />
opened up to me…. Great th<strong>in</strong>gs I<br />
was led to [see] by the Lord and<br />
wonderful depths were revealed to<br />
me, beyond what I could ever put<br />
<strong>in</strong> words’ (Ambler 2001: 101).<br />
234
Fox’s experience wears very different<br />
cloth<strong>in</strong>g than Greenway’s more eclectic<br />
example. However, both share a sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘cosmic consciousnesses’ such as<br />
has caused mystical experience to be<br />
described as ‘the perennial philosophy’.<br />
Walter Stace identifies such cosmic<br />
unity and up to eight other characteristics<br />
with mystical consciousness<br />
(Pahnke and Richards 1969):<br />
• Undifferentiated unity – sometimes<br />
called ‘the hallmark <strong>of</strong> mystical<br />
experience’.<br />
• Objectivity and reality – the experience<br />
seems more real than real.<br />
• Space and time – feel as if they have<br />
been transcended.<br />
• <strong>Sacred</strong>ness – pervades the experience.<br />
• Deeply-felt positive mood – joy,<br />
blessedness and especially love.<br />
• Paradoxicality – normal categories <strong>of</strong><br />
logic seem to fall away.<br />
• Ineffability – cannot adequately be<br />
expressed <strong>in</strong> words.<br />
• Transiency – <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>tense aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
the experience usually pass fairly<br />
quickly (one <strong>of</strong> the features that differentiates<br />
it from psychosis).<br />
• Positive change – to life <strong>in</strong> attitude<br />
and/or behaviour, <strong>of</strong>ten permanent.<br />
Like other contemporary scholarly approaches,<br />
Wulff’s review (op. cit.) explores<br />
a range <strong>of</strong> ways that might account<br />
for such states and their frequent<br />
generalised consistency with<br />
one another. <strong>The</strong>se <strong>in</strong>clude neurophysiological<br />
theories, psychoanalytical<br />
and other psychological perspectives,<br />
and all the way to face-value acceptance<br />
<strong>of</strong> spirituality. But that debate<br />
need not concern us here. It is sufficient<br />
for us to note that the association<br />
<strong>of</strong> a natural site with sacredness has a<br />
phenomenological significance that<br />
might take it beyond mere utility from a<br />
conservationist’s po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view. It is<br />
possible that such sites are important<br />
not just for the biodiversity <strong>of</strong> non-human<br />
species, but also for the evolution<br />
and health <strong>of</strong> the human condition <strong>in</strong> a<br />
troubled world.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites and spiritual<br />
presence <strong>in</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g traditions<br />
If ‘spirituality’ broadly consistent with<br />
Stace’s criteria might be on the cards,<br />
what might this suggest for the human<br />
ontological significance <strong>of</strong> SNSs? A spiritual<br />
worldview is one that considers the<br />
world, and specifically, human life, to be<br />
ensouled. <strong>The</strong> spiritual is that which<br />
gives life and specifically, life as love<br />
made manifest. It is the ‘<strong>in</strong>teriority’ <strong>of</strong> that<br />
which is exterior; the know<strong>in</strong>g consciousness<br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d the known. Several<br />
major religions consider such consciousness<br />
to be personified, thus the<br />
Kena Upanishad <strong>of</strong> H<strong>in</strong>duism asks: ‘Who<br />
sends the m<strong>in</strong>d to wander afar? Who first<br />
drives life to start on its journey? Who impels<br />
us to utter these words? Who is the<br />
Spirit beh<strong>in</strong>d the eye and the ear?’<br />
<strong>The</strong> Manduka Upanishad underscores<br />
the suck-and-see empirical approach<br />
to spiritual consciousness, thus: ‘In the<br />
union with him is the supreme pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
his reality’. <strong>The</strong> Mundaka Upanishad<br />
says: ‘In truth who knows God becomes<br />
God’ (Mascaro 1965: 51, 83, 81). <strong>The</strong>se<br />
concepts have their equivalents <strong>in</strong> other<br />
religions, for example, the deification or<br />
235
theosis <strong>in</strong> Orthodox Christianity based<br />
around the mystical notion that St Athanasius<br />
expressed <strong>in</strong> the words, ‘God<br />
became man so that man might become<br />
God’. Christian associations between<br />
nature and the sacred are also<br />
seen <strong>in</strong> such teach<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> Jesus as<br />
‘Consider the lilies <strong>of</strong> the field…’, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
totemic designations <strong>of</strong> the gospels<br />
where Mark is the lion, Luke the ox and<br />
John the eagle, and <strong>in</strong> panentheistic<br />
passages such as John 1, Psalms 104<br />
and the twelfth chapter <strong>of</strong> the Book <strong>of</strong><br />
Job which says: if <strong>in</strong> any doubt about<br />
the div<strong>in</strong>e ‘Ask now the beasts … and<br />
the fouls <strong>of</strong> the air, and they shall tell<br />
thee. Or speak to the earth, and it shall<br />
teach thee’. To borrow another term<br />
from Orthodox theology, higher consciousness<br />
<strong>in</strong>teracts with nature <strong>in</strong><br />
apocatastasis – the revelation (apocalypse)<br />
<strong>of</strong> what is actually to be found<br />
there (stasis). From this we might derive<br />
the hypothesis that SNSs are <strong>of</strong> vital importance<br />
because they show us more<br />
deeply what nature actually is.<br />
It might additionally be noted that the<br />
most sacred site <strong>in</strong> Islam, the Kaaba at<br />
Mecca, holds at its epicentre the Black<br />
Stone. Encased <strong>in</strong> silver, this is about<br />
thirty centimetres <strong>in</strong> length. Pilgrims on<br />
the Hajj process around and, if they can<br />
get close enough, kiss it. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
tradition, Umar, the second caliph and<br />
companion <strong>of</strong> Prophet Muhammad<br />
(p.b.u.h.), said to this stone: ‘No doubt,<br />
I know that you are a stone and can neither<br />
benefit anyone nor harm anyone.<br />
Had I not seen Allah’s Apostle kiss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
you I would not have kissed you’<br />
(Bukhari 2007: 2:26:667). On such account<br />
the practice, strange though it is<br />
<strong>in</strong> the wider context <strong>of</strong> Islam, is not considered<br />
to be idolatrous.<br />
Amongst many <strong>of</strong> the world’s <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples the sacredness <strong>of</strong> nature is central<br />
to the conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity.<br />
This also applies <strong>in</strong> Western <strong>Europe</strong><br />
where, for example, faerie hills <strong>in</strong> contemporary<br />
Scotland have been noted as<br />
depositaries <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous lore and local<br />
taboos that contribute to the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> biodiversity with<strong>in</strong> them (Laviolette<br />
and McIntosh 1997). In a major assessment<br />
edited for UNEP’s Global Biodiversity<br />
Assessment, Posey emphasised the<br />
spiritual basis <strong>of</strong> biodiversity amongst<br />
many <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples, surmis<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
‘Although conservation and management<br />
practices are highly pragmatic,<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous and traditional peoples<br />
generally view this knowledge as<br />
emanat<strong>in</strong>g from a spiritual base. All<br />
creation is sacred, and the sacred<br />
and secular are <strong>in</strong>separable. Spirituality<br />
is the highest form <strong>of</strong> consciousness,<br />
and spiritual consciousness is<br />
the highest form <strong>of</strong> awareness. In<br />
this sense, a dimension <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
knowledge is not local knowledge,<br />
but knowledge <strong>of</strong> the universal as<br />
expressed <strong>in</strong> the local. In <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
and local cultures, experts exist who<br />
are peculiarly aware <strong>of</strong> nature’s organiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, sometimes described<br />
as entities, spirits or natural<br />
law. Thus, knowledge <strong>of</strong> the environment<br />
depends not only on the relationship<br />
between humans and nature,<br />
but also between the visible<br />
world and the <strong>in</strong>visible spirit world’.<br />
(Posey 1999: 4, his emphasis).<br />
236
<strong>The</strong> word, sacred, has an etymology<br />
from Old Lat<strong>in</strong>, saceres, that connects<br />
it to concepts <strong>of</strong> protection and <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘set aside’. <strong>The</strong> etymology <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word ‘holy’ derives from the Old English,<br />
halig, connected to hal mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘health’. To return aga<strong>in</strong> to the medical<br />
analogy, we need such health-restor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
set-aside if we are to seek regeneration<br />
<strong>of</strong> what is broken <strong>in</strong> the Earth and<br />
its peoples. This is biological but it is<br />
also cultural, for there is someth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about timeworn practice associated<br />
with particular sites that seems to be<br />
connected with their effect on consciousness.<br />
T.S. Elliot puts it thus <strong>in</strong><br />
Four Quartets (1959: 50–51):<br />
‘If you came this way,<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g any route, start<strong>in</strong>g from anywhere,<br />
At any time or at any season,<br />
It would always be the same: you<br />
would have to put <strong>of</strong>f<br />
Sense and notion. You are not<br />
here to verify,<br />
Instruct yourself, or <strong>in</strong>form curiosity<br />
Or carry report. You are here to<br />
kneel<br />
Where prayer has been valid’.<br />
Static and dynamic concepts <strong>of</strong><br />
sacred natural sites<br />
Thus far <strong>in</strong> this paper I have explored<br />
SNSs generally as phenomena that,<br />
through impact<strong>in</strong>g on consciousness<br />
to vary<strong>in</strong>g degrees, connect natural<br />
nature to human nature. Here <strong>in</strong> Western<br />
<strong>Europe</strong> these l<strong>in</strong>ks have become<br />
attenuated. Science is sometimes<br />
blamed for this, but I have tried to<br />
Mt Ro<strong>in</strong>eabhal<br />
2 Isle <strong>of</strong> Harris<br />
Benbecula<br />
Lewis<br />
Harris<br />
Jay<br />
1<br />
Isle <strong>of</strong> Iona<br />
Skye<br />
Scotland<br />
Govan old parish church<br />
3 Glasgow<br />
Mull<br />
Jura<br />
Inverness<br />
Orknay<br />
Glasgow<br />
Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh<br />
show that SNSs can potentially benefit<br />
from, and not be destroyed by critical<br />
empirical enquiry.<br />
From this position I now want to suggest<br />
that SNSs should be understood not just<br />
as static entities that have long been<br />
recognised and <strong>of</strong>ten protected – albeit<br />
sometimes <strong>in</strong> a rather fossilised museum-piece<br />
manner. <strong>The</strong>y should also be<br />
understood as dynamic processes. This<br />
allows for sites to be reactivated <strong>in</strong> cultural<br />
recognition, and even imag<strong>in</strong>atively<br />
recreated <strong>in</strong> consciousness. <strong>The</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
three case studies from Scotland illustrate<br />
these three positions <strong>of</strong> recognition,<br />
reactivation and recreation.<br />
Recognised sacred natural sites –<br />
Example: the Isle <strong>of</strong> Iona<br />
Aberdeen<br />
Iona is said to have been established<br />
as a monastic site by St Columba <strong>of</strong><br />
Ireland <strong>in</strong> A.D. 563. To stand beside the<br />
237
‘One should take notice <strong>of</strong> this story,<br />
and carefully th<strong>in</strong>k about the extent<br />
and nature <strong>of</strong> the sweet visits<br />
by angels that no one could know<br />
about but which, without doubt,<br />
were very frequent, for they generally<br />
came to him as he rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
awake on w<strong>in</strong>ter nights or as he<br />
prayed <strong>in</strong> isolated places while others<br />
rested’. (Adomnán 1995: 218).<br />
Iona Abbey.<br />
eighth century St Mart<strong>in</strong>’s Cross at the<br />
Abbey entrance is to witness Biblical<br />
scenes carved <strong>in</strong> stone that have withstood<br />
nature’s elemental blast for nearly<br />
two-thirds <strong>of</strong> Christian history. <strong>The</strong> island<br />
is owned for the nation by the National<br />
Trust for Scotland. It is a well-established<br />
and highly protected SNS<br />
with 130 000 pilgrim and tourist visitors<br />
a year. We can therefore view it as ‘recognised’<br />
and its status is secure.<br />
George MacLeod who founded the<br />
Iona Community described Iona as a<br />
place where the boundary between the<br />
spiritual and the material worlds is ‘tissue<br />
th<strong>in</strong>’. Writ<strong>in</strong>g just a century after<br />
Columba’s death <strong>in</strong> 597 Adomnán, the<br />
n<strong>in</strong>th abbot describes how Columba<br />
went to a knoll and prayed all night with<br />
his arms outspread towards the heavens.<br />
A monk witnessed a host <strong>of</strong> angels<br />
gather around the sa<strong>in</strong>t, ‘fly<strong>in</strong>g down<br />
with amaz<strong>in</strong>g speed, dressed <strong>in</strong> white<br />
robes’. <strong>The</strong> knoll is to this day known as<br />
Cnoc nan A<strong>in</strong>gel, the Hill <strong>of</strong> the Angels.<br />
An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g feature is Adomnán’s endorsement<br />
<strong>of</strong> empiricism. He says:<br />
Reactivated sacred natural sites –<br />
Example: Mt Ro<strong>in</strong>eabhal, Isle <strong>of</strong> Harris<br />
This site hosts the medieval church <strong>of</strong><br />
St Clement on the lower slopes <strong>of</strong> Mt<br />
Ro<strong>in</strong>eabhal (Ro<strong>in</strong>-e-val). Local tradition<br />
dates it back to the Culdees and the<br />
Druids. Although Ro<strong>in</strong>eabhal is only<br />
460m <strong>in</strong> height, it rises directly out <strong>of</strong><br />
the sea. With stunn<strong>in</strong>g views <strong>in</strong> all directions<br />
it has the awe-<strong>in</strong>spir<strong>in</strong>g character<br />
<strong>of</strong> a much larger mounta<strong>in</strong>. It is<br />
the highest <strong>in</strong> south Harris, a designated<br />
National Scenic Area.<br />
Between 1991 and 2004 a battle raged<br />
to stop Ro<strong>in</strong>eabhal from be<strong>in</strong>g turned<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a ‘superquarry’ to export roadstone<br />
(McIntosh 2001). One part <strong>of</strong> the protest<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved my br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g Stone Eagle, the<br />
Mi’Kmaq war chief from Canada, and<br />
Donald Macleod, a Calv<strong>in</strong>ist pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong><br />
theology, to testify at the government<br />
public <strong>in</strong>quiry. Our witness focussed on<br />
the ‘creation’ reflect<strong>in</strong>g the majesty <strong>of</strong><br />
the div<strong>in</strong>e and this helped to reactivate<br />
local awareness <strong>of</strong> this. A wide-rang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
campaign led to the quarry be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
stopped. Today visitors speak <strong>of</strong> their<br />
‘pilgrimages’ to the mounta<strong>in</strong>. As one native<br />
tradition bearer has said: ‘If it wasn’t<br />
a sacred mounta<strong>in</strong> before, it is now.’<br />
238
St Clement’s Church and Mt Ro<strong>in</strong>eabhal, Isle<br />
<strong>of</strong> Harris.<br />
Today Presbyterian clergy on both Harris<br />
and the adjo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Isle <strong>of</strong> Lewis show a<br />
new openness to ecotheology. One<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g conservative evangelical wrote<br />
<strong>in</strong> the local newspaper: ‘My theology<br />
tells me that the th<strong>in</strong>gs that are seen declare<br />
the th<strong>in</strong>gs that are unseen: that the<br />
details <strong>of</strong> the creation declare the grandeur<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Creator … without [whom] …<br />
I am at a loss to expla<strong>in</strong> what I see <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
at close range’ (Campbell 2010).<br />
Such re-activation <strong>of</strong> sensitivity to ‘creation’<br />
and ‘providence’ helps to legitimise<br />
conservation consciousness <strong>in</strong> a community.<br />
It could serve as ongo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>surance<br />
policy for the mounta<strong>in</strong>’s protection.<br />
Strik<strong>in</strong>gly, <strong>in</strong> 2009 the island’s residents<br />
voted by a 2/3 majority to support<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g national park status for Harris<br />
with the Scottish Government.<br />
Govan is an economically deprived area<br />
<strong>of</strong> Glasgow with high <strong>in</strong>cidences <strong>of</strong> drug<br />
abuse and unemployment. Its Old Parish<br />
Church is the repository <strong>of</strong> a f<strong>in</strong>e but little-known<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> n<strong>in</strong>th century<br />
carved stones. <strong>The</strong> pilgrimage guide,<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong>’s Holiest Places, states that<br />
‘Govan Old Church has no equal when it<br />
comes to tell<strong>in</strong>g the story <strong>of</strong> Scottish<br />
Christianity’ (Mayhew Smith 2011, 499).<br />
From here the Rev Dr George MacLeod,<br />
Lord MacLeod <strong>of</strong> Fu<strong>in</strong>ary, led the rebuild<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> Iona Abbey <strong>in</strong> the 1930s. His<br />
Iona Community became a platform that<br />
transformed the position <strong>of</strong> the Church <strong>of</strong><br />
Scotland on urban poverty, ecumenism<br />
and nuclear weapons.<br />
Today Govan Old Parish Church seeks<br />
to recover its history as an ancient site<br />
<strong>of</strong> pilgrimage, spurred by a new ferry<br />
l<strong>in</strong>k across the River Clyde to Glasgow’s<br />
new Riverside Museum <strong>of</strong> Transport,<br />
opened <strong>in</strong> 2011. <strong>The</strong>re is a palpable<br />
sense amongst key segments <strong>of</strong><br />
the community <strong>of</strong> a sacred natural site<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g not only revitalised, but also, imag<strong>in</strong>atively<br />
recreated. More than just a<br />
reactivation <strong>of</strong> the past such recreation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a wider sense <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g an SNS<br />
speaks from today’s people to their<br />
present needs with one eye on the<br />
past and the other on the community’s<br />
future.<br />
An example is the GalGael Trust. It<br />
draws <strong>in</strong>spiration from the Christian<br />
symbolic and nature imagery on the<br />
church’s carved stones <strong>in</strong> reconnect-<br />
Recreated sacred natural sites –<br />
Govan, City <strong>of</strong> Glasgow<br />
Deer hunt<strong>in</strong>g scenes and Celtic eternity<br />
knotwork on St Constant<strong>in</strong>e’s Sarcophagus,<br />
Govan Old Parish Church.<br />
239
history <strong>of</strong> Govan manifests as a potent<br />
factor <strong>in</strong> the local sense <strong>of</strong> identity and<br />
belong<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Conclusion<br />
GalGael Trust Workshop – Participants on<br />
‘Navigate Life’.<br />
<strong>in</strong>g disaffected urban youth with their<br />
natural environment. In a programme<br />
called Navigate Life, young people<br />
work with retired shipyard workers. Activities<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude build<strong>in</strong>g traditional<br />
boats that are sailed down the river,<br />
both actually and symbolically reconnect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
coastal communities while<br />
mend<strong>in</strong>g lives traumatised by violence,<br />
addictions and poverty.<br />
GalGael’s tra<strong>in</strong>ees start with a block <strong>of</strong><br />
wood, a hammer and a chisel, and are<br />
taught to see and express the beauty<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature <strong>in</strong> what could be seen as applied<br />
apocatastasis. It builds social<br />
conviviality and draws out the beauty<br />
<strong>of</strong> each human be<strong>in</strong>g. Participants describe<br />
the process as ‘a transformation’.<br />
Pride <strong>in</strong> people and place is rek<strong>in</strong>dled<br />
<strong>in</strong> a triune expression <strong>of</strong> community<br />
with soil, soul and society (McIntosh<br />
2008). A community garden project<br />
also produces local food, thereby<br />
widen<strong>in</strong>g dietary horizons and awareness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the carbon footpr<strong>in</strong>ts. Most<br />
participants are not people who would<br />
go to church, yet a community consultation<br />
<strong>in</strong> October 2010 showed that a<br />
spiritual awareness draw<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />
To be able to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> its social function<br />
the spirituality <strong>of</strong> SNSs must be allowed<br />
to breathe. Scientific rigour can<br />
and should be paired with the motivational<br />
drivers <strong>of</strong> ethical vigour. To enter<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a dynamic relationship with SNSs<br />
is to participate <strong>in</strong> the responsibility –<br />
the ability to respond – that can heal<br />
the world.<br />
Based on the above examples the Cycle<br />
<strong>of</strong> Belong<strong>in</strong>g (McIntosh 2008) posits<br />
community <strong>of</strong> place as the start<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>The</strong> GalGael Trust on the Firth <strong>of</strong> Clyde.<br />
240
po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> human ecology. From here a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> place <strong>in</strong>forms a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
identity, which carries with it a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
values, which motivates the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
responsibility. That, <strong>in</strong> completion <strong>of</strong><br />
the cycle, re<strong>in</strong>forces sense <strong>of</strong> place.<br />
Community degeneration happens if<br />
this cycle is damaged at any po<strong>in</strong>t.<br />
Community regeneration is promoted<br />
when it is strengthened at any po<strong>in</strong>t.<br />
A spiritual understand<strong>in</strong>g, one that is<br />
predicated on love both immanent and<br />
transcendent, mandates that community<br />
<strong>of</strong> place should be <strong>in</strong>clusive rather<br />
than exclusive. <strong>The</strong>re must be pr<strong>of</strong>ound<br />
respect for the <strong>in</strong>digenous, for<br />
what is found there, but not xenophobia.<br />
In Celtic tradition such <strong>in</strong>clusiveness<br />
reflects <strong>in</strong> the tw<strong>in</strong> sacred duties<br />
<strong>of</strong> hospitality for the short term, and<br />
fostership (or adoption) for permanence.<br />
This is reflected <strong>in</strong> the name<br />
‘GalGael’ – a term that orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> ‘Cycle <strong>of</strong> Belong<strong>in</strong>g’.<br />
n<strong>in</strong>th century Scotland. <strong>The</strong> Gall is the<br />
stranger and the Gael are the heartland<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous people. Metaphorically<br />
there is someth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> both <strong>of</strong> these <strong>in</strong><br />
most <strong>of</strong> us today and both must meld<br />
<strong>in</strong> recreat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>digeniety to care for the<br />
Earth.<br />
241
References<br />
Adomnán <strong>of</strong> Iona (1991), Life <strong>of</strong> St Columba, London: Pengu<strong>in</strong> Classics.<br />
Ambler, Rex (2001), Truth <strong>of</strong> the Heart: an anthology <strong>of</strong> George Fox, London:<br />
Quaker Books.<br />
Bukhari (2007), Translation <strong>of</strong> Sahih Bukhari, Book 26. University <strong>of</strong> Southern California:<br />
Centre for Muslim-Jewish Engagement. http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/bukhari/026.sbt.html<br />
accessed<br />
26 October 2010.<br />
Campbell, I. D. (2010), Viewpo<strong>in</strong>t: Cycles <strong>of</strong> Life, Stornoway Gazette, 24 June, p.<br />
21.<br />
Cardena, E., Lynn S. J. and Krippner, S. (2000), Varieties <strong>of</strong> Anomalous Experience:<br />
Exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the Scientific Evidence, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton: American Psychological<br />
Association.<br />
Clarke, I (ed.) (2010) 2 nd edn, Psychosis and Spirituality: Consolidat<strong>in</strong>g the New<br />
Paradigm: Chichester, Wiley-Blackwell.<br />
Eliot, T. S. (1959), Four Quartets, London: Faber.<br />
Greenway, R. (1995), <strong>The</strong> Wilderness Effect and Ecopsychology, <strong>in</strong> Roszak, T.,<br />
Gomes, M. and Kanner, A. (eds.), Ecopsychology: Restor<strong>in</strong>g the Earth; Heal<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the M<strong>in</strong>d, San Francisco: Sierra Club, pp. 122–135.<br />
Gr<strong>of</strong>, S. and Gr<strong>of</strong>, C. (eds) (1989), Spiritual Emergency: When Personal Transformation<br />
Becomes a Crisis, NY: Tarcher/Putnam.<br />
Gould, S. J. (2007), <strong>The</strong> Richness <strong>of</strong> Life: <strong>The</strong> Essential Stephen Jay Gould, NY: W.<br />
W. Norton & Co..<br />
Laviolette, P. and McIntosh, A. I. (1997), Fairy Hills: Merg<strong>in</strong>g Heritage and Conservation,<br />
ECOS: a Review <strong>of</strong> Conservation, 18:3/4, pp. 2–8.<br />
Mascaró, J. (trans.) (1965), <strong>The</strong> Upanishads, London: Pengu<strong>in</strong> Classics.<br />
McIntosh, A. I. (2001), Soil and Soul: People versus Corporate Power, London:<br />
Aurum.<br />
McIntosh, A. I. (2008), Rek<strong>in</strong>dl<strong>in</strong>g Community: Connect<strong>in</strong>g People, Environment<br />
and Spirituality, Schumacher Brief<strong>in</strong>g No. 15, Totnes: Green Books.<br />
Mayhew Smith, Nick (2011), Brita<strong>in</strong>’s Holiest Places, Bristol: Lifestyle Press.<br />
Pahnke, W. N. and Richards, W. A. (1969), Implications <strong>of</strong> LSD and Experimental<br />
Mysticism, <strong>in</strong> Altered States <strong>of</strong> Consciousness, ed. C. T. Tart, NY: Doubleday.<br />
242
Posey, D. A. (ed.) (1999), Cultural & Spiritual Values <strong>of</strong> Biodiversity: a Complementary<br />
Contribution to the Global Biodiversity Assessment, Nairobi & London: United<br />
Nations Environment Programme.<br />
R<strong>in</strong>ger, T. M. & Gillis, L. (1995), Manag<strong>in</strong>g Psychological Depth <strong>in</strong> Adventure/Challenge<br />
Groups, Journal <strong>of</strong> Experiential Education, 18(1), pp. 41–51.<br />
243
244
Synergies between spiritual and natural<br />
heritage for habitat conservation <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Barents Euro-Arctic Region<br />
Alexander N. Davydov<br />
Barents Euro-Arctic Region: a<br />
tool for <strong>in</strong>ternational cooperation<br />
<strong>in</strong> the North <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
On 11 January 1993 <strong>in</strong> Kirkenes, Norway,<br />
the M<strong>in</strong>isters <strong>of</strong> Foreign Affairs <strong>of</strong><br />
Denmark, F<strong>in</strong>land, Iceland, Norway,<br />
Russia and Sweden signed a Declaration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> International<br />
Organisation Barents Euro-Arctic Region<br />
(BEAR). BEAR has several mechanisms<br />
to promote the cooperation<br />
among the northern regions <strong>of</strong> Norway,<br />
Sweden, F<strong>in</strong>land and Russia. One <strong>of</strong><br />
them is the Habitat Contact Forum<br />
(HCF). Gradually, HCF has started to<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporate cultural and even spiritual<br />
components to its work on nature conservation<br />
and, especially, on protected<br />
areas.<br />
BEAR is managed by the Barents Euro-<br />
Arctic Council (BEAC) which is represented<br />
by the M<strong>in</strong>isters <strong>of</strong> Foreign Affairs<br />
<strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, Norway, Russia and<br />
Sweden. BEAC elaborates the general<br />
strategy <strong>of</strong> cooperation. Practical questions<br />
are delegated to the Barents Secretariat,<br />
which is located <strong>in</strong> Kirkenes.<br />
For practical reasons, the Barents Programme<br />
was organised <strong>in</strong>to ten work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
groups on culture, environment, education,<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples, agricul-<br />
< Remnants <strong>of</strong> a sacred grove next to the chapel <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Spirit <strong>in</strong> Glazovo<br />
village, Kenozero, Kenozersky National Park (Archangel Region, Russia).<br />
245
ture, re<strong>in</strong>deer-breed<strong>in</strong>g, economics,<br />
science and development, health-care,<br />
and transport and communications.<br />
Nowadays, BEAR unites the Northern<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ces <strong>of</strong> Norway (Nordland, Troms,<br />
and F<strong>in</strong>nmark), Sweden (Våsterbotten,<br />
Norrbotten), F<strong>in</strong>land (F<strong>in</strong>nish Lapland,<br />
Oulu <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g North Ostrobothnia and<br />
Ka<strong>in</strong>uu), and Russia (Republic <strong>of</strong> Karelia,<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> Komi, Murmansk Region,<br />
Archangelsk Region and Nenets<br />
Autonomous Area).<br />
Habitat Contact Forum: a tool for<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational environmental and<br />
cultural cooperation <strong>in</strong> BEAR<br />
<strong>The</strong> cooperation <strong>of</strong> the Nordic Countries<br />
with North-West Russia <strong>in</strong> the field<br />
<strong>of</strong> nature protection started with the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
environmental expeditions <strong>in</strong><br />
this region. All these expeditions <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
scientists connected with nature<br />
conservation and cultural heritage protection<br />
(Davydov, 2003). <strong>The</strong> first expedition<br />
was organised around the Onega<br />
Pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>in</strong> summer 1997 (Onezhskoe<br />
Pomorje 1997). Inspired by the second<br />
expedition (Belomorsko-Kuloiskoe Plateau<br />
1998), a group <strong>of</strong> experts started<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>ternational workshop on<br />
protected areas <strong>in</strong> BEAR.<br />
<strong>The</strong> first International Contact Forum<br />
on Habitat Conservation <strong>in</strong> the Barents<br />
Region (or Habitat Contact Forum)<br />
was established <strong>in</strong> Trondheim, Norway<br />
<strong>in</strong> November 1999 (HCF I, 2000). HCF<br />
was meant to be an arena for cooperation<br />
on habitat conservation issues <strong>in</strong><br />
BEAR to achieve <strong>in</strong>creased focus on<br />
the need for further establishment <strong>of</strong><br />
new protected areas, proper management<br />
<strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g ones, and other relevant<br />
issues (HCF II, 2003, Appendix 2:<br />
1). At HCF I, a mandate was def<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
and a list <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational projects was<br />
developed.<br />
<strong>The</strong> second HCF was organised <strong>in</strong> November<br />
2001 <strong>in</strong> Petrozavodsk, Republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Karelia (Russia). A work plan for<br />
conservation issues <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
<strong>in</strong> BEAR was prepared on a 3-year basis<br />
to meet the obligations set by the<br />
Arctic Council (CAFF/CPAN), <strong>IUCN</strong><br />
and the CBD. New projects were dedicated<br />
to design<strong>in</strong>g and establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
new protected areas, biosphere reserves,<br />
‘green belts’, and transboundary<br />
protected areas, as well as to susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
tourism development <strong>in</strong> protected<br />
areas, but there were no special<br />
sessions or projects dedicated to their<br />
cultural and spiritual values.<br />
<strong>The</strong> third HCF was organised <strong>in</strong> Kuhmo<br />
(F<strong>in</strong>land) on November 2003. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
was a session on ‘Nature and Man’<br />
and a work<strong>in</strong>g group created on ‘Cultural<br />
and Ethnical Questions and Local<br />
Participation’. <strong>The</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g group stated<br />
that a deeper understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the cultural<br />
heritage, is an essential part <strong>of</strong> HCF<br />
work. It suggested that cultural components<br />
should be <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the work on habitat conservation, especially<br />
the ideas <strong>of</strong> people liv<strong>in</strong>g or<br />
near protected areas. HCF emphasised<br />
that ‘although the natural heritage<br />
is relatively well-studied, the cultural<br />
heritage has not been sufficiently<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated and classified <strong>in</strong> relation<br />
246
A map <strong>of</strong> the Barents Euro-Arctic Region.<br />
to the environment’ (HCF III, 2004: 14).<br />
In the paper by Davydov (HCF III,<br />
2004:66-67) the term spiritual habitat<br />
was formulated based on the <strong>in</strong>vestigations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the holy groves tradition <strong>in</strong><br />
Kenozero National Park.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fourth HCF was organised <strong>in</strong> Syktyvkar,<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> Komi (Russia) <strong>in</strong> September<br />
2005. <strong>The</strong>re were five work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
groups, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g one on ‘Ethic and<br />
Cultural Problems’. At the resolution, the<br />
role <strong>of</strong> the environment and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
and local populations was underl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
(HCF IV, 2006: 235). <strong>The</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g group<br />
proposed that: ‘In connection with economics<br />
globalisation and human <strong>in</strong>terference<br />
<strong>in</strong> natural, cultural and historical<br />
sphere, we are greatly anxious<br />
about the matters <strong>of</strong> cultural and ethnic<br />
development and also the participation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the local population and <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people <strong>in</strong> habitat conservation. In this<br />
respect the cultural heritage <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples liv<strong>in</strong>g on protected natural<br />
territories is <strong>of</strong> vital importance. It is<br />
also important that the peoples and local<br />
population themselves should be <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> the system <strong>of</strong> direct consultation<br />
and decision mak<strong>in</strong>g process concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
protected natural territories.’<br />
(HCF IV, 2006: 233). It also recommended<br />
to <strong>in</strong>clude an item connected<br />
with local population <strong>in</strong>to the programme<br />
<strong>of</strong> the next HCFs and to develop<br />
a long term <strong>in</strong>ternational ethnic and<br />
ecological project on natural, cultural<br />
and historical heritage <strong>in</strong> BEAR (HCF IV,<br />
2006: 233). Unfortunately, the project<br />
was never realised.<br />
<strong>The</strong> HCF themes were affected by the<br />
247
work <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative. <strong>The</strong> SNS <strong>of</strong><br />
Ukonsaari Island was presented at the<br />
first Delos workshop (Norokorpi and<br />
Ojanlatva, 2007) and the Solovetsky Islands<br />
SNS at the second Delos workshop<br />
(Davydov et al, 2009). At the Nordic-Russian<br />
conference on ‘<strong>The</strong> last<br />
large <strong>in</strong>tact forests <strong>in</strong> North-West Russia:<br />
protection and susta<strong>in</strong>able use’<br />
(Ste<strong>in</strong>kjer and Lierne, 2007), the Delos<br />
Initiative was <strong>in</strong>troduced by Davydov.<br />
<strong>The</strong> conference recommended <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the ideas <strong>of</strong> Delos Initiative to<br />
the next HCF.<br />
<strong>The</strong> fifth HCF was held <strong>in</strong> Umeå, Sweden,<br />
on October 2008. HCFs had became<br />
a part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ficial Barents cooperation<br />
and they were organised<br />
with the participation <strong>of</strong> local people,<br />
NGO’s, scientific <strong>in</strong>stitutes and federal<br />
and regional authorities <strong>of</strong> BEAR (HCF<br />
V, 2008: 3). At a session dedicated to<br />
forest biodiversity conservation, Davydov<br />
presented a paper on SNSs <strong>in</strong> the<br />
forests <strong>of</strong> North-West Russia, <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Delos Initiative to HCF (HCF V,<br />
2008: 54). It was noted that SNSs <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
an opportunity to <strong>in</strong>tegrate cultural and<br />
natural values. <strong>The</strong> approach may lead<br />
to a comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> conservation efforts<br />
that result <strong>in</strong> a synergy <strong>of</strong> benefits<br />
for both values (HCF V, 2008: 6).<br />
<strong>The</strong> sixth HCF was held <strong>in</strong> Archangelsk<br />
from 31 May to 5 June 2010 (HCF VI,<br />
2010). It <strong>in</strong>cluded, for the first time, a<br />
session on the synergy <strong>of</strong> spiritual and<br />
natural values <strong>in</strong> the BEAR.<br />
A paper by J.-M. Mallarach and Th. Papayannis<br />
on the Delos Initiative expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> the Initiative and the<br />
activities developed so far. (HCF VI,<br />
2010: 70–71, 157–158). A.L. Fedyaev<br />
and O.V. Churakova touched the questions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the reasonable practicality, and<br />
the spiritual and moral need to restore<br />
technologically damaged Northern<br />
areas (HCF VI, 2010: 156). S. Sohlberg<br />
discussed the RAIPON/CAFF <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Site project (2001–2004), the<br />
RAIPON sem<strong>in</strong>ar (2007), and UNESCO<br />
meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Copenhagen (2006). He<br />
proposed that HCF VI should <strong>in</strong>itiate a<br />
kick <strong>of</strong>f meet<strong>in</strong>g for a project <strong>of</strong> synergy<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs on natural and cultural heritages<br />
(HCF VI, 2010, 162).<br />
<strong>The</strong> synergy was also emphasised <strong>in</strong><br />
the cases from F<strong>in</strong>nish Lapland by<br />
Norokorpi (HCF VI, 2010: 158–159, the<br />
Russian North by A. Davydov (HCF VI,<br />
2010: 155) and Svalbard/Spitsbergen<br />
by W. Gorter and T. M<strong>in</strong>aeva. F<strong>in</strong>ally,<br />
N. Skytte presented results <strong>of</strong> a fieldtrip<br />
to Pym-Va-Shor, the SNSs and unique<br />
hot water spr<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Bolshezemelskaya<br />
tundra <strong>of</strong> the Nenets Autonomous Area<br />
(HCF VI, 2010: 161–162). V. Sahi <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
folk music as a tool <strong>of</strong> express<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the spiritual values <strong>of</strong> nature (HCF<br />
VI, 2010: 160–161).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Hyperborean dimension <strong>of</strong><br />
the Delos Initiative<br />
BEAR represents the northern most sacred<br />
sites <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>: holy crosses<br />
scattered on Svalbard/Spitsbergen,<br />
Franz-Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya<br />
Archipelagos, which are now protected<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> different k<strong>in</strong>ds.<br />
In the mythology <strong>of</strong> many peoples North<br />
248
is associated with an area filled with<br />
cold and purity, a place where ‘the<br />
edge <strong>of</strong> the world’ is located, or the border<br />
<strong>of</strong> oekumene, territory on the Earth<br />
occupied and developed by humans.<br />
North is also a ‘country <strong>of</strong> spirits’, the<br />
land <strong>of</strong> the dead. This mythological image<br />
<strong>of</strong> the North is emphasised by its<br />
geography. <strong>The</strong> North is truly an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
land: w<strong>in</strong>ter night last for<br />
many months and the flashes <strong>of</strong> polar<br />
lights flare up <strong>in</strong> the sky. In the summer<br />
the sky rema<strong>in</strong>s light dur<strong>in</strong>g the nights,<br />
and the sun and the moon can be seen<br />
at the same time. For centuries ‘Northern<br />
dimension’ has been surrounded by<br />
the odour <strong>of</strong> sanctity <strong>in</strong> the cultures <strong>of</strong><br />
different peoples. In the Greek tradition,<br />
the legendary Leto (Lada), mother <strong>of</strong><br />
Apollo and Artemis, who gave birth to<br />
them on the island <strong>of</strong> Delos, came from<br />
the North. <strong>The</strong> Hyperboreans loved by<br />
Apollo and many times visited by him,<br />
lived <strong>in</strong> an ideal country located ‘beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />
Boreas’. (HCF VI, 2010: 155).<br />
<strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> sacred is enriched by<br />
the extreme geography and climate <strong>in</strong><br />
BEAR. <strong>The</strong> sail<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Arctic Ocean is<br />
more dangerous compared to warm<br />
waters. <strong>The</strong> image <strong>of</strong> St. Nicholas, as a<br />
patron <strong>of</strong> sailors’ revival on the coasts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the White and Barents Seas became<br />
popular. Crosses and chapels on islands<br />
and coasts are reflected <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Pomor say<strong>in</strong>gs: ‘<strong>The</strong>re are 33 (St.) Nicholases<br />
from Kholmogory to the Kola<br />
Bay’ (sail<strong>in</strong>g route by White and Barents<br />
Seas), or ‘That man who has not visited<br />
a Sea has not really prayed to God’.<br />
Rock carv<strong>in</strong>gs (rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs) <strong>in</strong> Alta (F<strong>in</strong>nmark,<br />
Norway).<br />
feel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fate is believed to become<br />
sharper <strong>in</strong> the extreme conditions,<br />
which makes the attitude to the sacred<br />
places also keener.<br />
All these factors br<strong>in</strong>g people closer to<br />
each other, promot<strong>in</strong>g mutual understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
among the people <strong>of</strong> BEAR.<br />
<strong>The</strong> North <strong>of</strong> Russia traditionally was a<br />
country for monks, hermits, and sa<strong>in</strong>ts;<br />
the land associated with purity and hol<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
for centuries. <strong>The</strong> spiritual importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the North for all Russia<br />
was proclaimed by scholars and philosophers,<br />
such as Georgy Fedotov:<br />
‘Not only for us, but let the Russian<br />
North become a Country <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Miracles, a Holy Land, <strong>in</strong> common with<br />
Ancient Hellas or Medieval Italy, call<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pilgrims from all sides <strong>of</strong> the Earth’<br />
(Fedotov, 2005:142).<br />
However, the fragile nature <strong>of</strong> BEAR <strong>in</strong><br />
under an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressures <strong>of</strong> military<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dustrial activities. Gas and<br />
oil deposits, gold and diamonds are <strong>of</strong><br />
a grow<strong>in</strong>g economic <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> BEAR.<br />
To be a hermit <strong>in</strong> the taiga is <strong>in</strong>credibly<br />
hard, especially <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter time. <strong>The</strong><br />
249
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites and World<br />
Heritage Sites <strong>in</strong> the North<br />
Some SNSs have been designated<br />
World Heritage Sites (WHS) and <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the Field Guide to protected<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> BEAR (Günther, 2004).<br />
Christian churches protected as World<br />
Heritage Sites<br />
<strong>The</strong> Cultural and Historic Ensemble <strong>of</strong><br />
the Solovetsky Islands <strong>in</strong> Archangel<br />
Region consists <strong>of</strong> more than a hundred<br />
islands (312.8 sq km). <strong>The</strong> area is<br />
protected by Solovetsky State Historical,<br />
Architectural and Natural Museum-Reserve<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1967. <strong>The</strong> monastery<br />
architecture complex <strong>of</strong> Transfiguration<br />
Cathedral (built <strong>in</strong> 1558–1566),<br />
the Church <strong>of</strong> Assumption (1552) and<br />
other build<strong>in</strong>gs surrounded by the wall<br />
were <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the UNESCO World<br />
Heritage List <strong>in</strong> 1992. In addition, there<br />
are the holy mounta<strong>in</strong> Golg<strong>of</strong>a (Calvary)<br />
and the holy lake Svyatoe ozero. In<br />
spite <strong>of</strong> the ethnic and cultural changes,<br />
the geography <strong>of</strong> SNSs hardly<br />
changed. <strong>Sacred</strong> stones -seidas- and<br />
labyr<strong>in</strong>ths are found on Zayatsky Island<br />
side by side with Christian Orthodox<br />
crosses and hermitages. S<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
revival <strong>of</strong> 1990, Solovetsky Islands are<br />
as significant for the Orthodox Russia<br />
as the Holy Mount Athos (Davydov et<br />
al, 2009).<br />
Kizhi Pogost (Kizhi enclosure) is a part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the State Historic-Architectural Museum<br />
Kizhy <strong>in</strong> Republic <strong>of</strong> Karelia.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re is an ensemble <strong>of</strong> the wooden<br />
Church <strong>of</strong> Transfiguration (1714?),<br />
Church <strong>of</strong> Intercession (1708) and belltower<br />
(1862) on Kizhi Island. <strong>The</strong> island<br />
was considered sacred <strong>in</strong> the local<br />
folklore tradition. <strong>The</strong> museum has<br />
about 20 branches and there are<br />
chapels on the small islands and on<br />
the shores around Lake Onega. Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> these islands are also considered<br />
sacred <strong>in</strong> local folklore.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Church Village Gammelstad <strong>in</strong><br />
Norrbotten, Sweden is a unique example<br />
<strong>of</strong> a medieval church village <strong>in</strong><br />
North Scand<strong>in</strong>avia, established <strong>in</strong><br />
1621. <strong>The</strong>re are 424 small wooden<br />
houses around the stone church, creat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a SNS complex. <strong>The</strong> houses belonged<br />
to families from remote countryside<br />
places, which stayed at Gammelstad<br />
for some days participat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
wedd<strong>in</strong>gs and church ceremonies. <strong>The</strong><br />
Gammelstadsviken Nature Reserve<br />
(435 hectares) was established <strong>in</strong><br />
1973, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Lake Gammelstadsviken<br />
and its surround<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Archaeological World Heritage Sites<br />
Alta Rock Draw<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nmark, Norway,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude a group <strong>of</strong> petroglyphs on<br />
the rocky coast <strong>of</strong> the Alta Fjord.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites with<strong>in</strong> the World<br />
Heritage Sites<br />
Virg<strong>in</strong> Komi Forests (about 30 000 sq<br />
km) is the common name <strong>of</strong> the WHS <strong>of</strong><br />
Pechoro-Ilychsky Natural Biosphere Reserve<br />
(11 346 sq km) and Yugyd Va National<br />
Park (18 197 sq km) <strong>in</strong> the Komi<br />
Republic, Russia. It is the largest ma<strong>in</strong>land<br />
protected area <strong>in</strong> Russia. <strong>The</strong> eastern<br />
border <strong>of</strong> the Park goes along the<br />
ridge <strong>of</strong> the Ural Mounta<strong>in</strong>s. <strong>The</strong> pro-<br />
250
tected area was <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the UN-<br />
ESCO World Heritage List <strong>in</strong> 1995.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re are numerous well-known SNSs<br />
<strong>in</strong> the WHS: the Old Master, Stone<br />
Woman, Tel’pos-Iz Mounta<strong>in</strong>, Arch grotto,<br />
Erkusey Mounta<strong>in</strong>, Saran-Ded <strong>of</strong><br />
Nenets people, and Man’ Pupy Ner <strong>of</strong><br />
Mansi people.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Laponia World Heritage Site <strong>in</strong><br />
Norrbotten, Sweden, <strong>in</strong>cludes Stora<br />
Sjöfallet (1278 sq km), Padjelanta<br />
(1984 sq km), Sarek (1970 sq km) and<br />
Muddus National Parks (493 sq km)<br />
and several nature reserves, valleys<br />
and lakes. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to F. Forsmark<br />
(County Adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>of</strong> Norrbotten,<br />
pers. comm.) the Sámi people have<br />
several SNSs on the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, such<br />
as <strong>in</strong> Kvikkjokk and <strong>in</strong> Sarek, as well as<br />
<strong>in</strong> the forest landscape, for example, <strong>in</strong><br />
Gällivare close by (Akkavaara/Saivo).<br />
Nationally protected areas with<br />
sacred natural sites<br />
<strong>The</strong> protected areas <strong>in</strong> the Spitsbergen<br />
Archipelago, Norway, <strong>in</strong>clude the northernmost<br />
Christian Crosses <strong>of</strong> Promise<br />
to God <strong>in</strong> the world, which were erected<br />
there by the Russian Pomores.<br />
A protected area called Franz Josef<br />
Land Federal Zakaznik was established<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Archangel Region <strong>in</strong> 1994,<br />
with a total <strong>of</strong> 62 600 sq km <strong>of</strong> land and<br />
water area. <strong>The</strong> Christian Crosses <strong>of</strong><br />
Promise to God were built there by the<br />
Russian Pomores<br />
Russkaya Arktika (Russian Arctic) National<br />
Park, Archangel Region, was<br />
established <strong>in</strong> 2009, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a part <strong>of</strong><br />
the Northern Island <strong>of</strong> Novaya Zemlya<br />
Archipelago (6320 sq km) and water<br />
area (7939 sq km); <strong>in</strong> total, it covers<br />
14 260 sq km. <strong>The</strong>re are Pomor Holy<br />
Crosses <strong>of</strong> Promise to God.<br />
Vodlozersky National Park (about 5000<br />
sq km, Republic <strong>of</strong> Karelia and Archangel<br />
Region) is the biggest wetland<br />
protected area <strong>in</strong> BEAR, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g several<br />
SNSs such as the Petunij/Lyulyuostrov<br />
Island (connected <strong>in</strong> local folklore<br />
with vodyanoy, a spirit <strong>of</strong> water),<br />
the Dechy Island (accord<strong>in</strong>g to local<br />
folklore, a place <strong>of</strong> sacrifice) and the<br />
Maly Kolgostrov Island with Il’<strong>in</strong>sky Pogost<br />
- St Elias ma<strong>in</strong> church.<br />
Vaigachsky Nature Reserve (3330 sq<br />
km) lies <strong>in</strong> the Nenets Autonomous<br />
Area, Russia. <strong>The</strong> Vaigach Island has<br />
been a sacred place for all <strong>of</strong> the Nenets<br />
people from Yamal to Kan<strong>in</strong> pen<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
for hundreds <strong>of</strong> years. Among<br />
Nenet shamans there was a custom to<br />
visit Vaigach and to build there a sacred<br />
place <strong>of</strong> their own. <strong>The</strong> name <strong>of</strong><br />
this island <strong>in</strong> Nenets language is<br />
Heibedya Ya (Holy Land). <strong>The</strong> most<br />
SNSs were: Cape Vesako (Old Man,<br />
Grandfather), Cape Hadako, (Grandmother),<br />
the stony cliff Nyuheh (Son)<br />
and the island <strong>of</strong> Z<strong>in</strong>kovy with Semikiky<br />
(Seven-Faces Spirit) wooden figure.<br />
Inarijärvi Natura 2000 Area (900 sq km)<br />
covers the biggest part <strong>of</strong> Lake Inari <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land (1043 sq km). <strong>The</strong>re are several<br />
islands which are the old cemeteries.<br />
<strong>The</strong> famous Ukonsaari is a sacred rocky<br />
island differ<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>of</strong> the other islands.<br />
‘<strong>The</strong> God <strong>of</strong> Thunder Ukko (Äijih)<br />
was the most powerful <strong>of</strong> all the male<br />
251
Fell). Deer and their antlers were sacrificed<br />
on Uhriharju Ridge <strong>in</strong> hope <strong>of</strong> a<br />
successful hunt. (Y. Norokorpi, pers.<br />
comm.).<br />
Kenozersky National Park <strong>in</strong> Archangel<br />
Region has 45 svyatye roschi (sacred<br />
groves) on its territory, most <strong>of</strong> them<br />
very discernible <strong>in</strong> the landscape.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> these sacred groves look like<br />
a forest (Versh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>o), whilst <strong>in</strong> other<br />
cases there are only a few trees surviv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(Glazovo). <strong>The</strong> wooden crosses<br />
and Orthodox Christian chapels have<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the sacred groves, but the<br />
old rites and folklore traditions show<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> the pre-Chirstian Fenno-<br />
Ugric spiritual substrate and a parallel<br />
with sacred groves <strong>of</strong> the Khanty and<br />
Mansi people <strong>in</strong> Siberia (Davydov,<br />
2009).<br />
A scheme <strong>of</strong> the location <strong>of</strong> sacred groves<br />
<strong>in</strong> Kenozersky National Park (Archangel Region,<br />
Russia).<br />
Sÿmi deities and his most important<br />
sacrificial site was Ukonsaari (Äijih)’ <strong>in</strong><br />
Inarijärvi (see Norokorpi and Ojanlatva,<br />
2007).<br />
Pyhä-Luosto National Park, F<strong>in</strong>land, <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
the Pyhätunturi area which<br />
means a sacred fell. Pyhänkasteenlampi<br />
Pond is located <strong>in</strong> its centre between<br />
steep cliff walls. A stream flow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
down <strong>in</strong>to the lake forms a high<br />
shower-like waterfall, the Pyhäkaste.<br />
<strong>The</strong> names tell <strong>of</strong> the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong><br />
Christianity and the old beliefs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Forest Sámi (Pyhänkasteenlampi –<br />
Holy Baptism pond, Uhriharju – Sacrifice<br />
Ridge, and Noitatunturi – Witch<br />
In Muddus National Park <strong>in</strong> Norrbotten,<br />
Sweden, there is Måskosårså, the sacred<br />
natural site <strong>of</strong> the Sámi people.<br />
In Bonden and Snöan Islands Nature<br />
Reserve <strong>in</strong> Västerbotten, Sweden, <strong>in</strong><br />
the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Bothnia <strong>of</strong> the Baltic Sea,<br />
there are eight stone labyr<strong>in</strong>ths. <strong>The</strong>re<br />
are labyr<strong>in</strong>ths also on L<strong>in</strong>skär and<br />
Stenskär Nature Reserves (Norrbotten,<br />
Sweden).<br />
Pasvik Nature Reserve <strong>in</strong> the Murmansk<br />
Region <strong>in</strong>cludes the sacred Kalkupya/<br />
Kalkuaivve Sámi mounta<strong>in</strong>.<br />
In Saltfjellet-Svartisen National Park <strong>in</strong><br />
Nordland, Norway there are several<br />
sacrificial sites <strong>of</strong> the Sámi people.<br />
In Hossa Hik<strong>in</strong>g Area <strong>in</strong> Ka<strong>in</strong>uu, the<br />
Värikallio rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs are amongst<br />
the largest prehistoric rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><br />
252
F<strong>in</strong>land. <strong>The</strong> pictures on the rock wall<br />
ris<strong>in</strong>g from Lake Somerjärvi were pa<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
about 3500 – 4500 years ago, and<br />
are located along a water route that<br />
was used <strong>in</strong> ancient times, and <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
numerous separate figures depict<strong>in</strong>g<br />
scenes <strong>of</strong> hunt<strong>in</strong>g and shamanic rituals.<br />
<strong>The</strong> pictures <strong>in</strong> the rock pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
are usually l<strong>in</strong>ked to hunt<strong>in</strong>g magic.<br />
Pa<strong>in</strong>ted rock walls could also have<br />
functioned as cult places <strong>of</strong> shamanic<br />
worship (Y. Norokorpi, pers. comm.).<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites under<br />
the protection <strong>of</strong> monastic<br />
communities<br />
Valaam Island <strong>in</strong> Ladoga Lake, Republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Karelia, is surrounded by several<br />
small islands with skets. S<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
twelfth century it became a hermitage<br />
and then, <strong>in</strong> 1160, a monastery. Now<br />
the entire archipelago is managed by<br />
the renewed Valaamsky Monastery. <strong>The</strong><br />
first monk <strong>of</strong> Valaam Island was Greek<br />
monk Sergius, who came there as a<br />
hermit and also to proclaim the Gospel<br />
to the pagans. Now the Valaam Archipelago<br />
is managed by the revival monastic<br />
community <strong>of</strong> the Valaamsky<br />
Monastery.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> natural sites protected by<br />
religious or folklore tradition<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> islands: Spildra is a famous<br />
burial site <strong>of</strong> noitta/noaidi (Sámi shamans)<br />
<strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nmark, Norway. Monasteries<br />
built on islands are typical <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Orthodox tradition <strong>of</strong> the Russian<br />
North. Old Sámi shaman places were<br />
used as places for monastery build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
(e.g. Kozhozersky Monastery on<br />
Lake Kozhozero). River and lake islands<br />
were favourite places for solitude<br />
<strong>of</strong> Orthodox monks who started<br />
monasteries on islands, such as Nelez<strong>in</strong><br />
(River Volkhov), Kamenny (Lake<br />
Kubenskoye), Valaam and Kon’-Ostrov<br />
Island (Lake Ladoga), Rosch<strong>in</strong>sky<br />
(River Svir), Moug (Lake Mougozero)<br />
and Kiy-Ostrov Island (the Onega Bay<br />
<strong>in</strong> the White Sea). As an example, on<br />
the islands <strong>of</strong> Lake Onega, there are<br />
more than twenty Orthodox chapels.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> capes: Svyatoy Nos (<strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Cape), is located on the Kola Pen<strong>in</strong>sula<br />
<strong>in</strong> Russia. <strong>The</strong>re are dangerous maelstroms<br />
and <strong>in</strong> order to avoid shipwreck,<br />
sailors would made sacrifices (e.g.<br />
food, flour, butter) near Svatoy Nos and<br />
pray to God to pass the place.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>s: At Tjamstanberget<br />
<strong>in</strong> Västerbotten, Sweden, there are<br />
many Sámi legends connected to sacred<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s, e.g. ättestupa, a steep<br />
rock face where old and <strong>in</strong>firm people<br />
were thrown or threw themselves down<br />
(Karlsson, 1999: 172–173). Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to a medieval legend, on the Witches<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong> on Vardø Island, <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nmark,<br />
witches were burned. M<strong>in</strong>isey, the leader<br />
re<strong>in</strong>deer, (Russian name Konstant<strong>in</strong>ov<br />
Kamen’) is a sacred mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Nenets people on the North Ural Mounta<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the legend, the<br />
Daughter <strong>of</strong> Num (Num is a supreme<br />
spirit <strong>of</strong> the Nenets), was attacked by<br />
Na (evil spirit) and all re<strong>in</strong>deers <strong>of</strong> her<br />
argish (relay, team) were turned <strong>in</strong>to<br />
stones, which became the Ural<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
253
<strong>Sacred</strong> stones: In the Republic <strong>of</strong> Karelia,<br />
special attention is paid to footmark-stones,<br />
e.g. those near villages,<br />
such as Kokor<strong>in</strong>o, Vojnitsa, R<strong>in</strong>noyarvi,<br />
Hvoyny, Volkostrov, Vidany, Mashezero,<br />
Tarzhepol’, Ladva, Kurkieki,<br />
Pogrankondushi, K<strong>in</strong>elahta, Viglitsa,<br />
and Andrusovo. <strong>The</strong>re are stones and<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s which have lacunas <strong>in</strong> the<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> feet, hands, arrows, r<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
footmarks <strong>of</strong> re<strong>in</strong>deers, bears, etc.<br />
<strong>The</strong>se stones were used as places <strong>of</strong><br />
sacrifice, which were made famous by<br />
legends and local folklore.<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>gs: Pym-Va-Shor is a SNS<br />
with hot spr<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the tundra <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Nenets Autonomous Area <strong>in</strong> the Republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Karelia, there are famous sacred<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>gs like Tri Ivana (Three men<br />
with the name Ivan), Kamenny Bor<br />
(Stone P<strong>in</strong>e Forest). Some sacred<br />
spr<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the Archangel Region have<br />
chalybeate water (Matyora on Lake<br />
Kenozero, Gavrilovo on River Vya), but<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them do not (Lyavlya on River<br />
Severnaya Dv<strong>in</strong>a).<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> groves and trees: the Koz’m<strong>in</strong><br />
Perelesok sacred grove <strong>of</strong> the Nenets<br />
people is situated on the Kan<strong>in</strong> Pen<strong>in</strong>sula,<br />
Russia. <strong>Sacred</strong> p<strong>in</strong>es are found<br />
near the Myagozero Village, Republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Karelia.<br />
Pilgrimage paths and routes: In North-<br />
West Russia there was a pilgrim path<br />
on the Onega Pen<strong>in</strong>sula from Archangel<br />
to the Letnyaya Zolotitsa Village<br />
and then by sea to the Solovetsky Islands.<br />
However, the most popular was<br />
the sail<strong>in</strong>g pilgrimage from Archangel<br />
to Solovetsky Monastery by the White<br />
Sea. A pilgrim path around Lake Kenozero<br />
started and f<strong>in</strong>ished by the<br />
walls <strong>of</strong> the Pahomiev Kensky Monastery.<br />
<strong>The</strong>re was also a non-Christian<br />
traditional pilgrimage <strong>of</strong> the Nenets<br />
people on the tundra and then, us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
traditional sledges drawn by swimm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
re<strong>in</strong>deers, over the ice or on the water<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Yugorsky Shar Gulf, to Heibidya<br />
Ya (Vaigach Island).<br />
Seidas <strong>of</strong> Sámi: <strong>in</strong>clude different geographic/natural<br />
objects. In F<strong>in</strong>land,<br />
e.g. Taatsi <strong>in</strong> Kittilä, Näkkälä <strong>in</strong> Enontekiö,<br />
Sieiddakäedgi <strong>in</strong> Utsjoki, Koskikaitiojoen<br />
suu <strong>in</strong> Inari, and Kirkkopahta<br />
and Porv<strong>in</strong>iemi <strong>in</strong> Muonio (see Äikäs, <strong>in</strong><br />
this book).<br />
Place names. North-West Russia: numerous<br />
place names <strong>in</strong>clude terms like<br />
svyatoy (holy), besov (devil’s), bolvansky<br />
(idol’s), e.g. Svyatoe ozero (Holy<br />
Lake), Svyatoy Nos (Holy Cape), Besov<br />
Nos (Devil’s Cape), Bolvansky Mys<br />
(Idol’s Cape), Bolvanskaya Gora (Idol’s<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>), etc. Place names with the<br />
Karelian prefix pig- <strong>in</strong> the Republic <strong>of</strong><br />
Karelia (look pyhä <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land). In the<br />
Nenets language there is the prefix he-<br />
(sacred), like Hebidya Ya, hekur (sacred<br />
small stone ‘pyramid’), Yaumal<br />
He, etc. Northern F<strong>in</strong>land: see<br />
Väisänen (<strong>in</strong> this book) and Norokorpi<br />
and Ojanlatva (2007). Northern Norway:<br />
Mortensnes (Cape <strong>of</strong> Dead), the<br />
prefix troll, a mythology giant and spirit<br />
<strong>of</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>s, e.g. Trollfjord. Northern<br />
Sweden: Trollsjön. For all <strong>of</strong> the territory<br />
<strong>of</strong> Sámi Land there are seid (seida,<br />
seidi).<br />
254
Conclud<strong>in</strong>g remarks<br />
Sometimes common mythology and<br />
cultural heritage can be used as an argument<br />
<strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g the transboundary<br />
cooperation. For <strong>in</strong>stance, the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish/Karelian epic Kalevala gave<br />
name to a large protection area complex,<br />
the Kalevala Parks, situated <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land and Russia, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g places<br />
where this epic poem was collected<br />
from the local people <strong>in</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century by Elias Lönnrot. <strong>The</strong> territory<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s SNSs on capes and islands,<br />
where posts with bear skulls used to<br />
stand even at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the<br />
twentieth century (Metsähallitus, 2005:<br />
336).<br />
Both Pasvik-Inari and Interpark Kalevala<br />
will be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
project on the Green Belt <strong>of</strong> Fennoscandia,<br />
a new form <strong>of</strong> network<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
forests, mires and fell areas spann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the borders <strong>of</strong> Northern Norway, Eastern<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land and North-Western Russia<br />
(HCF VI, 2010: 91,176; Günther, 2004:<br />
50).<br />
<strong>The</strong> Resolution <strong>of</strong> the sixth HCF stated<br />
that ‘the need to take the cultural and<br />
spiritual values <strong>in</strong>to consideration<br />
when establish<strong>in</strong>g protected areas,<br />
and to encourage the use <strong>of</strong> folk art<br />
express<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tangible values <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
and society. <strong>The</strong> HCF VI welcomed<br />
the application <strong>of</strong> the <strong>IUCN</strong>/<br />
UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites and the Delos Initiative, and<br />
expressed the support for the next<br />
workshop to be convened <strong>in</strong> Inari,<br />
F<strong>in</strong>land’.<br />
However, despite all that has been expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
on SNSs, research and <strong>in</strong>ventory<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>in</strong> BEAR are still largely<br />
neglected, and the implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
the Delos Initiative <strong>in</strong> the North <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
is vital. This gap is reflected <strong>in</strong> the<br />
publications about protected areas <strong>in</strong><br />
the BEAR which have not devoted special<br />
attention to SNSs, or to the spiritual<br />
heritage <strong>in</strong> general.<br />
<strong>The</strong> North can be seen as a k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> refrigerator<br />
<strong>of</strong> cultural values, which let<br />
us start a <strong>in</strong>ternational project which<br />
could be the identity <strong>of</strong> the BEAR <strong>in</strong><br />
synergy <strong>of</strong> natural and spiritual values<br />
- a Hyperborean projection <strong>of</strong> the Delos<br />
Initiative.<br />
255
References<br />
HCF I (2000),<strong>The</strong> first meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the International Contact Forum on Habitat Conservation<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> Barents Region. Trondheim: DN-notat 2000-6.<br />
HCF II (2003), Selected Papers from Second Meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the International Contact<br />
Forum on Habitat Conservation <strong>in</strong> the Barents Region. Petrozavodsk, November<br />
26 th to 29 th 2001. – Trondheim.<br />
HCF III (2004), Habitat Contact Forum <strong>in</strong> Kuhmo 2003. In L<strong>in</strong>dholm T. and Ke<strong>in</strong>onen<br />
E. (eds), Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the 3 rd Meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the International Contact Forum on<br />
Habitat Conservation <strong>in</strong> the Barents Region. Hels<strong>in</strong>ki..<br />
HCF IV (2006), Международный контактный форум по сохранению<br />
местообитаний в Баренцевом регионе: Материалы IV совещания (Сыктывкар,<br />
Республика Коми, 19-25 сентября 2005 г.). Сыктывкар. International Contact Forum<br />
on Habitat Conservation <strong>in</strong> the Barents Region. Fourth meet<strong>in</strong>g. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Syktyvkar.<br />
HCF V (2008), Fifth Habitat Contact Forum Report. Umeå. Västerboten. October<br />
15-16, 2008. Umeå: Larsson and Co:s Tryckeri AB.<br />
HCF VI (2010), VI Международный контактный форум по сохранению<br />
местообитаний в Баренцевом регионе: тезисы докладов (Архангельск, Россия,<br />
31 мая – 5 июня 2010 г.). Архангельск VI International Contact Forum on Habitat<br />
Conservation <strong>in</strong> the Barents Region: Abstracts. (Archangelsk, Russia, May 31-th –<br />
June 5-th 2010). Archangelsk.<br />
Davydov, A.N. (2003), Cultural Heritage on five old-growth forest territories, explored<br />
by <strong>in</strong>ternational expedition (Onega pen<strong>in</strong>sula, Belomor-Kuloy plateau,<br />
Kozhozero, the bas<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Yula and Mezenskaya Pizhma rivers), <strong>in</strong> Old-growth forests<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Arkhangelsk region conservation perspectives. Arkhangelsk, pp.<br />
17-20.<br />
Davydov A.N. (2009), ‘Solovetsky green meridian’ and SNS ‘svyatye roshschi’ (sacred<br />
groves) <strong>of</strong> the National Park ‘Kenozersky’ <strong>in</strong> the light <strong>of</strong> Delos <strong>in</strong>itiative, <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong><br />
last large <strong>in</strong>tact forests <strong>in</strong> North-West Russia: protection and susta<strong>in</strong>able use.<br />
Spidsø T.K. and Sørensen O.J. (Eds.), <strong>The</strong>maNord 2009:523. Copenhagen: Nordic<br />
Council <strong>of</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters. pp. 27-36.<br />
Davydov A.N., Bolotov I.N. and Mikhailova G.V. (2009), Solovetsky Islands – a holy<br />
land surrounded by the Arctic Ocean, <strong>in</strong> <strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Dimension <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas.<br />
In Papayannis T. and Mallarach J.-M. (eds), Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Second Workshop<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative, Ouranoupolis, 2007, Gland. Switzerland: <strong>IUCN</strong> and<br />
Athens, Greece: MedINA. pp. 89-103.<br />
256
Федотов Г.П. Будет ли существовать Россия // Федотов Г.П. Судьба и грехи<br />
России. Избранные статьи. М., «ДАРЪ», 2005 [Fedotov G.P. (2005), Will Russia<br />
survive? In: Fate and S<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> Russia. Selected articles. Moscow: Ed. House ‘DAR’.]<br />
Günther, M. (ed.) (2004), Field Guide to Protected Areas <strong>in</strong> the Barents Region,<br />
Svanvik: Svanhovd Environmental Centre.<br />
Helskog K. (1987), Alta Petroglyphs/Petroglyphs d’Alta, <strong>in</strong> Monuments and Sites.<br />
Norway: a cultural heritage. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, pp. 275-283.<br />
Karlsson A. (1999), A Taste <strong>of</strong> Västerbotten, Örnsköldsvik, Max Graf / Robert Dau<br />
Brukkeri AB.<br />
Norokorpi Y. and Ojanlatva E. (2007), Ukonsaari Island. Lapland, F<strong>in</strong>land, <strong>in</strong> Mallarach,<br />
J.-M. and Papayannis, T. (eds), Spirituality and Protected Areas. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the First Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative, Montserrat, 2006. Gland, Switzerland:<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong> and Montserrat, Spa<strong>in</strong>: Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, pp.<br />
165-173.<br />
Tervonen, P. and Härkönen, K. (eds) (2005), Kalevalapuistot – rajan elämää ja erämaan<br />
luontoa. Kalevala Parks – Life at the Border and Wilderness Nature.<br />
Калевальские парки и превозданная природа. Kajaani: Kajaan<strong>in</strong> Offsetpa<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Oy. Metsähallitus.<br />
Websites:<br />
Fifth Habitat Contact Forum Report. Umeå. http://www.piasjogren.se<br />
257
258
Part Six:<br />
Other related issues<br />
259
Applicability <strong>of</strong> the <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected Area Managers<br />
on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites: first assessment<br />
Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Introduction and context<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the last World Congress on Protected<br />
Areas <strong>in</strong> Durban, South Africa,<br />
2003, the discussion about the relevance<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred naturals sites on nature<br />
conservation <strong>in</strong> general, and protected<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> particular, has ga<strong>in</strong>ed momentum<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong> and related organisations.<br />
<strong>The</strong> efforts undertaken by several<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g groups with<strong>in</strong> the World Commission<br />
on Protected Areas and the<br />
Commission <strong>of</strong> Environmental, Economic<br />
Policies <strong>of</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong>, <strong>in</strong> particular the<br />
Specialist Group on Cultural and Spiritual<br />
Values <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas, have already<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced the concept <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
natural site (SNS) <strong>in</strong> some significant<br />
guidance documents and succeed <strong>in</strong><br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g this topic <strong>in</strong> the broader<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational conservation agenda.<br />
Two guidance documents presented at<br />
the 2008 World Conservation Congress<br />
deserve special recognition <strong>in</strong> this respect:<br />
the UNESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for<br />
Protected Area Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites (Wild and McLeod, 2008) and<br />
the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Apply<strong>in</strong>g Protected<br />
Area Management Categories (Dudley,<br />
2008). Among the significant improvements<br />
that the last document <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to the previous guidel<strong>in</strong>es for apply<strong>in</strong>g<br />
protected area management categories<br />
(<strong>IUCN</strong>, 1994) is the <strong>in</strong>clusion, for<br />
the first time, <strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>in</strong> all categories <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas, with a large table that<br />
provides examples <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> them, and<br />
also the <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> the governance dimension,<br />
which allows the consideration<br />
<strong>of</strong> traditional custodians and religious organisations<br />
related to SNSs.<br />
260
On the other hand, the UNESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong><br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected Area Managers<br />
on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites was a milestone,<br />
which substantially developed<br />
previous <strong>IUCN</strong> documents deal<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
the concept <strong>of</strong> sacred areas, such as<br />
the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Mounta<strong>in</strong> Protected<br />
Areas (Larry et al., 2006). <strong>The</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites have already<br />
been translated <strong>in</strong>to Spanish<br />
and Russian and are currently been<br />
translated <strong>in</strong>to other major world languages,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the topic is <strong>of</strong> global <strong>in</strong>terest.<br />
<strong>The</strong>y address managers <strong>of</strong> protected<br />
areas that have been established<br />
on SNSs, provid<strong>in</strong>g guidance on<br />
ways to <strong>in</strong>tegrate this pre-exist<strong>in</strong>g protection,<br />
based on spiritual values, so<br />
as to avoid potential conflicts, and promote<br />
the conservation <strong>of</strong> both the natural<br />
and spiritual heritage.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Preamble <strong>of</strong> the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es states<br />
that: ‘dur<strong>in</strong>g the process <strong>of</strong> guidel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
development, it was recognised that<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream faiths also care for numerous<br />
sacred natural sites and many<br />
have pr<strong>of</strong>ound teach<strong>in</strong>gs related to the<br />
relationship between humans and nature.<br />
We have endeavoured to develop<br />
the guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> such a way that they<br />
are broadly applicable to the sacred<br />
natural sites <strong>of</strong> all faiths. (...) This attempt<br />
to <strong>in</strong>corporate limited experiences<br />
<strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream faiths should be considered<br />
prelim<strong>in</strong>ary. Further work is<br />
needed to analyse and understand the<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites revered<br />
by ma<strong>in</strong>stream faiths, which<br />
comprise the great majority <strong>of</strong> humank<strong>in</strong>d.<br />
Of course, efforts to put such ideas<br />
<strong>in</strong>to categories fail at some po<strong>in</strong>t’.<br />
<strong>The</strong> decision to prioritise the SNSs <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples and local communities<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es was fully justified,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce these are the sites, and the peoples,<br />
that have been suffer<strong>in</strong>g the worse<br />
impacts and fac<strong>in</strong>g the greatest threats<br />
and challenges, deserv<strong>in</strong>g, therefore,<br />
all possible support and attention from<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong>. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, most members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Specialist Group on Cultural<br />
and Spiritual Values <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas<br />
are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> activities support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
peoples and local communities<br />
<strong>in</strong> impoverished countries.<br />
On the other hand, most <strong>of</strong> the work<br />
that has been done at the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
level dur<strong>in</strong>g the last few years, focussed<br />
on <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples. This<br />
was already apparent <strong>in</strong> the UNESCO<br />
workshop <strong>of</strong> Xishuangbanna, 2003,<br />
where the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs, entitled ‘<strong>The</strong><br />
Importance <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites for<br />
Biodiversity Conservation’ (Lee and<br />
Schaaf, 2003) do not discuss case<br />
studies related to the three largest<br />
world religions. Similarly, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
UNESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong> Tokyo International<br />
Symposium on the role <strong>of</strong> SNSs and<br />
cultural landscapes (Schaaf and Lee<br />
2006), sacred natural sites related to<br />
Christianity and Islam were also<br />
absent.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> the Specialist Group on Cultural<br />
and Spiritual Values <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas<br />
it was agreed that the purpose and<br />
scope <strong>of</strong> work <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative<br />
was well suited to complet<strong>in</strong>g the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
UNESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites, so that the complementary<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es could be better applicable<br />
to SNSs related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
261
eligions, as well as to SNSs where<br />
there is an overlapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> religions and/<br />
or spiritual traditions. For this reason,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the Inari workshop a session<br />
was devoted to discuss the applicability<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Before go<strong>in</strong>g further, it is appropriate to<br />
briefly ponder the concept <strong>of</strong> sacred.<br />
<strong>The</strong> English word ‘sacred’ comes from<br />
the Lat<strong>in</strong> word ‘sacer’ and its derivative<br />
‘sacratum’ which means ‘set apart to,<br />
or for, some religious purpose’, or ‘consecrated’.<br />
For this reason, sacred sites<br />
are separated, protected, from outward,<br />
‘pr<strong>of</strong>ane’ <strong>in</strong>fluences, and for millennia,<br />
on all cont<strong>in</strong>ents, they have<br />
been the predecessors <strong>of</strong> modern protected<br />
areas. <strong>The</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
land or water can be found, <strong>in</strong> one way<br />
<strong>of</strong> another, <strong>in</strong> most, if not all, the religions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world; although <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong><br />
them there is no specific word for it (Eliade,<br />
1959; Nasr, 1989, 1996). It is also<br />
applied, beyond religious frames, <strong>in</strong><br />
different forms <strong>of</strong> spirituality (Mann and<br />
Davis, 2010)<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es provides<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g simple work<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>ition<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred site: ‘A sacred site is<br />
an area <strong>of</strong> special spiritual significance<br />
to peoples and communities’, which<br />
was first proposed by Oviedo and<br />
Jeanrenaud (2007). Another operational<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ition is ‘a sacred site is a place<br />
<strong>in</strong> the landscape, occasionally over or<br />
under water, which is specially revered<br />
by people, culture or cultural group as<br />
a focus for spiritual belief and practice<br />
or likely religious observance’ (Thorley<br />
and Gunn, 2007). <strong>The</strong>se work<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>itions<br />
are deliberately broad and<br />
open, recognis<strong>in</strong>g the limitations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
western words ‘sacred’, ‘natural’ and<br />
‘site’, and, as a consequence, it has<br />
been argued that ‘it is important than<br />
the concept rema<strong>in</strong>s open for further<br />
articulation’ (Vershuuren et al, 2010).<br />
<strong>The</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> SNSs for nature<br />
conservation is extremely significant<br />
and has been widely discussed dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the last years (Dudley et el. 2005;<br />
Thorley and Gunn, 2007; Verschuuren<br />
et al, 2010). It suffices to say that sacred<br />
natural sites are the oldest type <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas that have been around<br />
for many centuries, even millennia <strong>in</strong><br />
some regions, show<strong>in</strong>g an amaz<strong>in</strong>g resilience<br />
to different civilisations or religions.<br />
In some parts <strong>of</strong> the world,<br />
SNSs cont<strong>in</strong>ue to effectively protect<br />
critical elements <strong>of</strong> the natural heritage,<br />
<strong>in</strong> some cases more significant or<br />
extensive than those protected by legally<br />
established modern protected areas,<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten more efficiently.<br />
Context <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites<br />
for ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the best estimates available,<br />
over 80% <strong>of</strong> humank<strong>in</strong>d is either<br />
affiliated to or <strong>in</strong>fluenced by ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
religions. Christianity and Islam<br />
alone encompass more than 50% <strong>of</strong><br />
the world population, and both religions<br />
are globally grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> relative<br />
and absolute terms (O’Brien and Palmer,<br />
2007).<br />
Although the concept <strong>of</strong> the sacred,<br />
and by consequence, that <strong>of</strong> SNSs,<br />
has cont<strong>in</strong>uity across cultures, all over<br />
262
the world (Eliade, 1959), there are also<br />
significant differences among SNSs,<br />
which cannot be underestimated if one<br />
is to produce guidel<strong>in</strong>es well suited to<br />
the characteristics <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> types <strong>of</strong><br />
SNSs.<br />
Most religions share basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples<br />
towards nature, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the need<br />
for respect. However, when we take a<br />
closer look we f<strong>in</strong>d quite different attitudes<br />
towards nature, and natural sacred<br />
manifestations, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> very<br />
diverse types <strong>of</strong> SNSs. An important<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ction can be drawn between ‘<strong>in</strong>tact’<br />
SNSs, where the natural components<br />
have not been modified, and access<br />
is usually restricted, and sacred<br />
sites that have been consecrated, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
shr<strong>in</strong>es or sanctuaries, whose<br />
shape usually symbolises or synthesises<br />
the entire cosmos, attract<strong>in</strong>g faithful,<br />
<strong>in</strong> some cases <strong>in</strong> limited numbers,<br />
<strong>in</strong> other cases by the millions. Made<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g the rules <strong>of</strong> traditional sciences,<br />
these sacred build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
relics or other sacred objects,<br />
which add significant value to the<br />
sanctity <strong>of</strong> the site (Burckhardt, 1958).<br />
<strong>Diversity</strong> exists not only between religions,<br />
but with<strong>in</strong> all <strong>of</strong> them. Different<br />
branches <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>gle world religion may<br />
have quite different views regard<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
sanctity <strong>of</strong> nature. Christianity provides<br />
a good example <strong>of</strong> that. <strong>The</strong><br />
Eastern, Coptic and Orthodox churches<br />
are those that reta<strong>in</strong> the clearer<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>g about the sacredness <strong>of</strong> nature,<br />
and, at the other end <strong>of</strong> the spectrum,<br />
the Reformed or Protestant<br />
churches are among those that have<br />
the weakest l<strong>in</strong>ks with nature, at least <strong>in</strong><br />
the form <strong>of</strong> SNSs, although many <strong>of</strong><br />
them have been mak<strong>in</strong>g significant efforts<br />
to recover and reformulate the ancient<br />
Christian teach<strong>in</strong>gs on nature<br />
(Hessel and Ruether, 2000) and some<br />
have a better environmental record<br />
than other Christian churches. <strong>The</strong><br />
Catholic Church is <strong>in</strong> between, usually<br />
closer to the eastern branches <strong>of</strong> Christianity<br />
<strong>in</strong> the countryside and natural areas.<br />
Moreover, with<strong>in</strong> each branch another<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ction needs to be made between<br />
the outward and the <strong>in</strong>ward dimension,<br />
the last usually associated<br />
with mystical teach<strong>in</strong>g, always much<br />
closer to nature and all liv<strong>in</strong>g be<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
On the other hand, religions are not<br />
static. Over the centuries religions<br />
change the <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> their spiritual<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>gs and, to an even greater<br />
extent, how these are translated <strong>in</strong>to social,<br />
economic and environmental policy<br />
and practices, to adapt to new circumstances<br />
and challenges. <strong>The</strong> way<br />
<strong>in</strong> which ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions are respond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to current global challenges,<br />
with <strong>in</strong>creased environmental awareness,<br />
and renewed responsibilities towards<br />
the natural world, is one example<br />
<strong>of</strong> such a change. It is also important to<br />
underl<strong>in</strong>e that new SNSs are cont<strong>in</strong>ually<br />
recognised, either because the perception<br />
<strong>of</strong> a place changes, or because the<br />
faithful move (Dudley et al., 2005).<br />
Although the exact figures are not<br />
known for any <strong>of</strong> the world religions,<br />
and will probably never be known, the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> SNSs related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
religions is extremely high. In the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Indian subcont<strong>in</strong>ent, for <strong>in</strong>stance,<br />
the number <strong>of</strong> sacred groves related to<br />
263
H<strong>in</strong>duism has been estimated at<br />
100 000 to 150 000 (Malhotra, 1998),<br />
not to mention the numerous sacred<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s, like Mount Khailas, sacred<br />
rivers, like the Ganges, etc. In Ethiopia,<br />
the second most populated country <strong>of</strong><br />
Africa, where Christianity has been the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> religion for about two millennia, it<br />
is estimated that over 35 000 ‘church<br />
forests’ have been conserved, usually<br />
located next to modest church build<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
huts or caves where hermits have<br />
been liv<strong>in</strong>g, provid<strong>in</strong>g vital biodiversity<br />
reservoirs <strong>in</strong> the context <strong>of</strong> extensive<br />
deforestation and deteriorated landscapes<br />
(Tree Foundation, 2010).<br />
On the other hand, many countries do<br />
not have SNSs related to <strong>in</strong>digenous or<br />
local peoples, but only SNSs related to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions. This is the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> many <strong>Europe</strong>an and Middle Eastern<br />
countries. However, <strong>in</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world, SNSs related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
coexist with SNSs related to <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
spiritual traditions, <strong>in</strong> different<br />
degrees <strong>of</strong> harmony.<br />
SNSs related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
are found <strong>in</strong> protected areas belong<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to all <strong>IUCN</strong> categories (Vershuuren et<br />
al., 2007). In some countries, <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
protected areas or even entire systems<br />
<strong>of</strong> protected areas, are owned and/or<br />
managed by religious organisations. A<br />
case <strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t is South Korea, where a<br />
large portion <strong>of</strong> the system <strong>of</strong> national<br />
parks was established over the properties<br />
<strong>of</strong> Buddhist monastic communities<br />
(Hugh Kim, personal communication)<br />
A considerable number <strong>of</strong> SNSs have<br />
been resilient to cultural and spiritual<br />
changes, be<strong>in</strong>g reused by consecutive<br />
religions or spiritual traditions, either<br />
historic and/or current, display<strong>in</strong>g<br />
overlapp<strong>in</strong>g values which <strong>of</strong>ten show<br />
complex relationships. Even if the spiritual<br />
tradition has vanished, contemporary<br />
society <strong>of</strong>ten displays respect for<br />
ancient SNSs.<br />
Some protected areas <strong>in</strong>clude a high<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> SNSs, which are still highly<br />
relevant for the local population and<br />
provide powerful <strong>in</strong>centives for respect<br />
and conservation, even if they are related<br />
to ext<strong>in</strong>ct civilisations, which are<br />
still accessible <strong>in</strong> both tangible and <strong>in</strong>tangible<br />
manner.<br />
Last, but not least, one has to recall<br />
that ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions and related<br />
organisations are among the oldest<br />
and more resilient social structures <strong>in</strong><br />
the world. All world religions have significant<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>gs on cosmology, and a<br />
long experience <strong>in</strong> nature conservation,<br />
<strong>in</strong> diverse forms, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g SNSs,<br />
and most <strong>of</strong> them are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> nature conservation <strong>in</strong> the<br />
face <strong>of</strong> the global losses <strong>of</strong> biodiversity.<br />
Moreover, some religious organisations<br />
are significant landowners and<br />
they properties <strong>in</strong>clude valuable natural<br />
areas. For all these reasons they<br />
could be significant agents and also<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluential allies <strong>of</strong> conservation organisations,<br />
as has been widely acknowledged<br />
(Palmer and F<strong>in</strong>aly, 2003).<br />
Validation aims and process<br />
What follows is a brief description <strong>of</strong><br />
the methodology used <strong>in</strong> the workshop<br />
264
to assess the applicability <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es, followed<br />
by the conclusions that were<br />
atta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
Some weeks before the workshop, a<br />
document was sent to all the participants<br />
expla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the purpose and the<br />
methodology <strong>of</strong> the exercise, and ask<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them to prepare the participatory<br />
session. In particular, they were <strong>in</strong>formed<br />
that <strong>in</strong> a previous analysis, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the elaboration <strong>of</strong> the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es, a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> concepts and related key<br />
terms had been found to be miss<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
be fully applicable to the ma<strong>in</strong> world<br />
religions, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g ‘faithful, guest<br />
houses, holy people, holy sites, monasteries,<br />
monastic communities, religious<br />
authorities, religious organisations,<br />
religious values, shr<strong>in</strong>es, temples,<br />
tombs and worshippers’. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the subsequent exchanges <strong>of</strong> correspondence,<br />
it became clear that additional<br />
significant concepts were miss<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those <strong>of</strong>: pilgrimages,<br />
sanctuaries, processions, and religious<br />
landscape.<br />
<strong>The</strong> Inari/Aanaar workshop was attended<br />
by some 30 experts from 14<br />
countries, with very diverse experience<br />
and backgrounds. <strong>The</strong>y all had <strong>in</strong><br />
common a work<strong>in</strong>g experience <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with SNSs <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. However, the<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> some experts was<br />
based <strong>in</strong> a limited number <strong>of</strong> SNSs, <strong>of</strong><br />
the same type, whilst <strong>in</strong> others it was<br />
based <strong>in</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> sacred sites related<br />
to diverse religions.<br />
<strong>The</strong> session devoted to this exercise<br />
was the first attempt to assess the applicability<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for<br />
Protected Area Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites. <strong>The</strong>refore, the validation<br />
method itself was put <strong>in</strong>to test. Participants<br />
were organised <strong>in</strong>to three<br />
groups. <strong>The</strong> first group deal<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
SNSs <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples; the second<br />
one with ma<strong>in</strong>stream SNSs and the<br />
third one with a subset <strong>of</strong> the former,<br />
namely SNSs related to monastic communities.<br />
Each participant filled <strong>in</strong> a table<br />
with the exist<strong>in</strong>g guidel<strong>in</strong>es, where<br />
he or she should <strong>in</strong>dicate, whether<br />
each particular guidel<strong>in</strong>e was either fully<br />
applicable to all SNSs, need<strong>in</strong>g<br />
some new word<strong>in</strong>g/language to be<br />
applicable to all cases, or need<strong>in</strong>g concepts<br />
not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es. <strong>The</strong> participants were also<br />
told that they should explore, whether<br />
additional guidel<strong>in</strong>es, if any, should be<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded to cover the diversity <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions. In each<br />
group there was one person able to answer<br />
the doubts <strong>of</strong> the participants.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> them was Rob Wild, co-author<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
As one could expect, the range <strong>of</strong> responses<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g this exercise<br />
was very wide, reflect<strong>in</strong>g the range <strong>of</strong><br />
expertise <strong>of</strong> the participants, their particular<br />
experience, and also their different<br />
backgrounds.<br />
Whilst some participants considered<br />
that most guidel<strong>in</strong>es are applicable, the<br />
majority considered that a good number<br />
<strong>of</strong> guidel<strong>in</strong>es are not applicable as<br />
they are, and suggested various changes.<br />
<strong>The</strong> most experienced participants<br />
considered that between 20–50 per<br />
265
cent <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es are not<br />
applicable as they are to the SNSs <strong>in</strong><br />
which they have been work<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Results on the applicability <strong>of</strong><br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
Participants considered that some<br />
miss<strong>in</strong>g concepts and related key<br />
terms would be useful for the guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
to be fully applicable to the world<br />
religions. <strong>The</strong>se concepts <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
faithful, guest houses, holy people,<br />
holy sites, monasteries, monastic communities,<br />
religious authorities (only appears<br />
once, <strong>in</strong> table 2), religious organisations,<br />
religious values (only appears<br />
<strong>in</strong> two case studies), shr<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
temples, tombs, worshipers.<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for SNSs devoted to ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
religions and sites with overlapp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
faiths / spiritual traditions may decide<br />
to use alternative concepts. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>of</strong> SNSs, holy natural<br />
sites or holy natural places may be<br />
preferable to several branches <strong>of</strong><br />
Christianity and Islam. This nuance<br />
may seem m<strong>in</strong>or, but <strong>in</strong> their respective<br />
theologies it is significant, because the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> sacred is reserved to the<br />
div<strong>in</strong>e order. For this reason, guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
that <strong>in</strong>clude new concepts may<br />
change their very title.<br />
Next, the results <strong>of</strong> the first assessment<br />
based on the experience <strong>of</strong> certa<strong>in</strong><br />
countries (Belarus, F<strong>in</strong>land, Italy, Lithuania,<br />
Mexico and Spa<strong>in</strong>) have been<br />
summarised.<br />
• Based on a large number <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
from Lithuania and Belarus, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
Christian, and some related to pre-<br />
Christian traditions, it was considered<br />
that seven guidel<strong>in</strong>es are not<br />
applicable as they are, and need to<br />
modify their language.<br />
• Based on the diverse types <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
<strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, 16 guidel<strong>in</strong>es are not applicable<br />
as they are, and it was suggested<br />
to modify the concepts <strong>in</strong><br />
seven <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
• Based on the experience <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
from Mexico, ma<strong>in</strong>ly related to <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
traditions, with some Catholic<br />
and mixed sites, 17 Guidel<strong>in</strong>es are<br />
not applicable as they are, and it was<br />
suggested to modify the concepts on<br />
seven guidel<strong>in</strong>es and there is need<br />
to modify the language on the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
ten guidel<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
• Based on the experience <strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>of</strong><br />
Italy, mostly Catholic, between 16<br />
and 20 guidel<strong>in</strong>es – accord<strong>in</strong>g to different<br />
experts – are not applicable as<br />
they are, and it was proposed that<br />
the concepts need modification,<br />
while <strong>in</strong> some cases it was also suggested<br />
that the language needs<br />
modification.<br />
• Based on the experience <strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>of</strong><br />
Romania, mostly Christian Orthodox,<br />
14 guidel<strong>in</strong>es are not applicable as<br />
they are, requir<strong>in</strong>g modification <strong>of</strong><br />
their language.<br />
In addition, a prelim<strong>in</strong>ary assessment<br />
was done for SNSs tied to specific<br />
world religions, with the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
results:<br />
• Based on the experience <strong>of</strong> SNSs related<br />
to Christianity and Islam <strong>in</strong> 20<br />
countries from <strong>Europe</strong>, Africa and<br />
Asia, 13 Guidel<strong>in</strong>es are directly ap-<br />
266
plicable as they are, eight would require<br />
modify<strong>in</strong>g somewhat their language,<br />
and 20 would require modify<strong>in</strong>g<br />
at least one concept.<br />
• Based on the Christian Orthodox<br />
SNSs <strong>in</strong> several <strong>Europe</strong>an countries,<br />
it was found that 19 guidel<strong>in</strong>es were<br />
not applicable as they are, <strong>of</strong> which<br />
five need to modify some concepts.<br />
Other comments:<br />
• <strong>The</strong> dist<strong>in</strong>ction between <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>stream faiths is an oversimplistic<br />
dichotomy. <strong>The</strong>re is a need to<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude ‘cultural’ or ‘folk’ variants and<br />
the enrichment <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream faiths,<br />
and also the <strong>in</strong>ner or mystical dimension<br />
<strong>of</strong> the religions.<br />
• Some custodians fear <strong>of</strong> ‘New Age’<br />
spiritual movements, because they<br />
may <strong>in</strong>terfere with traditional practices<br />
and create disruptions.<br />
• Intellectual property rights (Access and<br />
Benefit Shar<strong>in</strong>g, CBD) are not well covered<br />
<strong>in</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
• Psychological wellbe<strong>in</strong>g should also<br />
be <strong>in</strong>cluded, because SNSs are considered<br />
to be life givers, both biologically<br />
and spiritually.<br />
• <strong>Lands</strong>cape symbolism is <strong>of</strong>ten very<br />
significant, has many implications for<br />
nature conservation and should be<br />
better discussed.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> relations between spiritual connectivity<br />
(pilgrimages paths and<br />
trails) and ecological connectivity<br />
should be better explored.<br />
• Identify<strong>in</strong>g, layer<strong>in</strong>g and the implicit<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> local practices is their<br />
underly<strong>in</strong>g (but possibly forgotten)<br />
ecological or social function.<br />
• <strong>The</strong> need for protected area managers<br />
to adopt measure seek<strong>in</strong>g for silence,<br />
solitude and beauty, as prerequisites<br />
for experienc<strong>in</strong>g sacredness <strong>of</strong><br />
nature <strong>in</strong> all spiritual traditions.<br />
• In the process <strong>of</strong> revitalisation it is important<br />
to be aware <strong>of</strong> the cultural<br />
appropriation, and to avoid ‘theft’.<br />
• SNSs can be social and even political<br />
drivers or motivators <strong>of</strong> conservation<br />
by connect<strong>in</strong>g urban people with<br />
nature <strong>in</strong> deeper ways than non-sacred<br />
protected areas can.<br />
Discussion and conclusions<br />
<strong>The</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> this validation exercise<br />
reflects the limitation <strong>of</strong> the participants<br />
to the workshop and their expertise.<br />
This was the first validation exercise,<br />
which hopefully will be followed<br />
by other assessments, <strong>in</strong> other regions,<br />
to obta<strong>in</strong> a better understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> the aspects <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
that would be desirable to review<br />
or complement.<br />
<strong>The</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
for Protected Area Managers <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites are both relevant<br />
and useful. All the participants <strong>of</strong> the<br />
assessment agreed that the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
are very significant. Were they implemented,<br />
a large number <strong>of</strong> the<br />
problems and conflicts affect<strong>in</strong>g SNSs<br />
<strong>in</strong> many countries, especially those related<br />
to <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and local<br />
communities, could have been either<br />
prevented or addressed and solved.<br />
<strong>The</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> conclusion <strong>of</strong> the exercise<br />
conducted <strong>in</strong> the workshop is that the<br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g guidel<strong>in</strong>es have to be further<br />
267
tested, ref<strong>in</strong>ed, adapted and complemented.<br />
At least about one third <strong>of</strong> the<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es were considered directly<br />
applicable as such to SNSs related to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions, and a similar<br />
proportion could be applicable with<br />
limited adaptation <strong>of</strong> language <strong>of</strong> concepts.<br />
Tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to consideration the<br />
global scope they have, and the extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
diversity <strong>in</strong>cluded, this fact<br />
is very positive.<br />
<strong>The</strong> results atta<strong>in</strong>ed further prove the<br />
need to cont<strong>in</strong>ue work<strong>in</strong>g on analys<strong>in</strong>g<br />
additional case studies related to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions so that either the<br />
next version <strong>of</strong> the Guidel<strong>in</strong>es, or perhaps<br />
complementary guidel<strong>in</strong>es that<br />
may be produced <strong>in</strong> the near future,<br />
may better cover the exist<strong>in</strong>g diversity<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
When guidel<strong>in</strong>es for SNSs for ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
religions are produced, it will<br />
be necessary to take <strong>in</strong>to consideration<br />
representative case studies, carefully<br />
analysed, not only from all world<br />
religions, i.e. their different branches,<br />
their mystical dimensions, as well as<br />
their comb<strong>in</strong>ation with folk religions,<br />
and/or other religions or local spiritual<br />
traditions, because <strong>of</strong> the significant<br />
differences that exist among them <strong>in</strong><br />
this respect.<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es related to liv<strong>in</strong>g SNSs probably<br />
have to be better emphasised as<br />
a dynamic process. As suggested by<br />
ICCROM (Stovel et al., eds. 2005), liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
religious heritage is a crucial component<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs that also has to be<br />
safeguarded.<br />
Like any other natural or human organisation,<br />
religion and spiritual traditions<br />
are a dynamic and evolv<strong>in</strong>g, and so<br />
are SNSs, at the <strong>in</strong>terface <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
and the deepest aspirations <strong>of</strong> humank<strong>in</strong>d.<br />
Analogously with deteriorated<br />
landscapes or habitats, there may be a<br />
need <strong>of</strong> recognition and revitalisation<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs that have been neglected. In<br />
those cases a holistic approach that<br />
embraces all dimensions <strong>of</strong> heritage<br />
seems highly advisable.<br />
Hav<strong>in</strong>g said all that, one has to acknowledge<br />
that the diversity <strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>of</strong><br />
the world is such that any global guidel<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
no matter how developed or ref<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
they may be, will always need<br />
some degree <strong>of</strong> adaptation to the regional<br />
or national characteristics, or to<br />
particular religious or spiritual traditions.<br />
Human diversity <strong>in</strong> this respect is<br />
bewilder<strong>in</strong>g. A number <strong>of</strong> key concepts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g Guidel<strong>in</strong>es – <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sacred and nature – are absent <strong>in</strong><br />
many <strong>of</strong> the world languages and<br />
worldviews.<br />
Global Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites could hopefully <strong>in</strong>spire regional<br />
or national guidel<strong>in</strong>es. In some <strong>Europe</strong>an<br />
countries, like Spa<strong>in</strong>, a participatory<br />
process is be<strong>in</strong>g planned by the<br />
national section <strong>of</strong> the EUROPARC<br />
Federation to produce national guidance<br />
to managers <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
for <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>tangible heritage<br />
<strong>in</strong> protected area plann<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
management.<br />
268
References<br />
Burckhardt, T. (1958). Pr<strong>in</strong>cipes et Méthodes de l’art sacré. Lyons: Dera<strong>in</strong> [<strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Art <strong>in</strong> East and West]. Bedfont, Middlesex, England: Perennial Books, 1967<br />
Coomaraswamy, A.K. (1934). <strong>The</strong> transformation <strong>of</strong> Nature <strong>in</strong> Art. Harvard University<br />
Press. Dover Publication, New York.<br />
Dudley, N.; Higg<strong>in</strong>gs-Zogib L. and Mansourian, S. (2005). Beyond Belief: L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />
faiths and protected areas to support biodiversity conservation. World Wildlife<br />
Fund for Nature, Equilibrium and Alliance <strong>of</strong> Religions and Conservation.<br />
Eliade, M. (1945). Le Sacré et le Pr<strong>of</strong>ane. [<strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> and the Pr<strong>of</strong>ane]. Ed. Gallimard,<br />
Paris.<br />
Hessel, D.T. and Ruether, R.R., eds. (2000). Christianity and Ecology: Seek<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Well-Be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Earth and Humans. Cambridge, Mass.: Distributed by Harvard University<br />
Press for the Harvard University Center for the Study <strong>of</strong> World Religions.<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong>/WCPA. (1994). Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected Area Management Categories.<br />
Gland and Cambridge: <strong>IUCN</strong>.<br />
O’Brien, J. and Palmer. M. (2007). <strong>The</strong> Atlas <strong>of</strong> Religions. Mapp<strong>in</strong>g Contemporary<br />
Challenges and Beliefs. <strong>The</strong> Earthscan Atlas Series.<br />
Lee, C. and Schaaf, T. (eds.) (2003). <strong>The</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites for biodiversity<br />
conservation. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the International Workshop held <strong>in</strong> Kunn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve, People’s Republic <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, February<br />
2003. UNESCO Paris.<br />
Mallarach, J.-M. and Papayannis, T. (eds.) (2007). Protected Areas and Spirituality.<br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the First Workshop <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative – Montserrat 2006.<br />
Gland, Switzerland: <strong>The</strong> World Conservation Union (<strong>IUCN</strong>); Barcelona, Spa<strong>in</strong>: Publicacions<br />
de l’Abadia de Montserrat.<br />
Malhotra, K.C. (1998). Cultural and ecological value <strong>of</strong> natural sacred sites <strong>in</strong> Orissa,<br />
India: Threats and opportunities. In ‘Natural sacred sites, cultural diversity and<br />
natural diversity’ International Symposium UNESCO-CNRS-MNHN, Paris, September<br />
1998.<br />
Mann, A.T. and Davis, L. (2010) <strong>Sacred</strong> <strong>Lands</strong>capes. <strong>The</strong> Threshold Between<br />
Worlds. Sterl<strong>in</strong>g Publish<strong>in</strong>g, New York / London.<br />
Nasr, S.H. (1989). Knowledge and the <strong>Sacred</strong>. New York, USA: State University <strong>of</strong><br />
New York Press.<br />
Nasr, S.H. (1996). Religion and the order <strong>of</strong> nature: the 1994 Cadbury Lectures at<br />
the University <strong>of</strong> Birm<strong>in</strong>gham. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.<br />
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Oviedo, G. and Jeanrenaud, S. (2007). Protect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites <strong>of</strong> Indigenous<br />
and Traditional Peoples, <strong>in</strong> Mallarach, J.-M. and Papayannis, T., eds. Protected<br />
Areas and Spirituality. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the First Workshop <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative<br />
– Montserrat 2006. Gland, Switzerland: <strong>The</strong> World Conservation Union (<strong>IUCN</strong>);<br />
Barcelona, Spa<strong>in</strong>: Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, pp. 77-100.<br />
Palmer, M. and F<strong>in</strong>lay, V. (2003). Faiths and Environment. Faith <strong>in</strong> Conservation.<br />
New Approaches to Religions and the Environment. World Bank, Wash<strong>in</strong>gton,<br />
D.C.<br />
Papayannis, T. and Mallarach, J-M, eds. (2009). <strong>The</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Dimension <strong>of</strong> Protected<br />
Areas: Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the Second Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative - Ouranoupolis<br />
2007. <strong>IUCN</strong>; Athens, Greece: Med-INA.<br />
Schaaf, T. and Lee, C. (eds.) (2006) Conserv<strong>in</strong>g cultural and biological diversity.<br />
<strong>The</strong> role <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites and cultural landscapes. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the UN-<br />
ESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong> International Conference, Tokyo, Japan, UNESCO, Paris.<br />
Stovel, H, Stanley-Price, N. and Killic, R. (eds.) (2005) Conserv<strong>in</strong>g the Religious<br />
Liv<strong>in</strong>g Heritage. Papers from the 2003 ICCROM Forum on Liv<strong>in</strong>g Religious Heritage:<br />
Conserv<strong>in</strong>g the sacred. ICCROM, Rome, Italy.<br />
Thorley, A. and Gunn, C. (c. 2008). <strong>Sacred</strong> Sites: an Overview. A report for the<br />
Gaia Foundation. Calvert, London.<br />
Verschuuren, B; Wild R McNeely, J. and Oviedo, G. (2010). <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural sites.<br />
Conserv<strong>in</strong>g Nature and Culture. Earthscan, London And New York.<br />
Wild, R. and McLeod, C. (eds.) (2008). <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites: Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Protected<br />
Area Managers. Gland, Switzerland: <strong>IUCN</strong>; Paris, France: UNESCO, Best<br />
Practice Protected Area Guidel<strong>in</strong>es Series, 16.<br />
270
Inputs and comments from the workshop<br />
<strong>The</strong> participants <strong>of</strong> the Delos3 Inari/<br />
Aanaar workshop have made the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
significant comments dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the workshop sessions and while discuss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Inari/Aanaar Statement at<br />
the clos<strong>in</strong>g session <strong>of</strong> the workshop:<br />
1. Participants confirmed that sacred<br />
natural sites are places, <strong>in</strong> their<br />
broader sense, both historical and<br />
contemporary, that express the biological,<br />
cultural and spiritual diversity<br />
<strong>of</strong> life and form an <strong>in</strong>tegral part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the cultural identity <strong>of</strong> many human<br />
communities and societies <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong>, as elsewhere.<br />
2. SNSs should be understood not just<br />
as static entities, rooted <strong>in</strong> the past,<br />
but also as be<strong>in</strong>g dynamic and<br />
evolv<strong>in</strong>g with chang<strong>in</strong>g human<br />
needs. Thus, the follow<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong><br />
categories <strong>of</strong> SNSs could be <strong>in</strong>dentified:<br />
a) Recognised SNSs that are already<br />
celebrated and protected,<br />
b) Revitalised SNSs where historical<br />
recognition has lapsed, but is<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g regenerated, and<br />
c) New SNSs, where there has been<br />
little or no traditional recognition related<br />
to acknowledged spiritual<br />
signs, and<br />
d) Ancient SNSs that do not have<br />
religious significance for contemporary<br />
society.<br />
3. Recognition <strong>of</strong> SNSs may help <strong>in</strong><br />
build<strong>in</strong>g up a wider constituency for<br />
nature conservation and fill<strong>in</strong>g gaps<br />
<strong>in</strong> protected area systems. Protected<br />
areas, SNSs and other natural<br />
271
features and landscapes with a<br />
strong spiritual dimension contribute<br />
to human wellbe<strong>in</strong>g, mental and<br />
physical health, by provid<strong>in</strong>g serene<br />
and beautiful places where<br />
people can slow down, and experience<br />
peace, harmony, beauty and<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terconnectedness with the <strong>in</strong>tangible<br />
or spiritual dimensions <strong>of</strong><br />
Nature.<br />
4. <strong>The</strong> significant differences that exist<br />
with<strong>in</strong> religions or with SNSs <strong>of</strong> previous<br />
religions and spiritual traditions,<br />
as well as their practices <strong>in</strong><br />
relation with the environment and<br />
nature conservation can be seen as<br />
opportunities for develop<strong>in</strong>g more<br />
effective approaches for conserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
threatened SNSs. Additionally,<br />
the reconciliation between faiths<br />
and religions that have been <strong>in</strong> conflict<br />
is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance, especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> SNSs where there has been<br />
conflicts among different religions<br />
or spiritual traditions.<br />
5. Attitudes <strong>of</strong> deep respect for nature<br />
conservation <strong>in</strong> Christianity are<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>in</strong> many regions to the outstand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
example set up by holy<br />
people, like St Francis <strong>of</strong> Assisi <strong>in</strong><br />
Southern <strong>Europe</strong> and the Middle<br />
East, St Cuthbert <strong>in</strong> England, St<br />
Patrick <strong>in</strong> Ireland, and St Seraph<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Sarov <strong>in</strong> Russia. <strong>The</strong> attempts to<br />
recover nature conservation theology<br />
and conservation implications,<br />
such as those from Celtic Christianity,<br />
or Celtic sa<strong>in</strong>ts, for <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>in</strong><br />
the Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne, are<br />
very important.<br />
6. Hermitages and hermit doma<strong>in</strong>s<br />
are <strong>in</strong> need, hence <strong>in</strong> synergy, <strong>of</strong><br />
strictly protected areas, with very<br />
limited public use. <strong>The</strong>y are endangered<br />
and threatened <strong>in</strong> many<br />
countries, despite the fact that hermits<br />
can be seen as prototype <strong>of</strong><br />
human be<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> harmony with Nature.<br />
Promot<strong>in</strong>g the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the concept <strong>of</strong> hermit reserves is,<br />
therefore, fully justified.<br />
7. SNSs should be <strong>in</strong>ventoried <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to avoid <strong>in</strong>voluntary damage to<br />
them and irreversible losses <strong>of</strong> cultural,<br />
spiritual and natural heritage.<br />
However, some SNSs are widely<br />
known, while others are private and<br />
only known by a limited number <strong>of</strong><br />
people. In order to respect the privacy<br />
and to take <strong>in</strong>to account the<br />
sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the spiritual values and<br />
the risks <strong>in</strong>volved, special attention<br />
should be paid to the appropriate<br />
level <strong>of</strong> public access to the databases<br />
and other <strong>in</strong>formation on sacred<br />
sites. This approach is analogous<br />
to that followed for areas vital<br />
for critically endangered species.<br />
8. <strong>The</strong>re is a need to develop tools<br />
and techniques to communicate<br />
and <strong>in</strong>terpret the spiritual, holy or<br />
sacred dimension <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
to the visitors and the public at<br />
large. In this respect, traditional local<br />
songs, arts, crafts, etc should<br />
be used as the preferred tools to<br />
convey the spiritual and <strong>in</strong>tangible<br />
values <strong>of</strong> Nature to the visitors <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas, especially <strong>in</strong> the<br />
visitor centres. In addition, <strong>in</strong>tangible<br />
values and the arts can be an<br />
272
equally effective tool as <strong>in</strong>terpretation<br />
and communication activities,<br />
while <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g locals <strong>in</strong> conservation<br />
activities.<br />
9. SNSs and other sites with special<br />
spiritual and cultural value should<br />
be <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the national<br />
legislation. When necessary, public<br />
access, construction and other human<br />
activities should be limited,<br />
both <strong>in</strong>side and around SNSs, to<br />
ensure the values <strong>of</strong> the sites. Spiritual<br />
values should also be legally<br />
recognised as arguments for establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
protected areas.<br />
10. <strong>The</strong> message <strong>of</strong> religious traditions<br />
and wisdom that foster a deep,<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gful, and last<strong>in</strong>g bond with<br />
nature and carry out respectful<br />
practices on nature conservation<br />
and susta<strong>in</strong>able environmental<br />
management should be more widely<br />
dissem<strong>in</strong>ated.<br />
11. Transboundary, regional and subregional<br />
co-operation, such as the<br />
Barents Euro-Arctic region and the<br />
Carpathian region, are very important<br />
and should be encouraged<br />
when promot<strong>in</strong>g synergies between<br />
the conservation <strong>of</strong> natural heritage<br />
and spiritual heritage.<br />
12. <strong>The</strong> significance <strong>of</strong> the United Nations<br />
Declaration on the Rights <strong>of</strong><br />
Indigenous Peoples (UN DRIP) was<br />
stressed, as well as the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong><br />
Free, Prior and Informed Consent<br />
and Indigenous Peoples (FPIC).<br />
13. <strong>The</strong> concepts <strong>of</strong> animal spirits, totemic<br />
species and other cultural<br />
significant species (symbolic, identity,<br />
etc) should be <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong><br />
the study, plann<strong>in</strong>g and management<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs.<br />
14. Special attention needs to be paid<br />
to and significant support is to be<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered equally to those sacred natural<br />
sites <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous people that<br />
have already been recognised as<br />
well as to those that are not yet<br />
known as sacred natural sites.<br />
15. In various countries <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, natural<br />
sites considered sacred s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
prehistoric times and which are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
located <strong>in</strong> areas <strong>of</strong> high natural<br />
heritage value have been recognised<br />
and <strong>in</strong>ventoried. Several case<br />
studies from the Baltic countries<br />
showed that these sites still have<br />
significance for current societies<br />
(identity, iconic, symbolic, etc.). In<br />
Estonia, where the heritage connected<br />
to sacred natural sites is<br />
significantly rich, a state level conservation<br />
plan (Estonian National<br />
Conservation Plan for <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites) has been prepared and<br />
adopted to <strong>in</strong>struct conduct<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventories and sav<strong>in</strong>g the sacred<br />
natural sites. In order to ensure efficient<br />
conservation <strong>of</strong> sacred natural<br />
sites appropriate legal status and<br />
management measures are<br />
needed.<br />
16. <strong>The</strong> Delos Initiative could explore<br />
whether other <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>struments<br />
(such as the Habitat Contact<br />
Forum, the Barents Region Protected<br />
Areas Network and the Carpathian<br />
Network <strong>of</strong> Protected Are-<br />
273
as) can make contributions to SNSs<br />
and to the <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> the general<br />
spiritual values <strong>of</strong> Nature to nature<br />
conservation strategies, plans and<br />
programmes.<br />
17. A first assessment on the relevance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the 2008 <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
for Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites (which focus on <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
<strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites) performed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the workshop showed that<br />
between 20-50% <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es would need to modify either<br />
the concepts or the language<br />
to be fully useful and applicable to<br />
SNSs related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions.<br />
This result justifies the Delos<br />
Initiative goal to develop<strong>in</strong>g additional<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es for natural sacred<br />
sites related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
18. It is recommended that the Delos<br />
Initiative should br<strong>in</strong>g to the attention<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Contract<strong>in</strong>g Parties <strong>of</strong> the<br />
CBD at their 10th Conference to be<br />
held <strong>in</strong> Nagoya, Japan, <strong>in</strong> October<br />
2010 the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
Our concern that the important contributions<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites, landscapes<br />
and waters <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
and local communities to the objectives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Convention are <strong>in</strong> danger<br />
because <strong>of</strong> threats represented by<br />
not acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g the role they play<br />
as protected areas, unsound developments<br />
and lack <strong>of</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rights <strong>of</strong> their custodians to decide on<br />
the present and future management <strong>of</strong><br />
such sites.<br />
Documentation that demonstrates the<br />
important contributions <strong>of</strong> sacred or<br />
holy natural sites created and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by religious communities, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
monastic communities and other<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> believers <strong>of</strong> the world, make<br />
to the conservation <strong>of</strong> biodiversity and<br />
to the long-term ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> ecosystems<br />
that provide many benefits to<br />
communities, peoples and countries.<br />
Our recommendation that measures to<br />
value and protect sacred natural sites<br />
<strong>of</strong> all peoples and communities be<br />
adopted by the CBD Parties at national<br />
and <strong>in</strong>ternational level, with due respect<br />
to the traditional governance<br />
systems that have taken care and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed such sites for centuries or<br />
millennia, and with due and mean<strong>in</strong>gful<br />
<strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> their custodians at<br />
all relevant levels.<br />
Our request to CBD Parties and other<br />
stakeholders <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Convention to work together<br />
with religious organisations and<br />
the traditional custodians <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
sites to support the improvement <strong>of</strong><br />
tools and approaches, as well as appropriate<br />
policy frameworks, to enhance<br />
the resilience <strong>of</strong> sacred natural<br />
sites <strong>in</strong> the face <strong>of</strong> global changes that<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g new and unprecedented challenges<br />
to their present and future<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance.<br />
274
Conclusions<br />
Results<br />
<strong>The</strong> Delos3 Workshop <strong>in</strong> Inari/Aanaar<br />
<strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land proved to be rich <strong>in</strong> contributions<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g the diversity <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
natural sites (SNSs) <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>,<br />
their ancient orig<strong>in</strong>s, their fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
history, the challenges and threats they<br />
face <strong>in</strong> the contemporary context and<br />
their prospects for the future. <strong>The</strong>se<br />
contributions generated lively discussions<br />
and led to conclusions through a<br />
process <strong>of</strong> structured debate.<br />
In spite <strong>of</strong> the diversity <strong>of</strong> op<strong>in</strong>ions presented<br />
and defended, certa<strong>in</strong> generally<br />
accepted currents permeated the whole<br />
process. A strong element was the realisation<br />
that the old cont<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
vibrant <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples (such<br />
as the Sámi <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, Sweden, Norway<br />
and NW Russia) and numerous wellrooted<br />
native and local communities. In<br />
spite <strong>of</strong> the ubiquitous impacts <strong>of</strong> homogenisation<br />
and globalisation, they attempt<br />
to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> their ancient beliefs<br />
and traditions, most <strong>of</strong> which are imbued<br />
by deep and pervasive spirituality. In<br />
fact, these traditions are be<strong>in</strong>g regenerated<br />
and strengthened <strong>in</strong> quite a few<br />
cases, creat<strong>in</strong>g hope for the future.<br />
While some <strong>of</strong> the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent SNSs<br />
related to major faiths <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
recognised and efforts for their <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
management are on the way,<br />
much less has been done about the<br />
natural sites with spiritual relevance for<br />
<strong>in</strong>digenous peoples and local communities,<br />
with some highly <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g exceptions<br />
presented dur<strong>in</strong>g the workshop.<br />
Thus, the ma<strong>in</strong> conclusions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
event were <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong> the Inari/<br />
Aanaar Statement, <strong>in</strong>cluded below.<br />
275
<strong>The</strong> Inari/Aanaar Statement<br />
on the diversity <strong>of</strong> sacred natural<br />
sites <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
<strong>The</strong> 30 participants from 14 countries<br />
(Estonia, F<strong>in</strong>land, Greece, Italy, Latvia,<br />
Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway,<br />
Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spa<strong>in</strong>, Switzerland,<br />
and United K<strong>in</strong>gdom) <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Third Workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative,<br />
held <strong>in</strong> Inari, F<strong>in</strong>land on 1-3 July 2010,<br />
arrived at the follow<strong>in</strong>g conclusions<br />
and recommendations:<br />
1. <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous Sámi peoples and<br />
their traditions – as well as the traditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> most <strong>in</strong>digenous religions –<br />
are <strong>of</strong> great importance <strong>in</strong> the context<br />
<strong>of</strong> the cultural, spiritual and natural<br />
heritage <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>. In particular,<br />
their views emphasis<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terconnectedness<br />
<strong>of</strong> human be<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
and nature, and deep respect for<br />
nature, can provide <strong>in</strong>valuable lessons<br />
<strong>of</strong> global significance and ensure<br />
the well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
communities and the viability <strong>of</strong><br />
their cultures.<br />
2. In various countries <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, natural<br />
sites considered sacred s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
prehistoric times, <strong>of</strong>ten located <strong>in</strong> areas<br />
<strong>of</strong> high natural heritage value,<br />
are be<strong>in</strong>g recognised and <strong>in</strong>ventoried,<br />
such as the Estonian National<br />
Conservation Plan for <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites. Several case studies from<br />
the Baltic countries showed that<br />
these sites still have significance for<br />
current societies (identity, iconic,<br />
symbolic, etc.), which may encourage<br />
conservation measures. However,<br />
many <strong>of</strong> these ancient SNSs need<br />
protection with an appropriate legal<br />
status and management measures.<br />
3. Some protected areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
a high diversity <strong>of</strong> SNSs from<br />
consecutive civilisations, as Majella<br />
National Park <strong>in</strong> Italy exemplifies.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> these sacred sites are still<br />
highly relevant for the local population<br />
and provide powerful <strong>in</strong>centives<br />
for respect and conservation.<br />
4. Christian and Buddhist organisations<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> land management <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
are gradually adopt<strong>in</strong>g attitudes<br />
and practices <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
respect for the natural environment.<br />
Such positive developments must<br />
be made known widely to encourage<br />
their faithful and other religious<br />
organisations along these l<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
5. In this positive context, a number <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Europe</strong>an Christian and Buddhist<br />
monastic communities are tak<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
lead, with effective and <strong>in</strong>novative<br />
approaches to the ecological management<br />
<strong>of</strong> their lands, be they formally<br />
declared as protected areas<br />
or community conserved areas or<br />
not, such as the Orthodox monastic<br />
communities <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos, Greece.<br />
6. Closer collaboration <strong>in</strong> the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs between their custodians<br />
and conservationists is slowly<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g, but greater efforts are required<br />
before synergy is established<br />
and positive common goals<br />
for safeguard<strong>in</strong>g the natural, cultural<br />
and spiritual values are atta<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
7. In spite <strong>of</strong> some positive trends,<br />
threats aga<strong>in</strong>st SNSs appear to be<br />
276
grow<strong>in</strong>g, even with<strong>in</strong> legally declared<br />
protected areas, especially<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st those that are the most<br />
modest and natural, because <strong>of</strong><br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g land use patterns, expand<strong>in</strong>g<br />
urbanisation and <strong>in</strong>sensitive<br />
development <strong>in</strong>itiatives. Mobilis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational public op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
may help <strong>in</strong> avert<strong>in</strong>g such threats<br />
and the Delos Initiative is requested<br />
to play a role <strong>in</strong> this process.<br />
8. Tourist and visitor pressures on<br />
SNSs may <strong>of</strong>ten be a threat, caus<strong>in</strong>g<br />
physical and spiritual degradation.<br />
Public use, when acceptable,<br />
needs to be addressed through appropriate<br />
visitor management<br />
measures and greatly improved<br />
public awareness.<br />
9. SNSs should be <strong>in</strong>ventoried to<br />
avoid damage and irreversible losses<br />
<strong>of</strong> cultural, spiritual and natural<br />
heritage and to be <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
national plann<strong>in</strong>g and legislation.<br />
<strong>The</strong> process <strong>of</strong> the National Inventory<br />
<strong>of</strong> Estonia is a good example.<br />
Those that are private must also be<br />
protected, regulat<strong>in</strong>g public access<br />
to the sites and to the databases<br />
and other relevant <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
10. Effective conservation <strong>of</strong> SNSs requires<br />
the active and <strong>in</strong>formed participation<br />
<strong>of</strong> all stakeholders <strong>in</strong> systematic<br />
efforts to reach consensus on<br />
objectives and required measures.<br />
11. <strong>The</strong> first assessment on the relevance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the 2008 <strong>IUCN</strong>-UNESCO<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Natural Sites (which focus on <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
SNSs) clearly showed the<br />
need to develop<strong>in</strong>g additional<br />
guidel<strong>in</strong>es for SNSs related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream<br />
religions.<br />
12. Networks <strong>of</strong> SNSs <strong>in</strong> particular regions<br />
must be recognised and<br />
strengthened, or re-established<br />
where feasible. In this sense, an important<br />
role may be played by the<br />
pilgrimage trails or paths, which<br />
may be enhanced when they also<br />
provide landscape l<strong>in</strong>kages, like<br />
the Way <strong>of</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t James (Spa<strong>in</strong> and<br />
France) or Via Lauretana (Italy) and<br />
many others <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
13. Studies conducted by Metsähallitus<br />
showed that most visitors to protected<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land are attracted to<br />
them not to view or observe species,<br />
habitats or landscapes, but to have<br />
a personal experience <strong>of</strong> peace,<br />
harmony, grandeur... <strong>in</strong> Nature,<br />
which shows that, even <strong>in</strong> some<br />
highly secularised countries <strong>of</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
the immaterial values <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
have the priority for society at large.<br />
<strong>The</strong> participants expressed their pr<strong>of</strong>ound<br />
gratitude to the F<strong>in</strong>nish Saami<br />
Parliament and to the Natural Heritage<br />
Services <strong>of</strong> Metsähallitus for host<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Workshop <strong>in</strong> Inari, with the support<br />
<strong>of</strong> the M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Environment and the<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong> Committee <strong>of</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, and contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the Delos co-ord<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
to the organisation <strong>of</strong> the workshop.<br />
Inari, F<strong>in</strong>land, 3 July 2010<br />
277
Complementary po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
In addition to the po<strong>in</strong>ts captured <strong>in</strong><br />
the Statement, other pert<strong>in</strong>ent po<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
were discussed and they are worth<br />
add<strong>in</strong>g to the conclusions <strong>of</strong> the meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
complement<strong>in</strong>g the Statement<br />
above.<br />
<strong>The</strong>oretical issues<br />
<strong>The</strong> workshop participants confirmed<br />
that SNSs – <strong>in</strong> their broader sense – are<br />
places, both historical and contemporary,<br />
that express the spiritual, cultural<br />
and natural diversity <strong>of</strong> life and form an<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> the cultural identity <strong>of</strong><br />
many human communities and societies<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, as elsewhere.<br />
Thus, the message <strong>of</strong> religious traditions<br />
and wisdom that foster a deep,<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gful, and last<strong>in</strong>g bond with nature<br />
and carry out respectful practices<br />
on nature conservation and susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
environmental management must be<br />
understood and more widely dissem<strong>in</strong>ated.<br />
In addition, when applicable, the<br />
concepts <strong>of</strong> animal spirits, totemic species<br />
and other significant species (with<br />
their identity and symbolism) should be<br />
taken <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>in</strong> the study, plann<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and management <strong>of</strong> SNSs.<br />
It should be also noted that attitudes <strong>of</strong><br />
deep respect for nature conservation<br />
<strong>in</strong> Christianity are l<strong>in</strong>ked <strong>in</strong> many regions<br />
to the outstand<strong>in</strong>g example set<br />
up by holy people, like St Francis <strong>of</strong><br />
Assisi <strong>in</strong> Southern <strong>Europe</strong> and Middle<br />
East, St Cuthbert <strong>in</strong> England, St Patrick<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ireland, St Seraphim <strong>of</strong> Sarov <strong>in</strong> Russia,<br />
etc. <strong>The</strong> attempts to formulate a<br />
nature conservation theology – such as<br />
those from Celtic Christianity, based on<br />
the example <strong>of</strong> Celtic nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts, for<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance <strong>in</strong> the Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne<br />
– are very important.<br />
On the other hand, significant differences<br />
exist with<strong>in</strong> religions or with<br />
SNSs <strong>of</strong> previous religions and spiritual<br />
traditions, as well as their practices <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to the environment and nature<br />
conservation. <strong>The</strong>se can be seen as<br />
opportunities for develop<strong>in</strong>g more effective<br />
approaches for conserv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
threatened SNS. Additionally, the reconciliation<br />
between faiths and religions<br />
that have been <strong>in</strong> conflict is <strong>of</strong> utmost<br />
importance, especially <strong>in</strong> SNSs where<br />
there has been conflicts among different<br />
religions or spiritual traditions.<br />
It should be also noted that there is difficulty<br />
<strong>in</strong> dist<strong>in</strong>guish<strong>in</strong>g between cultural<br />
and spiritual aspects <strong>of</strong> natural sites,<br />
as they <strong>of</strong>ten coexist. Often, cultural<br />
aspects are easier to identify, while<br />
spiritual ones are more elusive. Thus,<br />
the Sámi people are more comfortable<br />
<strong>in</strong> speak<strong>in</strong>g about their cultural traditions<br />
than about their beliefs.<br />
Role and conservation <strong>of</strong> sacred<br />
natural sites<br />
Recognition <strong>of</strong> SNS may help <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
up a wider constituency for nature<br />
conservation and fill<strong>in</strong>g gaps <strong>in</strong> protected<br />
area systems. Protected areas,<br />
SNSs and other well-conserved natural<br />
features and landscapes contribute to<br />
human wellbe<strong>in</strong>g, mental and physical<br />
health, by provid<strong>in</strong>g serene and beautiful<br />
places where people can slow<br />
down, and experience peace, harmo-<br />
278
ny, beauty and the <strong>in</strong>terconnectedness<br />
with the <strong>in</strong>tangible or spiritual dimensions<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nature.<br />
Hermitages and hermit doma<strong>in</strong>s are <strong>in</strong><br />
need, hence <strong>in</strong> synergy, <strong>of</strong> strictly protected<br />
areas, with very limited public<br />
use. <strong>The</strong>y are endangered and threatened<br />
<strong>in</strong> many countries, despite the<br />
fact that hermits can be seen as prototypes<br />
<strong>of</strong> human be<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> harmony with<br />
nature. Promot<strong>in</strong>g the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the concept <strong>of</strong> hermit reserves is,<br />
therefore, fully justified. In the contemporary<br />
context, wilderness areas provide<br />
opportunities for solitude and<br />
spiritual concentration.<br />
Special attention should be paid to<br />
and significant support shall be <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
equally to those SNSs <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
people that have already been<br />
recognised as such, as well as to<br />
those that are not yet known as sacred<br />
natural sites.<br />
Implementation and operational<br />
aspects<br />
SNS should be understood not just as<br />
static entities, rooted <strong>in</strong> the past, but<br />
also as be<strong>in</strong>g dynamic and evolv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with chang<strong>in</strong>g human needs. Thus, the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong> categories <strong>of</strong> SNSs<br />
could be identified:<br />
• Recognised SNSs that are already<br />
celebrated and protected.<br />
• Revitalised SNSs where historical<br />
recognition has lapsed, but is be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
regenerated.<br />
• New SNSs, where there has been little<br />
or no traditional recognition related<br />
to acknowledged spiritual signs.<br />
• Ancient SNSs that may not have any<br />
religious significance for contemporary<br />
society, may foster, though, attitudes<br />
<strong>of</strong> respect based on its past<br />
character and significance.<br />
SNSs should be <strong>in</strong>ventoried <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
avoid <strong>in</strong>voluntary damage to them and<br />
irreversible losses <strong>of</strong> cultural, spiritual<br />
and natural heritage. However, some<br />
SNSs are widely known, while others<br />
are private and only recognised by a<br />
limited number <strong>of</strong> people. In order to<br />
respect their privacy and to take <strong>in</strong>to<br />
account the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> the spiritual<br />
values and the risks <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> publicis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vulnerable or fragile SNSs, special<br />
attention should be paid to the appropriate<br />
level <strong>of</strong> public access to the<br />
databases and other <strong>in</strong>formation on<br />
SNSs. This approach is analogous to<br />
that followed for areas vital for critically<br />
endangered species.<br />
In parallel, there is a need to develop<br />
tools and techniques to communicate<br />
and <strong>in</strong>terpret the spiritual, holy or sacred<br />
dimension <strong>of</strong> protected areas to<br />
the visitors and the public at large. In<br />
this respect, traditional local songs,<br />
arts, crafts, and other means <strong>of</strong> expression<br />
should be used as the preferred<br />
tools to convey the spiritual and <strong>in</strong>tangible<br />
values <strong>of</strong> Nature to the visitors <strong>of</strong><br />
protected areas, especially <strong>in</strong> the visitor<br />
centres. In addition, <strong>in</strong>tangible values<br />
and the arts can be an equally effective<br />
tool <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpretation and communication<br />
activities, while <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g local <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
<strong>in</strong> conservation actions.<br />
Further, SNSs and other sites with special<br />
spiritual and cultural value should<br />
279
e <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the national legislation.<br />
When necessary, public access,<br />
construction and other potentially<br />
harmful activities should be limited,<br />
both <strong>in</strong>side and around SNSs, to ensure<br />
the values <strong>of</strong> the sites. Spiritual<br />
values should also be legally recognised<br />
as complementary arguments<br />
for establish<strong>in</strong>g new protected areas,<br />
or enlarg<strong>in</strong>g the exist<strong>in</strong>g ones.<br />
<strong>The</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an and <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
dimension<br />
Transboundary, regional and sub-regional<br />
cooperation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>, such as<br />
the Barents Euro-Arctic Region and the<br />
Carpathian region, is very important<br />
and should be encouraged when promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
synergies between the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> natural heritage and spiritual<br />
heritage. Thus, the Delos Initiative<br />
could explore, whether other <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
<strong>in</strong>struments (such as the Habitat<br />
Contact Forum, the Barents Region Protected<br />
Areas Network and the Carpathian<br />
Network <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas) could<br />
make contributions to the SNSs and to<br />
the <strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> the general spiritual values<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nature to nature conservation<br />
strategies, plans and programmes.<br />
Further, the significance <strong>of</strong> the United<br />
Nations Declaration on the Rights <strong>of</strong><br />
Indigenous Peoples (UN DRIP), as well<br />
as the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>of</strong> Free, Prior and Informed<br />
Consent and Indigenous Peoples<br />
(FPIC) were considered <strong>of</strong> particular<br />
importance <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g effectively<br />
and sensitively with SNSs.<br />
<strong>The</strong> way forward<br />
<strong>The</strong> 2008 UNESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
for Managers on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites<br />
(which focus on <strong>in</strong>digenous SNSs)<br />
were considered a document <strong>of</strong> great<br />
value. A first assessment <strong>of</strong> its relevance<br />
performed dur<strong>in</strong>g the workshop,<br />
however, showed that between 20-50<br />
per cent <strong>of</strong> the exist<strong>in</strong>g guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
would need to be modified either <strong>in</strong><br />
concept or <strong>in</strong> language to be fully useful<br />
and applicable to SNSs related to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions. This result justifies<br />
the Delos Initiative goal <strong>of</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
additional guidel<strong>in</strong>es for SNSs<br />
related to ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions with<strong>in</strong><br />
the next few years.<br />
It was also recommended that the Delos<br />
Initiative br<strong>in</strong>g to the attention <strong>of</strong><br />
the International community, and particularly<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Convention on Biological<br />
<strong>Diversity</strong> (CBD), the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
• A concern that the important contributions<br />
<strong>of</strong> SNSs, sacred landscapes<br />
and waters <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous peoples<br />
and local communities to the objectives<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Convention are <strong>in</strong> danger<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the threats represented<br />
by ignor<strong>in</strong>g the role they play as protected<br />
areas, the unsound developments<br />
and the lack <strong>of</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong><br />
the rights <strong>of</strong> their custodians to decide<br />
on the present and future management<br />
<strong>of</strong> such sites.<br />
• Documentation that demonstrates<br />
the important contributions that sacred<br />
or holy natural sites, created<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by religious communities,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g monastic communities<br />
and other groups <strong>of</strong> believers <strong>of</strong><br />
280
the world, make to the conservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> biodiversity and to the long-term<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance <strong>of</strong> ecosystems that provide<br />
many benefits to communities,<br />
peoples and countries.<br />
• A recommendation that measures to<br />
value and protect SNSs <strong>of</strong> all peoples<br />
and communities should be<br />
adopted by the CBD Parties at a national<br />
and <strong>in</strong>ternational level, with<br />
due respect to the traditional governance<br />
systems that have taken care <strong>of</strong><br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed such sites for centuries<br />
or millennia, and with due and<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gful <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>of</strong> their custodians<br />
at all relevant levels.<br />
• A request to the Parties <strong>of</strong> the CBD<br />
and other stakeholders <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
the implementation <strong>of</strong> the Convention<br />
to work together with religious organisations<br />
and the traditional custodians<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacred sites to support the improvement<br />
<strong>of</strong> tools and approaches,<br />
as well as appropriate policy frameworks,<br />
to enhance the resilience <strong>of</strong><br />
SNSs <strong>in</strong> the face <strong>of</strong> global changes<br />
that br<strong>in</strong>g new and unprecedented<br />
challenges to their present and future<br />
conservation, which <strong>in</strong>cludes ma<strong>in</strong>tenance,<br />
restoration, preservation and<br />
protection (accord<strong>in</strong>g to the 1980<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong>-PNUMA def<strong>in</strong>ition).<br />
This was not possible at the 10th Conference<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Convention on Biological<br />
<strong>Diversity</strong> held <strong>in</strong> Nagoya, Japan, <strong>in</strong><br />
October 2010. However, the mandate<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative rema<strong>in</strong>s valid for<br />
other related <strong>in</strong>ternational meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><br />
the near future, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>IUCN</strong><br />
Congress <strong>in</strong> Busan (<strong>of</strong> the Island <strong>of</strong><br />
Jeju, Republic <strong>of</strong> Korea) <strong>in</strong> 2012.<br />
Participants <strong>of</strong> the Workshop at the open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a cave on Ukonsaari Island.<br />
281
Delos 3 Workshop<br />
<strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
1 to July 3, 2010 at Inari, Lapland, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
1.7. Thursday<br />
Venue: Auditorium <strong>of</strong> Siida, <strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum and Nature Centre<br />
09.00-10.00 Open<strong>in</strong>g Session<br />
Chair: Thymio Papayannis<br />
09.00-09.20 Open<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Workshop Rauno Väisänen,<br />
Director, Natural Heritage Services<br />
09.20-09.40 Welcom<strong>in</strong>g Words Tarmo Jomppanen,<br />
Museum Director, Sámi Museum<br />
09.40-10.00 Greet<strong>in</strong>gs from the Sámi Parliament Klemetti Näkkäläjärvi,<br />
President <strong>of</strong> the Sámi Parliament<br />
10.30-12.30 Session 2: <strong>The</strong> Sámi People and <strong>The</strong>ir Relation to Nature<br />
Chair: Rauno Väisänen<br />
10.30-11.45 Sámi Faith and Nature Concept Jelena Porsanger,<br />
Assoc. Pr<strong>of</strong>essor, Sámi University<br />
College<br />
11.45-12.30 <strong>Sacred</strong> Places <strong>in</strong> Sámi Culture Ti<strong>in</strong>a Äikäs,<br />
Reseacher, University <strong>of</strong> Oulu<br />
13.30-15.30 Session 3: Indigenous <strong>Sacred</strong> <strong>Lands</strong><br />
Chair: Matti Määttä<br />
13.30-14.30 Maavalla Koda, the National Strategy Ahto Kaasik<br />
for SNS Protection and the <strong>Sacred</strong><br />
Hill <strong>of</strong> Hiiemägi, Estonia<br />
14.00-14.30 Žemaitija National Park and the Vyk<strong>in</strong>tas Vaitkevič ius<br />
Ancient <strong>Sacred</strong> Places <strong>of</strong> Mikytai,<br />
Lithuania<br />
14.30-15.00 Mayo <strong>Lands</strong> and Communities,<br />
Mexico<br />
Bas Verschuuren<br />
16.00-17.30 Tour <strong>of</strong> the Sámi Museum and Nature<br />
Centre<br />
282
2.7. Friday<br />
09.00-10.30 Session 4: M<strong>in</strong>ority Faiths <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong>an Countries and Safeguard<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>The</strong>ir Natural and Spiritual Heritage<br />
Chair: Gonzalo Oviedo<br />
09.00-09.30 Alevi-Bektasi Communities <strong>in</strong> Eastern Ir<strong>in</strong>i Lyratzaki<br />
<strong>Europe</strong>: their Natural and Spiritual<br />
Heritage<br />
09.30-10.00 Uvac- Milesevka Special Nature Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac<br />
Reserve and Mileseva Monastery,<br />
Serbia<br />
10.00-10.30 Zilais kalns - Blue Hill <strong>in</strong> Latvia Juris Urtā ns<br />
11.00-12.30 Session 5: Manag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>of</strong> Ma<strong>in</strong>stream Religions<br />
Chair: Bas Verschuuren<br />
11.00-11.30 <strong>Sacred</strong> Sites <strong>of</strong> Majella National Park,<br />
Italy<br />
Vita de Waal<br />
11.30-12.00 L<strong>in</strong>disfarne Holy Island, UK Rob Wild<br />
12.00-12.30 Wetland <strong>of</strong> Colfioritto, a RAMSAR Site<br />
Connected with Via Laurettana, Italy<br />
Chiara Serenelli<br />
13.30-15.00 Session 6: Manag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>of</strong> Monastic Communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
Chair: Vita de Waal<br />
13.30-14.00 Mt Athos (N. Greece): Towards an Thymio Papayannis<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegrated approach<br />
14.00-14.30 New Trends on the Management <strong>of</strong> Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Monastic <strong>Lands</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and Middle<br />
East<br />
16.30 Boat to Ukonsaari (Delos Montserrat case study), an Island with Old Burial<br />
Site<br />
Boat to Pielpavuono and a Tour <strong>of</strong> Pielpajärvi Wilderness Church<br />
Tour Guide Eija Ojanlatva<br />
283
3.7. Saturday<br />
Venue: Auditorium <strong>of</strong> Siida, <strong>The</strong> Sámi Museum and Nature Centre<br />
09.00-10.30 Session 7: <strong>The</strong> <strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong><br />
Chair: Rob Wild<br />
09.00-09.30 <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites <strong>in</strong> the Carpathian Sebastian Catanoiu<br />
Mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
09.30-10.00 <strong>The</strong> Recovery <strong>of</strong> <strong>Sacred</strong> Sites <strong>in</strong><br />
Scotland<br />
Alastair McIntosh<br />
10.00-10.30 Synergies between Spiritual<br />
and Natural Heritage for Habitat<br />
Conservation <strong>in</strong> the North<br />
Alexander Davydov<br />
11.00-13.00 Session 8: Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the UNESCO-<strong>IUCN</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Managers <strong>of</strong><br />
Protected Areas on <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural Sites<br />
Chair: Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
11.00-11.30 Evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the Applicability <strong>of</strong> the Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on SNS: Identification <strong>of</strong><br />
Topics and Issues<br />
11.30-13.00 Parallel Work<strong>in</strong>g Groups<br />
14.00-16.00 Clos<strong>in</strong>g Session 9<br />
14.00-15.00 Presentations <strong>of</strong> the Three Work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Groups. Discussion and Conclusions<br />
15.00-16.00 Workshop Conclusions and the Inari<br />
Statement<br />
Chair: Thymio Papayannis<br />
16.00-16.30 Recent Developments <strong>of</strong> the <strong>IUCN</strong> Rob Wild<br />
WCPA Specialist Group on Cultural<br />
and Spiritual Values <strong>of</strong> Protected Areas<br />
(CSVPA)<br />
19.30 D<strong>in</strong>ner at Hotel Inar<strong>in</strong> Kultahovi <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Cultural Programme<br />
284
Appendices<br />
Appendix I: Workshop<br />
participants and authors<br />
Sebastian Catanoiu<br />
Park Manager<br />
National Forest<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istration-Romsilva<br />
Vanatori Neamt Nature Park<br />
Adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
str. Zimbrului nr.2, Vanatori-Neamt,<br />
jud. Neamt, 617500, Romania<br />
Alexander N. Davydov<br />
Head <strong>of</strong> the Laboratory <strong>of</strong> Protected<br />
Areas and Ecology <strong>of</strong> Culture,<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Ecological Problems <strong>of</strong> the<br />
North,<br />
Ural Branch <strong>of</strong> the Russian Academy<br />
<strong>of</strong> Sciences<br />
23, nab. Severnoy Dv<strong>in</strong>y<br />
163061 Archangelsk, Russia<br />
Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac<br />
Freelance Photographer<br />
Bilecka 35<br />
11000 Belgrade, Serbia<br />
Arja Jomppanen (née Hartika<strong>in</strong>en)<br />
Head Curator<br />
SIIDA - National Museum <strong>of</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
Sámi<br />
Inar<strong>in</strong>tie 46<br />
99870 Inari, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Tarmo Jomppanen<br />
Museum Director<br />
SIIDA - National Museum <strong>of</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
Sámi<br />
Inar<strong>in</strong>tie 46<br />
99870 Inari, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Ahto Kaasik<br />
Elder<br />
Estonian House <strong>of</strong> Taara and Native<br />
Religions<br />
Pepleri 5-17<br />
51003 Tartu, Estonia<br />
Ir<strong>in</strong>i Lyratzaki<br />
Social Anthropologist<br />
Med-INA Secretariat<br />
23, Voukourestiou Str.<br />
106 71 Athens, Greece<br />
Alastair McIntosh<br />
Fellow <strong>of</strong> the Centre for Human<br />
Ecology<br />
Visit<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Human Ecology,<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Strathclyde<br />
25 Luss Road<br />
Glasgow G51 3YD, United K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
Josep Maria Mallarach<br />
Environmental consultant<br />
Silene Association<br />
P.O. Box 148<br />
17800 Olot, Catalonia, Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
285
Matti Määttä<br />
Development Director<br />
Metsähallitus, Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
Aksel<strong>in</strong>katu 8<br />
57170 Savonl<strong>in</strong>na, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Liisa Nikula<br />
Senior Advisor, International<br />
Cooperation<br />
Metsähallitus, Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
P.O. Box 94<br />
01301 Vantaa, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Yrjö Norokorpi<br />
Area Manager, Nature Conservation<br />
Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
P.O.Box 8016<br />
96101 Rovaniemi, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Riitta Nykänen<br />
Senior Advisor<br />
Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
Syväyksenkatu 22<br />
89600 Suomussalmi, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Klemetti Näkkäläjärvi<br />
President<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish Saami Parliament<br />
Skierri<br />
Peuratie 15<br />
99400 Enontekiö, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Gonzalo Oviedo<br />
<strong>IUCN</strong> Senior Advisor, Social Policy<br />
Rue Mauvernay 28<br />
1196 Gland, Switzerland<br />
Dimitrije Pesic*<br />
Phylologist<br />
UNHCR Serbia<br />
Krunska 58<br />
11000 Belgrade, Serbia<br />
Nadezda Pesic*<br />
Environmental Activist<br />
Centre for Susta<strong>in</strong>able Development<br />
‘Kamena Gora’<br />
Matice Srpske 67 I<br />
11000 Belgrade, Serbia<br />
Thymio Papayannis<br />
Architect, planner, environmentalist<br />
Director <strong>of</strong> Med-INA (Mediterranean<br />
Institute for Nature and Anthropos)<br />
23 Voucourestiou Street<br />
10671 Athens, Greece<br />
Jelena Porsanger<br />
Rector<br />
Sámi University College<br />
Hánnomaras 45<br />
9520 Guovdageaidnu/Kautoke<strong>in</strong>o,<br />
Norway<br />
Pirjo Rautia<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Senior Advisor, Cultural Heritage<br />
Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
P.O. Box 8016<br />
96101 Rovaniemi, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Chiara Serenelli<br />
<strong>Lands</strong>cape Architect, PhD candidate<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Lands</strong>cape Plann<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Urban and Regional<br />
Plann<strong>in</strong>g, University <strong>of</strong> Florence<br />
Via Micheli, 2<br />
50121 Florence, Italy<br />
286
Pirjo Seurujärvi<br />
Park Super<strong>in</strong>tendent<br />
Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
Inar<strong>in</strong>tie<br />
99870 Inari, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Juris Urtāns<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor, Culture historian,<br />
Latvian Academy <strong>of</strong> Culture<br />
Ludzas 24<br />
LV1003 Rīga, Latvia<br />
Vyk<strong>in</strong>tas Vaitkevičius<br />
Klaipėda University,<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> Baltic Sea Region History<br />
and Archaeology<br />
Herkaus Manto street 84<br />
92294, Klaipėda, Lithuania<br />
Mikhail Verevk<strong>in</strong><br />
Research Officer<br />
St. Petersburg State University<br />
Chlop<strong>in</strong>a str. 7-3-39<br />
194021 St.Petersburg, Russia<br />
Bas Verschuuren<br />
Co-Chair , <strong>IUCN</strong> WCPA Specialist<br />
Group on Cultural and Spiritual Values<br />
<strong>of</strong> Protected Areas<br />
Coord<strong>in</strong>ator for the <strong>Sacred</strong> Natural<br />
Sites Initiative<br />
Biocultural Researcher and Consultant<br />
Bennekomseweg 164-1<br />
6704 AK, Wagen<strong>in</strong>gen, Netherlands<br />
Vita de Waal<br />
Cultural Environmentalist<br />
Work<strong>in</strong>g Group <strong>Sacred</strong> Sites and Cultural<br />
Heritage<br />
<strong>of</strong> CSVGC at UN Geneva and<br />
Foundation for Gaia<br />
7 Leighton Road<br />
Southampton, SO19 2 FS, United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
Robert Wild<br />
Specialist <strong>in</strong> Biodiversity Conservation<br />
and Communities<br />
Chair, CSVPA<br />
Amberley<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gsmuir Drive, Peebles<br />
Scottish Borders, EH45 9AA, United<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
Ti<strong>in</strong>a Äikäs<br />
Post doctoral researcher<br />
University <strong>of</strong> Oulu<br />
Archaeology<br />
P.O. Box 1000<br />
90014 University <strong>of</strong> Oulu, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
For further <strong>in</strong>formation please contact:<br />
secretariat@med-<strong>in</strong>a.org.<br />
NOTE: <strong>The</strong>se contact details were updated<br />
<strong>in</strong> December 2011. Some may<br />
have changed s<strong>in</strong>ce then.<br />
* Author, not present at the workshop.<br />
Rauno Väisänen<br />
Director<br />
Metsähallitus Natural Heritage<br />
Services<br />
P.O. Box 94<br />
01301 Vantaa, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
287
Appendix II: Photo credits by chapter<br />
All creation sighs… Humanity and borders<br />
P. 13 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Introduction to the proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the third workshop <strong>of</strong> the Delos Initiative <strong>in</strong> Inari,<br />
Lapland, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
Pp. 14, 18 and 22 Liisa Nikula<br />
Part One: <strong>The</strong> Sámi people and their relation to nature<br />
P. 24 Metsähallitus/Pasi Nivasalo<br />
Greet<strong>in</strong>gs from the Saami Parliament<br />
P. 27 Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac<br />
P. 31 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> welcome<br />
P. 32 Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac<br />
Indigenous Sámi religion: General considerations about relationships<br />
P. 36 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Archaeology <strong>of</strong> sieidi stones: Excavat<strong>in</strong>g sacred places<br />
P. 46 Anssi Mal<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Pp. 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53 and 54 Ti<strong>in</strong>a Äikäs<br />
Part Two: Ancient, <strong>in</strong>digenous and m<strong>in</strong>ority sacred natural sites<br />
P. 58 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Conserv<strong>in</strong>g sacred natural sites <strong>in</strong> Estonia<br />
Pp. 60, 62, 69 and 70 Ahto Kaasik<br />
P. 64 Heiki Maiberg<br />
Use and reuse <strong>of</strong> ancient sacred places <strong>in</strong> Mikytai, Žemaitija National Park,<br />
NW Lithuania<br />
Pp. 74, 76, 78, 79 and 80 [right] Vyk<strong>in</strong>tas Vaitkevičius<br />
P. 80 [left] A. Dubikaltienė<br />
Zilais kalns – Blue Hill <strong>in</strong> Latvia<br />
Pp. 84 and 88 Juris Urtāns<br />
P. 87 Metsähallitus/Hannu Sip<strong>in</strong>en<br />
P. 90 Metsähallitus/Ti<strong>in</strong>a Lait<strong>in</strong>en<br />
Alevi-Bektasi communities <strong>in</strong> Eastern <strong>Europe</strong>: their natural and spiritual heritage<br />
P. 94 FunkMonk: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tempulli_i_bektash<strong>in</strong>jve_ne_vlore.<br />
jpg#globalusage<br />
P. 96 commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Allah-eser2.jpg<br />
288
P. 102 Ggia: el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Αρχείο:20100328_Seyyid_Ali_Sultan_Tekke_<br />
Dervish_Lodge_Evros_8.jpg<br />
P. 103 Metsähallitus/Hannu Sip<strong>in</strong>en (from orig<strong>in</strong>al by Magnus Manske:<br />
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alevis_<strong>in</strong>_Turkey.gif<br />
Part Three: Manag<strong>in</strong>g lands <strong>of</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>stream religions<br />
P. 108 Liisa Nikula<br />
<strong>The</strong> Great Mother, the sacred mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Abruzzo: <strong>The</strong> cultural and spiritual<br />
sites <strong>of</strong> the Parco Nazionale della Majella, Italy<br />
Pp. 110, 112, 119, 120 and 121 Vita de Waal<br />
Holy Island <strong>of</strong> L<strong>in</strong>disfarne and the modern relevance <strong>of</strong> Celtic ‘nature sa<strong>in</strong>ts’<br />
P. 124 Robert Wild<br />
P. 126 Natural England.<br />
P. 128 William R. Shepherd, 1923: www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/<br />
british_isles_802.jpg<br />
P. 131 the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments <strong>of</strong> Scotland<br />
and illustrated <strong>in</strong> Fraser, 2008<br />
<strong>Lands</strong>cape l<strong>in</strong>kages between cultural and spiritual values: <strong>The</strong> wetland <strong>of</strong> Colfiorito<br />
and the Lauretana pilgrimage route <strong>in</strong> the Plestian Plateaus<br />
P. 138 Chiara Serenelli and Silvia M<strong>in</strong>ich<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Pp. 141, 142 [left] and 145 Chiara Serenelli<br />
P. 142 [right] Federica Santoni<br />
P. 151 Chiara Serenelli from various authors<br />
Part Four: Manag<strong>in</strong>g lands <strong>of</strong> monastic communities<br />
P. 154 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Monastic communities and nature conservation: Overview <strong>of</strong> positive trends and<br />
best practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>Europe</strong> and the Middle East<br />
Pp. 156, 158, 160 and 167 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
P. 170 Isabel Soria<br />
Manag<strong>in</strong>g the heritage <strong>of</strong> Mt Athos<br />
Pp. 174, 177, 180, 182 and 185 Thymio Papayannis<br />
P. 176 Metsähallitus/Hannu Sip<strong>in</strong>en (from orig<strong>in</strong>al by Holger Behr)<br />
Special Nature Reserve Milesevka and the Mileseva Monastery<br />
P. 188 Dragan Bosnic<br />
P. 190 Fadil Sarki<br />
P. 191 the Institute for Nature Protection <strong>of</strong> Serbia<br />
P. 192 Svetlana D<strong>in</strong>garac<br />
P. 194 by Branislav Bozovic<br />
289
Part Five: <strong>Europe</strong>: a wealth <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites<br />
P. 202 Liisa Nikula<br />
<strong>Diversity</strong> <strong>of</strong> sacred lands and mean<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Northern <strong>Europe</strong>:<br />
Challenges for the managers <strong>of</strong> protected areas<br />
P. 204 Mikael H<strong>in</strong>tze/Metsähallitus<br />
P. 207 F<strong>in</strong>land’s National Board <strong>of</strong> Antiquities<br />
Pp. 208 and 210 Jari Kostet/Metsähallitus<br />
Pp. 213 and 214 Liisa Nikula<br />
<strong>The</strong> Carpathian Mounta<strong>in</strong>s, a realm <strong>of</strong> sacred natural sites<br />
P. 216 and 224 Sebastian Catanoiu<br />
P. 218 Carpathian Ecoregion Project <strong>of</strong> WWF’s 2012 Protected Areas Programme<br />
P. 220 Basarab Birladeanu<br />
P. 227 Marian Jiplea<br />
<strong>The</strong> ‘sacredness’ <strong>of</strong> natural sites and their recovery: Iona, Harris and Govan <strong>in</strong><br />
Scotland<br />
P. 231 Liisa Nikula<br />
P. 237 Metsähallitus/Hannu Sip<strong>in</strong>en (from orig<strong>in</strong>al by author)<br />
P. 238 Ewan Mathers<br />
Pp. 239 and 241 Alastair McIntosh<br />
P. 239 Nick Mayhew Smith<br />
P. 240 www.GalGael.org<br />
P. 240 Andy Bowman<br />
Synergies between spiritual and natural heritage for habitat conservation<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Barents Euro-Arctic Region<br />
P. 244 Alexander Davydov<br />
P. 247 Habitat Contact Forum<br />
P. 249 Knut Helskog<br />
P. 252 Habitat Contact Forum<br />
Part Six: Other related issues<br />
P. 258 Josep-Maria Mallarach<br />
Conclusions and the Inari Statement<br />
P. 281 Liisa Nikula<br />
NB. <strong>The</strong> authors <strong>of</strong> the articles <strong>in</strong> this publication are responsible for the<br />
acquirement <strong>of</strong> the right to reproduce the images.<br />
290
<strong>The</strong> ecological footpr<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> the Delos<br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
Environmental concerns were a top priority dur<strong>in</strong>g the production <strong>of</strong> the Delos Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
At every stage <strong>of</strong> the production, the most ecological materials and<br />
methods appropriate for the publication were selected. Nevertheless, the publication<br />
left its pr<strong>in</strong>t on the environment, as mak<strong>in</strong>g it required energy and raw materials<br />
and produced waste and emissions.<br />
No. <strong>of</strong> pages:<br />
292 pages plus covers<br />
Dimensions: A5, 148 x 210 mm.<br />
Only 10% <strong>of</strong> the surface area <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g sheets was wasted as shear<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Copies:<br />
1000 copies<br />
Paper and chemicals<br />
<strong>The</strong> paper chosen is Galerie Art Silk which is certificated by the FSC and approved<br />
for the Nordic Ecolabel. <strong>The</strong> timber used for produc<strong>in</strong>g the paper was<br />
sourced from susta<strong>in</strong>ably managed forests. No chlor<strong>in</strong>e gas was used to bleach<br />
the paper. <strong>The</strong> paper factory is certificated accord<strong>in</strong>g to the ISO 14001, PEFC and<br />
FSC standards.<br />
Only chemicals approved for the Nordic Ecolabel were used <strong>in</strong> paper production,<br />
prepress, pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g and b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> publication was pr<strong>in</strong>ted with vegetable oil<br />
based <strong>in</strong>ks.<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g house<br />
<strong>The</strong> publication was pr<strong>in</strong>ted at Edita Prima, Hels<strong>in</strong>ki, F<strong>in</strong>land. <strong>The</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g house<br />
uses green electricity. It is ISO 14001 certificated and entitled to use the Nordic<br />
Ecolabel as well as the FSC and PEFC <strong>in</strong>dications <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>. <strong>The</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g house<br />
compensates its carbon dioxide emissions by fund<strong>in</strong>g United Nations renewable<br />
energy projects <strong>in</strong> India.<br />
To make one copy <strong>of</strong> the publication, the follow<strong>in</strong>g was used:<br />
Wood:<br />
Water:<br />
0.8 dm3<br />
5 litres<br />
Energy: 3.2 kWh<br />
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To make one copy <strong>of</strong> the publication, the follow<strong>in</strong>g was generated:<br />
Waste: 620 g, <strong>of</strong> which recyclable waste 600 g (540 g paper, 55 g alum<strong>in</strong>ium, 5 g<br />
cardboard), combustible waste 10 g and hazardous waste 10 g<br />
Carbon footpr<strong>in</strong>t: carbon-dioxide emissions to air 690 g, <strong>of</strong> which paper manufactur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
390 g, other materials 130 g and pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g 170 g. <strong>The</strong> total amount equals<br />
to the emissions generated by driv<strong>in</strong>g a car for about 4 km. (<strong>The</strong> calculations do<br />
not cover transportations from pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g house to customers.)<br />
Content<br />
However, it is the content <strong>of</strong> a publication that potentially has the greatest environmental<br />
impact. If a publication <strong>in</strong>spires its readers to recycle more <strong>of</strong> their waste,<br />
drive less, lower the temperature <strong>in</strong> their homes, switch to green power or design<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ted products that are more susta<strong>in</strong>able, its environmental impact can be considered<br />
positive.<br />
Dear reader, please recycle the publication, when you no longer need it. Wood fibre<br />
can be reused roughly six times.<br />
Research for the ecological footpr<strong>in</strong>t was carried out by Mika Ruuskanen, Manager<br />
for the Nordic Green Edita Programme.<br />
Further <strong>in</strong>formation: mika.ruuskanen(at)edita.fi<br />
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International Union<br />
for Conservation <strong>of</strong> Nature<br />
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