Pregnancy and Employment: A Literature Review - Crisis Pregnancy ...

Pregnancy and Employment: A Literature Review
work and prolonged standing was significantly associated with hypertension or pre-eclampsia (see Chapter 2). In
addition to the immediate effects of discrimination, women who experience poor treatment during pregnancy
are less likely to return to employment following childbirth, which has further long-term consequences for their
economic position.
Workplace experiences may also be particularly important for women experiencing crisis pregnancy. A supportive
environment and flexible working arrangements are crucial for those who are parenting alone and those who
may have additional demands which arise for personal, family or health reasons. The work environment may also
influence whether or not a pregnancy is perceived as a crisis. Discrimination against women during pregnancy –
and particularly pregnancy-related job loss – can precipitate a crisis for the woman involved. In contrast, where
organisational culture and practices are family-friendly, women may be less likely to view pregnancy as a crisis that
affects their job or career plans.
The way in which women are reintegrated into employment following any interruption for childcare is important
for gender equality in the labour market and for equality on the grounds of family status. The duration of time
spent out of the labour market around childbirth is shown, through a wide range of studies, to influence women’s
probability of experiencing downward occupational mobility and pay penalties. However, the deterioration in
conditions experienced by women is moderated by institutional factors such as access to employment protection
afforded by maternity and parental-leave legislation. These arrangements differ markedly across societies, and in
countries such as Australia and the US are far from universal. Even in Ireland and the UK, there are women who
are not guaranteed the right to return to their previous employment, such as those on fixed-term contracts that
have ended. The literature suggests that women in more privileged positions prior to childbirth, for example those
with higher educational qualifications or in higher occupational classes, are more likely to return to employment
within a relatively short period of giving birth (‘within one year’ being a common measure used in the studies). This
means that their employment relationship is preserved and the risk of deterioration in occupation or pay levels
is minimised. These results have led some authors, particularly those in the UK, to suggest that childbirth has a
polarising effect on women from different class backgrounds.
The positive impact of family-friendly policies on women’s probability of returning to their previous employment is
also highlighted in the research. Employers with flexible work arrangements were found to treat their employees
better during their pregnancies; women in these workplaces were less likely to report unfavourable treatment.
These results suggest that these policies are another avenue through which levels of pregnancy-related
discrimination in the workplace might be reduced. Moreover the international evidence suggests that availability
of part-time employment opportunities with the current employer, or a statutory entitlement to work part-time
after childbirth (as is the case in the Netherlands) can significantly reduce the likelihood of downward occupational
mobility and/or the pay penalty involved in reducing working hours.
The review has highlighted a number of significant gaps in Irish research. While to date, there has been no national
survey of women’s experiences of employment during pregnancy, this gap will be filled by Pregnancy at Work:
A National Survey, commissioned by the Crisis Pregnancy Programme and the Equality Authority as part of this
research project. This will provide invaluable information on women’s treatment during pregnancy, their access to
maternity and parental leave, and their working conditions (including wages) before and after pregnancy.
Research on the effects of childbirth on Irish women’s subsequent re-entry to employment has also been limited.
Studies carried out to date have had to rely on the Living in Ireland Panel survey, but the overall number of births
occurring over the period of the panel is relatively small, and thus does not allow disaggregation across different
groups of women, such as comparisons of effects for low-skilled and high-skilled women. Pregnancy at Work: A
National Survey will allow more detailed analyses of women’s patterns and timings of return to work following
childbirth. The data will also allow comparisons of pregnancy and post-pregnancy employment conditions to test
for any short-term losses in status or salary and how this might vary across different groups of women.
A further gap identified in the literature is Irish employers’ perceptions and experiences of pregnancy in the
workplace, of maternity and paternity provision, of the reintegration of women into employment, and their
perception of mothers (and fathers) as workers. Future research in this area could highlight problems in the
implementation of legislation and regulations among employers. It could also further contribute to understanding
the mechanisms behind unfair treatment and unequal outcomes in the workplace.
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