Lateral Spreading of Soft Soils - WisDOT Research

Lateral Spreading of Soft Soils 

Prepared for 

WHRP Geotechnics 

Technical Oversight Committee 

Prepared by 

CTC & Associates LLC 

WisDOT Research & Library Unit 

November 4, 2010 

Transportation Literature Searches are prepared for WisDOT staff and investigators to identify completed research 

and other authoritative information in an area of interest. The citations below are representative, rather than 

exhaustive, of available English-language studies and other pertinent information on the topic. Primary online 

resources for the literature searches are OCLC’s WorldCat and TLCat, U.S. DOT’s TRIS Online, the National 

Transportation Library (NTL), TRB’s Research in Progress (RiP) database, and other academic, engineering and 

scientific databases as appropriate. 

To request a literature search, contact the WisDOT Library at library@dot.wi.gov or (608) 264-8142, or WisDOT 

Research at research@dot.wi.gov or (608) 267-6977. 

Keywords: highway, pavement, highway embankment, soft soil, lateral spreading, compaction, deformation, 

inclinometer, model, field test 

Summary 

We cited 10 references related to the lateral spreading of soft soils compacted in highway applications. The citations 

were published between 2010 and 1994 and include seven references from conference proceedings and journals, two 

technical reports and one book chapter. 

Citations 

Links to online copies of cited literature are provided when available. Contact the WisDOT Library to obtain hard 

copies of citations. 

Title: Increased Lateral Abutment Resistance from Gravel Backfills of Limited Width 

Author(s): Rollins, Kyle M; Gerber, Travis M.; Kwon, Ku Hyun 

Year: 2010 

Source/URL: Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Volume 136, Issue 1, pages 230-238; 

http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000195 

Description: 9 pages 

Contents: Lateral pile cap tests were performed on a pile cap with three backfills to evaluate the static and dynamic 

behavior. One backfill consisted of loose silty sand while the other two consisted of 0.91- and 1.82-m-wide dense 

gravel zones between the pile cap and the loose silty sand. The 0.91- and 1.82-m-wide dense gravel zones increased 

the lateral resistance by 75 to 150% and 150 to 225%, respectively, relative to the loose silty sand backfill. Despite 

being thin relative to the overall shear length, the 0.92- and 1.82-m-wide gravel zones increase lateral resistance to 

approximately 54 and 78%, respectively, of the resistance that would be provided by a backfill entirely composed of 

dense gravel. The dynamic stiffness for the pile cap with the gravel zones decreased about 10% after 15 cycles of 

loading, while the damping ratio remained relatively constant with cycling. Dynamic stiffness increased by about 10 

to 40% at higher deflections, while the damping ratio decreased from an initial value of about 0.30 to around 0.26 at 

higher deflections.

Title: A Framework for 3D Nonlinear Ground-Foundation Analysis 

Author(s): Lu, Jinchi; Elgamal, Ahmed; Shantz, Thomas 

Year: 2009 

Source/URL: 2009 GeoHunan International Conference, pages 189-196; http://tris.trb.org/view.aspx?id=900844 


Contents: Three-dimensional nonlinear finite element simulations are becoming increasingly feasible for 

transportation geotechnical applications. This paper presents a robust and versatile framework that helps streamline 

the use of finite elements for seismic response of soil-structure systems. In this regard, a Windows-based graphicaluser-interface 

OpenSeesPL is developed for pile-ground interaction analysis. Particularly suited to seismic 

applications, the open-source computational platform OpenSees is employed throughout. OpenSeesPL allows 

convenient studies of three-dimensional seismic (earthquake) and/or push-over pile analyses. Various ground 

modification scenarios may be also addressed by appropriate specifications of the material within the pile zone. To 

illustrate the capabilities of OpenSeesPL, two studies are presented in this paper. Lateral spreading effects on pile 

foundations are modeled, followed by an investigation of ground remediation in a mildly sloping silt stratum. Along 

with the insights gained from these studies, the reported effort aims to highlight the analysis framework capabilities 

and range of potential applications. 

Title: Geogrid-Reinforced Roadway Embankment on Soft Soils: A Case Study 

Author(s): Vega-Meyer, Reinaldo; Garrido, Roberto Sosa; Piedrabuena, Alberto Ramírez; Larios, Ignacio Narezo; 

Lapuente, Ramón Pico 

Year: 2007 

Source/URL: Soft Soil Engineering: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Soft Soil Engineering, 

pages 129-138; http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/9781439833926.pt2 


Contents: Building earth structures on soft soils is one of the toughest challenges in civil engineering. Due to the fill 

embankment and surcharges, the settlements associated to the overburden pressures are one of the major concerns in 

roadway embankment construction. Several methods of support improvement have been in practice for years (e.g. 

excavation/fill replacement, stone filling, Corduroy, etc.), but recently, geosynthetic reinforcement has been 

successfully incorporated as an efficient way to improve the weak soil conditions. This paper focuses on a case 

study that introduces a geogrid-reinforced roadway embankment located in the Texcoco Lake, near Mexico City, 

Mexico. The structure consists of an embankment with variable heights to be built in two different conditions: dry 

and saturated. The most critical section was in the saturated zone (lake) where the maximum embankment height 

was 2.80m and the water level was at 1.80 m, leaving only 1.0m of dry embankment body. The embankment was 

built on highly compressible saturated clay layers up to 40.0m deep, and moisture of up to 300%. The paper presents 

project design information, settlement observations, and performance evaluation. The performance of the 

embankment was observed during and after construction using inclinometers, and deep and surface surveying 

equipment. A presentation of this performance and results about the predicted vs. actual embankment settlements are 

included in the paper. 

Title: Characteristics and Engineering Properties of the Soft Soil Layer in Highway Soil Subgrades 

Author(s): Hopkins, Tommy C.; Beckham, Tony L.; Sun, Liecheng 

Year: 2006 

Source/URL: Kentucky Transportation Cabinet final report; 

http://www.ktc.uky.edu/Reports/KTC_06_13_SPR_270_03_1F.pdf 


Contents: The objective of this research was to examine the conditions and characteristics of soil subgrades that had 

been stabilized using mechanical compaction. Goals of the study are to identify and examine the engineering 

properties and behavior of the “soft layer’ of material observed at the top of untreated, highway pavement soil 

subgrades. Alternative methods of preventing, or mitigating, the development of the soft layer are discussed. 

Evidence is presented that shows that a soft layer of soil frequently develops at the top of untreated, highway soil 

subgrades. Data are presented that show strengths obtained from mechanical compaction are largely destroyed when 

untreated compacted soils are exposed to moisture. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values of compacted clayey 

soils initially are high but become small when exposed to saturation. In situ CBR values measured at the tops of 

untreated subgrades, where mechanical compaction was the only means used to stabilize the soil subgrade, were 

smaller than unsoaked and soaked laboratory Kentucky CBR values. At the 85th percentile test value, the laboratory 

KYCBR value of compacted, unsoaked clayey specimens was 11.5 while the CBR value of soaked specimens was 

3.0. For comparison, the in situ CBR value of untreated subgrades at the 85th percentile test value, as shown in this 

study, was only 2. Using a bearing capacity model, based on limit equilibrium of layered media, bearing capacity 

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analyses of flexible pavement sections were performed. The analyses show that when the in situ CBR is equal to or 

below 3, the pavement was unstable, i.e., the factor of safety against failure was 1.0 or below. However, when the in 

situ CBR value was 6, or greater, the pavement was generally stable and the factor of safety was 1.5, or greater. 

Chemical admixture stabilization of soil subgrades is the most effective means of maintaining large CBR values 

during construction and throughout the life of the pavement. In situ CBR values at the 85th percentile of tests 

performed on the tops of soil subgrades treated chemically with lime kiln dust, hydrated lime, and portland cement 

and that had been in place for 8 to 15 years were 24, 27, and 59, respectively. At the 85th percentile test value, in 

situ CBR values of chemically treated subgrades were about 12 to 30 times larger than the in situ CBR value of 2 of 

untreated subgrades. 

Title: Time-Dependent Behaviour of Soft Soils During Embankment Construction – A Numerical Study 

Author(s): Brinkgreve, R. B. J. 

Year: 2004 

Source/URL: Chapter 89 of Numerical Models in Geomechanics, pages 631-637; 

http://www.crcnetbase.com/doi/abs/10.1201/9781439833780.ch89 


Contents: In this paper the results of a numerical study are presented in which the construction of an embankment 

on soft soils is simulated using the finite element method. Three different models are compared: The Mohr-Coulomb 

model, the Modified Cam-Clay model and a creep model that is based on Modified Cam-Clay. It will be shown that 

advanced soil models will predict horizontal deformations away from the embankment (lateral spreading) during the 

consolidation phase, as generally observed in practice, whereas the simple Mohr-Coulomb model will unrealistically 

predict horizontal deformations towards the embankment (lateral confinement) due to the elastic compaction during 

consolidation. The key issue is to take sufficient irreversible shear deformation during the consolidation phase into 

account. Even after consolidation, horizontal deformations may continue to increase. This can only be predicted if 

creep effects are taken into account. It is shown in which way certain parameters in the creep model influence the 

computational results and how parameters should be selected in order to make realistic predictions. 

Title: Design of Short Aggregate Piers to Support Highway Embankments 

Author(s): White, David J.; Suleiman, Muhannad T. 

Year: 2004 

Source/URL: Transportation Research Board 83rd Annual Meeting; http://www.gfcwest.com/tech_papers/TP29.pdf 


Contents: (Excerpt from page 18 of the PDF) In addition to vertical settlements, lateral spreading of the 

embankment foundation soils should be given consideration, especially for sensitive structures such as culverts and 

utilities where lateral spreading effects can be a serious problem (8). During embankment fill placement, stress 

applied to the foundation soil can result in exceeding the preconsolidation pressure in the foundation soils. When 

this occurs, continued fill placement results in undrained shear distortion under constant effective vertical stress 

(36). Case histories show that lateral displacement (Δδ L 

) is approximately equal to the vertical settlement (Δδ V 

) for 

undrained loading conditions. For long-term drained conditions, however, lateral displacement has been observed to 

be a smaller fraction of the vertical settlement (37). Assuming: (1) aggregate pier installation renders the matrix soil 

into an overconsolidated state as described by Handy (18); (2) stress concentrates on the pier elements; and (3) piers 

act as a drainage pathway to facilitate a drained response, Equation 15 can be used as a simplified empirical solution 

to estimate lateral spreading. 

(15) 

Title: Settlement Calculations of a Highway Embankment on Soft Ground 

Author(s): Herle, I.; Herle, V.; Novotna, I.; Karcher, C.; Nybel, K. 

Year: 1999 

Source/URL: Twelfth European Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, pages 1089-94; 

http://tris.trb.org/view.aspx?id=514772 


Contents: The settlement of a highway embankment on soft soil is calculated using a standard method of the 

deformation modulus and compared with a more sophisticated approach using hypoplastic and viscoplastic models. 

Advantages of realistic soil models are discussed and a comparison with the measured in situ settlement is given. 

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Title: Construction-Engineering Techniques for Soft Ground 

Author(s): Gale, S. M. 

Year: 1998 

Source/URL: Geotechnical Fabrics Report, Industrial Fabrics Association International, pages 42-45; 

http://tris.trb.org/view.aspx?id=487600 


Contents: As granular fills and excavation costs have increased, many municipalities, counties, and state 

departments of transportation have chosen the staged-loading approach with a single geotextile layer, or a composite 

layer of a geogrid and a geotextile for reinforcing road embankments on soft soil. This article reviews construction 

monitoring for this technique. The first step in the construction process is to prequalify the soil and geosynthetic 

materials based on the specification. A preconstruction meeting is essential to confirm that specification details are 

adhered to; this article includes a checklist of details. Designs for embankments on soft and organic soils typically 

are based on limit-equilibrium stability analyses and an evaluation of bearing capacity, lateral spreading, and 

undrained and drained creep. The designer should analyze both total and effective stresses. When building on soft 

and organic soils, it is also critical to monitor excess pore pressures created within the subsoil as a result of 

embankment loading. Pneumatic piezometers are typically used for monitoring. Embankment-settlement monitoring 

is usually the least expensive and most meaningful parameter to obtain during construction. Continued settlement 

indicates dissipation of excess pore pressure and shear-strength gain. Lateral displacement of soil during 

embankment placement should be expected. The degree and location of movement can indicate creep-strain or 

potential failure. 

Title: Vertical and Horizontal Deformations of Foundations and Embankments 

Author(s): Yeung, Albert T. (ed.); Félio, Guy Y. (ed.) 

Year: 1994 

Source/URL: ASCE conference Settlement ’94; http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?90309 


Contents: These proceedings, Vertical and Horizontal Deformations of Foundations and Embankments 

(Geotechnical Special Publication No. 40) consist of papers presented at the Specialty Conference sponsored by the 

Geotechnical Engineering Division of the American Society of Civil Engineers held in College Station, Texas, June 

16-18, 1994. The prime goals of the conference and the resulting proceedings were: 1) to update the progress made 

since the 1964 Speciality Conference on Design of Foundations for Control of Settlement on prediction methods and 

mitigation technologies for both vertical and horizontal deformation of different types of foundations and 

embankments built on different soils; 2) to provide an effective forum for researchers and practitioners to share 

research results, current practice and recent technological advances; 3) to recognize the limitations in current 

practice, identify current and future needs of the profession, and assess the potential and feasibility of innovative 

technologies; and 4) to provide and effective vehicle for technology transfer. The 137 papers included in this 

publication cover such topics as: 1) embankments, deep fills, and landfills; 2) shallow foundations; 3) deep 

foundations; 4) soil improvement; 5) numerical and physical modeling; 6) soil dynamics; and 7) expansive soils, 

residual soils, and rock. These proceedings provide students, educators, researchers, and practitioners of 

geotechnical engineering an opportunity to assimilate new information and to meet new challenges. 

Title: Comparison of Predicted and Measured Settlement of a Test Embankment over Soft Soil 

Author(s): Chang, Kuo-Hsia; Kovacs, William D.; Wu, Ming-Jiun 

Year: 1994 

Source/URL: From Vertical and Horizontal Deformations of Foundations and Embankments (see previous 

citation), pages 1164-1175; http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?88926 


Contents: Abstract not available 

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Lateral Spreading of Soft Soils - WisDOT Research

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