Call Center Employees - Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka

Sabaramuwa University Journal 

Volume 9 Number 1; December 2010, pp 1-9 

ISSN 1391-3166 

Call Center Employees: Is Work Life Stress 

a Challenge 

G. Latha 1 and N. Panchanatham 2 

1 

Department of Business Administration, Annamalai University, India 

latha2002@yahoo.co.in 

2 

Department of Business Administration, Annamalai University, India 

Abstract 

The Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) sector is one of the fastest growing 

sectors in the global scenario. The sector is showing a remarkable growth in the 

Indian context also. It is performing a number of activities relating to customer 

interaction and service. Some of them are involved in pure back office work and 

some others are directly dealing with the customers. Call center is a voice based part 

of BPO organization. The BPO sector is developing the young generation not only 

by providing employment opportunities but also by building confidence in them. 

Indian BPO companies are paying great attention in inducting and training the 

employees. But most of the employees are youngsters and they are facing a lot of 

problems. They are working on continuous night shifts, which affect their biological 

balance. Apart from this, excessive work loads, unreachable targets and pressurizing 

customers are creating stress among the employees. This ultimately results in 

physical, psychological and behavioural deviations among them, which not only 

affects the employees and the organization, but, the country on the whole. This 

paper aims to identify the problems in the sector and the nature of the stress created 

by such problems. First hand information regarding the problems, the sources of 

stress and the experience on stress situations is collected from a project leader who 

has five years of experience. A questionnaire is circulated to measure the stress 

level of employees. It also identifies the various stressors prevailing among the 

employees. The impact of job satisfaction, feed back, working conditions, work 

family balance and workload in creating stress among the employees are analyzed. 

Some strategies for coping up with stress are also suggested. 

Keywords: Stress, Call center, Stressors, Coping strategies 

Introduction 

The Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) sector is one of the fastest growing 

sectors in the global scenario. When a company concentrates on the core 

business and out sources its non-core activities like payment services, 

customer services and administration, then it is referred as Business Process 

Outsourcing (BPO). A call center can be identified as the voice based part 

1

Sabaragamuwa University Journal 2010, V.9 N0. 1 pp 1-9 

of BPO organization. The new mantra for job opportunities among young 

population is “call center”. A call center is nothing but a voice-based customer 

service. Call center is defined as any communications platform from which 

firms deliver services to customers via remote real-time contact. From the 

recent past, call centers have started performing a number of activities 

including e-mail response and customer interaction services. A call center 

provides all these services to the local as well as the international customers 

through a wide telecom, web and database network (Ghazi, 2006). Human 

resources play a vital role in the successful functioning of these organizations. 

Their prime duty is to provide the customers with the needed information. So 

organizations recruit them with great care and spend a lot in training them 

also. But the news in the magazines and newspapers depict that the call 

center employees are facing a lot of problems like excessive workload, 

unreachable targets, and pressurizing and abusive customers. Above all, 

continuous night shifts create biological imbalance in them and finally makes 

them stressful. So stress is an important problem encountered by the call 

center employees. 

In a study on work related problems across 26 occupations, six occupations 

were identified as having worse than average scores on three factors namely 

physical and psychological well being and job satisfaction. The occupations 

include ambulance workers, teachers, social services, customer servicescall 

centers, prison officers and police. The respondents of these occupations 

were having low levels of job satisfaction and most stressed regarding physical 

and psychological well being (Sheena, 2005). These results are confirmed 

by another study which says that, even the BPO cabbies are under stress. It 

also states that, after senior level employees and agents, it is the turn of 

BPO cabbies to take the stress-busting sessions (Harsimran, 2007). The 

statement clearly shows that the employees of BPO sector are experiencing 

stress. The problem is very crucial and needs attention because most of the 

employees in the sector are youngsters. In other words, it is entirely run by 

youngsters. Ultimately it creates physical, psychological and behavioural 

deviations among them. It not only affects the individuals and the industry 

but the country on the whole. The tamil daily Dinamalar (2004) states that 

Burn Out Stress Syndrome (BOSS) affects young people in the computer 

field. It occurs due to increased depression which affects the well being of 

the individual. BOSS generally affects those working in call centers, BPO 

offices and those working on continuous night shifts. As these employees 

have to sit continuously for eight hours, they get back pain which is the 

primary symptom of BOSS. The other symptoms of BOSS are tiredness 

due to loss of sleep and results in mental depression followed by problems in 

respiratory system, digestive system and ultimately affects the biological 

clock. So it becomes necessary to act according to the biological clock to 

G. Latha and N. Panchanatham 

2


make the body parts and organs function effectively. BOSS is a popular 

phenomenon mentioned by Pestonjee. It can be defined as the consequence 

of high levels of job stress, personal frustration and inadequate coping skills. 

BOSS can lead to at least four types of stress-related consequences, such 

as depletion of energy reserves, lowered resistance to illness, increased 

dissatisfaction and pessimism, increased absenteeism and inefficiency at 

work (Satish, 2005). This paper aims to identify the problems prevailing in 

the call centers, the nature of stress created by such problems and the various 

stressors. Some strategies to cope up with stress are also suggested. 

Objectives 

The main objective of this paper is to identify the problems of employees in 

call centers. It also aims to identify the stress level of employees and the 

resulting behavioural deviations of the employees. An attempt is made to 

identify various stressors which influence such stress among them. It also 

aims to identify the impact of job satisfaction, job clarity, job feedback and 

workload on stress. 

Method 

Primary data were collected from a Project Leader who has five years of 

experience in call center. He entered the sector as an executive. After gaining 

an experience of two years he became the team leader. He continued in the 

same position for a period of three years and got elevated as Project Leader. 

At present he is leading a team of fifteen members comprising seven male 

and eight female executives. Primary data were also collected through a 

questionnaire which measures the stress level of employees and identifies 

the various stressors. The questionnaire was circulated and responses were 

collected from 100 employees. Demographic details like age, gender, marital 

status and experience were also obtained. Secondary data about the current 

functioning of call centers, the prospects and problems prevailing in the 

industry were also collected. In the job stressor questionnaire, some questions 

were positive and others were negative. The questionnaire has a three point 

scale (not at all true, somewhat true, and completely true). The positive 

items were reverse scored. Low score on each item indicated low stress 

and high score indicated high stress. The average score of all the questions 

for each respondent was calculated and it indicated the job stress. This 

score was recoded as low job stress (indicated by the average score of 1.00 

to 1.50), medium job stress (1.51 to 2.00), or high job stress (2.01 to 3.00). 

Everyday Routine of a Call Center 

According to the project leader, the call centers are open for 24 hours on all 

3 

Call Center Employees: Is Work Life Stress a Challenge


the 365 days. They generally engage the employees in shifts. The time duration 

of each shift is eight hours. The company usually arranges transport facilities 

for the employees to reach the office and back home. The organizations 

take great care in recruiting the right persons for the job. They also pay 

special attention in training the employees for the job especially in English 

accent, which may be American or Australian, accent. He also confirmed 

that the change of the name of employees as prevailing in the industry. Thus 

the call center employees have dual names, one original and the other, the 

organizational name. The employees are continuously monitored on the job. 

They are also monitored for the number of calls and the time duration of 

each call. The feedback is collected from every customer in specific format. 

The employees are given short breaks in between. 

Prospects in Call Centers 

The project leader is proud to express that call centers provide plenty of 

employment opportunities especially for the youth. The minimum educational 

qualification required is UG degree. Above all, the prime need is fluency in 

English and the ability to communicate. The starting salary for a fresher in 

the industry is higher compared to other sectors. Many organizations lay 

importance for the induction programs and treat employees ahead of the 

customers. The working environment in international call centers is better 

than the domestic ones. Most of the companies arrange transportation facilities 

for their employees. They are also provided separate but small cubicles. 

The companies also provide good canteen facilities. In spite of all these 

prospects, the problems are comparatively more. 

Pressurizing Problems 

The project leader opined that call centers have many unique characteristics. 

Majority of the employees are young and relatively inexperienced. They are 

provided with lots of money and freedom. The industry is entirely managed 

by young workers. Most of them work continuously on night shifts. They 

work during the night and sleep during the day. This shift from the normal 

routine affects the biological balance. So the employees are prone to sicness, 

irritable and depressed moods. This behaviour is aggravated further by the 

nature of the job. The jobs are monotonous, repetitive and heavily target 

oriented in nature. They have to deal with a lot of abusive and indifferent 

customers. The feedback collected from the customers has a great impact 

on the progress and prospect of the employees. Another pressurizing problem 

is that appreciating or satisfactory feedbacks are rarely exhibited. On the 

other hand, feedbacks carrying critical comments are displayed on the notice 

boards. Also, there is a less scope for moving up in the value chain. The 

Chairman and Managing Director of a BPO, Raman Roy opined that alcohol 


4


dependence, smoking, sexual promiscuity and burnout are some of the 

common traits of some technologically brilliant, emotionally unintelligent or 

not so intelligent people. An important dimension of strategies used to cope 

with stress in work setting is sm oking and independent problem solving. It 

reflects the situation where the person takes recourse to heavy smoking and 

avoids support from others (Shailendra and Arvind, 1984). A study by Wipro 

BPO identified that odd work timings, monotonous job, split personality, 

performance targets, cultural clash and career growth as the pressure points 

of call center employees (Pallavi , 2007). 

Profile of the Respondents 

The distribution of employees based on age, gender, marital status and 

experience are given in the following Tables (Table 1,2,3 and 4). 

Table 1: Distribution of Respondents based on Gender 

Gender Frequency Percent 

Female 23 23.0 

Male 77 77.0 

Total 100 100.0 

Table 2: Distribution of Respondent s based on Age 

Age Frequency Percent 

20-25 years 79 79.0 

26-30 21 21.0 

Total 100 100.0 

Table 3: Distribution of Respondent s based on Marital Status 

arital Status Frequency Percent 

arried 39 39.0 

nmarried 61 61.0 

otal 100 100.0 

Table 4: Distribution of Respondent s based on Experience 

Experience Frequency Percent 

Less than 2 years 27 27.0 

2-4 years 29 29.0 

4-6 years 29 29.0 

6 to 8 years 6 6.0 

More than 8 years 9 9.0 

Total 100 100.0 

5 



Results and Discussion 

The following Table 5 indicates the percentage of professionals having low, 

medium and high job stress. The results on overall response indicate that 

only 8 percent of the respondents have low level of stress. 80 percent of the 

call center employees have medium stress level and 12 percent have high 

stress level. Besides work and organizational factors, many societal factors 

also make call center jobs even more stressful. So, high occupational stress 

is not myth but a stark reality of the call centers (Ghazi, 2006). 

Table 5: Stress Level of Respondents 

Stress Level 

Frequency 

High 12 

Low 8 

Medium 80 

Total 100 

The Table 6 shows the score of the respondents about job feedback, working 

condition, job Clarity, job security, workplace politics, job satisfaction, 

workload, promotion, interpersonal relations and changes in the workplace. 

Among these stressors, job feed back, workload and promotion opportunities 

create high level of stress for majority of the call center employees. Other 

factors like working conditions, job security, workplace politics, job satisfaction 

and changes taking place in the workplace are a source of medium stress 

for the respondents. As far as the interpersonal relations are concerned, 37 

percent of respondents experience medium stress, 27 percent experience 

high stress and 36 percent experience low stress. 

Table 6: Job Stressors of Respondents 

Stressors 

Frequencies 

Criteria Low Medium High Total 

Job Feedback 15 20 65 100 

Working Conditions 36 53 11 100 

Job Clarity 74 23 3 100 

Job Security 16 50 34 100 

Job Satisfaction 39 50 11 100 

Politics at Workplace 16 50 34 100 

Work Load 5 13 82 100 

Promotion 5 32 63 100 

Inter Personal Relations 36 37 27 100 

Changes in Workplace 23 55 22 100 


6


Feedback about job performance, workload and job security are creating 

more stress on the respondents. Critical comments on poor performance 

and not a single word of praise on excellence are the features of job feedback 

in call center, according to the project leader. Most of the call center 

employees agree that abusive and argumentative clients create mental stress 

(Indradevi and Kamala, 2006). 

The project leader also opined that the working conditions are not up to the 

expectation. The systems are kept close to one another and the employees 

also sit nearby with very little moving space. The facilities in the domestic 

call centers are demanding because there are no pick and drop, poor cafeteria 

and shoddy working conditions (Ghazi, 2006). 

Job clarity is an important dimension in which 74 percent of the employees 

are having less stress. Majority of the companies give importance to induction 

and orientation programmes. The new recruits are trained not only for skill 

sets, but also for workplace etiquettes and behavioural aspects (Pallavi, 2007). 

So the employees are well trained about the various aspects of the job. 

It can be inferred from the table 6 that majority of the respondents are 

experiencing stress due to lack of job security. Also, there is a feeling of 

dissatisfaction among the employees about the job. The reasons for such 

dissatisfaction are abusive customers, poor superior-subordinate relationship 

and the negligence of care of management for employee welfare. High 

level of occupational stress is associated with high dissatisfaction (Ghazi, 

2006). Most of the call center work is highly repetitive and offers little diversity. 

This further leads to little job satisfaction (Pallavi, 2007). 

Workplace politics is also a stressor for the employees. 34 percent of the 

employees experience high stress and 50 percent of the employees 

experience medium stress due to workplace politics. Dissatisfaction which 

leads to stress is conceived in terms of dissatisfaction with company policies, 

working conditions and politics (Ghazi, 2006). 

It can be inferred from the table 6 that 82 percent of the employees experience 

high level stress due to workload. The task of the call center executive is not 

only monotonous and repetitive but at the same time, they have to work for 

ten to fourteen hours without using one’s skills (Ghazi, 2006). The performance 

targets are important pressure points for them because there are daily targets 

to be met in terms of calls made or handled (Pallavi, 2007). 

Majority of the respondents opine that lack of promotion opportunities is an 

important stressor. There is a less chance of growth and development in the 

sector. Also, when some of them tried to switch over to some other job, the 

experience in call center was not considered. These are similar to the findings 

7 



that there is little career progression in call centers. Another important fact 

is that every one who joins the call center does not end up becoming a team 

leader or moving into the top management roles (Pallavi, 2007). 

Majority of the respondents are experiencing stress due to interpersonal 

relations at work place. Most of the employees ride to and from work together. 

They work just few feet away from each other and sometimes share 

apartments, if they are away from family. This sometimes leads to problems 

in the work place (Pallavi, 2007). 

Apart from this, the employees are monitored continuously. They also 

experience a very close supervision. Poor work environment is a major 

issue in the call center (Indradevi and Kamala, 2006). 

Conclusion 

The call center provides lot of job opportunities. But the employees are not 

clear about their personal growth and development. The organizations should 

identify the sources of stress for their employees. Job feedback, workload 

and promotion opportunities are the major stressors for the call center 

executives. Working conditions, job security, workplace politics, job 

satisfaction, changes taking place in the work place and interpersonal relations 

create medium stress among them. 

In giving job feedback, good performance and achievements are to be 

apreciated. They must be brought to the notice of others. Feedbacks of poor 

performance and inadequacies are to be dealt personally and the executives 

must be helped to overcome them. President of India technology operations 

states that (Mr. Shekar Nair, Personal communication) during performance 

reviews, achievements are rewarded and inadequacies are evaluated so 

that the employees are asisted to overcome them (Vinutha, 2005). 

The stress due to workload and poor working conditions can be reduced by 

improving the working conditions. Providing good canteen facility or cafeteria 

where employees can go for a break and refresh and giving them enough 

leisure time and holidays can really help. Taking the employees for a holiday 

outing can improve the interpersonal relations and reduce their stress level. 

The responsibility of the call centers is to provide a clear career path to its 

employees so that the stress due to job security and promotion opportunity 

can be eliminated. Open door policy and speedy solution to employee issues 

can improve job satisfaction and reduce workplace politics. 

The organizations should also show care and concern for the employee. 

The employees should be properly trained on stress management and 


8


behavioral aspects. Above all teaching them about our culture, tradition and 

imparting value education at the school and college level will help in 

incorporating high values among the individuals and help them in the long 

run. Proper counseling by experienced counselors, social outings and stress 

management programmes including yoga and meditation can help to maintain 

a stress free work environment in call centers. 

Reference 

Ghazi, S.N. (2006) Occupational Stress in Call Centers: Myth or Reality, 

Abhigyan, v. 24(3), pp. 30-39. 

Harsimran, S. (2007) Yoga Stress Buster for Reckless BPO Cabbies, The 

Economic Times, Chennai, 24/10/2007, pp.8. 

Indradevi, R. and Kamala, P. M. (2006) Women in Indian BPO’s – Problem 

and stress, Management and Labour Studies, v. 31(4), pp. 332 – 345. 

Pallavi, S. (2007) BPO’s Young and Troubled, Business Today, pp. 63-72. 

Satish, P. (2005) “Time to Manage Stress Positively”, Indian Management 

pp. 84-89. 

Shailendra, S. and Arvind, K.S. (1984) Empirical Dimension of Strategies of 

Coping with Job Related Stress, Indian Journal of Applied Psychology, 

v. 24(1), pp. 25-29. 

Sheena, J. (2005) The Experience of Work Related Stress across 

Occupations, Journal of Managerial Psychology, v. 20(2), pp. 178-187. 

Vinutha, V. (2005) An informal Work Place, Express Computer, v. 15(51), 

pp. 32. 

9 




ISSN 1391-3166 

General Ecology and Habitat Selectivity of 

Fresh Water Fishes of the Rawan Oya, 

Kandy, Sri Lanka 

Ravindra Jayaratne 1 and Thilina Surasinghe 2 

1 

Department of Biological Sciences, Rajarata University, Mihintale, 

Sri Lanka 

2 

Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, USA, 

tsurasi@clemson.edu 

Abstract 

This study was conducted over a five-month period at Rawan Oya, a 13.5km long 

left bank tributary of the River Mahaweli. Data on species composition and 

mircohabitat conditions were collected from 30 random sampling sites, representing 

10 pools, 10 riffles and 10 runs. A single observation was made at each site, where a 

10m-length of the stream was blocked with drag nets to get the values for abundance. 

Fishes were captured using the cast nets and scoop nets, identified and released 

back at the site of capture. The species richness, relative abundance and the 

microhabitat conditions were recorded for each habitat type. Physico-chemical 

parameters of water such as the stream velocity, temperature, pH, water depth, 

conductivity, Hardness, DO and BOD 5 

were determined monthly at pre-selected 

sampling sites. A questionnaire survey was done among people in adjacent villagers, 

who are selected randomly. A total of 15 fish species belonging to 8 families were 

recorded of which 2 are endemic and 4 are exotic. The subsequent data analysis 

revealed that the Shannon Wiener diversity index and the Magalef Index are 

significantly high in pools. ANOVA test showed significant variation among the 3 

habitat types in terms of the microhabitat features measured. Further, the Pearson 

Correlation test demonstrated that the different fish species have different 

microhabitat preferences and different habitat associations. Runs seemed to be the 

most suitable habitats for most of the fish species lotic habitat with the highest 

species richness compared with the other two habitat types (12 species). Riffles 

harbored the poorest in species composition (2 species). Pools had an intermediate 

number of species (9). Puntius bimaculatus, Hypostomus sp and Tor khudree only 

occurred in pools while Devario malabaricus, Glossogobius giuris, 

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, Rasbora daniconius and 

Xiphophorus maculatus are confined to runs of the stream with no species confined 

to riffles. Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma occupy all three kinds of 

habitat types but with higher abundances in riffles. Among the fish found only in 

pools and runs, Puntius filamentosus were recorded in significantly higher numbers 

in pools than that in runs in contrast to the alien species such as Poecilia reticulata 

and Oreochromis mossambicus that showed a higher preference for runs. 

Key words: Stream Ecosystems, Freshwater Fish, Water Quality, Conservation, 

Montane Forests 

11


Introduction 

Sri Lanka is an Indian Oceanic island (65610 km 2 ) with distinct geographical 

zones, climatic regions and monsoon patterns (Aston and Gunathilleke, 1987). 

Attributed to the geo-climatic and hydrological diversification within a 

relatively small land area, the island is having a wide range of on terrestrial 

and aquatic ecosystems harboring an exceptionally rich biodiversity and 

high endemism (Gunathilleke and Gunathilleke, 1990; Myers et al., 2000). 

The country has a variety of lentic and lotic freshwater habitats distributed 

throughout the island. The lotic habitats comprise a large number of rivers 

and streams arise from tropical rainforests of the wet zone, particularly 

from the central hills (i. e. Peak Wilderness) and other montane regions (eg: 

Knuckles Range) owing to the frequent and high rainfalls and watershed 

characteristics. The majority of the streams and rivers in the island are 

perennial, especially those that flow entirely through the wet zone. The 

flowing-water habitats in the hill-country of Sri Lanka are relatively fast 

flowing and are aptly named torrential streams (Fernando, 1990). The lentic 

habitats of the island include man-made lakes, reservoirs as well as natural 

stagnant water bodies such as forest pools, Inland freshwater marshes, 

villu grasslands, floodplains and paddy-fields (Arumugam and Ratnatunga, 

1974; Thayaparan, 1982). Additionally, coastal and brackish water habitats 

such as estuaries, lagoons and coastal marshlands are occasionally associated 

or inhabited by some freshwater ichthyofauna (De Silva and Silva, 1979; 

Moyle and Cech, 1988). 

Each and every kind of freshwater habitats are inhabited by a wide spectrum 

of freshwater fauna. The total richness of freshwater fish in Sri Lanka 

consists of 82 indigenous species with 44 are endemic and twenty five 

introduced species. All these species fell within eight orders and 17 families 

with Cyprinids accounting for the highest diversity harboring 41 species 

(Pethiyagoda, 2006). Most of the native fishes are concentrated in the wet 

zone, which includes the southwestern lowlands and the central highlands. 

Forested areas of southwestern foothills and the Knuckles Range are 

exceptionally high in endemism and diversity of freshwater fish (Amarasinghe 

et al., 2006). The freshwater ecosystems of the wet zone such as streams 

of tropical rainforests enjoy most favorable limits that promote the optimal 

physiological, biochemical and behavioral functions of freshwater fish 

(Senanayake and Moyle, 1984). The Molecular taxonomic research has 

further strengthened the degree of endemism in Sri Lanka for instance, 

revealing that some Sri Lankan Puntius species forms a distinct clade with 

limited biotic exchange with the Indian Puntius species (Bossuyt et al., 

2004). 

Ravindra Jayaratne and Thilina Surasinghe 

12


Despite the surpassing diversity and endemism of Sri Lankan freshwater 

fish, the research conducted on their ecology, distribution, demography, and 

genetics is grossly inadequate. Pethiyagoda (1994) conducted an islandwide 

survey on freshwater fish with reference to their basic biological features. 

Most of the scientific literature Deraniyagala (1933), Munro (1955), Crusz 

(1973), Fernando (1990) deals with fish taxonomy. Amarasinghe et al., (2006) 

review on basic ecological and biological aspects of endemic freshwater 

fishes of Sri Lanka and emphasize the needs of further in depth ecological 

studies on Sri Lankan freshwater fishes. Nonetheless, it is imperative to 

conduct research studies on different aspects of ecology and biology of 

endangered and endemic species of Sri Lanka, with special reference to 

promote conservation and even management of these species under critical 

conditions. 

Study Site 

Rawan Oya, a perennial stream, is one of the major water sources of Polgolla 

Reservoir located in the Kandy district, Central Province of Sri Lanka, which 

is a distal part of the Victoria – Randenigala – Rantambe reservoir complex. 

But when becoming urbanized, the anthropogenic activities have lead to 

altering the aquatic habitat (GEF-SGP, 2006). Majority of the upper watershed 

area of the stream is covered with undisturbed montane and sub-montane 

forests of the knuckles Range with a high degree of canopy cover and is 

covered by clouds during most of the year. Hence, the upper catchments 

area receives ample amounts of rainfall throughout the year (Wanigasekera 

and Weerakoon, 1998). The middle part meanders through Pinus plantations, 

tea plantations, secondary forests and home gardens. Some paddy fields 

and other agricultural landscapes are common in the vicinity of the lower 

part of the stream (GEF-SGP, 2003). Angammana area of the stream is 

mostly covered by typical Kandyan home gardens and secondary forests. 

The study site varies in altitude from 450m (Polgolla Urban Town) to 1500m 

(Hunasgiriya Mountains). Rawan Oya starts from Hunasgiriya Mountain 

(1400m), flows through Angammana, and Wattegama and Polgolla and joins 

Mahaweli River through Polgolla reservoir at Polgolla, Kandy (500m) 

(Jayeratne, 2005). Rawan Oya is a 13.5 km long perennial stream; the stream 

watershed area is 31.07 km 2 (longitude 80 o 39-42’ E and Latitude 7 o 19-23’ 

N) with a mean annual daily temperature ranging between 22-27 o C and a 

mean annual precipitation exceeding 2000 mm (Figure 1) (GEF-SGP, 2006). 

13 

General Ecology and Habitat Selectivity of Fresh Water Fishes of the Rawan Oya, 

Kandy, Sri Lanka


Figure 1: A Geographical map of the Rawan Oya region 

Source: Mahaweli Authority (2006) 

Objectives 

With the recognition of the importance of ecological studies on the island’s 

freshwater fish we proposed to investigate the freshwater fish diversity and 

ecology in the main stream of Rawan Oya, a hitherto unstudied left bank 

tributary of River Mahaweli, the longest river in Sri Lanka. 

The specific objectives of this research were: 

i. To study the freshwater fish species richness and relative abundance in 

Rawan Oya 

ii. To study the habitat preferences of fish species in Rawan Oya 

iii. To study microhabitat selectivity of fish species in Rawan Oya 


14


iv. To study the freshwater fish’s preferred ecological conditions of Rawan 

Oya 

v. To identify the threats to the freshwater fish communities and their habitats 

vi. To suggest suitable conservation measures for freshwater fauna and 

Rawan Oya habitat and immediate terrestrial habitats in association with 

the stream ecosystem 

Materials and Methods 

The study was conducted over a five-month period from May 2005 to 

September 2005 in headwaters to down stream of Rawan Oya, Kandy, Sri 

Lanka. Data on species composition and habitat conditions were collected 

from 30 sampling sites, representing three different lotic habitat types; pools, 

riffles and runs in the course of streams. Ten locations were randomly selected 

representing each habitat type. The sampling sites were considered 

representing different altitudes of the stream (1100m–500m). One 

observation was made representing each sampling site mentioned above. 

For a particular observation, a 10m-length of the stream was used to get the 

values for abundance. In each observation, the species encountered and the 

abundance of each species was recorded and finally the abundance of each 

species for all ten sampling sites were added and considered as the relative 

abundance for the entire habitat for a particular habitat type. A five meter 

gap was left between adjacent sampling locations to prevent re-counting of 

the same individuals. 

The fish were captured using a scoop net (570 mm in diameter) and a cast 

net. For capturing fishes in runs, a 10-meter-length of the stream was blocked 

using drag nets. The samples were taken between 8.00 am to 12.00 noon. 

All species were identified according to Pethiyagoda (1991), Munro (1955), 

Fernando (1990), and Deraniyagala (1952). The numerical abundance of 

adult fish species was recorded and the fish were released. The presence 

and absence of the juvenile and larval stages of fish species were noted. In 

the data analysis, the relative abundance of each fish species were statistically 

interpreted by Mann-Whitney test through comparing the relative abundance 

of each species of three the stream habitat types, using MINITAB statistical 

software release 14.0. Through the Mann-Whitney test, using MINITAB 

statistical software release 14.0, the significance differences of the fish 

abundance in the three different habitat types were recognized. Survey 

through a random sample consisting of 75 people selected from adjacent 

villages of Rawan Oya. Modifications of the entire stream habitat, human 

disturbances and other form of threats to the stream habitat and the inhabiting 

15 




biota were also were also recorded from observations. The data on species 

richness and relative abundance of fish were pooled and the relative 

abundance of fish species was determined by using Shannon Diversity Index 

(H’) and Species richness was determined by using Margalef’s Diversity 

Index (D) (Magurran, 1988). 

Important physical and chemical parameters such as the stream velocity, 

water depth, water temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, biological 

oxygen demand for a five-day period (BOD 5 

) and hardness of the stream 

water at each pre-selected sampling sites were determined monthly using 

standard techniques (APHA 1989). These parameters were considered as 

the microhabitat parameters that signifies the basic ecological conditions in 

the stream habitats. Hardiness and BOD were determined in the laboratory 

from the water samples brought from the field. Other parameters were 

measured in the field. Following is the techniques used in determining the 

microhabitat features (Table 1). 

Table 1: Techniques and instruments used in measuring different microhabitat features in 

Rawan Oya stream ecosystem 

Measurement on Technique/instrument used 

microhabitat features 

Stream velocity Hand held digital flowmeter with flow probe (model: Swoffer 2100) 

Water depth Water level meter (model: Watermark 6594) 

Temperature Digital thermometer (model: TR Turoni 53201) 

pH pH meter (model: Jenway M3310) 

Conductivity Conductivity meter (model: Jenway 470) 

Dissolved Oxygen DO digital meter (model: Jenco 9251N) 

BOD 5 

Wrinkler’s titrimetric method 

Hardness 

Titration with 0.001M EDTA using Eriochrome black T as the indicator 

Results on microhabitat characteristics were subjected to the one-way 

ANOVA (using MINITAB statistical software release 14.0) to examine the 

significance of site specific variations of microhabitat parameters in pools, 

runs and riffles. To determine the most preferred microhabitat parameters 

(ecological conditions) of freshwater fishes in Rawan Oya, a Pearson 

Correlation was carried out using MINITAB statistical software release 

14.0. 

The threats encountered by the freshwater biota, particularly the freshwater 

fish and the ecosystem in general were assessed by two strategies. 

1. Questionnaire survey, involving a random sample of 75 people from adjacent 


16


villages (Annex 1), 2. Direct observations during field surveys in and around 

the Rawan Oya. 

Results 

A total of 15 fish (Table 2) species belonging to 8 families were recorded of 

which 2 are endemic while 4 are exotic. Family Cyprinidae had the highest 

number of species. Figure 2 show the family-wise representation of the fish 

species recorded at Rawan Oya. Juvenile and larval stages were recorded 

form the following species; Gara ceylonensis, Schistura notostigma, 

Puntius filamentosus, Poecilia reticulata, Xiphophorous maculates, 

Oreochromis mossambicus 

Table 2: Species of freshwater fish encountered in the field survey in the selected habitat 

types of the Rawan, Oya 

Family Scientific Name Common Name 

Bagridae Mystus vittatus Striped dwarf cat fish 

Balitoriedae Schistura notostigma* Banded mountain loach 

Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus # Mosambique tilapia 

Cobitiidae Lepidocephalichthys thermalis Common loach 

Cyprinidae Rasbora danicionius 

Devario malabaricus 

Tor khudree 

Puntius filamentosus 

Puntius dorsalis 

Puntius bimaculatus 

Garra ceylonensis* 

Striped rasbora 

Giant danio 

Mahseer 

Filamented barb 

Long snouted barb 

Red side barb 

Stone sucker 

Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris Bar-eyed goby 

Poecilidae Poecilia reticulata # 

Xiphophorous maculatus # 

Guppy 

Platy 

Loricariidae Hypostomus sp # Suckermouth catfish 

*endemic species 

#exotic species 

17 




7% 

13% 

7% 

46% 

7% 7% 

13% 

Bagridae 

Balitoridae 

Cichlidae 

Cyprinidae 

Gobiidae 

Poecilidae 

Loricariidae 

Figure 2: Family-wise representation of species richness of fish in Rawan Oya 

The Table 3 summarizes the diversity and abundance of freshwater fish in 

different habitat types of Rawan Oya. Figure 3 depicts the relative abundance 

of freshwater fish species in the different habitat types of Rawan Oya. 

These data revealed that the runs are the lotic habitat that celebrates the 

highest species richness (12). Riffles are the poorest in species composition 

(02) whereas the pools housed an intermediate number of species (09). 

Table 3: Average values for relative abundance of each fish species in pools, riffles and runs 

of Rawan Oya 

Fish Species Pools Riffles Runs Total 

Hypostomus sp 5 0 0 5 

Devario malabaricus 0 0 20 20 

Garra ceylonensis 19 30 18 67 

Glossogobius giuris 0 0 1 1 

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis 0 0 2 2 

Mystus vittatus 0 0 1 1 

Oreochromis mossambicus 4 0 15 19 

Puntius filamentosus 10 0 5 15 

Puntius dorsalis 5 0 6 11 

Puntius bimaculatus 2 0 0 2 

Poecilia reticulata 10 0 21 31 

Rasbora danicoinius 0 0 2 2 

Schistura notostigma 4 10 4 18 

Tor khudree 1 0 0 1 

Xiphophorus maculates 0 0 2 2 

Total Abundance in each habitat type 61 40 97 


18


Figure 3: Relative abundance of fish species in different habitat types of Rawan Oya 

Table 4 shows that the Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index is highest in runs 

which justifies the fact that the overall diversity which includes species 

19 




richness and relative abundance is highest in the runs. The Margalef’s Index 

(Table 5) also shows the same trend. Both diversity indexes showed that 

riffles are the poorest lotic habitat in diversity. 

Table 4: Shannon-Weiner Diversity Indices in pools, runs and riffles of Rawan Oya 

Habitat type Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index 

Pool 1.98 

Run 2.17 

Riffle 0.57 

H´= - S p i 

ln p i, 

H´ = Shannon Weiner Diversity Index, P i 

= Proportion of i th 

species in the sample 

Table 5: Margalef’s Diversity Indices in pools, runs and riffles of Rawan Oya 

Habitat types Margalef’s Index 

Pool 2.339 

Run 4.288 

Riffle 0.389 

D = (s -1 )/log e 

N, D = Margalef’s Index, S = Number of species found in 

each habitat, N = Total number 

Looking into the Table 3, it can be concluded that Puntius bimaculatus, 

Hypostomus sp and Tor khudree are only restricted to pool habitats of the 

stream. Further, Devario malabaricus, Glossogobius giuris, 

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, Rasbora daniconius 

and Xiphophorus maculatus are confined to runs of the stream. No species 

seem to be confined to riffles. Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma 

occupy all three kinds of habitat types. The rest of fish species are occupying 

both the runs as well as the pools of the stream. The relative abundance of 

Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma, is significantly higher in riffles 

than compared with other two habitats (Mann-Whitney Test; w=21.0, p


nests were observed in this survey which demonstrates that O. mossambicus 

is reproducing in this habitat. Being a lake fish (Family: Cichlidae), O. 

mossambicus was so far known to be restricted to lentic habitats 

(Pethiyagoda, 2006). Hence, this is the first record of O. mossambicus 

appearing and breeding in running waters, especially in Sri Lanka. 

Interestingly, alien fish is significantly higher in abundance in the runs than 

the pools, although the pools resemble their native habitats much closely 

than runs (Mann-Whitney test; W=21.0, p


ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma are cold water fish that selects stream 

microhabitats with relatively low temperature. Further, Devario malabaricus, 

Glossogobius giuris, Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, 

Puntius dorsalis, Poecilia reticulata, Rasbora daniconiu and 

Xiphophorus maculatus prefer slightly acidic water and negatively correlate 

with increasing pH. Hypostomus sp, Oreochromis mossambicus, Puntius 

filamentosus, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius bimaculatus, Poecilia reticulata 

and Tor khudree prefer nutrient rich water where these species demonstrate 

a positive affinity for conductivity. Further, Devario malabaricus, 

Glossogobius giuris, Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Mystus vittatus, 

Oreochromis mossambicus, Puntius filamentosus, Puntius dorsalis, 

Puntius bimaculatus, Rasbora daniconius, Schistura notostigma and Tor 

khudree showed significantly high degree of tolerance to low dissolved 

oxygen concentration and are used to associate habitats with a high oxygen 

demand. Only Garra ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma seemed to 

show a capability to live under high water flow rates where Hypostomus 

sp, Puntius filamentosus, Puntius dorsalis, Puntius bimaculatus and Tor 

khudree appeared to prefer relatively still or slow flowing water. The different 

microhabitat types selected by the 15 fish species recorded at Rawan Oya 

is listed in Table 7 and Preferred microhabitat types of the freshwater fish 

species in Rawan Oya (Table 8). 

Table 7: Pearson correlation coefficient values shown by each freshwater fish species against 

each microhabitat parameter measured in the three stream habitat types 

Pearson correlation coefficient value 

Freshwater fish 

Species 

Temperature 

pH 

Conductivity 

Dissolved 

Oxygen 

BOD 5 

Velocity 

Depth 

Hardness 

Hypostomus sp .693* .419 .634* -.185 .034 -.938* .821* .971* 

Devario malabaricus .277 -.996* .353 -.844* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 

Garra ceylonensis -950* .636* -.972* .899* -.915* .719* .158 -.637* 

Glossogobius giuris .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 

Lepidocephalichthys 

thermalis 

.277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 

Mystus vittatus .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 

Oreochromis 

.515* .986* .582* -.894* .956* -.091 -.765* -.021 

mossambicus 

Puntius filamentosus .961* -.091 .936* -.990* .829* -.986* .426 .961* 

Puntius dorsalis .922* -.697* .949* -.860* .945* -.661* -.238 .573* 

Puntius bimaculatus .693* .419 .634* -.785* .634* -.938* -.821* .971* 

Poecilia reticulata .701* -.919* .756* -.298 .198 -.321 -.593* .213 

Rasbora daniconius .277 -.996* .353 -.744* .849* .169 -.905* -.277 

Schistura notostigma -.971* .577* -.987* .929* -.882* .759* .084 -.639* 

Tor khudree .693* .419 .634* .785* .834* -.938* .821* .971* 

Xiphophorus 

maculatus 

.277 -.996* .353 -.144 .049 .169 -.905* -.277 


22


Table 8: Preferred microhabitat types of the freshwater fish species in Rawan Oya 

Freshwater fish 

Species 

Hypostomus sp 

Devario malabaricus 

Garra ceylonensis 

Glossogobius giuris 

Lepidocephalichthys 

thermalis 

Mystus vittatus 

Oreochromis 

mossambicus 

Puntius filamentosus 

Puntius dorsalis 

Puntius bimaculatus 

Poecilia reticulata 

Rasbora daniconius 

Schistura notostigma 

Tor khudree 

Xiphophorus 

maculatus 

Preferred microhabitat/s 

Inhabits many kinds of microhabitats 

Clear, slowly flowing water, where both canopy shade and 

sunlight-exposure is available with pebbles and boulders 

Clear, fast running relatively deep water shaded with a low to 

medium height canopy with a algae grown rocky substrate 

Slow flowing both clear and turbid water with rock gravel or 

sand bottoms 

Slow flowing waters with a sandy substrate with decaying 

vegetation matter covered by algae 

Slow flowing waters with some semi-terrestrial vegetation with 

a clay mixed muddy substrate 

Slow flowing water with direct sunlight exposure and a good 

littoral zone that consists of semi aquatic grasses and a sand 

mixed clay containing substrate 

Relatively still or slow moving water shaded by a taller canopy 

with sunlight penetration through small canopy openings with a 

good littoral zone which consists of aquatic and semi terrestrial 

grasses and roots of larger tall trees 

Slow flowing water with direct sunlight exposure and a good 

littoral zone that consists of semi aquatic grasses and a sand 

mixed clay containing substrate with accumulation of decaying 

organic debris 

Slow moving or still water with a thick accumulation of detritus 



Clear, fast running relatively shallow water exposed to sunlight 

with no significant canopy cover with a algae grown rocky 

substrate 

Deep water areas of pools with larger boulders 

Slow-moving water, silt bottoms and weedy banks 

Threats encountered by freshwater fish communities of Rawan Oya 

During the research, we followed two procedures to evaluate the threats 

faced the aquatic biota and the entire ecosystem. We conducted a questionnaire 

survey through interviewing the general public of the local villages and 

in addition to that, during the field survey, we were able to make direct 

observations on human activities that impede upon the biota and the habitat. 

According to the questionnaire survey, Anguilla nebulosa, Channa gachua 

and Mastacembelus armatus have previously inhabited the stream, particular 

in the low and mid elevation regimes but subsequently disappeared 

from the stream with increased urbanization and human settlements around 

the stream ecosystem over past 15 years. In the questionnaire survey, 65 

percent of residents mentioned that the diversity and the abundance of indigenous 

fishes in the stream have decreased in general over the past 15 

years. 

23 




Several key threat categories were recognized during this research with 

respect to the stream ecosystem and associated terrestrial habitats of Rawan 

Oya. They were, i. deforestation of the riverine forest and the upper catchment 

areas; ii. Excessive application of pesticides and other agrochemicals for 

the cultivated lands around the stream; iii. Pollution caused by anthropogenic 

activities; iv. Introduction of exotic fish species to the stream; Extraction of 

fish for the stream for ornamental and food purposes. Following is a detailed 

account on the threats prevalent in the concerned ecosystem. 

Deforestation of the riverine forest and the upper catchment areas 

Deforestation mainly happens through forest clearing for agricultural purposes 

in river bunds in the lower part of the stream. The estate based agricultural 

practices such as small and medium scale tea plantations are recognized as 

a major factor causing deforestation. Deforestation of the gallery forest and 

destruction of other forms of riverine vegetation will essentially jeopardize 

the microhabitat conditions required by the shade loving fish species (Kouadio 

et al., 2006). For most of the indigenous fish, stable, cool water temperature 

is required for their metabolism and other biological activities. Logging 

operation in gallery forests removes the canopy over the stream and destroy 

the vital microhabitat conditions in the stream (Helfman, 1981). 

Further, clearing riverine vegetation will aggravate soil erosion and increase 

the sedimentation rate in the stream bed, which will on one hand destroy the 

breeding grounds and foraging niches of benthic fish communities 

(Hewawasam et al., 2003). Besides, silt and runoff soil particles are known 

to clog gills of fish and other aquatic fauna and can also reduce the primary 

production of phytoplankton, algae, mosses and the macrophytes of the 

stream. Further, if increased sedimentation will reduce the height of water 

column, especially downstream. Moreover, clearing riparian vegetation at 

the onset of rain by the tea plantation practice reduces the spawning grounds 

and nursery grounds of fish (Pethiyagoda, 1994). Apart form that, in and 

around the functional and abandoned tea plantations, the tributaries of the 

Rawan Oya have completely dried out. Consider the Polgolla reservoir, which 

is fed by Rawan Oya, the water capacity is reduced by 40 percent due to 

siltation (GEF-SGP, 2003). The erosion of riverbanks is common due to 

deforestation and agricultural practices near the riverbanks of the Rwan 

Oya (GEF-SGP, 2003). 

Although, a Pinus plantation has been afforested by the conservation 

authorizes covering abandoned tea estates and completely logged areas, the 

ecological impacts might be further endangering the stream and associated 

terrestrial ecosystem, such as overextraction of groundwater and subsurface 

soil water. Besides, the Pinus plantation is not supporting the regeneration of 


24


the native forest vegetation as expected. Instead, it is proving the ground for 

invasive scrubs. However, the mitigatory effects of the Pinus plantation are 

highly questionable. With the absence of strong physical protection and law 

enforcement by the conservation authorities, deforestation and illicit lumbering 

operations are happening at alarming rates throughout the terrestrial habitats 

in the close proximity of Rawan Oya, especially at mid and lower elevations. 

Excessive application of pesticides and other agrochemicals for 

cultivated lands 

Several small scale and medium scale agricultural landscapes are noted in 

the immediate vicinity of the Rawan Oya. The major type of agriculture in 

the area is tea where excessive quantities of pesticides and artificial fertilizers 

are being continuously applied. The nitrate and phosphate containing inorganic 

fertilizers can get easily washed into the stream with surface runoff since 

this region experiences heavy continuous rainfall for a longer duration of the 

year. Such inorganic nutrients will get transported downstream and cause 

eutrophication when water is relatively stagnant. Nevertheless, unnaturally 

high nutrient concentrations certainly alter the natural microbial communities 

that are ecologically important to the stream ecosystem (Biggs, 1997). Use 

of broad spectrum, persistent pesticides such as organophosphates and 

carbamates is commonly observed in the area which could impose threats 

to the stream biota and to the ecosystem in general (Battaglin and Fairchild, 

2002). These toxic materials applied to nearby cultivated lands can accumulate 

in the stream in two potential routes. Primarily, pesticides will accumulate 

into the stream water with surface runoff. On the other hand, the aerosol 

pesticides will be carried out by winds towards the stream and may get 

deposited as dry depositions or may get suspended in precipitation. With 

time, pesticides may either cause direct toxicity to fish communities resulting 

instant massive fish kills in future and may become bioconcentrated and 

biomagnified where multiple physiological and behavioral discrepancies could 

potentially arise in fish, particularly in those of higher trophic status. 

(Bermúdez-Saldaña et al., 2005). 

Pollution caused by anthropogenic activities 

Many people use Rawan Oya for their daily routine activities such as to 

washing and bathing. Water pollution is not seen yet observable in the upper 

area, since the upper elevations of the stream are not having a significant 

number of human settlements. Nevertheless, in the urban and suburban 

areas (near major and minor towns) at the lower and middle part of the 

stream, water pollution is occurring on a large-scale. This is because these 

areas of the stream are having a higher density of human settlements. Some 

saw mills and lime industries are built near the stream and such industries 

25 




directly discharge their effluents into the stream. Suspended particles such 

as saw dust will reduce the light penetration of the stream which intern 

effect the primary productivity. Presence of chemical wastes will create 

many short-term as well as long-term adverse impacts on freshwater fauna. 

The residents were also noted for discarding garbage and kitchen waste, 

including polythene materials to the stream. Accumulation of higher quantities 

of solid waste in the stream will even alter the hydrological characters. 

Pollution by waste disposal damages not only the ecological processes but 

also the scenic beauty and the aesthetic value of the stream. 

Introduction of exotic fish species and invasion by the alien aquatic 

plants 

Oreochromis mossambicus is the most abundant freshwater exotic fish 

species encountered in this research. O. mossambicus was released into 

the Polgolla reservoir and VRR reservoir complex by the government of Sri 

Lanka during the Mahaweli Development Project as a food fish and also to 

encourage commercial capture fishery (De Silva, 1988). Today, this species 

has moved and colonized far from the point of introduction and has 

successfully established in the stream habitats with continuous perennial 

breeding. Although Oreochromis mossambicus was only introduced to several 

reservoirs and lakes to encourage inland fishery and to promote aquaculture 

as a food fish, this exotic species today have invaded many other lacustrine 

habitats (Pethiyadoga, 2006). Our observation provide more evidences for 

this In addition to being an invader of lentic habitats, Oreochromis 

mossambicus with its observations at a lotic system like Rawan Oya, even 

including the flowing water regimes. On several previous occasions, this 

species have been noted in other lotic habitats of the wild, including the 

streams of protected areas in upcountry (Marambe et al., 2001). As a 

ravenous plankton feeder and a proliferate breeder who is resilient to a 

broad ecological conditions, O. mossambocus can pose a serious threat 

with competition for space and food with native freshwater fauna. 

Oreochromis mossambicus is considered responsible for extinction of Labeo 

lankae, the endemic carp, who showed an overlapped distribution with that 

of Oreochromis mossambicus (Pethiyagoda, 2006). 

Our inquiries from the local residents and observations revealed that these 

Hypostomus species are not only accidentally but also purposefully released 

to the stream by the local inhabitants. It was observed that some local 

residents release adult fish into the stream when they grow up and achieve 

a larger body size (it is practically impossible to rear a well grown adult 

Hypostomus in a tank). Then, in the stream, the fish breed and then the 

local inhabitants collects back the juveniles from the stream for ornamental 

purposes. In this way, the stream is used as a rearing and breeding site for 


26


an alien fish. Hypostomus species are generally known to be predominantly 

piscivorous even in aquaria and would be certainly outnumbering the native 

species via predation, especially fry, larval and juvenile stages (Bambaradeniya 

et al., 1999). 

Poecilia reticulata has been introduced to Sri Lanka as a mosquito larvivore 

fish, in the national Antimalaria Campaign in 1954, by releasing the fish into 

mosquito breeding grounds urban and suburban canals, ditches and swamps. 

Secondarily, the fish has also become a tank rearing aquarium fish 

(Bambaradeniya et al., 1999). Through the questionnaire survey, we learned 

that Poecilia reticulata has been observed for 5-10 years in the Rawan 

Oya and associated wetlands, presumably introduced for controlling the 

Dengue mosquitoes. Perhaps, the fish escaped form the rearing tanks and 

ponds of local people and colonized the stream too. This species is generally 

not known to exist or to breed in the wild, and chiefly present in freshwater 

aquatic habitats of urban and suburban settings. However, previous records 

show that it is possible to observe these fish in upcountry streams that are in 

close proximity to human settlements. 

Both Xiphophorous maculatus and Hyposthomus have been observed 

recently, and people have released them to the stream. People believe that 

there will be no harmful effects by these exotic fish species 

Besides the introduced fish, several species of invasive alien aquatic plants 

were also noted in this research. They were; Eichhornia crassipes, 

Valisneria spiralis, Pistia and Salvinia molesta. Valisneria spiralis was 

only found in runs and the rest was only found in the pool habitats. At the 

point of this research, these plant species were not spreading fast, but if not 

controlled, might spread throughout the ;length of the stream. These alien 

species may be harbor or provide vantage for intermediate hosts of parasitic 

infections for instances freshwater snails and slugs that carry trematode 

worms that can infect fishes as primary or secondary hosts. Further, these 

plants absorb huge quantities of dissolved oxygen in water. These plants 

absorb mineral nutrients from water rapidly in such rates that outcompete 

the native aquatic macrophytes as well as phytoplankton (Marambe et al., 

2001). 

Extraction of fish for the stream for ornamental and food purposes 

Through the questionnaire survey, it was discovered that 60 percent of the 

villagers regularly catch fish for different purposes. Further, it was noted 

that 55 percent of those who catch fish for food purposes and the rest (15 

percent) do it for rearing fish for ornamental purposes in households. It was 

revealed that the residents of the lower and middle part of the stream catch 

fish for food, but not on large scale. Oreochromis Mossambicus and T. 

27 




kudree are usually harvested in the middle and lower part. The questionnaire 

survey revealed that in the past the laborers employed in the tea plantation 

used to catch G. ceylonensis for food. The local inhabitants showed 

a significant degree of interest regarding rearing of the ornamental fish form 

the stream. For instance, P. dorsalis is the most popular ornamental species 

among the villagers, because of its’ attractive color patterns which remain 

unchanged even under captive conditions and the ability to adapt into the 

small niche spaces such as small-sized glass tanks. The villagers do not 

collect or breed fish in commercial scale for ornamental or aquarium rearing 

purposes, but Rasbora daniconius, Puntius bimaculatus, Mystus vittatus, 

Schistura notostigma, Xiphophorous maculatus, Danio malabaricus and 

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis are some of the indigenous fishes that were 

recognized as being used for tank/aquarium rearing purposes in the households 

in the vicinity of Rawan Oya. However, the local inhabitants do not practice 

commercial capture fishery form Rawan Oya 

Discussion 

The species richness of freshwater fishes of Rawan Oya significantly high 

where the study site harbors about 18 percent of the islands native freshwater 

species. The study site falls within the Mahaweli river Basin within which 

43 freshwater fish species have been recorded (Pethiyagoda, 1991; 

Wikramanayaka, 1990a). Interestingly, seven species were recorded 

considering the elevation regime of our survey (500-1100m) within the entire 

Mahaweli River Basin. However, later, several Puntius species were 

introduced to the Mahaweli Basin form Kelani River Basin in the recent 

past. Nevertheless, the endemicity of freshwater fishes recorded in our 

research is significantly low. In contrast, ten endemic species occupy the 

Mahaweli ichthyofaunal province (Pethiyagoda, 1991; Wikramanayaka, 

1990b). 

Family Cyprinidae is the most species-rich family of freshwater fishes in 

Rawan Oya. Usually they are the commonest family in stream ecosystems 

in the wet zone habitats. According to IUCN (2007), there are 17 species 

belonging to family Cyprinidae (Kullander, 2001; De Silva, 1991). Here only 

7 species were found, because Rawan Oya mediates through the mid country 

and up country wet zone, where the cyprinids are not much prominent. 

However, most of Cyprinidaes are recorded in typical lowland wet zone 

habitats, including foothills and the lowland fluviatile, swamps and other lentic 

habitats (Murray and Little, 2000). High cyprinid diversity has also been 

recorded form the Keleni river basin and Mahaweli river basin. Further, the 

number of endemic species recorded at the Ginigathena, an areas falling 

within the upper part of the Mahaweli basin is higher than that of Rawan 

Oya (Wickramanayake and Moyle, 1989; Sundarabarathy et al., 2004). 


28


The significant differences among the measurements of the three stream 

microhabitat parameters can be attributed to several anthropogenic and 

natural phenomena. For instances, the water temperature is highest in pools 

because pools are almost exclusively found in the middle and lower elevation 

regimes of the main stream. Once the elevation drops, so will the ambient 

temperature and the water temperature which is in equilibrium with it. Besides, 

the water flow rate in pools is slow. Therefore the relative stagnant water is 

exposed to solar heating most of the time with a minimal opportunity for 

cooling through turbulent flow. The high alkalinity (low pH Measures) of the 

pools can be attributed to the human activities taking place in pools such as 

washing and bathing where large quantities of soaps and detergents are 

released. Conductivity and hardness of pools and runs seems to be high 

compared to the riffles. Hardness is the presence of Mg +2 and Ca +2 salts of 

carbonates in water. Further, soil erosion in the river banks and the upper 

catchments brings minerals as surface runoff to stream during heavy rains 

and as they flow downstream, get deposited in pools with their relative 

stagnancy (Hecnar and M’closkey, 1996). 

The temperature is lowest in riffles in Rawan Oya, primarily because all the 

riffles are in the upper elevations of the stream. Besides, the high water 

flow rate creates more turbulence which not only decreases the temperature, 

but also the increases the dissolved oxygen content compared with the other 

two microhabitats of the stream. The high gradient of topographical elevation 

and the presence of obstacles in the flow path such as big boulders contribute 

further towards a faster turbulent flow. The high biological oxygen demand 

prevalent in pools is partly due to the microbial activities upon relatively high 

accumulation of degradable organic matter which finally yields aerobic 

decomposition (Horne, 1994). Pool habitats of a lotic system resemble a 

lentic system where the biological oxygen demand tends to be high, basically 

as a result of higher densities of planktonic communities occupying still/slow 

flowing water compared to fast moving water bodies such as runs and riffles 

(Wetzel, 2001). 

Among the three habitat types concerned, the runs showed the highest species 

diversity. The prevalence of biologically favorable physico-chemical conditions 

such as moderate temperatures and moderate water flow rate may be the 

reason behind this high diversity. The runs of this stream have intermediate 

characteristics which create suitable conditions which are suited for both 

running and stagnant water occupants (Horne, 1994). Further, the runs have 

a varying gradient in terms of depth and presents shallow areas for the 

growth of macrophytes for species that need aquatic vegetation as an integral 

part of their niche as well as deep areas for open water species that require 

a broader water column for their niche (Dumont et al., 1994). Moreover, 

light penetrates deeper into the bottom in runs and hence supports the rapid 

29 




proliferation of phytoplankton and thence for an increased secondary 

production of Zooplankton. On the other hand, riffles showed the lowest 

diversity, which can be attributed to the torrent nature of water flow and the 

low availability of dissolved nutrient and potentially scarce food supply. 

Besides, the low height of the water column reduces the spatial scale for a 

higher diverse biomass. However, pools have much more organic matter 

accumulation in the bottom than the other two habitats. For a stream 

ecosystem, the principle energy source comes form the deteriorating organic 

matter and sustains through allochthonous food chains provides suitable 

conditions for growth of phytoplankton (Dumont et al., 1994). Consequently 

the pool habitats potentially account for a higher food availability compared 

to the other two habitats. 

The freshwater fish species found in this research show a significant degree 

of habitat preference and habitat selectivity based on their ecological 

adaptability, microhabitat conditions and resource availability in each major 

habitat type. Generally, the habitat utility of freshwater fish can be explained 

through the species physiological tolerance, metabolism, food niche and 

reproductive niche (Dumont et al., 1994). In this study, certain species showed 

broad ranging among all three major habitat types with higher preference 

for a particular type, whereas few species seemed to have restrictions in 

their habitat selection. 

Garra Ceylonensis and Schistura notostigma were recorded in significantly 

higher numbers in riffles of the stream compared to other two habitat types. 

These two are usually found in shallow, fast flowing water, especially of 

streams of the central hills at higher elevations (Sundarabarathy et al., 2005; 

Costa and Fernando, 1967). In our survey, this species was recorded from 

riffles of upper parts of the stream in high frequencies confirming the above 

fact. In fact, only G. ceylonensis and S. notostigma occur in the uppermost 

areas, especially over 1000m elevation, where the temperature range is 

between 18.5 and 19.0 0 C and relatively high dissolved oxygen availability, 

where the optimal temperature prevails for these species. These two species 

are well adapted to live in rapidly flowing water with their subterminal suctorial 

mouth using which the fish attach to the rocks and feed on the algae grown 

on it (De Silva, 1991; Sundarabarathy et al., 2005). The absence of a 

preferred substrate may be the reason for these species being low in 

abundance in pools, which consists of sands and mud at the bottom. Most 

previous literature regards these species as a prominent fish in the higher hill 

streams (Silva and Davies, 1986). In contrast to our sampling records and 

Sundarabarathy et al., (2004) found that G. ceylonensis was the only fish 

species that dwells on the bedrocks which was the common substratum of 

the upper region of the Rawan Oya. Our observations disclosed that not 

only G. ceylonensis and S. notostigma are sympatric but also breed well in 


30


these habitats. Even within the same major habitat type, these two species 

demonstrate a habitat partitioning where G. ceylonensis prefers canopy 

shaded, relatively deep waters of the riffles, and on contrast S. notostigma 

selects shallow open water areas of riffles. We noted that these species 

retain this partitioning even in terms of preferred breeding sites. This kind of 

habitat segregation prevents competition and allows the maximum diversity 

to harbor an ecosystem (Macchi et al., 1999). 

Mystus vittatus is encountered in very low numbers in this study. This 

species is much more prominent in lentic waters than in lotic bodies since 

their food niche consisting aquatic invertebrates such as insects, mollusks 

and crustaceans that are much more abundant in standing waters (Abbas 

and Siddiqui, 1984). Hence, low availability of preferred resources may be 

the reason behind low abundance of this species. Further, this fish apparently 

selects vantage of moderately vegetated water margins, which is a 

microhabitat predominant in lakes and swamps rather than streams (Sarkar 

and Das, 1990). 

The four alien fish species are distributed throughout all the major habitat 

types of Rawan Oya at mid and low elevations. The relatively low water 

temperature, inadaptability to high water velocity, low dissolved inorganic 

nutrient content may be preventing the colonization of upper stream by the 

alien fish species. Both Oreochromis mossambicus and Poecilia reticulata 

prefers warmer slow flowing water with moderate concentrations of 

dissolved nutrients (Lowe et al., 2000; Lindholm et al., 2005). The runs that 

are in the lower part of the Rawan Oya provide good spawning sites for 

Guppies. O. mossambicus is generally known to be an inhabitant of lentic 

waters (De Silva et al., 2006). But in our survey, it was revealed that this 

species in now even invading the natural lotic water bodies too. O. 

mossambicus was only found in the middle portion of the stream, hence 

most probably, juveniles of O. mossambicus, which are released accidentally 

by pond culture systems near the village Angammana might have initiated 

and colonized the middle portion of the Rawan Oya. During our survey, we 

discovered that they breed well in pools, which contain sand mixed muddy 

substrate with a littoral zone that helps their nest building. Poecilia reticulata 

was noted for occurring in some polluted runs of the stream, for instance 

around the urban areas of the Wattegama town, which justifies the fact that 

it is a hardy fish that can successfully adapt into adverse environmental 

conditions. P. reticulata is generally known to inhabit flowing water bodies 

of urban and suburban environments, including open drainage canals 

(Welcomme and Vidthayanon, 2003). Hypostomus sp and X. maculatus, 

two freshwater species introduced to Sri Lanka for aquarium trade are found 

only downstream and they have not invaded the middle part of the stream as 

yet. Xiphophorus maculatus is another exotic fish we recorded I our study 

31 




that is know in be highly resilient and adaptability to a wide physico-chemical 

environment (Reznick, 1990). This alien fish occurs in warm tropical springs 

and creeks, open canals and ditches with typically slow-moving water, silt 

bottoms and weedy banks and swamps. As a benthopelagic fish it feeds on 

worms, crustaceans, insects and plant matter (Milton and Arthington, 1983). 

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis and Rasbora danicionius are common 

fishes occupying quite running water habitats particularly with a sandy bottom 

below 600m elevation. The low frequency of this species in our research 

may be the species restriction to lowland habitats (Sundarabarathy et al., 

2001; Wikramanayake, 1990b). 

The runs in between the upper and middle part of the stream, which consists 

of big boulders and pebbles, sheltered with the canopy are good spawning 

sites for Devario malabaricus, which explains the high frequency of this 

species in the runs. D. malabaricus is a very common fish that prefer 

boulder strewn mountain torrents rather than lakes and reservoirs although 

they are generally found in any freshwater habitat in all bioclimatic zones of 

the country. Nonetheless, in our survey, this species as only recorded form 

the runs, although they are expected to occur in riffles. The absence of D. 

malabaricus can be attributed to the big boulders that act as barriers and 

prevent colonization of upper stream from the populations occupying lowelevation 

regions of the stream (Pethiyagoda, 1991). 

Puntius filamentosus adult individuals were mostly found in pools and runs, 

which are over 2.5m deep and possess a significant coverage of aquatic 

macrophytes. The reason for this type of a habitat selection may be their 

preference for such habitats for spawning (Axelrod, 1980). The spawning 

habitats of this species are mostly pools that are rich in organic matter, and 

muddy substrate, a wider littoral zone with semiaquatic macrophytes with 

significant shad from the riverine canopy, which consists of big trees such 

as Terminalia arjuna. These trees provide enough shade and keep water 

temperature at constant level (Schut et al., 1984). Puntius dorsalis is a 

common fish in flowing water and in our research were noted form pools 

and runs, especially in those with a pebble substrate. This observation can 

be undoubtedly attributed to the feeding habit of P. dorsalis as a pebble 

substrate browser who mainly feed on detritus and benthic diatoms and 

zoobenthos. Besides, a littoral zone with high density of semi aquatic grasses 

is required for spawning by this species (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). 

P. bimaculatus is an abundant fish even in the hill-streams (Arunachalam 

et al., 2000). On the contrarily, in our study, we found this species in very 

low frequencies in pools where there are ample detritus and algal forms are 


32


relatively abundant. Glossogobius giuris is primarily estuarine that apparently 

requires brackish or saltwater for breeding. This species has also been 

recorded form coastal marine environments (Whitfield et al., 1994). 

Interestingly, this species has bee recorded in many fluviatile and lacustrine 

lowland inland habitants, especially in dry zone rivers and tanks. The low 

abundance of this species in our research could possibly be reasoned as the 

low numbers in the landlocked freshwater populations, particularly towards 

the central hills (Amarasinghe et al., 1997). 

Recommendation of conservation actions for Rawan Oya 

A total of 15 freshwater fishes are present in Rawan Oya, where 2 species 

are endemic, 12 species have ornamental value and 4 are exotic. Rawan 

Oya is a diverse aquatic ecosystem. This is one of the major tributaries of 

Mahaweli River which drains from Hunasgiriya in the Knuckles range 

harboring a significant number of aquatic fauna. Therefore, protection and 

management of this invaluable ecosystem is a vital activity. Based on the 

observations made and the threats prevalent, the following conservation and 

management actions are highly recommended for the Rawan Oya 

Ecosystem. 

Prevention of deforestation of the riparian forests and the destruction of 

natural vegetation in the upper catchments of the Rawan Oya. 

In order to prevent further degradation of the terrestrial habitats, the upper 

catchments of the stream should be declared as protected area, preferably 

as an important hydrological regime of the Knuckles Conservation Area. 

Currently, the Hunasgiriya forested region is only considered as a proposed 

reserve (IUCN/FAO, 1997). The physical protection received under this 

protection status is grossly inadequate and hence ought to be promoted to 

the status of the forest reserve. With this designation, intense physical 

protection should be implemented to the Hunasgiriya forests including the 

catchments, especially to stem the illicit timber felling and encroachments 

by the tea estate owners. The forest department, as the governmental 

management authority this ecosystem, should strengthen the physical 

protection by means of patrolling to detect the illegal human activities such 

as logging. Along with the designation of the protection status, the boundary 

of this protected area should be demarcated. In the defining the boundary, it 

is essential to retrieve the encroached lands as well as abandoned tea 

plantations into the protected are which can later be subjected to reclamation. 

The rules and regulations must be tightened and strict amercements should 

be imposed upon violation of law. Equally, the law enforcement and the legal 

33 




framework on conservation oriented matters should be maintained in a 

satisfactory level. 

Similar conservation measures must be enforced on the riparian vegetation. 

Riparian vegetation of Rawan Oya is not receiving any conservation status 

by the government authorities. Hence, it is recommended that a reservation 

with natural vegetation of suitable extent is allocated for the gallery forest 

by the forest department for the purpose of prevention of deforestation in 

the river banks and the immediate terrestrial ecosystem. This reservation 

should be continuous, throughout the flow of stream, including the urban 

areas, where the pressure is most intense on the river banks. 

Reforestation of deforested and degraded areas of the catchment and the 

river bank, including the immediate terrestrial habitats of the stream. 

A significant, but uncaliberated extent of lands is already deforested and 

today, is left unused for any propose. Due to the logging practices and forest 

clearance for tea plantations and other forms of agriculture, some of such 

lands and river banks are severely degraded. Such barren lands and river 

banks should be reforested with suitable native fast growing vegetation, 

which is well adapted to grow in poor soil conditions. A couple of decade 

ago, the forest department has introduced the Pinus species as a measure 

to prevent soil erosion in exposed lands (Aston et al., 1987). Such areas 

should be immediately replanted with native forest vegetation too. In forest 

replantation, in the initial stages of the vegetation, soil conservation measures 

should be applied to prevent erosion. Soil conservation measures, such as 

plantation of grasses, growing hedges, construction of ridges are vital in 

reforestation actions of the riparian zones. Further, restoration of severely 

eroded landscapes, such as abandoned tea plantations might have to be 

subjected to soil enrichment using organic fertilizers and decaying organic 

matter and other biological soil improvement methods such as plantation of 

legumes. Reforested lands must be closely monitored until the completion of 

the primary succession. Such monitoring should ensure that no invasive plant 

invade the degraded/deforested land. If a previous invasion prevails, before 

replantation of indigenous forest species, the invasive species must be 

eradicated manually or mechanically. Introduction of chemical herbicides 

are not encouraged since such artificial substances may act as a toxicant 

once on the freshwater biota, especially the aquatic macrophytes and it 

accumulate in water. 


34


Introduction of eco-friendly agricultural practices to the inhabitants 

in the vicinity of the stream 

As being described earlier, in the agricultural landscapes, especially in tea 

plantations, large quantities of agro-chemicals are used. It is highly advised 

that instead of such synthetic materials, organic farming should be 

encouraged (Maeder et al., 2002). Herein, it is recommended that natural 

elements such as compost fertilizers, green manures and insect repelling 

plant extraction be used as pesticides. Such elements may not cause pollution 

of stream water. Besides, it is imperative to prevent soil erosion in agricultural 

lands by applying soil protection measures. Such environmentally friendly 

agricultural operations will not only preserve the stream ecosystem but also 

save the cost of maintenance of the agriculture plots (Hole et al., 2005). 

Prevention of anthropogenic pollution 

Strong legal actions should be promoted to stop the garbage dumping and 

releasing waste water from the industries. Serious actions should be ten 

against the local inhabitants whom dispose waste into the stream and also 

for industries that discharge wastewater into the stream. Permission should 

not be granted for establishment of industries that do not adhere to 

environmental regulations. The regional governmental bodies such as the 

town councils and divisional councils should carryout a program to remove 

the solid waste accumulated in the stream. The conservation authority should 

also empower physical protection to prevent further waste dumping. 

Eradication of invasive aquatic species 

Removal of the invasive species form the Rawan Oya should be followed in 

two steps. First, the sources of introduction should be closed. The four alien 

fish species recorded in this research colonized the stream in two ways; 

from the adjacent aquaculture ponds or other culture systems and from 

upstream migrated fish from Polgolla reservoir, to which these species was 

introduced for food fishery or other purposes. According to this fact, on one 

hand, the governmental development schemes should stop releasing alien 

fishes to the natural and semi natural water bodies, including lakes and 

reservoirs. Instead, the government can construct culture ponds as a common 

resource for the fishermen to culture exotic food fish. On the other hand, 

the culture ponds in the vicinity of Rawan Oya should not discharge the 

pond water directly to the stream. It is highly advised that the pond water be 

recycled or reused for other suitable purposes (Clout and Veitch, 2002). 

Deliberate introduction of introduced fishes to the stream should be completely 

prohibited. To ensure this, provision of physical protection to the stream 

ecosystem is a must. The alien species should be manually or mechanically 

35 




harvested. The fishermen can be encouraged to harvest these introduced 

fish, especially Tilapia by paying them a high price for capturing alien fish 

species (Clavero and García-Berthou, 2005). Eradication of alien aquatic 

plants is equally important. In addition to the mechanical and manual removal, 

even biological controlling methods where a native animal species can be 

introduced to feed on the invasive species. If an exotic species is to be used 

as a biological agent, the new species should be experimentally proven to be 

safe and non invasive in the natural environment. Adverse conditions or 

aggravations of the prevailing condition should be avoided (Gordon, 1998). 

Prevention of extraction of native fish species 

Collection or capturing of fishes form this stream must be limited only to the 

alien species. Capturing other native species must be prohibited. Such 

regulations can primarily be achieved through a sound scheme of physical 

protection with adequate continuous patrolling. Strict penalties ought to be 

imposed on those who violate rules. 

Community based conservation activities including education and 

awareness programs 

All these conservation approaches will be of a value only if the local 

communities and the general public are properly acknowledged on the 

importance of the stream ecosystem and the stream biodiversity. Workshops 

can be arranged with the participation of the local public and with the 

involvement of the conservation authority and the regional government. 

Through such workshops; i the importance of conservation of Rawan Oya 

ecosystem and its biota must be highlighted, ii the ecological and sustainable 

ecological benefits of the stream must be emphasized, iii rules and regulations 

regarding the strict protection of the habitat should be thoroughly explained 

with references to the penalties on violation, iv the negative effects on the 

stream ecosystem due to pollution, excessive synthetic agro-chemical use, 

overextrraction of biological aquatic resources, releasing invasive fish, 

deforestation, encroachments have to be elaborately explained. Moreover, 

the governmental conservation authorities should involve the local people in 

conservation actions. For instance, in eradication of invasive species, 

reforestation programs, the Forest Department can hire the local inhabitants. 

Research based activities 

The universities and the governmental agencies in the environmental and 

natural resources conservation sector of Sri Lanka can involve in research 

oriented activities. The research should focus long-term evaluation of 

biodiversity wealth of the stream and the associated terrestrial habitats and 


36


different conservation and management approaches. Experiments should 

be done to seek potential for translocation of rare, endangered or endemic 

species, including fish as well as other aquatic and semi aquatic fauna, even 

invertebrates. Experimental attempts should also be made to implement 

invasive species eradication methods through the use of biological agents or 

biological derivatives. Further, research should also focus on habitat 

management actions such as to determine the ideal plant species for initiation 

reforestation programs on deforested and degraded lands. Besides, research 

activities should also attempt to explore on limnological approaches to increase 

the stream habitat variation with incorporating more habitat types and 

ecological niches to increase the species diversity by increasing the natural 

resource availability and spatial factor, without drastically altering the natural 

conditions. 

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Whitfield, A.K., Paterson, A.W., Bok, A.H. and Kok, H.M. (1994) A 

comparison of the ichthyofaunas in two permanently open eastern Cape 

estuaries. South African Journal of Zoology, v. 29, pp. 175–185. 

Wetzel, R.G.. (2001) Limnology: lake and river ecosystems. Elsevier Academy 

Press, St Louis, USA. 

Wikramanayake, E.D. and Moyle, P.B. (1989) Ecological structure of tropical 

fish assemblage in wet one streams of Sri Lanka, Journal of Zoology 

London, v. 218, pp. 503-526. 

Wikramanayaka, E.D. (1990a) Conservation of endemic rain forest fishes 

of Sri Lanka: results of a translocation experiment. Conservation Biology 

v. 4, pp. 32-37. 

Wikramanayakc, E.D. (1990b) Ecomorphology and biogeography of a tropical 

stream fish assemblage, evolution of assemblage structure, Ecology, 

v. 71, pp. 1756-1764. 

43 





ISSN 1391-3166 

A Sociological Study of the Homicide in Sri 

Lanka: A Case Study in Rathnapura 

Secretariat Division 

N.S. Jayathunga 

Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Socail Sciences and 

Languages, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka,P.O Box 02, 

Belihuloya. amisara@sab.ac.lk 

Abstract 

This study is an attempt to recognize the causes for homicide and analysis them in 

a sociological aspect. The crimes which are differed to each society has a big 

impact on contravention of the collective conscious that helps to positive existence 

the in the society. As well as this social revolution process copes with the 

globalization process. The crimes such as murders, rape, child abuse, hitting, 

robbery and illegal money printing have been expanding in Sri Lankan society with 

the current wave of crime. Crimes are the major criterion of determining development 

in each country. This study seeks to identify the reasons and the remedies for the 

murders in Sri Lanka. Rathnapura police division was selected for the study because 

of several reasons. It is one of the districts, which recorded the highest number of 

crimes, and it mainly represents the crimes in rural sector. Non-probability purposive 

sampling used for the study because the area is much specified and is not very 

common scenario for each household. 20 cases of murders were included in the 

sample. The sample is derived through the secondary source of police reports 

taken from the police head quarters; research papers, publications and web sites 

were used as the secondary data. Structural and non-structural interviews and 

observations are further used. There are several limitations of the study. Although 

crime is a widespread issue, all areas in Sri Lanka were not covered through the 

study due to time and budgetary constraints. Because Rathnapura district records 

the very high rate of crimes, the study selected the particular district but Rathnapura 

police division is the only concern of the study as to make the study easier and 

descriptive. The study is only based on the cases from 2001 upto2002. Major 

limitation of the study is that the concealing the real information about the particular 

incident by the victims and criminals because of several sociological and legal 

obstacles. The study concludes that the major causes for murders in Rathnapura 

police division as informal sexual relations, alcoholism, poverty, illiteracy, family 

background, revenging purposes, monitory purposes, environment and hot temper. 

Some short, medium, and long-term suggestions are proposed by the study to 

minimize murders as a one of the crimes in Rathnapura police division as a final 

contribution of the study. 

Key words: Crime, Homicide, Social problem 

45


Introduction 

The wave of crimes has been rapidly increasing in Sri Lanka as a key social 

problem and it is developing as a result of the rising of the population and the 

intelligence of the modern technology than the earlier. The crimes which are 

differed to each society has a big impact on contravention of the collective 

conscious that helps to positive existence the in the society. As well as this 

social revolution process copes with the globalization process. The crimes 

such as murder, rape, child abuse, hitting, robbery and illegal money printing 

have been expanding in Sri Lankan society with the current wave of crime. 

Crimes are the major criterion of determining development in each country. 

Only homicide is concerned by this study because it is directly influenced to 

the people. Homicides are increased at present rapidly than the earlier because 

of the complexity and the competition of the society. Due to this condition, 

the large numbers of harms have spared out to the people all over the country. 

Fear of the people, suspicions, threats, revenging, suicides are the several 

consequences of the homicide and this topic was selected to seek the causes 

of homicide in Sri Lanka in sociological aspect. 

Literature 

Homicide is the one of the significant impact of the human beings considering 

the other types of Crimes of Sri Lanka. It can be explained simply as “the 

unlawful killing of a human being with malice aforethought” (Kornblum and 

Julian, 1974). According to the Encyclopedia of Americana homicide explains, 

“Assassinate a person with purposively is a homicide” (The Encyclopedia 

Americana, 1959). It means someone is killing a person must be positively 

with the feeling of assassination otherwise it may happened accidentally is 

not consider as a homicide. Mainly Homicide can be classified in to two 

ways as Lawful Homicide and Unlawful Homicide (Grero, 1988). Lawful 

Homicide can be divided into two ways again as Justifiable homicide and 

Excusable Homicide. According to reference, “The psychological of crime” 

murder has been classified in to two ways as symptomatic murder and 

manifest murder (Abrahamsen, 1960). Mainly the criminals related to 

symptomatic murder, their internal divergence coming from the inner part of 

the mind since their childhood is the consequence to this type of crime and it 

is taken place unconsciously. Sexual drives and aggression drives including 

Frustration and sexual jealousy directly influenced to this type of murder 

cases. Mostly the manifest criminals are making out the general crimes of 

the society coping with the community and make the erroneous against to 

society is significant. 

N.S.Jayathunga 

46


Homicide can be recognized as an inhuman action which has been taken 

place by different levels in different societies in the world. Especially some 

countries believed that assassination of the parents as one of the customs. 

However the purpose of assassination and the way of assassination may be 

differed from country to country can be reflected on as a homicide. 

Jayewardene and Ranasinghe (1963) have mentioned some examples for 

homicide as assassination, sudden homicide, killing someone by expecting 

the self protection and caring property, suicide, the death caused by war, 

slaughtering people according to general law of the country, killing prisoners 

by escaping, assassination the politicians and killing the enemies of the war” 

(Jayewardene and Ranasinghe, 1963). The one of the greatest research 

related to crime in Sri Lanka done by Wood (1961) has found stressful or 

frustrating, are proposed as the basis for high rates of homicide. The national 

survey was based on a questionnaire completed by local police officials for 

577 persons officially charged with murder or attempted murder and, 457 

homicide and attempted homicide victims during specified months 1956 and 

1957. He used samples of the village studies was based on interviews with 

males aged 17 and over who had committed “ grave” crimes against persons 

or property during the previous five years. According to this study the greatest 

frequency of homicide in Ceylon lies in the “rurban” villages of the maritime 

area. This is specially the area where landlessness, excessive demand for 

nonagricultural employment and the non traditional role of subordinate status 

for the Goigama caste have had greatest impact. The empirical data showed 

that murders in this area have experienced these changes most keenly and 

manifest reaction of severe alienation with complaints of harassement (Wood, 

1961). The one of the criminological research revealed mostly Americans 

were used the guns as the main technique for the assassinations by 

representing 60%. The majority of men were the victims of the homicide 

done by unknown people representing 75%. Generally murder cases were 

taken place at the weekends, at night, inside the home and the offenders 

were with the alcohol or drugs were the few factors found by this research 

(Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990). Sociological Theory, Psychological Theory, 

Biological Theory, Ecological Theory, Labeling Theory and Anomic Theory 

were further used to comprehend the criminal behavior of the Homicide for 

this study. 

Research Problem of the study 

What are the causes of Homicide? 

Related to the above research problem, recognition of the causes of homicide 

in Sri Lanka is a major rationale of this study. Introducing reasons of homicide 

is one of the enormous duties of the sociologist and it helps out to obtain the 

possible solutions to diminish the crime in related area as a proper way. 

47 

A Sociological Study of the Homicide in Sri Lanka: A Case Study in Rathnapura 

Secretariat Division


The main objective of this Study was recognition of the causes of Homicide 

in Sri Lanka. Understand the ethnicity, age group, civil status, educational 

level and family back ground of the criminals, understand the methods which 

criminals used for homicide, understand the nature of the relationship with 

the community of the criminals, recognition the attitudes towards the law of 

the criminals and suggest the possible solutions for Homicide were the other 

specific objectives of this research. 

Methodology 

Non-probability purposive sampling used for the study because the area is 

much specified and is not very common scenario for each household. 20 

cases of homicides were included in the sample because of this circumstance 

was a social deviant behavior differed than the other social behaviors of the 

human beings. The sample is derived through the secondary source of police 

reports taken from the Annual Reports of the I.G.P. Administration, 

Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, magazines, Census related to the homicide were 

used as the secondary data and Structural and Non structural interviews, 

Case Studies and Observations were further used as the primary data. 

This study mainly expected to make out the causes of homicide related to 

one of the grave crimes. This study was selected only the Rathnapura police 

division which included 15 police divisions because of several reasons. It is 

one of the divisions which recorded the highest number of crimes and it has 

an increasing trend of crime mainly represents the crimes in rural sector. 

Background Details of Criminals 

This study found the ethnicity, age structure, civil status, educational level, 

employment, and family background of the criminals as the background 

details of the homicide in Rathnapura police division. Consideration of the 

ethnicity majority of the Sinhalese represented 80% as the high quantity 

concerned with the homicide and 20% Tamil was less represented. It shows 

the following Table 1. 

Table 1: Ethnicity of the criminals 

Characteristics No % 

Ethnicity 

Sinhalese 16 80 

Tamil 04 20 

Source- Field Data 

According to Table 2 categorizing of the age structure in systematically 

30% represented in a 31-40 age group in view of high amount deal with the 


48


homicides, 25% represented the 20-30 age group and 15% represented the 

61-70 age group and equally 10% for 41-50 and 10% for 51-60 age group. 

Table 2: Age Structure of the criminals 


Age Structure 

20-30 05 25 

31-40 06 30 

41-50 02 10 

51-60 02 10 

61-70 03 15 

71-80 02 10 


The study revealed the civil status of the criminals representing 70% of 

married people, as the best part of the research and unmarried were 30% 

(Table 3). 

Table 3: Civil Status of the criminals 


Civil Status 

Married 14 70 

Unmarried 06 30 


Deliberation of the educational level of the homicide criminals in this study 

can be categorized in descending order as never school 40%, up to year five 

35% and year 6-8, 25%. Never schooling is the significant factor related to 

the study. The people could not be realized the seriousness about the nature 

of the homicide because of their poor education (Table 4). 

Table 4: Educational Level of the criminals 


Educational Level 

Never Schooling 08 40 

Up to year 5 07 35 

Year 6-8 05 25 


Employments of the Criminals of this study were as the descending order 

representing 35% for Labors, 20% for Vegetables and fruits Sellers, equally 

representing 15% for Masons, mining, and Unemployed Persons. Majority 

of the people who connected with the homicide were less earners based on 

49 




their educational level. Family background of the criminals can be shown as 

the following Table 5. 

Table 5: Family Background Details of Criminals 

Family Members No % 

Parents, Relatives and Children 5 25 

Father, Step Mother and Children 3 15 

Mother, Step Father and Children 3 15 

Only the Mother and Children 4 20 

Husband, Wife and Children 2 10 

Husband and Wife Only 6 30 


Highlighted persons of the table were criminals of the Homicide. This study 

identified the children who were with their parents and relatives (Extended 

Family) and only husband and wife family implicated with the murder cases 

contributing as a large proportion was representing 25% and 30% but less 

significant number for the husband, wife and children family type (Nuclear 

Family) contributing to the homicide. 

Main purpose of this study was making out the causes link with the homicide 

in Rathnapura police division. According to this research mainly it was 

recognized the causes as informal sexual relations representing 30% as the 

big impact, revenging purposes representing 20%, high temper representing 

20%, drunkenness representing 15%, mining industry representing 10% and 

rapes representing 5%. These causes can be summarized according to the 

following Table 6. 

Table 6: Causes for Homicide 

Reasons No % 

Illegal sexual affairs 06 30 

Revenging purposes 04 20 

High temper 04 20 

Drunkenness 03 15 

Mining industry 02 10 

Rapes 01 05 

Total 20 100 



50


Consideration of the illegal sexual relation as the main reason of this studies 

it was mainly based on the sexual jealousy of people. Especially the 

relationships made by the father in law with daughter in law, by wife with 

husband’s own brother, by husband with his mother in law were the largest 

part of the illegal sexual relations they made. Generally after getting married 

people making an additional affair instead of their own marriage were directly 

caused to the homicide based on the sexual jealously. 

Revenging purpose representing 20% was as the second key reason of this 

study and it was a one of the results of the long-term process. Memorization 

the older annoyance, after getting the victory of the land dispute and frustration 

of the love affair were several minor reasons link with the revenging purpose. 

Third reason, high temper also link with the revenging purpose but it was a 

short-term issue. According to this condition, killed a driver result of the 

seeing knocking at the vehicle of his one of the neighbors on the road, husband 

killed his wife using the stick based on the family dispute; father killed his 

own son result of the high temper could be found through this study. 

Drunkenness representing 15% was directly influenced to the homicide as a 

key factor in this study area. Majority of the criminals involved with the 

crimes using alcoholism. Generally taking alcohol is directly influenced to 

assassinate the people, rape the women, for child abuse and any type of 

dispute people made because of avoiding the inconvenience of the matter 

( Figure: 1). 

Figure 1: Causes for homicide 


Mining industry representing 10% was another key factor to the homicide 

found by this research and this industry is a very familiar and heritage to this 

51 




area. Stealing the gem, quarrelling for gem and swollen the gem were identified 

matters dealing with the mining were directly caused to homicide. 

This study found the rape as a major cause for the homicide and especially 

there was a inter relationship ensued among the drunkenness, rape and 

assassination. Murder was the final alternative of the rape case by the 

criminals used. 

Hitting on the head by using stick representing 35%, hitting on the head by 

using weapon representing 25%, snubbing representing 20%, strangling the 

neck representing 15% and hitting by using the axe were the methods 

identified through this study. Assassination techniques can be showed as 

the Figure 2. 

Figure 2: The ways of homicide 

Hitting on the head by using stick was the key technique of contributing the 

large extent and the smaller amount usage was the hitting by using the axe 

of this study. 

The relationship between homicide and victimized was a significant aspect 

of this research. According to this relationship mainly people who assassinated 

the people were unknown the high representation of this study. Other 

offences were in orderly as neighbors, son, father, friend, husband and wife. 

Following Figure 3 shows the summary of the above relationships. 

Large amount of the people being unknown who involved with the murder 

cases was the significant factor, which may be the contract for determining 

the financial require. But less percentage of wife and husband were 

impact to the homicide was a different significant of this study. The Table 

shows the relationship between homicides and victimized. 


52


Figure 3: The relationships between homicide and victims 

Source-Field data 

This study analyzed the nature of the relationships of the criminals by determine 

to identify the integration they had with the community. Following 

Table 7 shows the nature of their relations. 

Table 7: The nature of the social relationships of the criminals 

The nature of the social No % 

relations 

Close relationships 09 45 

General relationships 06 30 

Relationships with deviants 03 15 

Less relationships 02 10 

Total 20 100 

General view of the criminals in the society is if they are involving with 

crimes they associate and build up the relations directly with the deviants 

related to any type of crimes in the society based on the socialization through 

the peers. But consideration of this study it revealed that majority of criminals 

had very close relationships with their neighbors, relations and friends 

representing 45% than the less relations with the deviants representing 15%. 

The attitudes towards the law of the Criminals of the homicide are significant 

of this study as ignoring the law due to high temper, revenging purposes by 

ignoring law, hiding to the law and engaging with the faults by knowing the 

law. Following Table 8 shows how criminals dealt with the law and their 

feeling towards the law. 

53 




Table : 8 The attitudes towards the law of the Criminals 

Attitudes towards the law No % 

Ignoring the law due to high temper 07 35 

Revenging purposes by ignoring law 06 30 

Hiding to the law 04 20 

Engaging with the faults by knowing the 03 15 

law 

Total 20 100 

This study found the majority of the criminals that ignored the law because 

of the high temper representing 35% of the total. Even though Majority of 

the criminals had the views about the law of the country but they did not 

consider the law because of giving priority for high temper. Above factors 

mainly influenced to the homicide in Rathnapura police division. There are 

large number of secondary results were created based on murder because 

it is directly influenced to the people against to the humanity. Decreasing 

the social integration, disorganizing the social structure, contravention the 

customs, values and norms, back warding the development of the country, 

increasing the fear to survival, increasing accidents, rising the family problems, 

developing deviant behaviors, disregard the responsibilities are the few 

circumstances created from the increasing homicide in the country. This 

can be considered as a major social problem because this condition directly 

and indirectly inclined to the entire society very destructively. 

Conclusion 

Rathnapura Police division was the selected study area because of the 

increasing trend of crimes could be identified and it was one of the highest 

crimes recorded area among the other districts in Sri Lanka according to 

police reports. Majority of the criminals related to homicide were uneducated 

and very distant from the urban cities. Majority of criminals were employed 

with the minor occupations and they had the low economical condition result 

of the poor education. As the main purpose of this study, recognized the 

several major causes related to homicide. Informal sexual relations, revenging 

purposes, unexpected anger, drunkenness, mining industry and rape were 

the significant reasons recognized through this study. Informal sexual relations 

were the most indispensable reason caused to homicide based on the sexual 

jealousy in a psychological aspect. And the rape was a low representation 

rate attach to the homicide result of the breaking the ways revealing 

information to another was assassination. Criminals had very close relations 

with their community before they involved with the crimes. Even if the society 

is changed by the modernization, the modern techniques were not used for 

murders in rural areas. And most of them were with the general views of 


54


the law in the country but they ignored them because of the high temper 

coming forward. According to the above conclusion can be mentioned few 

recommendations to get rid of the homicide in the society with the result of 

the micro level research applying to the whole. There should be immediate 

legal judgment incorporate to crimes, there should be impartially of the law, 

Establishment of counseling centers at rural level to minimize the family 

related problems, severe and minor criminals should be separately 

rehabilitated, and sexual relation education should be included at school level 

to reduce the curiosity of sex 

References 

Abrahamsen, D. (1960) The Psychology of Crime, Science edition, New 

York. 

Grero, C.A. (1988) Culpable Homicide Proof and Defences, C, Ananda 

Grero,Singha Printers, Telijjawila. 

Gottfredson, M.R. and Hirschi, T. (1990 ) A General Theory of Crime, 

Stanford University Press, U.S.A. 

Jayewardene, C.H.S. and Ranasinghe, H. (1963) Criminal Homicide in the 

Southern Province, The Colombo Apothecaries Co. Ltd,Colombo. 

Kornblum, W. and Julian, J. (1974) Social problem (7 th edition), Prentice- 

Hall Inc, USA. 

Wood, A.L. (1961) “A Socio- structural analysis of murder,suicide, and 

economic crime in Ceylon”, American Sociological Review, v. 26. 

The Encyclopedia Americana, (1959) Americana Coorporation, U.S.A. 

55 





ISSN 1391-3166 

Production of Jaadi using Tilapia 

(Oreochromis niloticus) and determination of 

its physcio-chemical and sensory properties 

Lakshmi W.G.I 1 , Prassanna P.H.P 1 and Edirisinghe U. 2 

1 

Department of Agricultural Systems, Faculty of Agriculture, Rajarata 

University of Sri Lanka, Puliyankulama, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. 

2 

Departments of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of 

Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 

Abstract 

Consumption of Tilapia is restricted due to its muddy flavour and colour. This 

study was aimed to develop jaadi, a fermented fish product, using Tilapia 

(Oreochromis niloticus) and to determine suitable salt and goraka (Garcinia 

gambodiea) combination for its preparation. The experiment was arranged in a 

Randomized Complete Block Design with four replicates. First experiment was aimed 

at determining the suitable salt content for jaadi. There were four treatments having 

salt contents of 200 g, 300 g, 400 g and 500 g per 1 kg of deskined fish without head 

while keeping goraka (G. gambodiea) content at 100 g. The most suitable salt content 

was determined according to sensory evaluation results, which in turn was used for 

second experiment, for the determination of suitable goraka (G. gambodiea) content, 

the goraka (G. gambodiea) content was changed as 100 g, 150 g, 200 g and 250 g per 

1 kg of fish keeping the salt content constant. Results for the first experiment indicated 

that the highest preference for sensory attributes was from combination of 500 g of 

salt with constant goraka (G. gambodiea) per 1 kg of fish. Results of second 

experiment indicated that there was a higher preference for the combination of 100 g 

of garcenia (G. gambodiea) with 500 g salt per 1 kg of fish compared to other 

treatments. The study clearly revealed that 500 g of goraka (G. gambodiea) and 100 

g of salt with 1 kg of deskined Tilapia (O. niloticus) fish without head can effectively 

used to produce jaadi. 

Key words: Tilapia, Goraka, Salt, Storage 

Introduction 

Fish is considered as an important food item in the diet of South East Asian 

people particularly as a source of protein. Over 96% of Sri Lankans consume 

fresh or processed fish, which provide an estimated 65-70% of the mean 

annual protein intake (Gunerathne and Samarajeewa, 1994). More than 95% 

of the fish production in Sri Lanka is from capture fisheries; the rest is from 

aquaculture (FAO, 1996). The introduction of exotic fish tilapia species has 

increased the fish yields from 1 kg/ha to 227 kg/ha per year and has contributed 

towards establishment of capture based culture fisheries (De Silva, 1981). 

57


As Tilapia is produced in seasonal tanks, over production result during in 

the peak season and leads to post harvest losses. Hence, proper application 

of post harvest technology is needed to overcome this problem. Direct 

consumption of Tilapia is restricted due to lack of taste leading for a less 

popularity of Tilapia among consumers except in Dry Zones. Therefore, 

value added product with good physico-chemical properties could be used 

to attract and encourage people to consume Tilapia as a good protein source. 

The jaadi is wet cured traditional fermented fishery product and creates a 

pleasant, mouth watering sensation in our tongues (Weerasinghe, 1991). 

Jaddi is a Tamil word and its means huge pots. Indian people also call 

‘Thaadi’. In pali it is known as ‘Thathi’ (kariyawasam, 2007). Therefore, 

this study was undertaken develop a fermented fish product, jaadi, using 

Tilapia (O. niloticus), to evaluate sensory properties of the product and 

changes in pH value of product during storage. 

Materials and Methodology 

Preliminary processing of fish 

This study was carried out at Aquaculture laboratory, Department of Animal 

Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Preradeniya, Sri 

Lanka. Approximately, 300-350g of weight and 25cm (from snout to base 

of the caudal fin) of total length fish were selected for processing. Preprocessing 

inspection of fish was done to select fish without any defects like 

cuts, bruises, cruises or discolouration. The belly area was cut opened and 

the internal organs like digestive track, uro-gentital systems were removed. 

Body cavity was cleaned using clean water. All the fins were removed 

except the caudal fin. Deheading of fish were done by cutting the head as 

canting the head as a contoured cut which run perpendicular to the fish’s 

backbone and then at an angle of 45 ° manually. Pectoral bones were also 

removed along the head. Skinning was done to reduce microbial count and 

to remove scales. Finally caudal fin was removed and carcasses were 

washed using clean water. During processing period, contamination by flies 

was never allowed. 0.3 m diameter and 0.25 m height clay pots were taken 

and washed thoroughly by using tap water and sterilized by boiling water. 

Goraka (G. gambodiea) was also washed and sterilized with boiling water 

before using. 

Preparation of jaadi 

The experiment was arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design 

with four replicates. Salt and goraka (G. gambodiea) were mixed well, 

produce as curing mixture and packed in previously washed and sterilized 

Lakshmi W.G.I, Prassanna P.H.P. and Edirisinghe U. 

58


clay pots in alternative layers of fish and prepared curing mixture. It would 

be noted that salt and goraka (G. gambodiea) mixture was thickly sprinkled 

between each layers and also the top most layer s of fish and the bottom of 

the container was covered with salt and goraka (G. gambodiea) mixture. 

Clay pots were covered by using cleaned banana leaves and tied up with 

threads to avoid any possible contaminations and set a side for natural 

fermentation to proceed uninterrupted for a period of three months. 

Determination of suitable salt quantities for preparation of jaadi 

Four jaadi samples were prepared based on recipe given in Table 1. Sensory 

evaluation (colour, flavour, odour and over all acceptance) was carried out 

at the end of the experiment to find out the optimum salt content to produce 

good quality jaadi. 

Table 1: Combination of Goraka and Salt Content for 1kg of Fish 

Treatments Goraka content Salt content 

(g/kg of fish) (g /kg of fish) 

T 1 100 200 

T 2 100 300 

T 3 100 400 

T 4 100 500 

Determination of the suitable goraka (G. gambodiea) quantities for 

preparation of jaadi 

Based on the results of sensory evaluation for determining the optimum 

quantity salt for the preparation of jaadi, optimum quantity of goraka (G. 

gambodiea) was determined using treatments as shown in Table 2. At the 

end of three months period a sensory evaluation was carried out to determine 

the optimum quantity of goraka (G. gambodiea). 

Table 2: Combination Goraka Content for 1kg of Fish 

Treatments 

T 1 100 

T 2 150 

T 3 200 

T 4 250 

Goraka content (g/kg of fish) 

59 

Production of Jaadi using Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and determination 

of its physcio-chemical and sensory properties


Determination of pH of the final products during storage 

The final product was prepared using the optimum salt and goraka (G. 

gambodiea) contents found in the study. The product was storage for period 

of four months at ambient temperature 27 °C and pH value of the product 

was determined using a digital Hanna pH meter at one month interval to find 

out mould with storage. 

Sensory Evaluation 

Acceptability of the product was tasted by preparing a curry of jaadi samples 

and randomly coded and served to a panel of 30 in-house untrained 25 years 

male and female panellists from Faculty of Agriculture, University of 

Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. They assessed colour, odour, flavour 

and overall acceptability of each sample supplied. Each parameter was 

ranked on a 5-point Hedonic scale (5- Like very much 1- Dislike very much). 

Statistical Analysis 

The results of sensory evaluation were analyzed by Friedman test using 

MINITAB statical package á = 0.05 and means were separated by multiple 

comparison. Data related to the pH changes were separated according to 

the Duncan’s Multiple Ranges Test (DMRT). 

Results and discussion 

Determination of suitable salt content 

Result revealed that there was a significant deference (P< 0.05) for taste 

and overall acceptable of treatment T 4 

having 500 g goraka (G. gambodiea) 

(Table 3). T 1 

containing 200 g salt and 100 g goraka (G. gambodiea) was 

the least preferred one. Therefore, 500 g salt level was selected as the 

optimum salt level and used for the next experiment to determine optimum 

goraka (G. gambodiea) content. Weerasinghe (1991) reported a different 

finding for preparation of jaadi from marine fish that 100 g of salt could be 

used for 300 g of fish. Salt to fish ratio for Tilapia Jaadi was 1:2 while 

Weerasinghe (1991) used 1:3 salt to fish in his study to have a good quality 

jaadi. 

Lakshmi W.G.I, Prassanna P.H.P and Edirisinghe U. 

60


Table 3: The median values for determination of suitable salt content 

Median Values 

Treatments Colour Taste Odour Texture Overall 

acceptability 

T 1 2.70 a 3.0 a 3.2 a 2.93 a 3.0 a 

T 2 2.20 a 3.0 a 3.0 a 2.56 a 3.0 a 

T 3 3.30 b 4.0 ab 3.3 a 3.00 a 3.0 a 

T 4 3.59 b 4.0 b 3.5 a 3.10 a 4.0 b 

Note: Median Values in columns with the same letter are not significantly different (á = 

0.05). 

Determination of suitable goraka (G. gambodiea) content 

Results indicated that there was no difference (p>0.05) for colour, odour 

and texture of treatments (Table 4). Taste and overall acceptability of 

treatment T 5 

having 100 g goraka (G. gambodiea) and 500 g salt were 

significant from other treatments at á = 0.05. Therefore, 100 g goraka (G. 

gambodiea) was selected as the optimum goraka (G. gambodiea) content 

resulting premium quality jaadi. The final jaadi samples were prepared 

with 500 g salt, 100 g goraka (G. gambodiea) and 1 kg of deskined Tilapia 

without their heads. A similar result for jaadi was reported by Weeerasinghe 

(1991). Furthermore indicated that 100 g goraka (G. gambodiea) could be 

effectively used with 1 kg of marine fish to have very good quality jaadi. 

Result further revealed that goraka (G. gambodiea): fish ratio for both studies 

was 1:10. 

Table 4: The Median Values for Determination of Suitable Goraka Content 

Median Values 

Treatments Taste Colour Odour Texture Overall 

acceptability 

T 1 4.0 a 3.75 a 3.75 a 3.62 a 3.75 a 

T 2 3.0 b 3.25 a 3.25 a 3.37 a 3.50 a 

T 3 3.0 b 3.50 a 3.50 a 3.37 a 3.50 a 

T 4 2.0 b 3.50 a 3.50 a 3.12 a 3.25 a 

Note: Sums of Ranks in columns with the same letter are not significantly different (á = 

0.05). 

61 




Changes in pH values of jaadi samples stored at ambient 

temperature 27 °C 

pH level of jaadi samples did not changed significantly (P> 0.05) for a 

period of 4 months (Table 5). It proves that there are quality changes in 

prepared jaadi during storage especially growth of harmful microorganisms 

like mould. Goraka (G. gambodiea) was used as a souring agent for this 

experiment because it contains gambogic acid, which helps in preservative 

action by reducing pH (Amarasinghe and Jayaweera, 1994). Further it acts 

as an antimicrobial agent retarding the microbial growth due to forming acidic 

medium. Pathmalatha (2001) indicated that pH of goraka (G. gambodiea) 

is around 4 and it can inhibit undesirable microbial growth. Weersinghe (1991) 

indicated different results for pH in marine jaadi that was around 4.2. This 

difference may be due to higher salt content used in this study. The 

remarkable feature of this study was that there was no any mould growth or 

bad smell in jaadi even after 4 months of storage. 

Table 5: The pH Values during Storage 

Months 

pH Value 

1 5.08 a 

2 5.06 a 

3 

4 

5.09 a 

5.07 a 

Note: Sums of Ranks in columns with the same letter are not significantly different (á = 

0.05). 

Conclusions 

The Premium quality jaadi could be prepared by using 1 kg of deskined 

Tilapia (O. niloticus) without head, 500 g salt and 100g goraka (G. 

gambodiea). There was no change in pH level of stored jaadi samples for 

4 months period at ambient temperature 27 °C. 

References 

Amarasighe, B.D.V. and Jayaweera, V. (1994) Extension of the shelf life of 

Ambul Thiyal. Journal of National Aquatic Resources and Development 

Agency, v. 32, pp. 2-8. 

Lakshmi W.G.I, Prassanna P.H.P and Edirisinghe U. 

62


De Silva, S.S. (1981) Reservoir fishery present status and future target, 

Journal of Inland Fisheries, v. 2, pp. 23-32. 

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), (1996) Country Profile Sri Lanka, 

Rome Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, pp. 30. 

Gunarathne, S. and Samarajeewa, U. (1994) A Study on histamine production 

and control measures for fish and dried fish and the effect of processing 

on histamine, M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Food Science, Faculty of 

Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, pp. 38-39. 

Karyawasam, S. (2007) “Karige theeruwa”, Lankadeepa Newspaper, 

Colombo, Vijaya Publications, pp.7. 

Pathmalatha, A.G.L.A. (2001) “Preparation of Jaadi” B.Sc. Mini Project, 

Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of 

Peradeniya, pp. 1-2. 

Weerasinghe, T.J. (1991) “Jaadi” Journal of NARA, Corw Island, 

Mattakkuliya, Colombo15, pp. 3-8. 

63 




Volume 9 Number 1; December 2010 pp 65-80 

ISSN 1391-3166 

The Chinese Dragon Concept as a Spiritual 

Force of the Masses 

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. 1 and Zhou Chang C. 2 

1 

Department of Sociology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P.R.China. 

sri_2007@hotmail.com 

2 

Department of Sociology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, P.R. China. 

czhou@whu.edu.cn 

Abstract 

The concept of the Dragon is amalgamation of early tribes from the period of pre – 

historic era Ain the Chinese social structure. He is a proto - totemic beast later rise 

into a Dragon which we find each parts of his composition as a sacred body, meaning 

is attached denoting one of his qualities. In modern complex societies, with the 

specific interaction potentially drawn from different backgrounds, the distribution 

of cultural practices and knowledge of their meaning can become extremely complex. 

There cannot be making simple any local system or any patterns of interactions. 

The local social system or homogeneous has the highest degree of shared cultural 

practices. Cultural practices are those meaningful which forge and continue ongoing 

histories of social cultural coupling. The literature review on the Chinese cultural 

Dragon denotes that the geographical and social – cultural boundaries have been 

discrete and made relations with the different tribes and nations. 

Key words: Dragon Concept, Social Super Structure, Mass Consciousness, Social 

Development 

Introduction 

The “Dragon”, depicted in mythology, is a conceptual animal that exists 

lively in mass consciousness in both East and West in the world. The “Dragon 

culture” is deeply embedded into Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thailand and 

some other eastern and western cultures and considered as the domain of 

cultural practices. It is a creating practice in the mass consciousness which 

sustains as a viable trajectories of social structure; depicted in materially 

and non - materially from the ancient history. It is obvious that this culture 

should not be understood as a unified domain of which the content is shared 

by all. China, Japan, Korea, being industrialized societies, individuals engage 

in especially intense recurrent structural coupling with a small set of individuals, 

family, friends, workmates, acquaintance, sporadic structural larger group, 

bureaucrats, kin relation, etc. have never been underestimated or erased the 

65


cultural practices from their perception, diffusing from the date back 6000 

years in Neolithic Age (The famous Jade Dragon was excavated in the 

Inner Mongolia from the Hongshan Culture) (Bayer and Kevin,1992). The 

biological organism states and the trajectory result of its lived history inculcates 

habitués takes it to be. The mythologies on the Dragon acculturate and 

transcending the concept of “man is descending from the Dragon” as an 

individual form and let the masses to mingle with the ongoing social 

environment with seamless interconnected. 

Mythological Approach to the Dragon Concept 

The viable features and mutual codetermination of the Dragon and the social 

environmental practices are significantly different from Eastern to West. 

Social interaction, action, knowledge, power, virtue and interdependent things 

and much are based on the supreme spiritual power of the Dragon. These 

West and East Dragons represent the celestial and the terrestrial strength, 

power and wisdom. The Dragon is residing once in water and in sky brings 

the people mighty hopes, prosperity, cognitive world and becoming an 

individual agent and lives as a symbol in the perception of the masses. This 

mythical creature has an enormous force to fly and walk marvelously and 

has the ability to change its divine power rapidly. It is clear that the social 

system is in the highest degree of sharing these cultural practices. The 

homogeneous tradition has a huge net work of social system and remarked 

the China as “The land of Dragon” proudly and believed that the nation 

descended from Dragon. The biological phenomenon mingles into the social 

phenomenon and it triggers to articulate the ongoing history of social structure. 

The social system communicate that the soul and the savior of the Chinese 

nation is The Dragon and has become a fabulous and universal symbolic 

figure that is founded in most cultures throughout the world. 

The legends transmit the information of the Dragon as a loathsome beast 

and an evil enemy to humankind (Kiessling, 1970). It was a winged being; 

had a magical power to fly to god and come back to earth to create the 

human race (Goodkind, 1991). This creation has become an important 

symbology as a blueprint of the reality to express this cultural creation. 

From the very ancient body of the practices of Chinese culture, they validated 

explicitly four magical, spiritual and benevolent animals. They had been known 

as the “Dragon”, the “phoenix”, the “Unicorn”, and the “Tortoise’. The 

Dragon had been the most powerful, dominant and revered creature emerging 

from the social structure and became the trans-generational domain of 

practices in a social system. Metaphors, linguistic and other oral devices 

remark that his claws grasp an enormous magical pearl, which is capable of 

multiplying the power and strengthen of masses. The ancient social system 

Dharma Keerthi Sri Ranjan D.G. and Zhou Chang C. 

66


divulge and symbolizes the functional power of the “pearl” and believed that 

it would bring the prosperity, treasure, capabilities and wisdom for the people. 

So, the masses once respected and made responsible on it as “totem”. 

According to the products of innate and the endowments of the legends in 

China and the suburb adjoining territories, that The Dragon is a fabulous 

animal usually representing a monstrous winged and scaly serpent or saurian 

with a crested head and enormous claws and a monster, represented usually 

as a gigantic reptiles having a big lion’s claws and breathing fire. The Dragon 

seems to be the product of culture; apprehended multi origin around the 

different cultures in the world, based loosely on the appearance of a snake 

and possibly fossilized dinosaur remains. The concept of the Dragon is 

omnipresent in the socio – cultural structure and the initiation of rites and the 

passage from the childhood to death. 

The cultural categories and products in one society seem to be either formal 

or informal transformation from other cultures and its own. At the early 

stages of Egyptian periods, it was considered that the Dragon and serpent 

worshipping cult had been appeared and developed in various forms 

(Hornblower, 1933). This cult gradually spreads to India and the Oriental 

world, the other Pacific Islands, and finally the North American continent 

mingled into the socio and cultural systems (Smith, 1918). In the period of 

Roman, this revered cult reached its peak and disappeared at the advent of 

god concept of the Christian religion. The themes here were similar in some 

respects to those of totem which was a particularly apropos choice of the 

people. The basic distinction between animals and humans is that animals 

belong to the nature and humans to the culture. This object of ethnography 

is to discover how relations are apprehending in nature to generate cultural 

products. 

The distinctive features of the mythical creature have the ability to arise 

from his superior power to control the water and create flood. They are 

believed to be lived at the bottom of the sea where they guarded vast treasure 

hoards, most frequently of pearls (Nilsson, 1947). Rain clouds, thunder and 

lightning are believed to be the dragons breathe, hence the fire-breathing 

monster (Orange, 1959). He is essentially a benevolent son of heaven who 

can control the watery elements of the universe. 

As a conventional trans-generational domain of cultural and social practices, 

the Dragon concept had become a main and integral part of the culture. 

Mostly the salient feature of the Dragon culture in Japan is depicted in 

Buddhist temples which have been a familiar object. The people should 

enter the shrine room to worship Lord Buddha and invoke blessings through 

the dragon mouth or should be purified with the pure water streaming down 

from the mouth of the dragon. The “Phoenix” is the other subgeniculate 

67 

The Chinese Dragon Concept as a Spiritual Force of the Masses


creature which is strongly combined with the concept of the Dragon. Much 

more innate creational legends on the Phoenix as a taxonomic structure 

immerged and influenced to organize and to construct in making a relational 

net work of the social system. 

The fables and legends say that the Dragon is a central figure of both good 

and evil in the Chinese culture. According to the legends in China, the Dragon 

had originated in the middle kingdom and had five toes. Some of the Dragon 

had four toes and some had three toes. Finally the Dragon is seen to be a 

gregarious creature who can make people wandered was created by the 

nature. 

The historical legends say that if the Dragon would step out from China, he 

could lose more toes. i.e. when the Dragon would reach to Korea it could 

lose one toe and by the time he would move to Japan he could lose another 

toe. According to this the Japanese dragon has three toes. This also explains 

why he had never been to Europe or the Americas (Smith, 1918). If he 

would move that far, he could lose all of his toes and could not be able to 

walk. So Dragon lore says he is lazy to walk away from this region. 

The Dragon Culture in Himalaya and Tibet as a Spirit 

The most prominent historical evidence convinces that the Dragon culture 

had been embedded into Himalaya Mountain ranging from the very ancient 

times. The Dragon concept is most drastically mingled into the Tibet culture 

which is situated next to the Himalaya range. However in the southern 

ranges of Himalaya, the myths of the Dragon and the concept of nagas 

(Cobra) of India had been mingling one another. The Dragon in Tibet is 

known as Druk (‘brug), Drug or Zhug. Bhutan, the kingdom at the southern 

border of the Himalaya is being called Druk Yul; the “land of the peaceful 

Dragon” or the “thunder dragon land”. The dragon concept emerged and 

embodied practices in the temples which have known as the dragon temples. 

Many monuments of the Dragon are alive viably at present. 

Many legends and archaeological evidences convince that the concept of 

the Dragon who impacts on the social structure at the Himalayan regions, 

back at least to the “Tang” Dynasty in China. “Li Yuanding” travelled during 

the reign of “Tang” to the ancient kingdom in Himalaya where he saw Dragon 

images in the tent of the king. 

In Lhasa, a city in the territory of ancient ‘Zhangzhung’ is a monastery 

“Jo’khang” or “Tsuglagk’ang” where a statue of Shakyamuni Buddha 

has been found. In the front side of it, there are two pillars with Dragon. 

During the period of “Tang” Tibet came in touch with the Chinese feng shui 

and some traces of them are still seen to be alive. Sporadic structural coupling 

with much larger groups combined with closer kin relations are lived as a 

part of the social structure. 


68


The green Dragon was found south in Lhasa. The Dragon was symbolizing 

the heroic attributes like nobility, strength and fortitude. In the blue sky there 

was a Jade Dragon. He lived in a Purple cloud city. It reminds on the heavenly 

palace of Chinese Dragon (Liang and Zhang, 2006). 

According to the mythological and cultural practices of the Tibetan 

community, the most important spirits of the Tibet were the Klu which were 

more feared than the Druk. The myths were mingling up with the cult of the 

Nagas in India from the beginning (Grinstead, 1967). If there is a lack of 

fundamental knowledge on these cults, no one is led to identify clearly the 

differences in between and its relations to the social structural coupling. 

Most historical mythologists have been greatly explaining that the Klu are 

the Tibetan version of the Chinese water Dragon. Their dwellings probably 

were in the fountains, rivers and seas. The king of them lived in a palace 

under the water same as the Dragon king in china. The female of the Klu 

was known as “Klu mo” and the queen was named as “Yum klu mo yak”. 

She was not one of the nice and peaceful breed and her garments were 

made up of snakes. When she rid out, she had a bag full of diseases with 

her. Another much friendlier “Klu mo” wears a garment of cloudy silk and 

feathers. The name of the wife of king Gesar is Sengjam Zhugmo, known 

as the daughter of the Dragon. Today, most of the women in Tibet bear the 

name Zhugmo. Klu is taking the responsibility for illness and disease. This 

local social system had embedded cult and mythologies but later societies 

were unable to attenuate networks of social interaction in this regard. 

The Druk is different from Nagas of India and considered as protectors 

against enemies. The Dragon Druk had five claws and was the vehicle of 

some protective deities of the Tibet. She was of dark blue complexion and 

held in her right hand a crocodile banner and a small mirror. 

These histories show how these myths influence on the society and their 

behavioral pattern on the human. In any society myths play an important 

role. The Chinese villagers and inhabitants engaged in a long history of 

ongoing relationships with neighboring villages. They had built up a huge net 

work of social relations and understandings, believed and bound to the social 

relational cult brings by the historical evidences. These cults help to make 

social and collective consciousness in the community. 

Dragon in Japan 

The Dragon concept in Japan is famous in the world as well as the Dragon 

in China. The concept of the Dragon has been diffusing out all over Asia if 

the different cultural practices were functioning. The Dragon in Japan is 

similar to their Chinese counterparts. According to the Japanese language 

the Dragon is called “Tatsu” or” Ryu”. “Tatsu” has been identified as the 

69 



three claws dragon. It is true that the concept of Dragon in Japan goes back 

to the people in pre - historic age. No longer could we see a Dragon as same 

as in china but all the elements of the culture are different from one another 

(Komatsu, 1978). When the Dragon departs away from Japan, the more 

toes would grow. So the Chinese and other Dragon have more than three 

toes. According to the Chinese social practices Dragon is the symbol of 

most divine protection. But Japanese traditional description has remarked 

the Dragon as a symbol of power. It would not be unexpected that there are 

variations in cultural practices. In the Japanese socio - cultural structure the 

community revere for the various types of Dragons (Daniels, 1960). But 

with no knowledge of the meaning of cultural practices and its elements, no 

one could understand socio - cultural structures. The Concept of the Dragon 

in Japan is enormously powerful in their cultural practices and traditions. 

Japanese culture has imposed duties and responsibilities on the Dragon 

according to their various cultural practices. 

Dragon in Korean 

The Dragon represents in the Korean social structure is different from the 

Dragon in Japan and in China. The Korean dragon has four toes. The Korean 

community believes that the origin of all eastern Dragons in Korea. When 

the dragons leave Korea towards China, they would gain more toes and a 

reverse could happen when it would moves towards Japan. The Koreans do 

not believe that the social structure of relations to concept of Dragon deriving 

from some other domain. Their habits and the ways of thinking are 

demonstrating their cultural practices. 

The Dragon has been symbolized particularly in the ancient Korean arts 

calligraphy and etc. The political stream from the very ancient time mingled 

into and interacted with the concept of the dragon. The Korean Dragon was 

said to have certain specific traits: no wings, and have a long beard. The 

Korean mythologies and legends indicated that the history of the Dragon 

had survived from the thousands and years ago. The history of the Dragon 

runs back into the pre- historic era in the Korean history. The Dragon is 

revered as a totem and believed it has a marvelous spiritual power to change 

the world. 

The Dragon Concept in West and its Influence 

All within the conceptual frame of the Dragon concept remarks the 

hierarchical structure and a large degree at different levels from the traditional 

features to the popular culture. But all units have been incorporated into a 

same category and representing as a uniformly concept if the cultures use 

different ways and different functions. Similarly, the dragon in the West 


70


represents rich diversity when it spreads from culture to culture. For somehow 

both Dragons in British and Celtic culture have a close association with 

water as the Asian Dragon does and has differently lives in material culture 

and human perceptual mechanism. 

Particularly the Western type of Dragon has its own unique and significant 

features (Simpson, 1978). The unquestioned cultural assumption 

conceptualized the appearance of the Dragon as parts from various creatures. 

The legends explicitly announce that the Dragon contains of lion’s forelimbs 

and head, antelope’s horns, eagle’s feet and wings, fish’s scales, and a 

serpentine form of trunk and tail, etc (Smith, 1918). These are explicitly 

aware that the physical parts of the Dragon are similar to the Asian Dragon. 

The Dragon, in British social structure is known as “Wyrm”, an outdated 

word for “worm”, an entails as a large serpentine creature, closely related 

with water. According to the traits represents by the Western Dragons; 

“Wyrm” has been always identified as a cruel and evil beast. However, 

Dragon represents along the sides of their boats, and used as a symbol by 

the many English families and coat of arms. Welsh flag represents the image 

of the Dragon. It strictly remarks and it bears direct and indirect relationship 

to the physical objects. The concept of the western Dragon is a most 

fascinating and mostly represents the popular culture which benefited at the 

super structure of the society. 

Celtics believe that the Dragon is greatly influencing on their mother land 

and posses the special power to manage the social system. There is a clear 

similarity here with the Chinese Feng Shui Dragon. Celtic Dragon lives 

both in water and earth. The physical characteristics represent it as natural 

object and live as sea serpent but no legs, and differ from the others. Celtic 

Dragon is arguably the most powerful and manipulates the surrounding spaces 

particularly in Irish. Closely correlated with the elements of the actions 

regards to the Dragon concept is the fact that, they have discrete boundaries 

which separated them from geographically and socially. 

According to the Western and Eastern tradition and the mythologies that the 

Dragon is supposed the enemy of the sun and the moon and is believed to be 

responsible for eclipses. In the African continent too, the concept of Dragon 

has been explained in multiple perspectives. Culturally constructed Dragon 

in Africa is most wicked and has the devastating power. 

Armenian legends depicts that the dragon has marvelous power to fire and 

making lightning (Hornblower, 1933). According to Macedonian mythology, 

the god has to stay under the control of Dragon, and has the great 

strengthened to make thunderbolts and send them to human world. A dead 

71 



man is thought to rebirth at Dragon. The Dragon is believed to be the 

guardians of treasures in burial chambers. The concept of the Dragon 

provides the fundamental groundings for the community to operate their 

patterns of behavior. 

In the Greek legends, the concept of the Dragon has been described explicitly 

and generated practices in the disposition mentality and the social behavior 

of the community. The concept of Hercules is highly durable and persists 

through the life of the people. The mythology described that the Hercules 

encountered, and killed the Dragon laden while fulfilling his eleventh labor. 

The Scandinavian history, social structure and the literature is inscribed that 

the Beowulf was slain by a Dragon (Lawrence, 1918). 

The concepts of the Dragon and the concepts of the Hercules are still alive 

and disposition of the habitués of the people and generate continually the 

social production and reproduction. The pebbles and mythologies are 

extending information and providing the groundings for the masses to operate 

fundamentally, what always must be taken for granted. It corresponds to 

what can be explicitly stated and critically reflected on. 

The Different Features of the Dragon from Female to Male: 

The concept of the Dragon depicts and expresses the biological differences 

and the social position of the male and the female Dragon. Legends do not 

dare to inculcate that the organism or biological differences are considered 

as a privilege as well as duty. The state of male and female organism 

participating in social structural coupling highly depicts the vary in social 

positions. It is directly reflected that the dragon labor is different from female 

to male. For instance, male Dragon usually holds a club in their hand while 

females hold a fan. The club shows the wickedness of the male dragon. 

The male Dragon horns are thinner near the base of the head and thicker 

and stronger outwardly. Females have nicer mane. They are rounder, and 

seen as more balanced than the rigid mane of the males. Its nose is usually 

straight, their scales are thinner, and has a thicker tail. In every continental 

Dragons brought by the mythologies are varied from one another. 

The Dragon as a Spiritual Force of the People and Authority: 

The Dragon is the most powerful and strengthened animal or totem living in 

the consciousness of the Chinese masses. The Dragon is named as “Long” 

or “lung” in Chinese language. According to the social structural 

phenomenological responding of the Chinese, the Dragon physically consists 

of 117 scales. 81 of them are totally remarks as positive and 36 of them are 


72


considered as negative. So, he displays both negative and positive factors 

(Zhao, 1989).This malevolent influence on the Dragon is highly for their 

destructive and aggressive tasks. He has a great strength to devastate the 

property, to form of floods making of the tidal waves and storms badly. 

The historical sources of the Chinese convey separated from modern civilized 

scientific thought patterns from those of primitive traditional thoughts of 

people. The history of the Chinese is vastly different form the present 

technological development era. The lives of the ancient traditional Chinese 

were hard and had to confront many attacks from the divers regions. China 

is a vast county experienced with different tribes and revered for the different 

totems. They believe the totems as their ancestors who would protect them 

and could avert disasters. i.e. a tribe lived in Central China at the Yellow 

River honored the snake as their totem. When they conquered foes their 

tribe added the parts of other totems to their snake totem. i.e. when the tribe 

honors the deer, the antlers of the deer sought to add the head of the snake. 

According to the Chinese mythology, at last the mixture images of the Dragon 

came into being. i.e. the deer’s antlers, the camel’s head, the hare’s eye, the 

snake’s neck, the carp’s scales, the eagle’s claws, the tiger’s paws; and the 

ox’s ears and etc. 

The history of the social structural coupling has been inscribed the various 

origination patterns of the Dragon. One of the mythologies inculcates that 

the production of the Dragon emerges from the alligator. Chinese Dragon 

reflects many myths and vice versa. The astrological impact is enormous on 

the masses and they have a celestial time table of the zodiac invents of the 

Dragon (Stokley, 1973., Azarpay and Kilmer, 1978). The name of the Dragon 

was indulged to slither into the science, Botany, agriculture and etc. i.e. 

Lung Li Yeh – Peaking pronunciation (Lung – Dragon, Li or lei– tongue, 

Yeh – leaf/ Lung Lei Ts’o., Ts’o – Plant). “Dragon tongue” refers to oblong 

– oblanceolate leaves / plant (Ying 1967., Daniels, 1960). 

In the Chinese history, it is depicted that there were two ancestors. They 

were Nuwa and Fuxi. According to the legend, they had dual features of 

body; head from the human and the body looked as either serpent or Dragon. 

The Yellow Emperor was regarded as the ancestor of the tribes in Central 

Chinese community. Legends assumed that he had the body of yellow dragon. 

When the Xia Dynasty was established in 21 century BC, the Dragon 

gradually became the ancestor of the royal family which further strengthened 

the Dragon’s dominant position in Chinese culture. 

In the period of Han Dynasty, the concept of the Dragon had sentimental 

varying arrangements of the culture (Liang and Zhang, 2006). The first Han 

Emperor “liu Bang” was born due to the sexual behavior of his mother 

73 



with a red dragon. The emperor “Liu Bang” believed to be the heavenly son 

of real Dragon who ruled the world by divine rights. The Dragon was 

omnipresent in the emperor palace. Ultimately the whole of the cultural 

elements of the emperor was based on the Dragon concept. i.e. emperor’s 

robe was called the Dragon robe, the throne was called “Dragon seat”, and 

the emperor’s bed was called the Dragon bed (Cammann, 1951). The 

emperors particularly revered the yellow or golden Dragon who has five 

claws. In the period of “Chine” dynasty the Dragon was clad into the national 

flag. To wearing Dragon symbolized clothes were banned and were a major 

offence. The Dragon had been carved in the staircases of imperial palaces 

and tombs. i.e. the Forbidden City in Beijing (Hua and Xian, 2005). These 

decorations of the Dragon displayed mighty appearance to the civilians of 

the kings. The Dragon became the symbol of the imperial supreme power 

and authority. 

Some legends emphasize that the emperors were born with the birthmarks 

of the Dragon. i.e. one of the mythology inculcated that “these birthmarks 

of the Dragon never let the princes to be hidden from their enemies”. 

Dragon’s Nine Spiritual Forces and Nine Sons in the Chinese 

Culture: 

There are nine types of Dragons in the Chinese culture. But their capabilities 

and the appearance are different from one another. Number nine is remarked 

as lucky to the Chinese which is probably the concept highlighted below. 

-The Horned Dragon - who is completely deaf, powerful and ability to produce 

rain. 

-The Celestial Dragon - who is protecting the gods. 

-The Spiritual Dragon - Who controls the wind and the rain 

-The Earth Dragon - Who rules all water and run through the earth. 

-The Underworld Dragon - who protects the precious metal, gems and 

the hidden fortunes. 

-The Winged Dragon - who has wings. 

-The Coiling Dragon - who dwells in the water in lakes. 

-The Yellow Dragon - who emerged from the sea and gave the knowledge 

of writing to the ancient Chinese emperor Fu Xi. 


74


-The Dragon Kings - who has a group of four dragons that control the four 

seas: North, West, South, and East. (Grinstead, 1967) 

According to the Chinese masses “The Dragon has nine sons who are 

different in appearance, abilities and the interests. But all they have strong 

personality”. There is no general agreement on the Dragon’s nine sons 

according to the traditional masses and the legends. Another kind of Dragon’s 

nine sons was found in some other legends. 

− Qiuniu - The eldest son loves music, whose image carved in many traditional 

Chinese instruments. 

− Yazi: - The second son who is bad-tempered, and inclined to fight. Often 

appears on ancient weapons. It’s carved in sword-hilt, knife hilt and battle 

axe. It is said that this figure empowers weapons. 

− Chao Feng: - The third son, who is fearless, loves to take risks and watch 

from high places. So he is decorated the corners of palace roofs in ancient 

China. 

− Pulao: - The forth son, who is fond of roaring. His figure is put on bell 

handles. Lives near the sea but fears to meet the big whale. 

− Suanmi: - The fifth son who is fond of smoke and fire. Its figure appears 

like lion and legs are fixed for the incense-burners. He is considered as the 

guardian Dragon. 

− Baxia or bixi: - The sixth son, who has great strength and desired to carry 

heavy things. 

− Bi An: - The seventh son who is like tiger. He is wise and willing to know 

what is good and evil. So, the prisons and courts are decorated with his 

figure. 

− Fuxi: - The eighth son who loves literature. His figure is carved on stone 

tablets with inscriptions. 

− Chi Wen: - The ninth son who likes swallowing things. He is said to be in 

charge of rainfall. So he is designed for the safeguard of palaces from fire. 

This nine Dragon concept is deeply embodied in Chinese culture, being preconscious, 

highly durable and persists through the life of the masses. This is 

a social and cultural construction instead of being an individual one. Adults 

coach children in retelling the events of the Dragon and his incidents. The 

children are not allowed to diverge from the adult recalling of the events of 

the Dragon (Socialization). So adults are contextualizing their sons into the 

75 



Dragon culture. The masses are strongly fostered the dragon cultural structure 

by the endemic fictionalizing mainstream. 

Dragon Depicted in the Chinese Architecture, Paintings, and in the 

Material Culture 

The history of the cave paintings associates more than 25,000years. i.e. the 

rock paintings found in Shanxi province in China are older than 8000 BC 

years. In these cave paintings, the Dragon picture had been depicted. The 

Dragon symbol has been strongly contextualized into the material culture 

and indicated the similarities and differences in association with the Dragon 

categorization (Hornblower, 1933). It shows up in arts (Ward, 1898), literature, 

poetry, architecture, songs, and many aspects of the Chinese consciousness. 

Some of them can be articulated as follows; 

Vase:- In the reign of “Chia Ching” (1532-1455) the Porcelain vessels 

were colored (five), enameled and decorated in imperial five clawed Dragons 

sporting amid in the waves of the Sea. They are still alive at the Art Treasures 

of the Peking Museum. 

Wine Jar: - The Chinese ceramic and stoneware vessels which had been 

brilliantly colored with the Dragon features, has a long history and it was 

popular in the reign of Ming Dynasty in the early period of 16th century. 

This heralded the long history of the Dragon culture and the Chinese ceramics. 

Royal Dragon robes of emperors:- In the reign of the “Tai-Tsung” (626 

– 649 AD), in the “Tang” Dynasty yellow color was used only in the royal 

purposes. The Empress “Xiao Jing” embroidered the 100 boy’s jackets 

with figures of Dragons. (Cammann, 1951) 

Gilded bronze dragon:- The gilded bronzed Dragon in the period of “Tang” 

Dynasty (618-906 AD) was excavated at the city of Xi’an in the Shaanxi 

Province in China in1975. They are well protected in the Shaanxi History 

Museum. 

Red Dragon:- A pair of red Dragon was painted in a lacquer brush - pot in 

the period of “Wan-li” (1573-1620). 

Nine Dragon Wall:- The Nine Dragon Wall built in 1756 existing in the 

BaiHai Park in Beijing, China was 21m long, 15m high and 2m thick and 

depicted 635 Dragons in addition to the main nine Dragons. It is faced with 

4247 colors ceramic tiles. There is a giant Dragon exists at the centre of the 

wall. The wall is covered from edge to edge with many smaller Dragons. 


76


Awakening of the Dragon in the Chinese Culture 

The Dragon boat festival is one of the remarkable ceremonies that associate 

with the history of more than 2000 years. The Gregorian calendar says that 

it usually falls in the month of June. Customs, values, norms, beliefs, and 

some other ethnographic realities are behind this boat festival. The festival 

was begun at the demise of “Qu Yuan” (340-278 BC). “Qu Yuan” a minister 

of the State of “Chu” and adviser to strengthen the military power against 

“Qin” state, and was one of the earliest poets in China. He advocated 

enriching the country of strengthening its military forces to fight against the 

Qin. Later he was exiled by the king Huai and composed a great poem at 

his exiled days and named it as “Li Sao” (The Lament), Tian Wen (Heavenly 

Questions) and Jiu Ge (Nine Songs). 

He plunged himself into the “Miluo” River, and die, at the date of 5th of the 

5th month. With the demise of “Qu Yuan”, people lamented at the river 

bank and fishers sailed their boats up and down to find the dead body of the 

minister. People threw zongzi (pyramid-shaped glutinous rice dumplings 

wrapped in reed or bamboo leaves - which ate only in spring and autumn 

from the 770 BC) to water to prevent the body attacked from the fish. 

Masses followed these customs, racing Dragon boat, eating zongzi and 

drinking wine on the same day. At present at the time of this great event, the 

people enjoy and entertain with their relations at the river banks throughout 

the country. The zongzi is now popular in North and South Korea, Japan 

and Southeast Asian nations. 

But meticulous research, appreciating that the Dragon boat racing festival is 

a semi-religious and semi-entertaining program from the Warring States (475- 

221 BC) (Chow, 1968). This has been famous in Asian and some western 

countries. From 1980, it has been listed into the state sports competition 

programs. The winner is offered the award, called “Qu Yuan Cup.” 

Particularly, at the beginning and at the end of the voyage, conventionally, 

they are paying rites. The anthropologists say that these rituals at the festival 

should be treated as white magic. The ritualistic aspect of Dragon boat 

festival certainly is regarded as a deep cultural heritage and spring up to the 

religious beliefs. The main purpose of this festival is to “pray” for the gods 

and the giving “Life” for the Dragon. At present Taoist priest perform this 

ritual. 

Chinese Cultural Dragon Dance Performance 

The Dragon Dance or lantern dance, was originated as folk dance in China 

in the period of Han dynasty. 

77 



This greatly respected Dragon puppet is called sacred Dragon. This has 

become a special performance of arts in the Chinese physical and mental 

functioning. The Dragon dance is a skilled team effort. In Song Dynasty in 

the 10th century, the Dragon was used with lanterns to form a kind of visual 

arts. The Dragon lantern dance became a major item of entertainment during 

the festive period which is on the 15th day of the first lunar month. This 

festival is celebrated to achieve bumper harvest in their agriculture at locally, 

regionally and nationally throughout the China, forging and sustaining the 

cultural practices to suite to the modern society. Particularly, “Dragon Raising 

Head Day” is taken place in every 2nd of lunar February. People cut their 

hair with the hope of a happy life with one another. The movement of the 

dance is pretending of chasing the pearls and displaying a powerful and 

majestic momentum. The various patterns of the dance fulfill the ambitions 

of the people through these events 

To perform the Dragon cultural dance, there should be many performers 

and it is used for the different symbolic and festive reasons. When lion 

dance is performed, it requires two persons. The size and the shape of the 

lion are totally different from the Dragon. The lion dance is thought to bring 

prosper and blessings for the wedded life and the business purposes people. 

Conclusion 

According to the Anthropological and sociological perspective, researching 

and recognition of the folklore, in the “primitive and the mass societies” as 

an educational tool for transmission of cultural conventions, social integrative 

quality and the institutional aspect of values, pattern of entertaining and its 

physical and mental aspects, histories from one generation to the next which 

functioning in the Dragon culture should be documented as an important 

contributions. The man is emotional at least as much as reason and he is 

constantly vigilant to discover the emotional as well as the rational basis of 

human action. 

Their functional, traditional and dramatically diversities comes alive grasping 

the modernity, portraying the validity of them for the rapid development of 

the country and to reach the unique goal. The Chinese Dragon, stretching its 

hands throughout all the regions controls and leads the social system varying 

from tradition to the modernity. The Belief and the behavior on the Dragon 

has been leading the masses to alive as a spiritual force in their mind and in 

the functional activities of the social system. The Chinese entertaining culture 

helps to make this event alive in the social super structure. 


78


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Azarpay, G. and A.D. Kilmer, (1978) The Eclipse Dragon on an Arabic 

Frontispiece - Miniature, Journal of the American Oriental Society, v. 

98, pp. 363-374. 

Bayer, N. and Kevin, S. (1992) Mongol Creation Stories: Man, Mongol 

Tribes, the Natural World, and Mongol Deities, Asian Folklore Studies, 

v. 51, pp. 323-334. 

Cammann, S. (1951) The Making of Dragon Robes, T’oung Pao, Second 

Series, v. 40, pp. 297-321. 

Chow, F. (1968) A Dragon-Boat Regatta, The Metropolitan Museum of Art 

Bulletin, New Series, v. 26, pp. 389-398. 

Daniels, F.J. (1960) Snake and Dragon Lore of Japan, Folklore, v. 71, pp. 

145-164. 

Goodkind, D.M. (1991) Source Creating New Traditions in Modern Chinese 

Populations: Aiming for Birth in the Year of the Dragon, Population and 

Development Review, v. 17, pp. 663-686. 

Grinstead, E. D.(1967) The Dragon King of the Sea, The British Museum 

Quarterly, v. 31, pp. 96-100. 

Hornblower, G.D. (1933) Source Early Dragon-Forms: Man, v.33, pp. 79- 

87. 

Hua, J. M. and Xian, W.H. (2005) A survey of Chinese Society and Culture, 

China. 

Kiessling, N.K.(1970) Antecedents of the Medieval Dragon in Sacred History, 

Journal of Biblical Literature, v. 89, pp. 167-177. 

Komatsu, K. (1978) The Dragon Palace Child: An Anthropological and Socio 

-historical Approach, Current Anthropology, v. 28, pp. 831-839. 

Lawrence, W.W. (1918) The Dragon and His Lair in Beowulf. PMLA, 

v. 33(4), pp. 547-583. 

Liang Q.H. and Zhang, H. (2006) A talk on Traditional Culture: The Language 

Perspective, China. 

Nilsson, M.P. (1947) The Dragon on the Treasure, The American Journal of 

Philology, v. 68, pp. 302-309. 

Orange, L.E. (1959) Spenser’s Old Dragon, Modern Language Notes, 

v. 74, pp. 679-681. 

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Simpson, J. (1978) Fifty British Dragon Tales: An Analysis, Folklore, v. 89, 

pp. 79-93. 

Smith, G.E.(1918) An American Dragon, Man, v. 18, pp. 161-166. 

Stokley, J. (1973) Dragon Visible in September, Science News, v. 104, pp. 

126. 

Ward, W.H. (1898) Bel and the Dragon. The American Journal of Semitic 

Languages and Literatures, v. 14, pp. 94-105. 

Ying Hu, S. (1967) The Economic Botany of Dragon Tongue, Economic 

Botany, v. 21, pp. 288-292. 

Zhao, Q. (1989) Chinese Mythology in the Context of Hydraulic Society, 

Asian Folklore Studies, v. 48, pp. 231 – 246. 


80



ISSN 1391-3166 

A Comparison of Nitrate Distribution in 

Shallow Groundwater of Two Agricultural 

Areas in Sri Lanka and in Japan 

Gunatilake, S.K. 1 and Iwao, Y. 2 

1 

Department of Natural Resources, Faculty of Applied Sciences, 

Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya, P.O Box 02. 

sksg@sab.ac.lk 

2 

Department of Civil Engineering, Saga University, Saga 840, Japan, 

iwaoy@cc.saga-u.ac.jp 

Abstract 

This paper compares the effects of adding fertilizer in nitrate pollution of 

groundwater in the Udunuwara area in Sri Lanka and the Shiroishi Plain in Japan. 

Excessive application of nitrogen fertilizers to soils contributes to contamination 

of groundwater by nitrates. As nitrate is one of the most identified contaminant in 

groundwater several environmental protection agencies maximum contamination 

level for nitrate is 10 mg/l as NO 3 

-N. The problem becomes severe in rural areas 

where people depend entirely on dug wells in the shallow groundwater table for 

their drinking water supply. Several locations were selected from the Udunuwara 

area of Sri Lanka for the detailed study. Nineteen shallow dug wells and 4 deep tube 

wells were selected for water sampling beginning of January to March 1998. 

Shiroishi Plain in Japan reclaimed from the Ariake Sea has a soil layer consisting of 

Ariake clay. The total 82 drug wells of average depth 1.5 m had been drilled around 

the area. Sample were collected in December 2000 and continued for one year 

around. Nitrate concentration in groundwater was measured by Cadmium reduction 

method. 

The results showed a varying nitrate distribution pattern compared to that the 

Udunuwara area. The effect of fertilizer application on groundwater depends on 

soil type, fertilizer type and amount used, crop type and climatic condition. The 

highly permeable soil around Udunuwara area showed that shallow groundwater 

is highly vulnerable for nitrate than the poorly drained soil of the Shiroishi Plain in 

Japan. As the people living in Shiroishi Plain use deep groundwater for domestic 

purposes, drinking water is safe (less than Maximum Contaminated Level for nitrate 

in drinking water for Japan-10 mg/l as NO 3 

-N) as far as the nitrate contamination is 

concerned. The results of these studies suggest that applying the correct rate of N 

fertilizer at the optimum time would have a substantial effect on reducing nitrate-N 

losses. 

Key Words: Nitate Contamination, Groundwater, Land Reclamation, Fertilizer 

81


Introduction 

Pollution of groundwater by nitrates is presently receiving increasing attention 

in the world. All living systems need nitrogen to exist as it is used to build 

many essential components such as proteins, DNA, RNA, and vitamins as 

well as hormones and enzymes. However, it becomes potentially hazardous 

when present in drinking water at significantly high concentrations. 

Groundwater is one of the most important natural resources and the main 

source of drinking water in many countries of the world. Studies on the 

effect of fertilization and groundwater pollution in intensive agricultural areas 

are of prime importance. The current research study was aimed to investigate 

how far the problem as of excessive nitrates has affected the quality of 

regional groundwater under different climatic conditions (wet zone in Sri 

Lanka and lowland in Japan). The behavior of the geochemistry of nitrate 

distribution during periodical application of fertilizers in the wet zone on Sri 

Lanka and the lowlands in Japan was compared. 

Nitrate rich drinking water, is potentially harmful to human health, particularly 

to infants causing the condition known as methemoglobinemia, also called 

“blue baby syndrome” (Dissanayake et al. 1984) (Figure 1). It is therefore 

recommended that pregnant women and lactating mothers should limit the 

nitrate consumption. Possible connections between nitrate and other health 

problems such as nervous system disorders, cancer, and heart damage, are 

not well documented. 

NO 3 IN SOIL 

BIOLOGICAL AN D CHEMICA L DENITIFICATION 

NO 3 IN GROUNDWAT ER 

WATER TREATMENT 

NO3 IN DRINKING WATER 

NO3 IN FOOD 

NO 3 IN HUMAN BEINGS 

MICROBIAL REDUCTIO N 

NO2 IN FOOD 

NO 2 IN HU MAN BEINGS 

METHEMOGLOBINEMIA 

REACTION WITH NITROSAMINES & 

NITROSAMIDS 

N.NITROSO COMPOUNDS 

WORKING PLACE, SMOKING N.NITROSO COMPOUNDS 

PHARMA CEUTICALS IN HUMAN BEINGS CANCE R(?) 

Figure 1: Nitrate pathways and metabolism (Paul and Clark, 1989) 

Gunatilake, S.K. and Iwao, Y. 

82


According to the study on the distribution of nitrates in the groundwater of 

Sri Lanka, it has been suggested that a direct relationship exists between the 

nitrate concentrations in groundwater and paddy cultivation, and with the 

population distribution (Dissanayake and Weerasooriya, 1987). Dense paddy 

cultivations in the wetlands of Sri Lanka showed the maximum average 

nitrate levels, polluting drinking water sources. Since a large percentage of 

the village people entirely depend on the shallow groundwater through shallow 

dug wells, the problem of nitrate contamination becomes more crucial 

(Dissanayake et al., 1984). The Udunuwara area south west of Kandy in 

the central Sri Lanka was selected to study the effect of application of 

nitrogenous fertilizers on nitrate contamination of groundwater during the 

Maha (January – April) paddy cultivation season. 

The Shiroishi Plain is lowland reclaimed from the Ariake Sea in several 

stages during the last 200 years (Figure 2). It is the most developed 

agricultural area in Japan and largest paddy cultivation in the Kyushu Island. 

As the area consists of poorly drained Ariake clay, there are modified creeks 

and subsurface drainage systems made to make the area suitable for 

agriculture. These modified creeks and subsurface drainage systems however 

base a risk for surface water quality, shallow groundwater and may also 

affect the deep groundwater table. Investigations therefore focused on the 

effect of application of fertilizer on shallow and deep groundwater under 

land modification and intensive agricultural practices. 

N 

Kas e River 

Shiroishi 

Plain 

Japan 

Rokkaku River 

Saga Plain 

Shiroishi Plain 

Shiota Riv er 

0 4km 

Ariake Sea 

-1860 1861-1911 1912-1925 1926-1944 1945-1975 

Figure 2: Reclamation Stages of the Shiroishi and Saga Plain 

83 

A Comparison of Nitrate Distribution in Shallow Groundwater of Two Agricultural 

Areas in Sri Lanka and in Japan


Methodology 

A total number of 115 groundwater samples were collected from 23 selected 

dug wells and 4 tube wells of the Udunuwara area in Sri Lanka, at frequent 

intervals during January to March 1998, which coincides with the Maha 

season. An attempts was made to select the sampling locations within the 

paddy fields or adjacent to paddy fields or along the flow of groundwater 

from paddy cultivated areas. Reference sampling points were also selected 

at close proximity. The sampling was carried out every 2 weeks in order to 

observe the variation of the nitrate concentration in groundwater caused by 

the application of nitrate fertilizers to the adjacent paddy fields. All-important 

information on location, hydrology, geology, landuse etc. was also recorded. 

Water samples collected into pre-cleaned plastic bottles which were quickly 

transported to the laboratory for immediate analysis and to prevent any 

influence of microbiological activity. Samples were analysed for nitrate using 

the cadmium reduction method. DR/2000 HACH programmable 

spectrophotometer was utilized for the colorimetric determination using 

HACH powder pillows. 

The field study of the Sriroishi Plain in Japan commenced in December 

2000 and a total of 82 numbers of shallow wells were drilled within the 

uppermost soft Ariake clay (Figure 3). The shallow well were approximately 

1.5 m deep. A base map of the Shiroishi Plain with 1 square kilometer grid 

reference was used for sampling. Locations were selected within the study 

area, making sure that the only possible source for nitrate fertilizers. Water 

from the shallow wells was sampled into pre-cleaned plastic bottles using a 

submersible type pump. Before each sample is collected, the static well 

water depth was measured. Several samples of drainage water at the outlets 

of the creeks passing into the interceptor drains, deep groundwater (around 

80 m deep) and interceptor drain water samples were measured at monthly 

intervals. The portable HACH DR/2010 spectrophotometer was used for 

in-situ analysis. As the farmers use nitrogen fertilizers and phosphorus 

fertilizers together in their land nitrate, ammonia and phosphate concentrations 

of the water samples were measured. The nitrate concentrations in the 

samples were measured by the cadmium reduction method using the Nitraver 

5 powder pillows. The pH of the water sample was obtained using pH 

indicator papers. 


84


Figure 3: Location Map of the Study Area 


(a) Case study : Udunuwara Area in Kandy District in Sri Lanka 

Results of the chemical analysis indicate that the nitrate concentration of 

groundwater in the Udunuwara area, vary between 1 to 62 mg/l (Figure 4). 

Relatively high nitrate levels were shown at several locations. The background 

nitrate level of the area was considered as approximately 6 mg/l according 

to the previous researchers (Dissanayake and Weerasooriya,1987; Padmasiri 

and Pitakumbura, 1995). Accordingly, 64% of the sampled wells showed 

elevated nitrate levels. The periodical sampling of the groundwater from 

these dug wells revealed that the concentration of nitrates in groundwater 

varies considerably with time lapsed after the application of fertilizers to the 

adjacent paddy fields. Certain locations indicate the gradual reduction of 

nitrate levels in groundwater, with the laps of few weeks after the application 

of fertilizers. Location 2, (Figure 4) showed the maximum nitrate 

concentration of 62 mg/l as nitrate-N that already exceed the WHO (World 

Health Organization) recommended limits. Periodical sampling of this well 

commenced only a few days after the application of nitrogen fertilizer. This 

well is located close to the paddy field where the soil was very sandy in 

texture. Therefore, the gradual reduction of nitrate concentration at this 

location was considered to be as a result of dilution with nitrate free 

groundwater from upper reaches. 

It was noted in some cases that the increased nitrate levels gradually 

decreased with time (Figure 5) with groundwater flow and mixing with nitrate 

85 




free groundwater. It is important to note that certain dug wells and almost 

all the tube wells yield water with very low nitrate levels ranging from 1-5 

mg/l (Figure 6). However the nitrate values of deep tube wells remained 

constant throughout sampling whereas a few dug wells showed a remarkable 

increase of the nitrate levels upon adding fertilizer to the adjacent paddy 

fields (Gunatilake, 1998). 

NITRATE CONCENTRATION (mg 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

LO C.2 LO C.3 

LO C.7 LO C.10(T W ) 

LO C.13(T W ) LO C.16 

LO C.17 LO C.19 

0 


NITRATE CONCENTRATION (mg 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

LOC .4 

LOC .10 (T ube W el l) 

LOC .11 

LOC .18 (T ube W el l) 

0 

1 Weeks 3 Weeks 5 Weeks 7 Weeks 9 Weeks 

TIME LA PSED A FTER FERTILIZER A PPL ICA TION 

Figure 6: Difference between the variation of Nitrate in tube wells and dug wells (Udunuwara 

area, Sri Lanka) 

Well no. 15 located right in the middle of a paddy field, could be regarded as 

a typical site for studying the effect of application of fertilizers to nitrate 

levels of groundwater. The groundwater table there was relatively deeper 

(at about 2-3 m depth and the soil was sandy in texture) and water was 

being pumped by an electric motor. Because of the relatively faster 

withdrawal of water by a pump, the well is continuously recharged by the 

groundwater below the paddy field. Therefore, a quick response of nitrate 

levels (Figure 7) could be observed against the adding of fertilizers to the 

adjacent paddy fields. 

12 

NITRATE CONCENTRATION (mg/l) 

10 

8 

6 

4 

2 

LOC.14 

LOC.15 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 

SAMPLING DAYS (IN 2 WEEKS INTERVAL) 

Figure 7: Behavior of Nitrate concentration Vs. time (Udunuwara area, Sri Lanka) 

87 




The near constant nitrate levels of very low concentrations in samples from 

locations 8, 14 and 15 confirmed that the groundwater of that area is not 

being contaminated by nitrates as no fertilizer had been applied to the nearby 

paddy fields. There was no other possible nitrate contamination from any 

other source in the close proximity. 

All the above observations were made assuming the natural sources of nitrate 

pollution to be negligible compared to the contribution from the nitrogenous 

fertilizers. But in certain cases, the natural contribution through the process 

of microbial degradation of organic nitrogenous material also could be 

significant. Further, farm animal wastes from cattle sheds, poultry farms 

and certain human excreta disposal practices (unprotected pit latrines etc.) 

would largely contribute to the nitrate concentration in groundwater. However 

during the selection of sampling sites, such possibilities have been avoided to 

the maximum extent. 

(b) Case Study : Shiroishi Plain in Saga Prefecture in Japan 

The chemical analysis results of the Shiroishi Plain were statistically analyzed 

and studied with respect to seasonal changes, various crop types cultivated, 

and the type of samples obtained (whether from the shallow tube well, deep 

tube well, sub-surface drainage pipes, interceptor drains, streams etc). 

Chemical analysis of the samples collected from the study area indicates 

that the nitrate concentration in groundwater varies between 0.1- 60 mg/l as 

NO 3 

-N. The average nitrate level of the groundwater in Shiroishi plain was 

calculated to be 1.4 mg/l and considered as the background nitrate 

concentration of the area. The pH values of the all samples were ranged 

between 4 - 4.5. As pointed out by many researchers (Angle et.al., 1993, 

Hubbard et.al., 1987, Kanwar, et.al., 1995 and 1996, Spalding and Exner, 

1993) the nitrate-N level above 1 mg/l of WHO levels indicates contamination. 

Accordingly, shallow groundwater in the large part of the study area is 

considered vulnerable for nitrate pollution after fertilization. Sixty four percent 

of samples analyzed did not show contamination as they had NO 3 

-N levels 

less than 1 mg/l. Twenty six percent of wells showed elevated nitrate 

concentrations of 1 to 3 mg/l as NO 3 

-N. Around 10% of the sampled wells 

showed nitrate contamination more than 3 mg/l. 

At a pH less than 6.0 the rate of the nitrification process in agricultural soils 

decreases and become negligible when pH is below 4.5 (Hart et.al., 1994). 

The pH of the study area ranged between 4-5 at the time of sampling. 

Although fertilization causes pH changes, the high cation exchange capacity 

of Ariake clay does not allow much change in pH in soil and that may be the 

reason for low nitrate concentrations in shallow groundwater in most areas. 

The ammonium concentration also was very low values. It can be believed 


88


that ammonium ions readily enter the interlayer portions of clays releasing 

K + ions into solution rapidly (Paul and Clark, 1989) due to main constituents 

of Ariake clay rather than the nitrification process. El-Shafei (2000) has 

carried out soil testing for Ariake clay for the same period and showed that 

the nitrate interaction with Ariake clay lattice, releases Al 3+ and OH - ions 

into solution without representing the real nitrate level in shallow water. This 

special ability of the Ariake clay to absorb more nutrients within the lattice 

results in the accumulation of nitrate and ammonia ions in the upper soil 

layer without leaching. 

Variation of NO 3 

-N concentration in subsurface water in paddy and onion 

cultivated fields is shown in Figure 8. The relatively low concentrations (


Even though densely populated agricultural areas generally cause environmental 

problems, the influence of fertilization in the Shiroishi plain is a temporary 

process yielding much productivity to farmers in the area. In the first 

part of this study it was shown that research carried out in the lowland area 

in the Central Province of Sri Lanka (Dissanayake et.al., 1984) clearly showed 

that cultivated and irrigated soils contaminate the shallow aquifer by nitrates 

derived from fertilizers. In the Udunuwara area there was sandy soil and 

the shallow groundwater level was deeper than that of the Shiroishi plain. 

Apart from the groundwater depth difference, the special ability of Ariake 

clay to absorb nutrients has protected from contaminating the shallow water 

in the Shiroishi Plain. 

Figure 9 shows a comparison of the variation of the NO 3 

-N within the well, 

drainpipes and nearby interceptor drain/creeks. It clearly indicates the low 

nitrate levels in wells and relatively high levels in drainpipes and elevated 

Nitrate-N concentrations in surface water of drains. Different nitrate levels 

in different locations may be due to different fertilizer application rate and 

crop type. The average NO 3 

-N value observed in sampled subsurface 

drainage pipes was 8 mg/l, which could be considered a significantly elevated 

figure. It also showed that the average nitrate levels in the subsurface 

drainage pipes are different from those in the sample wells and interceptor 

drains. This difference may be due to climatic changes, irrigation practices 

as well as fertilization. However, the high nitrate level in subsurface drainage 

means that there is significant leaching of the nutrients from the Ariake clay. 

The subsurface drainage system therefore reduces the nutrients in soil that 

had accumulated from fertilization from affecting the surface water. As the 

water with excess nutrients is added to interceptor drains through drainpipes, 

the water from interceptor drains become dark green and emanates a bad 

odour. 

8 

Nitrate-N Concentration (mg/l) 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

0 

Lo c.1 Loc.2 Lo c. 6 Loc.1 4 Lo c. 18 Loc. 66 Loc .39 L oc .48 Loc .66 

Location Number 

Sam.Well 

Sub.Dra.Pipe 

In t.D rains 

2 per. Mov. Avg. (Sub.Dra.Pipe) 

2 per. Mov. Avg. (Sa m.Well) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (Int.Drains ) 

Figure 9: Comparison of the Variation of the NO 3 

-N within the Wells, Drain pipes and 

Nearby Interceptor Drain/Creeks (Shiroishi Plain, Japan) 


90


As the main shallow groundwater flow in the Shiroishi Plain is horizontal 

(Miura et al., 1988 and Onitsuka, 1988) the following one-dimensional 

analytical model is used to predict how the deep groundwater table is affected 

by these agricultural activities. The land reclaimed 50 years before, (very 

close to the shore) showed a high solute velocity compared to the other 

areas in Saga Prefecture. The low velocity variation patterns are probably 

due to consolidation of soil over a period of many years. The upper soil layer 

of the study area from the surface was assumed as a homogeneous layer 

and the initial concentration was constant. According to this boundary condition 

at time “t”, the concentration of the solute in distance “z” is given by the 

following equation 1(a) (Ogata, 1970). Analytical solutions of this equation 

have been expressed in graphical form suitable for hand computation (Ogata, 

1970; Booker and Rowe, 1987). 

C (z,0) = 0 z>0 

C(0,t) = C 0 

t≥0 

C(∞,t) = 0 t≥0 

C 

C 

0 

= 

⎧ ⎛ ⎞ 

⎛ 

1 ⎪ ⎜ ( z − vt) 

⎟ ⎛ vz ⎞ ⎜ z + vt 

⎨erfc⎜ 

⎟ + exp⎜ 

⎟erfc 

1 

⎜ 

2 ⎪ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ D ⎠ 

2 

⎜ 

⎩ ⎝ 2( Dt) 

⎠ 

⎝ 2( DT ) 

1 

2 

⎞⎫ 

⎟⎪ 

⎟⎬ 

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐1(a) 

⎟⎪ 

⎠⎭ 

Where 

erfc( 

x) 

= 1− 

erf ( x) 

= 1− 

x 

2 

∫ e 

−u 

π 

0 

2 

du 

D = Diffusion coefficient in unsaturated soil 

v = ground water flow velocity 

t = time of interest 

z = depth of interest 

The z values calculated from solute conservation equation as follows. 

Negatively charged and highly soluble ions do not react chemically (except 

for anion exclusion) and they are not attracted to clay or organic matter 

surfaces. Therefore C a 

, C g 

and r s 

values can be negligible. 

∂C 

∂t 

T 

∂J 

+ 

∂z 

s 

+ r 

s 

= 0 

-----------------------------------1(b) 

(solute conservation equation) 

91 




C = θ + 

T 

ρ C 

a 

+ C 

l 

aC 

g ------------------------------------------------1(c) 

where 

C T 

- total solute concentration 

C a 

- adsorbed solute concentration 

C g 

- gaseous solute concentration 

C l 

- dissolved solute concentration 

ρ - bulk density 

θ - volumetric water content 

J s 

- total solute flux 

t - time of interest 

Figure 10 indicates the variation of nitrate leaching only by pure diffusion 

process. This figure shows that solute (nitrate) concentrations ratios in a 

large part of the area are completely become zero around 0.7 m depth from 

the surface. The results show in figure 10, fits well with one of the most 

important observations made during the analysis of data collected from this 

study area. It is observed that the nitrate leaching takes place mainly within 

the upper most layers (0-0.6 m) and is not likely to extend to the low permeable 

Ariake clay. Accordingly there is no possibility of polluting deep water due 

to the application of fertilizers. 

Depth (m ) 

0 

0.5 

1 

1.5 

2 

2.5 

Solute (nitrate) C oncentra tion ra tio 

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 

Figure 10: Variation of Nitrate leaching through soil by diffusion (Shiroishi Plain, Japan) 


92


Conclusions 

According to the results obtained, it could be concluded that the application 

of nitrogenous fertilizer in Sri Lanka has a direct impact on the concentration 

of nitrates in groundwater in the vicinity. The time taken for nitrates to reach 

the groundwater table varies due to factors such as groundwater flow and 

direction, depth to groundwater table, nature of subsurface material (whether 

sandy or clayey), and the rate of withdrawal of water. The high nitrate input 

by the application of fertilizers into groundwater can be considered as a 

temporary process and nature itself gradually acts to remove the excess 

nitrates by continuous flow of groundwater. Low Nitrate levels in deep tube 

wells indicate that deep groundwater is not mixed with the shallow 

groundwater, which is usually contaminated with nitrates from paddy fields 

or other sources. The effect of the application of nitrogenous fertilizers is 

very little or negligible in the case of deep tube wells. Hence, in areas where 

the agricultural practices are intensive, water from tube wells can be 

considered safer for human use. Groundwater contamination in unfertilised 

land is substantially low, whereas in areas where groundwater nitrate 

concentration is high, there might be a substantial risk that pesticides may 

also be leached below the soil zone contaminating the potable groundwater 

supplies. Careful attention must be paid when water is withdrawn for drinking 

purpose, from wells near paddy fields and also during periods of fertilizer 

application to paddy fields if drinking water wells are located nearby. 

According to the results of the study carried out in Japan, it can be concluded 

that the, many current intensive systems of vegetable production are not 

sustainable in this way, because they cause significant ecological damage. 

Growers usually apply large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer to obtain high 

yields of good quality. This may be sound from an economic perspective, but 

not from an environmental perspective. Often, large amounts of nitrogen 

remain in the soil after a vegetable crop is harvested. The rate of leaching 

depends on the crop rotation, fertilizer type and amounts used, crop type, 

climatic condition and cation exchange capacity of the soil. Removal of 

nitrate through the subsurface drainage system prevents the leaching of 

much nitrate into groundwater. It is also noticed that high cation exchange 

capacity of Ariake clay is beneficial to farmers without affecting the 

environment. However the Ariake clay is a very good soil for agricultural 

practices if the application of fertilizer is controlled properly. Because of its 

low permeability, Ariake clay can be used as a protecting layer for any 

contaminant management practices. The shallow groundwater table is highly 

vulnerable for non-point source pollution in agricultural beds whereas the 

deep groundwater shows less nitrate contamination. 

93 




References 

Angle J.S., Gross C.M., Hill R.L. and McIntosh, M.S. (1993) Soil nitrate 

concentrations under corn as affected by tillage, manure, and fertilizer 

applications. Journal of Environmental Quality. v. 22(1), pp. 141-147. 

Booker, J.R. and Rowe, R.K. (1987) One dimensional advective-dispersive 

transport into a deep layer having a variable surface concentration. 

International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in 

Geomechanics, v. 11(2), pp.131-142. 

Dissanayake, C.B., Weerasooriya, S.V.R. and Senaratne, A. (1984) The 

distribution of nitrates in the potable waters of Sri Lanka, Aqua No.1, 

pp. 43-50. 

Dissanayake, C.B. and Weerasooriya, S.V.R. (1987) Medical Geochemistry 

of Nitrates and Human Cancer in Sri Lanka. International 

Journal of Environmental Studies, v. 30, pp. 145-156. 

El-Shafei, A.A. (2000) Geo-environmental and geotechical assessments of 

nitrate polluted soil. Ph.D. thesis, Saga University, Japan. 

Gunatilake, S.K. (1998) Appraisal of nitrate contamination of groundwater 

by intensive use of fertilizer around Kandy area in Maha Season, 

MSc Thesis, Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of 

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 

Hart, S.C., Stark, J.M., Davidson, E.A. and Firestone, M.K. (1994) Nitrogen 

mineralization, immobilization and nitrification. In “Methods of soil 

analyses”, Part 2, “Microbiological and biochemical properties”, Soil 

Science Socity. Am., Madison, Wisconsin:, pp. 985-1018. 

Hubbard, R.K., Thomas, D.L., Leonard, R.A. and Bulter, J.L. (1987) Surface 

runoff and shallow groundwater quality as affected by center pivot applied 

dairy cattle wastes. Transactions of the ASAE., v.30(2), pp. 430-437. 

Kanwar, R.S., Karlen, D., Cambardella, C. and Cruse, R.M. (1995) Swine 

manure and N-management systems, Impacts on groundwater. In Proc. 

Natural Conference of Water Quality: Clean Water Clean Environment- 

21 st Century, St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE. pp. 91-94. 

Kanwar, R.S., Colvin, T.S., Karlen, D., Cambardella, C., Cruse, R.M. and 

Pederson, C. (1996) Impact of manure and N-management systems on 

water quality. International Proceeding of Integrated Crop Mgt. Conf., 

Iowa State University, Extension, Ames, Iowa. 


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Miura, N., Taesiri, Y., Sakai, A. and Tanaka, M. (1988) Land subsidence 

and its influences to geotechnical aspects in Saga plain, , International 

Symposium of Saga Lowland, Saga, Japan, pp.151-159. 

Nakamura, R., Onitsuka, K., Aramaki, G. and Miura, N. (1985) Geotechnical 

properties of the very sensitive Ariake clay in Saga Plain. Symposium 

on Environmental Geotechnics and problematic soils and rocks, Asian 

Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 888-910. 

Ogata, A. (1970) Theory of dispersivity in a granular medium. US Geological 

Survey, Professions Paper 411-A. 

Onitsuka, K. (1988) Mechanical properties of very sensitive Ariake clay, 

International Symposium of Saga Lowland, Saga, Japan, pp.159-169. 

Padmasiri, J.P. and Pitakumbura, D.G.S.W. (1995) Bacteriological, chemical 

and geological characteristics of hand-pump wells in Udunuwara area, 

Kandy District, Journal of Geological Society of Sri Lanka, v.3, 

pp. 33-40. 

Paul, E.A. and Clark, F.E. (1989) Soil microbiology and biochemistry. In: 

Amonification and nitrification, United State, America, pp. 181-245. 

Spalding, R.F.and Exner, M.E. (1993) Occurrence of nitrate groundwater- 

A review. Journal of Environmental Quality, v. 22(3), pp. 392-402. 

95 





ISSN 1391-3166 

An Analysis of Errors in English Writing of 

Sinhala Speaking Undergraduates 

Rohan Abeywickrama 

Department of Languages, Faculty of Social Sciences and Languages, 

Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, P.O Box 02, Belihuloya, 

Sri Lanka. roh@sab.ac.lk 

Abstract 

Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners 

make. It consists of a comparison between the errors made in the Target Language 

(TL) and that TL itself. For learners themselves, errors are ‘indispensable,’ since 

the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. 

Researchers are interested in errors because they are believed to contain valuable 

information on the strategies that learners use to acquire a language. Hence, an 

error analysis is the best tool for describing and explaining errors made by speakers 

of other languages in order to know the sources of these errors and the reasons 

behind their continued occurrence year after year with different groups of learners. 

This study focuses on errors in English essay writing of Sinhala speaking 

undergraduates in order to identify whether the L1 transfer is the major cause for 

errors in English writing of Sinhala undergraduates. If this were to be true, then it 

could be concluded that the reason behind all those errors is Negative L1 transfer/ 

Mother Tongue interference. This paper further attempts to identify and describe 

Sinhala speaking undergraduates’ errors in English essay writing and thereby make 

efforts to minimize the problems encountered in their English writing. Target 

Population were the selected Sinhala speaking undergraduates who are offering 

English as a Second language for their BA (General) Degree at the Universities of 

Kelaniya, Peradeniya and the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. 

For the selection of a corpus of language, following the guidelines offered by 

(Ellis, 1995) samples of written assignments were collected from 60 students who 

are in the first and the second academic years of their degree programmes. These 

students were provided with the topics ‘An Unforgettable Day in My Life’ or ‘My 

University Life’ and asked to write on them in 200 to 250 words. They were given 

sufficient time to write (Ellis, 1997). They started with an outline, then a first draft 

and a final draft. 

This highly objective and outcome-oriented investigation reflects negative L1 

transfer/interference is not the major cause for errors in the English writings of 

Sinhala speaking undergraduates. This would enable the academic researchers, 

language teachers, linguists to build up a further discussion on errors of Sinhala 

speakers’ English writing. 

Key words: Errors, Undergraduates, Sinhala, Second Language, L1 Transfer 

97


Introduction 

‘Systematically analyzing errors made by language learners makes it possible 

to determine areas that need reinforcement in teaching’ (Corder, 1974). 

Error analysis is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners 

make. It consists of a comparison between the errors made in the Target 

Language (TL) and that TL itself. Corder (1967) is the ‘Father’ of Error 

Analysis. It was with his article entitled ‘The Significance of Learner Errors’ 

that EA took a new turn. He contended that those errors are ‘important in 

and of themselves.’ For learners themselves, errors are ‘indispensable,’ since 

the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to 

learn. Gass and Selinker (2001) defined errors as ‘red flags’ that provide 

evidence of the learner’s knowledge of the second language. Researchers 

are interested in errors because they are believed to contain valuable 

information on the strategies that learners use to acquire a language (Richards, 

1974; Taylor, 1975; Dulay and Burt, 1974). Moreover, according to Richards 

and Sampson (1974) “At the level of pragmatic classroom experience, error 

analysis will continue to provide one means by which the teacher assesses 

learning and teaching and determines priorities for future effort.” 

Before 1960s, when the behaviouristic viewpoint of language learning was 

prevailing, learner errors were considered something undesirable and to be 

avoided. It is because in behaviourists perspectives, people learn by responding 

to external stimuli and receiving proper reinforcement. A proper habit is 

being formed by reinforcement, hence learning takes place. Therefore, errors 

were considered to be a wrong response to the stimulus, which should be 

corrected immediately after they were made. 

This belief of learning was eventually discarded by the well-known radically 

different perspective proposed by Chomsky (1957). He wrote in his paper 

against (Selikner, 1989) that human learning, especially language acquisition, 

cannot be explained by simply starting off with a ‘tabula rasa’ state of mind. 

He claimed that human beings must have a certain kind of innate capacity 

which can guide learner through a vast number of sentence generation 

possibilities and have a child acquire a grammar of that language until the 

age of five or six with almost no exception. He called this capacity “Universal 

Grammar” and claimed that it is this very human faculty that linguistics aims 

to pursue. 

According to Corder (1974), error analysis has two objectives: one theoretical 

and another applied. The theoretical objective serves to “elucidate what and 

how a learner learns when he studies a second language.” And the applied 

object serves to enable the learner “to learn more efficiently by exploiting 

our knowledge of his dialect for pedagogical purposes”. The investigation of 


98


errors can be at the same time diagnostic and prognostic. It is diagnostic 

because it can present us the learner’s state of the language (Corder, 1967) 

at a given point during the learning process and prognostic because it can 

inform course organizers to reorient language learning materials on the 

basis of the learners’ current problems. 

As an English teacher, the researcher is well aware of the fact that the 

Sinhala speaking undergraduates in the Faculty of Social Sciences and 

Languages: Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka commit many errors in 

English writing. 

The following quotation provides evidence. 

William Wordsworth is Romantic poet. He is a nature lover. He use his 

experiences and uses beutiful image to create a these kind of poem. When 

we consider about poem ‘I Wandered lonely as a colud’ he visualizes the 

beauty of the nature. He not satisfy talking about nature. however he is 

believe neture can make a better world. Written by a Sinhala Speaking 

undergraduate - in Eng 121-2007 Semester I. 

It is obvious that people communicate orally and/or in writing. “In spoken 

conversations with others, they make sense of the dialogue in a complex 

back-and-forth process of negotiation of meaning between speakers. In 

written texts, this back-and-forth negotiation is not possible. The sentence is 

written and it is read. Because there is no possibility of negotiating meaning 

of written documents, the inevitable problems of misunderstandings are 

exacerbated” (Penman, 1998). Hence, it is evident that writing is an intricate 

and complex task; it is the most difficult of the language abilities to acquire. 

Its level of difficulty varies between native speakers (NS) who think in the 

language used (in our case it will be English) and non-native speakers (NNS) 

who think in their own native language (in this case it will be Sinhala). While 

writing, non-native speakers have, in general, to think about all those rules 

they need to apply, rules that native speakers are supposed to have 

automatized. Therefore, non-native speakers are more prone to making 

mistakes and/or committing errors. 

It is essential here to make a distinction between mistake and error; both 

Corder (1967, 1974) and James (1998) reveal a criterion that helps us to do 

so: it is the self-correctability criterion. A mistake can be self-corrected, but 

an error cannot. Errors are ‘systematic,’ i.e. likely to occur repeatedly and 

not recognized by the learner. Hence, only the teacher or researcher would 

locate them, the learner wouldn’t (Selinker and Gass, 1994). And it is in this 

light that the researcher selected to focus on students’ errors not mistakes. 

Some of these students have been studying English for their whole lives and 

still, their errors are numerous. Hence, the researcher decided to conduct 

99 

An Analysis of Errors in English Writing of Sinhala Speaking Undergraduates


an error analysis- the best tool for describing and explaining errors made by 

speakers of other languages (Johanson, 1975) - in order to know the sources 

of these errors and the reasons behind their continued occurrence year after 

year with different groups of learners. 

It is essential here to mention the fact that the language these students 

speak at home is mainly Sinhala, not English; hence, they are ESL students, 

however immersed in English they might be at school and at a university.”To 

use two languages familiarly and without contaminating one by the other is 

very difficult” (Johnson, 1761). 

Can this fact account for the problems? Is our undergraduates’ native 

language (L1) ‘contaminating’ their English (L2)? If this were to be true, 

then the reason behind all those errors is Negative L1 transfer/Mother Tongue 

interference. ‘And the best way to discover such a transfer is through error 

analysis’ (Sridhar, 1980). However, can transfer alone justify all the errors 

made? 

Research Problem 

“Is negative L1 transfer/interference the major cause for errors in the English 

writings of Sinhala speaking undergraduates?” 

Problem Statement 

Various researchers have concentrated on errors which demonstrate the 

influence of one’s native language to second language acquisition. Before 

Corder’s work, interference errors were regarded as inhibitory; it was Corder 

who pointed out that they can be facilitative and provide information about 

one’s learning strategies. According to Hagège (1993) interference between 

L1 and L2 is observed in children as well as in adults. In adults it is more 

obvious and increases continuously, as a monolingual person gets older and 

the structures of his first language get stronger and impose themselves more 

and more on any other language the adult wishes to learn. In contrast, as 

regards children, interference features will not become permanent unless 

the child does not have sufficient exposure to L2. If there is sufficient exposure, 

then instead of reaching a point where they can no longer be corrected (as 

often happens with phonetics features), interference features can be easily 

eliminated. 

This study focuses on errors in English essay writing of Sinhala speaking 

undergraduates in order to identify whether the L1 transfer is the major 

cause for errors in English writing of Sinhala undergraduates. 


100


Rationale for the Study 

“Very surprisingly there are few published descriptions of how or what 

children learn. (There... is) little about what mistakes the children made and 

how these can be explained, or what generalizations and learning strategies 

the children seem to be developing” (Richards, 1974). 

After having reviewed the literature, the researcher noticed that no large 

scale investigation which involves Sinhala speaking undergraduates’ who 

have been learning English since childhood as a second language, had been 

conducted. 

Consequence of that problems relating to the teaching of English as a second 

language of Sinhala speakers are continuously being discussed. 

This sort of error analysis would really significant in three ways: 

- to the teacher: they show a student’s progress 

- to the researcher: they show how a language is acquired, what 

strategies the learner uses. 

- to the learner: he can learn from these errors. 

This study would enable the academic researches, language teachers, and 

linguists etc. to build up a further discussion on errors of Sinhala speakers’ 

English writing. 

Aims and Objectives of the Study 

To attempt to identify, describe and categorize errors in English essay writing 

of Sinhala speaking undergraduates and thereby make efforts minimize the 

difficulties encountered by them. 

Hypotheses 

Negative L1 transfer/interference is the major cause for errors in the English 

writings of Sinhala speaking undergraduates. 

Negative L1 transfer/interference is not the major cause for errors in the 

English writings of Sinhala speaking undergraduates. 

Type of Research 

This highly objective and outcome oriented investigation is based on a research 

question. In this cross sectional study different groups of learners who are 

offering English as a second language for their BA Degree, were examined 

101 



at the same time and the different learners were then be assumed to represent 

different stages of development. 

Target Population 

Selected Sinhala speaking undergraduates who are offering English as a 

second language for their BA (General) Degree at the Universities of 

Kelaniya, Peradeniya and Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka. 

It is evident that most of the students, who offer English as a second language 

for BA Degree of the above three universities, belong to the Upwardly 

Mobile Middle class. From infancy they have been exposed to an extensive 

use of Sinhala and frequent Code-Mixing involving a few English expressions. 

Their primary and secondary levels of educations have been in Sinhala. At 

the same time some have more opportunities to use the English language 

from their infancy than the students of Upwardly Mobile Middle class. 

Method of Data Collection 

For the selection of a corpus of language, following the guidelines offered 

by Ellis (1995) a sample of written works were collected from 60 students 

who are in the first and the second academic years of their Degree 

programmes. They are taught English mainly by qualified instructors and 

lecturers. 

These students were provided with the topics‘An Unforgettable Day in Your 

Life’ and ‘My University Life’ and were asked to write on it in 200 to 250 

words. They were given sufficient time to write (Ellis, 1997). They started 

with an outline, then a first draft and a final draft. 

Results/Discussion 

Structurally different areas of the two languages involved would result in 

interference. Dulay and Burt (1974), Krashen (1982) suggest that there are 

two possible ways of describing the term ‘interference’. One is from a 

psychological perspective, which suggests that there is influence from old 

habits when new ones are being learned. The second is from a sociolinguistic 

perspective which describes the language interactions which occur when 

two language communities are in contact. Nemser (1971) argues ‘in creating 

Interlanguge (IL), learners sometimes make the L1 or L2 categories 

equivalent and sometimes they do not’. 

The main findings of the study reveal that the negative L1 transfer/ 

interference is not only the cause for errors in the English writing of Sinhala 

speaking undergraduates. 


102


However, as Larsen - Freeman and Long (1991) identified different language 

errors; free variation /non systematic variation, systematic variation, 

developmental errors, L1 interference in the interlanguage produced by non 

native speakers, Sinhala speaking undergraduates’ English writing cannot 

be categorized only under negative L1 interference. 

Errors in Sinhala Speaking Undergraduates’ English Writing 

- Categorized under Larsen-Freeman’s and Long’s Classification 

As revealed by the Figure 1, only 20% of the errors occur due to the influence 

of the L1 interference while majority of them (45%) can be identified as 

developmental errors. 

Figure :1 Errors in Sinhala speaking undergraduate English writing 

Felix (1980) states an English learner of German uses the word “warum” to 

mean both “why” and “because”. Felix points out that in Spanish or Greek, 

this one equivalent word does carry these two meanings. So his error would 

almost certainly have been identified as interference. Errors, Felix suggests, 

will always correspond to structures in some language. 

All of this suggest that while transfer seems to be a reasonable and logical 

explanation for some part of the nature and form of ILs, there are certain 

reservations that should be born in mind. Only certain structures or forms 

seem to be transferable from the L1 and the identification of these items is 

further complicated by the variables of context and the individual in question. 

SOV languages are generally seen to have pre posed rather than post posed 

103 



adjectives.There is evidence and counter evidence of transfer in studies 

related to word order. Studies have focused on whether, for example, SVO 

L1s carry this pattern over into the L2. Rutherford (1986) suggests that 

Japanese learners do not use their L1 SOV in learning English. McNeill 

(1979) in fact argues for the SOV pattern as being the basic, universal word 

order in L1 acquisition. 

The following example taken from the sample of writing conveys the influence 

of the LI SOV over L2 acquisition. 

Sri Lankan experience has directly influenced to use the phrases temple 

priest (pansale hamudhuruwo) for reverend and one at home (gedhara 

kena) for husband in the following sentences produced by Sinhala speaking 

undergraduates .This is considered as a direct translation and it effectively 

shows the LI interference. 

a) We went to meet the temple priest. 

b) She started to cry as the one at home died. 


104


Since ‘be’ verbs and ‘helping verbs’ are not being used in Sinhala, the English 

learners of Sinhala have tendency to ignore them in their writing. 

The order of a prepositional phrase in English is preposition and then the 

noun governed by the preposition but in Sinhala the order is the same the 

opposite. 

“However, Sinhala speaking undergraduates are accustomed to use 

prepositions in clause level where prepositions are not required” (Ariyaratne, 

2008) 

105 



At the same time Sinhala speaking undergraduates use inappropriate 

prepositions in clause level due to the influence of the L1. 

We it lesson from 

learned 

We learned from the lesson (example) 

We learned it in the lesson. (correct) 

Consequence of mixing the order of conjunctions in Sinhala with that of in 

English, the English learner of Sinhala tend to make mistakes by misplacing 

conjunctions. 


106


ill because I medicine took 

I was ill because I took medicine (example) 

I was ill so I took medicine [correct] 

Because I was ill I took medicine. (correct) 

Sinhala has different types of negative makers (NM).Therefore the verb 

with NM has a free word order in sentence level in Sinhala. 

Following the free word order of this kind the students simply transfer 

Sinhala sentence structure in to English in which the word order is not fixed 

and make the erroneous statements as follows: 

This incomplete application of rule makes it clear that the subjects are 

encountered a difficulty with the rule of insertion of auxiliary ‘do’ or 

‘does’ with ‘not’ to form a negative in the Present Tense. As a result of that 

they simply add ‘no’ or ‘not’ before the verb in a negative.However, according 

Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) learner’s alternation between the two 

107 



forms no and not to express the same language function is considered as 

free variation as it does not co-relate with any environment factors and is 

unpredictable in similar linguistic environment. 

It is the similarities, not the differences that cause the greatest problems. 

(Koutsoudas and Koutsoudas 1962) According to Wode (1978) ‘only if L1 

and L2 have structures meeting a crucial similarity measure will there be 

interference, i.e. reliance on prior L1 knowledge.’ 

However, it is apparent that all other errors except the analyzed above cannot 

be categorized under L1interfernce. 

Developmental errors are caused because of the learners’ efforts to build 

up hypothesis about the language from his limited experience in the classroom. 

Richards classifies these errors under various heads like, overgeneralization, 

ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules and false 

concepts hypothesized. 

Richards (1971) “refers to the learner’s competence at a particular time, as 

the transitional competence.”He says that the learner’s competence at a 

particular stage is full of what he calls as intralingual or developmental errors. 

These errors illustrate some of the characteristics of language acquisition. 

The learner’s competence is transitional because it keeps changing as long 

as the learner tries to improve his competence. If he stops learning his 

competence at a particular stage becomes his final grammatical competence. 

These errors are systematic and are not caused by memory lapses, fatigue 

and the like. These errors occur repeatedly “from one year to the next with 

any group of learners” (Richards,1971). 

The following errors demonstrate three different developmental language 

errors in the sample of writing. 

a) Father leaved the country after hearing the news. 

b) Then I asked where is the post office? 

c) I was araid and went to meet my frinds. 

In the first example, the learner has overgeneralised the rule so leaved is 

used instead of left. The second also overgeneralises to embedded questions: 

Then I asked where is the post office? The third shows clear spelling mistakes. 

As discussed earlier all three are considered as developmental errors. 

In short, language learning began to be seen as a process which involved the 

construction of an IL, a ‘transitional competence’ reflecting the dynamic 

nature of the learner’s developing system. 


108


According to Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) “the systematicty of IL 

consists of common developmental sequences within morpho-syntactic 

domain through which, with only minor variations, all learners seem to pass, 

regardless of age, native language or learning context.” Wode (1981) was 

aimed at finding a universal sequence, true in essentials of all learners of all 

languages. 

He suggested that learners go through five distinct stages of development: 

1. Anaphoric sentence external: “No” 

2. Non-anaphoric sentence external: “No finish” 

3. Copula ‘be’: “That’s no good” 

4. Full verbs and imperatives with “don’t”: “You have a not fish” or 

“Don’t say something” 

5. “Do” forms: “You didn’t can throw it” 

(Cook, 1991) 

Studies suggest that learners from different L1 backgrounds do in fact follow 

the developmental order suggested by Wode. 

Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) identifies another variation:Free Variation 

which does not correlate with any environment factors and is unpredictable 

in similar linguistic environment. 

Mathews (1997) definition modified by Ellis (1999) 

Free variation can be held to exist, when two or more variability of the same 

linguistic variable are seen to be used randomly by individuals with regard to 

all of the following. 

a) Same discourse context(s) 

b) Same linguistic context(s) 

c) Same situational context(s) 

d) Same illocutionary meaning 

e) Same planning condition 

IL‘s seem to exhibit more variability than do native languages. For example, 

in the sample the adult Sinhala speaking undergraduates alternate between 

the forms to express the same language function. 

a) My sister no enter the university 

b) Faculty not commence the academic programme. 

109 



Initially, the variation in the use of these two forms is non systematic. That is 

the forms are used interchangeably with no apparent difference in meaning. 

This is considered as one source of variability with regard to the variable 

use of the two forms on negation, no and not. 

“Learners tend to pass through stages as they acquire a particular syntactic 

rule or feature of the language. For example, learners acquiring negation in 

English as a second language begin by placing a negator in front of some 

sentence nucleus, such as No+drink beer for I don’t drink beer. In a 

subsequent stage, learners place the negator within the nucleus: I no drink 

beer (here, don’t may occur as a variant of no).Later, modals appear and 

the negator is attached to them. For many learners, however, the negated 

modal may be an unanalyzed unit, such as I can’t drink beer or I won’t 

drink beer. In the final stage, learners reach native like negation as the 

modal and auxiliary system comes under control.” Larsen-Freeman and 

Long (1991) 

According to Eisenstein and Madden (1982) adult ESL learners use V-ing 

and simple verb forms in a cross- sectional study in free variation, to express 

similar functions, (Giving me/ Give me the book etc.) It is almost certain that 

Sinhala speaking undergraduates’ English writing indicates the learner’s use 

of simple and progressive verb forms like: 

a) Giving me what I asked for give me what I asked. 

b) Taking steps to prevent… for take steps to prevent .. 

“There is another type of variation that may occur from the early stages- 

Systematic Variation. It is evidenced when two or more sounds/grammatical 

forms vary contextually. Some variation is linguistically based; some is 

sociolinguistically determined. While ILs are indeed synchronically variable, 

much of the internal inconsistency is not due to free variation, systematic.” 

Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) 

In other words, at least part of the variability can be predicted and accounted 

for, as due to the effect of situation, linguistic context, degree of planning, or 

some other identifiable cause. The same learner on a given day may alternate 

between supplying and omitting definite /indefinite articles, between using 

plural NPs with and without a plural S allomorph. 

It is evident that the sample of writing provides enough examples to show 

that the learner is not aware of the exact place where the indefinite/definite 

articles are used. Therefore the learners have overgeneralised the use of 

indefinite/definite articles’ 


110


a) I went (the)home and spoke to (the) Perera 

Overgeneralization 

b) The students meet at night to discuss the papers as usual but that (the) 

particular day they did not. 

Overgeneralization 

Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) terms the situation expressed above 

flooding. According to him it is a process by which the use of a given 

linguistic form is generalized to all environment, which share one feature 

with the environment in which the form had previously being used. 

At the same time the learner provides evidence for variation in the use and 

nonuse of the plural /s/ even on the same lexical item. 

Examples from the sample are given below. 

a) Sinhalese, Tamil(s), Muslim(s) and other ethnic group(s) study together 

in the university. 

Plural NPs without a plural S allomorph. 

b) Usually student(s) visit the temples situated around the university. 

Plural NPs with and without a plural S allomorph. 

c) I never forget what soldier(s) did at that moment especially they wanted 

to hit the innocent civilians. 


d) Everybody began to shout but the teacher(s) in the classes did not even 

move. 


Conclusions 

It is evident that this highly objective and outcome oriented investigation 

reflects negative L1 transfer/interference is not the major cause for errors 

in the English writings of Sinhala speaking undergraduates. 

111 



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114



ISSN 1391-3166 

An Analysis of Urban Growth and 

Urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa Province, 

Sri Lanka 

R.J.M. Uduporuwa 

Department of Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences and 

Languages, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, P.O. Box 02, 

Belihuloya, jeewani@sab.ac.lk 

Abstract 

Many countries have identified urbanization as a progressive process and one of 

the key forces underlying technological innovation, economic development and 

socio-political development. In this context, this paper attempts to analyze the urban 

growth and current level of urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa Province which is 

one of the plantation areas located in the outer periphery in Sri Lanka. In addition, 

this study examines the hierarchical order of urban centres of the Sabaragamuwa 

Province. Data for the calculation of urban growth rates and level of urbanization 

were collected from several institutions and research papers of the university 

academics. 

Although the Sabaragamuwa Province as a major plantation area had reported a 

relatively high average annual growth rate of 5.3 percent of urban population during 

the inter-censal period of 1963-1971, it has slowed down to 2.0 percent in the intercensal 

period of 1971-1981. Due to the re-classification of urban areas in 1987 

presently the Sabaragamuwa Province has 3 national urban centres. Accordingly, 

during the inter-censal period of 1981-2001 the average annual growth rate recorded 

by the Sabaragamuwa Province was -1.6 percent and level of urbanization was 4.2 

percent. It is the lowest level of urbanization compared with the other provinces in 

the country. Accordingly, the slow growth of urban population, low level of 

urbanization and the very few national urban centres directly and indirectly affect 

the less dynamic economy of the Sabaragamuwa Province. 

Key words: Urban centers, Urban growth, Urbanization, Sabaragamuwa Province 

Introduction 

Demographic point of view urban growth is the increase of proportion of 

population living in “urban areas” of a country and urbanization is the 

percentage of population who live in urban areas out of the total population 

in a country. In the broader sense urbanization is a vast process of 

development or increasing activities of people in areas known as “urban” 

reflecting the structural changes in physical, socio-economic, demographic 

115


and cultural factors of human life. Normally, the level of development of a 

country has a direct relationship with the level of urbanization of the country 

since the development of secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy 

influences the urban growth. Accordingly, urbanization offers increased 

opportunities for specialization, production and goods and services. This 

process is cumulative and moreover increases the general scale of settlements 

due to the progressive concentration of people and activities in urban areas, 

changes the economy where by non agricultural activities become dominant, 

change the structural characteristics of demography, spreads the urbanism 

beyond the built-up areas of towns including rural dilution and defuse 

economic, social and technological changes in the rural areas. 

In this context, most of the developed and developing countries have 

recognized urbanization as a crucial phenomenon of economic growth and 

social change of a country because it provides a stimulus towards growth 

and development. They believe that urban areas are the foci and agents of 

innovation diffusion and socio economic transformation (Mangiza, 2005). 

Europe has recognized urbanization as a progressive process and as one of 

the key forces underlying technological innovation, economic development 

and socio-political change. Most Latin American countries have linked 

urbanization to the development models because urban growth was seen as 

a positive agent of modernization including change. Asia and Africa also 

have identified urbanization as one of the most conspicuous phenomena 

which has important and crucial linkages with economic growth and social 

change. These countries now feel that growth strategies based purely on 

agriculture are not adequate to create economic growth. Especially the 

developing countries in the past have sought the solution to this problem 

through agricultural development. However, the past experiences have shown 

that, it is difficult to achieve an appreciable level of economic growth through 

investment only in the rural agricultural sector. This is due to some inherent 

problems associated with the rural agricultural economy such as low 

agricultural productivity due to obsolete agricultural practice, inadequate 

irrigation facilities and poor water management, low price for agricultural 

products and low absorption capacity of labor due to absence of diversified 

rural economy (Perera, 1996). These causes imply the problem of stagnation 

of the rural economy. Therefore, this situation has urged developing countries 

also to promote the process of urbanization as a growth strategy which 

brings speedy growth and development in regions. 

When considering the process of urbanization in the global context, though 

the level (rate) of urbanization in developed countries is much higher, level 

of urbanization in developing countries is much lower. For instance, in the 

South Asian Region the average level of urbanization is around 30 percent, 

as against the level of 75 percent in industrialized nations (United Nations, 


116


2002). According to Fuchs (1987) low levels of urbanization in the poor 

regions in developing countries, not merely reflect regional poverty but also 

a condition for the perpetuation of poverty. 

In this context, Sri Lanka, similar to most other developing countries, also 

has been experiencing a slow urban growth and a low level of urbanization 

as well for a long time. According to the previous data the average annual 

growth rate of urban population in 1881 in Sri Lanka was 0.8 percent and it 

was 1.0 percent in 200l. Accordingly, it is obvious that except the highest 

percentage which was 6.2 in 1963 urban growth in Sri Lanka was slow 

throughout the last century. Considering the level of urbanization in the last 

century, in 1891 it was 10.6 percent and 21.5 percent in 1981. However, due 

to downgrading of Town Councils into Pradeshiya Shabhas with the 

introduction of the new administrative system in 1987 the current rate of 

urbanization in Sri Lanka appears as 14.6 percent (Department of Censes 

and Statistics, 2001). These statistics clearly show that the process of 

urbanization in Sri Lanka throughout the last century has been considerably 

slow. 

In addition to this nature of process of urbanization in the country, it is obvious 

that significant differences exist in urban growth rates, level of urbanization 

and the number of urban centres among the nine provinces of the country. 

In this context, the main objective of this paper is to analyze the pattern of 

urban growth and current level of urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa Province 

which is one of the plantation areas located in the outer periphery in Sri 

Lanka. This study also attempts to examine the hierarchical order of urban 

centres of the Sabaragamuwa Province. The findings of the study will be 

very useful in formulating the policies and strategies for future urban 

development in the Sabaragamuwa Province. 

Methodology 

Basically the data on urban population in Census years published by 

Department of Census and Statistics were used for the analysis. In addition, 

data were collected from the reports published by the Urban Development 

Authority in Rathnapura and some books and research papers of the 

university academics. The average annual growth rates of urban population 

and level of urbanization were used as techniques of data analysis and were 

achieved by applying related formulas. Tables, graphs and maps were used 

to present the data. 

Overview of Urban Growth and Level of Urbanization in Sri Lanka 

History of the urban growth in Sri Lanka goes back to the 3 rd Century B.C 

(Indrasiri, 2001). Most of the towns in this period were in the Dry Zone and 

117 

An Analysis of Urban Growth and Urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa Province, 

Sri Lanka


was associated with the tanks, irrigation channels and hydraulic civilization. 

The locations of these cities changed according to the changes of the 

kingdoms in the areas of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Sigiriya, Yapahuwa, 

Kurunegala and Kandy. By about the 13 th century AD, there was a 

concentration of population within the south-western quadrant of the island 

due to the collapse of the hydraulic civilization in the north-central plains as 

a result of foreign invasions. 

Most of these coastal towns had grown during the Portuguese and Dutch 

occupations and were further developed by the British. The inland centres 

were developed by them for the purposes of administrative, commercial, 

plantation and holiday resorts etc. Most of these urban centres are located 

within raw material supply routes that are linked to the main administrative 

centres in Sri Lanka. These urban centres comprise about ¾ of the total 

urban population even today. A large concentration is in the city of Colombo 

and around it. Therefore, the main urban cluster of the country is in the 

Colombo district with the polarization of Colombo city. In addition, it is possible 

to identify certain concentrations in the Dry Zone associated with the 

colonization schemes and in the central hill country which are directly linked 

to the plantation economy. After the independence also this distribution 

pattern continued. 

Considering the nature of urban growth and level of urbanization in Sri Lanka, 

previous data reveal that Sri Lanka has a slow tempo of urbanization and a 

low level of urbanization as well. As shown in Table 1 the urban population 

in Sri Lanka has slowly increased from 1871 up to 1981. The average annual 

growth rate ranged from 0.8 percent from 1881 and 1963 to 6.2 per cent. 

The natural increase of population and the increase of migration in the 

Colombo and Gampaha Districts and colonization projects in the Dry Zone 

were the factors for this sudden increase in 1963. In addition, the creation of 

45 towns and the extension of town limits in three municipalities in 1963 

have also increased the urban population (Panditharathne, 1996). After 1963 

a decreasing trend can be observed in urban growth and in 2001 there was 

a slight increase in it up to 2.2 percent. The level of urbanization had increased 

only by ten fold in nine decades. It gradually increased from 10.8 percent in 

1871 up to 22.4 percent in 1971. In 1981 this gradual increase declined to 

21.5 percent and dropped to 14.6 percent at the Census in 2001. 

The major reasons responsible for this decreasing trend of level of urbanization 

are the absence of an acceptable definition of urban settlements and anisland 

wide Census in 2001. Definition of urban areas of a country is a very 

important factor in understanding the real picture of urbanization of a country. 

Unlike most of other countries an “urban area” in Sri Lanka is not based on 

any definite criterion as regards the size of population, population density, 

proportion of the male population in non agricultural occupations or status of 

civil administration (Panditharathne, 1996). In Sri Lanka, “urban status” is 


118


conferred on area by the Minister in charge of Local Government purely for 

local administrative purposes. However, Ministerial discretion seems to be 

based on “the nature of the development of the locality or its amenities and 

urban character” (Mendis, 1982). In this connection, those areas which are 

defined as “urban” are administratively classified. Before 1987, areas which 

were identified as urban were classified as Municipal Councils, Urban Councils 

and Town Councils. After 1987, with the setting up of Provincial Councils, 

delimitation of urban areas also changed including only Municipal and Urban 

Councils as urban and excluding newly established Pradeshiya Sabhas which 

were previously Town Councils. 

As a result, 89 urban settlements were classified as rural settlements after 

the 13 th Amendment to the Constitution in 1987. These downgraded Town 

Councils included some of the most dynamic and densely populated suburbs 

of Colombo such as Maharagama and some fast growing small towns in the 

Dry Zone. For examples, Ambalantota had an average annual growth rate 

of 4.6 percent between 1981 and 1993 while Tissamaharama had a growth 

of 6 per cent (Department Census and Statistics, 2005). Even district capitals 

such as Polonnaruwa have been excluded from the urban status (Wanasinghe, 

1995). After 1987, 21 towns in the Colombo Metropolitan Region lost their 

urban status and 9 and 6 towns in the district of Jaffna and Galle also lost the 

urban status respectively (Wanasinghe and Karunanayake, 2003). 

Furthermore, in 1994, 203 towns which have emerged after 1981 have been 

identified (Indrasiri, 1997). All these towns also are (Table 1) 

Table 1: Urban Growth in Sri Lanka, 1871-2001 

Census 

years 

Urban 

Population 

Average annual 

growth rate of 

urban population 

(%) 

Number of 

Towns 

Level of 

urbanizati 

on (%) 

1871 260,376 - 19 10.8 

1881 281,065 0.8 20 10.2 

1891 321,413 1.4 20 10.7 

1901 414,046 2.9 28 11.6 

1911 537,666 3.1 37 13.1 

1921 631,871 1.7 42 14.2 

1931 737,273 3.4 42 15.0 

1946 1,023,044 1.9 42 15.4 

1953 1,239,133 2.1 43 15.3 

1963 2,016,285 6.2 99 19.1 

1971 2,848,116 4.1 135 22.4 

1981 3,192,489* 1.2 134 21.5 

2,036,237** -1.1 

2001 2,467,171 1.0 45 14.6 

**Excluding population in Town Council 

* including population in Municipal Councils, Urban Councils and Town Councils 

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2005 

119 




excluded by the present urban definition. However, due to the re-classification 

and the loss of 89 urban settlements, the level of urbanization appears to 

have declined further to 14.6 percent at the 2001 Census of population. This 

is due to the direct result of the downgrading of 89 urban centers, the failure 

to revise city boundaries and to incorporate emerging dynamic centres. 

Therefore, As Wanasinghe and Karunanayake (2003) pointed out, the country 

has under-estimated the rapidity of growth of the urban population. According 

to the Urban Development Authority a more realistic degree Urbanization 

would 30 per cent and this proportion is projected to increase to 65% by the 

year 2030. 

The other reason for decreasing trend of level of urbanization is the absence 

of an-island wide Census in 2001. The Census of population in 2001 

enumerated only 18 out of 25 districts due to the war situation in the North 

and Eastern provinces. 

Taking the province wise urban growth of the country into consideration, it 

is obvious that significant differences exist in urban growth rates, the number 

and the level of urbanization among provinces of the country. According to 

Table 2 except for the Western Province, all other provinces still experience 

a low level of urbanization. Western Province being the urbanized core region 

in the country consists of the highest percentage of urbanization and the 

highest number of urban centres. All the other provinces of the country 

have not gained a significant urban growth even today. The clear observation 

in terms of the levels of urbanization in other provinces (in plantation regions 

and Dry Zone areas) is their slow growth or stagnation during the last 20 

years. However, one noticeable feature of the level of urbanization of the 

provinces is that the level of urbanization of Dry Zone is somewhat faster 

than that the level of urbanization of plantation areas. Currently, the level of 

urbanization of the North-Central Province is higher than that of the Uva 

and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. This is directly due to the relationship of 

colonization schemes and the urban development of the Dry Zone areas 

(Figure 1). 

Presently, provinces that comprise of plantations are experiencing a very 

slow growth and a low level of urbanization when compared to the other 

provinces of Sri Lanka. Uva and Sabaragamuwa being predominantly 

plantation areas have a very low share of urban population and a fewer 

number of urban centres. It implies that, though favorable conditions were 

created by the colonial government for investments and entrepreneurs in 

these areas in the nineteenth century, at present, such forces have weakened 

in these areas. 


120


Table 2: Average Annual Growth Rate of Urban Population by Provinces in Sri Lanka, 

1963-2001 

Province Average Annual Growth Rate (%) 

1963-1971 1971-1981 1981-200 1 

Western 4.8 1.18 0.2 

North Western 3.95 1.09 -0.5 

Central 2.02 0.7 0.36 

Southern 2.08 0.92 -0.42 

Northern 5.63 1.62 - 

Eastern 5.7 2.17 1.60 

Uva 2.23 0.28 -0.46 

North Central 4.17 1.36 3.32 

Sabaragamuwa 5.3 2.00 -1.06 

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2001, Mendis, 1982 

Figure 1: Level of Urbanization by Province 

Source: Department of Census and Statistics, 2001; Mendis, 1982 

In the nineteenth century after opening up of hill country areas for the 

plantation crops, a number of factors contributed to the urban growth in 

these areas. The immigration of British planters and South Indian plantation 

workers and rail transport were initial stimulus to the urban growth in these 

areas. However, after the Independence, a tremendous negative impact 

existed on urban growth of the region due to certain events such as the 

121 




handling of inputs and outputs directly by the state, signing of the Sirima- 

Shastri pact, the decreasing importance of railways as a transporter of freight 

and the decimation of the urban hinterland through out-migration contributed 

to the reduction of the influence of factors that had originally stimulated 

urban growth in the plantation areas. Thus, with the Independence in 1948, 

the contribution of the plantation sector to the overall economy of the country 

has declined gradually. 

Discussion 

Urban Growth and Level of Urbanization in the Sabaragamuwa 

Province 

Sabaragamuwa Province which is one of the nine provinces located outer 

periphery in Sri Lanka. (Samarasinghe 1984, Moor, 1984, Wijedasa, 1992, 

Wanasinghe, 2001). It is bounded North by the North-Western and Central 

Provinces, East by the Uva Province, South by the Southern Province and 

West by the Western Province. It covers an extent of 4968.2 Sq. Km of 

land area and it is 8 per cent of total land area of the country. It consists two 

administrative districts namely Rathnapura and Kegalle. In terms of climatic 

conditions, 67 percent of the land area in the province falls within the Wet 

Zone of the island and the rest of 26 percent is covered by the intermediate 

and dry climatic conditions. The agro-climatic divergence in the province 

produces a wide range of agricultural products such as tea, rubber, coconuts, 

paddy and other export crops, vegetable and fruits. According to the Census 

of 2001, Sabaragamuwa Province had 1.8 million of population. It accounts 

for about 10 percent of the national population, in comparison with the 8 per 

cent of the total land area. The share of population of the province is relatively 

low when compared with some other provinces such as Western, Central 

and Southern. 

The economy of the Sabaragamuwa Province predominantly consists the 

agricultural sector. The agricultural sector consists mainly of plantation and 

paddy cultivation including minor crops. According to the general land use 

of the Sabaragamuwa Province, nearly 76 percent of the area in the province 

is under agriculture. 47.2 percent of the population in the Rathnapura District 

and 31.2 percent in the Kegalle District are engaged in agriculture 

(Department of Census and Statistics, 2002). As in the case of other 

provinces in Sri Lanka, the industrial sector of the Sabaragamuwa Province 

is highly insignificant. The gem industry is one of the important sectors of 

the economy of the Province. According to most of the socio-economic 


122


indicators Sabaragamuwa Province is one of the slow growing regions in Sri 

Lanka (Uduporuwa, 2005, Uduporuwa, 2007) 

Presently one of the noticeable features that can be clearly identified with 

regard to the urban growth in the Sabaragamuwa Province is the slow urban 

growth and the low level of urbanization compared to other provinces of Sri 

Lanka. According to Table 2 and Table 3 though urban population in the 

Sabaragamuwa Province in the inter-censal period of 1963-1971 had 

increased at a relatively higher average annual growth rate of 5.3 percent it 

has slowed down in the inter-censal period of 1971-1981 up to 2.0 percent 

and situation has worsened further after 1981. After 1987, with the setting 

up Provincial Councils, delimitation of urban areas was changed including 

only Municipal and Urban Councils as urban and under this situation the 

Sabaragamuwa Province has only 3 urban areas. Accordingly, in the intercensal 

period of 1981-2001 the average annual growth rate of urban 

population in the province was-1.06 percent. 

Table 3: Urban Growth in the Sabaragamuwa Province (National Level)-1963-2001 

Census Population 

Average Number of Share of the 

years Total (000) Urban 

(000) 

annual growth 

rate (%) 

towns country 

(%) 

1963 1124500 43800 

12 0.4 

5.3 

1971 1316100 93800 12 0.7 

1981 1482000 112700 

2.0 

12 0.75 

2001 1787938 75801 -1.6 

3 0.4 

Source: Dept of Census and Statistics, 2001, Mendis, 1982 

In addition to the slow growth of urban population, Sabaragamuwa Province 

is experiencing a low level of urbanization. According to the data, the level 

of urbanization in most other provinces in of Sri Lanka is higher than the 

Sabaragamuwa Province from 1963 to 2001 (Figure 1). Even in 1963 the 

Sabaragamuwa Province had recorded the lowest level of urbanization (3.8 

percent) among all the provinces in Sri Lanka. In 1971 it increased up to 7.1 

percent while it was 7.6 percent in 1981. According to the Census in 2001 

the level of urbanization of the Sabaragamuwa Province was 4.2 percent. It 

was the lowest value compared with most other provinces of Sri Lanka. 

123 




Though there was a considerable increase in the level of urbanization within 

the intercensal period of 1963-1971, it has slowed down after 1971. Although, 

in 1981 it has increased up to 7.6 percent and the increase is only 0.5 percent 

during the 10 year period. 

However, according to the Census in 2001, at present the total urban 

population of the Sabaragamuwa Province is about 75,801. It accounts for 

4.2 percent out of the total population of the province. Between the two 

districts in the province, Rathnapura is more urban than Kegalle. The 

Rathnapura District accounts for 3.3 percent, while the Kegalle District 

accounts for 0.9 percent (Table 4). It is far below than most other districts 

and the national level. 

Spatial Distribution of Urban Population in the Sabaragamuwa 

Province 

Similar to the urban population in other provinces in the country, the urban 

population in the Sabaragamuwa Province is highly unevenly distributed within 

the Province. Although there were 12 officially declared urban centres at 

national level in 1981, according to the present administrative structure, the 

Census in 2001 has identified only 3 urban centres at the national level in 

three DS Divisions out of 25 DS Divisions (Table 4). All other 21 DS Divisions 

have no urban areas according to the present administrative system. 

Rathnapura District consists of 2 urban areas namely Rathnapura and 

Balangoda while the Kegalle District comprises only one urban area namely 

Kegalle. 

Urban Hierarchy of the Sabaragamuwa Province 

According to the Central Place Theory (Christaller,1933) a hierarchical order 

of service centers of a region or a country is a vertical class system in 

which service centers might be classified according to the threshold and 

range values of their functions. Generally orders of a hierarchy could be 

identified using different criteria such as the rank size of service centers 

based on population, the extent of area served by a center or the magnitude 

of the complementary region, types of service functions provided and the 

number and value significance of functions etc. 


124


Table 4: Spatial Distribution of Urban Population in the Sabaragamuwa Province, 

1981-2001 (National Level) 

AGA Divisions 

Rathnapura 

District 


urban centres - 

1981 


urban centres- 

2001 

percentage of 

urban 

population - 

2001 

Ayagama - - - 

Balangoda 1 1 0.7 

Eheliyagoda - - - 

Elapata - - - 

Embilipitiya - - - 

Godakawela 1 - - 

Imbulpe - - - 

Kahawatta 1 - - 

Kalawana - - - 

Kirialla - - - 

Kollonna - - - 

Kuruwita - - - 

Nivithigala - - - 

Opanayake - - - 

Pelmadulla 1 - - 

Rathnapura 1 1 2.6 

Waligepolla - - - 

Total 5 2 3.3 

AGA Divisions 

Kegalle District 

Aranayake - - - 

Bulathkohupitiya - - - 

Dehiowita 1 - - 

Daraniyagala - - - 

Galigamuwa - - - 

Kegalle 1 1 0.9 

Mawanella 1 - - 

Rambukkana 1 - - 

Ruwanwalla 1 - - 

Warakapola 1 - - 

Yatiyantota 1 - - 

Total 7 1 0.9 

Province 12 3 4.2 

Source: Dept of Census and Statistics, 2001, Mendis, 1982 

Theoretically widespread economic growth of a region or a country requires 

the creation of an articulated and integrated system of settlement composed 

of towns and cities of different sizes and functions that are large and 

diversified enough to serve not only their own residents, but also to the 

surrounding rural areas (Christaller, 1933; Berry, 1967; Johnson, 1970; 

Rondinelli and Ruddle, 1978). Towns and cities are seen as links in the 

125 




system of distribution and exchange between agricultural areas and urban 

areas. Therefore, absence of a well developed hierarchical system of urban 

centers obstructs the emergence of sectorally and geographically balanced 

pattern of economic growth. Poor countries without such a spatial system 

cannot achieve geographically diffused development and reduce regional 

and rural-urban disparities, because, without access to an integrated system 

of urban hierarchy farmers cannot easily sell their surplus, obtain input, 

modernize their technology and adopt products to consumer demand 

(Rondinelli, 1984). 

In this context, it can be observed that Sabaragamuwa Province has no 

well developed urban hierarchy. Although there were 12 officially declared 

urban centres at national level in 1981 according to the present administrative 

structure, Sabaragamuwa Province consists only 3 urban centres at the 

national level in three DS Divisions out of 25 DS Divisions. This is mainly 

due to the absence of an explicit definition of urban settlements in the country. 

This situation is a major barrier to realize the current real picture of the 

urban growth in Sri Lanka and the Sabaragamuwa Province as well. 

According to the present administrative structure, urban areas such as 

Pelmadulla, Kahawatta, Warakapola and Mawanella are presently 

incorporated into the Pradeshiya Sabhas and are not officially declared as 

urban centres at the national level though demographically and functionally 

they are growing faster than other centres in the province. According to 

section 154 of the Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution in 1987 only 

the urban local authorities Municipal and Urban Councils have the powers 

to implement the economic plans under the Municipal Councils Ordinance. 

As a result, Pradeshiya Sabhas are restricted in their capacity of independent 

decision making and actions. Under this situation the expansion of urban 

economic activities, urban services and utilities of most of the towns are 

restricted as they have not been promoted to Municipalities or Urban 

Councils. Hence, this situation inhibits the urban growth and its impact on 

the development in the Sabaragamuwa Province. It restricts the promotion 

of all kinds of activities such as industries, urban services, constructions, 

transport, communication and utilities in such towns. This is a great barrier 

for the dynamism of the centres in the province. 

However, at present, at the local level the Urban Development Authority 

has identified 96 service centres in the Sabaragamuwa Province (Urban 

Development Authority, 2005). The Rathnapura District consists of 46 centres 

and the Kegalle District consists of 50 centres. The Urban Development 


126


Authority has classified these 96 centres into 5 orders based on existing 

population of centres, availability of administrative activities, roads and 

transport, commercial and services, manufacturing activities, social 

recreation, health services, education facilities and other infrastructure. Out 

of these 96 central places 20 service centres have been declared as urban 

centres at the local level by the Urban Development Authority for the planning 

Purposes (Table 5 and Figure 2). The orders of the hierarchy of service 

centres of the Sabaragamuwa Province are as follows. 

1. First order - Regional Capitals with a Population over 20,000 

Rathnapura town, being the Provincial Capital and the administrative centre 

of the province from ancient times, is in the first order and dominates the 

urban hierarchy of the province. According to the Census of 1981 the 

Rathnapura town had a population of 37354 and 46309 in 2001. 

2. Second order -District Capitals with a Population of 10,000-19,000 

Kegalle town is the capital of the Kegalle District and the only one urban 

centre in the second order of the provincial hierarchy. Kegalle town had a 

population of 14928 in 1981 and 17430 in 2001. 

3. Third order-Small and Medium Size Towns with a Population of 

10,000-19,000 

Third level consists of only of 16 service centres and 13 service centers 

have been decleared as urban centers in the local urban hierarchy. Although 

all the service centres in this order had a population between 10,000 and 

19,000 both in 1971 and 1981, at present, some urban centres have exceeded 

19,000. 

4. Fourth order-Rural Service Centres with a Population of 2500-10,000 

This order consists of 17 service centres. Depending on the development of 

the service centre only 5 of them have been declared as urban centres in 

the provincial urban hierarchy. 

5. Fifth order-Village Service Centres with a Population below 2500 

The majority of the centres of the Sabaragamuwa Province are village 

service centres. This order consists 63 settlements. 

127 




Table 5: Local Urban Hierarchy in the Sabaragamuwa Province 

Order 

Urban centre 

Size of population 

(000) 

1981 2001 

Change of 

population 

within 

20 years (000) 

(1981-2001) 

First order Rathnapura ** 37354 46309 8955 1.2 

Average 

annual 

growth rate 

(%) 

1981-2001 

Second 

order 

Third 

order 

Fourth 

order 

Kegalle ** 14928 17430 2502 0.8 

Balangoda ** 10263 12062 1799 0.9 

Pelmadulla 6153 8000 1847 1.5 

Mawanella 13898 23501 9603 3.5 

Kuruwita * 8000 - - 

Ehaliyagoda * 8900 - - 

Embilipitiya * 22000 - 

Ruwanwella 4856 7850 2994 3.1 

Rambukkana 5952 7790 1830 1.5 

Warakapola 4701 7984 3283 3.5 

Kahawatta 3650 5980 2330 3.5 

Galigamuwa * 5890 - - 

Deraniyagala * 4270 - - 

Yatiyantota 2217 4285 2028 4.6 

Rakwana 1799 3985 2186 6.0 

Dehiowita 6950 8190 1240 0.9 

Nivitigala * 6000 - - 

Anguruwalla/ * 4850 - - 

Karawanella 

Bulathkohupitiya * 3110 - - 

** National urban centres 

* No urban status in 1981 

Source: Urban Development Authority, (2005) 


128


N 

Source: Urban Development Authority, 2005 

Map: 1 

Conclusion 

Figure 2: Urban centers in the Sabaragamuawa Province 

Sabaragamuwa Province is one of the slow growing regions located in the 

outer periphery in the country. With the establishment of British power over 

the entire island in the early decades of the 19 th century, it became a major 

plantation area of the country. The development of plantations in hill country 

areas resulted the development of a communication system, services, 

transport, commerce, health care and education in these areas. All these 

129 




factors as well as the immigration of British planters and South Indian 

plantation workers contributed to the emergence of a number of service 

centres in the hill country areas. During that period theses service centres 

played a vital role as collecting centres of agricultural produce and catering 

goods and services to the population in these areas. After Independence, a 

number of negative impacts existed on the growth of service centres in 

these areas due to the gradual decline of the plantation sector. After 

Independence these service centres developed within a separate framework. 

Since the population in the country increased rapidly after Independence 

these service centres had to cater to a large population. 

Presently, the most striking feature in relation to the urban growth in the 

Sabaragamuwa Province is the very slow growth (in 2001 negative growth) 

of urban population and the lowest level of urbanization among all other 

provinces of Sri Lanka. It still remains as a highly agricultural region though 

there were a number of development programs during the last 20 years. 

Although Sabaragamuwa Province has several functionally and 

demographically dynamic service centres, they have not been identified as 

urban centres at the National level and only 3 centres have been identified 

as national centres. Therefore, the spatial distribution of urban population in 

the province also is highly uneven. 

The absence of an accepted definition for urban areas is the major factor 

which is responsible for inhibiting the real picture of urban growth and 

urbanization in the regions as well in the country. Due to this situation the 

country has under-estimated the rapidity of growth of the urban population. 

Therefore, redefinition of urban areas is essential for the country. 

Since urbanization is a powerful instrument for promoting economic and 

social change, the slow growth and low level of urbanization directly and 

indirectly affect the less dynamic economy of the province. Therefore, if 

necessary actions are not taken to promote the process of urbanization in 

the Sabaragamuwa Province, it will be a major obstacle to the development 

of the Sabaragamuwa Province. 

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Rondinelli, D.A. and Ruddle, K. (1978) Urbanization and Rural Development: 

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Urban Development Authority (2005) “Urban Hierarchy in the 

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Karunanayake (ed) People, Space and Resources: Perspectives on 

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Wanasinghe, Y.A.D.S. and Karunanayake, M.M. (2003) Urban Development 

and Regional Planning in Sri Lanka in M. M. Karunanayake (ed) Rural- 

Urban Interface in Sri Lanka: Studies in Regional Development, 

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132



ISSN 1391-3166 

Insecurity of Secure Land Tenure - Case of 

Service Tenure formalization in Sri Lanka 

N.M.P.M. Piyasena 

Department of Surveying and Geodesy, Faculty of Geomatics, 

Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, P.O. Box 02, Belihuloya, Sri 

Lanka. milinda@sab.ac.lk 

Abstract 

The government of Sri Lanka has recognized the title registration as a tool against 

insecure land tenure. However, global experience reveals that success of such 

projects depends on several factors. As such, it is of primary importance for the 

country to investigate the effectiveness of title registration in providing secure 

land tenure under the local conditions. With the above mentioned background, the 

objective of the paper is to investigate the effectiveness of title registration in Sri 

Lanka in areas where service tenure exists. Service tenure system is one of the very 

complex tenure systems in Sri Lanka and thus allows a better judgment of the 

effectiveness of the title registration. 

A case study method was adopted to investigate the service tenure system. An 

identified analytical framework from a wide literature survey has been used to 

analyse the service tenure system. The outcome of the study reveals that most of 

the land tenure insecurity is caused by institutional inconsistencies and also that 

focusing on individual titling alone would not eliminate these inconsistencies. 

Key words: Land Tenure, Title Registration, Property Rights, Institutions 

The Introduction 

The title registration system in Sri Lanka, named Bimsaviya, has many 

objectives. Among them the provision of secure land tenure is considered to 

be of primary importance. Secure land tenure is recognized as one of two 

priorities that need urgent attention by The United Nations Centre for Human 

Development (Deininger, 2003). According to the Bathurst Declaration (UN- 

FIG, 1999), insecure tenure inhibits the proper use and investment in rural 

and urban lands. They hinder good governance and civic engagement. This 

leads to uncoordinated development. Without effective access to secure 

tenure, economies are unable to progress and the goal of sustainable 

development can not be realized. 

133


According to the GTZ (1998) a country must fulfill the following in order to 

fulfill the tenure security needs; 

• functional certainty and security of the law and human rights; 

• public participation in the politics of land issues; 

• credit systems that acknowledge secured tenure as collateral; 

• functional and accountable institutions and authority; 

• improved employment and business investment opportunities; and 

• a functioning land market and economy (GTZ, 1998). 

Further, even though such conditions fulfill its importance to ascertain whether 

the existing tenure system provides insufficient tenure security (e.g. number 

of prevalent land disputes), there are many situations where customary 

tenure system provides sufficient security for investments. There is also no 

need for formal land registry when it is of little or no demand for land 

transactions, as customary systems are sufficient to facilitate the volume of 

transactions (Feder and Nishio, 1999). It is also worth not to overlook the 

social or cultural norms, retractions and prohibitions which limits the 

transaction of land. Neglecting them would result in difficulties to achieve 

the desired objective of formal land registration systems. It may also 

contribute to ‘land grabbing’ by the well privileged groups (e.g. land officers, 

elites) in societies. This may contribute to form landless classes within the 

society due to the fact that smallholders and the poor will be tempted to sell 

their lands to larger landowners and wealthier persons. Hence it is imperative 

to investigate the title registration of Sri Lanka and study its effectiveness 

in providing secure land tenure before further investing large sums of money. 

In embarking on such a study the present paper confines its investigation to 

one of the customary tenure system in Sri Lanka named service tenure. 

This system is one of the very complex tenure systems in Sri Lanka due to 

its unique development under various political, cultural, economical and 

natural influences. Hence, the outcome of the study clears the way to 

evaluate the effectiveness of the Sri Lankan title registration system against 

one of the most complex tenure systems in Sri Lanka. 

In view of the above observations it is intended to identify the outcomes 

from secure tenure elements within the areas where service tenure exists 

and investigates the factors behind the outcomes so as to find the 

effectiveness that affect security of title registration in providing secure 

land tenure with the service tenure areas. 

Theoretical Framework 

The objective of this section is to find an analytical framework to study land 

tenure system so as to identify the effectiveness of a tenure system in 

providing a secure land tenure. 


134


First let us look deep into the understanding of land tenure. Land tenure has 

different meanings according to the stream, to which it is applied. In legal 

sense land tenure deals with rights over land and its attached resources. 

Hence in legal sense “land tenure can be defined in terms of a ‘bundle of 

rights’-specific rights to do certain things with land or real property. The 

institutions governing the land tenure answer the question who, what, when, 

how much, and where?” (Dekker, 2003) These bundle of rights can be in 

six forms, namely; 

• Right to manage 

• Right to get income 

• Right to transfer 

• Right to use 

• Right to get compensation 

However, strengths and weakness of these rights are determined by socioeconomic 

aspects of land tenure which is laying more emphasis on the web 

of relations resulting within a land tenure system. The Socio-economic 

aspects of land tenure defines how property rights over land are allocated 

within societies, how access is granted to the right to use, control, and transfer 

of land, as well as associated responsibilities and restrains (FAO,1999). As 

such, it affects the fundamental relationships between the people themselves 

and their relation to land. Such relations, especially in rural areas, cannot 

only be economically defined; rather they also have social and cultural 

dimensions, and hence become more imperative for our discussion. 

According to Kirk (1991) a land tenure system comprises three components; 

system of ownership, system of labor sharing and system of resource rights. 

System of land ownership regulates the relationship of people to the land, 

specifically the power of dispossession of the land and the right to use the 

land, while the system of labor organizations regulate the relationship between 

people carrying out the work on the land, particularly the method of dividing 

the work and yield. Resource tenure comprises both land and resources 

attached to it, such as right to use water, wood etc. This model of land 

tenure is closely related to the Sri Lankan context and will be used for the 

analysis of empirical results. 

Land tenure relations are governed by institutions. According to North (1986), 

institutions arise because of the interaction of individuals based on need 

satisfaction. Within a society, individuals require to interact with each other 

in order to satisfy their various needs. As such they form constrains in such 

human interactions. These constrains can be formal (conventions, laws of 

property rights) or informal (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions and codes 

of conduct). They reduce the uncertainty in exchange (North, 1991). 

135 

Insecurity of Secure Land Tenure - Case of Service Tenure formalization in 



According to Feder and Feeny (1991) formal institutions consist of the 

constitutional order and institutional arrangement while informal institutions 

consist of normative behavioral codes. The constitutional order refers to 

the fundamental rules and how society is organized. Institutional 

arrangements are created within the rules specified by the constitutional 

order. These arrangements include laws, regulations, associations, contracts 

and also the property rights in land. The third category, normative behavioral 

codes, refers to the cultural values which legitimize the arrangements and 

behavioral constraints. 

When studying the land tenure systems in Asian, African and certain other 

countries, the informal institutions need to be differentiated further. Within 

these countries, informal institutions consists of customary and other 

legitimate institutions. Customary institutions can be distinguished from other 

legitimate institutions as customary institutions have standard organizations 1 

while legitimate institutions may or may not have organizations. If it has 

organizations they are common only for a few groups of people (e.g. a 

small community). Hence, for the purpose of this study four types of 

institutions were used; namely, constitutional order, institutional arrangement, 

customary institutions and other legitimate (or informal) institutions 

(Piyasena, 2009). 

The creation of institutions within a land tenure system can be explained as 

follows. Due to the interests and ideological imperatives on the lands by 

individuals, a human to land interaction is created. However, as humans live 

in a community, other individuals who are living in the same community may 

have the same or different interests and ideological imperatives over land 

and demand property rights to satisfy their interests. As such, human to 

human interactions are created. Nevertheless, these human to land and 

human to human interactions also form organizations in order to regulate 

such interactions. Such organizations can be formed from formal institutions 

such as constitutional order or informal institutions. However, once they are 

formed we can consider them as separate bodies with their own interests/ 

objectives over the land and its resources (e.g. forest department). Hence, 

in order to satisfy their interest, individuals need to have an interaction with 

these organizations as well. As such, there are basically three kinds of 

interactions (or relations) created from an individuals’ side; namely individual 

to land, individual to individuals and individual to organizations (Figure 1). 

The institutions governing these interactions define not only rights and 

restrictions but also responsibilities, values and norms. As we discussed in 

the above session, these institutions can broadly be classified into constitutional 

order, formal, customary, and informal. Individual to land and individual to 


136


individual relations have formal and informal institutions while individual to 

organizations have formal and customary institutions (Piyasena, 2009). 

FORM AL AND 

CU STOMARY 

INSTITUTIONS 

ORGA NI ZAT IONS 

IND IVI D UA L 

LAN D 

FORMAL & 

INFOR MAL 

INSTITUTIONS 

INDIV IDUALS 

C ONSTITUTIONAL 

ORGANIZATIONS 

ORGANIZ ATI ONS 

LAND 

C ONST ITUTIONAL 

ORDER, FORMAL & 

C UST OMAR Y 

INS TITUTIONS 

INDIV IDUAL/ INFORMAL 

INSTITUTIONS 

Figure 1: Individual to land interests and resulting relations (Piyasena, 2009) 

Formal and customary institutions can be differentiated from informal 

institutions, as they represent not only the interests of individuals or small 

communities but more or less on the society as a whole. But in practice this 

may change as some institutions can be developed without the interest of 

the whole society, but because of the influence/interest of a single person. 

However, formal and customary institutions can be treated differently as 

they have their own interests over a land and therefore also have land rights 

which are mandated through organizations. These interests are disturbed or 

supported by the interests of other such organizations and individuals, who 

are also demanding property rights over land (Figure 2). As such, another 

three types of relations are created; namely organization to land, organization 

to individuals and organization to organizations. Organizations to land and 

organization to organization relations are controlled by institutions called 

constitutional order, which is formed by parliament, in the case of a 

democratic country, while other relations are controlled by constitutional 

order, formal and customary institutions (Piyasena, 2009). 

As such total relations created within land tenure system can be represented 

as follow; 

137 




INDIVIDUAL TO I NDIVID UAL 

ORGANIZATIONS TO ORGANIZATIONS 

(INFOR MAL) 

(Formal, CUSTOMARY & 

LAND 

Figure 2: Land tenure system (Source: Piyasena, 2009) 

A land tenure system hence consists of six complex relations. These relations 

are controlled by institutions which contain rights, restrictions, responsibilities, 

values and norms. 

The proper function of the above institutions is necessary for providing land 

tenure security, which has been identified as the prime requirement by The 

United Nations Centre for Human Development (Deininger, 2003). The 

elements of secure tenure may change according to the objectives of the 

stakeholders. However, according to Deininger (2003) general elements of 

secure tenure are namely: “duration of rights, boundary definition, subject 

of rights, properties of enforcement institutions, and the evolution of rights 

in response to changing relative scarcities. Duration of rights provide 

sufficient time to reap the benefits of investment (FAO, 1999). Proper 

boundary definition leads to less ambiguity and thus fewer disputes. Mean 

while, subjects of rights; either private or communal rights, need to be selected 

according to appropriate conditions under which they perform well for 

providing secure tenure. The enforcement of organizations needs to be easily 

accessible, legitimate and accountable to ensure proper implementation of 

such rights (Deininger, 2003). New property rights need to be defined and 

implemented together with changes in resource value (e.g. due to population 

growth) in order to accommodate new cost benefit situations. Without 

adequate institutional changes it would result in conflicts and thus insecure 

tenure (Deininger, 2003). 

Methodology 

Initially, an analytical framework has been developed from literature in order 

to understand and analyse the service tenure system. A case study method 

was used to investigate a service tenure system. This method allows us to 

have a closer look at the ground conditions. Data were collected in preidentified 

areas as service tenure is only limited to a few areas of Sri Lanka. 

From the initial literature survey it was able to identify that Balangoda and 

Imbulpe divisional secretariat divisions has well established service tenure 


138


systems surrounding the Bolthube and Aluth Nuwara Devalayers. 

Accordingly, these areas were selected for the case study. 

Data were collected from organizational side as well as individuals’ side in 

order to better represent the positive and negative outcomes from the service 

tenure system. Tools like open ended questions, structured questioners and 

expert interviews were used for data collection. The outcomes were given 

weightages according to the opinion of the stakeholders, both from individuals’ 

side and organizational side. The graded weightages are listed below; 

Weighing scale for Individuals’ side; 

Experts and villages considered highly important 6 

Either experts or villages considered highly important 5 

Either experts or villages considered highly important while 4 

others say not so important 

Experts and villages considered fairly important 3 

Either experts or villages considered fairly important while 2 

others say not so important 

Relate to very few people 1 

Experts and villages considered not so important 0 

Weighing scale for Individuals’ side; 

All representatives considered highly important 6 

Most of the representatives considered highly important 5 

Some considered highly important while some considered not so 4 

important 

All representatives considered fairly important 3 

Some considered fairly important while others say not so important 2 

Relate to very few organization 1 

All representatives considered not so important 0 

A qualitative method was adopted for the analysis of the results. This method 

was used because it was considered to be a more rigorous, reliable and 

valued investigative approach for studying the impact of land tenure outcomes 

on secure tenure. This method allows sidestepping the artificiality and 

narrowness of experimental studies by allowing the researcher to be more 

spontaneous and flexible in exploring the natural environment (Rudestam 

and Newton, 2001). The method describes how and what. Thus it does not 

only describe the data set (as most qualitative research used to be) but also 

interprets, explains, and understands and sometimes predict (Dey, 1998). 

139 




Main objective of the below data analysis model in Figure 3 was to identify 

the main causes behind each of positive and negative outcomes from the 

secure tenure elements. For this purpose models developed in the theoretical 

framework has been used. Accordingly the service tenure system can be 

subdivided into three main components, namely, system of ownership, system 

of resource sharing and system of labour sharing. Each of these components 

may consists of six types of relations between man, land and organization. 

Once relation/s are identified behind each of the outcomes, the models 

identified in the theoretical framework can be used to find out the main 

cause/s behind the outcomes. The results were put into a Table. 

+/- Outcomes from secure 

tenure element 

Involving Factors 

Relati ons -indi vidual 

/organizational 

Duration of rights 

Boundary definitions 

Subjects of rights 

Constitutional 

Order 

Formal institutions 

Informal 

Institutions 

Man to land relation 

Man to man relation 

Man to organizational 

relations 

System of 

Ownership 

System of 

resource 

sharing 

Service 

Tenure 

Syst em 

Properties of en forcing 

organizations 

Customary 

Institutions 

Organ ization to land 

relation 

System 

Other Factors 

Evolution of rights with 

changing condition s 

-Natural 

-Demographic 

Organ ization to man 

relation 

-Economic 

et c. 

Organ ization to 

organization relations 

Figure 3: Analytical Model 

Table 1 in section 5 represents a sample format of the table. This allows to 

determine whether the existing tenure system provides sufficient secure 

tenure or not for individuals as well as relevant organizations (e.g. Devala). 

Then the investigation was made to identify whether the measurements 

taken by the title registration system (Bimsaviya) is sufficient or not to 

uplift the existing tenure security, if the service tenure do not provide sufficient 

secure tenure. 

According to Table 1 the outcomes were represented according to the 

relations involved. This is necessary in order to find out what causes are 

involved. The models in Figure 1 have being used for this purpose. 


140


Table 1: Example for negative outcomes from the individual side - Viharagam and Devalagam 

Secure 

tenure 

elements 

Different need 

satisfactions using 

secure tenure 

Negative Outcomes 

Relations 

Involved 

Weights 

Cause 

Subject of 

rights 

Access to land 

rights 

Females have some 

difficulties to acquire land 

rights 

Individual to 

organization 

5 

Ownership 

verification 

Ownership can only be 

identified through referring 

back to history according to 

surname. 

Individual to 

Organization 

5 

Cannot be sold without 

prior approval from the 

temple. However some 

lands were sold without 

such approval from the 

temple. This is because of 

the lack of enforcing 

power. They are not legally 

valid in front of a court/ 

Individual to 

Organization 

6 


Models in Figure 1 have been used to identify the causes behind the outcomes 

under each secure tenure elements and the weightages were given according 

to the weighing scales shown under theoretical framework. The following 

Table 1 shows an example for weights given for negative outcomes from 

one of the secure tenure elements named “subject of rights”. 

As stated, positive and negative outcomes result from one or combination 

of relations mentioned above. However, there are basically three relations, 

namely individual to land (R1), individual to organizations (R2) and individual 

to individuals (R3), which are engaged in creating other combination of 

relations. If we represent the outcomes resulting from these basic relations 

R1, R2, and R3 as O1, O2, and O3 respectively (see above), then other 

outcomes resulting from possible combination of these relations R1R2, R1R3, 

R2R3, and R1R2R3 can be represented as O1O2, O1O3, O2O3, and 

O1O2O3. Outcomes from all basic relations (i.e. O1, O2 and O3) and their 

possible combinations can be represented as below; 

The right side of the above Figure 4 can be explained as follows. Let’s take 

negative outcome weight 26 from the left diagram of the Figure 3. It represents 

the negative outcomes resulting from the combination of relations R1and R2 

and thus the outcome can be represented in the cage R1R2, and outcome 

141 




weight 4 of the same diagram resulting from the combination of relations 

R1, R2 and R3, thus represented in cage R1R2R3. In a similar manner the 

outcome weight 24 resulting from R1 and thus represented in cage R1, 4R1 

and so on. 

Similar to outcomes from individuals’ side, the organizational outcomes mainly 

result from three basic relations namely, organization to land (R4), 

organization to individuals (R5), and organization to organizations (R6). These 

outcomes can be represented as O4, O5, and O6 respectively. However, 

similar to the individuals’ side, there are also other outcomes which result 

from a possible combination of these relations which can be represented as 

O4O5, O4O6, O5O6, and O4O5O6. The negative and positive outcomes 

from organizational side can be represented in Figure 4 and 5 respectively. 

Outcomes related to institutions 

R1 

24 

R1 

R2 

R1 

14 

R1 

R2 

Outcomes related to Other Factors 

+ 

2 

- + - 

26 

R3 

0 

R3 

R2 

39 

5 

4 

R2 

R2 

27 

12 6 

2 

14 

R1 

10 

R1 

R3 

6 

R2 

R3 

12 

R2 

R3 

R3 

Outco me = 118 Outcome = 81 

R1 –Individual to land relation 

R2 – Individual to organizations relation 

R3 – Individual to individuals relations 

Figure 4: Outcomes from the individual’s side 

Outcomes related to institutions 

R4 

R5 

R4 15 

R4 

41 

R4 

R5 

1 

- 

Outcomes related to other factors 

+ 

4 

70 

34 

R6 

30 

R6 

R5 

76 

4 

0 

R5 

R5 

61 

4 21 

R5 

6 

R4 

18 

R4 

R6 

23 

R5 

R6 

38 

R5 

R6 

R6 

Outcome = 158 Out co me = 21 3 

R4 –Organization to land relation 

R5 – Organization to individuals relation 

R6 – Organization to organizations relation 

Figure 5: Outcomes from the organizational side 


142


The outcomes from secure tenure elements reveal that service tenure in Sri 

Lanka is insecure. The following Figure 6 and 7 show the causes for tenure 

insecurity in service tenure system from individuals’ side and organizational 

side which are obtained from the table prepared in section 4. The other 

causes in Figure 6 and 7 include economical and natural causes. 

Figure 6: Causes for negative outcomes individuals’ side 

Figure 7: Causes for negative outcomes – organizational 

Conclusion and Recommendations 

Outcomes from the secure tenure elements in Figure 6 and 7 reveal that 

existing service tenure system is reluctant to provide secure tenure for 

individuals as well as organizations. The main causes behind the insecure 

tenure can be categorized into two groups, namely institutional causes and 

143 




other causes. Other causes consist of natural and economical causes which 

is beyond the scope of the study. However, when studying the results 

illustrated in figure 6 bulk of the causes for insecure tenure lie within the 

category of institutional causes. To this end, individual title registration partially 

eliminates causes for insecure tenure in service tenure areas as it tries to 

formalize the existing rights over land. However, there is a risk of disturbing 

the existing web of relations within service tenure relations and thus further 

depart the institutional inconsistencies within the concerned areas as 

individual title registration do not recognize the secondary rights of all three 

components of the tenure system, namely system of ownership, system of 

resource sharing and system of labor sharing. 

Tenure system within the service tenure areas needs to be built from the 

existing situations. To this end, functions of the informal institutions under 

the framework of identified vision of humankind to land relations (UN-FIG, 

1999) are largely important. One of the main focus of informal institutional 

development need to empower people and their capacity building to solve 

local secure land tenure problems locally to a greater degrees. Further, 

tenure reforms can not be considered as an individual component. It must 

be a part of the whole process of rural development. As such, establishment 

of norms for good governance is important to sustain the tenure system. 

Footnotes 

1 

Well known to the community and society 

References 

Deininger, K. (2003) Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction: The 

World Bank,Washington DC. 

Dekker, H.A.L. (2003) The Invisible Line, Land Reform, Land Tenure 

Security, and Land Registration: Universiteit van Amsterdam. 

Dey, I. (1998) Qualitative Data Analysis, A user-friendly guide for social 

scientist, Buddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn. 

Feder, G. and Feeny, D. (1991) Land Tenure and Property Rights: Theory 

and Implications for Developing Countries, The world Bank Economic 

Review, v. 5(1). 

Feder, G. and Nishio, A.(1999) The benifits of land registration and titling: 

Economic and social perspectives, paper presented at international 

conference of land tenure and land administration, Orlando, Florida, 

Nov 12-14. 


144


Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1999) Land tenure and rural 

development, http//www.fao.org/DOCREP/005/Y4307Ee05.html, 

Accessed on 2 nd December 2006. 

German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) (1998) Land Tenure in Development 

Cooperation, Guiding Principle, Summery, Working paper. 

Kirk, M. (1991) Land tenure technology change and resource use, 

Transformation processes in African Agrarian system, Frankfurt am 

Main. 

North, D.C. (1986) The New Institutional Economics, Journal of Institutional 

and Theoretical Economics: JITE, v. 142, pp. 230-237. 

North, D.C. (1991) Institutions, The Journal of Economic Perspective, 

v. 5(1), pp. 97-112. 

Piyasena, N.M.P.M. (2009) Analytical Framework for Institutional 

Contribution in Land Tenure Reforms, Nordic Journal of Surveying and 

Real Estate Research. v. 6(1), pp. 66-68. 

Rudestam, K.E. and Newton, R.R. (2001) Surviving Your Dissertation, A 

Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process, Sage Publications Ltd, 

6 Bonhill Street, London. 

United Nations and International Federation of Surveyors (UN-FIG) (1999) 

The Bathurst Declaration, UN-FIG International Workshop on Land 

Tenure and Cadastral Infrastructures in Support of Sustainable 

Development,http://www.sli.unimelb.edu.au/UNConf99/proceedings. 

html. Accessed on 2 nd of December 2006. 

145 



146



ISSN 1391-3166 

Supply Chain Management in the 

Aquaculture Industry: The Case of Food Fish 

Aquaculture in Sri Lanka 

S.P.M. Jayantha 1 and D.A.M. De Silva 2 

1 

National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka, 756, Base 

Line Road, Colombo 10. meth_lk@yahoo.com 

2 

Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agricultural 

Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, P.O. Box 02, Belihul 

Oya. desilva.achini@yahoo.co.uk 

Abstract 

The study was taken up with the objective of identification of local and regional 

market potential for each main food fish species commonly found in the catch of 

inland fisheries and aquaculture in Sri Lanka and to identify the market segmentation 

of each of these fish species and prices in local and regional markets. The study 

methodology included both desk research and primary research in landing sites and 

regional markets of Western, Eastern, Sabaragamuwa and North-Central provinces 

in Sri Lanka. The study has employed BCG matrix for interpretation and analysis the 

supply chain. The study identifies the different value chains present in the trade 

map. Fishery value chain is dominated by few big players and a number of 

intermediaries were high and hence adds up to the cost of product without adding 

value to the chain. Presence of “patron-client relationship” throughout the supply 

chain is prevalent. The research indicates that the demand for fishe in the regional 

markets is dominated mainly by few preferential species. 

Key words: supply chain, fish and fishery products, Sri Lanka 

Introduction 

Aquaculture continue to play a growing role in Sri Lanka’s economy with 

growing sophistication in small business supply chain networking that links 

fisheries, marketing and transportation. Sri Lanka is endowed with rich natural 

and man made reservoirs and tanks and the country is blessed with wide 

variety of aquatic species. This gift of nature complements the customs and 

traditions of the communities, which understands that the vast natural resource 

is the key to their prosperity and social development. Sri Lanka has immense 

water resources, both fresh and brackish water bodies. It has 2905 sq. Km 

of inland water resources which is available for aquaculture and about 190524 

ha of brackish water resources mainly utilizeed today for prawn and shrimp 

farming (National Aquaculture Development Authority, 2009). 

147


The employment generated from seasonal village tank fish culture is estimated 

to be around 6 000 of which 13 percent are women (Siriwardena and 

Jayakody, 2003). It was estimated in 1999 that the shrimp aquaculture industry 

provided approximately 40 000 jobs both directly and indirectly, which 

represents 11 percent of the total employment in the fisheries sector 

(Siriwardena, 1999). However, the previously estimated figure of 20 000 

directly employed as a result of shrimp farming has currently been reduced 

to 8 000 due to the repeated occurrence of disease within the shrimp industry. 

The participation of women in shrimp aquaculture is around 5 percent of the 

total workforce (Siriwardena and Jayakody, 2003). An estimated 2 500 people 

are engaged in the production and breeding of ornamental fish (Haputanthri 

et al., 2001) of which around 30 percent are estimated to be women, however, 

no thorough survey has been carried out on this aspect (Siriwardena 

and Jayakody, 2003). 

Supply status has been changing drastically through out the year and depends 

highly on the availability of rain. Consumption behavior affects badly 

on the changing the supply of aquaculture fish to the domestic market. In 

general, people in rural areas used to consume more freshwater fish, compared 

to coastal communities. Only a handful of researchers paid attention 

on supply chain management of Sri Lankan fisheries and this study aims to 

investigate the supply chain management in aquaculture industry. This paper 

reviews the peculiarities of the supply chains in the fishing industry with 

its highly fluctuating raw material supply and stringent quality demands. 

Study methodology 

The study supply chain analysis of aquaculture industry of Sri Lanka has 

been structured to capture the essence of the process and flow of the value 

chain in aquaculture. The framework of the study will help to understand 

the levels of supply chain, its role and importance, the cost of operation, the 

barriers to entry, mobility and exit, the economies of scale, the effect of 

market forces viz the demand and supply forces. The study has been designed 

to map the key processes and flows in the supply chain of aquaculture in the 

local market. 

Research framework 

The frame work employed in the research “supply chain analysis of aquaculture” 

in Sri Lanka is a stratified frame work in which the stake holders are 

employed on the horizontal axis of inquiry and the various concerns and 

S.P.M. Jayantha and D.A.M. De Silva 

148


issues processes and flows are on the vertical axis. This frame work is 

designed to map the entire supply chain across levels of the supply chain 

and to bring them on a common axis to induce a complete and holistic 

understanding of the chain. 

Tools and Techniques 

The study has adopted various tools and techniques for collection of 

information on various aspects. A thorough desk review was undertaken to 

develop insights into the key areas that needs to be focused during the primary 

research and discussions were held with various experienced persons in the 

fishery sector to collect information related to the issue on hand. Primary 

research was conducted in the West coast for prawn and shrimp farming, 

Sabaragamuwa province (Udawalawa reservoir), Eastern province 

(Iginiyagala and Ampara reservoirs) and North-Central province 

(Parakkrama Samudraya, Mahavilachiya and Minneriya reservoirs) to collect 

first hand information on the specific parameters developed on the basis of 

the study. In the primary research, both qualitative and quantitative approach 

has been adopted. In depth interviews were conducted to obtain information 

from the key respondents on the issues and concerns of the supply chain of 

aquaculture in the study area. Different semi-structured questionnaires were 

prepared for the purpose and were used as tools of research. Various group 

discussions were arranged between the fishermen as well as the different 

players of the supply chain. These discussions were useful in finding out the 

different aspects of supply chains for aquaculture. It also helped in validating 

the information collected by the individual investigators through face-to-face 

interviews with individuals or otherwise. Instruction moderating schedules 

were used as tools for the purpose. Observation were keenly made during 

the course of group discussions and documented. While interviewing the 

respondents, observations were gathered from their reactions. The 

investigators’ impression from their own experience during course of 

investigation was also taken as part of the observation. The observation 

was quasi-participant type. Operations of the activities, the manner of 

functioning of various players of the value chain at different levels was 

observed. These observations formed an essential part of the entire filed 

work. The study on supply chain analysis of aquaculture in Sri Lanka was 

conducted according to the preferential sampling of the researcher. The 

selection of the study area was on the basis of importance of the production 

and landing center, the number of fishermen at the landing center, the volume 

of trade granted, etc. 

149 

Supply Chain Management in the Aquaculture Industry: The Case of Food Fish 

Aquaculture in Sri Lanka


The regional markets were selected on the basis of the size of the operation, 

number of forward and backward linkages, the volume of daily trade, etc. 

The places covered were mainly the landing centers in West coast, North- 

Central, East and Sabaragamuwa provinces. These landing centers were 

both inland landing centers and brackish water landing centers. The major 

regional market for fishing was covered during the study to develop a good 

understanding of the food fish aquaculture supply chain. The study sampling 

has been done to incorporate all the stake holders in the study and hence 

helps to produce a complete picture of the fishery value chain. 

The “fishbone diagram” is an analysis tool that provides a systematic way 

of looking at effects and the causes that create or contribute to those effects. 

Because of the function of the fishbone diagram, it may be referred to as a 

cause-and-effect diagram. The value of the “fishbone diagram” is to assist 

teams in categorizing the many potential causes of problems or issues in an 

orderly way and in identifying root the causes. 

The process of construction of fish bone diagram consists of following steps 

(NCDENR, 2002). 

1. Draw the fishbone diagram 

2. List the problem/issue to be studied in the “head of the fish”. 

3. Label each “”bone” of the “fish”. The major categories typically utilized 

are: 

- The 4 M’s: Methods, Machines, Materials, Manpower 

- The 4 P’s: Place, Procedure, People, Policies 

- The 4 S’s: Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills 

4. Use an idea-generating technique (e.g., brainstorming) to identify the 

factors within each category that may be affecting the problem/issue and/or 

effect being studied. The team should ask, “What are the issues affecting/ 

causing...” 

5. Repeat this procedure with each factor under the category to produce 

sub-factors. Continue asking, “Why is this happening?” and put additional 

segments for each factor and subsequently under each sub-factor. 

6. Continue until you no longer get useful information as you ask, “Why is 

that happening?” 


150


7. Analyze the results of the fishbone after team members agree that an 

adequate amount of detail has been provided under each major category. 

Do this by looking for those items that appear in more than one category. 

These become the ‘most likely causes”. 

8. For those items identified as the “most likely causes”, the team should 

reach consensus on listing those items in order of priority with the first item 

being the most probable” cause. 

The BCG matrix for fishery 

The BCG matrix (Boston Consulting Group analysis) is a chart that had 

been created by Bruce Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1970 

to help corporations with analyzing their business units or product lines 

(Mercer, 1993). Cash cows are units with high market share in a slowgrowing 

industry (Mercer, 1993). These units typically generate cash in excess 

of the amount of cash needed to maintain the business. Dogs are units with 

low market share in a mature, slow-growing industry (Mercer, 1993). These 

units typically “break even”, generating barely enough cash to maintain the 

business’s market share. Question mark is growing rapidly and thus consumes 

large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they do 

not generate much cash (Mercer, 1993). The result is large net cash 

consumption. A question mark has the potential to gain market share and 

become a star, and eventually a cash cow when the market growth slows. If 

the question mark does not succeed in becoming the market leader, then 

after perhaps years of cash consumption it will degenerate into a dog when 

the market growth declines. Stars are units with a high market share in a 

fast-growing industry. The hope is that stars become the next cash cows 

(Mercer, 1993). Sustaining the business unit’s market leadership may require 

extra cash, but this is worthwhile if that’s what it takes for the unit to remain 

a leader. When growth slows, stars become cash cows if they have been 

able to maintain their category leadership. 

Study locations 

Figure 1 is showing the study locations in the map of Sri Lanka. 

151 




Figure 1: Map of the major inland fish and aquaculture landing sites and 

research locations; (Source: Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources) 


152


Results and discussion 

Components of the fishery 

Aquaculture in Sri Lanka can be classified according to the nature of the 

operation i.e. capture and culture. The major components of aquaculture 

are as follows: fresh water fishing (a. perennial water bodies b. Tanks) and 

Fish culture (a. Tanks b. Ponds c. Ornamental fisheries). 

Fresh water fishing 

Freshwater fishing is based on the inland water resources and is an important 

source of protein supplement in rural diet. The inland water has been exploited 

for its aquatic resources by the communities to meet their food requirements 

and also is a means of livelihood to many. Figure 2 brings the time series 

analysis of inland fish of Sri Lanka. 

40000 

35000 

Fish prodcution (Mt) 

30000 

25000 

20000 

15000 

10000 

5000 

0 

198 0 198 5 1986 1987 19 88 19 89 19 90 199 1 199 2 199 3 1994 1995 1996 19 97 19 98 2 00 0 20 01 2 002 2 003 20 04 20 05 20 06 200 7 2 00 8 

Figure 2: Inland and aquaculture fish production 

Source: Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resource Development 

Table 1: Resource Profile of Inland Fisheries 

Resource type 

Area (Ha) 

Major reservoirs 70,880 

Medium reservoirs 19,004 

Minor reservoirs 39,271 

Other new reservoirs 25,000 

Hill country reservoirs 8097 

Seasonal tanks 100,000 

Source: National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka 

153 




Market and product segmentation 

Segregation of product and market into district segments provide insight to 

compare the value chain, keeping in focus the product and market characteristics 

and find out uniqueness. Segmentation classifies people into groups 

based on shared characteristics (Sanyal and McLaughlin, 1993). Market 

segmentation is a selection of groups of people who are most receptive to a 

product. 

The segmentation of the market is done on demographic variables such as 

age, sex, race, income, occupation, education, household status and geographic 

location and psychographic variables such as lifestyle, activities, interestsand 

opinions, product use patterns, product benefits. 

The segmentation of the aquaculture species has been done on the basis of 

the demand of the various species in different markets. Market segregation 

is an indicative categorization based on the cumulation of price, availability, 

demand of the specific species in the market. Table 2 gives the market 

segmentation of important aquaculture species. 

Table 2: Preferential Ranking of Species – Market Wise 

Name of the fish Local Regional Market Export Market 

Species Market 

Prawn *** *** *** 

Mud crab *** *** ** 

Tilapia *** *** *** 

Common carp ** * * 

Cat fish (local) *** *** Nil 

Big head carp ** ** Nil 

Silver carp * * Nil 

Rohu * * Nil 

Hirikanaya * * Nil 

Local market 

Local markets are essentially the markets near the landing centers (in the 

periphery of 25 – 30 Km accessible by foot cycles and motor cycles), which 

include villages, sub divisions and nearby towns. The demand in these markets 


154


is generally stable except for the deviations during special occasions e.g. 

wedding ceremonies, festivals, alms giving, etc. 

The main characteristics are as follows; 

1. Demand for the average to low value product is based on the availability 

2. Purchasing power of the consumer is the limiting factor for consumption 

of high value product 

3. Number of vendors is limited 

4. Demand for the aquaculture species is limited due to food habits of the 

community. Only limited species are in demand 

5. Demand for the marine fish is higher than the inland fish 

6. High value product rarely enters the local market 

7. Demand is affected by the socio-cultural and the religious prohibitions to 

the extent that the market closes due to absence of the buyers from the 

market 

8. The cost of operation is low as the product is consumed 

Regional market 

Regional markets are the bigger markets situated in the state capitals, large 

cities or metropolitan cities with variegated supply and demand linkages. 

The number of operators, limited is higher than local markets. These markets 

normally cater to a larger geographic location and the volume of trade is 

high. The number of buyers is high as compared to the local market 

The characteristics of the markets are; 

1. Serves as a channel to cater to up-country markets and distant markets 

2. Serves as a connecting channel with the retailer, end user and the producer 

3. More capacity to absorb the gult in the supply due to high number of 

demand channels 

4. Price fluctuation is high and can happen on a daily basis depending on the 

demand of the larger market for the product 

5. Purchasing power of the end consumers is higher than that in local markets 

155 




Product segmentation 

Product segmentation is the process through which products having similar 

affinity and nature cluster together and follows almost the same line of growth, 

cater to the similar kind of market and behave in a similar way under the 

forces of demand and supply. In this study the value of the product can be 

distinctly classified in four value slabs, i.e. export value product, high value 

product, av. value product and low value product. Table 3 presents the inland 

fish catch by major species and Table 4 brings average fish prices of various 

product segments. 

Table 3: Inland fish catch by major species (Mt) 

Species 2000 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 

Thilapiya 23150 17870 22190 21620 19320 22510 

Carps 1 9190 9050 5420 6130 9560 7630 

Local 2 *** *** 3190 3210 3930 4660 

Cultured 4360 3360 2380 1870 2480 3580 

prawns 

Total 36700 30280 33180 32830 35290 38380 


Table 4: average prices for various product segments 

Product segment Product Av. Price/Kg/LKR 

Export value product Prawn 600.00 – 700.00 

High value product 

Average value product 

Low value product 

Prawn 

Tilapia 

Carps 

Prawn 

Tilapia 

Carps 

Prawn 

Tilapia 

Carps 

500.00 – 600.00 

150.00 – 170.00 

130.00 – 140.00 

400.00 – 500.00 

110.00 – 140.00 

110.00 – 130.00 

350.00 – 400.00 

100.00 – 120.00 

100.00 – 110.00 

Source: Field survey-February 2009. 


156


Export value product 

Export value products appear in two qualities i.e. higher value export markets 

such as European Union, United States of America and Japan, and 

lower value export markets such as China, Singapore, Hong Kong and Thailand. 

The products in this category undergo value chain with very high cost 

of operation and hence the profit margin of this segment is very high. The 

products undergo a standard processing procedure according to the specified 

international regulations for it. The operation is normally taken up by the 

processing plant owners and the exporters. Processors have to follow ISO, 

FDA, EU and HACCP norms together with special buyer considerations. 

In general, processors are operating their own production sites and they are 

acting as main feeders to supply channel. The value chain is dominated by 

the export/processing houses. The value chain of this segment is more 

organized as compared to other products because of the influence of the 

global market which is more streamlined in terms of product standard and 

high competition. Figure 3 presents the value of fish exports by product 

type. 

14 000 

12 000 

Export value (LKR m illions) 

10 000 

8 000 

6 000 

4 000 

2 000 

0 

Praw ns Lobsters Crabs Beche de 

Mer 

Chank & 

Shells 

Shark 

fins 

Molluscs 

Fish 

maw s 

Fish 

Others 

1983 1990 1995 2000 20 0 5 2006 2007 

Figure 3: Value of fish and fish products exports, 1983-2007 


High value product 

The product of this segment is finally consumed in the domestic market and 

lower value export market. These products fetched a good price but are 

157 




highly species oriented. The supply chain followed in this segment starts 

from the landing center where procurement is made the collection point in 

this case is the middlemen followed by the agents and the wholesaler at the 

regional market which then feeds it to the distribution channel comprising of 

the retailers. The product of this segment undergoes minimal processing. 

The sorting of the product is taken up by the middlemen who further also 

takes up temporary freezing arrangements and arrangement for the 

transportation to the regional market. The profit margins for this segment is 

moderate to high depending upon the species of catch, quality of the catch, 

size of the catch, present market demand. 

Average value product 

The products of this segment are consumed in the local market or the regional 

market. Apart from local consumption, these products also meet the industrial 

requirement for poultry feed and other ancillary units. The profit margin in 

this segment is lower compared to high value market. 

Low value product 

This product segment caters to the small fishers of very low economic value. 

The prices of the products are determined the local players. As it is a product 

of low value, the chain is a diffused chain and is dominated by the fishermen. 

The direct buyers/ retail agents are the important players in this segment. 

The profit margin is very low. The general supply chain of this product 

segment initiates at the landing center and directly ends up with the final 

consumers. 

Figure 4 and 5 describe the value chain of the product (fish) from landing 

centers (except the case of culture of fish) to the final consumer taking into 

consideration the entire gamut of service providers at various levels of the 

chain, the value addition done, the service provided or the subsequent value 

added to the product before consumption in lieu of the profit, from the 

operations undertaken by them (OXFAM, 2005). 

Fishing sector constitutes a value chain composed of two different phases 

forming a system ; the capture (food fish)/culture (prawn and shrimp) is the 

primary phase and the industrial or secondary phase. The industrial phase of 

food fish aquaculture composed of three cycles; first cycle is freezing the 

second cycle involves physical processing that makes it possible to obtain a 

standard frozen product and third cycle is production of processed foods. 


158


Brood Stock 

Farm 

Land Transport 

Fish Market 

Material 

Supply 

Breeding Farm 

Traders 

Processing 

Culture/Growers 

Material Supply Product Distribution Proce 

Marketing 

1. Knowledge transfer system 1. Good aquaculture Mgt. 1. Fish Mkt. Mgt. 1. Processing and 

2. Management of Material Supply 2. Cultivation enterprise Mgt. 2.Value addition, 

3. Monitoring and Evaluation 2. Fish Mkt. Mgt. System 

System 

FRAME WORK 

Figure 4: Supply Chain Management for inland Fish 

159 




Feed Supply Brood Stock 

Farm 

Air Cargo 

Processing 

Material 

Supply 

Grow-up Farm 

Agency 

Fish Market 

SUPPLY CHAIN 

Material Supply Product Logistic Processing 

Market 

1. Feed Management System 1. Disease Announcement Mgt. Fish Market Mgt. 1. Processing Value 

Production 

2. Material Supply Mgt. 2. Good Aquaculture Mgt. addition Mgt. 

System 

2. Cultivation enterprise Mgt. 2. Fish Mkt. Mgt 

3. Monitoring & Evaluation System 

Figure 5: Supply Chain Management for Prawn 


160


Dynamics within the supply chain 

Both explicit and implicit dynamics of the supply chain allows gaining insight 

into the linkages between the players as well as interdependencies and 

systems and processes in vogue 

Socio-cultural 

Fishers have settled in the adjacent villages to the main fishing grounds. 

Characteristics of fishers divide them into two main groups such as fulltime 

and part time. Especially the fishers organized around seasonal tanks, they 

are earning income during rainy season and rest of the period they are working 

as laborers or farmers. There is an informal system of sharing the fishing 

rights. Members of the fisheries cooperative have fishing rights and access 

have been denied for others. 

Economic 

Informal mechanisms govern the fishermen’s economy even today. But in 

contrast prawn farmers are utilizing more formalized credit systems. “Patron– 

Client” is common among aquaculture fishers where the patron provides 

credit without any records and collaterals. Money is also advanced for repairs 

of fishing gear and boats, special occasions, health care, etc. The trade is 

entirely without documentation and written records. The prices, though 

determined at the auctions, are not paid on the spot. The payments normally 

take place at the end of the day or the next day. Record keeping is very poor 

and mislead the transactions between fishers and traders. 

The fish supply chain being highly perishable is totally dependent on the 

timely availability of ice-crushed/flakes for extending the keeping quality as 

well as the shelf life. Transport is another vital link in the supply chain. Most 

of the aquaculture fish is transported by road using plain trucks, which are 

covered and packed with ice and husk (banana stem) in a manner that it 

sufficient for the entire duration of the journey which ranges from few hours 

to few days. Transportation of cultured prawn and shrimp is competently 

carried out through insulated wagons and the products are mainly prepared 

for export market. The quality management process starting from farm to 

the factory is essential for that. 

Gender 

The women have a high involvement in the ancillary support services but 

the exploitation by the dominant players in terms of wages is prevented. 

They have limited or negligible say in decision-making process as the entire 

161 




process and procedures in the chain is highly male dominated. Typically 

women are entrusted with the role of fish handling and processing. 

Stakeholders 

The important stakeholders who are associated with the value chain can be 

divided into 3 categories (Table 5). 

Table 5: Stakeholders existing in value chain 

Subsistence Livelihood Economic Conservation 

Traditional fishermen Middlemen and wholesalers Government 

Laborers Exporters and processing units Non Governmental 

Organizations and other 

Farmers Craft owners Individuals 

Ancillary service provider 

Other service providers 

Vendors 

Source: field survey, February 2009 

People included into subsistence category comprises of poor fishermen whose 

entire livelihood comes from aquaculture. In the fishery value chain the 

industry/ processors are on the top. The scale of operation cost of capital 

employed and competition at the global level is very high. This segment 

caters both to the domestic retail market as well as to the requirement of the 

processing plants and exporters. The institutions belongs to conservation 

category promotes conservation ideology and is against destructive practices 

that are not in harmony with and create ecological imbalance. 

BCG Matrix 

The cash cows of the fishery industry are high value products meant for the 

domestic market. They show the attribute of yielding a constant profit over 

the period of years. The contribution of the product line of this segment has 

been more or less regular. Cash cows are the stable products with an 

established value chain and a stable return pattern. The players of the value 

chain are certain about the profit margin and the sharing ratios are normally 

fixed and acceptable. Prawn and Tilapia belongs to this category (Table 6). 

Stars on the inland fishery are the export value products as the product line 

produces exemplary profit. Yet, the international markets for theses product 


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lines are not fully explored. There is a vast potential in this segment to grow 

and yield a higher annual turn over. Catfish (local species), carps and freshwater 

prawn can be considered as stars in Sri Lankan inland fish industry. 

The “Question mark” of the fishery sector are the products that do not have 

a defined market. It is being traded on a price that may not be the true 

representative of its value. This can be attributed to the reason that the 

market potential for theses products is still undefined and unexplored. It has 

the potential to turn into the “stars” if proper investment and marketing 

intelligence is employed in it. At present, these products are traded at a 

decent profit and the demand of the product line is sufficient enough to 

cover the supplies and at times is beyond the supplies too. Existing examples 

are catfish (local) mud crab and green mussels. The dogs of inland fishery 

are the low value products that include small fishes, crabs prawns, etc., 

which are low on demand parameters. The product nature of this segment 

is of the type that inhibits the increase in the profit margin. The growth 

potential of this segment is very limited until and unless some new technology 

is introduced which changes product nature completely. 

Table 6: Income from sale to the players in BCG matrix 

Species 

Price in the final 

market (LKR) 

Income to the 

fishermen (LKR) 

Income to the 

middlemen 

(LKR) 

Prawn 600.00-700.00 250.00-300.00 100.00-150.00 

Tilapia 150.00-170.00 100.00-140.00 40.00-50.00 

Catfish (local) 180.00-200.00 120.00-130.00 50.00-60.00 

Carps 100.00-110.00 60.00-80.00 20.00-30.00 

Fresh water prawn 350.00-400.00 250.00-300.00 200.00-300.00 

Mud crab 650.00-800.00 400.00-500.00 250.00-300.00 

Green mussel 450.00-500.00 300.00-400.00 150.00-200.00 

Small fishes 60.00-80.00 30.00-40.00 20.00-30.00 

Fish bone analysis 

Fish bone analysis or “Ishikawa diagram” (Ishikawa, 1990) provides a 

systematic way of looking at effects and the causes that create or contribute 

to those effects. It helps to visually display many potential causes for a 

specific problem or effect. Fish bone analysis has enhanced the understanding 

of livelihood of the fishermen (Figure 6). Exploitation of the fishermen is 

163 




prevalent in food fish aquaculture by the other dominant actors of the supply 

chain. The oligopoly of the few middlemen has distorted the profitability 

balance in their favor. Poor market awareness is common and fishers have 

to depend on the price set by the middlemen. Poor bargaining power of the 

fishermen leads to lower the profit margins. 

Auction Behavior of 

middlemen 

Low Price 

Poor 

Handling 

Poor Market 

Knowledge Customers & 

Practices Social Capital 

Information 

Social Fa ctors 

Ethics, 

Religion 

Matters 

Poor Liv 

Government Policy 

& Programmes 

Tech nology 

Value Chain 

Oligopoly 

Poor law 

en forcement 

Inappropriate 

technology 

Poor 

implementat ion 

Poor Infra-structure 

Poor Capital 

availability 

Cool/ Cold 

Storage 

Transportation 

Landing Centers 

Figure 6: Fish bone analysis (NCDENR, (2002) Ishikawa diagram) 


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-Fish bone analysis has enhanced the understanding of livelihood of the fishermen. 

-Exploitation of the Fishermen is prevalent in Food fish aquaculture by the 

other dominant actors of the supply chain. 

-The Oligopoly of the few middlemen has distorted the profitability balance 

in their favor. 

-Poor market awareness is common and Fishermen have to depend on the 

price set by the middlemen. 

-Poor bargaining power of the Fishermen lends to lower the profit margins. 

-The due diligence of the Fisherman is severely downsized because of the 

non-existence information channels, on prices and demand of the various 

species in the bigger markets. 

-The lack of adequate infrastructure like chilling plants, Jetty, weighing facility, 

ice supply, roads and insulated wagons for transport etc., had forced the 

phenomenon of “Distress Selling” 

-This has been one of the crucial factors limiting the profitability of the 

fishermen. 

-Fishing technology used by the fisherman is outdated the crafts with or 

with out motors are a common parlance. In general, fishers are using traditional 

methods. 

-The low pricing of the catch is prevalent and avoid new entrants to the 

industry. 

-The traditional customers and traditional ways come in conflict with the 

modern, technology and thus impede the development of the fishermen. 

-Inefficient execution and implementation of government policies and 

programmes in a way has delayed the development of the Fishermen. 

Conclusion 

The research on the value chain of fishing explained the processes and 

procedures that are in vogue in the traditional value chain. The search helped 

in analyzing the roles and responsibilities of the various players and at the 

same time looked in emphatically into the problems of the various players. 

The control over the entire supply chain is in the hands of few large players 

i.e. traders and exporters. There are large numbers of “intermediaries” within 

the supply chain who add to the prices of the species without adding “value” 

165 




to the extent of the final price realized by end consumers. Only about 25-30 

% goes to the first leg of the supply chain. Notable exception observed 

being for high value products like prawns and shrimps where intermediaries 

are less in number and fishermen fetched between 70-75 % of the consumer 

price. 

The logistical infrastructure is week except for prawn aquaculture. Prawn 

and shrimp farming facilities are built up with private sector investments and 

designed to meet international requirements. Efforts being made by the 

National Aquaculture Development Authority together with Asian 

Development Bank to improve the logistical facilities including strengthening 

fish breeding and research centers, marketing facilities, chilling centers, 

processing centers and training centers. There is complete absence of 

insulated vehicles except those owned by the exporters, which have an 

adverse effect on the keeping quality. The same is true for timely availability 

of transportation vehicles though few individual traders are resorting to use 

their own vehicles. Supply chain is handled by the few hands belong to the 

landing centers and which leads to create entry barriers to others. 

The research findings point out to the presence of patron-client relationship 

through out the supply chain. The absence of clear policy on the rights of 

fishing grounds and natural resources from livelihood perspective and well 

laid out guidelines and regulations for its enforcement is essential. This is 

very important to strengthen and perpetuate the patron-client relationship. 

The supply of financial resources for the further investment is highly dependent 

on informal financial sources such as village money lenders, boat owners 

(patron-client) and agents. There is prevalence of “Advance mortgaging of 

the catch”. The fishermen are loaned money by the traders / exporters who 

in turn have absolute right over the catch in essence the fishermen lose right 

over their catch even before venturing into the sea. 

The regional markets are governed by the local demand. Preference for 

fish species in the rural markets depends on availability in rural markets. 

Majority of the wholesale and regional markets function as commission agents 

on behalf of the suppliers from the landing centers with a few exceptions. 

The payment system adopted at the regional market is cash intermingled 

with credit. Regular mechanisms adopted at the regional market is cash 

intermingled with credit. Regular mechanisms were found weak, reasons 

being manifold from the absence of adequate infrastructural facilities and 

unstable political power. Legal procedures for the international market and 

it’s implementation are comparably well functioning. Community managed 

fishery rules and regulations are helping to utilize the resources even among 

the participants. 


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Moreover, community management is more focused on mesh size control, 

ban on motorized boats, mangrove destruction and illegal fishing. In general, 

fisher women serve as a house wife. Women’s role in handling and processing 

is vital to the industry. Especially, handling, grading and small-scale drying 

and smoking are performed by their hands. Female labor has significant 

impact on prawn and shrimp processing factories through they have little 

involvement in decision making. The market practices are not suited to their 

convenience and lack of education, infrastructure facilities and basic amenities 

make them vulnerable to exploitation in all forms. The marginalization of 

women increases with every step of the value chain with complete exclusion 

at the top end. 

Recommendations 

Policy implications 

Policy advocacy in terms of the strict enforcement of regulatory mechanisms 

should be organized by the regulatory bodies. Village based or reservoir 

based fish marketing societies with processing facilities is vital to uplift the 

rural economy. Strengthen the infrastructure facilities, such as transportation 

(insulated wagons), ice plants, market places, cold storage, processing facilities 

and micro finance facilities are very important amenities that aquaculture 

fishers are not enjoying. Establishment of transport and streamlined auction 

mechanism under supervision of a committee consisting of fishermen’s 

representatives, trade representatives and government officials is an urgent 

need. Advocacy for establishment of community property rights on reservoir 

or tank basis is a must. 

Short term strengthening of the existing supply chain 

There is a essential need to provide marketing “know How” to fishers, traders, 

agents and distributors. Reservoir or tank based “fish marketing societies” 

should strengthen with micro-finance, basic infrastructure and skills. National 

Aquaculture Development Authority should ensure that one of the mandates 

for their programme should be the training of selected group of fishermen in 

all marketing aspects and establishing capacities of inland fishing community. 

Special attention has to be provided for exporters, processors and fishers 

engaged in international seafood market where they need skills on 

international marketing. Establishment of market intelligence system for both 

domestic and export market is an essential need of the industry. Lack of 

dynamic market intelligence is one of the major constraints affecting adequate 

returns to fishermen. 

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Long term strengthening the existing supply chain 

Government or NAQDA’s attention has paid to the incipient development of 

new fishery activities. Direct investment and or transfer of technology, 

technical assistance, equipment and input supply for breeding of high yielding 

species and other species, taking advantage of the environmental conditions 

of the water bodies, especially reservoirs and seasonal tanks. Transfer of 

technology, technical assistance and equipment and input supply for 

aquaculture activities in the coastal and inland waters. Huge potentials do 

exist in coastal aquaculture plus the brackish water fish farming around the 

island. 

Transfer of technology, technical assistance and equipment and input supply 

for fish producing for both domestic and international markets are very 

important needs. Market demand is high for fish and fishery products 

processed using traditional food preservation methods and ethnic markets 

should widely open. The important areas to focused on international market 

are target for more value added products rather then raw material supply, 

re-processing of the products from neighbors such as Maldives, India, 

Vietnam and Bangladesh and export to higher value markets, searching for 

new niche markets and cater to ethnic Sri Lankan markets and research on 

new product development. 

References 

Haputanthri, S., Perera, P.A.J.C. and Vidanage, S.P. (2001) Development 

of ornamental fish production and culture for increased export earnings 

and employment opportunities. Unpublished report of NARA, Colombo 

15, Sri Lanka. pp. 49. 

Ishikawa, K. (1990) (Translator: J. H. Loftus); Introduction to Quality Control; 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishikawa_diagram, Accessed on 20 th January 

2009, pp. 448. 

Mercer, D.A. (1993) Two Decade Test of Product Life Cycle Theory pp 

269-274, British Journal of Management, v. 4, pp. 269-274. 

National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka (2009) Annual 

report, National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka, 

Colombo, Sri Lanka 

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources 

(NCDENR) (2002) Fish bone diagram: A problem analysis tool, , http:/ 

/quality.enr.state.nc.us/tools/fishbone.htm, Accessed on 3 rd November 

2008. 


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Sanyal, N. and McLaughlin, W.J. (1993) The link between hunting goals 

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204. 

Siriwardena, P.P.G.S.N. (1999) Shrimp culture in Sri Lanka: The benefits, 

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management and responses to address problems. Bangkok FAO 

Technical Consultation on Policies for Sustainable Shrimp Culture. FAO 

Fisheries Report No. 572, pp. 99-110. 

Siriwardena, P.P.G.S.N. and Jayakody, D.S. (2003) Aquaculture technologies 

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Call Center Employees - Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka

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