Biodiversity: Our Living World-Your Life Depends on It!
Biodiversity: Our Living World-Your Life Depends on It!
Biodiversity: Our Living World-Your Life Depends on It!
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
OUR LIVING WORLD:<br />
YOUR LIFE DEPENDS ON IT!<br />
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES • COOPERATIVE EXTENSION<br />
CENTER FOR BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH, ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES RESEARCH INSTITUTE
“The people have a right to<br />
clean air, pure water, and to<br />
the preservati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
natural, scenic, historic, and<br />
esthetic values of the<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Pennsylvania’s<br />
public natural resources are<br />
the comm<strong>on</strong> property of all<br />
the people, including<br />
generati<strong>on</strong>s yet to come. As<br />
trustee of these resources,<br />
the Comm<strong>on</strong>wealth shall<br />
c<strong>on</strong>serve and maintain them<br />
for the benefit of all the<br />
people.”<br />
Secti<strong>on</strong> 27,<br />
Article 1, Pennsylvania<br />
C<strong>on</strong>stituti<strong>on</strong><br />
C<strong>on</strong>tents<br />
I. The web of life c<strong>on</strong>nects us all 1<br />
II. Humanity depends <strong>on</strong> the natural diversity of life 2<br />
III. The little things that run the world 4<br />
IV. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a basic ec<strong>on</strong>omic resource 6<br />
V. Food doesn’t grow in supermarkets 8<br />
VI. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g>, our little-known natural heritage 10<br />
VII. Natural diversity is rapidly declining 12<br />
VIII. What can you do to help? 14<br />
Acknowledgments and further reading 16<br />
Text by Ke Chung Kim<br />
Edited by Est<strong>on</strong> Martz<br />
Graphic design by Gretl Collins<br />
Cover illustrati<strong>on</strong> by<br />
Lanny Sommese<br />
Project supported by the<br />
Pennsylvania Wild Resource<br />
C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> Fund
Preface<br />
The Web of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Life</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>nects Us All<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Our</str<strong>on</strong>g> survival depends <strong>on</strong> the web of life<br />
created by the interacti<strong>on</strong>s of the milli<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
different animals, plants, fungi, and other<br />
microscopic organisms that share the Earth<br />
with us. All of these species together make<br />
up our natural heritage, which we call<br />
biological diversity, or “biodiversity.”<br />
Because of human activities that pollute or<br />
destroy natural habitats, we are losing<br />
species at an alarming rate. For the sake of<br />
both present and future generati<strong>on</strong>s, we<br />
must protect biodiversity in Pennsylvania,<br />
the nati<strong>on</strong>, and the world.<br />
This publicati<strong>on</strong> highlights how our<br />
existence depends <strong>on</strong> the web of life. We<br />
will explore the diversity of life, see how<br />
closely our lives are linked to those of other<br />
organisms, learn how all species together<br />
make natural processes functi<strong>on</strong>, and<br />
discover what we can do to help protect our<br />
natural partners in life. C<strong>on</strong>serving<br />
biodiversity helps maintain our quality of<br />
life. <strong>It</strong> is an investment in Pennsylvania’s<br />
future. By actively supporting the<br />
preservati<strong>on</strong> of our rich natural diversity,<br />
we all can play a part in creating a<br />
sustainable society.<br />
— Ke Chung Kim<br />
Center for BioDiversity Research<br />
Envir<strong>on</strong>mental Resources Research Institute<br />
The Pennsylvania State University<br />
The planet Earth provides the physical<br />
base for our life-support system, the<br />
biosphere in which all life exists. Surrounded<br />
by an envelope of air, al<strong>on</strong>g with soil and<br />
water, Earth teems with milli<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
different kinds of plants, animals, fungi,<br />
and microorganisms. Together, these<br />
species make up the natural diversity of<br />
life, or biodiversity. A pers<strong>on</strong> strolling<br />
through a flower garden, a h<strong>on</strong>ey bee<br />
visiting a flower, a cow grazing <strong>on</strong> a<br />
pasture, or a woodpecker pecking <strong>on</strong> a tree<br />
trunk are all parts of the interc<strong>on</strong>nected<br />
whole of our living world. No species can<br />
survive al<strong>on</strong>e—we are all c<strong>on</strong>nected in an<br />
intricate web of life. The interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g the world’s species form the strands<br />
of the web.<br />
Despite all of our technological<br />
advances, our survival still depends<br />
completely <strong>on</strong> the web of life. The world’s<br />
species supply basic necessities such as<br />
food, breathable air, and drinkable water,<br />
as well as fuel, fibers, building materials,<br />
medicines, and natural areas where we<br />
enjoy a variety of recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities.<br />
Scientists have identified approximately<br />
1.7 milli<strong>on</strong> different kinds of organisms,<br />
but the actual number could be in the tens<br />
of milli<strong>on</strong>s. Unfortunately, as habitat<br />
destructi<strong>on</strong> and envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
degradati<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>tinue, many species will be<br />
lost without our even realizing they<br />
existed.<br />
Invaluable strands in the web of life are<br />
being lost at an alarming rate. Since 1600, at<br />
least 1,140 plant and animal species have<br />
disappeared from the planet, and 31,500<br />
species are currently endangered or<br />
threatened with extincti<strong>on</strong>. This loss of<br />
biodiversity has caused massive, destructive<br />
changes in the world’s climates,<br />
landscapes, water resources, and<br />
atmosphere.<br />
This serious damage to the web of life is<br />
a direct result of the activities of an<br />
expanding human populati<strong>on</strong>. In the last<br />
200 years, the human populati<strong>on</strong> has<br />
increased six-fold—from 1 billi<strong>on</strong> people<br />
in 1800 to more than 6 billi<strong>on</strong> today. This<br />
has placed an increased demand <strong>on</strong><br />
natural resources, and we c<strong>on</strong>tinue to<br />
damage or destroy habitats that plants,<br />
animals, fungi, and microorganisms need.<br />
As a result, many species have been driven<br />
to extincti<strong>on</strong> and many others are<br />
threatened.<br />
Pennsylvania al<strong>on</strong>e has lost over 156<br />
native plant and animal species since the<br />
arrival of European settlers. Today, nearly<br />
800 Pennsylvania species are endangered,<br />
threatened, or of special c<strong>on</strong>cern.<br />
WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> is the variety and variati<strong>on</strong><br />
of all species of plants, animals, fungi,<br />
and microbes, including their genetic<br />
makeup, their ecological roles, and their<br />
interrelati<strong>on</strong>ships in biological<br />
communities throughout the world<br />
ecosystems. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> is therefore the<br />
natural biological capital for our lifesupport<br />
system <strong>on</strong> the planet Earth.<br />
What does the loss of these strands in<br />
the web of life mean to our health,<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy, and future? When a species<br />
becomes extinct, a unique partner in our<br />
life-support system is g<strong>on</strong>e forever. This loss<br />
deprives humanity of a vital resource and<br />
weakens the web of life.<br />
We must protect biodiversity because<br />
our very existence depends <strong>on</strong> it.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>serving biodiversity protects our lifepartners<br />
and preserves vital resources that<br />
ensure the viability of the web of life. Each<br />
of us can help keep the web intact by<br />
doing simple things to help preserve<br />
biodiversity. The first step is to become<br />
better informed about how biodiversity<br />
affects our lives.<br />
1
Humanity <str<strong>on</strong>g>Depends</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the Natural Diversity of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Life</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
We share Earth with milli<strong>on</strong>s of different species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, and this biodiversity provides us with the<br />
basic necessities of life. The activities of all these organisms together maintain the atmosphere, develop new soils, break down wastes, store<br />
and filter water, pollinate our crops, provide us with food, and protect us from disease. Without these ecological services, we cannot have<br />
abundant food, natural fibers for our clothes, lumber for our homes and furniture, and a clean envir<strong>on</strong>ment and good health.<br />
The species that inhabit a comm<strong>on</strong> area form a natural community. Each species plays a role in the survival of the other partners, and<br />
together they maintain the life of their natural community. In a group of natural communities, or an “ecosystem,” the complex<br />
interacti<strong>on</strong>s of living organisms with their envir<strong>on</strong>ments sustain their life-support system. When species are lost, ecosystems cannot<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> properly, and the lives of all partners—including humans—are disturbed.<br />
WHAT IS A<br />
BIODIVERSITY<br />
ACCOUNT?<br />
W H Y D O W E N E E D<br />
A biodiversity account is<br />
the number of species of<br />
plants, animals, fungi,<br />
and microorganisms<br />
involved in producing<br />
products for human use.<br />
<strong>It</strong> also may refer to the<br />
number (and kinds) of<br />
species involved in<br />
maintaining ecological<br />
services that support<br />
humans and other<br />
species. The biodiversity<br />
accounts of the products<br />
we use and the<br />
ecological services we<br />
require involve<br />
Photosynthesis<br />
Trees, plants, and algae turn<br />
the sun’s energy into<br />
carbohydrates. All animals,<br />
including humans, depend<br />
directly or indirectly <strong>on</strong><br />
plants for food.<br />
A healthy atmosphere<br />
Trees, plants, and algae<br />
release t<strong>on</strong>s of oxygen and<br />
remove carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide<br />
from the atmosphere. Trees<br />
and plants also store water<br />
and slowly release it back<br />
into the atmosphere. Plants<br />
recycle over two-thirds of<br />
the water directly back to<br />
the atmosphere.<br />
Soil development and waste<br />
decompositi<strong>on</strong><br />
Insects, worms, bacteria, and fungi break<br />
down animal and plant wastes into tiny<br />
particles that enrich soil and help plants<br />
grow. These tiny organisms keep the<br />
world from being overwhelmed with<br />
dead plant and animal remains.<br />
thousands of species.<br />
2
B I O D I V E R S I T Y ?<br />
OUR INBORN NEED FOR<br />
NATURE<br />
As early humans interacted with<br />
other species, they learned to use<br />
plants and animals for food and<br />
clothing and as materials for<br />
shelter. This led to the<br />
development of early human<br />
culture, including agricultural and<br />
ir<strong>on</strong> technology. Humans became a<br />
unique species, with both<br />
biological and cultural aspects.<br />
The cultural aspects of human<br />
life—science, technology, and<br />
art—all depend <strong>on</strong> the biological<br />
base of our envir<strong>on</strong>ment.<br />
Humans have an innate need<br />
for nature, called “biophilia.” This<br />
love of nature provides inspirati<strong>on</strong><br />
for art and music and gives us a<br />
sense of envir<strong>on</strong>mental ethics. The<br />
splendor of our state’s landscapes<br />
provides a natural setting for<br />
Pennsylvanians to enjoy outdoor<br />
life. However, as natural habitats<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>tinually transformed for<br />
human use, our inherent need for<br />
nature gets shortchanged.<br />
BIODIVERSITY<br />
ACCOUNT OF<br />
THE EASTERN<br />
WILD TURKEY<br />
No species can exist<br />
without interacting with<br />
other species. The Eastern<br />
Wild Turkey needs a habitat<br />
that includes both mixed<br />
forests and open vegetati<strong>on</strong><br />
to survive and breed. Many<br />
different plants and<br />
animals within these<br />
habitats provide food and<br />
shelter for wild turkeys.<br />
Turkeys nest in leaf litter<br />
and in fallen logs. They feed<br />
<strong>on</strong> seeds and nuts of<br />
various trees and shrubs,<br />
and also eat more than 50<br />
species of mosses and<br />
grasses. Wild turkeys also<br />
eat around 267 species of<br />
insects, spiders, snails,<br />
ACCOUNTING BIODIVERSITY<br />
FOR A FURNISHED HOME<br />
<strong>It</strong> takes a large number of<br />
organisms to produce the food,<br />
fibers, and materials we use.<br />
millipedes, and centipedes.<br />
Hundreds of other<br />
organisms are essential to<br />
the existence of the plants<br />
and animals that provide<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sider how many species it<br />
food and shelter for wild<br />
Water purificati<strong>on</strong><br />
Aquatic plants, animals,<br />
and microorganisms break<br />
down wastes and help keep<br />
water clean.<br />
Pest c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
Birds, bats, fish,<br />
mammals, amphibians,<br />
and predatory insects eat<br />
many of the insect pests<br />
that might otherwise<br />
devastate our crops or<br />
harm our health.<br />
Pollinati<strong>on</strong><br />
Bees pollinate flowering<br />
plants, including many<br />
fruit and vegetable species.<br />
Other insects, birds, and<br />
bats also pollinate plants.<br />
takes to sustain the trees we use<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>struct and furnish an<br />
average home. A single acre of<br />
forest supports—and depends<br />
<strong>on</strong>—many hundreds of different<br />
species of fungi, bacteria, animals,<br />
and plants. The combined activities<br />
of these different organisms make<br />
the growth and reproducti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
trees possible. The list of all the<br />
species involved in the life cycle of<br />
trees would number in the<br />
hundreds, even thousands.<br />
turkeys. The biodiversity<br />
account of the Eastern Wild<br />
Turkey includes at least 317<br />
species.<br />
3
The Little Things that Run the <str<strong>on</strong>g>World</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Earth is full of many<br />
different kinds of small<br />
organisms, including bacteria,<br />
algae, protozoa, fungi, slime<br />
molds, lichens, liverworts,<br />
mosses, worms, snails, and<br />
insects and their relatives.<br />
These small organisms<br />
together make up most of<br />
global biodiversity, and they<br />
are found in astr<strong>on</strong>omical<br />
numbers throughout the<br />
world. Just 2.5 acres of pasture<br />
may c<strong>on</strong>tain about 8.5 t<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
different tiny organisms. We<br />
often overlook their<br />
importance because of their<br />
size, but life <strong>on</strong> Earth could<br />
not survive without these small<br />
living things. All natural<br />
communities ultimately<br />
depend <strong>on</strong> them.<br />
These small organisms do<br />
their important ecological<br />
work “behind the scenes.”<br />
Before the inventi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
microscope, we could not<br />
observe their activities and life<br />
cycles. In many cases, we did<br />
not even know they<br />
existed. Today, we<br />
have a greater<br />
understanding of<br />
the critical<br />
roles “little<br />
things”<br />
play in<br />
maintaining<br />
the web of life.<br />
TINY ORGANISMS AND<br />
FOOD CHAINS<br />
Tiny organisms are essential<br />
links in food chains, the series of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between predators<br />
and their prey. When a newly<br />
hatched caterpillar feeds <strong>on</strong><br />
plant leaves and later becomes<br />
a butterfly, for example, the<br />
food chain begins. When a bird<br />
eats a caterpillar or a butterfly,<br />
a link is added to the food<br />
chain. Another link is added<br />
when a drag<strong>on</strong>fly eats an adult<br />
butterfly. A frog eats the<br />
drag<strong>on</strong>fly. A snake eats the<br />
frog. Finally, a hawk eats the<br />
snake. Losing a link in this<br />
food chain leads to problems<br />
for the other species.<br />
Other relati<strong>on</strong>ships between<br />
tiny organisms and larger <strong>on</strong>es<br />
are not so easily observed. For<br />
example, bacteria and small<br />
animals such as termites and<br />
earthworms help maintain and<br />
enhance soil fertility.<br />
Bacteria are invisible to the<br />
naked eye, but they are<br />
essential to life <strong>on</strong> Earth. Many<br />
people mistakenly think all<br />
bacteria are harmful to<br />
humans, but <strong>on</strong>ly a very small<br />
number of the estimated 1<br />
milli<strong>on</strong> species harm humans,<br />
animals, or plants. Most<br />
bacteria actually help us<br />
survive. They:<br />
• help protect us from disease<br />
• help us digest food and<br />
eliminate wastes<br />
• make basic elements like<br />
carb<strong>on</strong> and nitrogen<br />
available for use by other<br />
living things<br />
• break down plant and<br />
animal waste, recycling basic<br />
nutrients other organisms<br />
need<br />
• help us produce antibiotics<br />
and other medicines<br />
Certain bacteria can even be<br />
used to clean up oil spills and<br />
other pollutants. A soildwelling<br />
species, Bacillus<br />
thuringiensis, has been used to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol insect pests.<br />
Protists (algae, protozoa, and<br />
slime molds) are <strong>on</strong>e-celled<br />
organisms that play a major<br />
role in the world’s ecosystems.<br />
For example, algae generate a<br />
large proporti<strong>on</strong> of the world’s<br />
oxygen and form a key link in<br />
aquatic food chains. Other<br />
protists, like protozoa and<br />
slime molds, decompose<br />
organic matter by feeding <strong>on</strong><br />
it. Protozoa also feed <strong>on</strong><br />
bacteria and help prevent the<br />
overgrowth of bacterial<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Fungi play a key role in<br />
maintaining the health of our<br />
ecosystems. This unusual group<br />
of organisms includes yeast,<br />
molds, and mushrooms. Many<br />
mushroom species are an<br />
important source of food for<br />
humans and other animals. By<br />
feeding <strong>on</strong> decaying matter,<br />
other species of fungi break<br />
down organic materials. In<br />
forests, fungi return<br />
organic materials to the<br />
soil as they feed <strong>on</strong> dead trees<br />
and leaves. Some<br />
microscopic fungi form<br />
4
associati<strong>on</strong>s with the roots of<br />
plants, including almost all tree<br />
species. This partnership helps<br />
both survive. The plant<br />
provides food for the fungi,<br />
while the fungi help the plant<br />
absorb sufficient water and<br />
minerals and protect it from<br />
drought and disease. Many<br />
plants depend <strong>on</strong> certain<br />
fungal species for seed<br />
germinati<strong>on</strong> and growth.<br />
Lichens are unusual<br />
associati<strong>on</strong>s between a fungus<br />
and a photosynthetic organism,<br />
such as green algae, that live<br />
together and make a joint life.<br />
Lichens can absorb moisture<br />
directly from the air and can<br />
withstand prol<strong>on</strong>ged drought.<br />
They are comm<strong>on</strong>ly found in<br />
relatively moist places. Some<br />
are found even in harsh<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments—atop the<br />
highest mountains, or in<br />
extreme cold. They often<br />
col<strong>on</strong>ize areas of bare rock,<br />
where they c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the<br />
breakdown of rock and the<br />
formati<strong>on</strong> of soil. After soil<br />
forms, other organisms can<br />
begin to col<strong>on</strong>ize it. Some<br />
lichens provide food for<br />
invertebrate animals. They also<br />
provide forage for deer, elk,<br />
and other grazing animals.<br />
Mosses and liverworts are<br />
relatively simple, small plants<br />
that provide habitats for small<br />
animals such as roundworms<br />
and insects. These tiny plants<br />
also help prevent soil erosi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Insects and their relatives, such<br />
as spiders, are the most<br />
successful forms of life <strong>on</strong><br />
Earth. Also known as<br />
arthropods, these creatures<br />
make up more than 65 percent<br />
of all known species—there are<br />
more species of insects than all<br />
other species of animals<br />
combined. Over 1 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
arthropod species are known,<br />
but the actual number that<br />
exists may be closer to 10<br />
milli<strong>on</strong>. They are found<br />
everywhere <strong>on</strong> the planet,<br />
including aquatic habitats such<br />
as streams, rivers, p<strong>on</strong>ds, lakes,<br />
wetlands, and underground<br />
waters.<br />
When we c<strong>on</strong>sider all the ways<br />
tiny organisms help maintain life<br />
<strong>on</strong> earth, it is clear that we must<br />
preserve the c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s they<br />
need to survive. Without these<br />
“little things that run the world,”<br />
humans could not survive.<br />
INSECTS AND ARTHROPODS: NATURE’S<br />
IMPORTANT PARTNERS<br />
Insects and their relatives form a vital link in the food chain.<br />
They are the main source of food for many animals. A variety of birds,<br />
bats, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and other vertebrates depend <strong>on</strong> these<br />
tiny creatures and would die without them. In some parts of the world,<br />
they are an important food source for humans.<br />
Many plants need insects for pollinati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Pollinati<strong>on</strong> is necessary for plants, including many fruits and vegetables,<br />
to reproduce. Humans and other creatures depend <strong>on</strong> plants for food.<br />
Many parasitic and predacious arthropods are natural pest-c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
agents.<br />
Spiders, some mite species, praying mantids, ladybeetles, and many<br />
other arthropods feed <strong>on</strong> the insect pests that cause milli<strong>on</strong>s of dollars<br />
in crop damage each year. Many parasitic insects, such as tiny wasps<br />
and tachinid fly species, lay their eggs inside the bodies of insect pests.<br />
As the larvae grow, the pests eventually die.<br />
Insects help decompose dead plants and animals.<br />
Many insects feed <strong>on</strong> dead organic matter. If they did not, the Earth<br />
would so<strong>on</strong> be overwhelmed with slowly rotting plants and animals.<br />
Arthropods are natural recyclers that return nutrients to the soil and<br />
help create new soil.<br />
The nutrients that arthropods obtain from feeding <strong>on</strong> living plants, as<br />
well as dead plants and animals, are returned to the soil, helping to<br />
maintain fertility and create new soil.<br />
5
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> is a Basic Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Resource<br />
BIODIVERSITY<br />
SUPPORTS<br />
PENNSYLVANIA’S<br />
ECONOMY<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> directly<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributes to<br />
Pennsylvania’s ec<strong>on</strong>omy<br />
through industries and<br />
activities based <strong>on</strong> natural<br />
resources.<br />
• Pennsylvania agriculture<br />
generates more than $4<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> annually and<br />
provides hundreds of<br />
thousands of jobs.<br />
• Nearly <strong>on</strong>e out of five<br />
Pennsylvanians hunts or<br />
fishes. They spend more<br />
than $1 billi<strong>on</strong> every year<br />
<strong>on</strong> these activities.<br />
• Almost half of all<br />
Pennsylvanians over age<br />
16 photograph, feed, or<br />
observe wildlife.<br />
Statewide, over $1 billi<strong>on</strong><br />
is spent annually <strong>on</strong><br />
these interests.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> provides the most<br />
basic ec<strong>on</strong>omic resources,<br />
including food, fuel, timber,<br />
fiber, medicines, and<br />
recreati<strong>on</strong>. Plants and animals<br />
provide a multitude of useful<br />
products, such as gums, resins,<br />
shellac, rubber, dyes, waxes,<br />
spices, and natural pesticides.<br />
These products al<strong>on</strong>e<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tribute $3 to $8 billi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
the U.S. ec<strong>on</strong>omy and $84 to<br />
$90 billi<strong>on</strong> to the global<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy each year. The<br />
benefits derived from the<br />
world’s ecosystems are valued<br />
at an average of $33 trilli<strong>on</strong> per<br />
year, supporting the generati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the world’s wealth (by global<br />
Gross Nati<strong>on</strong>al Product) of $18<br />
trilli<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Many medicines and healthcare<br />
products come from<br />
global biodiversity. In the<br />
United States, the commercial<br />
value of pharmaceuticals<br />
derived from the world’s<br />
species is more than $36 billi<strong>on</strong><br />
annually. <str<strong>on</strong>g>World</str<strong>on</strong>g>wide, sales of<br />
over-the-counter drugs based<br />
<strong>on</strong> plants al<strong>on</strong>e total $84<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> per year.<br />
Some native Pennsylvania<br />
plants have medicinal value.<br />
Ginseng root stimulates the<br />
cardiovascular and central<br />
nervous systems and also lowers<br />
blood sugar, while witch hazel is<br />
used to treat bruises and skin<br />
problems such as inflammati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
To date, <strong>on</strong>ly 5 percent of<br />
known plants have been<br />
examined for their medicinal<br />
properties. Who knows what<br />
cure may be discovered am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
the remaining plant species?<br />
However, habitat destructi<strong>on</strong><br />
across the world threatens<br />
many plants with extincti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Other organisms with<br />
medicinal potential also are<br />
threatened. In view of their<br />
possible medical value, we<br />
cannot afford to lose any more<br />
species.<br />
Natural ecosystems also<br />
provide many indirect<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic benefits. For<br />
example, forests play a critical<br />
role in maintaining our water<br />
supply. By absorbing the bulk<br />
of heavy rains and retaining<br />
moisture during dry spells,<br />
these natural water storage areas<br />
provide flood c<strong>on</strong>trol and lessen<br />
the effects of drought.<br />
Pennsylvania’s forests serve<br />
as a 17-milli<strong>on</strong>-acre water treatment<br />
plant and air purificati<strong>on</strong><br />
system. Trees and plants in<br />
forests release t<strong>on</strong>s of oxygen<br />
daily, remove carb<strong>on</strong> dioxide,<br />
and filter and release water back<br />
into the atmosphere. The<br />
extensive root mass in forests<br />
prevents soil erosi<strong>on</strong>, reducing<br />
sediment levels in surface water.<br />
Trees also keep summer<br />
temperatures lower and help to<br />
regulate rainfall cycles.<br />
Wetlands act as natural<br />
filtrati<strong>on</strong> systems and remove<br />
silt, heavy metals, and other<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminants from water; they<br />
absorb and retain rainwater,<br />
gradually make it available to<br />
plant roots, and move it into<br />
aquifers and surface streams.<br />
Natural ecosystems provide all<br />
of these benefits at no cost to us.<br />
Preserving biodiversity not <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
provides jobs and maintains our<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy, it saves m<strong>on</strong>ey.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Our</str<strong>on</strong>g> forest products<br />
industry is valued at $4.5<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> per year and<br />
employs more than<br />
100,000 people.<br />
• Tourism, our sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
largest industry,<br />
generates over $18.7<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> per year and<br />
supports more than<br />
290,000 jobs.<br />
6
BIODIVERSITY PROVIDES GOOD MEDICINE<br />
More than 40 percent of all prescripti<strong>on</strong> drugs—and 9 of the top 10 used in the United States—<br />
come from plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms.<br />
MEDICINE USE MATERIAL SOURCE*<br />
Aspirin painkiller willow bark<br />
Penicillin antibiotic bread mold<br />
Vincristine cancer treatment periwinkle<br />
Vinblastine cancer treatment periwinkle<br />
Digitalis heart stimulant foxglove<br />
Quinine anti-malarial Cinch<strong>on</strong>a (coffee family)<br />
Bacitracin antibiotic bacteria<br />
Erythromycin antibiotic bacteria<br />
Streptomycin antibiotic bacteria<br />
Tetracycline antibiotic bacteria<br />
Morphine painkiller opium poppy<br />
Codeine painkiller opium poppy<br />
Taxol ovarian and breast cancer treatment Pacific yew<br />
* Materials from these species are specifically processed to make all prescripti<strong>on</strong> drugs.<br />
Natural Purificati<strong>on</strong><br />
Saves $5 To $7 Billi<strong>on</strong><br />
For many years, the Catskills’<br />
watershed provided clean water to New<br />
York City and surrounding<br />
communities. When the watershed<br />
became polluted due to sewage,<br />
agricultural runoff, and other human<br />
activities, the city faced a choice: build<br />
an artificial filtering system for $6 to<br />
$8 billi<strong>on</strong>, or restore the dynamic<br />
filtering capacity of the Catskills’<br />
natural purificati<strong>on</strong> system. The New<br />
York City administrati<strong>on</strong> aptly decided<br />
to restore the watershed at a cost of<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly $1 billi<strong>on</strong>, saving taxpayers $5 to<br />
$7 billi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
FORESTS OF<br />
PLENTY<br />
Forests provide<br />
lumbers to build<br />
houses and to make<br />
furniture, and wood<br />
pulp to produce<br />
papers. Pennsylvania’s<br />
forests c<strong>on</strong>tain at least<br />
90 species of trees<br />
that can provide the<br />
10,000 board feet of<br />
lumber needed to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>struct and furnish<br />
an average American<br />
home. Pennsylvania’s<br />
forests yield over 1<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> board feet of<br />
hardwood timber a<br />
year—more than any<br />
other state.<br />
Pennsylvania has the<br />
largest hardwood<br />
supply in the nati<strong>on</strong><br />
and supplies nearly 70<br />
percent of the world’s<br />
black cherry lumber<br />
and veneer. The<br />
average American<br />
wood-frame home,<br />
including furnishings,<br />
easily c<strong>on</strong>tains at least<br />
50 tree species.<br />
7
Food Doesn’t Grow In Supermarkets<br />
All of our food comes from biodiversity.<br />
The world’s species provide fruits,<br />
vegetables, legumes, mushrooms, seeds,<br />
nuts, grains, milk, cheese, butter, eggs,<br />
poultry, fish, meat, and even the spices,<br />
syrups, h<strong>on</strong>ey, and sugar we add to our<br />
food. The lives of these species are<br />
sustained by close partnerships with other<br />
species in their ecosystems. This web of life<br />
links all the organisms that provide our<br />
food supply.<br />
Today, most of us buy food at grocery<br />
stores rather than growing or raising it<br />
ourselves. We rarely see the interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
between species we eventually eat and<br />
their partner species in a natural<br />
community.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sider how many species c<strong>on</strong>tribute<br />
to the life of a dairy cow. When a cow eats<br />
plants, bacteria that live in the cow’s<br />
stomach make digesti<strong>on</strong> of the plants<br />
possible. The plants depend <strong>on</strong> milli<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
bacteria, fungi, and insects in the soil to<br />
decompose dead vegetati<strong>on</strong> and make<br />
nutrients available. Earthworms aerate and<br />
help create the soil plants need to grow.<br />
Dead plant material provides food for<br />
these tiny living things, and the cycle of<br />
life c<strong>on</strong>tinues. When we drink the cow’s<br />
milk, bacteria in our digestive systems help<br />
us digest it and also provide us with several<br />
B vitamins and vitamin K. All of these<br />
partners—bacteria, fungi, insects,<br />
earthworms, plants, and cows—benefit<br />
from the activities of other members in<br />
this “cow ecosystem.”<br />
A surprisingly large number of species<br />
are involved in producing a typical meal.<br />
Let’s say you had a hamburger, french<br />
fries, and an apple pie for lunch. What is<br />
the biodiversity account of this <strong>on</strong>e meal?<br />
Ground beef comes from cattle that eat<br />
pasture plants, roughage, and stored<br />
grains. Pasture in the eastern U.S. is<br />
composed of at least five grasses, seven<br />
legumes, and at least five weed species.<br />
Innumerable species, including insects,<br />
spiders, earthworms, fungi, bacteria and<br />
other microbes, support the life of these<br />
grasses, grains, and legumes.<br />
The remaining items come directly<br />
from at least 15 other species. The bread<br />
for hamburger rolls uses flour from wheat,<br />
sugar from sugar cane, and yeast fungus.<br />
French fries are made from potatoes, and<br />
<strong>on</strong>e or more corn or soybean species are<br />
needed to make the oil used to fry them. If<br />
the hamburger includes lettuce, tomato,<br />
pickles, and <strong>on</strong>i<strong>on</strong>, four more species can<br />
be added to the meal’s biodiversity<br />
account. Catsup (from tomatoes) and<br />
mustard (a plant species) may each<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tain additi<strong>on</strong>al spices from plant<br />
species. The apple pie filling is made from<br />
<strong>on</strong>e or more apple varieties, spices from<br />
several plant species, butter or margarine<br />
made from milk or vegetable oil, and<br />
sugar. The crust is made of flour from<br />
wheat and vegetable shortening from<br />
several plant species.<br />
All of these food items rely <strong>on</strong> an<br />
immense community of other species.<br />
Without pollinators, there would be no<br />
apples, potatoes, or tomatoes. Countless<br />
other species are necessary for the energy<br />
and nutrient recycling that make all plant<br />
growth possible. The biodiversity account<br />
of this <strong>on</strong>e meal runs into many hundreds,<br />
possibly thousands, of species.<br />
ALL OF OUR FOOD COMES FROM BIODIVERSITY.<br />
The total<br />
biodiversity<br />
account<br />
from all the<br />
ingredients<br />
in this <strong>on</strong>e<br />
Oni<strong>on</strong> (1)<br />
Beef:<br />
cattle feeds,<br />
roughage, grains<br />
(8+ species)<br />
Ketchup:<br />
Tomato, spices<br />
(5+ species)<br />
May<strong>on</strong>naise<br />
(4+ species)<br />
Mustard<br />
(3+ species)<br />
French fries:<br />
potatoes, corn oil,<br />
soybean oil, salt<br />
(3+ species)<br />
Pie crust:<br />
wheat, sugar, butter,<br />
vegetable oil<br />
(4+species)<br />
A meal<br />
biodiversity<br />
account based<br />
<strong>on</strong> terminal<br />
ecosystem<br />
products<br />
meal runs<br />
adds up to<br />
into many<br />
at least 40<br />
hundreds.<br />
8<br />
Pickle:<br />
(3+ species)<br />
cucumber, dill,<br />
garlic, vinegar<br />
Lettuce (1)<br />
Bun:<br />
wheat, sugar, yeast,<br />
milk (4+ species)<br />
Pie filling:<br />
apples, sugar, nutmeg,<br />
cinnam<strong>on</strong>, lem<strong>on</strong> juice<br />
(5+ species)<br />
species.
Nearly 80 percent of the<br />
global diet comes<br />
from just four<br />
plant species:<br />
wheat, corn,<br />
rice, and<br />
potatoes.<br />
FOOD FROM<br />
THE WATER<br />
Many people enjoy eating a tuna sandwich. Tuna<br />
does not come from a can, but from the ocean. The<br />
tuna is part of a marine ecosystem that includes<br />
many other organisms, and it relies <strong>on</strong> a number<br />
of these for food. Tuna fish feed <strong>on</strong> other fishes,<br />
mostly mackerels and herrings. Mackerels feed <strong>on</strong><br />
small fishes, crustaceans, squids, worms, and<br />
plankt<strong>on</strong>. Herrings eat mostly plankt<strong>on</strong>, but also<br />
small fishes and crustaceans. Thus, the<br />
biodiversity account of a tuna<br />
easily involves 50 species of<br />
animals as food. Tuna<br />
FOOD BIODIVERSITY ACCOUNT<br />
In this country, food is so plentiful and accessible that many of us<br />
take it for granted. Yet, to feed the rapidly increasing human<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>, we need to find new food sources and make our crops<br />
more resistant to disease, drought, and pests. How can this be<br />
accomplished? <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> may help provide an answer.<br />
Many of our crops were domesticated by our ancestors<br />
thousands of years ago. These wild species were originally rich in<br />
variati<strong>on</strong> in size, yield, and resistance to drought and disease.<br />
Over time, crop varieties were selected for the largest size, highest<br />
yields, and the flavors humans prefer. At the same time, other<br />
valuable traits, such as greater resistance to disease, pests, or<br />
drought, were often unknowingly eliminated. This process has<br />
resulted in crop uniformity. Since the individual plants that make<br />
up a modern crop are genetically alike, an entire crop may be<br />
wiped out if the plants lack resistance to drought, pests, or<br />
disease. Adding genes from the wild plants our crops were<br />
developed from can help modern crop plants withstand insect<br />
infestati<strong>on</strong>, unfavorable weather, or disease.<br />
Currently, <strong>on</strong>ly 20 plant species provide 90 percent of the<br />
world’s food. Nearly 80 percent of the global diet comes from just<br />
four plant species: wheat, corn, rice, and potatoes. There are,<br />
however, over 30,000 edible plant species. These untapped wild<br />
crop species could be introduced and made part of our<br />
agricultural systems. Sadly, many of these wild plants are rapidly<br />
disappearing worldwide, while 6 billi<strong>on</strong> people must be fed.<br />
To safeguard our food supply, we need to utilize a variety of<br />
food species and incorporate the natural strengths of wild<br />
relatives into our staple crops. The wild relatives of many crop<br />
plants still survive, but their numbers have steadily decreased.<br />
Many species are now threatened with extincti<strong>on</strong>, leading to the<br />
rapid decline of global genetic stocks.<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s can suffer if<br />
these other marine<br />
animals are lost due to<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> or other<br />
human<br />
causes.<br />
The marine fish<br />
catch adds $2.5<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> to the U.S.<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omy, and $82<br />
billi<strong>on</strong> worldwide,<br />
but modern fishery<br />
practices are not<br />
sustainable. Fish<br />
stocks throughout<br />
the world are being<br />
depleted rapidly by<br />
overfishing,<br />
threatening many<br />
species. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Our</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
marine fish stocks<br />
need to be<br />
safeguarded.<br />
9
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Our</str<strong>on</strong>g> Little-Known Natural Heritage<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> did not develop<br />
overnight. The great diversity<br />
of plants, animals, fungi, and<br />
microorganisms reflects an<br />
evoluti<strong>on</strong>ary history that spans<br />
3.5 billi<strong>on</strong> years. Over that<br />
time, many species died out<br />
and new species replaced<br />
them, shaping the compositi<strong>on</strong><br />
and structure of today’s<br />
biodiversity. Every species,<br />
molded over time by genetic<br />
forces, other species, and the<br />
surrounding envir<strong>on</strong>ment,<br />
occupies a specific habitat with<br />
a definite range of distributi<strong>on</strong><br />
and specific ecological roles to<br />
play in the ecosystem. Together<br />
they weave an intricate web of<br />
life, in which every species<br />
matters.<br />
More than half of global<br />
biodiversity occurs in tropical<br />
rain forests, but <strong>on</strong>ly a very<br />
small fracti<strong>on</strong> of this vast<br />
HOW MANY<br />
Over the last<br />
250 years, scientists<br />
have documented<br />
approximately<br />
1.75 MILLION SPECIES<br />
• 1,320,000 animals<br />
• 270,000 plants<br />
• 80,000 protozoans<br />
• 72,000 fungi<br />
• 4,000 viruses<br />
• 4,000 bacteria<br />
SPECIES EXIST ON EARTH?<br />
Global biodiversity<br />
likely includes over<br />
10 MILLION SPECIES,<br />
but we have documented <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
about 17 percent of them.<br />
Recent estimates<br />
suggest that less<br />
than 10 percent of<br />
insects, nematode<br />
worms, and fungi<br />
are documented.<br />
For bacteria and<br />
other microorganisms<br />
the number is even<br />
smaller—less than<br />
1 percent.<br />
Rivers, lakes, and wetlands provide rich<br />
resources for biodiversity, although they cover<br />
less than 1 percent of the Earth’s surface.<br />
biodiversity is known. Even in<br />
North America, where<br />
biodiversity is relatively better<br />
known, the documented<br />
species of insects and arachnids<br />
represent barely 50 percent of<br />
the estimated total of 200,000<br />
species. Many of these species,<br />
both known and undescribed,<br />
have become extinct or<br />
endangered.<br />
Rivers, lakes, and wetlands<br />
provide rich resources for<br />
biodiversity, although they<br />
cover less than 1 percent of the<br />
Earth’s surface and take up<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 0.01 percent of the world’s<br />
total water resources.<br />
Freshwater biodiversity<br />
accounts for more than 12<br />
percent of the known species of<br />
animals and 41 percent of all<br />
known fishes in the world—<br />
scientists are c<strong>on</strong>tinually<br />
discovering new species in<br />
rivers, lakes, and wetlands.<br />
Rivers and lakes in the United<br />
States c<strong>on</strong>tain the largest<br />
biodiversity of several<br />
invertebrates, such as<br />
crayfishes, mussels, snails, and<br />
aquatic insects. Freshwater<br />
biodiversity suffers from<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong> much more than<br />
land-based plants and animals.<br />
During a recent event at<br />
Frick Park in Pittsburgh, 1,500<br />
volunteers explored the area,<br />
searching for all the species<br />
they could find in <strong>on</strong>e day. In<br />
this small area, they found<br />
1,471 species of plants, animals,<br />
and fungi. An estimated 24,000<br />
different plants and animals<br />
inhabit Pennsylvania, including<br />
species found nowhere else.<br />
Unfortunately, many species in<br />
Pennsylvania have disappeared,<br />
and a great number of the<br />
remaining species are<br />
endangered or threatened.<br />
10
B I O D I V E R S I T Y I N P E N N S Y L V A N I A<br />
Lichens, Mosses, and<br />
Vascular Plants<br />
Mammals<br />
Birds<br />
Liverworts<br />
2,103 native species<br />
73 native species<br />
394 species<br />
351 lichen species, 350 moss<br />
— 116 are believed to have<br />
— 11 have disappeared from<br />
— 11 are endangered<br />
species, and 115 liverwort species<br />
disappeared from Pennsylvania<br />
Pennsylvania, including the gray<br />
— 5 are threatened<br />
Fungi<br />
— 368 are endangered or<br />
threatened<br />
wolf, mountain li<strong>on</strong>, lynx, bis<strong>on</strong>,<br />
wolverine, moose, marten, and<br />
— 9 are rare<br />
— 1, the passenger pige<strong>on</strong>,<br />
7,447 species<br />
— 52 are c<strong>on</strong>sidered rare<br />
the marsh rice rat<br />
is extinct<br />
— 6 are endangered or<br />
threatened<br />
— 3 are c<strong>on</strong>sidered rare<br />
Reptiles<br />
Amphibians<br />
Fish<br />
Invertebrates<br />
37 species<br />
36 species<br />
160 native species<br />
Up to 20,000 species; <strong>on</strong>ly 11,702<br />
— 2 have disappeared from<br />
— 1 has disappeared from<br />
— 15 have disappeared from<br />
have been documented<br />
Pennsylvania<br />
— 5 are endangered or<br />
threatened<br />
Pennsylvania<br />
— 4 are threatened or endangered<br />
Pennsylvania<br />
— 21 are threatened or endangered<br />
— 1, the blue pike, may be extinct<br />
— Invertebrates make up 61 percent<br />
of Pennsylvania’s biodiversity<br />
— Of 65 freshwater mussel species,<br />
over half are endangered or g<strong>on</strong>e<br />
from Pennsylvania<br />
— Approximately 282 species<br />
(including sp<strong>on</strong>ges, mollusks,<br />
crayfish, amphipods, pillbugs,<br />
sowbugs, ostracods, and insects)<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>sidered Species of Special<br />
C<strong>on</strong>cern<br />
— 37 species have disappeared<br />
from the state<br />
11
Natural Diversity is Rapidly Declining<br />
Together, milli<strong>on</strong>s of different<br />
species of plants, animals,<br />
fungi, and microorganisms<br />
support the w<strong>on</strong>ders of life.<br />
Their intricate interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g themselves and with<br />
surrounding envir<strong>on</strong>ments<br />
provide clean air and water,<br />
food, and other materials we<br />
need for survival. Yet every day<br />
we lose more species. We lose<br />
them both to extirpati<strong>on</strong>, when<br />
a species is g<strong>on</strong>e from <strong>on</strong>e area<br />
but still exists elsewhere, and to<br />
extincti<strong>on</strong>, the permanent loss<br />
of a species.<br />
PRIMARY CAUSES<br />
OF TODAY’S<br />
EXTINCTION<br />
• Increasing human<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> and expanding<br />
ec<strong>on</strong>omic development<br />
place exhaustively high<br />
demands <strong>on</strong> biological<br />
resources.<br />
• People focus <strong>on</strong> short-term<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>s and not l<strong>on</strong>gterm<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences when<br />
making decisi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• Ec<strong>on</strong>omic markets do not<br />
recognize the value of<br />
biodiversity and ecosystem<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
• The use of natural<br />
resources is not properly<br />
regulated.<br />
• Government policies do<br />
not address the exhaustive<br />
use of biological<br />
resources.<br />
• Human migrati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
internati<strong>on</strong>al travel and<br />
trade are rapidly<br />
expanding.<br />
12<br />
Today at<br />
least 1,000<br />
species are<br />
lost every<br />
year.<br />
What is causing this loss of<br />
irreplaceable natural resources<br />
and the destabilizati<strong>on</strong> of our<br />
life-support systems? The<br />
primary culprit is the human<br />
species. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Our</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities degrade,<br />
fragment, and destroy habitats.<br />
We overexploit natural<br />
resources; we introduce n<strong>on</strong>native<br />
species; and we pollute<br />
air, water, and soil. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Our</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
activities are even causing the<br />
world’s climates to change.<br />
According to the fossil<br />
record, the average life span of<br />
a species is 4 milli<strong>on</strong> years.<br />
During the last century,<br />
though, as more species<br />
become extinct, the average<br />
life span of a mammal species<br />
has dropped to less than 10,000<br />
years—the life expectancy of<br />
today’s mammal is <strong>on</strong>ly 100 to<br />
1,000 years. Throughout<br />
history, normally <strong>on</strong>ly 1 to 10<br />
species became extinct each<br />
year. Today extincti<strong>on</strong> occurs at<br />
an alarming rate—at least<br />
1,000 species are lost every<br />
This is 100 to<br />
1,000 times<br />
the normal<br />
extincti<strong>on</strong><br />
rate.<br />
year. This is 100 to 1,000 times<br />
the normal extincti<strong>on</strong> rate.<br />
During past mass<br />
extincti<strong>on</strong>s, at least 65 percent<br />
of all species became extinct,<br />
resulting in drastic changes in<br />
the compositi<strong>on</strong> of life forms<br />
<strong>on</strong> Earth. Natural communities<br />
and ecosystems could c<strong>on</strong>tinue<br />
to functi<strong>on</strong> because the loss of<br />
species occurred gradually over<br />
hundreds of thousands of<br />
years. As species died out, new<br />
life forms arose to help carry<br />
out critical ecological services.<br />
The current rapid<br />
extincti<strong>on</strong> rate does not give<br />
ecological communities<br />
enough time to replenish the<br />
loss of species. Since species<br />
depend <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e another, a<br />
chain-reacti<strong>on</strong> of extincti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
can occur as more species in a<br />
natural community disappear.<br />
This massive decline in<br />
biodiversity threatens the stable<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ing of ecosystems.<br />
Since the year 1600, more<br />
than 1,100 species have<br />
become extinct, including 484<br />
animals and 654 plants. This<br />
does not include the large<br />
numbers of species that were<br />
never documented but<br />
nevertheless became extinct<br />
during this time.<br />
As of 1994, over 31,000 of<br />
the world’s species—5,366<br />
animals and 26,106 plants—<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>sidered threatened<br />
with extincti<strong>on</strong> (threatened<br />
species), and 4,816 species were<br />
in danger of becoming extinct<br />
(endangered species). These<br />
numbers do not include vast<br />
numbers of tiny organisms that<br />
inhabit threatened habitats, but<br />
have not yet been discovered<br />
and named.<br />
Like the rest of the world,<br />
Pennsylvania has experienced a<br />
serious decline in biodiversity.<br />
Although our state’s populati<strong>on</strong><br />
has remained around 12 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
people for the last 20 years,<br />
shifts in where we choose to live<br />
and how we use land pose<br />
significant threats to our native<br />
biodiversity.<br />
Many of Pennsylvania’s<br />
natural habitats have been<br />
fragmented, altered, or<br />
destroyed by urban and<br />
suburban sprawl, lack of z<strong>on</strong>ing<br />
and planning at the municipal<br />
level, road c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>, and<br />
industrial activities. The<br />
destructi<strong>on</strong> of 56 percent of our<br />
state’s wetlands has been a<br />
major cause of loss of species,<br />
since 84 percent of native<br />
amphibians, 46 percent of<br />
native birds, 44 percent of<br />
native reptiles, and 37 percent<br />
of native vascular plants depend<br />
<strong>on</strong> wetlands. If the loss of<br />
wetlands c<strong>on</strong>tinues, more<br />
species will be lost.<br />
Forty percent of Pennsylvania’s<br />
forests have been cleared<br />
to make way for agriculture and<br />
development. Most of the<br />
remaining forests are <strong>on</strong>ly 80 to
100 years old and lack the rich<br />
diversity of species found in<br />
“old-growth” forests. Younger<br />
forests do not support species<br />
that need the unique c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
found in older forests.<br />
Some larger mammals and<br />
many migratory birds require<br />
large, unbroken expanses of<br />
forest. Road c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong> and<br />
development have fragmented<br />
our landscape, resulting in<br />
both a loss of species and a<br />
decline in the number of<br />
individuals making up the<br />
remaining species.<br />
Polluti<strong>on</strong> is another major<br />
cause of biodiversity loss in<br />
Pennsylvania. C<strong>on</strong>taminati<strong>on</strong><br />
from industry, agriculture, and<br />
other sources degrades natural<br />
habitats and results in the loss<br />
of local populati<strong>on</strong>s of many<br />
plants and animals. Fifty-seven<br />
percent of all endangered<br />
species in Pennsylvania became<br />
endangered due to polluti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
aquatic habitats. Polluti<strong>on</strong> is a<br />
leading cause of the declines in<br />
many native fish and mussel<br />
populati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Many species of plants and<br />
animals in rivers, lakes, and<br />
wetlands are threatened with<br />
extincti<strong>on</strong>. About 40 percent of<br />
freshwater fish and amphibian<br />
species are also at risk. Thirtyseven<br />
percent of 303 species of<br />
American freshwater fishes are<br />
at risk of extincti<strong>on</strong>, and 17<br />
species have already<br />
disappeared during the last<br />
century. In Pennsylvania, 13<br />
native fish species are at risk.<br />
Sixty-seven percent of 300<br />
freshwater mussel species in<br />
the Unites States are in<br />
jeopardy, and 1 in 10 species<br />
may already have disappeared.<br />
Similarly, half of all crayfish<br />
species in the United States are<br />
at risk of extincti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Major threats to freshwater<br />
fishes include n<strong>on</strong>point source<br />
polluti<strong>on</strong>, invasive plants and<br />
animals, and dams. N<strong>on</strong>point<br />
source polluti<strong>on</strong> includes many<br />
different chemicals, nutrients,<br />
and sediments from soil<br />
erosi<strong>on</strong> caused by agriculture,<br />
some forestry activities, urban<br />
and suburban development,<br />
and highway c<strong>on</strong>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
When invasive species of<br />
animals and plants enter our<br />
freshwater systems, they often<br />
outcompete native species for<br />
food and space. Dams create<br />
physical barriers to fish<br />
movement and disturb<br />
watershed systems.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong> to habitat loss<br />
and polluti<strong>on</strong>, the introducti<strong>on</strong><br />
of aggressive, n<strong>on</strong>-indigenous<br />
species poses a major threat to<br />
many species and habitats.<br />
Pennsylvania has had its share<br />
of “exotic invaders,” with<br />
disastrous c<strong>on</strong>sequences. Many<br />
of these species have not been<br />
harmful, but some have<br />
reproduced and spread to such<br />
an extent that they threaten<br />
the survival of native species.<br />
E X O T I C I N V A D E R S O F P E N N S Y L V A N I A<br />
DATE OF INTRODUCTION<br />
INTO U.S. PLACE OF ORIGIN PROBLEMS CAUSED<br />
Zebra mussel 1988 Asia Outcompetes other aquatic mussels and fish<br />
Chestnut blight fungus 1904 Asia Destroyed chestnut forests<br />
Dutch elm disease fungus 1930 Asia Eliminated most of the American elms in the eastern United States<br />
Purple loosestrife (plant) 1800s Europe Chokes wetlands, eliminating other plants and their associated animal<br />
communities<br />
Brown trout 1884 Europe Outcompetes many native fish, some of which now face local extincti<strong>on</strong><br />
Gypsy moth 1869 Europe Defoliates native trees, altering the compositi<strong>on</strong> of native forests<br />
European starlings 1890 Europe Compete with Eastern Bluebirds for nest sites<br />
House or English sparrows 1853 Europe Compete with Eastern Bluebirds for nest sites<br />
13
What Can You Do To Help?<br />
We all depend <strong>on</strong> the riches of<br />
biodiversity to sustain our<br />
health, our ec<strong>on</strong>omy, and our<br />
very lives. Yet biodiversity in<br />
Pennsylvania—and the rest of<br />
the world—is seriously<br />
threatened. We must act now<br />
to preserve biodiversity.<br />
Most U.S. citizens are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned about<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental problems.<br />
Since we all benefit from the<br />
natural diversity of life,<br />
preserving it is every<strong>on</strong>e’s<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibility.<br />
You can do many simple<br />
things to improve and sustain<br />
the quality of life we enjoy now<br />
and to safeguard the quality of<br />
life for future generati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
PRESERVE<br />
HABITATS<br />
To protect biodiversity in<br />
Pennsylvania, we must<br />
protect natural habitats.<br />
1. Habitats, including<br />
forests, wetlands,<br />
grasslands, rivers, and<br />
lakes, need to be<br />
sustainably managed.<br />
2. Fragmentati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
alterati<strong>on</strong> of wild areas<br />
should be avoided.<br />
3. Mined and disturbed<br />
areas, including<br />
wetlands, need to be<br />
restored.<br />
4. Air, water, and soil must<br />
be protected from<br />
pollutants and<br />
c<strong>on</strong>taminants.<br />
5. Invasive, n<strong>on</strong>-native<br />
species must be kept<br />
out of local ecosystems.<br />
14
W H A T Y O U C A N D O T O H E L P<br />
LEARN MORE ABOUT<br />
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY<br />
• Be aware of the ways biodiversity<br />
enriches the quality of your life.<br />
• Learn to recognize local areas<br />
rich in biodiversity, especially<br />
those that are already threatened.<br />
• Learn more about endangered<br />
species and how they became<br />
endangered.<br />
• Make your daily activities<br />
protective of our natural heritage.<br />
USE SOUND<br />
GARDENING AND<br />
LANDSCAPING<br />
PRACTICES<br />
• Plant a variety of native trees,<br />
shrubs, and ground covers in<br />
home landscaping.<br />
• Avoid using liquid fertilizers, toxic<br />
pesticides, and weed killers <strong>on</strong><br />
your property.<br />
• Compost food scraps and use<br />
organic gardening methods.<br />
RECYCLE<br />
• Recycle when possible and<br />
reduce c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
n<strong>on</strong>recyclable products.<br />
• Buy recyclable products<br />
whenever possible.<br />
CONSERVE WATER<br />
AND PROTECT<br />
WATER QUALITY<br />
• Avoid unnecessary water use.<br />
• Use envir<strong>on</strong>mentally safe<br />
DISPOSE OF WASTE<br />
PROPERLY<br />
• Dispose of hazardous household<br />
chemical wastes such as motor oil,<br />
antifreeze, paint, paint remover,<br />
toxic cleaning agents, and<br />
pesticides at recycling centers or<br />
community collecti<strong>on</strong> points.<br />
• Dispose of batteries and other<br />
manufactured c<strong>on</strong>sumer products<br />
properly.<br />
CONSERVE ENERGY<br />
detergents that are<br />
biodegradable and low in<br />
phosphates.<br />
• Improve the energy efficiency of<br />
your home to reduce energy<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumpti<strong>on</strong><br />
• Drive an energy-efficient car.<br />
• Carpool or use public<br />
transportati<strong>on</strong> whenever possible.<br />
GET INVOLVED<br />
• Support local, nati<strong>on</strong>al, and global<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental groups and<br />
organizati<strong>on</strong>s that work to protect<br />
biodiversity.<br />
• Work with your elected officials to<br />
safeguard biodiversity.<br />
• Attend public meetings that<br />
address biodiversity issues such as<br />
land development, public water<br />
supply, sewage treatment, and solid<br />
waste management.<br />
• Urge your representatives and other<br />
elected officials to support the<br />
protecti<strong>on</strong> of biodiversity.<br />
• Promote biodiversity awareness<br />
programs in schools, 4-H clubs,<br />
scout groups, and other places.<br />
15
Acknowledgments:<br />
The publicati<strong>on</strong> of this<br />
booklet has been delayed<br />
because of my unexpected<br />
health problems and changes<br />
of writing/editorial assistants<br />
for the project since it began<br />
in fall 1997. I have received<br />
generous assistance in<br />
reference searching, writing,<br />
and editing from Elaine<br />
Tietjen, Claudia Violette, Joy<br />
Drohan, and Jennifer<br />
Chesworth. Their intellectual<br />
and editorial c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
helped shape the perspectives<br />
of this booklet. My special<br />
gratitude is due to Elaine,<br />
Claudia, and Joy for their<br />
efforts and assistance.<br />
Furthermore, a large number<br />
of my colleagues kindly<br />
reviewed many different<br />
drafts of the booklet. My<br />
thanks for their kind reviews<br />
are due to John Grehan,<br />
Robert Hill, Carolyn Mahan,<br />
Bruce McPher<strong>on</strong>, Maryann<br />
Frazier, Shelby Fleischer,<br />
Mike Saunders, Les Lany<strong>on</strong>,<br />
R. P. Withingt<strong>on</strong> III, Lisa<br />
Williams, and Teresa M.<br />
Alberici. The publicati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
this booklet could not have<br />
been possible without the<br />
excellent editorial and<br />
graphics work of the Penn<br />
State Informati<strong>on</strong> and<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Technologies staff,<br />
particularly Est<strong>on</strong> Martz,<br />
executive editor, Gretl<br />
Collins, publicati<strong>on</strong>s designer,<br />
and Howard Nuernberger,<br />
photographer. I acknowledge<br />
their c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s to the<br />
producti<strong>on</strong> of this booklet<br />
with my great appreciati<strong>on</strong>. I<br />
also wish to thank the<br />
Editorial Committee<br />
members (Rick Carls<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Frank Felbaum, Tom Ford,<br />
Caren Glotfelty, Jerry<br />
Hassinger, Robert Hill, and<br />
Kim Steiner) for their<br />
advice and patience in<br />
completing this project.<br />
My special appreciati<strong>on</strong><br />
goes to Lanny Sommese for<br />
his illustrati<strong>on</strong>, created for<br />
the accompanying poster<br />
that adorns the covers of<br />
this publicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
This publicati<strong>on</strong> was made<br />
possible with a grant from<br />
the Pennsylvania Wild<br />
Resource C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
Fund with support of the<br />
Pennsylvania Department of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and Natural<br />
Resources, Pennsylvania<br />
Game Commissi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Pennsylvania Fish and Boat<br />
Commissi<strong>on</strong>, and Penn<br />
State’s College of<br />
Agricultural Sciences. This<br />
project would not have<br />
been possible without their<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tinued interest and<br />
support, for which I wish to<br />
express my great<br />
appreciati<strong>on</strong>. My special<br />
thanks go to Robert Hill,<br />
former biodiversity<br />
coordinator, Pennsylvania<br />
Department of<br />
C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong> and Natural<br />
Resources, and Frank H.<br />
Felbaum, Pennsylvania Wild<br />
Resource C<strong>on</strong>servati<strong>on</strong><br />
Fund, for their support and<br />
patience during the<br />
preparati<strong>on</strong> of this<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
— K.C. Kim<br />
FURTHER READING:<br />
• Baskin, Y. 1997. The Work of<br />
Nature. How the Diversity of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Life</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sustains Us. Island Press,<br />
Washingt<strong>on</strong>, D.C.<br />
• <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g>: The Fragile Web.<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Geographic, Vol.<br />
195, No. 2, February 1999.<br />
• Costanza, R., B. G. Nort<strong>on</strong>,<br />
and B. D. Haskell (eds.).<br />
1992. Ecosystem Health: New<br />
Goals for Envir<strong>on</strong>mental<br />
Management. Island Press,<br />
Washingt<strong>on</strong>, D. C.<br />
• Daily, G. C. (ed.). 1997.<br />
Nature’s Services: Societal<br />
Dependence <strong>on</strong> Natural<br />
Ecosystems. Island Press,<br />
Washingt<strong>on</strong>, D.C.<br />
• Di Giulio, R. T. and E.<br />
M<strong>on</strong>oss<strong>on</strong> (eds.). 1996.<br />
Interc<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between<br />
Human and Ecosystem Health.<br />
Chapman & Hall, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>,<br />
U.K.<br />
• Grifo, F. and J. Rosenthal<br />
(eds.). 1997. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> and<br />
Human Health. Island Press,<br />
Washingt<strong>on</strong>, D. C.<br />
• Hassinger, J. D., R. J. Hill, G.<br />
L. Storm and R. H. Yahner.<br />
1998. Inventory and<br />
M<strong>on</strong>itoring Biotic Resources in<br />
Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania<br />
Biological Survey, University<br />
Park, PA.<br />
• Heywood, V. H. and R. T.<br />
Wats<strong>on</strong>. 1995. Global<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> Assessment.<br />
UNEP/Cambridge<br />
University Press, Cambridge,<br />
U.K.<br />
• Kim, K. C. and R. D. Weaver<br />
(eds.). 1994. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> and<br />
Landscapes: A Paradox of<br />
Humanity. Cambridge<br />
University Press, New York,<br />
NY.<br />
• Mac, M. J., P. A. Opler, C. E.<br />
Pucket Haeker, and P. D.<br />
Doran. 1998. Status and<br />
Trends of the Nati<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
Biological Resources. Rest<strong>on</strong>,<br />
VA: U.S. Department of<br />
Interior, U. S. Geological<br />
Survey. Vol. 1:1-436, Vol.<br />
2:437-964.<br />
• Pearce, D. and D. Moran.<br />
1994. The Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Value of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Earthscan<br />
Publicati<strong>on</strong>s Ltd, L<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong>.<br />
• Prugh, T. 1995. Natural<br />
Capital and Human Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Survival. ISEE Press,<br />
Solom<strong>on</strong>s, MD.<br />
• Thorne, S. G., K. C. Kim, K.<br />
C. Steiner, and B. J.<br />
McGuinness. 1995. A<br />
Heritage for the 21st Century:<br />
C<strong>on</strong>serving Pennsylvania’s<br />
Native Biological Diversity. A<br />
Report by the Pennsylvania<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g> Technical<br />
Committee. Pennsylvania<br />
Fish and Boat Commissi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Harrisburg, PA.<br />
• Wils<strong>on</strong>, E. O. 1984.<br />
Biophilia. Harvard University<br />
Press, Cambridge, MA.<br />
• Wils<strong>on</strong>, E. O. (ed.) 1988.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Biodiversity</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Washingt<strong>on</strong>,<br />
D.C.: Nati<strong>on</strong>al Academy<br />
Press.<br />
• Wils<strong>on</strong>, E. O. 1992. The<br />
Diversity of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Life</str<strong>on</strong>g>. The Belknap<br />
Press of Harvard University<br />
Press, Cambridge, MA.<br />
16
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Live a lifestyle that promotes the<br />
preservati<strong>on</strong> of our natural heritage.<br />
CAT UF017 20M701NVO ICT4452
O U R L I V I N G W O R L D<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Your</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Life</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Depends</str<strong>on</strong>g> On <strong>It</strong>