26 CHAPTER 3priate, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions should implement appropriateprecautions to protect <strong>the</strong> safety <strong>and</strong> well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>visitors <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> animals.Prevent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> disease agents is acont<strong>in</strong>uous challenge, particularly when teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>research facilities allow public access. Herd health <strong>and</strong>sanitation programs should be <strong>in</strong> place to m<strong>in</strong>imize exposureto pathogens.Animal care personnel <strong>in</strong> research <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g facilitiesshould not be <strong>in</strong> contact with livestock elsewhereunless strict biosecurity precautions are followed. Toreduce <strong>in</strong>ter-build<strong>in</strong>g transmission <strong>of</strong> pathogenic microorganisms,careful attention should be given to trafficpatterns <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-build<strong>in</strong>g personnel <strong>and</strong> disease organisms<strong>in</strong> feed <strong>and</strong> transport vehicles. Barriers to microorganismtransmission should be considered <strong>for</strong> personnelwho move between houses, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g shower<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>,chang<strong>in</strong>g clo<strong>the</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> dis<strong>in</strong>fectant footbathsas personnel move between rooms <strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>gs. Establish<strong>in</strong>ga barrier between animals <strong>and</strong> visitors requiresvisitors to do some or all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g: shower <strong>in</strong>/shower out (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g wash<strong>in</strong>g hair), wear clean footwear(i.e., plastic boots), change to on-site clo<strong>the</strong>s, <strong>and</strong>wear only on-site clo<strong>the</strong>s. In addition, if personnel needto go back <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>th between different phases <strong>of</strong> production,it is critical that <strong>the</strong>y work from clean to dirtyphases <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> farm.Boot Clean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Dis<strong>in</strong>fectionThe use <strong>of</strong> boot baths can prevent or m<strong>in</strong>imize mechanicaltransmission <strong>of</strong> pathogens among groups <strong>of</strong>pigs. Visible organic material may be removed fromboots us<strong>in</strong>g water <strong>and</strong> a brush or specific boot clean<strong>in</strong>gstation. Boots may be dis<strong>in</strong>fected by soak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> aclean bath <strong>of</strong> an appropriate dis<strong>in</strong>fectant follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>manufacturer’s guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>for</strong> dilution rate <strong>and</strong> exposuretime. Personnel should step <strong>in</strong>to <strong>and</strong> scrub <strong>the</strong>irboots <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> boot bath upon entry <strong>and</strong> when leav<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> room/facility. It is important to frequently empty,clean, <strong>and</strong> refill <strong>the</strong> boot bath to prevent it from be<strong>in</strong>gcontam<strong>in</strong>ated with organic matter. Disposable bootsmay be used.BIOCONTAINMENTHigh-consequence livestock pathogens (e.g., tuberculosis,foot <strong>and</strong> mouth disease) or <strong>the</strong> vectors (e.g.,mosquitoes, ticks) responsible <strong>for</strong> transmission <strong>of</strong> diseasecause high morbidity <strong>and</strong> mortality, <strong>and</strong> can havea significant regional, national, <strong>and</strong> global economicimpact. The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se pathogens <strong>in</strong> agricultural researchbr<strong>in</strong>gs several challenges when design<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>operat<strong>in</strong>g an animal facility. The design <strong>of</strong> this type<strong>of</strong> facility should strive <strong>for</strong> flexibility, effective conta<strong>in</strong>ment<strong>of</strong> pathogens, <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> risk <strong>of</strong> exposureto personnel when zoonotic agents are utilized. The use<strong>of</strong> agricultural animals <strong>in</strong> high-consequence livestockpathogen research requires a thorough underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<strong>of</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> regulatory requirements <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> concept<strong>of</strong> risk assessment. The USDA provides a list <strong>of</strong> livestock,poultry, <strong>and</strong> fish pathogens that are classified as“pathogens <strong>of</strong> veter<strong>in</strong>ary significance” <strong>in</strong> Appendix D<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> book Biosafety <strong>in</strong> Microbiological <strong>and</strong> BiomedicalLaboratories (BMBL; CDC, 2007). The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>sepathogens requires facilities to meet specific criteria <strong>for</strong>design, operation, <strong>and</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ment features, which aredescribed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> BMBL. For <strong>the</strong> listed agents, criteriamay <strong>in</strong>clude utiliz<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>ment levels designated asAnimal Biosafety Level (ABSL)-2, enhanced ABSL-3,BSL-3-Ag, or ABSL-4. Requirements <strong>for</strong> BSL-3-Ag facilitiesmust be met when any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> listed pathogens areused <strong>in</strong> animals <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> room hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> animals provides<strong>the</strong> primary conta<strong>in</strong>ment (i.e., animals are loosehoused<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> room). When <strong>the</strong> studies can be accomplished<strong>in</strong> smaller species <strong>in</strong> which animals are housed <strong>in</strong>primary conta<strong>in</strong>ment devices, which allows <strong>the</strong> room toserve as <strong>the</strong> secondary barrier, <strong>the</strong>n enhanced ABSL-3requirements can be utilized. Enhancements to ABSL-3 should be determ<strong>in</strong>ed on a case-by-case basis, us<strong>in</strong>grisk assessment, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> consultation with <strong>the</strong> Animal<strong>and</strong> Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>USDA. In addition to <strong>the</strong> BMBL, facility design st<strong>and</strong>ardshave been published by <strong>the</strong> USDA to guide <strong>the</strong>design <strong>of</strong> Animal <strong>Research</strong> Service (ARS) constructionprojects <strong>and</strong> conta<strong>in</strong> useful <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation on <strong>the</strong> design<strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ment facilities <strong>for</strong> agricultural research. Thesest<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation on conta<strong>in</strong>ment designthat addresses hazard classification <strong>and</strong> choice <strong>of</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>ment,conta<strong>in</strong>ment equipment, <strong>and</strong> facility designissues <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> different levels <strong>of</strong> bioconta<strong>in</strong>ment (ARS,2002). Although published to provide guidance <strong>for</strong> NationalInstitutes <strong>of</strong> Health (NIH)-funded constructionprojects <strong>and</strong> renovations <strong>for</strong> biomedical research facilities,<strong>the</strong> NIH Design <strong>and</strong> Policy <strong>Guide</strong>l<strong>in</strong>es (NIH, 2003)conta<strong>in</strong> useful <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation on construction <strong>of</strong> BSL-3<strong>and</strong> ABSL-3 facilities. The use <strong>of</strong> recomb<strong>in</strong>ant DNAmolecules <strong>in</strong> agricultural research can <strong>in</strong>troduce additionalconsiderations when design<strong>in</strong>g an animal facility.Published guidel<strong>in</strong>es provide recommendations <strong>for</strong>physical <strong>and</strong> biological conta<strong>in</strong>ment <strong>for</strong> recomb<strong>in</strong>antDNA research <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g animals (NIH, 2002). Theseguidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>clude a supplement published <strong>in</strong> 2006 thatprovides additional <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation specific to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong>lentiviral vectors (NIH, 2006). The <strong>Agricultural</strong> BioterrorismProtection Act <strong>of</strong> 2002 required <strong>the</strong> propagation<strong>of</strong> regulations that address <strong>the</strong> possession, use,<strong>and</strong> transfer <strong>of</strong> select agents <strong>and</strong> tox<strong>in</strong>s that have <strong>the</strong>potential to pose a severe threat to plants or animals,<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir products. The USDA/APHIS published <strong>the</strong>implement<strong>in</strong>g regulation cover<strong>in</strong>g animals <strong>and</strong> animalproducts, which identifies those select agents <strong>and</strong> tox<strong>in</strong>sthat are a threat solely to animals <strong>and</strong> animal products(VS select agents <strong>and</strong> tox<strong>in</strong>s) <strong>and</strong> overlap agents,or those agents that pose a threat to public health <strong>and</strong>safety, to animal health, or to animal products (CFR,2005). Overlap select agents <strong>and</strong> tox<strong>in</strong>s are subject to
egulation by both APHIS <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Centers <strong>for</strong> DiseaseControl <strong>and</strong> Prevention (CFR, 2002). The regulationsimplemented by both agencies reference <strong>the</strong> BMBL <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> NIH <strong>Guide</strong>l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>for</strong> <strong>Research</strong> Involv<strong>in</strong>g Recomb<strong>in</strong>antDNA Molecules as sources to consider when develop<strong>in</strong>gphysical structure <strong>and</strong> features, <strong>and</strong> operational <strong>and</strong>procedural safeguards. O<strong>the</strong>r issues discussed <strong>in</strong> some<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se references may not directly affect conta<strong>in</strong>ment<strong>of</strong> pathogens or safety <strong>of</strong> personnel, but should be consideredas <strong>the</strong>y may affect <strong>the</strong> design <strong>of</strong> a facility. Forexample, <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> select agents requires certa<strong>in</strong> securitymeasures to be <strong>in</strong> place that restrict access toareas where select agents or tox<strong>in</strong>s are used or stored.This can <strong>in</strong>clude laboratories, animal rooms, <strong>and</strong> storagefreezers, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a significant impact on how aresearch facility is designed. A thorough underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> references cited <strong>in</strong> this section is advised be<strong>for</strong>e<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> design <strong>of</strong> new bioconta<strong>in</strong>ment facilitiesor renovation <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g facilities to accommodate researchwith hazardous agents or tox<strong>in</strong>s requir<strong>in</strong>g conta<strong>in</strong>ment.REFERENCESAdams, A. W., <strong>and</strong> J. V. Craig. 1985. Effect <strong>of</strong> crowd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> cageshape on productivity <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> caged layers: A survey.Poult. Sci. 64:238–242.Al-Rawi, B., <strong>and</strong> J. V. Craig. 1975. Agonistic behavior <strong>of</strong> cagedchickens related to group size <strong>and</strong> area per bird. Appl. Anim.Ethol. 2:69–80.Algers, B., I. Ekesbo, <strong>and</strong> S. Stromberg. 1978a. The impact <strong>of</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uousnoise on animal health. Acta Vet. Sc<strong>and</strong>. Suppl. 67:1–26.Algers, B., I. Ekesbo, <strong>and</strong> S. Stromberg. 1978b. Noise measurements<strong>in</strong> farm animal environments. Acta Vet. Sc<strong>and</strong>. Suppl.68:1–19.Algers, B., <strong>and</strong> P. Jensen. 1985. Communication dur<strong>in</strong>g suckl<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> domestic pig. Effects <strong>of</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uous noise. Appl. Anim.Behav. Sci. 14:49–61.Algers, B., <strong>and</strong> P. Jensen. 1991. Teat stimulation <strong>and</strong> milk productiondur<strong>in</strong>g early lactation <strong>in</strong> sows: Effects <strong>of</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uous noise.Can. J. Anim. Sci. 71:51–60.Ames, D. R., <strong>and</strong> L. W. Insley. 1975. W<strong>in</strong>d-chill effect <strong>for</strong> cattle <strong>and</strong>sheep. J. Anim. Sci. 40:161–165.ARS. 2002. ARS Facilities Design St<strong>and</strong>ards. Publication 242.1M-ARS. http://www.afm.ars.usda.gov/ppweb/242-01m.htmBäckström, L., <strong>and</strong> R. Kauffman. 1995. The porc<strong>in</strong>e stress syndrome:A review <strong>of</strong> genetics, environmental factors, <strong>and</strong> animalwell-be<strong>in</strong>g implications. Agric. Pract. 16:24–30.Baker, D. H., W. H. Hiott, H. W. Davis, <strong>and</strong> C. E. Jordan. 1967. Asw<strong>in</strong>e metabolism unit. Lab. Pract. 16:1385–1387.BAMN. 2001. Biosecurity <strong>of</strong> Dairy Farm Feedstuffs. Bov<strong>in</strong>e Allianceon Management <strong>and</strong> Nutrition. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/vs/ceah/ncahs/nahms/dairy/bamn/BAMNFeedstuffs.pdfBond, J. 1970. Effects <strong>of</strong> noise on <strong>the</strong> physiology <strong>and</strong> behavior <strong>of</strong>farm-raised animals. Pages 295–306 <strong>in</strong> Physiological Effects <strong>of</strong>Noise. B. L. Welch <strong>and</strong> A. S. Welch, ed. Plenum Press, NewYork, NY.Bowers, C. L., T. H. Friend, K. K. Grisson, <strong>and</strong> D. C. Lay Jr.1993. Conf<strong>in</strong>ement <strong>of</strong> lambs (Ovis aries) <strong>in</strong> metabolism stalls<strong>in</strong>creased adrenal function, thyrox<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> motivation <strong>for</strong> movement.Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 36:149–158.Bryant, M. J., <strong>and</strong> R. Ewbank. 1974. Effects <strong>of</strong> stock<strong>in</strong>g rate upon<strong>the</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mance, general activity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>gestive behavior <strong>of</strong>groups <strong>of</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g pigs. Br. Vet. J. 130:139–148.HUSBANDRY, HOUSING, AND BIOSECURITYBuhman, M., G. Dewell, <strong>and</strong> D. Griff<strong>in</strong>. 2000. Biosecurity Basics<strong>for</strong> Cattle Operations <strong>and</strong> Good Management Practices (GMP)<strong>for</strong> Controll<strong>in</strong>g Infectious Diseases. University <strong>of</strong> Nebraska-L<strong>in</strong>colnExtension, Institute <strong>of</strong> Agriculture <strong>and</strong> Natural Resources.Publication G1411. http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/live/g1411/build/g1411.pdfCalle, P. P., <strong>and</strong> J. C. Bornmann. 1988. Giraffe restra<strong>in</strong>t, habituation<strong>and</strong> desensitization at <strong>the</strong> Cheyenne Mounta<strong>in</strong> Zoo. ZooBiol. 7:243–252.CDC. 2007. Biosafety <strong>in</strong> Microbiological <strong>and</strong> Biomedical Laboratories.5th Edition. http://www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/biosfty/bmbl5/bmbl5toc.htmCFR. 2002. Possession, <strong>Use</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Transfer <strong>of</strong> Select Agents <strong>and</strong> Tox<strong>in</strong>s.Title 42 Code <strong>of</strong> Federal Regulations, Part 73.CFR. 2005. <strong>Agricultural</strong> Bioterrorism Protection Act <strong>of</strong> 2002; Possession,<strong>Use</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Transfer <strong>of</strong> Biological Agents <strong>and</strong> Tox<strong>in</strong>s.Title 9 Code <strong>of</strong> Federal Regulations, Part 121.Chiba, L., E. R. Peo Jr., A. J. Lewis, M. C. Brumm, R. D. Fritschen,<strong>and</strong> J. D. Crenshaw. 1985. Effect <strong>of</strong> dietary fat on pig per<strong>for</strong>mance<strong>and</strong> dust levels <strong>in</strong> modified-open-front <strong>and</strong> environmentallyregulated conf<strong>in</strong>ement build<strong>in</strong>gs. J. Anim. Sci. 61:763–782.Clark, W. D., <strong>and</strong> L. Hahn. 1971. Automatic telephone warn<strong>in</strong>g systems<strong>for</strong> animal <strong>and</strong> plant laboratories or production systems.J. Dairy Sci. 54:933–935.Craig, J. V. 1981. Domestic Animal Behavior. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,Englewood Cliffs, NJ.Craig, J. V. 1994. Genetic <strong>in</strong>fluences on behavior associated withwell-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> productivity <strong>in</strong> livestock. Proc. 5th World Congr.Genet. Appl. Livest. Prod. (2):150–157.Craig, J. V., <strong>and</strong> A. W. Adams. 1984. Behaviour <strong>and</strong> well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>hens (Gallus domesticus) <strong>in</strong> alternative hous<strong>in</strong>g environments.Worlds Poult. Sci. J. 40:221–240.Craig, J. V., <strong>and</strong> J. A. Craig. 1985. Corticosteroid levels <strong>in</strong> WhiteLeghorn hens as affected by h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g, lay<strong>in</strong>g-house environment,<strong>and</strong> genetic stock. Poult. Sci. 64:809–816.Craig, J. V., J. A. Craig, <strong>and</strong> J. Vargas Vargas. 1986. Corticosteroids<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>dicators <strong>of</strong> hens’ well-be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> four lay<strong>in</strong>g-houseenvironments. Poult. Sci. 65:856–863.Curtis, S. E. 1982. Measurement <strong>of</strong> stress <strong>in</strong> animals. Pages 1–10<strong>in</strong> Proc. Symp. Manage. Food Produc<strong>in</strong>g Anim. Vol. 1. W. R.Woods, ed. Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN.Curtis, S. E. 1983. Environmental Management <strong>in</strong> Animal Agriculture.Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames.Curtis, S. E. 1986. Toxic gases. Pages 456–457 <strong>in</strong> Current Veter<strong>in</strong>aryTherapy: Food Animal Practice 2. J. L. Howard, ed. W. B.Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.Curtis, S. E., <strong>and</strong> J. G. Drummond. 1982. Air environment <strong>and</strong> animalper<strong>for</strong>mance. Pages 107–118 <strong>in</strong> H<strong>and</strong>book <strong>of</strong> <strong>Agricultural</strong>Productivity. Volume 11: Animal Productivity. M. Rechcigl, ed.CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.Dawk<strong>in</strong>s, M. S. 1990. From an animal’s po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view: Motivation,fitness <strong>and</strong> animal welfare. Behav. Bra<strong>in</strong> Sci. 13:1–61.Duncan, I. J. H. 1978. An overall assessment <strong>of</strong> poultry welfare.Pages 79–88 <strong>in</strong> Proc. 1st Danish Sem<strong>in</strong>ar Poult. Welfare Egglay<strong>in</strong>gCages. L. Y. Sorensen, ed. Natl. Comm. Poult. Eggs,Copenhagen, Denmark.Duncan, I. J. H. 1981. Animal rights-animal welfare: A scientist’sassessment. Poult. Sci. 60:489–499.Duncan, I. J. H. 1993. Welfare is to do with what animals feel. J.Agric. Environ. Ethics 6(Suppl. 2):8–14.Eigenberg, R. A., G. L. Hahn, J. A. Nienaber, A. M. Parkhurst,<strong>and</strong> M. F. Kocher. 1995. Tympanic temperature decay constantsas <strong>in</strong>dices <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal environments: sw<strong>in</strong>e. Trans. ASAE38:1203–1206.Fraser, A. F., ed. 1985. Ethology <strong>of</strong> Farm <strong>Animals</strong>. Elsevier Sci.Publ. Co., New York, NY.Fraser, A. F., <strong>and</strong> D. M. Broom. 1990. Farm Animal Behaviour <strong>and</strong>Welfare. Balliere-T<strong>in</strong>dall, London, UK.Fraser, D. 1993. Assess<strong>in</strong>g animal well-be<strong>in</strong>g: common sense, uncommonscience. In Food Animal Well-Be<strong>in</strong>g, Conference Proceed-27
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