tpo_dossier_action-plan-for-innovation-and-learning_201406

6countries, there is variation in legal standards aroundthe World - though practices on farms often exceedthe minimum legal requirements within each country.Nevertheless, all follow the same broad principles andobjectives and there is a huge international trade in organicproducts.In addition to the regulated organic farming of themajor organic markets, there is also much unregulated,smallholder/peasant-based organic farming supplyinglocal markets. However, unregulated does not necessarilymean uncontrolled: there are often sophisticated, selforganisedsystems ensuring integrity, good practice andinformation sharing. Some call themselves agroecological,not organic.Notwithstanding their different histories, there are strongoverlaps between organic agriculture and agroecology.Both promote a ‘closed system’ approach to minimiseexternal inputs, use multiple and diverse crops and/oranimals, and rely on biological processes for building soilfertility and controlling pests and diseases (Bellon et al.,2011). Both tend to favour more direct links with theircustomers and to engage with social movements. Bothseek to improve wider agricultural systems towards greatersustainability using similar approaches, and both are opento learning and are ambitious to probe, to improve and todevelop their practices towards this goal – exactly one ofthe goals of this publication.Thus, whilst not quite synonymous, organic farming andagroecology are strongly related and are complementarybedfellows.Innovation is a broad concept that is generally definedas the development, introduction and application ofnew ideas, processes, products or procedures where aneconomic or social benefit is assumed for individuals,groups or entire organisations (Maier, 2001; Aichner et al.,2000). Put simply, it is something original, therefore new,that “breaks into” a market or society.Innovation could be seen as sitting in betweeninvention and improvement. Invention is the creation ofan idea or method, whereas innovation is developing andimplementing a better, novel idea or method. It refers tothe notion of doing something different. Improvement,on the other hand, is simply about doing the same thingbetter.Many scientists and researchers have studiedinnovation with the aim of identifying the different formsof innovation and documenting the associated structuresand policies. These include:• Schumpeter et al. (1980) defined three phases ofthe innovation process: invention (when ideas aregenerated), innovation (putting ideas into practice),and diffusion (the widespread application of theinnovation);• Smits et al. (2010) described innovation as eithermacroeconomic (more linear, like ‘technologytransfer’), or institutional (more the whole innovationsystem);• Li et al. (2008) differentiated between exploitative(refining, leveraging and extending existingknowledge) and explorative (searching for newalternatives or unfamiliar, distant and remoteknowledge);• Meißner (2001) and Knickel et al. (2009) identifieddifferent groups who perform different tasks in thevarious phases of the innovation process: knowledgeproducers (researchers, R&D departments),knowledge users (commerce, consumers, farmers),knowledge brokers (advisory services, the educationsystem, NGOs) and political decision-makers;• Padel et al. (2010) in the TP Organics ImplementationAction Plan argued for a broad understanding ofinnovation, distinguishing between:• technology innovation, generated mainlythrough lab-based science and technology,and then transferred to users such as farmers,advisory services, and policy makers;• know-how innovation, knowledge aroundmethods and practices, often the result ofparticipatory research, spanning the normalboundary between knowledge producers andusers; it makes ‘tacit knowledge’ explicit andoften combines new and traditional knowledge;• organisational innovation, changes inmanagement and cooperation amongstakeholders across the agro-food value chain(e.g. researchers, seed breeders, extensionservices, farmers, retailers, consumers, civilsociety);• social innovation, change of behaviour of groupsin wider society establishing new relationships.