6countries, there is variation in legal st<strong>and</strong>ards aroundthe World - though practices on farms often exceedthe minimum legal requirements within each country.Nevertheless, all follow the same broad principles <strong>and</strong>objectives <strong>and</strong> there is a huge international trade in organicproducts.In addition to the regulated organic farming of themajor organic markets, there is also much unregulated,smallholder/peasant-based organic farming supplyinglocal markets. However, unregulated does not necessarilymean uncontrolled: there are often sophisticated, sel<strong>for</strong>ganisedsystems ensuring integrity, good practice <strong>and</strong>in<strong>for</strong>mation sharing. Some call themselves agroecological,not organic.Notwithst<strong>and</strong>ing their different histories, there are strongoverlaps between organic agriculture <strong>and</strong> agroecology.Both promote a ‘closed system’ approach to minimiseexternal inputs, use multiple <strong>and</strong> diverse crops <strong>and</strong>/oranimals, <strong>and</strong> rely on biological processes <strong>for</strong> building soilfertility <strong>and</strong> controlling pests <strong>and</strong> diseases (Bellon et al.,2011). Both tend to favour more direct links with theircustomers <strong>and</strong> to engage with social movements. Bothseek to improve wider agricultural systems towards greatersustainability using similar approaches, <strong>and</strong> both are opento <strong>learning</strong> <strong>and</strong> are ambitious to probe, to improve <strong>and</strong> todevelop their practices towards this goal – exactly one ofthe goals of this publication.Thus, whilst not quite synonymous, organic farming <strong>and</strong>agroecology are strongly related <strong>and</strong> are complementarybedfellows.Innovation is a broad concept that is generally definedas the development, introduction <strong>and</strong> application ofnew ideas, processes, products or procedures where aneconomic or social benefit is assumed <strong>for</strong> individuals,groups or entire organisations (Maier, 2001; Aichner et al.,2000). Put simply, it is something original, there<strong>for</strong>e new,that “breaks into” a market or society.Innovation could be seen as sitting in betweeninvention <strong>and</strong> improvement. Invention is the creation ofan idea or method, whereas <strong>innovation</strong> is developing <strong>and</strong>implementing a better, novel idea or method. It refers tothe notion of doing something different. Improvement,on the other h<strong>and</strong>, is simply about doing the same thingbetter.Many scientists <strong>and</strong> researchers have studied<strong>innovation</strong> with the aim of identifying the different <strong>for</strong>msof <strong>innovation</strong> <strong>and</strong> documenting the associated structures<strong>and</strong> policies. These include:• Schumpeter et al. (1980) defined three phases ofthe <strong>innovation</strong> process: invention (when ideas aregenerated), <strong>innovation</strong> (putting ideas into practice),<strong>and</strong> diffusion (the widespread application of the<strong>innovation</strong>);• Smits et al. (2010) described <strong>innovation</strong> as eithermacroeconomic (more linear, like ‘technologytransfer’), or institutional (more the whole <strong>innovation</strong>system);• Li et al. (2008) differentiated between exploitative(refining, leveraging <strong>and</strong> extending existingknowledge) <strong>and</strong> explorative (searching <strong>for</strong> newalternatives or unfamiliar, distant <strong>and</strong> remoteknowledge);• Meißner (2001) <strong>and</strong> Knickel et al. (2009) identifieddifferent groups who per<strong>for</strong>m different tasks in thevarious phases of the <strong>innovation</strong> process: knowledgeproducers (researchers, R&D departments),knowledge users (commerce, consumers, farmers),knowledge brokers (advisory services, the educationsystem, NGOs) <strong>and</strong> political decision-makers;• Padel et al. (2010) in the TP Organics ImplementationAction Plan argued <strong>for</strong> a broad underst<strong>and</strong>ing of<strong>innovation</strong>, distinguishing between:• technology <strong>innovation</strong>, generated mainlythrough lab-based science <strong>and</strong> technology,<strong>and</strong> then transferred to users such as farmers,advisory services, <strong>and</strong> policy makers;• know-how <strong>innovation</strong>, knowledge aroundmethods <strong>and</strong> practices, often the result ofparticipatory research, spanning the normalboundary between knowledge producers <strong>and</strong>users; it makes ‘tacit knowledge’ explicit <strong>and</strong>often combines new <strong>and</strong> traditional knowledge;• organisational <strong>innovation</strong>, changes inmanagement <strong>and</strong> cooperation amongstakeholders across the agro-food value chain(e.g. researchers, seed breeders, extensionservices, farmers, retailers, consumers, civilsociety);• social <strong>innovation</strong>, change of behaviour of groupsin wider society establishing new relationships.
7In the food & farming sector, the term AgriculturalKnowledge & Innovation Systems (AKIS) is often usedto describe all the various actors <strong>and</strong> their inter<strong>action</strong>s.Originally, AKIS was the acronym <strong>for</strong> AgriculturalKnowledge & In<strong>for</strong>mation Systems <strong>and</strong> defined as “aset of agricultural organisations <strong>and</strong>/or persons, <strong>and</strong>the links <strong>and</strong> inter<strong>action</strong>s between them, engagedin the generation, trans<strong>for</strong>mation, transmission,storage, retrieval, integration, diffusion <strong>and</strong> utilizationof knowledge <strong>and</strong> in<strong>for</strong>mation, with the purpose ofworking synergistically to support decision making,problem solving <strong>and</strong> <strong>innovation</strong> in agriculture” (Röling& Engel, 1991). The AKIS concept has since evolved as ithas opened up to more public tasks <strong>and</strong> to the supportof <strong>innovation</strong> (Klerkx & Leeuwis, 2009).Although extension, education <strong>and</strong> research areoften considered as the most essential parts of AKIS, itis important to realise that there are many more actorsin the food chain that directly influence the decisionmaking of farmers <strong>and</strong> their <strong>innovation</strong>s (figure 1.1).Which actors are the most important depends onthe actual problem to solve <strong>and</strong> farming systems.For example, input suppliers only play a minor role inorganic farming. On the other h<strong>and</strong> control bodies havein many cases a strong influence on the decisions takenby the organic farmer. Citizens <strong>and</strong> NGOs can also have astake in the <strong>innovation</strong> process, as organic farmers tendto favour direct links with consumers <strong>and</strong> to engagewith society (figure 1.2).The St<strong>and</strong>ing Committee on Agricultural Research(SCAR) set up a Collaborative Working Group onAKIS (CWG AKIS) to review the ‘state of the art’ of AKISthroughout the EU. Its report in 2012 revealed a widevariation in structures, activities <strong>and</strong> cohesion in AKISbetween European countries, regions <strong>and</strong> sectors (EUSCAR, 2012). In a subsequent report, it recommendedthat AKIS themselves need to innovate, to adopt newways of working, including facilitating more interactive<strong>innovation</strong> <strong>and</strong> incentivising <strong>innovation</strong> processeswithin research (EU SCAR, 2013).AG. PRESSACCOUNTANTSBANKSCOMM. SERVICESINPUTSUPPLIERSFarmersFOODPROCESSINGRETAILCONSUMERSEXTENSIONEDUCATIONRESEARCHFigure 1.1. Actors in the AKIS directly relevant <strong>for</strong> agricultural <strong>innovation</strong> in the food chain.Source: EU SCAR (2012) modified. Note: Commercial services include laboratories, veterinarians, managementsoftware, notaries, l<strong>and</strong> brokers etc.
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