SOUNd REiNfoRCEMENT HANdbook

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SOUNd REiNfoRCEMENT HANdbookTAbLE of CONTENTSPage Section/Subsection & Title Page Section/Subsection & TitleSection 1. What is a Sound SystemSection 5. Sound Outdoors1 1.1 The audio signal 43 5.1 The inverse square law1 1.1.1 Sound waves 44 5.1.1 Inverse square law calculations2 1.1.2 The electrical representation of sound 45 5.2 Effects of environmental factors2 1.1.3 Phase 45 5.2.1 Wind3 1.1.4 Adding sine waves 46 5.2.2 Temperature gradients4 1.2 The basic purpose of a sound system 46 5.2.3 Humidity4 1.3 A conceptual model of a sound system 47 5.3 Feedback control5 1.4 Input transducers 47 5.3.1 Maximum gain (available gain before5 1.5 Output transducers feedback)6 1.6 A practical model of a sound system 49 5.3.2 Using directional microphones andloudspeakersSection 2. Frequency ResponseSection 6. Sound Indoors9 2.1 A definition 53 6.1 Boundaries10 2.1.1 Basic specification methods 54 6.1.1 The absorption coefficient11 2.1.2 Octave relationships and measurements 55 6.2 Standing waves12 2.2 Frequency response of practical audio devices56 6.2.1 Standing waves in a room12 2.2.1 Electronic circuits and cables57 6.3 Reverberation14 2.2.2 Microphones58 6.4 Critical distance14 2.2.3 Loudspeakers60 6.4.1 Implications for sound reinforcement15 2.3 Voice and instrument ranges15 2.3.1 The speaking voice15 2.3.2 The singing voice and musical instrumentsSection 7. Block Diagrams16 2.3.3 Harmonics 61 7.1 General discussion17 2.4 Effect of acoustical factors 63 7.2 Symbolic conventions66 7.3 Notational conventionsSection 3. The Decibel, Sound Level, 67 7.4 Analysis of simple block diagrams70 7.5 Summation& Related Items19 3.1 What is a decibel? Section 8. How to Read & Interpret19 3.1.1 A mathematical definition of the dB21 3.1.2 Relative versus absolute levelsSpecifications22 3.2 Relating the decibel to electrical signal levels 71 8.1 General discussion22 3.2.1 dBm 71 8.1.1 Why specs are not always what they seem22 3.2.2 dBu 71 8.1.2 Examples of specs that should be doubted23 3.2.3 dBv and dBv 72 8.1.3 What to look for24 3.2.4 Converting dBv to dBu (or to dBm across 72 8.2 Frequency response600 ohms) 72 8.2.1 Distinguishing frequency response,24 3.2.5 Relating dBv, dBu and dBm to specifi- frequency range, and power bandwidthcations 74 8.2.2 Graphic versus printed specs25 3.2.6 dBw 74 8.2.3 What is a good frequency response spec?25 3.3 Relating the decibel to acoustic levels 75 8.3 Noise25 3.3.1 dB SPL 75 8.3.1 What is noise?26 3.3.2 dBPWL 76 8.3.2 White noise27 3.4 What is rms? 76 8.3.3 Pink noise28 3.5 Volume, level and gain 77 8.3.4 Shaping the noise29 3.6 Loudness 78 8.3.5 EIN: a measure of mic preamplifier noise29 3.6.1 Equal loudness contours and phons 78 8.3.6 Specifying output noise30 3.6.2 What we can deduce from equal loudness 80 8.3.7 Other types of noisecontours 81 8.4 Harmonic distortion31 3.6.3 Loudness compensation 81 8.4.1 What is harmonic distortion?82 8.4.2 Measuring harmonic distortion84 8.4.3 Factors affecting harmonic distortionSection 4. Dynamic Rangespecifications33 4.1 Dynamic range85 8.5 Intermodulation distortion33 4.1.1 A definition85 8.5.1 Measuring IM distortion33 4.1.2 The dynamic range of a typical rock86 8.5.2 Sources of IM distortionconcert86 8.5.3 How much distortion is tolerable?33 4.1.3 The electrical dynamic range of the sound86 8.5.4 Transient intermodulation distortionsystem87 8.6 Input and output impedances34 4.1.4 The acoustical dynamic range of the system88 8.6.1 Confusion about input and outputimpedances35 4.2 Headroom35 4.2.1 A definition88 8.6.1.1 Output impedance36 4.2.2 Why headroom is important89 8.6.1.2 Input impedance37 4.3 Manipulating dynamic range in a practical sound90 8.6.2 The implications of impedance mismatchessystem91 8.6.3 Impedance and frequency37 4.3.1 Why not build a sound system with excess92 8.7 Standard operating levelsdynamic range?92 8.7.1 General classification of levels37 4.3.2 What happens when the sound system is93 8.7.2 Expressing the wide power range of a soundinadequate?system39 4.3.3 How to fit wide program dynamics into a94 8.7.3 How impedance relates to levelsound system with limited dynamic rangespecifications42 4.3.4 How much headroom is adequate?94 8.7.3.1 Power vs impedance94 8.7.3.2 Overloading an output
Page TC-2SOUNd REiNfoRCEMENT HANdbook© 1987, 1989PageSection/Subsection & TitlePageSection/Subsection &Title9595959696 8.897979799 8.9100 8.10101103103 8.111051051061071071091101111121131131131141141151161161161171171181181191191201201211211211211231231241251251261261271271291291291301301311311321321321331331351361361371389.19.29.39.48.7.3.3 How the load affects outputvoltage8.7.4 What happens when hi-fi and proequipment mix8.7.4.1 Hi-fi output to pro equipmentinput8.7.4.2 Pro equipment output to hi-fiinputCrosstalk8.8.1 What causes crosstalk?8.8.2 Crosstalk in cables8.8.3 Specification of crosstalk .Filter slope rates and turnover frequenciesSquare wave tests8.10.1 Oscilloscopes8.10.2 What not to expect with square wavesMiscellanySection 9. Why Ears Don't AlwaysCorrelate With SpecsDifferent points of view9.1.1 Calibrated mics vs ears9.1.2 Average ears vs "golden ears"Test equipment measurements vs listening tests9.2.1 Test signals versus program material9.2.2 Location and number of test microphones9.2.3 Dynamic rangeStatic vs dynamic testsMasking effects and equipment interactionSection 10. Microphones10.1 Methods of transduction10.1.1 Dynamic10.1.2 Condenser10.1.3 Electret condenser10.1.4 Ribbon10.1.5 Carbon10.1.6 Piezoelectric10.2 Functional design10.2.1 Hand-held10.2.2 Stand-mounting10.2.3 Lavalier10.2.410.2.5Contact pickupPressure response10.2.6 Shotgun10.2.7 Parabolic10.2.8 Multi-element arrays10.2.9 Noise cancelling microphones10.3 Acoustical and electrical characteristics10.3.1 Pickup patterns10.3.1.1 Omnidirectional10.3.1.2 Cardioid10.3.1.3 Bidirectional or figure-810.3.1.4 Supercardioid10.3.210.3.3Frequency responseProximity effect10.3.4 Transient response10.3.5 Output level or sensitivity10.3.6 Overload10.3.710.3.8ImpedanceBalanced and unbalanced connections10.4 Application information10.4.1 Windscreens and pop filters10.4.210.4.3Shock mountsPhantom power10.4.4 Effect of the number of openmicrophones10.4.5 Gain and microphone placement10.4.6 Stereo recording10.5 Wireless intercom systems10.5.1 What is a wireless intercom?10.5.2 Who uses wireless intercoms?10.5.3 What is the background of wirelessintercoms?10.5.4 Types of wireless intercoms10.5.510.5.6Frequencies usedImproved range and noise reduction10.5.7 Evaluating and selecting a system10.5.8 Conclusions10.5.9 Glossary of wireless intercom terms139139139139140141142145146146147148149152152153153154155155155157162162162164165166167168168169170170172 11.7172173173174174174175 11.8178 11.917817817918018018118218218318418518618618618718918918919010.6 Wireless microphone systems10.6.1 What is a wireless mic?10.6.2 Who uses wireless mics?10.6.3 What is the background of wirelessmics?10.6.4 Radio frequencies used10.6.5 Technical problems10.6.6 Solutions10.6.8 Compatibility of wireless mic systems10.6.9 Antenna cables10.6.10 Evaluating wireless microphone systems10.6.11 Conclusions10.6.12 Glossary of wireless microphone termsSection 11. Preamplifiers, Small Mixers,& Mixing Consoles11.1 General discussion11.2 Preamplifiers11.2.1 What are they, and what do they do?11.2.2 Impedance converters11.2.3 Phono preamps11.3 Mixers11.4 Consoles11.4.1 What is a console?11.4.2 How mixes differ: pre & post faderconsiderations11.4.3 Panning, summing and master faders11.5 Understanding console specifications11.5.1 How many inputs, mixes and outputs?11.5.2 Signal-to-noise ratio11.5.3 Maximum voltage gain11.5.4 Headroom11.5.5 Indicators11.6 Transformer isolated versus electronically balancedinputs & outputs .,116.1 Transformers versus differential amps:price concerns11.6.2 Discrete versus IC differential amps11.6.3 The case for the transformer11.6.4 Transformers and AC safety11.1011.1111.1211.6.5 More on transformersGain staging and gain structure11.7.1 Why does gain have to be manipulated?a review of sound levels fed to the console11.7.2 Gain control at the microphone input11.7.3 Input attenuation or padding11.7.4 Eliminating other causes of signal-level(& gain) related distortion11.7.4.1 Summing amp overdrive11. 7.4.2 Power amp overdriveInterface with sub-mixersStage monitor mixing consoles11.9.1 What is a stage monitor system?11.9.3 Why a monitor console is preferable to amix from the main house console11.9.4 The importance of a high qualitymonitor mix11.9.5 Other benefits of a separate monitorconsole11.9.6 Polarity (phase) reversal as a tool tofight feedback11.9.7 Eliminating SCR dimmer noiseMicrophone splitting11.10.1 The splitter transformer . .11.10.2 Additional isolation for high-noiseenvironments11.10.3 Splitting a mic without a transformerReducing feedback in the stage monitor system11.11.1 Directional microphones11.11.2 Polarity reversal (or "phase" reversal)11.11.3 Ringing out a monitor system11.11.4 Aiming monitor loudspeakersEquipment placement11.12.1 Additional monitor console placementfactors11.12.2 Main house mixing console placement
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