Life Cycle Optimization of Residential Air Conditioner Replacement

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4.3 Energy Intensity ......................................................................................................... 254.4 Life‐Cycle Cost Analysis ............................................................................................. 265 Results and Discussion ................................................................................................... 275.1 Model Application to Central Air Conditioning Units ................................................ 275.2 Optimal Lifetimes of Central Air Conditioning Units ................................................. 275.3 Comparing Optimal Replacement to Typical Replacement Patterns ........................ 295.4 Impact of Future Federal Standards .......................................................................... 305.5 Impact of Carbon Price .............................................................................................. 326 Model Extensions .......................................................................................................... 346.1 Aligning Cost with Energy and GHG .......................................................................... 346.2 Regional Standards .................................................................................................... 366.3 Replacing with Higher Efficiency Units ...................................................................... 387 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 407.1 Key Findings ............................................................................................................... 407.2 Research Scope and Limitations ................................................................................ 417.3 Policy Implications ..................................................................................................... 437.4 Future Research ......................................................................................................... 448 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 45Appendix ................................................................................................................................. 49A.1 Energy Intensity ......................................................................................................... 49A.2 LCO Results of Standard Efficiency Improvement Scenario ...................................... 51A.3 Comparison of Optimal to Typical Replacement in Base Case .................................. 53A.4 Optimization Results for Different Efficiency Scenarios ............................................ 54A.5 Comparison of Optimal to Typical Replacement in 16 SEER Scenario ...................... 60A.6 Regional Standard Analysis ....................................................................................... 61A.7 Energy Star Analysis ................................................................................................... 66A.8 High Efficiency CAC Rebate Survey ............................................................................ 69
List of FiguresFigure 1.1: Primary Energy Usage of Residential Sector (DOE, 2008) ............................................. 1Figure 1.2: Carbon Dioxide Emissions of an Average Household by Census Region (DOE, 2008) .. 1Figure 1.3: Changes in American Household Access to Air Conditioning (EIA, 2000; EIA, 2009e) .. 2Figure 1.4: Average SEER of Central Air Conditioning Units Shipped (Skaer, 2007) ....................... 4Figure 1.5: Diagram of a Typical Central Air Conditioning System. ................................................ 4Figure 1.6: Diagram of the Basic Refrigeration Cycle (Complete HVAC Services, 2009) ................. 5Figure 2.1: International Standards Organization Life Cycle Analysis Framework (ISO, 1997) ....... 7Figure 2.2: A Schematic Diagram Demonstrating Various Burden Outcomes from Product Useand Replacement (Kim H. C., 2003) .......................................................................................... 9Figure 3.1: Material and Manufacturing Energy Inventory Summary for 10 SEER, 3‐ton CAC ..... 13Figure 3.2: Material and Manufacturing GHG Emission Inventory Summary for 10 SEER, 3‐tonCAC .......................................................................................................................................... 14Figure 3.3: Comparison of the Producer Cost and Weight Index for an Outdoor Unit based onEfficiency ................................................................................................................................. 15Figure 3.4: Consumer Price Model for CAC Purchase and Installation ......................................... 17Figure 3.5: Cooling Load Hours for the United States (AHRI, 2008) .............................................. 18Figure 3.6: North American Electric Reliability Corporation Grids for the Contiguous UnitedStates and Alaska a ................................................................................................................... 19Figure 3.7: Lifetime Repair and Maintenance Cost Distribution of 13 SEER CAC.......................... 22Figure 3.8: Life Cycle Energy Consumption and GHG Emissions of New Unit in Ann Arbor, MI(2009 ‐2025) ............................................................................................................................ 23Figure 3.9: Life Cycle Cost of New Unit in Ann Arbor, MI (2009‐2025) ......................................... 23Figure 4.1: Average CAC Efficiency Improvement Scenarios ........................................................ 24Figure 4.2: Growth in R‐410a Market Share of Residential CAC Market ...................................... 25Figure 5.1: Potential Energy Savings Using LCO under Different Federal Efficiency StandardScenarios ................................................................................................................................. 30Figure 5.2: Potential GHG Avoided Using LCO under Different Federal Efficiency StandardScenarios ................................................................................................................................. 31Figure 6.1: Incentive Level Required to Align Cost Schedule with Energy and GHG ReplacementSchedules Assuming Base Case Efficiency Scenario................................................................ 35Figure 6.2: Incentive Level Required to Align Schedule Cost with Energy and GHG ReplacementSchedules Assuming 16 SEER Efficiency Scenario ................................................................... 35Figure 6.3: States Considered in a Regional Standards Analysis ................................................... 36
Page 4: Document DescriptionLIFE CYCLE OPTI
Page 10 and 11: List of TablesTable 1.1: Cooling Lo
Page 12 and 13: 1 IntroductionMechanical air condit
Page 14 and 15: The overall demand for space coolin
Page 16 and 17: Cooling is provided when the liquid
Page 18 and 19: 2 Methodology2.1 Life Cycle Assessm
Page 20 and 21: chart. Replacing a product with a m
Page 22 and 23: Each component was assigned to an a
Page 24 and 25: Indoor UnitThe indoor unit was assu
Page 26 and 27: Index (10 SEER =1)2.502.001.501.000
Page 28 and 29: Producer costs for higher and lower
Page 30 and 31: Figure 3.6: North American Electric
Page 32 and 33: Table 3.5: Summary of Bin‐Based M
Page 34 and 35: 3.5 End‐of‐LifeIt was assumed t
Page 36 and 37: RefrigerantsAs described in Section
Page 38 and 39: 5 Results and Discussion5.1 Model A
Page 40 and 41: 5.3 Comparing Optimal Replacement t
Page 42 and 43: 4500GHG Abated (kg CO2 eq.)40003500
Page 44 and 45: Table 5.7: Impact of Carbon Price o
Page 46 and 47: Ann Arbor GHG$676 $1,188 $1,188Ann
Page 48 and 49: emphasize sensible cooling capacity
Page 50 and 51: Energy Star, the average premium fo
Page 52 and 53: holding period for minimizing cost
Page 54 and 55: 7.3 Policy ImplicationsThis researc
Page 56 and 57: 8 BibliographyAHRI. (2008). 2008 St
Page 58 and 59:
Kim, H. C., Keoleian, G. A., & Hori
Page 60 and 61:
AppendixA.1 Energy IntensityMuch of
Page 62 and 63:
A.2 LCO Results of Standard Efficie
Page 64 and 65:
A.3 Comparison of Optimal to Typica
Page 66 and 67:
Table A.0.7: LCO Results for 16 SEE
Page 68 and 69:
Table A.0.9: LCO Results for 15 SEE
Page 70 and 71:
Table A.0.11: LCO Results for 17 SE
Page 72 and 73:
Table A.0.13: Comparison of Optimal
Page 74 and 75:
2008 Energy 2008, 2012, 1,448,000 2
Page 76 and 77:
SouthCarolina1992 Energy(MJ)GHG(CO2
Page 78 and 79:
2017Cost (2009$) 2003, 2013 $7,770
Page 80 and 81:
A.8 High Efficiency CAC Rebate Surv
Page 82:
Memphis Light, Gas and Water Memphi
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Life Cycle Optimization of Residential Air Conditioner Replacement

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