Paul Constantin Meyer, Account of the Origin and - The Harriet ...

Printed for the Confidential use of the Colonial Office, &c.
COLONIAL OFFICE,
February 1898.
AFRICAN (WEST) No. 541
A C C O U N T
OF THE
ORIGIN AND ORGANISATION OF THE
STATES OF THE WESTERN SUDAN.
══════════════
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF
Dr. PAUL CONSTANTIN MEYER
BY
MAJOR E. AGAR, R.E.
────
WITH A MAP.
────
1

CONTENTS
─────
PAGE
Introduction (omitted)
............................................
Table of literature consulted
..................................... IV. to VI
I. History of the exploration of the Western Sudan (omitted)
...
II. Origin and Organisation of the States of the Western Sudan
.. 1
1. The Pul-Haussas
.......................................... 5
"
Haussas
.............................................. 7
"
Fulbes and their history
............................. 12
"
Empire of Sókoto
..................................... 26
Kano
..................................................... 33
Adamaua
.................................................. 41
Gandu
..................................................... 48
Nupe
..................................................... 52
2. Origin and Organisation of the States of
the Great Bend of the Niger.
The ancient Empires of Ghana, Melle and Sonrhay
.......... 60
The existing States
...................................... 67
Massina
.................................................. 68
Timbuktu
................................................. 75
Segu
..................................................... 83
The Mandingo
............................................. 83
Samory's Empire
.......................................... 93
The kola-tree
............................................ 98
2
" Empire of Kong
....................................... 105
Tiëbà's Empire

........................................... 116
Mossi
.................................................... 121
Gurma
.................................................... 124
Concluding remarks
....................................... 129
Index
.................................................... 133
────────────────────────────
3

M A P S.
────
The races of the Western Sudan--The greatest States of the
Western Sudan--Trade and Commerce of the Western Sudan--The
State Organisations of the Western Sudan--Scale 1
10,000,000.
────────────────────────────
ABBREVIATIONS.
─────
C.R.S...........Comptes rendus des séances de la Soc., géogr.,
Paris.
G.M.............Geographische Mitteilungen Gotha.
M.A.G...........Mitteilungen der Afrikanischen Gesellschaft.
M.D.S...........Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten.
Proc............Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society,
London.
────────────────────────────
TABLE OF LITERATURE CONSULTED 1
──────
Alis, Nos Africains. Paris, 1894.
Ancelle, Les explorations au Sénégal et dans les contrées
voisines. Paris, 1886.
Annales sénégalaises de 1854 à 1885. Paris, 1885.
1 The reports of the various travellers have been included
under their names in the history of the exploration of the Western
Soudan (omitted in this translation--Tr.).
4

Barthélemy, Guide du voyageur dans la Sénégambie française.
Paris, 1885.
Bibliothek der Reisebeschreibungen. Weimar.
Brosselard, La Guinée Portugaise, &c. Lille, 1889.
Brown, The story of Africa and its explorers. London, 1892.
Chavanne, Afrika im Lichte unserer Tage. Wien, 1881.
" Erläuterungen zur Wandkarte von Afrika. Wien, 1882.
" Afrikas Ströme und Flüsse. Wien, 1883.
Cherbonneau, Litérature du Soudan.
Cooley, The Negroland of the Arabs. London, 1841.
De Orozals, Les Peulhs. Paris, 1883.
" Le commerce du sel, &c. Paris, 1886.
Fitzau, Die Nordwestküste Afrikas von Agadir bis St. Louis.
Diss. Leipzig, 1888.
Förster, Zur Geographie der politischen Grenze. Diss. Leipzig,
1893.
Gaffarel, Le Sénégal et le Soudan Français. Paris, 1890.
Grundemann, Missionsatlas, I. Gotha, 1867 et seq.
Guy, La vérité sur le Transsaharien. Paris, 1892.
Herodotus, Books II. and IV.
Hösel, Die geographische Verbreitung der Getreidearten Nord-and
Mittelafrikas. Diss. Leipzig, 1889.
Hübbe-Schleiden, Ethiopien. Hamburg, 1879.
Jameson, Wilson and Murray, Discovery and adventure in Africa.
Edinburgh, 1830.
Jomard, Remarques et recherches géogr. Paris, 1830 (Caillié,
5

Vol. III., 147 et seq).
Kiepert, Zur Kartographie Afrikas (Beiträge zur
Entdeckungsgeschichte Afrikas, 1 Heft, Berlin, 1873).
Koner, Der Anteil der Deutschen an der Entdeckung und Erforschung
Afrikas (Beitrag, 2. Heft. Berlin, 1874).
Kunstmann, Afrika vor Entdeckung der Portugiesen. München 1853.
De Lanoye, Le Niger et les explorations de l'Afrique centrale.
Paris, 1858.
Leyden and Murray, Historical account of discoveries and travels
in Africa. Edinburgh, 1817. (French translation, 4 vols,
Paris, 1821.)
Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa. London, 1887.
Müller, Die Senegal und oberen Nigerländer. Diss. Königsberg,
1885.
Paulitschke, Die geographische Erforschung des Afrikanischen
Kontinents. 2. Auflage. Wien, 1880.
" Die Afrika-Litteratur von 1500-1750. Wien, 1882.
" Die Sudanländer. Freiburg-i-Br. 1885.
Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde. 2. Auflage (published by
Ruge). München, 1877.
" Völkerkunde. 4. Auflage. Leipzig, 1877.
Philebert et Rolland, La France en Afrique et le Transsaharien.
Paris, 1890.
De Préville, les sociétes africaines. Paris, 1894.
Prévost, Histoire générale des voyages, &c. Paris, 1746, et seq.
Ratzel, Anthropogeographie, 2 Vols. Stuttgart, 1882 and 1891.
6

" Völkerkunde, 3 Vols. Leipzig, 1885-1888. (2. Auflage,
2 Vols., 1894).
Rechis, Nouvelle Géographie universelle, Vol. XII Paris, 1887.
Ritter, Allgemeine Erdkunde. 1 Vol. Afrika. 2. Ausgabe.
Berlin, 1822.
Rolland, Le Transsaharien. Paris, 1891.
Roskoschny, Westafrika vom Senegal zum Kamerun. Leipzig, 1885.
Schauenburg, Reisen in Zentralafrika von Park bis Vogel. Lahr.
1859.
Schirmer, Le Sahara. Paris, 1893.
Schurz, Die Wurfmesser der Neger, Diss. Leipzig (Internat. Archiv
für Ethnographie 1889).
Sébillot, Le Transafricain. Paris, 1893.
Seehausen, Siedelungen in der Sahara. Diss. Bremen, 1890.
Sénégal et Niger, La France dans L'Afrique occidentale 1879-1883
(Ministr. mar. et col.). Paris, 1884.
Sievers, Afrika. Leipzig und Wien, 1891.
Soudrille, Le Transsaharien, &c. Oran, 1890.
Steger, Mungo Park's Reisen in Afrika. Leipzig, 1856.
Stein und Hörschelmann. Handbuch der Geogr. und Stat.
7. Auflage. Leipzig, 1866. (4 Bd., bearbeitel vom
Gumprecht und Delitsch.)
Steinthal, Die Mandenegesprachen. Berlin, 1867.
Stuck, Verzeichnis von Reisebeschreibungen. Hull, 1787.
Tarry, Le chemin de fer transsaharien. Paris, 1893 (mit Litt).
Ternaux-Compans, Bibl. asiat. et afr. Paris, 1841.
7

Vierkandt, Die Volksdichte im Westlichen Zentral-afrika. Diss.
Leipzig, 1895 (Wissensch Veröffentl.d Vereins f. Erdkunde zu
Leipzig, herausg. von Ratzel. 2 Vols., p. 63 et seq.
Vivien de Saint-Martin, Nouveau Dict. Paris, 1879 et seq.
Wagner, Reisen und Entdeckungen Vogels. Leipzig, 1860.
Wappaeus, Unterschungen über die Negerländer der Aräber.
Göttingen, 1842.
Wasner, Ueber Siedelungen der Neger. Diss. Insterburg, 1891.
Wauwermans, Libéria. Histoire de la fondation d'un état nègre
libre. Bruxelles, 1885.
────────────────────────────
Barth, Baikie's Thätigkeit am untern Niger, &c. (Zeitschr-f-
allg. Erdk. Berlin, 1863, 3. H.)
Blanc. Les routes de l'Afrique sept. au Soudan (C.R.S. 1889).
Busson, Le régime du Niger (Ann. de géogr. 15, January, 1895,
p. 202, et seq.)
v. Danckelman, Klima von Togo, &c., M.D.S., III., 1 et seq.
Eichwaldt, Über die Fulbe (Journ. Soc. Ethnologique, 1841).
Gudgeon, Liberia. (Journ. Manchester, 1888).
Hertz, Die Kauriemuschel. (G.M., 1882, 36 et seq.).
Johnston, The Commercial Prospect of tropical Africa. (Journ.
Manchester, 1885.)
Van Leyk, Die nordafrikanischen Handels-und Karawanenstrassen.
(Export, 1885-86).
Mann, Das Zahlensystem von Jóruba. (Journ. Anthropol. Institute,
1886, I., 61 et seq.).
8

Maunoir, Anteil der Franzosen an der Afrikaforschung dieses
Jahres. (Journ. offic., 1890).
Ratzel, Entwurf einer neuen politischen Karte von Afrika. (G.M.
1885, 245 et seq.).
" Das Waldland Innerafrikas. (G.M., 1890, 281 et seq.).
" Über allgemeine Eigenschaften der geographischen Grenzen
und über die politische Grenze. (Berichte d. Kgl. Sächs.
Ges. d. Wissensch, 1892, 53 et seq.), und Der Staat und sein
Boden. (Do. 1896).
" Studien über politische Räume. (Geogr. Zeitschr., 1895,
163 et seq., 286 et seq.).
Rohlfs, Geld in Afrika. (G.M., 1889, 187 et seq.).
Rouire, La colonie de Lagos et les annexions récents de
l'Angleterre. Ann. de géogr., 15 Jan., 1815, 190 et seq.).
De Slane, Conquête du Soudan par les Marocains. (Revue
Africaine, vol. I.).
Supan, Eine Jahrhundert der Afrikaforschung. (2 Jug. d. Londoner
Ges. G.M., 1888, 161 et seq).
────────────────────────────
Abhandlungen d. Bayr. Akademie der Wissenschaften (Hist. u.
philos.-philol. Klasse). München.
Annales de géogr.
Annales de la Propagande de la Foi.
Annuaire du Sénégal et Dépendances. Saint-Louis.
Ausland.
Bulletin Soc. Royale Belge, Bruxelles.
9

" " géogr. comm., Bordeaux.
" " " Lyon.
" " " Marseille.
" " " Paris.
Comptes rendus des séances Soc. géogr. Paris.
Deutsches Kolonialblatt.
Deutsche Kolonialzeitung.
Ephemeriden, Allg. géogr. (herausgegeben von Gaspari und Bertuch)
Export.
und Desgl., Neue géogr. Weimar, 1798 et seq.
Geogr. Jahrbuch (Behm-Wagner). Gotha, 1866 et seq.
Geogr. Zeitschr. (Hettner).
Globus.
Journ. American Geogr. Soc. New York.
" Royal Geogr. Soc. London.
" Asiatique. Paris.
" Soc. géogr. Paris.
Missions cathol.
Mitteilungen d. Afrikan. Gesellsch in Deutschl, herausgegeben
von Erman, 1878-89.
Mitt. aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten, herausgegeben von
Freihrn. v. Dankelman, 1888 et seq.
Mitt., Geographische, Gotha, 1855 et seq.; nebst Ergänzungsb. und
Litteraturbericht (Petermanns Mitt.).
Mitt. d. Geogr Ges. zu Bern.
" " " Hamburg; desgl. d. Jenenser Geogr Ges.
10

" Vereins f. Erdk. zu Leipzig.
Mitt. d. K. K. Geogr. Ges. zu Wien.
Proceedings Roy Geogr. Soc. London.
Revue maritime et coloniale.
Verhandl. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Berlin.
Zeitschrift f. Allgem. Erdk. Berlin.
" d. Deutschen Geol. Ges.
" d. " Morgenländ. Ges.
────────────────────────────
11

ORIGIN AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STATES OF
THE WESTERN SUDAN.
────────────────────────────
THE existence of purely Negro Empires 2
to the east and southeast
of Lake Chad indicates that the political conditions of the
Western Sudan have already reached a high degree of development.
These purely Negro Empires--visited, in the eleventh hour
of their existence as such, by travellers, mostly of German
origin--"afford, by their condition, an insight into the origin
of political life, which furnishes a politico-geographical
paloeontology that cannot fail to be of the deepest interest
both to sociologists and historians"--(Ratzel). The absence of
3
rivers capable of hindering intercourse, as also of mountains
and of extensive forests, 4 the plain-like nature of the country, 5
the transition from the greatest physical antitheses, which must
necessarily influence the inhabitants of a country, 6 all
facilitated easy communication between the races. With this are
associated a favourable economical condition of existence--the
kola-nut, cotton, sorghum, and gold, creating an extensive
commerce between various tribes, as, for instance, between the
Haussas and Mande Jula--also the institution of slavery and,
finally, that of Islam, which ever since the eleventh century
has incessantly pushed on towards the south, until it reached 7
the Gulf of Guinea at Lagos 8 and the Sierra Leone coast. 9
2 Müller. The political organizations of the States of the
Upper Uelle, and of the territory between the Lakes. Diss.
Leipziz, 1896.
3 With the exception of the Niger, which is, however,
fordable at low water below its Bend. Barth V., 197.
4 Only to the east of the Niger, and south and west of Kano,
are such to be found, where they at once affect both politics
and commerce.
5 Hence the slow migration of the population from north to
south, and vice versâ. Passarge, 517.
6 "The earth--the Fatherland of the races in its manifold
influence on the bodily and spiritual development of mankind."--
Ritter, Preface to "Universal Geography."
7 Slavery and Islam were the cause of two movements: one,
of a material nature, towards the north--as proved by records of
the continual increase of the negroid element in the Barbarian
States--the other, that of Islam, of a spiritual and cultured
nature, towards the south.
12
8 From 10,000 to 20,000 mahomedans went thither.--
Staudinger, "Haussaländer," 13 and 533. Also in Porto Novo,
Dahomey, there is a mahomedan community. Barret, "Afrique

Nature and civilization thus joined hands in imparting to
the Western Sudan the impress of variety and of intermixture:
the native of Ashanti, fierce and taciturn, spoilt by the
luxuriance of the vegetation surrounding him and by the
possession of gold; the naive Bambara or Sonrhay of the Laterite
territory, (quite content with tobacco and with the pleasures of
the dance,) the subtle and fanatically-energetic Fulbe herd,
brooding in his solitude, and the superficial, cunning, and
over-lascivious Haussa trader from the large towns, are all
united together by a thousand bonds. 10 Now and again we come
upon a trait which points to primary political conditions, but
only an isolated one, and the possibly aboriginal peoples in the
west of the territory, for instance, the Kómono, Dokhosie and
Tiëfo, have already fallen under the levelling influence of
Kong; others, such as the hill-peoples on the borders of Borgu
and Gurma, (hastily visited by Gruner, 11 ) are engaged in a war
with the mahomedans, in which they must finally be conquered, as
will also be the heathens, who have fled before the Fulbes into
the inaccessible forests and mountains to the east of the Niger.
Only two territories have, up to now, been inaccessible both to
native conquerors and to Europeans, viz.: the Hinterland of the
Ivory Coast, Worodugu, and the space between the Lower Benue and
the Biafra Coast. The last remains of primitive political life
will shortly have disappeared, destroyed by the "wonderful and
mysterious movement of the peoples of the Western Sudan" 12
--
(Barth).
To the favourable attributes of the country mentioned above
may be added the following:--The uniform altitude of between 500
13
and 600 metres (from 1,650 to 2,000 ft.) of the Sudan plateau;
occidentale" I., 178. Morgen, Kamerun, 320.
9 Gudgeon, "Liberia." Journ. Manchester, 1888. "Mahomedan
Missions in the Coast Plain," von François, M.D.S. I., 146.
10 "Ce peuple est mélangé à l'infini," Binger; vide Passarge,
413, 417 et seq.
11 Lecture before the Geographical Society at Leipzig,
6th November, 1895.
12 Compare Staudinger, "Haussaländer," 491. Barth's view as
to "The historical connection between mankind and the varying
character of the earth's surface" (I., XVII.), as also that of
Ritter (vide Note 5, p. 1), develops and extends modern
anthropogeography.
13
13 The most important heights are at the sources in Wegu
(Monteil, 150) and Natinian-Sikasso in the Bend of the Niger
(Binger I., 238, 359; Bull. Lyon 1890, 688; numerous sections
are given in Binger II., app.), the hill country of Bauchi with
its continuations to the east and west (to the Gora mountains,
important as a water-parting and as the limit of vegetation,

the suitability of the plain for the cultivation of cereals and
for raising cattle; the smallness of altitude of the sources of
its rivers, which are only fed by the regular rains 14
, and the
sharp climatic division into a rainy season of about five and a
dry season of about seven months.
These are, taking them all round, the most favourable
15 16
conditions for a well-developed race of men:--"Negroes who
Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 62; Ausland, 1870, 1201 et seq.) and
"das zentral-afrikanische Alpenland," Adamaua (v. Stetten, Kol.
Bl., 1895, 183), excellent descriptions of the orography and
geology of which are given by Passarge, 370 et seq.
14 Consequently there are great floods in the rainy season
and numerous backwaters of the Niger--"Dayas" (Lenz=ponds).
"Marigots" (a Jolof word perverted by Caillié, and meaning
shallow arms; Barth V, 148) and "Dalluls" (Barth; "Dalhols,"
Monteil), which Monteil considers to be, not river beds, but the
effects and remains of some former African inland sea (p. 199 et
seq.). The problem of the bed of the Niger was first seriously
studied by Barth (tables in the Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1863); Busson
treated of the same recently in an excellent article (Le régime
du Niger; Ann. de géogr, Jan. 1895, 202 et seq.), in which he
makes out the Niger to be a double river, the upper, with an
overflow into the tributary arms, and the lower, both of which
are united in the Niger of the Sahara, which is nothing more
than "un simple canal de jonction." Compare also Jaime 172, "La
crue du Niger" and 183 (table). The largest lagoon formation is
Lake Debu. Reports on this are furnished by Park, Reisen 191;
Caillié II., 256 et seq.; Barth V., 475; Caron, 219 et seq.;
Jaime, 172 et seq., and Müller, Hydrographie der Senegal- und
oberen Nigerländer.
15 Monteil, 244. Adamaua is the most favourably situated as
regards climate; for meteorological observations vide Binger
II., app. 3; Anhang to Barth and Rohlfs; M.D.S., III., 1 et seq.
(von Danckelman). The inhabitants divide the year into six (7)
seasons--according to the sowing, reaping, grass-burning, and
temperature, vide Binger II., 118 et seq. 359; compare Rohlfs,
G.M., Ergb. VII., 29 et seq. Notes as to Flora and Fauna of the
country are given in Binger II., 346 and app. 4; Staudinger, 626
et seq.; Hösel, Die Getreidearten Nord- und Mittelafrikas;
Moloney, Sketch of the Forestry of W. Africa; compare Ratzel,
Vk. I., 10 et seq., III., 268 et seq.; Anthropogeographie I.,
333 et seq.
14
16 "The characteristic of the races which people the Sudan is
to present from the point of view of physique, the finest types
of the black race and, from the intellectual and moral point of
view, to contain the highest elements in the scale of
civilization of the blacks." (Monteil, 244, Note.) The manners
and customs are as a rule fairly civilized, but human sacrifice
exists in the whole strip of country bordering the entire

now by their prevailing noble characteristics, now by their
recorded proofs of culture, give evidence of the efforts of
foreign influence." 17
If we now consider specially the framework of their States
we find that it is doubly erroneous to apply the European model
to "the case of Africa, where the circumstances are quite
dissimilar and where the political conditions change so rapidly
that in Negro countries great empires suddenly spring up under
18
gifted rulers only to fall to pieces again equally rapidly
under incapable successors. One has to consider that which is
constant and durable, and which, in the everchanging aspect of
politics, lies at the root of things, and not the short-lived
state fabrics themselves--not the countries but their
inhabitants, not Empires but the state of their civilisation,
are what we must first of all consider; not the 'has been' but
the active factors." 19
That, however, means for the purposes of
Hinterland of the Guinea Coast, as for instance, amongst the Ton
in N.W. Ashanti, who, on the death of persons of importance,
hold orgies which, by squandering all means of sustenance, are
the cause of famine (Binger II, 184 et seq.)--this occurs also
to a lesser degree in Yóruba and Onicha (Staudinger), 475).
(Binger compares the Negroes to the Gauls of 2,000 years ago,
II., 347.) Binger (II., 327) does not believe in cannibalism,
holding it to be excluded from economical motives on account of
the great value of slaves who, in the Sudan, constitute the
capital; it was however vouched to by Monteil in Diondio (in
Miniankala, south of Segu), where the consumption of the bodies
is looked upon as a sort of burial of the dead (Monteil, 43);
furthermore, Vogel (Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1856, 482 et seq.)
describes the Tangale, living to the north of the Bend of the
Niger, as cannibals, as already related by Clapperton and Lander
under the collective names of Nyem-Nyem (Yam-Yams); they are
said to devour their fallen enemies (compare Rohlfs, Qu. d. A.
II., 165); Flegel states the same (see M.A.G. V., Map, Pl. II.)
about the Jebjeb, Pire and Habe in the same neighbourhood, and
Burdo (Niger-Benue, 88-97), also of the Ibo living to the east
of the Lower Niger and Maistre (C.R.S., 1893, 277), of the
Manjia south-east of Chad. Hübbe-Schleiden's view in absolute
denial ("Ethiopien") is not tenable.
17 Ratzel, Vk., I., 632. Compare Monteil, 244: "The state
of society is well balanced. One finds the entire gamut of the
various forms of occupation of mankind from the humble shepherd
to the statesman," Reclus says, (Afrique occid., 229), "the
negro of to-day depicts European society of a thousand years
ago," also Ratzel, Vk., I., 127 et seq.
18 Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdk., 2 Aufl., 126.
19 Ratzel--"Project for a new political map of Africa," G.M.,
1885, 245 et seq.
15

this work a special study of the nomad peoples, of the centres
of power, of the boundaries and of the colonies, as also of
Islam, 20
and of the typical forms of the States themselves.
Before commencing the study of the individual Stateorganisations
from the standpoint of their historical past, as
also of the political arena and of the general nature of local
politics we have here inserted a preliminary survey of the
peoples of the Western Sudan.
The origin of all political life consisted of small and
infinitesimal states formed out of the numerous heathen tribes
spread over the whole territory. In very early days two of
these tribes came into marked prominence, viz.: the Mandingo in
the west, and the Haussa in the east; the former was strongly
represented in the ancient Empires of Ghanata and Sonrhay, but
more especially in Melle; while the latter founded the States
named after it (according to the fable twice 7).
Between the Mandingo and Haussa are wedged in a number of
different tribes, of whom the Tómbo, Mossi, Gurma 21 and Sonrhay
are the most important. The influence of the Berbers (Tuáregs)
with the three principal groups of the Western Sudanese, more
especially with the Haussas, is considerable, but is small with
respect to the Arabs and the peoples settled in the south. The
Mandingo separated into western tribes (Mande) and eastern
tribes (Wangara 22
), and still later again, like the Haussas, into
heathen and mahomedan tribes.
A new factor was added to these in the Fulbes, who, coming
from the basin of the Senegal, overran the whole Western Sudan;
it was only however at the beginning of the present century that
they began to form states therein and, quickly intermingling
with the races conquered by them, completed the change in the
population. Independent pagan tribes, infected however with
mahomedanism and on the decline, still exist, but are to be
found more in the western than in the eastern half of the
territory, owing to the shelterings forests and mountains.
From the historical point of view there are four periods.
1st. That of the numerous small pagan kingdoms.
2nd. That of the great States in the north--Ghánata,
Melle, Sonrhay.
3rd. That of the growth of the Haussa States.
4th. That of the Fulbe dominion.
The first lasted up to the 11th century (the spread of
Islam on the Middle Niger), the second up to the end of the
16th, the third till the close of the 18th century, and the
fourth from the beginning of the 19th century.
The migration of the races 23
clearly indicates the south and
20 Ratzel, Vk., III., 113 et seq.
21 Barth IV., 567.
22 Barth IV., and II., 94.
23 The following is a table of the main groups:--
16

east as the principal directions; thus the Mandingo went south
and east, the Mossi in an easterly direction, the Haussas
southwards, and the Fulbes in various streams towards the east;
a secondary movement of the two latter peoples took another
direction; the kola-trade diverted the Haussas to the
southwest, 24
whilst the Fulbes, on the formation of the Empire of
Mássina, retraced their steps from Gando towards the west and
north-west.
The Western Sudan may be considered as being divided into
two meridonally separated politico-geographical halves--the
eastern (to the east of the Niger
group.
25
) and the western (the
territory of the Bend of the Niger)--the division occurring both
as regards the difference between the inhabitants and the
varying economical conditions of the soil. Agriculture
predominates in the west, where consequently the settlements are
of medium and small extent; while in the east, where industrial
pursuits preponderate, we find a brisk trade, transit, commerce,
and large settlements--the division also occurring in connection
with the state organization itself. Whilst in the west we have
a number of medium- and small-sized States, in the east we have
only a single large one, that of the Fulbe-Haussa.
West group. Lesser pagan tribes. East
Yolof. Mandingo. Mossi, &c.
Haussas.
Western. Eastern. Mahomedans.
Pagans.
Mahomedans. Pagans. Berbers,
Kanuri, Arabs.
Fulbes.
24 This placed the Haussas in direct contact with the
Mandingo; in any case they wandered into Dagomba in 1802 (Binger
I., 188), in consequence of the Fulbe war.
25 The Niger forms absolutely no well-defined boundary; thus
Yóruba which lies on the west of it, must, together with its
large towns, be included in the eastern half; in the same way
Passarge draws, as the western boundary of the Central Sudan, a
line from Bussa towards the south.--Page 370.
17

1. PUL-HAUSSA.
The representatives of the most ancient inhabitants of
Haussaland, so far as we are concerned in the present inquiry,
are pagan tribes of the most diverse magnitude, who lived
alongside each other but were politically independent (a term
usually synonymous with being hostile) and who were separated by
boundary zones, forests and rivers of more or less magnitude.
Several of these exist even in the present day. In the north,
where two powerful sets of invaders had sought to obtain
ingress, it was only the Sonrhay of Saberma, supported by the
mass of their kinsmen living to the north-west, 26 who succeeded
in maintaining their foothold. In the interior the aborigines
are to be found, more especially in the wooded and mountainous
country between Saria, Bauchi and the Benue; there we find the
tribes of the Koto (at Anassárawa), Yesko or Yasko (north of
Keffi), Koro (south-west of Lafia-Berebere), Arago (south of L-
B), Daróro and Bolo (north of L-B), Kadarra (south of Saria),
Kado (S.E. of Saria), Gbari (S.W. of Saria), Shaba (S.S.E. of
Saria), Kache and Kagore (south-west of Bauchi), Basa (west of
the Yesko); besides these there are other unknown isolated pagan
tribes in the interior. 27
In the west are the pagan Sonrhay, Gurma, Borgu and Kámbari
on the borderland and, on the west bank of the Niger, going down
stream, the Gudu, Egbon, Tsekpon, Agba, Bonu, Akoko and Basa
(westward of the confluence of the Benue), Igbira-Shima (or
Igbira-Hima), and finally, close to the Niger delta, the Ado or
Edu.
28
To the east, on the Bornu border, are the large tribes of
the Marghi, Wándala or Mándara, and the Mussgu.
Most of the old tribes are in the south, in the part most
distant from the great wave of peoples--the basin of the Benue.
Here, on the north bank of the Benue, going up stream, we
find the Igbira, 29
Bassa (Basakomo), Afo (Aho) or Ekpe, Doma,
26 Monteil 227; Barth IV., 233.
27 Staudinger 530.
28 Compare herewith the reports and maps of Clapperton and
Denham (Rennell's map), Lander (Journal London, 1830), Baikie
(Journal London, 1855), Barth (Petermann's maps and Journal
London, 1860), Rohlfs (G.M., Ergb. VII., and Qu. d. A. II.),
Flegel (three-sheet map by Kiepert, M.A.G. V.), Staudinger (K.
v. Erman), Burdo, Ferryman, Zintgraff, Morgen, v. Stetten,
Passarge; the latter mentions, on an ethnographical map, going
up the Benue from Ibi, the following pagan peoples; Jikum,
Baibai, Dekka, Chamba, Yelu, Kolla, Batta, Bassama and Bula,
Tangale, Margi, Mattafall, Mosugoi, Wándala, Falli, Mundáng,
Dama, Bokko, Namji, Durru, Mbum, Lakka, Deek, Yangere, Káka.
18
29 Ferryman (136) divides the Igbira into Bush and Home
Igbiras (I-Sima and I-Panda), and the latter again into Kakanda

Jebjeb, Bassama (Bachama), Pire and Habe, Batta, Sena and Demsa.
On the south bank of the Benue--also going from west to eastare
the Ibo or Igbo (north-east of the Niger delta), l'gara
(north of Onicha) and A'kpoto (in the south-east angle of the
confluence 30
), Michi or Muchi, Kuana, Gonda, Palava, Juku (about
Beli), Wenka (south-east of Beli), Ndorro, Nakani, Kambo,
Kamkam, Koka and Mabari (south of Beli), Darra and Kotofo (east
of Beli); also the Mbana, Fali, Dama, Bere and Batta (on the
Upper Benue and Faro), Lakka and Deek to the east; Kento and
Chamba (driven away from Faro towards the south-west), Bokko
(Flegel; ? identical with Barth's Moko), Durru, Ndaren, Baya,
Bati, Mbum (these round about Ngáumdere); eastward of these the
Yangere, to the south the Tikar, Shambano, Shengel, Gagi,
Girrgirr, and on the southern border the Kapullah, Mandiongolo,
Wuté (Bute), and Dome.
During the course of a long period of time there was poured
forth over the remains of the old races, as represented to-day
by the above tribes, firstly, the wave of the Haussa nation--if
the word nation may be applied to the imperfect relationships
which exist among the peoples of the interior of Africa--and
secondly, that of the Fulbe.
The HAUSSAS 31 are a large mixed negro race, differing
according to the locality whence they come, but all having a
good deal of the old Berber blood. 32 They are the most typical
race of the Sudan, and possess as their main characteristic the
faculty in a high degree of enforcing their language and customs
upon the peoples with whom they come in contact, and, by means
of this property, of blending the most varied elements; 33
it is
classed by Barth "among the Ethiopian or rather sub-Libyan
races" which, owing to oppression by the Arabs, was driven by
the formerly Christian Berbers out of the southern desert lands
in a southerly direction to the Sudan. "That remarkable mixed
race which, always expanding further, swallows up all races with
which it comes in contact, and to which the entire Central
(the boatmen of the Lower Niger before the arrival of Europeans,
Lander), Woro-Igbira, Igu-Igbira (the cleanest), and Koto-Igbira
(already almost merged in the Haussas).
30 Ferryman (143) mentions, as small tribes at the
confluence, the Akoko, Gbede, and Kukuku or Kukuruku; between
Yóruba and the confluence, the Woro, Efon, Kakanda (Habeh),
Bunu, and Yagba; on the Middle Niger and to the north of Nupe,
the Kámbari, and to the west of Nupe the Borgu; the tribes of
the Yóruba, 171.
31 Barth II., 78 et seq., Ratzel Vk. 1, 648; III., 195.
32 Barth II., 247 et seq.; Journal London, 1860, 120.
33 Staudinger, Haussaländer, 156, 211, 550.
19

Sudan, from the desert to the sea, will one day belong, 34 varies
as regards its external appearance (due to its mixed origin)
between the plump inhabitant of the tropics and the spare man of
the desert; traces of Semitic origin, betraying an admixture of
Arab blood, are also not uncommon. But nowhere does one find a
decided type--everywhere there are crosses. Probably the
Haussas will develop into a uniform race, but, by the absorption
of the numberless negro races, will fall into decay, 35
for which
preparation has already been made by the change from a warlike
to a trading nation.
36
The origin of the Haussas cannot, in the great racemingling
of the Western Sudan, with its obliterating tendency,
be easily determined: certain it is, however, that they came
from the north, as evinced by the character of their language 37
34 Pass., 61 et seq.
35 Pass., 518, 564.
36 The statement of the Fulbe Sultan Bello that the Haussas
are descended from a Bornu slave merely portrays the contempt
entertained for them by the Fulbes; another statement of
Barth's, in his work on the conquests of the Fulbes (App. to
Denham and Clapperton), in which the Goberaua Haussas are
described as Copts, is considered by himself (II., 369) to be
"by no means an absurd statement;" see also Ba. II., 45, Note.
20
37 Compare Prietze and Passarge, 414 et seq., on the
language-grouping of the Sudan; according to these the Haussa
language belongs to the southern group, which makes the changes
by forming prefixes; works on this subject have been written by
Schön, Barth, Leroux, Faidherbe, Toutain, &c. Haussa, ranking
by importance, is the English of the Sudan; it is very rich in
vowels, "sweet and insinuating, as well as easily learnt"
(Krause, Ausland, 1883, 455) . . . "the prettiest, most
melodious, richest, and most spirited of all the languages of
the negro country, but, as regards the verbs, deficient in
tenses. (Barth, Journal London, passim); the system of numerals
is very perfect, and shows that foreign influence has been at
work (Staudinger, 735). Barth found the limit of the Haussa
language, towards the north, to be at Asben (1, 374; the Kelowi
speak it as fluently as their own language which is, moreover,
sprinkled with Haussa expressions); to the west the limit is
found in the salt valley of Fogha (Barth IV., 233) and the
Colony of Gárbo in West Kebbi (Barth, 236; see also map, Bd.
IV.), and Egga on the Niger (Ferryman, 165); to the south it is
at Idda, on the Niger (Burdo, 123, Staudinger, 46 et seq.,
Ferryman, 30, 221), Wukari (Flegel, M.A.G. III., 257), and
S. Muri (Passarge, 339, et seq.); to the eastward Bauchi (Rohlfs
Qu. d. A. II., 155), and Gabesáua, where Kanuri makes a great
bend to the west (Barth II., 177, 182). It is, however, the
language of intercourse in a far larger area, which may be
defined somewhat as follows:--Kong, Mossi, Ghat, Mursuk,

as also by their anthropological characteristics; 38 their name
may perhaps also be connected with the term "Aussa," used by the
western Tuaregs and in Timbuktu to signify the country to the
north, in contradistinction to Gurma, the country to the south
of the Niger. 39 The purest remains of the race are equally to be
found in the north of the present Haussa countries, on the
fringe of the desert, especially in Gober (where, however,
formerly only the noblest family, that of the Bacheraua, was
looked upon as of foreign origin 40 ), Kebbi and Maradi; by the
first-named Haussa State Barth refers to the country lying far
more to the northward, where he was formerly imprisoned, the
neighbourhood of Ghat and Aïr. 41 In the present day Haussas are
to be found on the Gold and Slave Coasts, as also in the basin
of the Sanga, a tributary of the Congo. They, more especially
the princes and chiefs and the inhabitants of the large towns,
had accepted Islam long before the advent of the Fulbes on the
field of politics and, though they only accepted it in its
outward form, they did so just as zealously as though they had
accepted it in its entirety. 42
The Haussas, with their manifold crosses and combinations,
and in form and cast of features
43
so very much of a mixture
between the types of the inhabitants of the Sahara and of the
West Coast, are light-hearted, always cheerful, intelligent and
very industrious, but have no idea of political organisation,
and were never capable of forming a large united empire. In
Tripoli, Lake Chad, the Sanga (Congo), Sánnaga (Kamerun), Lagos
(excluding the Niger delta), Accrá (Gold Coast); in other words,
from the Gulf of Guinea to the Syrt. The Haussa language is
thus continually spreading, though in a markedly reduced form,
as is the case with the Malay language of intercourse in Asia
(Passarge, 518). The purest Haussa is spoken in Kátsena
(Staudinger, 387; Barth II., 91).
38 Passarge, 512.
39 Krause considers the name to be that of the country; the
original form is Habassa (Ausland, 1883, passim). Meyer,
Erforschungsgeschichte und Staatenbildungen des Westsudan.
40 Barth I., 369.
41 Barth I., 248. The women of the Imrhad, the tribe now
living there, appear to approach more closely to the negro type
(Barth, 255); this circumstance may also be an indication of the
ancient population; the names of Gober and Tassaua are to be
found in Fezzan and in the Sudan (Barth, 157. Note.)
42 This explains the destruction by the zealot Fulbes of most
of the documents bearing on the history of the Haussas.
43 Passarge, 421.
21

conjunction with the qualities of industry, readiness to oblige,
and sedateness, one meets also with drunkenness 44 ; their
childishness of character distinguishes them from the energetic
Yóruba; 45 they are indolent, frivolous, and passionately devoted
to games of chance. 46 In addition to the capacity for swallowing
up other nations, referred to on page 7, the Haussas show a
great spirit of enterprise, as also the spirit of commerce in a
marked degree; "they are born merchants" (Gruner): Haussa
traders are to be found from Mekka and Cairo as far as the Upper
Niger and from Constantinople to the forest of the Congo. "The
Haussa is like a gipsy, who is found everywhere but is never at
home, and who traverses the entire Sudan, as a porter as long as
he owns nothing, as a trader as soon as he has made a little
money 47 ; in time of war he is the most active plunderer; as
elephant hunter, as founder of towns, as a tolerant banker--he
everywhere maintains his advantage. When armed the Haussas, in
spite of their small amount of personal courage, will even visit
the pagan robbers (for instance, on the route from Yola to
Márrua), and in order to barter for their plunder and to do a
good trade they will place themselves in the greatest danger and
allow themselves "to be treated like dogs by them." 48
In their commerce amongst themselves they evince great
49
esprit d'association, and from the colony they maintain a brisk
trade with the mother country. 50
Politically the Fulbes are, it is true, the rulers, though
much of the actual power is in the hands of the Haussas; for as
herds and peasants the Fulbes, though in a majority, are poor,
and their rulers and chiefs are in various degrees dependent
upon the great Haussa traders, who at the same time are the
51
bankers at the several courts. From Sókoto to Ngáumdere their
44 Binger I., 370.
45 Passarge, 61 et seq., 509 et seq.
46 See Staudinger, 142.
47 Passarge, 31.
48 Passarge, 206.
49 Binger II., 143.
50 For instance, from Kete-Krachi, the flourishing commercial
station on the Volta in German Togoland. Döring, Kol. Bl.,
1894, 426. Here are to be found traders, provision dealers,
agents, and dyers. The English Haussa soldiers are of the most
varied extraction.
22
51 Passarge, 269; also in Muri: see Passarge, 339, et seq.
Passarge (520, et seq.), expects considerable advantages for the
German Colony of Kamerun if they can succeed in attracting
Haussa traders to it; they are already not far off, at Ngila, to

influence appears to have increased considerably in recent
times.
As a national hero common to them all the Haussas worship
Banu or Bao (nephew of Biram, and son of Karbágari, the
destroyer of towns), a personification of their consciousness of
existence as a tribe. To his mythical figure is traceable the
foundation of the "Haussa-Union" (Barth) which embraced the
countries east of the Niger from Egga as far as Say, a tract of
country extending from about 8° to 15° N. Lat. (Greenwich).
Corresponding to the number of the sons of Banu, the old Haussa
States were divided into: seven legitimate haussa bókeu, the
Haussa seven, the legitimate, who were recognized as the legal
sons of Banu by a Berber wife of the tribe of the Deggara; and
the bastard seven, bansa bókeu, the unrecognized seven, who
correspond to bastard sons of the parent stem. The names of the
States are identical with those of the sons. The value of the
above lies therein that it points out to us the ancestral home
of the Haussa tribes at an historically earlier date, viz.:--the
western portion of the plateau between the Niger and Lake Chad. 52
Among the legitimate Haussa States the (word State being
used with the necessary modification so as to mean what may
frequently be described rather as towns, tribes, or tracts of
53
country) Barth includes Biram, Daura, Gober, Kano, Rano,
Kátsena, and Ségseg (=Saria or Soso). Flegel 54 includes Katsena,
Daura, Biram, Kano (from the male descendants of Banu) and
Samfara, Saria, Kano 55 (from the female). Ferryman, in "the old
Haussa States proper," 56 includes Gober, Daura, Biram, Kano,
Katshena, Bautshi, and Zaria or Zozo. Leo Africanus, 57
at the
beginning of the 16th century, describes quindecim Nigritarum
regna, which he visited; among these he mentions the Haussa
States of Guber, Cano, Casena, Zegzeg and Zanfara, which at that
time were certainly the most important; he, however, does not
know the name of Haussa.
Kátsena and Segseg, as well as Kano and Rano, are
the south of Tibati.
52 The haussa bókeu (Barth; Haussa bokoi, Staudinger)
occupied about the space of the present true Empire of Sókoto
(excluding Gando and Adamaua) whilst the bansa bókeu occupied
the greater part of Gando.
53 Barth, II., 80 et seq.
54 Staudinger, 516 et seq.
55 Probably a printer's error for Rano.
56 Ferryman, 53, Note.
57 Descr. Afr. 11, 648 et seq.
23

epresented in the fable as twins; characteristic of their
civilisation is the distribution of the principal offices among
the sons 58
: thus Gober became sserki-n-yaki or war minister,
Kano and Rano were ssáraki-n-baba, or ministers for the dye
trade, Katsena and Daura ssáraki-n-ká-ssua or ministers for
trade and commerce, while Segseg had to provide his brothers
with slaves.
59
The bastard Haussa States, "in which the Haussa language
was used to a great extent, although not the language of the
natives," are, according to Barth: Sánfara, Kébbi, Nupe or
Nyff, Guari, Yauri, Yoruba or Yaruba ("called by others Bauchi")
and Korórofa; 60 according to Flegel: Bauchi, Hadija, Nupe,
Gombe, Ilorin (and two that he could not identify); Ferryman
("the Bastard Haussa States"): Zanfara, Kebbi, Guari, Yauri, a
part of Yoruba and Adamaua, as well as Gurma and Zaberma. 61
62
The origin of these States, "by the formation and
dismemberment of the Haussa race," must have occurred in
connection with a great irruption of Islam from the
Mediterranean towards the South. It took place amidst fierce
battles, in which the individual states either fought against
each other, or against their powerful neighbours, Sonrhay to the
West and Bornu to the East. In these combats individual states
degenerated into towns without any territory. 63
Their most
58 Barth, passim.
59 Passarge considers their population to consist of races
driven out of Gobir, p. 513.
60 In the valley of the Benue the Haussas have either not
formed states at all or have only done so to a very limited
extent; here their power was broken by the powerful tribes of
the Igbira, Mitchi, &c.
61 Special stress is laid above upon the spread of the Haussa
language beyond the original limits, even after the rise of the
Fulbes, indicating, as it does, the great vitality of the race;
the rise of the Fulbes even assisted it, for instance, in
Adamaua, where Fulbe conquerors and Haussa traders go hand in
hand. Compare von Stetten, K.Bl., 1895, 136.
62 None of them bears the name of the Maradi, a pagan tribe,
driven down from the north of Kátsena, and whose chief is still
called Lord of Kátsena (Barth. II., 91); this may be explained
by the fact that, throughout the Sudan, in the case where they
bear different names, the town and country are of greater
importance than the tribe itself.
63 At the beginning of the century Kebbi fought victoriously
against Sonrhay (Barth, IV., 633); in 1513 Kátsena came under
Sonrhay (Barth, II., 84 et seq.); in 1600 Edriss, King of Bornu,
conquered the Empire of Kano (Barth, II., 335).
24

flourishing period was from the beginning of the 16th up till
the end of the 18th century; they are now provinces of the Fulbe
Empire.
When at the commencement of this century one single man set
the whole of Europe in a blaze, the same thing occurred also in
the Western Sudan, where the Fulbes, who had long settled north
of the chaos of Pagan and Haussa States, arose as a germinating
power. Incited and led by the fanatical Mallem 64 Othman (Rohlfs:
Osman) dan Fodie, their Jehadi or Reformer, who was born at
Futa Toro, on the Senegal, 65 they formed a religious and
political union, the Jemaa, (pronounce Jemmara) for shaking off
the Haussa yoke. 66 Not only did they achieve this object, but
also, what was far more important, the union of the Fulbes under
one ruler. The movement commenced about 1800 (1804) in Gobir, 67
in north-west Haussaland, against whose prince Baua 68
it was that
Othman rose. The latter conquered Kebbi, where he established
his first "residence," in Gando, which, however, he soon
exchanged for the newly-built Sókoto.
At this point it will be necessary to interrupt the course
of historical events by a study of that much talked of nomad
69
race, the FULBES.
The name, which the people give to themselves, is in the
singular "Pul" (French, Peul or Poulh), "Pulo" (o=the personal
pronoun he), and in the plural "Fulbe" (be=the personal pronoun
70
you). By the peoples and tribes coming into contact with them
they were given the most varied names, most of which, however,
had the fundamental signification of "fair" or "light"; Krause 71
64 Also Malam or Marabu; respectable mahomedan priests and
learned men, who for the most part play a political rôle and
who, among the Fulbes, (with whom the rank of chief demands
religious training), perform the part of founders of states.
65 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.
66 Barth, II., 92 et seq.
67 Clapperton, 2; Reise, 278 et seq.; Barth, IV., 669 et seq;
Monteil, 247.
68 Krause, Mitt. d. Riebeckschen Niger-Expedition, I., 19.,
writes it Bawu.
69 Ratzel, Vk. III., 186 et seq., 270.
70 Krause, Riebeckschen Niger-Expedition, I., 5.
25
71 Krause, Do. 6; compare Lenz., Timbuktu, II., 258. For
Germans to call the people by any of these foreign names must be
considered to be quite unnecessary and confusing; the only
proper transliteration is--singular, Pul; plural, Fulbe; the
word, "fulisch," employed by Krause, should be replaced by
"pulisch" (French "poular").

enumerates over one hundred of them, of which the most important
are: Féllani (by the Haussas), Fullan (Arabs), Fula (Mandingo),
Fellata (Kanuri), I'fellan (Tuaregs), Chilmigo (Mossi). The
root "pul" or "ful" signifies, according to Barth, 72 light-brown
or red, and according to Kölle 73
yellow or brown.
74
Fulfúlde, which is the language of the Fulbes, has a
passive character, in antithesis to the epidemic and aggressive
Haussa language; it is rich, harmonious, and flexible; 75
according to Friedrich Müller 76 it does not belong to the negro
tongues. Its Hamitic core has developed itself spontaneously
and independently, or else has become permeated by foreign
tongues; 77 "it is specially noticeable in that it does not
recognize the signs of grammatic gender whilst it boldly gives
expression to psychic and apsychic categories in grammar. 78
In Adamaua Fulfulde is the principal language of
intercourse, in Muri it is far less used, whilst in the Haussa
countries it is quite in the background as compared with Haussa.
The consonants, more especially in contradistinction to the
language of the coast tribes, are uttered with wonderful
clearness, particularly the letter r, like the East Prussian
lingual r. Similarly the accent is always very distinct. The
language has, in consequence of this, a hard but sonorous and
79
pleasant ring, and is full of character. Many Fulbe tribes
have quite forgotten their mother tongue, as, for instance, the
Gabero, under the rule of the Sonrhay, below Gogo on the Niger 80
and also numerous groups east of the Upper Niger; 81
others use
72 Sammlung und Bearbeitung zentralafrikanischer
Vokabularien. Gotha, 1862 et seq.
73 Polyglotta Africana, London, 1851.
74 Barth, Rohlfs. Passarge, on the contrary, places the
accent thus, Fúlfulde.
75 Rohlfs, Qu. d., A. II., 131.
76 In Passarge (167, 416, 560) we find the following
statements by Prietze: it is erroneously held, by Lepsius, to
be a Bantu language and is treated, along with Nuba, as a
separate group by Fr. Müller; it is now known for certain to be
of Semitic origin and to be related to Somali (Schleicher,
Afrikan. Petrefacten, 1891).
77 Rohlfs denies the existence of Semitic sounds.
78 Krause, passim, 11 et seq.
79 Passarge, 416.
80 Barth, IV., 151.
81 Binger, II., 391.
26

theirs only for trade purposes amongst themselves, not being in
a position to force subject, and mentally inferior, negroes to
accept it, the latter also refraining from using it through
pride.
The written Fulbe language is only used in Sókoto and
Gando, 82 whilst in Sókoto also is the only school where it is
taught, 83
the grammar, Náhan Fulfúlde, having been compiled by
Saidu, son of Bello, the second sultan of Sókoto. The letters
are similar to those of Arabic.
The Fulbes are spread over the three great basins of the
Senegal, Niger and Chad, a tract of country which extends across
some 35 degrees of longitude, lying between 5° and 19° of N.
Lat., and which is more than half the size of Europe. They are
the true race of the Niger basin from the source of the Niger to
that of the Benue. In the whole of this territory, with the
exception of their eastern colonies in Bornu, Baghirmi, Wadai
and Darfur, they are the rulers. Barth estimates their number
as about the same as that of the Mandingo, or from six to eight
84
millions. In none of the countries occupied by them do they
entirely populate it as a large body, but everywhere constitute
only a portion of the inhabitants. The territory over which the
Fulbes spread extends towards the east as far as Darfur, 85 while
isolated groups dwell in the basin of the Shari and in Wadai. 86
In the north they are to be found as far as Timbuktu; their
presence in Tuat is now denied by Rohlfs, 87 whilst formerly they
were settled there. To the north-west there are Fulbe villages
at Nioro 88
in Kaarta, while westwards the Fulbes extend right up
to the Atlantic Ocean (Saint-Louis). In a southerly direction
they extend in the western half as far as 10° of N. Lat., and in
the eastern half they are already beyond 5° of N. Lat. The
boundary of the free Fulbes to the south of their last great
colony in Dafina is defined by the following places: Kotedugu,
Koroma, Satere, Bomduquoi, Wakara, Yaho and Duki within the Bend
82 Lenz, Timb., II., 259.
83 M.A.G. V., 108; Staudinger, 342.
84 Journal, London, 1860, 119.
85 Krause passim, 18, G.M. 1880, 380.
86 Monteil, 243; Passarge, 167.
87 Compare Ratzel, Vk. III., 186, and Barth, Journal, London,
1860, 118.
88 Peopled by prisoners of war of Haji Omar, Lenz, Timb. II.,
271 et seq.
27

of the Niger. 89 It appeared to Binger as though these, so to
speak, advanced guards--four to 14 families in one village--had
made no progress for 60 years, but had, on the contrary, been
kept back by the advancing Mande Jula of Kong; Monteil, on the
other hand, who found them in Bussura, on the other side of the
Volta, reports that they are advancing towards the south, and
quickly obtain influence over the timorous, simple Bobo. 90 Fulbe
prisoners and black cross-breeds are to be met still further to
the south in Follona, Kong, and amongst the Dokhosie and
Komono. 91 A line drawn between Ilorin and Ibadan shows their
boundary in Yóruba. To the south-east they have penetrated the
whole of Adamaua, and have advanced south of Tibati as far as
Ngila, and south of Ngáumdere to the Sanga, 92 and thus into the
basin of the Congo. The seats of the densest Fulbe population
are in the western half: Futa Jallon, Bondu (Upper Senegal),
Futa Toro (Lower Senegal) and Mássina; in the eastern half of
our (the German) territory: Sókoto with Wurno, Kátsena, Kano,
Gando, Saria, Bida, Ilorin, Keffi, Anassárawa, Bauchi, Muri,
Wukari, Bakúndi, Yola, Konja, Rei Buba, Gashka, Banyo, Tibati,
and Ngáumdere. The eastern and western groups are united by
only a narrow strip of Fulbe settlements which extends from
South Massina through Dafina, North Mossi and Libtako to the
neighbourhood of Say, 93 and forms the main line of communication
between Mássina and Haussa. 94
In considering the present Fulbe nation--as also the
Haussa--it is necessary to bear in mind in the first place the
importance of the Sudan as the "wide zone of contact of the two
greatest African groups of peoples, namely, the Hamo-Semitic and
the Negroid,"
95
in which we find "only relative settlers and no
aborigines." The Sudan has always been one of the openest
countries in the world, and here we must expect more absorption
of races than the short period of the historical record will
admit of; in a territory whose confusion of tongues is
89 Binger, I., 389 et seq.
90 Monteil, 247; he states on p. 243 that the Fulbes extend
southwards a little beyond 9° of N. Lat.; Binger (Bull. Lyon,
1890, 684), that they do not go beyond 11°; here we must allow
for intermixture of races, as also for the interval of some 4
years between the two journeys.
91 Binger, I., 380; compare map, II., app.
92 Monteil, 244.
93 Monteil, 247.
94 Barth, IV., 262.
95 vide Ratzel, Vk., III., 271.
28

suggestive of the "detritus and rubbish of nations, the
transitions are more noticeable than the boundaries." The
Fulbes present two easily distinguishable types: the pure and
the mixed. 96
The pure Fulbes are reddish-brown to yellow in colour;
97 it
is not, however, this light colour, but the slender, supple,
elegant, fine-boned, very thin, and yet muscular and powerful
bodies ("apparently emaciated, consumptive, greyhound-like
figures"--Passarge) which is the principal anthropological
characteristic that distinguishes them from the more plump mixed
races and negroes. Many of them endure incredibly long marches,
exactly as do the desert tribes. The long, narrow, finely-cut
faces show pleasing traces of the Caucasian race; the point of
the long nose is never turned upwards; the eyes 98 are very bright
and full of expression; the fine black hair is not woolly, but
long and wavy; the women have not the strongly-marked
Beckenneigung of negro women; the skull is usually of medium
length, or dolichocephalous. "Many of the Fulbes would, as
busts, be taken for a Hermes rather than for an African"
(Passarge); "the Fulbes are by far the finest stamp of human
beings of Central Africa" (Rohlfs), and also at the same time
"the most intelligent" (Barth); they are clear- and activeminded,
polite in manners and speech, hospitable (Monteil;
whilst other traveilers affirm the contrary), tenacious of an
idea, capable of enduring fatigue and hardship, extraordinarily
moderate and sober, 99
upright, very religious, considerably more
96 Ratzel, 190. This refutes Waitz' view that there are no
longer any pure Fulbes. Jaime (De Koulikoro à Tombouctou, 158,
Note) distinguishes Peuhls (the mixed) and Foulbé (the pure).
97 "Rhubarb-colour," Barth; "The yellow of dull bronze,"
Rohlfs; "from dark brown to the colour of light yellow leather,
but always with a dash of red; the fairest being as pale as café
au lait, or as the sunburnt tint of our peasants (Passarge).
See Monteil, 255 et seq; Passarge, 167, 206, 217, 425 et seq;
Staudinger, 540 et seq; Krause Nig-Exp, I.; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A.
II., 130 et seq.; Barth and others.
98 Morgen's statements as to the Pul having blue eyes (Durch
Kamerun, 295) is endorsed by Binger as occurring principally
amongst the Fulbes of Futa-Jallon and Massina and is traced back
by him to an intermixture with the Tuaregs (1, 392); Baikie
relates the same of Muri (Expl. voy., 160; vide Passarge, 426);
Staudinger (güt, Mitt), and Passarge (passim) refer to them; the
latter remembers having seen albinos. Compare Ratzel, Vk. III.
206. Only individual variations are, of course, spoken of.
29
99 The Fulbes of Kotedugu (within the Bend of the Niger) form
a remarkable exception; "they are nearly pure bred and almost
white. All, without exception, are mussulmans, but drunkards in
every sense of the word. By five o'clock in the evening it is
impossible to hold serious intercourse with them; young people,

earnest and quiet, but less garrulous and frivolous than the
negroes, and undoubtedly possess more self-control and energy,
and more pride and sense of honour than the latter. Work and
trade are not their proper sphere of action, their favourite
occupations, on the contrary, being hunting, making war, and
cattle-rearing. 100
In each small community schools are to be found, and the
101
study of the Koran is diligently pursued. One of their most
important maxims is: Never do unto others that which you do not
wish them to do unto you. 102 The impulse to rule shows itself
even in their smallest actions, yet they can look humble to
attain an object. Where they do not live under a Sovereign of
their own blood they have still their separate chief. They are
in a great measure violent, governed by the spirit of caste,
covetous and thieving, cunning 103 and, as "warlike missionaries
of Islam, fanatical and intolerant;" from a political point of
view they, like the Haussas, are deficient of the capacity for
organisation. 104 According to anthropological characteristics
and character the Fulbes are more closely allied to the
inhabitants of the desert than to the negroes--theirs is "on the
whole a softened-down Berber character." 105
The pure Fulbes are almost all herds; families that have
become settled can only as a great exception have remained
unmixed, while in the large towns this was impossible. They
procure their stuffs and cereals by the produce of their
106
flocks. One is struck by the similarity between individuals
those of middle age, and the aged are all drunk." (Binger, I.,
382.)
100 Passarge, 508; "Fulla no work, he sit down," said his
interpreter. The mixed races also do not easily accustom
themselves to work. Passarge, 163, 208.
101 Park, Reisen, p. 50. Caillié, I., 330. Lenz, II., 260.
102 Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb., VII., 45 et seq.
103 Staudinger, passim. Compare Passarge, 310.
104 Barth, Journal, London, 1860, 119; compare the same, II.,
610, et seq., "On the banks of the Benuë ànd Faro they dream of
the holy temple at Mecca." The Fulbes of Mássina are
particularly fanatical (p. 72).
105 Passarge, 508.
30
106 "Vagabond by nature, he is everywhere and nowhere; he is
not attached to the soil, since he does not cultivate it"
(Monteil). There is, however, a certain amount of grain-and
vegetable-growing, which they probably learnt from the Haussas,
though in this, as in other matters, they surpassed their
instructors; they make good butter, but no cheese (Rohlfs).

of this singular race: in all social positions the Pul is the
same, whether as a man of the wilderness or when seated on the
imperial throne. It is almost incredible, for these countries,
how well instructed the Fulbes are on all matters, especially
those of a political or religious nature. Their customs are
patriarchal; their organisation is that of the tribe. Family
life is pure and chaste; often they have only one wife, never
more than three; in their marriages they adhere scrupulously to
purity of race. The women are pretty, 107
Compare Barth, II., 251; Park, Reisen, 51.
very coquettish,
passionate, gaze with large enquiring eyes, and are often
mocking and quarrelsome. The negroes say of the Fulbes: "There
is no fool among them," and of their women: "When a Fulbe woman
is brought a prisoner into the house she is mistress of it the
next day." The Pul despises the negro as a low class of being,
and places himself even above the European.
The pure Fulbes cover the Sudan like a network of meshes,
now large and now small, forming their settlements with the
characteristic beehive huts--in contrast to the round mud huts
with conical straw roofs, or the oblong buildings with flat
roofs, of the Sudanese negroes. They are bound down in the
choice of their dwelling place, which they vary within wide
108
limits, by their flocks; and are forced to select high
plateaus, rich in pasture land and free from insects, and with a
chalk soil, or some other substitute for the deficiency of salt
in the Sudan. To the east, therefore, the pure Fulbes are found
in Adamaua, 109 Sókoto and Gando, in the unwooded and
unmountainous parts; to the west in Jilgodi, about Timbuktu, in
Mássina, Bághena, Futa-Jallon, Ferlo, Bunun, Firdu and at the
sources of the Niger. 110
The far greater majority of the race is formed by the dark-
111
coloured mixed Fulbes "whose various subdivisions have a very
manifold and somewhat indeterminate character." In the course
of their wanderings, and by spreading over a large tract of
country, they have acquired numerous national traits,
107 Compare Passarge, 202, 206, 346, 425; the old women look
like gipsies.
108 For instance between Kano and Pánda (Lower Benuë).
Staudinger, 423; and from Kásena to the Niger. Barth, IV., 565.
109 Especially in the smaller villages and towns of Central
Adamaua--Passarge, 68.
110 Binger, I., 391.
111 The anthropological process of intermingling is described
by Passarge, p. 426; the parts to change first are the soft
parts, the hair, and the colour of the skin; the skeleton is
that which longest retains its originality.
31

(altogether differing from one another,) about which, however,
we have, at present, but scanty information; several mixed types
may, however, be referred to. The most important of these is
the Tórobe (singular Torode), a tribe arising from the
intermixture of the Fulbes with the Yolof (Jolof, Wolof) "in
which, numerically, the Yolof had the great preponderance."
Their pasture-ground is at Toro (Fouta in Senegalese). They
are, both physically and psychically, an impovement and an
ennoblement of the pure Fulbes: the Tórobe are "as a rule tall
in stature and powerfully built, and have large features and a
perfectly black skin--quite the opposite of the other sections
of the great Pullo race": 112 they are considered by the entire
Fulbe race to be their aristocracy and constitute, by their
religious erudition, a sort of theocracy. The fact is that they
have actual claims to rulership, which the timid herd has become
accustomed to respect. 113 They are spread over Futa, 114 Mássina,
Yagha and Torodi (west of Say), and form the ruling class in the
Eastern Fulbe Empire, in which they have their seat of
government at Wurno, 115 (which is consequently the true
"residence,") in addition to the nominal and official one--
Sókoto. The Tukulör race, whose home is also the Senegal basin,
likewise owes its origin to an intermixture of the Fulbes and
Yolof, with the addition of the Mandingo; 116 Ahmed Baba looked
upon the Yolof as only a branch of the Fulbes. 117
112 Barth, IV., 147.
The character
of the Tukulör does not--as does that of all the other following
varieties--rise to the level of that of the pure Fulbes. To be
sure this warlike and fanatical race possesses common sense,
discipline, fondness for agriculture, "whilst at the same time
combining the faults of both Yolof and Pul: the swaggering
manner of the Yolof, (without however having his courage,) in
113 Monteil, 247.
114 Under the name of Futa the Fulbes include, in addition to
the country between the sources of the Gambia and the Atlantic
Ocean (Futa Jallon), and on the lower Senegal (Futa-Toro), also
all the Fulbe States on the right bank of the Niger. Binger,
I., 381.
115 Barth, IV., 178.
116 Compare Ratzel, Vk., I., 645; Binger, I., 393. Monteil
(passim) identifies Tukulör and Tórobe, which would agree with a
statement by Sultan Bello that the Tórobe are allied to the
Wakore (Mandingo) (Barth, IV., 146, Note); most explorers
however understand by the Tukulör the people of later origin who
took part in the foundation of the Empires of Segu and Mássina
under Haji Omar.
117 Barth, IV., 146.
32

conjunction with the often roguish cunning of the Pul. 118
The
Fulbes live at enmity with the Tukulör and have driven them from
Senegal-Futa; this, as well as Segu and Mássina, is the country
where they are to be found in the largest numbers.
Two of the races sucked up and carried along by the Fulbes
in their great migration to the East are the Ssissilbe, as they
are called by themselves, (or Ssyllebáua, as they are called in
Haussa,) and the Soghoran, called Jauámbe by the Fulbes, and
119
Soromáua by the Haussas. The former are of an earlier
Mandingo stock, whose descendants now occupy the neighbourhood
of Sókoto and who are often in political opposition to the
Tórobe. Here they have altogether forgotten their own dialect
and speak Fulfulde and Haussa; in the Province of Sabérma,
however, which lies westward of Sókoto, they use their own
language almost entirely. The latter 120
were only absorbed and
carried away by the Fulbes after the close of the 16th century,
at which time they were quite separate from the Sonrhay, (with
whom they were engaged in a bloody war,) and were settled on the
Upper Niger where it enters Mássina; the greater part of them
are now "agents" in Haussa.
Barth recognises "subject tribes" in the following caste-
121
like subdivisions: the Laúbe (joiners) on the Senegal, the
Mábube (weavers), Gergassabe (shoemakers), Waílube (tailors),
Wambaibe (singers), Waúlube (beggars), "all of whom can be
traced back in the accepted genealogical tree of the Pullo race
to one common ancestor named Sso". 122 Binger mentions, as Fulbe
cross-breeds in the west, the Kassonke, most of the Sidibe, the
Malinke of Fuladugu and Gangaran, most of the Diallo, the
Diakhite, the Sankare, the black Fulbes of Wassulu, the
Banimonotie, the Bondu, and a few colonies of these in Furu,
Wahabu and Boromo. They have only preserved the family names
and types of their race but have otherwise altogether
assimilated themselves to the peoples to whom they came; they
have forgotten their own language and become fetish-worshippers,
and even where they are numerous they do not form separate
States. 123
The most modern group of cross-bred races comprises those
118 Monteil, passim.
119 Barth, IV., 145, 178.--Journal, London, 1860, 119.
120 Barth, IV., 147 (according to Ahmed Baba).
121 Binger, I., 39; Caillié, I., 126.
122 Barth, 148. Possibly also the "guilds" described by
Rohlfs, including, amongst others, those of the smiths, butchers
and dyers with their "kings," point to ancient tribal
traditions?
123 Binger, I., 391.
33

ising from the great expansion towards the east--the Fellani-n-
Haussa, the Fulbe-Haussa; these appear, anthropologically, to be
more closely related to the Haussas than to the Fulbes; moreover
they habitually speak, not Fulfulde, but Haussa. 124
The Fulbes have for a long time entered into connection
125
with the Arabs both in Adrar, west of Timbuktu, and in
Baghirmi and northern Adamaua (with the Shua). 126 They are,
however, at open hostilities with the Tuaregs (which found
expression particularly in the fighting round Timbuktu) and with
the Kanuri, whilst in Bornu it is forbidden to utter the name of
Pul. 127
The colonisation of the Fulbes has a double character,
viz.: a peaceful and a warlike one; the former appears to have
been, as a rule, preparatory to the latter, as for instance in
128 129
Haussa and Adamaua, but is now apparently omitted. It is
not political ascendancy that the Pul seeks to obtain thereby,
but pastureland (Binger "infiltration"); he appears in the
capacity of a harmless cattle herd (Barth: berroroji, Passarge:
borroro), 130 who has preserved the old nomad life, but who
returns from time to time to the home of his ancestors. The
negroes are always suspicious of these Fulbes both on account of
their occupation and of the light colour of their skin; armed
with bow and lance 131 they guard their herds. One seldom sees
the men, but principally the women and girls who sell milk and
butter in the villages and towns. Simple grass huts suffice to
house them for the very short time that they stay at one spot.
Epidemics among the cattle, 132 and raids, 133
may deprive them of
124 Barth, IV., 565; compare Monteil, 250.
125 Binger, I., 392.
126 Barth, III., 326; II., 717; Passarge, 169.--In Bornu the
Arabs have dark skins, it is true, but have otherwise remained
pure (Nachtigal); in Adamaua, on the contrary, they are now
beginning to lose their nationality. Passarge, 427.
127 Monteil, 309; Clapperton I. and II., (passim).--In
Adamaua, especially in the north and east, the Kanuri are
tolerated by the Fulbes as traders, and even have their own
settlements. Passarge, 55, 239, 275.
128 Barth, IV., 151, 622.
129 Passarge, 90, 515.
130 Passarge, 167 et seq. 202.
131 Passarge, 289; Passarge (436) did not see the battle-axe
which Staudinger (178) describes as being characteristic.
34
132 "It destroys the largest and finest herds in a few hours"
(1891); Monteil, 155 et seq.; the same plague traversed the

liberty; sometimes also, owing to difficulties in obtaining
pasture-land and water, they come in too small numbers, 134 or
else no more groups follow the first one, in which case they
become submerged in the black element. 135
When the Fulbes appear in their warlike character they
first seek to obtain possession of the main positions of a
country with a view to utilising them as supporting-points for
136
their gradual further advance; these supporting-points are
connected together it is true but, owing to their relatively
small numbers, the Fulbes have not succeeded in occupying the
whole of the intervening country: "the Fulbes hold no more than
the communications between the individual centres" 137 ; in the
forest- and mountain-regions they even assume the rôle of being
oppressed by the free Pagans. 138
Their sway is not complete and
uniform over any territory whatsoever but may rather bear
comparison with a net, with meshes of the most varied
dimensions.
By choice the Fulbes fight pitched battles in the open:
the cavalry press forward, followed by the infantry in dense
139
masses. They seldom surround a place when besieging it but
rather employ the method, in common use in the whole of the
whole of Africa (Passarge, Gruner); compare Barth, IV., 229.
133 Only by other tribes; in contrast to the Pagans the
Fulbes do not fight among themselves--(it happens exceptionally
on the boundary to the southeast amongst the powerful and almost
independent border States of Adamaua, which lie at a great
distance from Sókoto (Passarge, 494))--a fact which constitutes
one of the chief reasons of their political ascendancy; in the
countries over which they rule moreover people of the same tribe
are not allowed to be sold as slaves. Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII.,
45.
134 Binger, I., 390 et seq.
135 "Degenerate" Fulbes were found by Barth in Adamaua: a
stunted race of men, not of the rhubarb colour of the Futa-
Pullo, nor of the dark black of the Torode, but of a dirty grey
black; deficient both in expressive features and in proud
bearing, IV., 476 et seq.
136 As to the nature of this advance and the despairing
combats by the heathen, vide Passarge, 297, 310 et seq.
137 Passarge, 515.
138 Thus the Fulbes and Haussas are compelled by the Dekka in
the Chebchi Mountains to remain for several days at appointed
toll-stations and to pay high duties in kind. Passarge, 317.
139 Passarge, 135.
35

Western Sudan, of Sansérni 140 (Sansánne), or fortified camps,
which they often erect for a number of years in the immediate
neighbourhood of the enemy's place. One important reason for
their success lies in the great moral superiority conferred by
their uniformity of leadership as compared with that of the
scattered pagan tribes, who are moreover frequently hostile to
each other. 141
If no large settlements exist they make them (as Sókoto,
Yola); these usually collect around the farm of the local
chieftain, which is surrounded by a high mud-wall. This does
not point to a systematic, regular and deliberate advance, but
rather to one that has not been thought out and is meteor-like
in character; not the well-planned attack, but the bold leap far
beyond the surroundings right out into the unknown--somewhat
resembling, in greater as in minor respects, the action of a
142
beast of prey. Barth distinguishes four classes of Fulbe
settlements 143 : 1. Localities where the Fulbes, as intruders,
have built around a powerful chieftain; 2. Private possessions
branching off from these, country seats of high officials
(ribago) 144 or residences of minor chiefs (joro) which as a rule
expand into largish places; 3. Agricultural villages, in which
both freemen and slaves reside--uro; 4. Slave villages, in which
reside only slaves, who till the soil under the supervision of a
head-slave--rúmde. In all the principal places in the Sudan the
Fulbes dwell in the suburbs, solely with the view of satisfying
their need of milk. 145
At present they are developing their full power throughout
the basin of the Benue; their line of offence is indicated by
the following places: Anassárawa (Loko)--Wukári--Bakúndi
(Beli)--Tibati (Ngila)--Ngáumdere (Gása).
140 v. Stetten, Kol. Bl. 1885, 137; Rohlfs Qu. d. A. II.,
244, 251, &c.
141 v. Stetten, ibid 111.
142 Founding of Massina and Adamaua; Yola was founded from
Kano (Barth II., 142), possibly also Anassárawa (Baikie
J. Lond., 1867, 97); in the valley of the Benuë is the Nupe
colony of Lafia Nufawa (Flegel, Map, Sheet 1). The town of
Muri, even after the occupation of the dependencies of Jibu and
Ibi, had no territory around it. In the valley of the Benuë
Doya was colonized from Kano, Kanoje from Samfara, Awoi mostly
from Kátsena. (Flegel, M.A.G. III., 257.)
143 Barth II., 609 et seq.; compare Mizon, Tour d. m., 1892,
II., 272.
144 As regards the root Haussa synonyms "leinde" and "linyi,"
see Passarge, 87, 552.
145 Barth, III., 119; v. 330.
36

In considering the resultant effect produced by the Fulbes
on the territory occupied by them, we meet with three principal
factors: in bygone days they deserved great credit for having
wrested the countries to the south of the Desert from the
devastating clutches of the Desert tribes 146 ; further, they are
indefatigable propagators of the doctrines 147 and civilisation 148
of Islam; their great mission, however, among the people of
Africa is summed up in the following words 149 : "It is not the
desire to become founders of States that constitutes the aim and
object which specially lays down for them their present mode of
existence, but rather it is the fact of their present mode of
existence, but rather it is the fact of their ever merging
themselves in the people whom they have overcome, a process in
which they represent the fermenting substance, which slowly
raises up a higher development both bodily and spiritual"
(Ratzel). 150
In its whole procedure this people seems to be enshrouded
in a mysterious sacred veil, more especially with regard to its
151
origin and more remote past. If in this difficult but
interesting research excellent connoisseurs of the Sudanese
146 Barth, IV., 503.
147 Pagan Fulbes are mentioned by Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb., VII.,
45 et seq. and Qu. d. A. II., 161; Krause, Ausld, 1883, 456 (im
Herzen von Sókoto!); Binger, I., 391 (cross-breeds who gave up
Islam in the Diaspora); Passarge (501) holds such statements to
be erroneous: "The Fulbes were mohamedans even when they
migrated there and were always supporters of Islam, even in the
basin of the Shari" (Nachtigal).
148 Between the opinion which recognizes their influence on
the negroes (Monteil, 165 et seq.; Passarge, 520 et seq.) and
that which absolutely denies it (Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 163;
Lenz II., 266 et seq.) there are a number of intermediate
opinions (Barth, Binger); certain it is that Islam "has only
spread a gloss over the negro-like foundation existing in the
national spirit of the Sudanese" (Ratzel, Vk. III., 274).
149 Ratzel, Vk III., 191.
150 Compare with this the pessimism of Passarge (517):
"Foreign races introduce civilisation and life into the sluggish
mass of the blacks, but the inertness of the latter soon arrests
all progress and all development. This process, which has been
going on for thousands of years, represents the most important
factor in the history of tropical Africa."
151 "The Foulbé race, whose origin is as obscure in the past
as its destiny in the future is difficult to define." Monteil,
175.
37

aces, such as Barth 152 and Faidherbe, 153 only give vague
suggestions, it will here only be possible to treat of the most
recent migrations of the Fulbes. 154
Krause describes the Fulbes as Proto-Hamites and
descendants of the Kel Yeru or Jabbar, the people met with by
the Tuáregs in their migration from the East and whose mummies
155
are still found in the old tombs. According to Friedrich
Müller 156 they are the western group of the Nuba, who come
between the Negroes and the Hamites of the interior, the latter
however being the nearer to them; Burdo also attributes to them
an Abyssinian origin. 157 Barth considers the Fulbes to be a
mixed race, formed by the Arabs and Berbers on the one hand, and
by the Negroes on the other, and that they do not correspond to
the Leucaethiopes of Ptolemy but to his Pyrrhi Aethiopes; 158
according to Clapperton and Richardson they originated from an
intermixture between the Arabs and the Negroes. 159
Certain it is
152 The origin of the Fulbes must be sought for in the far
East, though this refers to a time which for us is enveloped in
impenetrable darkness; it is moreover impossible to explain how
they came to the Senegal. Vide Passarge, 514.
153 They are of Asiatic descent, since they alone possess in
their herds hump-backed cattle and the variety of sheep à nez
busqué both of which are indigenous to the Central Asiatic
Plateau (Preface to "Uber die Idiome Senegambiens").
154 Eichwaldt (Journ. Soc. Ethnol, 1841, I.) seeks to ascribe
their origin "to the Malays, or rather to the Polynesian tribes
residing in Java and Sumatra," with whom he places them in
communication by means of the Meroë; this view is refuted by
Barth, IV., 148, Note.--In answer to this question, the Fulbes
themselves have confused traditions, in which they endeavour,
from religious vanity, to ascribe their origin to the Arabs
(vide Krause and Lenz) or give out that they are descended from
the Jews (Rohlfs. Qu. d. Afr. II., 162), in fact from Fut, a
grandson of Noah, adding that they had formerly lived on the
Berber coast (Ferryman, 53 et seq.) or else, speaking in general
terms, simply that they are descended from the Whites (Monteil,
246).
155 Krause passim, 11 et seq.
156 Vide Lenz, II., 161 et seq.--Lenz assumes that the Desert
was formerly far more densely populated.
157 Niger-Benuë, 39.
158 Barth, II., 505; IV., 600; IV., 150; and, disagreeing
with this, V., 511.
159 Rohlfs, passim.
38

that the people have had great migrations, interrupted by long
periods of rest, which latter may have been passed either in the
Nile Valley 160 or in the Western Desert. 161 Whether, however, the
immigration occurred in several phases, or as one single great
one which split up at the Bend of the Niger at Burrum, cannot
now be determined 162 ; the Fulbes themselves maintain that they
originate from two different families. Without doubt, however,
the area of their last great movement--which was borne on a
demoniacal national spirit, aiming at some great unknown goal,
and which consequently became a secular procession of victorywas
the country of the Senegal, whether it be Futa Toro on its
lower course, 163 or Fuladugu, the country to the north-east of
Kita. 164
A final summary of the historical records bearing on the
Fulbes will bring us back to the point at which we left off,
viz., the conquest of Haussa.
About 300 years after the birth of Christ the Fulbes were
apparently in Bághena (Bakunu), as the ruling race of the
ancient Empire of Ghanata 165 ; in the 7th century they were in
Tuat(?) 166 and about 1300(?) in Kanem. 167 About the same time we
hear of the embassy of two spiritual chiefs of the Fulbes of
Melle to Buri, King of Bornu. 168
In the 15th century (1492) they
were already numerous on the Eastern Niger to the south of
160 Rohlfs, passim, 131; Passarge, 439.
161 Krause; compare Ratzel, Vk. III., 190.--"Possibly the
similarity of their name to that of the Egyptian Fellah is no
mere chance." Passarge, 167.--"This race must have once
inhabited either the Desert or at least the regular steppe lands
on its border, or else must have expanded into them. Their
spareness and slightness of build are race-peculiarities inbred
by their desert life. Baikie also compares them in this respect
to the Bedawin." Passarge, 426.--The Fulbes are possibly the
Garamantes of the ancients. Binger, I., 392.
391.
162 Binger, I., 393.
163 Barth, Faidherbe and others.
164 Monteil, 246.
165 Barth, IV., 600 (according to El Bekri): Binger, I.,
166 Krause, 17.; Barth, however, considers that the migration
may possibly have occurred much later. Jour. Lond., 1860, 118.
Compare I., 275, and Passarge, 514.
167 Krause, passim.
168 Barth, II., 314; IV., 150.
39

Sonrhay, but were not under any ruler; 169 at the end of this
century (1499), after the fall of the Empire of Ghanata-Melle,
the Fulbes poured into the Valley of the Niger and founded
numerous colonies, many of which still bear the name of ghana. 170
In 1534 we hear of a rey dos Fullos being engaged in warfare on
the Senegal with the mandi manssa or King of the Western
Mandingo, 171 and it was at about this period that the Fulbes
established themselves firmly in Futa-Toro, whence they
gradually subdued the whole basin of the Senegal. 172 The first
accounts of Fulbe settlements in Bornu date from the reign of
King Dála (1564-1570). 173 In the 16th century Fulbes are to be
found in Baghirmi, where they had founded miserable shepherd
settlements in place of the later capital of Másenya, 174 while at
the beginning of the 17th century Fulbe tribes had settled in
various places. 175 They were in Haussa either at the beginning
of, or during, the 16th century, 176 and by the end of it in
Sonrhay itself, 177 being kept in subjection by its rulers. From
this time forward they occupied the great military road from
Haussa to Mássina: 178 thus already in the 17th century we find
them within the Bend of the Niger in Dáfina. 179 About 1760,
under the leadership of Abd-el-Kader ( 1770?), and starting from
Futa-Toro, 180
they pushed forward Empire of Melle. They also
turned southwards, establishing themselves among the Jalonke and
under their leader Seri, founded Futa-Jallon with the capitals
169 Barth, 622, 626 (according to Ahmed Baba).
170 Binger, I., 392. About 1500 they were already on the
Upper Gambia. Krause, Ausld, 1883, 454.
171 Barth, IV., 636 (according to De Barros and Ahmed Baba).
172 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.
173 Barth, II., 331, 339.
174 Jour. Lond., passim; Barth, III., 386.
175 Barth, IV., 151.
176 Barth, IV., 151.
177 Barth, IV., 654.
178 Barth, IV., 568.
179 Binger, I., 418 to the same period--i.e. some 200 years
ago--Passarge defers the migration of the Fulbe herds, the
Borroro, to Adamaua; see p. 106.
180 Faidherbe passim.--Barth, V., 512. For the history of
Senegambia compare Ritter, Afrika, 410 et seq.
40

of Timbo and Labe; in 1785 Sory Ibrahim assumed the title of an
almany. 181
182
By the rising of Othman, referred to on page 11, the
centre of gravity of the political influence of the Fulbes was
transferred from Senegal to Haussa, and at the same time there
was given to the latter a dynasty acknowledged by all. After an
unfortunate beginning in Gober, Othman, with the assistance of
his brother Abd-Allahi, and more especially of his son Bello,
was victorious over the Haussas, added to his spiritual dignity
the title of Sheikh and, with the help of his fanaticised hosts,
conquered not only Gober but also the remaining Haussa
countries, namely: Kebbi, Sánfara, Kátsena, (which bravely
defended itself for seven years against Mallem Romaro, and was
only subdued by starvation,) Saria, Kano, (which shamefully and
almost without resistance surrendered to Othman's Commander-in-
Chief Silman,) and Bauchi, where Othman received a splendid
reception from the Negro Prince Yakoba, who had gone over to
Islam. 183
These early conquests occurred between 1802 and 1808, in
which latter year the Fulbes pushed forward into Bornu, driving
Sultan Ahmed from his capital Ghaser-Eggomo, but were in turn
driven back by Sheikh El Kanemi, of Fezzan, who had founded a
fresh dynasty in the newly-built town of Kuka; in vain the
Fulbes sought, in the course of a bloody war extending over
184
decades, to reach the Chad basin. From Bornu and Bauchi the
Fulbes turned towards Fumbina, 185 the country on the Upper Benue,
which, under the leadership of the Malim Adama they conquered
and named Adamaua after him. The left portion of the Fulbe
inundation, starting from Gando, flowed in a southerly direction
into the valley of the Niger; whereas in Borgu the Fulbes could
obtain no foothold, Malim Dodo, in the latter half of the
century, 186 took possession of Nupe, 187
at that time cursed with
civil war. The most southerly Fulbe State in the west is
181 According to Vivien de St. Martin.
182 Clapperton, 2. Reise, Appendix; Barth, IV., 152 et seq.;
Monteil, 247.--Othman formerly dwelt in the village of Daghel in
Koni (near Wurno): he was for a long time besieged in Gando.
183 Rohlfs, Qu. d. Afr. II., 151 et seq.
184 Denham speaks of the ruins of 30 towns destroyed by the
Fulbes (p. 242).
185 Between 1815 and 1825; compare Mizon, Toundu m. 1892,
II., 266 and v. Stetten, Kol. Bl. 1895, 180.
186 Rohlfs, Qu. d. Afr. II., 247 et seq.; Ferryman, 148.
187 Clapperton, II., 75.
41

Ilorin, in Northern Yóruba, 188 which already at the beginning of
the century had been conquered by Malim Alimi, and which fought
obstinately against the heathen Ibadan and has continued to do
so almost up to the present date. In 1816 Malim Lebbo led a
body of Fulbes from Gando towards the North-West and founded, on
the Niger above Timbuktu, the independent Empire of Mássina. 189
Othman died in 1817; he was the greatest poet of his race, 190
ended his life "in an act of fanatical ecstasy or species of
mental aberration"; his grave in Sókoto is the subject of great
veneration and is visited by numbers of pilgrims. Before his
death he subdivided his empire in such a manner that his son
Bello received the ancestral country of Sókoto with the rank of
Overlord (or suzerain) whilst his brother Abd Allahi received
Gando.
Now follows a period during which the Fulbes sought to
maintain their conquests, a task in which they were successful,
excepting as regards the western territories of Gando and
Mássina, which were lost in 1862 to the Tukulör under Haji Omar;
the Fulbes then continued to spread over Adamaua without
interruption, and, after crossing the fifth degree of North
Latitude, reached the basin of the Congo. In the central Benue
valley the Fulbes started a new movement by founding, about
1870, on the south bank, the "governments" of Bakúndi
and
191 (under
Burba, the exiled ruler of Muri) and of Wukari 192 (which, up till
1879, had withstood all their attacks). They first reached the
Benue in 1881 at Loko, 193 from Anassárawa, 194 which was founded at
the end of the sixties and was not even mentioned by Rohlfs. 195
A successful campaign by the Fulbes in 1891-92 once more settled
the disputed possession of the countries between Sókoto and the
188 Clapperton, II., 58; Ferryman, 172 et seq.
189 Barth, IV., 484, Note; 670 (1241--1262 of the Hejra);
Krause I., 28.
190 Barth gives a song of Othman's in Fulfulde, with
translation. IV., Appendix 3.
191 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 259; Ferryman 124.--Flegel writes
"Fulde" to express the Fulbes, that being the pronunciation of
the word in the valley of the Benuë.
192 Flegel, G.M., 1880, 224 and M.A.G., III., 257.
193 Flegel, "Briefe," 40; M.A.G., 255. The Fulbe advanced
post in this neighbourhood was, for 50 years, the Keffi Abd-es-
Senga, which was founded by Malim Abd-es-Senga in 1819 and
belongs to Saria; compare Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 189.
194 Flegel, passim; Staudinger, 133.
195 The date of Rohlfs' journey was 1865-67.--Tr.
42

Niger. 196 A descendant of Othman (?), El Ayatu, recently
attempted, with the aid of the adventurer Rabeh, to form an
empire to the south of Lake Chad. 197
According to
198
Monteil the chain of succession of the
rulers of Sókoto is as follows:--
1802-1817 ... Othman, the son of Fodie.
1817-1832 ... (according to Barth, 1837) Mohammed
Bello, son of Othman.
1832-1837 ... (according to Barth 1837-1843) Atiku,
son of Othman.
1837-1855 ... Aliu, son of Bello.
1855-1862 ... Hamadu, son of Atiku.
1862-1863 ... Aliu-Karami, son of Bello.
1863-1868 ... Abubakar, son of Bello.
1868-1873 ... Amadu-Rafai, son of Sheikh Osman,
the son of Bello.
1871-1879 ... Madiu-bun-Diabolu, son of Bello.
1879-1891 ... Omar, son of Bello.
since 1891 ... Abdherraman, son of Abubakar.
196 Monteil, 197, 210, 235 et seq.
197 C.R.S., 1894, 265 et seq.--Three great lines of expansion
of varying character proceed in a southerly direction from
Sókoto: the first, imbued with the most life (and which also
reaches furthest to the south), in the east (Adamaua): the
second, which pressed rapidly forward at first, but which was
long since checked, in the west (Yóruba); and the third, which
hung back at first, but in which new life has arisen, in the
middle. Passarge gives the history of "Hayatu" in detail
(p. 189 et seq.); 200; also that of Rabba (Rabbeh Arábi) up to
the conquest of Kuka; p. 194 et seq., 519; compare Monteil
245.--G.M., 1894, 167; Mitt. Wien. 1894, 191.
198 Monteil, 248; the points of difference with other
accounts are not inconsiderable; compare Barth, IV., 152 et
seq., and App. 2; Krause I., 20; Lenz II., 265.
43

THE POLITICAL ARENA AND CHIEF CENTRES OF THE
EASTERN FULBE EMPIRE.
The eastern Fulbe Empire or Fulbe-Haussa (the most correct
name is Pul-Haussa) lies between 5° and 14° N. Lat. and between
the meridian of Greenwich and the 15th degree of East Longitude,
with its longer axis from Dore in Libtako (N.W.) to Gasa in
Adamaua (S.E.), and its shorter axis from Ilorin (S.W.) to
Kátsena (N.E.). It is subdivided into the larger original
Empire of Sókoto to the east and the smaller Empire of Gando to
the west, though properly speaking the latter forms only one of
the provinces of the former with the younger branch of the
reigning family as hereditary rulers. (N.B.--The use of the
word Sókoto to signify the whole empire is incorrect.)
THE EMPIRE OF SOKOTO.
The Empire of Sókoto takes as its basis, though in a
greatly modified form, the old Haussa partition (vide pp. 10,
11) and includes a number of tracts of country of very varied
size and political importance; these "provinces" are as
follows: 199
KEBBI, SANFARA, ADAR, GOBER, MARADI, KATSENA,
TESSAUA, DAURA, KASSAURE, KANO, HADEJA, KATAGUM, MESSAU, KALAM,
(MARGHI, MANDARA, MUSSGU), SARIA, BAUCHI, MURI, KOROROFA,
ADAMAUA.
200
The Province of KEBBI (formerly spelt Kabi) is divided
into a south-eastern portion, completely subject to the Fulbes,
and a north-western portion, inhabited by independent Haussa
pagans; the former portion is again shared by Gando and Sókoto.
A frontier province such as the above may--characteristically
of the entire Empire--be considered to have been the original
seat of the whole Eastern Fulbe Empire; in it are situated the
official capital and "residence"--Sókoto.
201
SOKOTO , according to Barth, has a population of 20,000 to
22,000. Its remarkable situation, in the north-west corner of
the Empire, is sufficiently explained by history. Sókoto was
preserved and maintained, from religious motives, as being the
holy and learned city of the Fulbes. The town, the name of
which, according to Clapperton, means "place of rest," is
situated at an altitude of 270 metres 202
(886 feet) at the
199 Compare Barth, IV., 156; Staudinger, 516 et seq.;
Monteil, 248.--Aïr or Asben lies entirely beyond the sphere of
influence of Sókoto; its inhabitants only pay duty when they
visit the Fulbes as traders.
200 Barth, IV., 165, Note--Monteil writes it Kabbi.
201 Clapperton, I., 585 et seq.; II., 267 et seq.; Barth,
IV., 174 et seq. Staudinger 338 et seq.; Monteil, 240 et seq.;
C.R.S., 1893, 63 et seq.--Plan; Barth, IV., 183.
202 Staudinger 495.
44

junction of the Gulbi-n-Gandi with the Gulbi-n-Rimi (an
unimportant eastern tributary of the Niger, which however
becomes much swollen in the rainy season 203
) and is in fact "not
far from the point where the three provinces or territories of
Kebbi, Gober and Adar meet." On the occasion of his second
visit Clapperton found the town, which was built about 1810 and
considerably enlarged in 1818, two-thirds reduced to ashes by
the Haussas. It forms a large rectangle and is surrounded by a
badly-repaired wall from 5 to 6 metres (16 to 20 feet) high, the
very narrow entrances through which--as everywhere else in the
Sudan--are closed at sunset.
Sókoto, in contrast to other large Haussa towns, is thickly
inhabited, but built altogether without symmetry; the huts are
rough and untidy; to both Barth and Monteil it conveyed the
impression of poverty. Many of the open spaces in the interior
of the town, from which mud has been taken for neighbouring
buildings, become in the rainy season evil-smelling sewers; the
dwellings of the Sultans and chiefs, built in the Arab style and
surrounded by high walls, are in a sad state owing to the Court
being seldom there, in fact only once a year. A mosque built in
Clapperton's time on the Egyptian model was found by Barth to be
already in ruins. In front of the rampart is a sort of suburb,
204
Bado. The surrounding country is well cultivated and yields
plenty of rice and onions; irrigation-canals lead out from the
rivers--which is seldom the case in Negro countries. Sókoto is
in no sense a commercial town; all large transactions are
carried out at Kano. In addition to the points referred to
above its importance lies in the fact that it is a strong
bulwark against the heathen races.
In the southern half of the ancient Haussa country of
Gober, which is likewise shared by heathens and mahomedans, lies
Wurno.
WURNO 205
(population about 15,000) is the second residence
of the Empire and is a short day's journey to the north-west
(sic.? N.E. Tr.) of Sókoto, and was built at the beginning of
the twentieth century under Sultan Bello. Since 1831 it has
been the favourite residence of the Sultans, from the monkish
and ascetic Aliu, who selected it as the capital of the Tórobe,
to the one now reigning. At Wurno the Court feels itself more
secure from the heathen, whilst its continued presence in Sókoto
203 Barth, V., 332.
204 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 56.--Barth, in IV., App. 4 gives a
topographical sketch of Kebbi, which place strictly speaking
belongs to Sókoto.
205 Barth, IV., 143, 157 et seq.; Staudinger, 361 et seq.;
Monteil, 249--Plan: Barth, IV., 163.--The important places in
the neighbourhood are residences of Fulbe princes, for instance
Yassaura (Staudinger, 374) where the heirapparent resides, and
Gandi (Monteil, 254), where another brother of the Sultan lives.
45

would induce attacks. The town, (which is formed of round
straw-covered mud huts, scattered about amongst which at
intervals are shops made of clay,) in which the Fulbes pass
their time as far as possible in contemplative seclusion, is,
like Sókoto, pretty thickly populated right up to the walls,
but, in spite of its genteel inhabitants, is very dirty; water
is fetched from a neighbouring valley and sold for cowries. The
streets are only two or three metres (6½--10 ft.) in width.
Industry and commerce are of small account; the market-place,
which is situated on a natural terrace in front of the northwest
gate, and where a market is held every Monday and Friday,
is surrounded with a ditch and fortified as, owing to the
political weakness of the Fulbes, it is always exposed to sudden
attack by the enemy. The neighbourhood is well-cultivated and
besprinkled with granaries.
To the south and east of Sókoto is the province of Sánfara.
KAURA 206
(Clapperton's Quarra), the present capital of
SANFARA, has greatly developed since Barth's time; it is here
that caravans going to Kano unite in order to traverse the
Forest of Gundumi in sufficient strength. The Gobiri have here
still remained tolerably pure, and the Haussa language is spoken
just as correctly as in Kátsena; it is the burial place of
Sultan Omar.
207
In Clapperton's time the residential town was Sürmi
(12,000 inhabitants; according to Barth 5000), which is situated
on a peninsula, overlooking the high and steep banks of a river,
and which forms a place of refuge for runaway prisoners from all
parts of Haussa, and is the centre of a profitable trade in
Dodoa-cakes (prepared from the Parkia biglobosa, a spice much
appreciated throughout the Sudan).
208
A former capital, Birni-n-Sanfara, was destroyed in 1764,
and the old residence Kiaua is also in ruins, 209
proofs of the
206 Clapperton, I., 580; Barth, IV., 535 (Guára); Staudinger,
311, 385 et seq.; M.A.G. V., 105; Monteil, 260.
207 Clapperton, I., 570, 633; Barth, IV., 123. Sürmi still
rules over a portion of the province. In this neighbourhood one
first meets (coming from the west) with the rudu or sleeping
platforms, about 3 metres (10 feet) high, mounted by means of a
ladder, and which afford protection against the countless
insects. Barth, IV., 130, 212. Towards the west the fertile
area is utilized to such an extraordinary extent that often
there is no room to pitch tents between the walls of the town
and the standing sorghum crop, which grows luxuriantly to a
height of from 5 to 9 metres (17 to 30 feet).
Barth, V., 304, 349 et seq.
208 Barth,
places.
IV., 533; together with the Fulbe and heathen
209 Monteil, 263; Barth, IV., 535.
46

factions and dissensions of the Haussas and of the incomplete
subjection of the country by the Fulbe.
The northern halves of KEBBI and SANFARA, the countries of
ADAR, GOBER, and MARADI (Marodi) are the dwelling-places of the
independent pagan Haussa tribes of like name. These frontier
districts are the scenes of desperate guerilla warfare and very
frequently change hands. By a successful attack of the Fulbe on
the territories lying to the west of Sókoto the greater part of
these came under their sway in 1891/92. 210
KEBBI
211
had its prosperous time as a Haussa State at the
beginning of the 16th century "when the whole of Gurma, with all
the Sonrhay localities as far as Tera, were under its sway";
under its brave prince Kanta it maintained its independence
against the powerful States of Sonrhay and Bornu. In 1544 a
great battle took place between the armies of Kebbi and Bornu;
in 1591 the King of Kebbi declined to give the last King of
Sonrhay the protection he craved. Wars of succession and civil
wars shattered the country. The capital of the independent
Kebbi, "the real bulwark of resistance" against Sókoto, was the
town of Argungu, since destroyed.
212
ARGUNGU (20,000 inhabitants--Monteil) was the residence
of the rebel chieftain Sserki-n-Kebbi, and the centre of the
heathen worship of the sacred tunka tree (a species of
tamarind); it had a tata (rampart) 6 kilometres (4 miles) in
extent and had no open spaces within it. Monteil calls Argungu
a lion's den and at the same time says it is the dirtiest negro
dwelling-place that he ever saw--a superlative which is somewhat
difficult to arrive at; hundreds of swine bear evidence to the
heathenish character of the spot. It enjoyed a peculiarly safe
position, being separated on the east from Fulbe territory by
broad frontier deserts, whilst from the west it was always
supplied with both provisions and warriors. Sassagua, Gulma and
Saua 213
are also represented as being strong, well-populated and
well-provisioned localities in heathen Kebbi.
214
Barth mentions Anka, the seat of the Sserki-n-Sánfara, as
the "residence" of the independent portion of Sánfara.
210 The possession of Mayo (Gulbi-n-) Kebbi is of special
importance on account of the extensive rice crops in its lowlying
land.
211 Barth, V., 319; IV., 215, 633 et seq.; II., 86.
212 Barth, IV., 551; Monteil, 224 et seq.; C.R.S. 1893, 63--
Argungu has been described as above because it appears again in
another place and under a different name; Barth suggests Augi
and Mera as being former capitals of Kebbi, since destroyed;
IV., 548, Note.
213 Monteil, passim.
214 Barth, IV., 534.
47

The capital of the pasture-land territory of Adar, which
lies N.W. of Wurno and which is likewise separated by a frontier
zone 60 kilometres (38 miles) in breadth and is but loosely
connected with the Fulbe rule, is KONNI 215
(Koni). The Moors of
Adar and the inhabitants of Kebbi, Mauri and Sabèrma rob one
another alternately, the former however always having the best
of it.
Gober (to the north of Sanfara and east of Adar), which
boasts of dry and good pasturage, ("the most important and
noblest of the old Haussa States,") was already in the middle of
the 14th century cited by Ibn Batuta as the export country for
216
the copper of Takedda. At the end of the 17th century it was
so powerful that its King, Ssoba, crossed the Niger and
undertook campaigns to the west of it; in the middle of the 18th
century (about 1757) it was ruled over by the powerful King
Babari. 217 Leo speaks of a capital called Guber which must have
been of considerable importance; artifices atque telae textores
infiniti 218 ; Barth mentions the earlier capital, Alkalaua 219
,
founded by Babari in 1764.
The heathen Haussa race of the Maradi, who are settled
220
north of Kátsena, has or had a capital of the same name.
A province which formerly flourished, but has very much
retrograded since its conquest by the Fulbes, is Kátsena.
KATSENA is admirably situated on the water-parting between
the Chad and Niger basins, and has a capital of the same name 221
(Leo: Casena, Cassena 222
; Clapperton Kaschna (? from Geschnabushes
or underwood); Staudinger: Kátschena; Passarge,
Katsínna). It was founded as a unified State by Komayo, about
1200; in 1513 Haji Mohammed A'skia, King of Sonrhay, brought it
for a short time under his rule, after which it became partly
independent and partly a dependency of Kebbi or Bornu.
The town of Kátsena (7000 to 8000 inhabitants) is, as
regards its rise and fall, typical of all the large towns of the
Sudan. It was formerly quite unimportant and, from a few
215 Barth, I., 529; IV., 543; Monteil, 234, 247.
216 Trad. M. de Slane, Jour. asiat., 1842, 234.
217 Barth, I., 244 et seq.; II., 79; IV., 539 et seq.
218 Descr. Afr., 649.
219 Barth, IV., 539.
220 Barth, I., 530; compare Petermann's map in vol. V.
221 Clapperton, I., 635 et seq.; Barth, II., 84 et seq.; IV.,
96 et seq.; Staudinger, 292, 387.--Plan: Barth, II., 90.
222 Descr. Afr., 652; he lays stress on the miserable
dwellings in regnum Casena.
48

scattered villages, developed--after the capture of Gogo, the
Sonrhay capital on the Niger, by the people of Morocco--into an
important town (end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th
century) and received the name of the country (or State). "In
all probability Kátsena was, during the 17th and 18th centuries,
the most important town both commercially and politically of the
whole of this portion of the Sudan"; even if only half the
enormous space which it occupied had been populated, and that
but sparsely, it is certain that at this period it must have had
100,000 inhabitants (in Barth's description two pages are
occupied in enumerating the districts into which the town of
Kátsena was formerly divided). Its downfall was effected under
the dynasty of the Habe by a fierce battle with the Fulbes in
1807. Since Kátsena came into the possession of the Fulbes, and
owing also to its exposed position with regard to the
irreconcilable pagan Haussas, the latter have not permitted any
large amount of commerce to reach either it or Sókoto; though
Kátsena is far healthier and is situated on a main road to Nupe,
passable even by camels, trade nevertheless flowed towards Kano
as being the more secure route. At the present day only the
north-western quarter, or only one-tenth of the space included
within the great town-wall (of some 13 to 14 English miles in
extent,) is inhabited, and even this is partly deserted--a huge
withered exotic growth.
A market is held each day in two places; in the northern
part, where mostly Asbins 223 are to be found, and in the southern
part, where the merchants are mostly from Ghadames and Tuat, as
this forms the eastern limit of the eastern Mandingos, whose
descendants live here as traders. 224 Kátsena is up to the
present day the most famous town in the whole Sudan for the
ancient native art of tanning; 225
in this, as well as in the
preservation of the purest Haussa dialect (vide ante), it stands
forth as being that one of the centres of the Fulbe Empire which
has most thoroughly preserved the old Haussa character. (See
p. 11, Note 4.)
North-east, east and south-east of Kátsena are the frontier
223 The Asbins (Asbens or Asbenaua), the black Tuareg crossbreeds
of Asben (Aïr) and Adar (Aden), not only travel hither as
salt merchants but have also settled as landowners (Barth, II.,
100, 108; Monteil, 259; compare Barth, I., 371 et seq.). They
are also to be found in large numbers in Kano, and wander round
the town as camel-thieves, luring the animals at night by
whistling to them (Monteil, 299). By the opening up of the
Niger Benuë to Europeans however the whole desert trade has been
dislocated and diminished, and a new era has begun for the
States of the Sudan (compare Passarge, 481, 518 et seq.).
seq.
224 Barth, J. Lond. 1860, 118.
225 As regards leatherware in Kuka vide Nachtigal, I., 676 et
49

districts towards Bornu, viz.:--Tessaua, 226
Daura, Kassaure
(north of Kano), Hadeja and Katagum (east of Kano), Messau and
Kalam (south of the latter), Marghi, Mándara and Mussgu (between
Adamaua and Bornu).
227
The now very degenerate town of Daura (east north-east of
Kátsena) was apparently the oldest of the Haussa States and the
centre of the old heathen cult in which the pagan god dodo was
first of all worshipped, and then, later on, destroyed. 228 The
other remnants of Haussa States, no longer provinces or
districts of Sókoto but mere townships, are Biram and Rano.
Biram lies between Kano and Hadeja, but is close to the latter.
"Biram, the personification of this town, is said to have been,
(through his grandson, Banu, son of Karbágari), the ancestor of
the personifications of the six other Haussa States". 229 Rano,
east of Saria, south-west of Kano, "at present at a very low
ebb, (although always a place of considerable importance with
excellent dye-works,) was originally the chief town of its own
independent territory, just as much as any of the others, though
not mentioned in the earlier accounts." 230
The large province of Kano is separated from Bornu by
231
forests; its frontier place is Gerki, with 15,000 inhabitants.
232
The capital of Hadeja is Birni-n-Hadeja, a large place
with a well-kept wall on one of the sources of the Komádugu,
which flows into Lake Chad.
233
Katagum (7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants) was found by
Clapperton to be surrounded by two parallel walls and three
ditches, and to be the boundary between the spheres of currency
of cotton-strips in the east and cowries in the west, which
latter have been introduced into Bornu since 1850.
234
Gombe, the capital of Kalam, is a large town of huts,
226 Barth, II., 18 et seq.
227 Barth, II., 81.
228 The worship of dodo appears to be very much disseminated
throughout Haussa, but in different forms. Compare Barth, I.,
622; Vogel Z, f. allg. Erdk. 1856, 484; Rohlfs Qu. d. A. II.,
199; Passarge 124, 497 et seq.
229 Barth II., 80.
230 Barth II., 82.
231 Vide map, Barth II., sheet 7.
232 Birni means "a town surrounded by a rampart"; Monteil,
302: Birni-Hadéidjia.
233 Clapperton, I., 512 et seq; Barth, II., 161.
50
234 Barth, II., 709; Vogel, Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1856, 483;
Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 134.

surrounded by a well-kept wall and ditch, and having some 20,000
inhabitants (Fulbe, Kanuri, and Haussa). 235
236
Barth mentions Mora as the capital of chachúndala,
Mándara, or Wándala.
237
The frontier territories belonging to Bornu are: Sinder,
235 Rohlfs here first met with the clay fire-beds, capable of
being warmed, already described by Leo in his "province of
Saria" (Zegzeg regnum) "in mediis aedibus focum extrunt
luculentissimum, prunas deinde sub lecticis eminentioribus
locant, atque hoc modo se somno componunt." (Descr. Afr., 653):
recently again Staudinger (171); Barth speaks of strong wooden
platforms covered with clay as bedsteads, but says nothing about
their being heated (II., 526); compare Passarge, 71.
236 Barth, II., 709, with statements by Vogel.
51
237 The following is an extract from the history of this, the
most important of the border States of Haussa, with special
reference to its relations with the latter (according to Denham
and Clapperton, Barth [II., 307 et seq], Rohlfs, Nachtigal and
Monteil); Bornu had its origin in the Empire of Kanem, to the
north and east of Lake Chad; the princes and notables accepted
Islam as early as 1090; Bornu became independent at the end of
the 14th century. Wars of succession between the Ssäfua and
Bulala dynasties at one time caused the greatest misery;
powerful rulers, however, undertook campaigns against Kanem and
Haussa (Afno), as far as the Kuara (Niger), where, already in
1392, there arose a state of dependence upon Bornu; about 1500
Mai Ali Ghajidemi put an end to the civil war and turned against
Haji Mohamed Askia, of Sonrhay. At the beginning of the 16th
century the mother country, Kanem, became a dependency of Bornu,
which had now reached its greatest territorial expansion and the
height of its power. About 1544 a great battle took place
between Mohamed of Bornu and a King of Kebbi (Haussa); about
1600 the victorious Haji Edriss Alaoma extended the power of
Bornu as far as the Shari; on the other hand (1645 1684) Sultan
Ali was besieged in his capital of Ghasr-Eggomo simultaneously
by the Köana (a tribe from Korórofa, in the Benuë valley, which
had long been subject to Bornu) and by the Tuaregs from Aïr.
About 1808 the Fulbes entered Bornu with the view of driving
Sultan Ahmed from the ancient capital; Faki Mohamed el Kanemi,
however, a native of Fezzan, drove them back and, contenting
himself with the title of shiekh, founded, along with the old
dynasty, a new one, and built the new capital, Kuka, in place of
Ghasr Eggomo, which had been destroyed by the Fulbes. He died
in 1835 (1838), after fierce wars with Sókoto, Baghirmi and
Wadai. He was succeeded by his son Mai Omar, the prince who was
so friendlily disposed towards European travellers, but who was
devoid of energy and an ascetic. In 1846 Mohamed Ssaleh of
Wadai plundered Kuka, which was rebuilt by Omar as a double
town. In that same year the old dynasty of Ssäfua died out.
The successes of Barth, Rohlfs and Nachtigal are due in a great

Gummel, Máshena, Bedde or Badde, Ngussum, Gujiba (Marghi,
Mándara, Mussgu).
The best cultivated province of the Empire, "one of the
most fortunate spots in Africa (Massari), and in the world"
(Barth) is Kano.
KANO, however, derives its position of importance in the
Empire, not from the above, but from its capital of the same
name, which is the centre of a large caravan trade.
Kano has often, in relation to the ancient Empire of Ghana
or Ghánata, been erroneously located at the knee of the Niger
(vide p. 60); as a Haussa State 238 it was at one time
independent, at another under the suzerainty of Bornu and
Kátsena, and for a short time also of Korórofa; about 1423 239 it
was the place of refuge of a Bornu prince and was conquered
about 1600 by the Bornu king Edriss 240
; at the beginning of the
17th century the population accepted Islam.
Clapperton puts down the population of the town of Kano
at from 30,000 to 40,000; Barth estimates it at 30,000
residents, mostly Haussas, Kanuri, Tappa (from Nupe), Arabs, a
few Wangaraua, and about 4,000 Fulbes; in addition, some 60,000
strangers in the busy commercial season from January to April.
Massari gives it at "over 50,000 for certain"; Staudinger at
from 60,000 to 80,000; Monteil at from 50,000 to 60,000; "the
numbers of the floating-population cannot even be approximately
determined, but cannot be under two millions, all of whom in the
course of the year have to come into Kano for a short time on
business matters." This metropolis of a carefully cultivated
territory extending over hundreds of kilometres has developed
from a small rocky spot, Dala, in the north. It is divided in
the rainy season into a northern and a southern half by a lake-
measure to Sheikh Omar, who died in 1881. He was succeeded by
Sheikhs Bubakar and Birahim, who reigned, the former 3½ years
and the latter under a year. On the occasion of Monteil's visit
Sheikh Ashim had reigned some 9 years; the Empire was clearly in
a state of decline; in the west the Prince of Sinder had
obtained his independence, whilst from the west it was
threatened by Wadai and by the bands of the adventurer Rabeh,
who, from Dar Banda and Dar Fertit conquered Baghirmi, and from
the latter conquered Bornu and took possession of Kuka, whence
he threatened the Empire of Sókoto.
238 Barth, II., 136 et seq.
239 Barth, II., 319.
240 Barth, II., 335.
241 Clapperton, I., 530 et seq.; Barth, II., 113 et seq.; V.,
359 et seq.; Massari, Ausld. 1882, 796 et seq.; Staudinger, 241
et seq.; Monteil, 266 et seq.--Plans of the town: Clapperton,
I., 552; Barth, II., 126; Monteil, 281.
241
52

like swamp; it is consequently unhealthy, and was found by
Clapperton to be very dirty, but by Monteil very clean, the
filth having been removed into the fields with the aid of
donkeys. The town has 14 gates; the imposing main gate is about
20 metres (66 ft.) high. Its extremely well-preserved wall,
seven to eight metres (23 ft. to 26 ft.) in height, has an
extent of some 15 English miles. The nearest houses are all at
a distance of half-an-hour from a second inner wall. With a
view to having fields available in the event of a siege, the
enclosed land is only partially built over. 242
The royal
residence is to the east of the town and is surrounded by a high
wall, thus forming a little town in itself.
In the northern portion the residents are mostly Haussas,
243
Arabs, and Berber cross-breeds, Asbins, (whose place of
assembly for non-residents, Rini Asbenaua, is to the westward
and beyond the wall,) while in the southern portion are Fulbes;
the Moorish class of house 244
consequently predominates in the
northern portion, while the straw-roofed hut predominates in the
southern. The extraordinarily large number of blind people live
in a special quarter in the north-west. A few kilometres northeast
of Kano is Fanisao, the country residence of the Court.
Kano is beyond dispute the chief commercial town of the
Sudan, and forms its "great central market"; all the races of
the Sudan and of the Sahara meet here, where the general
245
civilization reaches its maximum. "In the inner town the
amount of business done is enormous, there are hardly any
unemployed." The people of Kano are still locked upon as the
most intelligent and most educated in all Haussa, and at the
Court here there is more ceremony than in Sókoto. There is a
market every day. On the enormous market square are to be found
all sorts of animals, and the products of the soil and of the
industry of the Sudan, as well as many European goods; there are
daily some 30,000 people attending it. The monetary standard is
the cowrie, although most articles are exchanged direct; silver
is rare; the trade is supervised by a sort of market-police; any
business on a large scale is carried out by agents, who are paid
by the vendors and who are usually their inn-keepers.
In reviewing the trade and commerce of Kano the first place
242 In Clapperton's time only one fourth was built over;
relatively speaking the western and north-western portions are
empty; the town has already expanded on one occasion. Barth's
map still shows a portion of the old wall.
243 Called Turanke--they are mostly agents of Arab firms in
Ghadames; from 60-80 of them are permanent, while in the dry
season there are from 400 to 500.
244 Vide Barth's sketch of Dala, II., Table 13.
245 Thus Leo (passim, 652) Inhabitatores sunt mercatores
ditissimi, civilitatis amantissimi.
53

must be awarded to cotton goods; 246
Tobe (shirt-like garments for
men), and Túrkedis (aprons for women), are made out of narrow
strips; "a special advantage in this manufacture, from a social
point of view, is that their production is the result not of
work in a factory but of work done at home by the family"
(Barth).
The dyeworks of Kano are the most famous in the whole
247
Sudan. Artistic embroidery is worked upon the clothing of the
upper classes, as also on a good deal of leather-work, which is
exported in large quantities, (more especially sandals,
satchels, water-bottles and morocco leather), to Tripoli and
Morocco.
A large trade--but how large it is, it is difficult to
calculate--is done in kola nuts; these are brought from Gonja
(Northern Ashanti) by large caravans (vide p. 102), part being
sold in the country, while the rest are sent on at once by the
trade routes to Kuka, Wadaï, and Khartum.
European goods are brought from Tripoli, more cheaply than
they can be delivered from the English factories, by the Arabs,
who travel at less expense, even by this long route.
In Barth's time about 5,000 slaves were exported.
Salt 248
is exchanged by the Asbins of the north "for an
absolute equivalent of their requirements" in cotton goods and
corn; Kano is also the place of transit for the saltpetre which
is sent from Bornu (Gummel) to Nupe.
As regards the ivory-trade Kano is of but small importance,
as ivory is no longer sent viá the Desert to Tripoli, but goes
down the valley of the Benue.
As regards provisions it deserves to be brought prominently
to notice that these are sold by women everywhere along the busy
thoroughfare.
Kano's greatness was brought about by the conjunction of a
number of causes and conditions, the first of which, both
politically and historically, was the downfall of Kátsena (1807)
owing to its obstinate defence against the Fulbes; Kano soon
246 Kano clothes two thirds of the Sudan, and almost the
whole Central and Eastern Sahara; its textures go as far as
Timbuktu (not direct, on account of the belt of forest and of
warfare, but by Ghat and Ghadames, an extraordinarily circuitous
route), and to the Atlantic Ocean, Tripoli, Lake Chad, Southern
Adamaua and Ashanti.
247 Over 2,000 indigo factories are in operation.
248 The bitter salt from Bilma is brought to Kano by the
large caravans of the Asbins (Kel-owi), which Barth (II., 50)
estimates at 3,500 camel-loads. Salt is also brought into the
Sudan from Taudeni (north of Timbuktu), from the sebcha Ijil
(west of Timbuktu), from the dallul Fogha (in Gando) and from
several sebchas in Bauchi and Muri; it is also obtained in some
places by washing out the ashes of grasses.
54

ecame the great south-western market of the Arabs, who wish to
reach Haussa though not to penetrate it. Its greater distance
from the warlike Haussa pagans to the north was also in its
favour, as it lies considerably south of Kátsena; it was,
moreover, admirably situated, from a geographical point of view,
midway between the basins of the Nile and of Lake Chad in the
east, and the Kola-territory (Gonja, Worodugu) in the west; and
between Timbuktu and Tripoli in the north, and Nupe and Adamaua
in the south. Besides this it was in the vicinity of the so
characteristically life-producing fringe of the desert, (which
it turned into an emporium for the salt-trade,) as also of a
mighty river, and finally on a pilgrim-route from the Western
Sudan to Mekka. We must also bear in mind the fertility of the
province which, under the conditions incident to African trade,
can permit of the assemblage of so many human beings; also its
own highly-developed industry (weaving, dyeing, tanning and
leatherworking), and finally the insatiable desire for trade
possessed by the Haussas.
The Kano of to-day represents the zenith of a civilisation
which has passed in great waves from west to east ever since the
commencement of the Christian era, and which is indicated by the
trade centres of Ghánata, Timbuktu, Gogo, Kátsena, and Kano,
which flourished successively, and which comprise the material
and spiritual wealth of the stream of population. This stream
turned at the Pillars of Hercules in a south-easterly direction,
and in its tracks there followed later on the spring-tide of
Islam, direct from which, even at the Mediterranean, rivulets
trickled down in a southerly direction.
The starting point for the conquest of the Lower Benue
valley, rendered difficult by the intervening wooded mountains,
was formed by SARIA, which has a central situation to the north
of the angle formed by the junction of the Benue with the Niger.
Saria is also called Ségseg (Leo: Zegzeg regnum) though
apparently only in documents. Another name for it is Soso.
This province forms the thoroughfare from the valley of the
Niger and Benue to the political centres to the north and to the
commercial centres to the east, and also (by road) from the
Niger, viá Bauchi to Yola and Yer, "the point of expansion" in
South Adamaua.
The town of Saria 249 (Baikie: Zariya, Vogel: Salia) had,
in the days of its prosperity, possibly from 80,000 to 100,000
inhabitants, but has now not more than the half of that number;
the new Fulbe town lies two English miles to the south-east of
the old heathen town, 250
of which only the walls are now
249 Clapperton, II., 220 et seq.; Barth, II., 672; Vogel,
passim, 483; Baikie, J., Lond., 1867, 94 et seq.; Rohlfs, Qu. d.
A., II., 148; Massari, Ausld. 1882, 797; Flegel, M.A.G. V., 103;
Staudinger, 197 et seq., 511, 602.
55
250 It is a singular fact that the Fulbes have settled mostly
in the southern part of the great place, as if, after
penetrating the conquered settlement they had at once made

ecognisable. Numerous millet-fields are to be found within the
walls of this unhealthy spot which, like Kano, harbours a number
of blind people. The principal wealth of the market of Saria
consists now, as from time immemorial, of slaves, as it lies in
the midst of numerous heathen territories which still maintain
themselves in the dense forests on the slopes of the universally
mountainous country; some 300 are brought daily into the market;
all large payments are made in slaves. Here we meet with salt
from the Tuaregs and from Bauchi; tobe from Kano, Nupe and
Ilorin; isolated Arab merchants also penetrate as far as this
with their wares. There is but little in the way of industrial
work, though excellent smith's work is done in the manufacture
of superior articles.
KEFFI is a well-cultivated Vassal-State of Saria and lies
to the south of it. It was founded in 1819, by the Malim Abdes-Senga.
The capital of Keffi is Keffi Abd-es-Senga 251
(shortly
Keffi). For the first fifty years the town made but little
progress, but since the decline of the carrying trade an ivory
from Adamaua viá Kuka to Tripoli, and the transfer to this place
of the land route from Yola to the middle Niger, (which formerly
passed viá Bauchi,) it has become a flourishing ivory market,
with from 20,000 to 30,000 Mahomedan and heathen inhabitants.
The ivory-caravans proceeding from east to west are met at
Keffi by others going in a direction north and south, for it is
the point of intersection of the trade-routes coming from the
Mediterranean and from the Atlantic Ocean; one here meets with
252
European goods brought both from the Guinea Coast and from
Tripoli. English silver is current as far as Keffi; here one
already finds, besides the circular huts, also the square huts
which are so common on the Lower Niger. Finally, Keffi is also
important by reason of its manufacture of excellent bronzed
pottery, and of its being the centre for the Haussa porters, who
are recruited from poor and youngish men 253
.
Between Keffi and the Benue is the recently created Emirate
preparation for a further advance southwards.
251 Barth, II., 673 et seq.; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II. 189 et
seq., and G.M. Ergb. VII., 67 et seq.; Flegel, M.A.G., III.,
139; Staudinger, 139 et seq.; Ferryman, 133 et seq.
252 The unloading station on the Benue is Odeni, which is
defended by a rampart with watch-towers. From here the Emir of
Keffi makes slave-raids to the south across the Benue.
Ferryman, 134.
253 Abúja, west of Keffi, whither the ancient rulers of Saria
repaired when driven away by the Fulbes, is an independent State
and a place of refuge for the heathens. Flegel, M.A.G., III.,
139; Flegel mentions Bagaji as an Arab colony to the N.W. of
Kano.
56

of ANASSARAWA 254 (Nassarawa) which, together with its capital of
the same name on the Kogi-n-Anassárawa, belongs to Saria. The
town was built at the end of 1860. The Kogi-n-Anassárawa can,
during the period of high water, when it rises some 8 metres (26
feet), be navigated from the Benue right up to Anassárawa. The
ruler of Anassárawa undertakes numerous raids towards the south,
especially against the A'Kpoto. 255
The communication between Sókoto and Adamaua on the one
hand, and between Lake Chad and the confluence of the Benue and
Niger on the other--the former principally a political and the
latter more a commercial route--is controlled by the province of
BAUCHI, which is for the most part a wild and much intersected
mountainous tract of country still occupied by pagans, but which
is of importance from an economical point of view owing to the
presence of salt-works (sebcha, whence the salt is obtained from
the incrustations on marshy land), in the valley of the Benue.
The capital, Bauchi, 256
named after the old heathen
population (properly speaking Garo-n-Bauchi, or "fortified town
of Bauchi,") is also called Yákoba, a name derived, according to
Vogel, from the tribe of Yako, which dwells in the
neighbourhood, but, according to Rohlfs, from its founder, Malim
Yakub, who died in 1844, when Sultan of Bauchi. Rohlfs
estimated the population at 150,000 inhabitants, mostly Haussas;
Vogel found it thinly populated, owing to the long-continued
254 Staudinger, 131 et seq., 470; Flegel, passim, 255;
Ferryman, 70.
255 The port of Anassárawa on the Benue, and the terminus of
an important trade-route to Saria, Kano and Sókoto, is the
flourishing town of Loko (4,000 inhabitants), a much used ferrystation
on the Benue, formerly situated on an island but now on
the north bank. The energetic Fulbes of Anassárawa have crossed
the river at this place and are pushing forwards towards the
south. It was owing to the hostility of the Emir of Anassárawa
that the English had to abandon their station at Loko. Flegel
states that Uje or Usha, on the south bank, and capital of the
Bassa negroes, has been destroyed and, along with it (1883), a
sansánne of the King of Anassárawa. Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 217
et seq.; Flegel, G.M., 1880, 222; M.A.G., III., 255; the same,
map V., Sheet 1; Staudinger, 64 et seq.; Ferryman, 71; Passarge,
15. South-west of Anassárawa, between the Niger and Benue, are
the ruins of the old Igbira capital, Panda or Funda, destroyed
in about 1850 (Baikie, J. Lond., 1855, 112). To the west of it
and on the Niger itself is the former Igbira residence, Igu
(Ferryman, 138). North-east of Loko is Doma, the capital of
Arago, where a Madaki from Saria rules, together with the native
king. Flegel, M.A.G., III., 257; Ferryman, 132.
256 Barth, II., 685 et seq.; Vogel, passim, 481 et seq.;
Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 48 et seq., and Qu. d. A. II., 144 et
seq.
57

absence of the Court. The reigning family is not of Fulbe, but
of native origin.
The town of Bauchi lies at an altitude of 800 metres (2,625
feet), and forms an irregular-shaped quadrilateral, which
encloses huts, fields, gardens, stony hills and water-holes, all
mixed up together and which is surrounded by a wall 3½ hours
long (sic-Tr) and which has 9 gates. The soil is uncultivated
over a circumference of 20 miles. The granite plateau is
covered with enormous blocks of stone and with rocks of the most
wonderful shapes, and falls in all directions towards the town,
which is consequently surrounded by a large swamp in the rainy
season, and is notorious throughout the Sudan for its
unhealthiness.
As an ivory-market for the traders of Ghadames it has lost
considerably in importance by the removal (vide p. 37) of the
caravan-route. At the market are sold slaves, (who, owing to
the political state of the country are very cheap,) cotton
goods, 257
bronzed earthen crockery-ware, made by women, and
delicate basket-work, made by men. Bauchi, like Keffi, lies on
the borderland between the European wares brought from the
Mediterranean and those brought from the Guinea coast.
The most important vassal of Bauchi is the Ruler of
258
Wasse, or Wósse, a large town in southern Bauchi, close to the
north bank of the Benue.
The centre of the salt-industry in the valley of the Benue
259
is Lafia-Berebere, a town of some 15,000 inhabitants in the
south-west of Saria, close to the border. Berebere, as the name
implies, was founded by the Kanuri (Berebere) about 1800; these
were, at a later date, driven out by the Shoa.
South-east of Bauchi is the country of MURI, which lies on
both sides of the Benue valley, from the Kátsinna river as far
as the territory of the wild independent heathen tribe of the
260 261
Bassama, the Hamárua of Barth and Baikie.
Muri is the process of converting itself into an important
province of Sókoto. "Unsettled conditions" still, however,
exist. In Flegel's time it had no superficial area, but,
characteristically of the Fulbes, possessed only a few isolated
257 The collecting of rags, from which they are here able to
make stuffs, and the testing of milk by the authorities, remind
one of European towns.
258 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 156; Passarge, 341.
259 Barth, II., 673; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 187, 207;
Flegel, M.A.G., III., 257.
260 Passarge, 337. The Benue valley is here equally
interesting from the picturesque, geological and ethnographical
points of view.
261 J., Lond., 1855, 117 et passim.
58

spots, dependent upon the capital of the same name.
The town of Muri, 262
which was first visited by Vogel in
1855, the chief Fulbe centre on the Middle Benue, and situated
some 15 English miles to the N.W. of it, is not surrounded by a
rampart, is friendly, cleanly, and free from the parfum
d'Afrique of most Negro towns.
On the left bank of the Benue, and Dependencies of Muri,
263
are:--the strongly fortified town of Jibu (Jibbu, Zhibu,
Shebu) at the mouth of the River Donga; Ibi, 264 which is the
headquarters of the Royal Niger Company, and finally Korórofa,
possibly an old Haussa province and which is historically
connected with Bornu 265 (vide p. 33, Note 2). The capital,
Wukari, 266 (Allen: Okare, Vogel: Okale, Zintgraff: Okari),
with some 60,000 inhabitants, and lying about 45 English miles
(2 days' journey) south of the Benue, between the Kátsinna and
Donga rivers, and one of the principal places and supportingpoints
of the Juku or Jikum, 267 had, up till 1879, resisted the
attacks of the Fulbes; in 1882, however, Flegel found the town
already overrun by Haussas, who have recently been only too glad
to settle in Southern Muri and found cities. 268
262 Flegel, G.M., 1880, 148, 226; Briefe 22; Staudinger, 374;
Ferryman, 86; Mizon, passim, 232.
263 Baikie, Journ., Lond., 1855, 115; Flegel, G.M., 1880,
224; Ferryman, 130; Morgen, 312; Passarge, 341, 489.
264 Ferryman, 77, et seq.; Mizon, passim; v. Stetten, K.,
Bl., 1895, 186; Passarge, 15, 347, et seq.; Muri also
participates in the production of salt in the Benue basin near
Bománda. Barth, II., 599, Note; Vogel (letter to Ehrenberg)
Wagner, p. 283; Z. f. allg. Erdk., 1856, 485.
265 Barth, II., 137. The eastern district appears to have
been long tributary to Bornu, while the western portion on the
other hand is independent; in the middle of the 17th century an
army of the Jikum, or Köana, even advanced into Bornu and
besieged its capital.
266 Barth II., 691, et seq.; Baikie, passim, 115; Flegel,
G.M., 1880, 224; Briefe, 21; Ferryman, 79, et seq.; Zintgraff,
M.D.S., III., 81; Passarge, 16, 342.
267 The old capital Koróra was destroyed by the Kanuri
(Passarge, 342) and Kwóna, on the other hand, recently by the
French (Vogel, passim, 483; Passarge, 18, 319, 325).
59
268 A preponderating Haussa population exists also in the
large town of Yola, in Muri, some kilometres to the east of the
Tarábba river, a rapidly flourishing settlement, which must not
be confused with the capital of Adamaua of the same name, to
which it scarcely seems to be inferior in size; it is once more
under the suzerainty of the King of Gassol, a town lying some

In the beginning of the seventies the town of Bakúndi 269
(Kundi) was founded from Muri by an Emir who had been driven
from there. It is situated to the south of the Benue on the
Tarábba, and is "the capital of a newly-formed government," and
is at the same time an important ivory-centre.
The impress of variety and intermixture, so characteristic
of the whole Sudan, is borne in a remarkable degree by the
greatest, and in many respects the most important, province of
the Empire of Sókoto, viz., Adamaua.
ADAMAUA is situated on the Upper Benuë 270 and Faro. "With
its wealth of natural variety it is a land of contrasts; one
meets them here at every step: barrenness and the most
luxuriant fertility 271 , extreme drought and the most plentiful
water supply are here found side by side . . . .; the same
contrasts are to be found in the lives of the inhabitants. Here
the territories of the north and south African peoples overlap
in the most diversified manner, while in addition there is the
remarkable struggle between Islam and paganism, which here goes
on uninterruptedly. 272
Adamaua, geographically speaking, is divided into a
southern, a central, and a northern portion.
Southern Adamaua, with Bányo, Tibati and Ngáumdere,
belongs, not to the Sudan, but to the great South African
plateau.
hours to the north of it, on the Tarábba. Passarge, 339, et
seq.
269 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 259, et seq.; Ferryman, 81, 120, et
seq.; Zintgraff, M.D.S., III., 82; Morgen, 301, et seq. A Fulbe
advanced post, which has again already been pushed forward to
the south from Bakundi, is Beli, where, besides the Juku King, a
Galadima from Bakundi also rules.--Flegel, G.M., 1882, 431.
270 Here the Benuë makes its "truly African horse-shoe bend";
from the example first set by Landers, who considered it to be
an outflow from Lake Chad, it was erroneously called Chadda,
until Baikie came and called it "the Chadda or Benuë"; Be-nuë,
in the Batta language, signifies "Mother of waters," (the
negroes look upon the tributaries as wives of the main stream),
hence the French are correct in saying "la Bénoué"; by the
Haussa it is called, from its colour, the black river; the
Niger, on the other hand, being called the white river: whilst
the water of the Niger is drinkable, that of the Benuë is very
unhealthy, both for man and beast; vide Baikie, J. Lond., 1855,
112, 116; Barth, II., 556, 559, Note; and Z. f. allg. Erdk.,
1863, S.A. 8; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., II., 216.
271 There is no land in France better cultivated than the
immense plain of Yola--Mizon, passim.
272 Barth, II., 449, 663.
60

Central Adamaua is the country between the southern edge of
the plateau and the northern edge of the Shari and Yola Mountain
mass, together with Bubanjídda; this and Northern Adamaua,
belong to the Central Sudan, the two forming one orographical
entity, viz., the Schollenland of Adamaua. 273
Its importance
lies in its position as the connecting land between the Niger
and Chad basins on the one side, and the extensive Congo
territory on the other, as well as between lake Chad and the
deepest indentation of the Gulf of Guinea. By the German treaty
with England and France the greater part of it falls within the
German sphere of influence. By the same treaty, however, the
former country obtains the capital and the latter the southeastern
portion, which is rich in ivory and copper.
274
Adamaua, "that Mohomedan Kingdom which is propped up by a
series of heathen tribes" (Barth) was, before the appearance of
the Fulbes on the scene (vide p. 24), called Fumbina. The most
important Negro Empire was that of the Batta, with the capital
at Kókomi, 275 while the principal place of the great Fali tribe
was Basuma. 276
The lord of the country is the Sultan of Yola,
although his power is not everywhere equally great. Apparently
there are three political gradations:--1--Yola, with a wide
environment, directly under the influence of the Sultan; 2--the
territories of Márrua, Bebene, Konja, Gashka and Bányo, which
already enjoy greater freedom; 3--the great States of Tibati,
Ngáumdere and Bubanjídda, which, lying within the periphery, are
included in the province, but "are only morally dependent."
277
YOLA, lying, like Sókoto, on the northern borderline, is
the "residence" of Adamaua, and is named after the princely
quarter of the town of Kano. It was founded by Loël, the son of
A'dama, in the first third of this century, and is a large open
place, with a population of, according to Barth, 12,000,
Passarge, from 12,000 to 15,000, Morgen and von Stetten, 20,000
inhabitants, and in the period from 185! to 1879 has three times
273 Passarge, 369, et seq.
274 Monteil (175) draws the same picture of the Fulbes in the
north-west: "On the aboriginal race . . . a conquering race,
that of the Fulbe, has grafted itself." The name Adamaua
originates in the conqueror Adama (vide p. 25), or from him and
from his wife of the same name (Haussa plural)--Barth II., 598.
73.
275 Barth II., 613, 714; it is now a small village--Passarge,
276 Barth, ibid.
61
277 Barth II., 142, 578, et seq.; Flegel, passim; Ferryman,
89, et seq., 116, et seq.; Mizon, Tour d. m. 1892, II., 236,
255; Morgen, Durch Kamerun, 299; Maistre, C.R.S., 1893, 285
(compare Alis. Nos Africains); von Stetten, K.Bl., 1895, 184, et
seq.; Passarge, 26, et seq.

changed its position. 278
The present Yola lies some 3 kilometres (about 2 English
miles) to the south of the Benue, on a dead arm of the river,
from which latter it is separated by folds of the ground. This
dead arm is fordable in the dry season, but in September puts
the whole plain of Yola under water. The streets of the town
are wide. The farmyards round the huts are everywhere fenced
in, and are sown in the rainy season and converted into fields
of sorghum.
279
At the time of Barth's visit there were no industries
whatever; now, however, thanks to the more go-ahead Haussas and
Kanuri, it has its own manufactures, including weaving, dyeing,
tanning and manufacture of leather goods, so that it has become
somewhat more independent of the northern Haussa markets. As a
market it is of some importance; the export trade is principally
in slaves, (who are to be found here in large numbers, many a
wealthy man having a thousand of them), and ivory. A large
grazing-ground divides the town into two quarters, the Fulbe and
the Haussa; on the far side of a strip of cultivation, from a
quarter of an English mile to a mile in width, and to the east
280
of it, is a special Arab quarter which is under an almost
independent galadima ("King of the Arabs"). Caravans from
Sókoto, Kano, Kátsena, Kuka and the Lower Benue (Nupe) here meet
with travellers from Alexandria and Khartum. The English have
not yet received permission to erect a factory, but are only
allowed to have a hulk on the Benue. 281
282
North of the Benue is Gire, the summer residence of the
Sultan, a large closed town in a hilly and far healthier
position than Yola; it is not of recent construction but is a
Batta town. The first Fulbe capital was Gurin, 283
which was
founded by Adama, and was mentioned by Denham. It lies a little
278 Flegel, G.M., 1880, 150; compare Kiepert's map, M.A.G.
V., Sheet 3.
(Mizon).
279 "The town itself is nothing but a large kitchen-garden"
280 Besides this three Arab villages are known of in Adamaua;
Shuari, near Gárua, with from 300 to 400 Shoa from Bornu
(Passarge, 79, 88, 216); Belem, north-east of Yola, also founded
by the same (Barth II., 545), and Soráuiel balaraba, between
Gárua and Márrua (Passarge, 169).
281 Ferryman mentions the English stations on the Benue (66);
they export ivory, rubber, and sesame.
282 Von Stetten, passim; Passarge, 50. Passarge speaks of a
second town of Gire, on the borderland between the currency of
cowries and of feri (strips of cotton), pp. 51, Note 6, 71.
283 Barth II., 715; Von Stetten, passim, 180.
62

to the east of Yola, close to the place where the Faro flows
into the Benue. 284
Adamaua attains its furthest extension to the north-east in
the Sultanate of MARRUA, which is situated on the northern-most
portion of the water-parting between Lake Chad (Logone-Shari)
and is the Benue, and is the Border-State towards Baghirmi, "the
African Mesopotamia." Barth speaks of a dense Fulbe population
in the territory between Mándara and the Mussgu country, and
also of a province which was referred to by the general name of
285
Jemmara, and Passarge found Márrua to be actually very
populous and exceedingly well-cultivated, but separated from
Yola by a number of independent pagan States. The capital
Márrua, 286 with a population of between 60,000 and 70,000 very
mixed and uncivilized inhabitants, is situated close to that
Mount Mendif so much spoken of since Denham's time. 287
Until the
advent of the German expedition its importance was unknown; it
is--independently of its political situation--a horse-breeding
centre and the principal gum-producing place in Adamaua.
288
A day's journey north of Márrua is Bálda, the residence
of the usurper Hayatu, which has blossomed forth in a very short
time from an insignificant village into a large town.
Eastwards of Yola, in the neighbourhood of the Mayo Kebbi,
is the dominion of BEBENE (Bibene), with capital of the same
289 290
name. To it belongs also the commercial town of Adumre,
situated half a day's journey to the S.W. of it, with a
population of from 12,000 to 15,000 inhabitants, and from which
start the important routes--(1) viâ Lere to the Mussgu countries
284 Barth found Alba, which was just then in process of
formation, to be the most northerly Fulbe and frontier town; the
rocky summits in its immediate neighbourhood were inhabited by
pagans. Barth II., 497, et seq., 638.
285 Barth II., 602, 732.
286 Passarge, 183, et seq., 464, 483; Barth II., 609, 710.
287 Vide p. 331, et seq.
288 Barth II., 721; Passarge, 171, 189.--The communication
between the Benue and Lake Chad, mentioned by Barth and Vogel,
through the Mayo Kebbi and the Tuburi swamp (Barth III., 180) is
of little importance as a trade-route, since the cataracts at
Kacho are impassable at all seasons of the year. "The Kebbi is
practically useless as a route to Lake Chad" (Ferryman, 114;
Mizon, passim, 276). The eastern boundary of the Fulbes of
Adamaua is at Kacho (Ferryman, 108); Barth gives Pedde or Fette
as its most northerly point (II., 609, 710).
289 Passarge, 154.
290 Passarge, 113, 153, et seq.
63

(N.E.); (2) viâ Lame to Lakka 291
and the basin of the Shari (E.);
and (3) the main road to Bubanjídda (S. and S.E.).
292
The Haussas and Kanuri mostly inhabit the trading places
and the Fulbes the seats of government, which are usually at
some distance off.
Between Yola and Bebene is the important commercial town of
293
Gárua, at the point where the road from Lake Chad to the Congo
crosses the Benue.
294
South of Yola the territory of KONJA indicates the
commencement of the Sudan country proper. The capital bears the
same name, has over 15,000 inhabitants, and is divided into
three quarters--those of the Kanuri, Fulbes, and heathens
(Barth). It is an open place with an important market, at which
roads meet from Yola, Chamba, Bakundi, Gashka, Banyo, Tibati,
and Ngáumdere, and forms the central crossroad junction of
Adamaua.
295 296
To Konja belong the two Fulbe centres Láro and Chámba
which lie between Yola and Konja, and are of the same size as
the latter. In 1850 and 1851 the Sultan of Chamba undertook
expeditions against the savage Ibo or Igbo, "whereby not only
the influence, but even the dominion, of the conquerors was
extended to a certain extent up to the Gulf of Benin." With all
due deference, however, the opinion may be expressed that Barth
ascribes too great an extent and importance to these
expeditions. The direct influence of the Fulbes does not by any
means extend to the sea.
297
The dominion of GASHKA (Gasseka, Gashaka, Gasska), to the
291 Lere and Lame (Lakka) are the powerful heathen States to
the east of Adamaua who, possessed of cavalry to a certain
extent, have offered a successful resistance to the advance of
the Fulbes to the Shari. Barth II., 727, 731; Passarge, 156, et
seq., 486. In Adamaua itself, a free heathen State, that of
Galim, has arisen on the northern border of the South African
plateau, in the Gendero Mountains. Von Stetten, passim, 189;
Passarge, 496, 516.
292 There are also in Adamaua places which are altogether
occupied by Kanuri, as for instance the village of Diginnu.
Passarge, 55.
293 Barth II., 713; Ferryman, 96, et seq.; Mizon, passim,
273, et seq.; von Stetten, passim, 184; Passarge, 74, et seq.,
210, 525, 553.
294 Barth II., 706 (with sketch); Morgen, 299; von Stetten,
passim, 183; Passarge, 375.
295 Barth II., 707; Passarge, 308.
296 Barth II., 606, 737; Morgen, 299; Passarge, 299, 376.
64
297 Flegel (map, M.A.G., V., 7); Zintgraff, M.D.S., II., 200;

S.W. of Konja, has as its capital the Fulbe town of the same
name, whose inhabitants, from 5,000 to 6,000 in number according
to Flegel, and about 15,000 according to Morgen, live scattered
over a large area; it is rich in cattle and provisions.
Of more importance than Konja and Gashka, (which formerly
were in a sort of state of dependency upon it) is BANYO 298
(Bagnio) which lies somewhat to the south of Gashka, and is the
Fulbe frontier State of Adamaua towards the S.W.
Banyo is surrounded by a rampart eight kilometres (5 miles)
in length, with a 3 metre (10 ft.) ditch, and is very closely
built, the fenced-in farms being so packed as to form a number
of streets of greater or less magnitude; here, also, there is
"an incredible superabundance of cattle."
The market is one of the most important in Adamaua, as at
this place two great routes from the S.E. and S.W. intersect
each other, and then proceed to the Benuë, to Ibi and Yola. The
currency consists of cowries and iron shovels. 299
When the chieftain is absent on a campaign, his place is
taken by one of his wives (a daughter of the Sultan of Yola).
Banyo, with the large town of Bafut 300
with its 8,000 to
10,000 inhabitants, which lies to the west of it, is the key of
the heathen territory on the Old Calabar (Cross River).
301
Close to Banyo is Tibati which, as the summer residence
of the former Lámido (Prince) of Banyo, was the principal town
in the country but, as his burial place, is now half forsaken.
In the district of Tikar, which lies to the south of Banyo, and
is tributary to it, there is a brisk trade in ivory. The centre
for this is Mahalba, 302
a large open place, whose chief is called
sserkia-n-hauri, i.e., "the ivory king." The Haussas occupy a
separate quarter.
Under the energetic rule of the Fulbes, the central of the
303
three border states, TIBATI --in contrast with Banyo, which is
hemmed in to the south and west--is now in full process of
development and, by its extension towards the south, already
threatens the safety of Kamerun (The Cameroons).
The capital, Tibati, is surrounded by walls, and is an
Morgen, 299; Passarge, 373.
298 Flegel, M.A.G., IV., 28; Morgen, 294 et seq., and M.D.S.,
IV., 151; von Stetten, passim, 181 et seq.; Passarge, 372.
299 Barth relates the same (II., 694) of Wukari, where the
value of a slave is 40 shovels.
300 Zintgraff, M.D.S., III., 79.
301 von Stetten, passim, 181.
302 The same, 161 et seq.
303 Barth, II, 608, 743; Morgen, 260 et seq.
65

ancient heathen settlement, of the size of Banyo.
During the visit of Morgen and von Stetten, and indeed
years before that, the ephemeral capital of the Empire and most
important trade-centre was at Sansérni Tibati, 304 four days'
march to the south-west of Tibati. It was surrounded by farms,
and was an enormous war-camp of the Lámido, laid out like a
town, and with a population of from 10,000 to 12,000
inhabitants. In the highest portion was built the king's
stronghold. Scarcely a kilometre (1,100 yards) away from the
outermost huts lay the threatened, but strongly fortified, pagan
settlement Ngambe. 305
306
Yokó, the most southerly place in the Tibati Empire, is
at the same time a watch-post of the Fulbes; any new arrival
must first be reported to the Sultan of Tibati, and receive his
permission to enter the country. The Haussas already surpass
the Fulbes in point of numbers. Tibati is tributary to one of
the most important ivory markets of southern Adamaua, called
after its chief, Ngila 307 (Kaiser Wilhelms-Burg). Ngila is in
the territory of the Wute, who were recently conquered by the
Fulbes, and is not far from the Sánaga, which separates the
northern from the southern races. It has some 8,000
inhabitants. The extremely low price of ivory and of slaves has
attracted a number of Haussas, 308
who have their village close to
that of the Wute; they remain here from one to two years, and
then receive as payment for the goods brought to the Sultan a
share of the ivory delivered to him. They also cultivate farms
and their women sell provisions.
Also included within the area, and consequently only to be
defined inaccurately, is the richest and most powerful State of
Adamaua, the bulwark of the Fulbes on their way to the Congo,
and forming, with Tibati, the most southerly halting place of
Islam, viz.: NGAUMDERE, the country of the Mbum in the southeast,
situated at the sources of the Benue and of several
branches of the Logone, and which, in spite of its great
distance from Sókoto, and of its apparent independence, is
309
visited and watched by envoys of the supreme Overlord.
139.
304 Morgen, 265, and M.D.S. IV., 150; von Stetten, passim,
305 von Stetten, passim, 160.
306 Morgen, 259 et seq; von Stetten, passim, 136.
307 Tappenbeck, M.D.S. II., 115 ("Ngirangs Stadt"); Morgen,
81 et seq. 209, and M.D.S. III., 113; von Stetten, passim, 112.
Barth (II. 745) gives an itinerary from Tibati to the Ibo
country through unexplored territory.
308 "To become rich one must go five times to Tibati, but to
Ngila only once."
66
309 Mostly princes, who freely accept large presents--"Beggar

The capital, Ngáumdere 310
(Ngáundere, Ngámdére, Gámdere),
with its 30,000 inhabitants, is the biggest town in Adamaua, and
the metropolis of German Adamaua. It is situated on an
undulating elevated plateau, from which stand out two
picturesque chains of granite mountains running N.N.W. and S.
The town is very closely built, and has no open spaces. It
is one kilometre (1,100 yards) in length and half a kilometre in
width, and is surrounded by a high crenelated wall of red mud,
with a ditch 3 metres (10 feet) in depth and of the same width.
It is pierced by two fortified gates, one in the north, the
other in the south, these being the directions whence comes the
traffic. The royal palace is again surrounded by a mud wall
from 6 to 8 metres (20 to 27 feet) in height, and contains the
1,200 wives of the Sultan and many slaves, of whom there are
3,000 on his farms. In the immediate vicinity of the town lie
thousands of skeletons of dead slaves, and of criminals who have
been executed. In the market are sold ivory and slaves;
Ngáumdere and Tibati supply the latter to the whole Central
Sudan. At the Fulbe court the Haussas exercise great influence,
while the Kanuri remain in the background.
The most important halting-places between Ngáumdere and the
Sanga (Congo) are Kunde 311 , (the last Fulbe village towards the
south, and an important ivory market,) and Gása, 312
the last
market and frontier-town of Adamaua in the direction of the
pagan territories to the south-east, and which is situated in a
district rich in ivory and copper.
The frontier State of Adamaua, which juts out in an
easterly direction into the pagan countries, goes by the name of
313
BUBANJIDDA, so called after the Fulbe conqueror Buba and his
mother Jídda. This State became powerful at an early date, and
princes."
310 Barth, II., 6'5, 736. (On map V., sheet 16, described as
Rumde Ngaundere, and consequently originating from a Fulbe
slave-village): Flegel, G.M., 1883, 245, and M.A.G. II., 250;
Mizon, passim, 284 et seq. (compare Alis, Nos Africains);
Passarge, 195, 261, et seq. 557. This Ngaumdere must not be
confused with the village of the same name which lies S.W. of it
and close to Ngila; Morgen, 234 et seq.
311 Mizon, passim, 287.
312 Flegel, Verh. Ges. f. Erdk. Berlin, 1884, 385;
Staudinger, 612; Morgen, 200; Mizon, 200; Bull. Marseille, 1894,
287 et seq.; von Stetten, passim, 180; Passarge, 195, 255;
Monteil, 244.
313 Barth, II., 458, 607, 723; Ferryman, 65, 102; von
Stetten, passim, 180; Passarge, 99 et seq. 127, 134, 151 (once
more in closer relationship with Yola through the arrival of the
German expedition).
67

in Barth's time was dependent upon Yola "to a very undefined
extent," being often engaged in hostilities with it, and even
being at variance with Sókoto. It is the country of the heathen
tribe of the Dama and is a dreaded Robber-State. Whilst
Bubanjídda disturbs the great trade route from Yola to Ngáumdere
to the west, if has also ever since the forties sent expeditions
far into the heathen countries to the east. 314 In 1866 the
English vainly sought to establish a station here. The province
yields excellent iron. The capital is Rei Buba, which on the
occasion of the Fulbe invasion into Adamaua was already found to
be a walled town. The distrustful and despotic king 315
lives
mostly in his "castles" in the neighbouring Hossére (mountains)
Rei.
Since a continuous increase of the Fulbe Empire is
precluded by reason of their comparatively small numbers, there
cannot fail to be a reaction in the north resulting from the
partial gravitation of the Fulbes towards the south, in
conjunction with the increase of their power in the basin of the
Benue. Hence, hand-in-hand with the struggle of Adamaua for
political independence and for a considerable addition, (Tibati,
Ngáumdere, Bubanjídda), we find in the north cessation of power,
(if not crumbling to pieces,) and undefined relationships; there
we find fanaticism, energy, reconstruction; here lethargy,
indifference, periods of decay and of tedious recovery, a state
of affairs which is most clearly imprinted upon the
EMPIRE OF GANDO.
This includes the smaller, western portion of Pul-Haussa,
between Say and the confluence, and is about comprised by the
seven bastard Haussa states. Although by origin (see p. 25) and
ruling family the equal of the Sókoto Empire, Gando is, by the
patriarchal constitution of the state, a dependency of the
Sultan of Sókoto. 316 It is composed of the following provincial
States, 317
which vary in size and degree of dependency, the
latter depending upon their individual strength and their
distance from Gando; S.W. Kebbi, Sabérma, Mauri, Déndina,
Galajo, Toróde, Yagha, Libtako, Yauri, Guari, Nupe, and North
Yóruba.
314 Barth, II., 625.
315 Barth gives (II., 613 et seq.) an account of the pagan
tribes of Adamaua and of their most important settlements and,
in II., 606 et seq., of the most powerful Fulbe chieftains; a
great deal has changed since then.
68
316 The extent of the power and civilization of the provinces
will be well illustrated by the amount of etiquette observed at
their courts: whilst in Kano it even surpasses that of Sókoto
(Barth and others), it is altogether absent in Gando
(Staudinger, 355). The Sultan lived, in Barth's time, in
monklike seclusion and the whole empire was in a state of
anarchy. Staudinger found it to be the same (520). It would,

The province of KEBBI, 318 in which is situated Sókoto, the
capital of the whole empire, and which is admirably adapted for
the cultivation of rice by reason of its fertile marshy valleys,
contains also the capital, Gando 319
"The whole situation of the town of Gando, which is
completely commanded by the chain of hills surrounding it, is in
consonance with the character of its rulers, that is to say,
deficient of the power to rule, and does not in the smallest
degree possess the capacity of holding together that large group
of provinces of most varied character, which have arranged
themselves around the centre." The wall, with its many gates,
is so badly kept in repair that in the northern and western
portions the Kebbi can creep in and steal horses. As all the
farmsteads are surrounded by gardens the town produces a very
pleasing impression.
(Gandu, Gwandu), about two
days' march south-west of Sókoto, with a population of from
10,000 to 15,000. Gando, like all the larger Fulbe capitals, is
situated on the northern fringe of its territory; in other words
the political centre of gravity remained, whilst the power
pushed on southwards.
320
The cotton goods manufactured in Gando are, it is true, of
the first quality, but they do not understand how to give them
the gloss of those of Nupe and Kano, which is done by beating
them with wooden sticks. The old Haussa capital of Kebbi is
321
Birni-n-Kebbi, with 20,000 inhabitants, which belongs to
however, be erroneous to expect a cessation of the Fulbe
dominion here before long: according to European ideas, indeed,
the "State" must shortly collapse, but in Africa it quietly
vegetates on; its political heart-beats are very slow and weak,
although it has only African rivals. Political life in Africa
and in Europe are two very different things, and are not to be
measured by the same standard.
Adamaua enjoys the same political freedom as Gando,
without, however, possessing its now historical advantages, for
which it makes up, however, by its distance from Sókoto.
317 Compare Barth, IV., 205, and appendix Vb. (Barth also
includes a small portion of Borgu in Gando); Staudinger, 516 et
seq.
318 As regards the subdivision of Kebbi and the towns
belonging to Gando, vide Barth, IV., 551.
319 Barth, IV., 197, et seq. (with sketch); V., 327, et seq.;
Flegel, M.A.G. III., 55; Staudinger, 347, et seq., 495; Gruner,
Kol-Z, 1895, 195.
320 Barth, on the occasion of his second visit, found the
town half destroyed by fire. The frequent large fires in
Sudanese towns are of little economical importance.
69
321 Barth, IV., 215; Flegel, M.A.G., 54. It is said that the

Gando, and lies to the westward of it. Until its conquest by
the Fulbes in 1806 it was important on account of its trade in
gold.
Titular provinces of Gando are Sabérma, Mauri, and Déndina,
which are under feeble princelings, who, according to
circumstances, acknowledge the suzerainty of the Sultans of
Gando and Sókoto or of the Serky-n-Kebbi, 322
the prince of the
independent Kebbi.
The ancient province of MAURI (Fulfulde) A'sewa (Haussa),
west of Gando and south of Sabérma, with a Haussa population,
323
has Gíwaye or Giuaë as its present capital; it was formerly
called Lokoye. A certain amount of value lies in the possession
of the great Fogha 324
salt-valley (Dallu', Barth; Dalhol,
Monteil), a large sebcha which supplies the whole of the
caravan-route to Gonja with salt, and forms the boundary between
the Haussa and Sonrhay nations.
325
The province of SABERMA (Sonrhay) Serma, or Jerma
(Fulfulde) lies between Kebbi and Say (N.E. of the Niger), has a
very undefined boundary towards the north, and is inhabited by
Sonrhay, (to which former great empire it belonged,) and by
cross-bred Tuaregs.
Saberma is extraordinarily fertile. The dense population
lives on the fruit of the soil and by the most accomplished
thieving. On the arrival of a Haussa caravan the whole thieves
gang of the neighbourhood has a rendezvous; thieving is in this
locality a veritable social institution. The open town of
Dosso, in Barth's time independent, is now the capital.
The capital of DENDINA, 326
or Dendi, which is inhabited by
following were also former "residences," viz.: Támbauel (Barth,
IV., 551) and Jega, an emporium for raw silk, which is much
sought after for embroidery-work (Barth, IV., 204; V., 312;
Flegel, M.A.G. III., 56).
322 Monteil, 197. It is hard to gather from Monteil's words
whether, after the last successful campaign of Abdherraman of
Sókoto, these territories once more belong to Gando, or are
directly under Sókoto: "Les régions comprises entre Sókoto et
le Niger sont rentrées sous l'autorité de l'Empereur haoussa, à
la suite de la prise d'Argoungou." (210, Note.)
323 Barth, IV., 565 et seq.; Monteil, 221 et seq. and C.R.S.
1893, 62.
324 There is no such spot as Fogha. It merely represents the
broad marshy valley in which, amongst others, is the Fulbe town
of Kalliul; another one, similar and running parallel to it, is
Dallul Bosso (Barth, IV., 236; Monteil, 200 et seq.).
325 Barth IV., 426, 563, et seq.; Monteil, 203, et seq., 227,
and C.R.S., passim.
326 Barth, IV., 232, 553, et seq.; Monteil, 196.
70

Sonrhay, and lies to the south of Sabérma, is said, by Barth, to
be Yelo; the seat of a rebel chieftain. Monteil, however, says
that Bunsa is the capital.
On the far side of the Niger, the right bank, Gando does
not extend so far to the west at the present day as was made out
in Barth's reports. The last place in the empire in a south-
westerly direction from Say is Boti 327
or Botu, which lies close
to the Niger and is a combination of a number of scattered
villages inhabited by Gurma. The King's village, with the
market place, in which there is daily a brisk trade, is, like
all the principal places on the Niger, surrounded by a wall.
Also under the authority of the Fulbes are the countries of
Galajo, Toróde, Yagha and Libtako, which extend far to the N.W.
of Say into the Bend of the Niger, and which, with the exception
of Galaijo, which was founded at a later date, must have come
into this relationship through Lebbo's expedition to Mássina in
1816.
GALAJO 328
is the colony of a chieftain of like name who,
about the year 1833, set out in an easterly direction to escape
from the persecution of the puritanical Fulbes, who up till then
had been in alliance with him. Here he was allotted extensive
tracts of country to the west of the Niger near Say by the
Sultan of Gando, who was at enmity with Mássina. The
"residence," which had been first of all at Shirgu, was
transferred, on account of the dryness, to the more westerly
Champagore (Barth). Monteil gives, as the capital, Uro Gelajio,
situated 40 to 45 kilometres (25--28 miles) westwards of Say,
with some 3,000 inhabitants (Fulbes and Bambara slaves: the
place is called in the neighbourhood "the great Bambara
village").
Barth received a very good impression of old Galajo; his
influence has increased considerably on the right bank of the
Niger, whilst that of his son, the present ruler, has increased
still more, owing to his energetic participation in the campaign
of Sókoto against the pagan Kebbi, and has extended to the left
329 330
bank. At the present time Say, with its environs, is also
under the suzerainty of Galajo, though the latter are deserted,
the result of the great cattle-plague of 1891; "the villages
look as though they had been deserted but yesterday." Say, the
327 Gruner, Kol. Z., 1895, 195.
328 Barth, IV., 254 et seq.; Monteil, 185 et seq., and
C.R.S., 1893, 59.
329 Monteil: "The undisputed chief of the country between
Say and the Liptako, compared with whom the Kings of Say, of
Torodi, and of Yagha are mere puppets, is Ibrahim, son of
Guéladgio, King of Ouro Guéladjio." Compare Monteil, 236.
330 Barth, IV., 244 et seq.; V., 296 et seq.; Monteil, 189 et
seq.; Gruner Kel Z passim; von Carnap, Kol. Z., 1895, 204.
71

famous ferry-station of the Niger, has almost entirely lost its
political 331 and commercial importance owing to war and
pestilence--"a fever-fostering sick-bed." It is the starting
point of the dividing line between the French and English
spheres of influence, 332
which goes from here to Barrua on Lake
Chad (north of Kuka).
Galajo has raised itself to its present importance from
having been at first a weak territory within the State of
333
TORODE (Torodi), the "downfallen dominion of the Tórobe"
(Barth) 334 . The "residence" of the chieftain, Champaláuel, by
its throughly desolate condition, made an uncomfortable
impression upon the German explorer; Monteil mentions another,
Nadiango. 335
Westward of Toróde, and separated from it by an undefined
336
boundary, is YAGHA, the capital of which, Zebba, lies in a
thick forest and consists of some 200 huts, but "resembles an
enclosed and purposely nurtured wilderness rather than a town."
The Toróde of these parts very much "look down upon" the Fulbe
herds--(tarka, common people); the subject tribes (Sonrhay) are
called kado by both.
The most western province of Gando and the frontier State
337
towards Mássina is LIBTAKO (Liptako), which is flat, and
admirably adapted for horse-breeding.
Barth and Monteil found both this and the frontier province
331 "The Governor of Say is said to visit Sinder and Gogo
each year in a boat to collect the taxes of the Fulbes settled
there." Barth, Note to Ahmed Baba, vide A. d. Z. d. Morgenl.
Gesellsch., 1855, p. 44.
332 Scott-Keltie:
1893, 296.
The Partition of Africa; vide C.R.S.,
333 Barth, IV., 264 et seq.; Monteil, 184 et seq.
334 "The power of the King is nil, and his country is
certainly that one of all the Fulbe countries on the right bank
of the Niger the decadence of which is the most marked"
(Monteil).
335 Barth here came across iron melting-furnaces six feet in
height and 1½ feet in diameter.
336 Barth, IV., 278 et seq.; Monteil, 178 et seq., 249,
Note.--From here on to Timbuktu Barth found the currency to be
strips of cotton: cowries would pass but, on account of their
weight were seldom used at this great distance from the Gulf of
Guinea.
337 Barth, IV., 290 et seq.; Monteil, 124, 165, 175 et seq.;
and C.R.S., 1893, 58.
72

of Massina, Aribínda, 338 (with capital at Lamórde), in complete
anarchy. In spite of this the capital of Libtako, Dore (Dori),
a Sonrhay town under Fulbe rule, with some 4,000 inhabitants, is
of no small importance as a market, where Mossi (and a few
Mandingo) barter 339
fabrics, millet, gold and kola-nuts for the
beautiful Taudéni crystalline salt of the Arabs of Timbuktu.
Fetish-worship extends from the south right up to the vicinity
of the last named province of Gando, which stretches up from
Say, like an arm, in a N.W. direction, and whose boundary with
Islam is at the same time the dividing line between "civilised
and barbarian Africa."
Down the Niger from Say--where the last unknown stretch of
the river was explored by the German expedition--Gando, with a
340
few exceptions, never extends as far as the left bank. Here
it is only in the larger trading towns on the river, which are
at the same time mostly points of passage for the kola-nut
caravans proceeding from Kano to Gonja, that the mahomedans can
hold their own.
Besides the Kinglets of Say and Boti, Gruner mentions the
following as being also tributary to Gando, viz.: Kirotashi
(left bank), Bikini (right), Karmamma (right), Kompa (right),
341
Garu (right), Ilo (right and a little way off).
342
YAURI, the country of the heathen Kámbari, is situated at
the commencement of the Rapids of the Niger, and is thickly
populated, more especially as regards the islands in the river.
Although Yauri pays tribute to Gando, the influence of the
latter is insufficient to suppress the frequent civil wars. The
brothers Lander found a large and populous town of the same name
on the left bank, to which the trade on the Middle Niger
extended: the merchants, however, who had come there in a large
boat from Timbuktu, returned to land again owing to the
difficulty of the journey into the mountains. (It was here that
the unfortunate termination of Mungo Park's second adventurous
journey occurred.)
Among the least-known portions of Haussa are the eastern
338 Barth, IV., 310.
339 Dori is called Jemmare by the people of Mossi (Monteil,
152). Jemmare is the Fulbe word for politico-religious union
and for a country in process of development--a new land.
340 A provisional map (on view in the Verein für Erdkunde,
Leipzig) shows it, however, with a narrow strip on the right
bank.
341 Gruner and von. Carnap, Kol. Z. 1895, 195, 202 et seq.,
210; compare Barth, IV., 553, Note 2; Flegel, M.A.G. III., 50,
63; Monteil, 189, 210.
342 Landers, Journ. Lond., 1830, 182; Barth, IV., 561 et
seq.; Flegel, M.A.G. III., 47.
73

part of Yauri, which is inhabited by Fulbe herds and heathens,
and the country lying to the east of it, namely, Guari.
GUARI 343
(Gbari) is situated to the north-east of Nupe. The
capital, Guari (Birni-n-Gbari) lies between Yauri and Saria
(between the Niger and Kano), and is surrounded by wooded and
mountainous districts, in which many heathens still take
shelter.
By far the most important and most powerful country in the
344
Empire of Gando is the Kingdom of Nupe or Nyfe (Clapperton:
Nyffee) which controls the shortest land route from the Middle
Niger 345
to the Gulf of Guinea, which here bend in towards each
other.
Nupe does not stand in friendly relationship with Gando and
346
Sókoto; owing to its power it pays tribute with reluctance
(1000 tobe and 300 slaves, Barth), and is not infrequently in
alliance with their enemies. The people of Nupe call themselves
Tapa or Tappa. Barth 347
reckons them at a million and a half.
348
Their language has many nasals and gutturals and is
remarkably rich in words, more especially as regards the method
of counting: there is even a word for million. 349
The language
appears to be related to that of the Yóruba.
The men of Nupe have the reputation of being the best
weavers in the Sudan, and the women of being the best spinners
350 351
and carriers. Nupe sends the best guineafowl-tobe to Kuka;
a quantity of tobe are also sent to Lagos. They make splendid
plaited-work, as for instance, mats; also excellent pottery.
Even a glass industry has been started.
343 Barth, passim, and V., Petermann's map; Baikie, Journ.
Lond., 1867, 93; Rohlfs Qu. d. A. II. (map); Massari, Ausld,
1882, 597.
344 Barth, passim; Flegel, M.A.G., III., 137 et seq.;
Staudinger, 353, 534.
345 The route fortunately follows the course of the Middle
Niger as far as the confluence of the Benue.
346 Rohlfs estimated that in the war-camp of the King of Nupe
at Beggi there were 20,000 huts, occupied by 100,000 warriors,
women, children and slaves; the war-fleet on the Niger he put
down at 500 canoes, each of which held from 30 to 100 men.--Qu.
d. A. II., 240, 244.
347 Journ. Lond., 1860, 122.
348 Staudinger, 728.
349 Rohlfs, passim, 248.
350 Clapperton, I., 628; Barth, II., 104.
351 Nachtigal, I., 645.
74

"The inhabitants of Nupe have, since time immemorial, done
remarkable industrial work and rival the inhabitants of Kano in
the arts of weaving and dyeing; intercourse with Europeans has
had a very favourable influence on the industry of the country,
and might have had even more but for the baneful influence of
the flourishing slave-trade; the land is excessively fertile, 352
and assisted by its favourable situation with regard to the
Niger and Benue, as well as to the great territories of the
interior, should have a very prosperous future" (Rohlfs).
The old capital of Nupe, and fifty years ago the most
353 354
important place "on the Upper River" was Rabba, situated at
the lower end of the cataracts of the Niger, on the left bank of
the stream, and one of the most important ferry-stations between
Old Haussa and Yóruba, and which in the days of the slave-trade
was a rich and flourishing town. The extensive remains of the
town walls and the miles of ruins and of land formerly under
cultivation all bear witness to its greatness. The Landers
speak of it as having 40,000 inhabitants, Burdo even as having
70,000. Rabba was, however, destroyed in 1845 by the insurgent
Dasaba (May, passim), and Rohlfs found scarcely 500 men amoung
the ruins.
In place of Rabba, Bida became at a later date the capital
of Nupe. Bida is situated on the left bank of the Niger, below
Rabba, and 16 English miles to the north of the river. It was
founded in the beginning of the sixties by Umoru, who
subsequently became Sultan, and already has "rather over than
under 50,000 inhabitants, not counting the innumerable crowds of
strangers who come and go" (von Puttkammer). It is "almost as
thickly populated as Kano" (Massari).
The town, which is surrounded by a rampart, is a rectangle
some 2 English miles in length by 1 in breadth, and gives a
pleasing impression by reason of its gigantic shady trees. Its
broad streets are cleansed only by the vulture, the "scavenger
of Africa." A large number of mosques are scattered through the
town. The wants of the town are provided for by large Fulbe
herds of cattle and by the numerous farms in the neighbourhood.
The market is divided up in accordance with the various classes
352 "A future cotton-field" (Baikie).
353 The Niger goes by two names South and North of the town
of Ida, (which is just below the confluence,) in accordance with
the varying products of the country; thus below (South of) Ida
it is called the Lower River, in the "Palm Oil District," while
above (North of) Ida it is called the Upper River, in the
"Sheabutter and Ivory District," which extends along the Niger
as far as Rabba and also far up the Benue.--Flegel, Briefe 48.
354 Clapperton, II., 174; Landers, Journ. Lond., 1830, 184:
Barth, V., 235; May, Journ. Lond., 1860, 228 et seq.; Rohlfs,
G.M. Ergb., VII., 86 et seq., and Qu. d. A. II., 240 et seq.;
Burdo, passim, 153; Ferryman, 165 et seq.
75

of goods exposed for sale and is supervised, as is the case in
all the larger Haussa towns, by a sort of market-police. The
textile industry governs the market, but both leather-work and
iron-work are also excellent; "the inhabitants are more skilful
and more hard-working than in Kano" (Massari). "The evening
market is splendidly lighted up by means of thousands of little
oil-lamps placed upon the ground" (Ferryman). An interesting
process is the conversion of European glass bottles into rings
of from 7 to 10 centimetres (23/4 to 4 inches) in diameter, a
thriving industry which appears to be confined to some twenty
families of Màssaga from Bida. 355
The port of Bida is Wanangi
Below Bida, on the west bank of the Niger, is Egga, an
important point of assembly for the traders from the Niger and
Benue and also an important ivory-market, with an estimated
population of from 6,000 to 12,000, of whom half are mahomedans
and half heathens.
In an advantageous position on the right bank, opposite the
356
(Wonangi), on the river of
the same name and situated at a distance of some 35 English
miles from the Niger. An English factory, founded at this
place, was abandoned again on account of the inconveniences
caused by the proximity of Bida (compare Yola and Bubanjídda).
confluence of the Benue, lies the town of Lokója, 357
together
with the ruins of an old market-place, founded in 1841 by the
English Niger Expedition as a "model farm." It is the most
southerly point of Nupe. Permanently occupied since 1805, it
has become, by the instrumentality of Crowther, a famous
mission-station, and is now one of the most important stations
of the English Niger Company, with a permanent population of
from 5,000 to 8,000 inhabitants, and up to which steamer
communication with the Coast is open throughout the year.
An important frontier town in the direction of Yóruba is
358
Saráki (Sarayi), with some 40,000 inhabitants, which, on the
occasion of slave raids, is treated as neutral. It is situate
upon a number of hills, the outlines of which are followed by
the high town-walls, and is divided into the Nupe town with neat
round huts, and the Yóruba town, with half-ruined dwellings of
matting.
355 It is not known how long this has been in existence, and
whether they formerly prepared their own raw material.--Rohlfs,
G.M. Ergb. VII., 76; Staudinger, 597; Ferryman, 166; Mizon,
passim, 272; Passarge, 470 et seq.
356 Flegel, Briefe 54; Ferryman, 154.
357 Allen and Thomson, Niger Expedition I., 338 et seq;
Baikie, Journ. Lond., 1855, 112, passim; Rohlfs, G.M. Ergb.
VII., 88 and Qu d.A.II, 230 et seq.; Burdo, 129 et seq.;
Staudinger, 49; Ferryman, 49 et seq.; Passarge, 9.
76
358 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 253 et seq.; Ferryman, 177 et
seq.;? the Charági of Barth (II., 561).

East of the Niger, Clapperton touched the important centres
of Kulfu 359 and Womba. 360
Jutting out from Gando into Nupe, and thus forming an
361
enclave, are the State and town of Shonga, on the right bank
of the river of the same name, and some 8 English miles above
the spot where it flows into the Niger. It is three days'
journey from Ilorin and is inhabited by about 5,000 Tapa. It is
famous for its textures and contains a factory of the Royal
Niger Company. Although situated in the heart of Nupe, Shonga
is nevertheless dependent only upon Gando; and its ruler is
appointed by the Sultan of Gando.
The following places in the Nupe territory stand in a
362 363
similar relationship to Gando: Agaie (north of Egga), which
produces a great deal of cotton, Lafai (on the way from Egga to
Keffi) and Lafiagie (near Shonga).
The last possession of Gando towards the south-west is
Northern YORUBA.
Yóruba, the land of passage between Nupe and the Bight of
Benin, is a country of closely-packed large towns whose
principal occupation consists in facilitating the brisk trade
between the Niger and the Coast and causing it to pass through
either one or other of them. For the enemy (Fulbes, Borgu or
Dahome) to either besiege or gain access to them is almost
impossible. The highly-developed industry, which increases in
intensity from the Ocean to the Niger; the profitable transittrade,
which, however, was far more important in the days of the
slave-trade than it is now (since this was one of its principal
outlets); and lastly the richness of the neighbourhood, which
supplies the necessaries of life (impossible to obtain from a
distance), all help to further the development of these Negro
Urban States. If in the north it was the fringe of the desert,
here it is the fringe of the sea and of the primeval forest that
has been the cause of this trade and of this human hurly-burly.
The Yóruba 364
are noted as being of an extremely striking
type. Their skin is almost of a light yellow-brown colour. The
359 Clapperton, II., 184 et seq.
360 Ibid, 210.
361 Flegel, M.A.G. III., 67 et seq.; von Puttkammer, M.D.S.,
II., 102; Ferryman, 123, 167 (he states the case somewhat
differently, making one half of the town belong to Nupe);
Mattei, Bas-Niger, 142 et seq.
362 Flegel, passim.
363 Barth (II., 682) speaks of Agaia as a large town
surrounded by a mud wall, which is dependent on the Governor of
Saria, but is inhabited by people of Nupe.
364 According to Passarge, 59 et seq., 422 et seq.
77

cheek bones are, it is true, very wide, but the face is sharp
and the nose not particularly fleshy. On the other hand the
lips often project like a snout. They have decidedly finer
features than the Coast tribes. The tribal marks 365 are also
mostly all tattooed alike. They are distinguished by a certain
amount of coarseness and heaviness, but also by energy and
independence. Barth 366 estimates their numbers at from two to
three millions. Krause 367 holds Iba to be the more correct name,
since Yóruba signifies the chief, or royal, Iba. Probably they
migrated here from the North 368 or else mingled with races from
the North; the people most nearly related to them are in the
North, the Nupe, and in the South the Yebu 369 . The Yóruba
language, like the Nupe, to which it is very similar, possesses
a very perfect system of enumeration 370 ; according to the latest
information 371
the dialects of the Igara, Igbira, Arago and Jikum
are all closely allied to it, whence it would follow that this
family extends right into Central Benue valley. American and
German missionaries have worked zealously in Yóruba; Islam is,
however, firmly established in its northern and southern
portions.
The most northerly of the Urban States of Yóruba is
372
Ilorin (Elori, Elorny, Alorie, with nasal sound), which
belongs to Gando, of which it forms the S.W. corner. It is
situated on both banks of the Asa, which flows into the Niger,
and has a population of some 100,000 inhabitants (according to
Rohlfs 60,000 to 70,000 residents, without counting a number of
strangers; according to Delany 120,000); the Fulbes rule over
the Borgu, Haussas and Nago (a Yóruba tribe), who, however, have
their own chiefs. They are skilled workmen and prepare fine
leather- and wicker-work, carving, and pottery. The town forms
an almost regular polygon, enclosed by high and badly-kept walls
extending for four hours; in the interior are four large market-
365 The Yóruba tribes. Ferryman, 171.
366 J. Lond. 1860, 122.
367 M.A.G., IV., 342.
368 Passarge, 513.
369 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 171 et seq.
370 Described in detail by Mann, Journal Anthropol.
Institute, 1886, I., 61 et seq.
371 Prietze, in Passarge, 416.
372 Barth, II., 189; May, J. Lond. 1860, 212; Delany, G.M.,
1862, 399; Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb., VII., 95 and Qu. d. A. II., 257
et seq.; Grundemann, Miss.-Atl., 1, 6; Staudinger, 353;
Ferryman, 185 et seq.; Rouire Ann. de. éogr., jan. 1895, 201.
78

places. Notwithstanding the large number of mosques and places
of worship many of the inhabitants are still heathen, and the
town by no means deserves the name of the "Mecca of West Africa"
(Ferryman.)
Ilorin, which is in the prolongation of the line Bauchi-
Keffi (q. v.) towards the west is the southernmost place to
which the Haussas bring goods from the interior, European wares
from Tripoli and Egyptian articles of clothing.
Over the remaining portions of the ancient Kingdom of
Yóruba, which at the beginning of this century extended from the
Coast to the Niger, the Fulbes have no influence; here they were
repulsed during long years of strife, 373
the reason being that
here, as in the east at Lere and Lame, they chanced, not upon a
chaos of small disunited states, but upon larger pagan statefabrics,
exhibiting a certain amount of organisation.
It was on account of these feuds that the old capital, in
374
the north, Katunga, the walls of which extended for 15 English
miles, was abandoned. The present capital of Yóruba, from which
however the ruler on exercises "moral Influence," is Oyo, 375
with
from 60,000 to 75,000 inhabitants, mostly Nago.
The most powerful and most important Yóruba State, the
376
leader and champion in the contest with the Fulbes, is Ibadan,
the centre of a number of lesser state-organisations. The town
of Ibadan is peopled by Nago and Egba whose numbers are
estimated at from 50,000 to 150,000; in its centre, from which
it spreads out in all directions like an amphitheatre, are the
mission buildings. Under the direct influence of Ibadan are the
thickly-settled districts and centres ("agglomérations
urbaines"), Ogbó-mosho 377 (30,000 to 70,000 inhabitants),
Osógbo 378 , Eyigbo, Ede, Iwa, 379 Isehin, 380 Ilésha (Iyésha, Iresa). 381
373 South of Ilorin is the standing camp (which, however,
frequently changes its position), in opposition to that of
Ibadan; between the two is an open space 20 English miles or
more in width. Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 91; Ferryman, 199 et
seq.
374 Clapperton, II., 97; Lander, Diary (Clapperton, II.,)
416; Rohlfs, passim, 99.
375 Delany, G.M., 1862, 399; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 271;
Rouire, passim, 200; Grundemann, Miss.-Atl., 1, 6, suggests Ago
Oya, also named Oyo, after the ancient capital.
376 May, J. Lond., 1866, 214 ("ranks unquestionably first in
actual power"); Delany, passim; Rohlfs, G.M., Ergb. VII., 99 and
Qu. d. A. II., 269 et seq.; Krause, M.A.G. IV., 322; Rouire,
passim, 201; Ferryman, 171 (Places over 50,000 inhabitants.)
377 May, passim, 212; Delany, passim.
378 May, passim, 219.
79

Of great political importance, beside Ilorin and Ibadan, is
the great "republican colony" of "confederation" Abbeokúta, 382
S.W. of Ibadan on the Ogun river in the Egba territory, with an
estimated population of from 60,000 to 200,000, of whom part are
mussulmans, part heathens, and one half slaves. Abbeokúta is
said to have formerly paid tribute to the Sultan of Gando; 383
if,
however, this were ever the case it is now quite out of the
question.
Abbeokúta was founded in 1820 (or 1825), as a place of
refuge for the inhabitants of Yoruba from the Fulbes and from
the King of Dahome. It stands on a large space studded with
numerous granite masses, some of which are as much as 80 metres
(265 feet) high; the name Abbeokúta signifies, moreover, "under
the rock." The place grew very quickly; since 1861, when
Crowther, (at a later date black bishop of Abbeokúta), drove
back Geso (Guézo), King of Dahomey, Christianity made rapid
strides until, in 1867, the people having become suspicious,
drove out the missionaries.
Abbeokúta is more a collection of villages within a rampart
common to all, than a town: groups of huts, large markets,
masses of rock and cultivation give an appearance of variety to
the general panorama of the vast settlement. There are,
according to Grundemann 130, according to Barret 140, different
"Komplexe," which, within a circumference of 30 kilometres (20
miles), are again arranged in seven districts, which are called
after the various races resident in them, who each retain their
individual customs, speech and rights. The administrators of
the districts have the title of king and acknowledge the
supremacy of one of their number, who gives the casting vote in
379 May, passim, 213; Grundemann, passim; Delany suggests
75,000 inhabitants; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A. II., 269, writes Juoh.
380 ?May's Eshon (passim, 224 et seq.)? the eastern border or
march of Ibadan.
381 An important, warlike and fairly independent town in the
vicinity of the water-parting between the Niger and the Ocean;
May, passim, 217; Rohlfs, G.M., passim, 97; Grundemann:
Yara=Iresa. With the districts of Yóruba compare also May,
passim, 231.
382 Tucker, "Abbeokuta or sunrise within the tropics," with a
map (p. 40), which shows many of the rocks and the mission
stations; Bowen, "The Interior of Africa" 108; Delany, passim,
Burton, Abeokuta, &c., 225; Grundemann, Miss.-Atl. passim;
Barret, L'Afrique occ. I., 179 et seq., from reports of the
missionaries Borghero, Holley and Chautard in the "Annales de la
Prop." 1867, 1881, 1882; Rouire, Ann. de géogr, 1895, 200
(Report on a journey of the English Governor of Lagos, Carter).
383 Staudinger, 353.
80

matters affecting the general welfare of the town (community).
The chief magistrate and the commander-in-chief of the army, the
latter of whom is always surrounded by a bodyguard of Amazons,
have great influence.
Abbeokúta is in the spiritual power of the ogboni or fetish
priests, who also have a sort of police force. They are less
opposed to Christianity than to Islam, which was imported into
Abbéokuta by the traders. Travellers come here from Timbuktu
and Bornu, and quite a number of natives now begin to travel
themselves, after the example of the mussulmans. 384
In a southerly direction the two States of the Yebu (Yabu),
385
with capital Ode, and most important place Epe, extend as far
as the lagoon of Lagos.
East of the Lower Niger, and of political importance as the
place of pilgrimage of the pagans between that river and the
Cross River, is the sacred town of Aro,
386
(in the territory of
the wild Ibo and some 25 miles from the left bank of the Niger);
where religious influence has formed a sort of centre or nucleus
for the otherwise so disrupted nationality.
In order to make a complete sketch of the political
condition of New-Haussa it only remains for us to name the
partly-surrounded and weak, and the partly-remote but strong
Pagan States; the most important, which have almost all been
mentioned already, in connection with the Fulbe possessions in
their vicinity, are as follows: in the north Kebbi, Gober,
Máradi; in the east Lere, Lame, Lakka; in the south Galím,
Ibadan; in the west Borgu, Gurma; in the interior enclosed
384 The progress of civilization in these localities is
evinced by the spontaneous and energetic move, made by
Christians, mussulmans and heathen alike, against the liquortraffic
which is forcing its way in Abbeokúta, Lagos, Ibadan,
Oyo and Ogbo-mosho; vide Leipz Zeitg. of 7th March 1896.
385 Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., 271 et seq.; Rouire, passim. Lagos,
situated on an island in the large lagoon, which continues right
up to the mouth of the Niger ("Stadt der Seen," town of the
lakes) was, till 1852, when it was stormed by the English, a
stronghold of the slave-trade. Coming by the trade route from
the Niger, Islam has here already traversed North Africa and is
zealously issuing propaganda: each year there are pilgrimages
to Mecca. Lagos, where German trade is taking up an
advantageous position, is most flourishing, and its importance,
as the most important town in West Africa, should be greatly
increased by the proposed construction by the English of a
railway to Rabba on the Niger. Wilson, "West Africa" 143;
Barret, passim, I., 178; Krause, M.A.G. IV., 340 et seq.;
Staudinger, 13 et seq.; Morgen, 320 et seq.; Rouire, passim, 190
et seq.
386 Baikie, Journ. Lond., 1855, 111; Grundemann, I., 1, 7;
Burdo, passim 95 et seq.
81

territories (or enclaves) such as Abuja, and Engaski, 387
a small
independent mountainous country on the left bank of the Niger,
quite independent of Gando; these should be amplified by the
addition of the territories of the pagan tribes mentioned on
pages 6 and 7, the political independence of which is more or
less on the decline, depending on the extent to which they come
in contact with the supporters of the faith of Islam.
2. THE ORGANISATION OF THE STATES OF THE GREAT
BEND OF THE NIGER.
Whilst the political centre of gravity of the Western Sudan
is at present located in its eastern half it was, at the
earliest date at which researches were possible in the western
half. 388 We are, however, thanks to its former connection with
the Arabs of Morocco, better informed on the subject of the past
history of the western than of the eastern half; so thatprincipally
owing to the explorations of Barth--some attempt may
at least be made to represent in their main outlines the
original extent and subsequent development of the extensive and
ancient empires on the Bend of the Niger. They were called
Ghana or Ghánata, Melle and Sonrhay. 389
GHANA, or GHANATA, the most westerly of these, the
confusion of which with Kano prior to the time of Barth
The original inhabitants of the country according to El
Bekri, were Mandingo ("Wakore" and, in fact, Assuanek) who were
under the dominion of Whites, as reported by Ahmed Baba. It is
391
possible that these were Fulbes, since the first ruler--
Wakayamagha, Wakayamangha, or Wákajamangha (mangha means "the
390
gave
rise to so many mistakes, had its origin to the west of the
Niger, in the country now called Bághena, or Bakunu, somewhere
about midway between Timbuktu and the Senegal.
387 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 46.
388 According to Barth, this might be described by the Fulbe
word Futa, although here the Fulbes are not of such general
importance as in the east.
389 The main sources of supply from which are derived the
histories of Ghánata and Melle are the works of Ibn Khaldun and
El Bekri, whilst the history of Sonrhay was obtained from that
of Ahmed Baba, from which work Barth made extracts when in
Gando.
390 Leo Africanus, D'Anville, Rennell.
391 Barth, IV., 150, 600; V., 511; according to Faidherbe,
however, they were not Fulbes, but Soninke, G.M., 1866, 441.--
Bakunu is, even at the present day, still peopled by Assuanek.
Lenz, Timbuktu, II., 253; compare Binger, App. V., 382, Note 1
(as far as Duéntsa?).
82

great")--bore a Fulbe title. 392
He founded the Empire of Ghàna
about the year 300 A.D., or about three centuries before the
Hejra, at the beginning of which 22 pagan Kings had already
reigned.
The capital, Ghánata, was either the present Walata itself
393
or was situated quite close to it; it was also called Biru.
That it already, about 680 A.D. (60 of the Hejra), possessed "an
extensive mahomedan quarter, which contained 12 mosques" is
scarcely to be accepted, although this information bears witness
to the importance of the town 394 which had already ee n described
by Ibn Haukal. 395 Edrisi 396 speaks of terra et urbs Gana; in any
case Mandingo were already in his day settled on the right or
inner Niger bank, and Ghana extended thence 397 to the Ocean, 398
which is its extreme limit.
399
Ibn Batuta calls the capital Iwalaten; this is the first
town, starting from the north, which belongs to the Sudan; a
farba represents the Sultan; most of the inhabitants are Messufa
(Berbers) who already wear Egyptian clothing; pilgrims from
Mecca are also to be seen in the town. In the 15th century we
hear, from Portuguesè sources, 400
of the salt trade between
392 Barth, passim; compare Binger, I., 391.
393 In the old accounts it is impossible to distinguish
between the description of the town and that of the country.
394 According to El Bekri and Ahmed Baba; compare Barth, IV.,
430, 603, 620; V., 495. Petermann's map (Barth, V.) shows
Ghánata and Walata as identically the same; De Slane's view (Ibn
Khaldun; II., 109, Note 4), that "Ghana appears to have occupied
the site of Kabra, near Timbuktu," is not tenable. Schirmer
transfers the site of the town to Baghena, close to Ras-el-Ma,
the most northerly branch of the backwaters of the Niger (Lé
Sabara, 333).
395 Journ. Asiat. 1842, 240 et seq.
396 Comm, Hartmann, 28 et seq.; incolas huius urbis cymbis
validissimaé structuroe in Nilo (Niger) vehi, p. 37; probably as
far-travelling merchants, like the merchants of Jenne on the
Niger, or of Ghadames on land.
397 Urbes habet Vankarac terra (i.e., Mandingoland) plures,
sed sunt sub dilione regis Ganae. Edrisi, passim, 41.
398 According to Khaldun; vide Ahmed Baba, Tarich-es-Sudan,
Ztschr, d. D. Morgenl. Ges IX., 1855; S.A. 47 (Barth and Ralfs)
sic.
399 Voyage dans le Soudan (Trad. p. MacGuckin de Slane);
Journ. Asiat. 1843, 193 et seq.
83
400 Abh. Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss., Hist. Kl., VI. Bd., 1 Abt., 189.

"Oualete" and Tambucutu (Timbuktu). Leo's 401 remark that Sonrhay
was spoken in Walate shows the great extent of Sonrhay. Owing
to the rise of Timbuktu Walata began to decay in the 15th
century. 402 Mungo Park 403 mentions Walet the capital of Biru, as
well as the salt of Biru. Aliun Sal 404
visited Walata at the
beginning of the sixties; it is even at the present time a great
exchange-market between Morocco and the Sudan. The Moors bring
European goods, which they barter for gold and ostrich-feathers,
the people of Tishit salt, which they give for millet, with
which Walata is richly provided by its connections with Barna,
Segu and Mássina. From Tuat come woollen goods, clothes and
silks, whilst dark Haussa robes come viâ Arauan (north of
Timbuktu). White stuffs are used as currency in most of these
transactions.
Provisions are brought in from outside as the neighbourhood
of the town is dry, and only retains the carrying-trade as being
the centre of a circle on the circumference of which places
diametrically opposite to each other also have goods and
requirements of different characters. The merchants pay tribute
to the Moorish princes of the country in order to secure their
405
trade. Lenz speaks also of an interesting leather-industry in
Walata. Near the town are a number of ruins.
406
About 960 Ibn Haukal visited the flourishing commercial
town of Aúdaghost, which carried on a lively trade with
Siljilméssa 407 and was also situated in an unfertile locality 408
Kunstmann, "Die Handelsverbindung der Portugiesen mit Timbuktu
in 15 Jahrhundert."
401 Descr. Afr. 633 et seq.; Gualatae Regni descriptio;
compare Barth, IV., 624.
402 Ahmed Baba, passim, 12.
403 Reisen 121, 182.--The inhabitants are a mixture between
blacks (Assuanek) and whites (Berbers and Arabs), who oppressed
the former, whose language however predominates; the unhealthy
town has the nick-name of the "snake's throat." Barth, V. 493
et seq.
404 According to Ancelle, "Les Explorations, &c." 206 et seq.
405 Timb II., 104, 148.
406 Trad. M. de Slane, Journ. Asiat. 1842, 239 et seq.
407 An important trading place in Southern Morocco; Edrisi
(passim, 88): Segelmesa, viatorum euntium atque redeuntium
quasi centrum; Haukal (passim, 252) speaks of its rich and
capable inhabitants; Brügge as early as the 13th century
procured dates and white alum from Sijilmessa. (Kunstmann,
"Afrika vor der Entdeckung der Portugiesen," p. 7).
84

somewhat to the south of line of communication Walata--Wadan,
and in the vicinity of Kasr-el Barka and Tejija; 409 its ruler was
the Berber chieftain Tin-Yerútan, of the tribe of the Sénagha or
Ssenhája 410 who were at that time in power in Ghánata. The
western Berbers, Lemtuna and Massufa, had already, in the 9th
century (i.e., about the middle of the 3rd century of the Hejra)
pushed southwards, accepted Islam and obtained the supremacy
over the negro races. It was from the neighbourhood of the
central maghreb (i.e., "the west" in Arabic) that the migration
of the Berbers took place, in consequence of the incursion of
the Arabs at the instigation of the Egyptian minister Ahmed ben
Ali el Jerjerani, who died in the year 436 of the Hejra 411 (1044-
1045 A.D.). At the beginning of the 11th century the faith of
Islam was spread abroad in Tekrur. 412 In 1052 the fanatical
Merábeti from Morocco, the Almoravide of the Spaniards,
plundered Aúdaghost. In El Bekri's time (1067 A.D.) Islam
continued to spread yet further under the influence of the
powerful Ssenhája; the latter conquered Ghánata in 1076 A.D.
which henceforward became completely mahomedan and the cause of
strife between the Berbers of the north and the negroes of the
south and east. In 1203-1204 Ghánata ceased to exist as an
independent Empire owing to its conquest by the Susu, a Mandingo
tribe, 413
although the western portion, with Walata or Biru,
408 Edrisi, passim,
carenti.
28 et seq; Audogast, in deserto aqua
409 15 days' journey from Walate, two months from Sus and
Sijilmessa; Peschel's note (Gesch d. Erdk, 2 Auflage, 127, Note
1), that it is probably synonymous with Teghasa is not tenable.
Augaghost lay to the west, Teghása to the north, of Timbuktu.
Haukal (passim, 253) gives a lucid account of the magnitude of
the commerce: "I have myself seen, at Audeghoscht, a paper
wherein a native of Sédjelmessa acknowledged to be indebted, to
a person of the same town, in a sum of forty thousand dinars"
(Mitkals, at from 10 to 12 francs, i.e., 8 to 10 shillings).
Vide also Barth, IV., 603 and Journ. Lond., 1860, 125.
410 Ibn Khaldun (Trad de Slane) II., 1 et seq.; Faidherbe:
Senata (G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.); the tribe which gave its name
to the Senegal. Peschel, passim, 129, Note 2; compare Jannequin
(p. 7 "Sénéga") and Schirmer, 237.
411 Barth, I., 245.
412 A province of Ghánata, possibly also meant to indicate
the entire mahomedan West Sudan; Edrisi, 39: regnum et urbs
Tocrur; Makusi, Not. et extr. XII., 638 (according to Barth);
Ahmed Baba, 46: Stadt und Reich Takrur (=Sudan); compare
Peschel, passim, 128; the name Tekrur also occurs in Kebbi,
Barth, IV., 609; Binger, II., 382: Tekrur-Melle. Tekrur means
"converted country" (Quintin).
85

appears to have kept tolerably free for some time longer.
While Fulbes or Berbers were the rulers in Ghánata the
lords of Melle 414 (Melli, Meli, Mali) were the Mandingo, who,
however, probably merely succeeded old reigning in Berber
families, just as these had originally reigned in Sonrhay and
Bornu. 415 Melle appears to have come into existence, or at least
developed into importance, as a result of a rising of the
"Mandingo or Juli," directed against Ghánata. It was situated
in the basin of the Niger, 416 more to the south-east than
Ghánata, with its political centre of gravity 417 above Timbuktu
at Melle, 418
on an arm of the Upper Niger. The first mahomedan
413 The Berber were driven out in the 13th century by Mali,
chief of the Mandingo. Faidherbe, passim; compare Barth, IV.,
608.
414 Melle means "free or noble" and denotes the ruling
population in contradistinction to the subject Mandingo, the
Assuanek; Barth, V., 511 et seq.
415 Barth, IV., 503. According to a note of Clapperton's
(vide Staudinger, 544) the race was descended from the remnants
of the ancient Copts. All this information goes to show that
the impulse for state-organisation originally came from the
Hamo-semitic side but, as a result of intermixture, was also
influenced by the negroid element which followed it.
416 According to Cooley ("Negroland") it is the later Bambara
Empire, as it is shown on Petermann's map (Barth, V.,); Barth
also makes it out to be the Mássina of the present day (IV.,
258); it appears doubtful whether it is Edrisi's terra Lamlam
with the town of Malel; it is certain that it was a portion of
the terra Vancara (p. 39); Nilus (i.e., the Niger) ambit hanc
terram.
417 This is constituted first of all by the settlement of the
ruling family at one or at several places, and secondly by the
attachment of a tribe to a particular piece of ground which,
moreover, belongs to it. The foreign provinces resemble, by
their changes, the shifting scenery of the stage, which is
frequently altogether removed.
86
418 Cooley, "Negroland," 79 (according to Barth); the Niger
is here called the Jóliba, signifying "river of the Juli."
Batuta describes it as the "Capital of the Sudan," 25 long days'
march from Walata; justice was sternly administered; the Kadi
(chief magistrate) had made the great pilgrimage. About 1375
the town of Melle appears on Pizigani's map and on the
Catalonian map of the world (vide Kiepert, Beitr. J. Heft). Leo
(p. 641) estimates that Melle contained 6,000 families; Nigrites
omnes ingenio, civilitate alque industria antecedunt. According
to Barth (II, 290) it is identical with Park's Jara. DeSlane
places it (Ibn Khaldun I., XCIV) from 150 to 160 miles to the

King of Melle is mentioned in 1813. The greater part of Ghánata
was conquered by Mari-Játah (1235 to 1260). 419 Between 1288 and
1306 an embassy comprising two of the religious dignitaries of
the Fulbes was sent from Melle to Bornu, to its King, Biri or
Ibrahim. The empire attained to its greatest extent and
importance at the beginning of the 14th century under Mansa
(i.e., Sultan) Mussa, 420
the greatest of the Princes of Melle,
who ruled 1311--1331, and was in friendly relationship with
Morocco.
It included "first of all Bághena, formed out of the
remains of the kingdom of Ghánata, and which included the whole
421
of the inhabited country of Tagánet and A'derer; secondly
Ságha 422 or Western Tekrur with Ssilla; 423
then Timbuktu, still at
that time, as it appears, independent of Gogo, and finally
Sonrhay with its capital Gogo." Jénne, "probably on account of
its isolated position," appears not to have belonged to Mélle at
that time.
In 1326 Mansa Mussa, with a large following, made a grand
pilgrimage to Mecca, on returning from which he built a palace
and the great mosque at Timbuktu and also a mosque at Gogo.
Melle was divided, politically, into two halves, a northern and
a southern, which were separated by the Niger; from a national
424
point of view, however, it was divided into three provinces:
Kala, Bennendúgu and Sabardúgu, each with 12 governorships.
Walata ("the frontier province of Melle and an important
425
commercial town,") and the capital Melle were visited in 1352
S.E. instead of to the S.W. of Timbuktu, but this is probably a
printer's error. Binger (I., 57) locates its ruins in the
vicinity of Nyámina, on the left bank of the Niger, as Niani-
Mádugu; it was destroyed in 1540 or 1750; vide also Barth, V.,
499.
419 Compare Batuta, passim, 219.
420 Batuta, passim, 204 et seq.; Barth, IV., 610 et seq.;
Schirmer, Sah, 237.
421 Desert tracts to the N.W. of Timbuktu.
422 Ságha is probably the present Mopti, situated at the
point where the Baule or Mayel Baleve! flows into the Niger, the
Isaca of Caillié (Journ. &c., II., 239), and which the Bozo
still call Saga (Caron, "De Saint-Louis au port de Tombouctou,"
142).
423 Close to Jenne on the Niger. Park, Reisen, 188. The
"Sala, a town in Tocrur," of Edrisi? (p. 30).
424 Lenz, II., 225; compare Barth, V., 497; IV., 612; Binger,
II., 371.
87
425 "Monteil, 246: "What we know from history, however, is

y Ibn Batuta. In 1464-65 the power of Melle was broken by
Ssoni 'Ali, the founder of the great Sonrhay Empire; it was
only, however, in 1501 that Melle was made completely tributary,
by the Sonrhay King A'skia, and so reduced as to consist only of
its former western provinces. The Prince of Melle was now
styled mandi-mansa (King of the Mandingo).
From the end of the 15th century fresh movements took place
in these localities as a result of the advance of the Arabs from
Southern Morocco and Algeria against the Berbers. 426 About 1540
Melle ceased to be an empire, and was split up into 5 parts,
corresponding to the five families of the Mandingo, viz., the
Bammana (Bámbara), Mali-nke, Susu, Soani-nke and Jula; 427 in 1545
Sonrhay warriors again marched against the tributary country.
When, later on, the Sonrhay Empire was overthrown by the Moors,
"Melle came so completely to grief that it was split up into a
number of small kingdoms." 428 Binger fixes the date of the
complete break-up of the great empire at the end of the 17th
century. 429 A number of the Mandingo migrated from the interior
of the Bend of the Niger as far as Dáfina. The downfall of the
last remains of Melle took place in the middle of the 18th
century, at which time the Bámbara took possession of the south
(Segu), and the Arabs of the north (Bághena, El Hodh). The last
ruler no longer had the title of mansa, but the lesser one of
feréngh. The civil war between his sons Dabo and Sagone, set
all the tribes in a commotion and is, even at the present day,
the theme of the songs of the Griots (ballad-singers). 430
The leadership on the Bend of the Niger was taken over from
Melle by SONRHAY or Songhay,
431
the third one among the Empires
that had branched off as a politico-civilised side-stream from
the main course of western civilisation, and which had its
principal seat S.E. of Timbuktu, but which, in its greatest
that towards the end of the fourteenth century the Fulbes
possessed a large empire, of which the capital was Melle."--In
any case at that time there were already Fulbes on the Upper
Niger, but not, however, as the rulers of Melle; this is only
the birth-place of the embassy to Bornu, mentioned on the
previous page, and is not a Fulbe, but a Mandingo Empire, Barth
II. 314, Note; IV., 150, 153; V., 511 et seq.
426 Barth, IV., 540.
427 Binger, II., App. V., 372 et seq.
428 Barth, IV., 258.
429 Binger, I., 418.
430 Barth, V., 512; Binger, II., 385.
431 Barth, IV., 600 st seq.; for the pronunciation of the
letter "ghain" in this name compare Barth, I., 238, Note.
88

extent, embraced almost the whole of Melle and Ghánata. Already
from the commencement of the 7th century there were kings, of
the dynasty of Sa, 432 --a dynasty expressly stated by Leo to be
Libyan--who resided in the ancient capital Kukia, 433 the King of
which, even in Haukal's time, is said to have been very
powerful. In 1009 Sa Kassi, the fifteenth prince of the dynasty
of Sa, accepted Islam. In 1067 the new capital, Gogo, 434 was
described by El Bekri. From 1153 onwards the Mandingo were
powerful in the east; Binger 435 states that the majority of the
Sonrhay Kings were Mandingo. As a result of Mansa Mussa's great
pilgrimage to Mecca with a large military force (see opposite)
Sonrhay fell under the dominion of Melle in 1326. In 1330
(1335) Prince Ali Kilnu, who had been held as a hostage at the
court of Melle, escaped and founded in Gogo the new dynasty of
the Ssonni. 436 In 1352 Batuta visited the capital. In 1464-65
Ssonni Ali of Sonrhay conquered the Empire of Melle (see p. 64),
and also obtained possession of Jénne, which had always resisted
Melle in the west, whilst in the east he built A'gades (?); 437
432 Ahmed Baba (Barth,--Ralfs), passim; Binger II., 366 et
seq., 373 (foreigners who had immigrated).
433 The site of Kukia is not known (? in the vicinity of
Ghánata or to the north of Gogo); in all probability in the
second half of the 11th century it was an important gold-market,
at which salt and mussels were the currency.--Barth, IV., 436,
606; V., 213.
434 Gogo or Gangan (Tuareg), Gao (Sonrhay), Gá-rho (Arabic),
in old accounts also called Kaukau, Kuku, Koko and Gago, was, up
till the time of its discovery by Barth, frequently confounded
with the ancient Kukia, the former capital of Sonrhay, and with
the ancient Kuku on Lake Fittri (Barth, IV., 608, Note 1); it
was an open town on the Niger, just below its bend, and already
in the 9th century an important place of commerce in gold,
slaves and salt, being "just at the commencement of the Egyptian
caravan-route." The double town was principally composed of
reed-huts, the pagans inhabiting the west Niger bank and the
mussulmans the east bank. Barth II., 84, Note (destruction by
the Moors), 87; IV., 441; V., 216 et seq.; Ahmed Baba, passim,
44; Edrisi, 43: Cucu, metropolis terrae Nigrorum et magnitudine
praestans; Batuta, 230: "The town of Kuka, one of the largest
and most beautiful towns in the Sudan"; Leo, 646 et seq: Gago
oppidum umplissimum . . . quindecim annorum iuvenis sex aureis
vendi solet . . . omnium denique carissimu sal est.
435 Binger, II., 369, 383.
436 His followers: the Sonninke.
89
437 Barth, I., 435 et seq. 512 et seq.; IV., 618; Binger,
II., 384. In the 16th century A'gades displaced Taddemékket,
which lay to the north of Gogo, as a commercial place; it

Timbuktu also belonged to Sonrhay and had its own special
governor, Túmbutukoy. At that time the Portuguese (under John
II.) had a factory in Wadan. 438 Ssonni Ali died while on a
campaign against Gurma, which lies to the south. His son was
conquered in 1492 by the Sonrhay Haji Mohammed A'skia 439 who
again founded a new dynasty and extended the Empire. In 1495
the latter undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca, with a following of
over 3,000 persons, of whom 500 were cavalry, and which cost
about 450,000 mitkal 440
(£225,000).
Sonrhay was now a powerful Empire of which Timbuktu was
approximately the centre, and which extended round the Bend of
the Niger, from Kaarta in the west to Kebbi and Aïr in the east,
441
and from Benendugu in the south to Teghasa in the north.
In 1529 Haji Mohammed A'skia abdicated in favour of his son
A'skia Mussa. In the 16th century frequent civil wars-of-
442
succession took place in Sonrhay. Harem-intrigues also
flourished as long as Gogo lasted and then the importance of
both was transferred to Kátsena; vide also Barth, V., 184;
Journ. Lond., 1860, 126.
438 Wadan (Ouaden), towards which the trade-routes make a
great bend inwards, so as to reach the Portuguese, was visited
by Marmol and Leo, and recently by the mulatto Panet (G.M.,
1859, 106). It is the capital of Adrar (Aderer), 7 days'
journey from Tishit and 8 more on to Ovalete (Walata), and then
again 15 more to "the capital Timbuktu on the river Ennyll"; it
has from 2,000 to 4,000 inhabitants but was formerly larger, and
is an emporium for the salt from Ijil (Ygild), the inhabitants
of which sell a load here for 1½ mitkal (some 10 to 15
shillings), which even in Wadan costs from 2½ to 3 mitkal, but
which costs 7 mitkal at Tishit, to which the traders of Walata
bring the salt. The place is supplied with provisions from the
South, more especially from Nyamina on the Niger. Schmeller,
Valentim Fernandez Alemao, Abh, Bayr. Ak. d. W., Phil. Kl., Bd.
IV., Abt. 3, 46. Kunstmann, D°, Hist. Kl., Bd. VI., Abt. 1.
187 et seq., 217. Barth V., 553 et seq.
439 Barth, IV., 623, et seq.; II., 503.
440 Ahmed Baba, passim, 15.
441 Teghasa in the second half of the 15th century furnished
the whole of Sonrhay with salt (Barth, IV., 644); Batuta
(passim, 187) mentions houses and a mosque there made of rock
salt; pieces of salt pass for currency. Caillié (II., 128, 417)
visited the springs of "Trasas or Trarzas"; since their
destruction by the Moors the mines have not been drained again.
As regards the names for Teghasa compare Hist. Kl. d. Bayr. Ak.
Bd. VIII., Abt., 1, 274.
442 Barth, IV., 433 et seq.
90

contributed greatly towards lessening the power of the State, so
much so that it was unable to resist a powerful foe coming from
the north; at the close of this century, between 1580 and 1590,
the Moors commence to take a share in the destiny of Sonrhay; it
is true they could not as yet conquer it, though they had
already obtained possession of the important salt-mines of
Teghása. In 1589 Pasha Jódar, a commander of Sultan Múlai
Hamed-el-Dhébebi, appeared in Sonrhay at the head of 3,600
Moors, armed with fire-arms, and conquered the capital Gogo (see
p. 64). His successor, Pasha Mahmud defeated, in 1591, King
A'skia Isshák, who was put to death by the pagans, to whom he
had fled. Henceforth Sonrhay became a province of Morocco. Its
downfall had been greatly contributed to by the Soghoran, a
tribe which later became completely merged in the Fulbes, but
which had been settled on the Niger in Mássina and had conquered
the fertile provinces of Kúrmina and Bara. 443 Whilst great
disorders occurred, in consequence of various new pillaging
incursions by the Moors into the Sudan (from which the author of
the history of Sonrhay had also to suffer greatly), the
conquerors gradually established themselves in the towns and
became intermixed with the population, forming a new race, the
Ruma, who remained masters of the towns. 444
When the immigration
from Morocco ceased they were reduced to a sort of official
class, limited in power by the Tuaregs, a large tribe of whom,
the Auelímmide, conquered Gogo in 1770, and in 1780 founded a
great Empire--Aussa--on the northern bank of the Niger. The
Tuaregs everywhere either occupied the important commercial
centres, or else appeared unexpectedly in the settlements to
raise tribute, a point upon which Caillié, Barth and Lenz report
very clearly.
No independent State was organised to take the place
vacated by Sonrhay: Fulbes, Tuaregs and Sonrhay jostled one
another, living alternately in peace and at war with each other;
in the south the Fulbes had the preponderating power, while in
the north on the other hand the power of the Tuaregs was so
great as to lead to the oppression of the Sonrhay, who only
enjoyed liberty in geographically favourably situated places, as
445
for instance, in the rugged Hómbori Mountains. Descendants of
the royal family of A'skia or Ssíkkia are said to have lived 446
even as late as Barth's time in Darghol, the principal seat of
the free Sonrhay.
In a survey of the existing political situation on the
Great Bend of the Niger we find the largest and most important
443 Barth, IV., 148.
444 As judges, harbour masters, &c. they still have influence
in the north of Mássina.
445 Barth, IV., 341; Monteil, 39.
446 Barth V., 279.
91

States to be as follows: MASSINA, SEGU (both of which are
completely in the hands of the French since the opening of
navigation by them on the Niger), SAMORY'S EMPIRE, KONG, TIEBAS
EMPIRE, MOSSI, GURMA and BORGU. Between these there are a whole
crowd of smaller, and more or less independent territories. The
Sudan States are separated from the Gulf of Guinea by the
unknown territory between the Ivory Coast and Worodugu, and by
Ashanti, Togo and Dahomey, a strip of country which extends from
Liberia to Yóruba and Benin.
As "the cradle of the mahomedan civilisation of the Western
Sudan" 447 MASSINA, 448 formerly the chief province of Melle, the
country on the great lagoon of the Upper Niger (Lake Debu),
takes a prominent place. This Empire, so interesting by reason
of its historical vicissitudes, was founded by the Má-ssina, a
section of the Assuanek 449 of Tishit, 450 which lies to the N.W.; a
tribe which, like most of those on the fringe of the desert, was
composed of a fairer and of a darker race, and was probably
oppressed by the Berbers. El Bekri already speaks of it in the
11th century. 451
As a portion of each of the three former great
Empires it nominally came to the Moors after the fall of
Sonrhay. They, however, troubled themselves but little about
these remote regions, which for the want of a strong grasp sank
into political insignificance.
A powerful revulsion took place on the appearance on the
scene of the Malim Ahmed Lébbo who, about 1816, led an
enthusiastic and fanatical horde of Fulbes under the sacred
452
banner from Ssifaua in Gando towards the West. Here they
founded an Empire in Mássina after severe and protracted
struggles against the Fulbes of Bághena 453
(who were anxious
447 Binger, II., 393.
448 Lenz only heard it pronounced Moássina and wrote it so;
vide II., 121, Note.--The Fulbes only call the States on the
left bank of the Niger Mássina; those on the right bank they
call Futa, Binger I., 382.
449 Or Aser, Mandingo, Barth, V., 517 et seq.
450 Tishit, which itself produces nothing but dates; is an
emporium for the salt from "the great sebcha," Ijil, situated
between this place and Wadan; it was originally called Shetu.
Panet, G.M., 1859, 104 et seq.; Barth, V., 517, 553; Vincent in
Ancelle, 127.
451 Barth, IV., 429.
452 Compare Barth, IV., 259 and 484, Note; Krause Niger
Exped. I., 28.
92
453 Barth, V., 514; one of the few cases in which Fulbes
fought against Fulbes, also in this case occurring on the
frontier (vide p. 19, Note 10); the contest began in 1821.

about their liberty, and who had already settled here before),
and also against the Arabs in the N.W., the Bambara in the S.W.,
the Tómbo to the East and the Tuaregs in the North. The latter
gave to the Fulbe Empire of Mássina greater unity than is
possessed by the great Eastern State, with which it no longer
maintained connections on the lines of communication, but at
once assumed a hostile attitude, from a religious and reforming
stand-point, as well as from a political.
In 1826 the Fulbes of Mássina occupied the town of
Timbuktu, whither they proceeded in greater strength in 1831,
but were driven back by the Tuaregs in 1844. 454 About 1823,
Mohammed Galaijo, after fruitless contests against Lebbo, his
former ally, migrated eastwards from Mássina, and founded, as a
vassal of Gando, a flourishing colony (vide p. 50). Lebbo died
in 1846; his son Sseko (sheikh) Ahmedu succeeded to the
rulership, in which he again was succeeded in 1852-53 by his
youthful son A'hmadu-A'hmadu, an "ascetic and a red-hot
mussulman," like his ancestors. He undertook several
expeditions against Timbuktu somewhere about 1855. A'hmadu-
A'hmadu, who was the last Fulbe Prince of the family of Sisse,
was overcome by treachery 455 in 1862, and taken prisoner by Haji
Omar, the founder of the Tukulör Empire, who thereupon annexed
Mássina. After Omar's death (vide p. 87) his successor in the
rulership of Mássina was his nephew Tidiani, who succeeded to
the throne about 1864, and reigned for about 30 years. 456 He did
not acknowledge the suzerainty of Segu and, so long as the
Tukulör rule lasted on the Niger, Mássina and Segu maintained
towards each other a sort of armed peace. Tidiani only once
came in contact with the French, on the occasion of Caron's
visit in 1887. He was succeeded as Sheikh by Moniru, a brother
of A'hmadu, who, owing to the discontent of the Tukulör party,
had only a very insecure rule. 457 At the present time the French
have installed as ruler their protégé Agibu, who conquered the
Pul-Marabout Alikali, who was peaching the holy war. 458
Beyond its great historical importance Mássina has also
Binger gives 1790 as the date of the foundation of the Fulbe
Empire of Mássina (II. App. V., 388).
454 Barth, IV., 671.--Mage wrote a detailed history of
Mássina; vide also Caron, chap. XIV., History and description of
Mássina.
455 G.M. 1864, 69 et seq.
456 Caron, chap. XII.; Monteil, 39 et seq.
457 Ahmadu, the Tukulör prince of Segu, who had been
conquered by the French, had been wanted as ruler in Mássina;
compare Monteil, 114.
458 Bull. Marseille, 1894, 386 et seq.
93

special politico-geographical importance in that, being one of
the principal seats of the Tukulör and western Fulbes, it
controls that part of the Upper Niger which is navigable 459
by
the large native trading-canoes between the two important depôts
Jenne and Timbuktu, and thereby also the route by which the
latter (and along with it the W., N. and N.E., which are
dependent upon it,) are provided with cereals and partly also
with wool-stuffs.
The principal place of the Assuanek is Tenénku, which is
460
enclosed between two arms of the Niger and which even in
Barth's time was a market-place of some importance. 461 The
capital of Galajo's ancestors was Konari in northern Mássina.
By far the most important place in Mássina, both by reason of
its past history and by its situation, is JENNE (Fr.), Dschénne
(Ger.), Jenne, Jenni (Assuanek), Jinne (Bambara), Sennie or
Sinne (Sonrhay) 462 at the confluence of the Baule (Mayel-Balevel)
with the Niger. It was founded in 1043/44 (435 of the Hejra). 463
About 1200 the ruling class of the inhabitants accepted the
faith of Islam. In the middle of the 13th century it was almost
entirely inhabited and visited by Mandingo 464 as it had always
been one of the principal residences of the Mande-Jula. It was
never conquered by the kings of Melle, although situated within
their territory; on the contrary it rather enjoyed a certain
amount of independence until, in 1407, it was conquered and laid
waste by the Sonrhay King Sonni Ali. Under weak rulers it again
became tolerably autonomous, whilst under strong ones it shared
in the general fortunes of Mássina. The town, the inhabitants
of which were estimated by Caillié at from 8,000 to 10,000, 465 is
not, as was formerly supposed, situated upon an island, but is
only periodically transformed into one, at the time of high
water of the marigot of Jafarébe, and of the Baule (Bakhoy,
Bagoé or Mayel-Balevel). 466
Transit-goods from Timbuktu, which
459 Caillié (II., 240 et seq.) describes this navigation in
detail; he mentions fleets of vessels 60, 80 and 100 feet long.
The lack of timber along the banks is an inconvenience for
steam navigation.
460 Barth, V., 517; Binger, II., 389.
461 Barth, IV., 259 et seq.; Monteil, 186.
462 Barth, IV., 479 Note; the Gyna or Gyni of the Portuguese
accounts.
463 Barth, IV., 604; compare Binger, I., 386.
464 Binger, I., 482.
465 Caillié, II., 206.
94
466 Ahmed Baba states definitely that it is only from August
to February that it is an island; compare Leo (641, Gineae regni

during the rainy season can be forwarded direct, have in the dry
season to be several times transhipped. 467 Caillié saw the town
at the period of high water and consequently describes it as
being on an island, in whose harbours lay many canoes partly
under repair. 468 The town wall is badly kept and has a number of
small gates. There is a mosque in the interior. The streets
are fairly wide for a country quite innocent of wheeled traffic.
The navigation to the Niger proper occupies 4½ hours, and is
carried out in small boats; in the Niger itself are the great
transport-canoes. The market is provided with roofed shelters.
To Timbuktu are principally sent kola-nuts, gold from Bure and
Kong, 469 stuffs, slaves, millet and rice, whilst salt 470 is
brought back from it. Since Caillié's time the trade has
experienced a crisis owing to the incessant wars; the numerous
tradesmen, who under A'hmadu A'hmadu did not wish to become
soldiers, had each to pay a fine of 2,500 cowries. The
neighbourhood "Jenneri" is more or less fertile, depending upon
the inundation in the rainy season. 471
Close to Jenne was
descr.): Remanet autem haec regio tribus anni mensibus, Julio,
Augusto, atque Septembri, Nigri inundationibus ad insulae modum
cincta: quo tempore Tumbuti mercatores lignis quibusdam ad
scaphae instar cavatis huc suas merces convehere solent,
interdiu navigantes, sub noctem vero lintrem littori alligant,
ac in terra pernoctunt.
467 Binger, I., 385 et seq. Renseignements sur Djenné.
468 Caillié, II., 183 et seq.
469 Bure, between the upper Senegal and the Niger. Ahmed
Baba mentions the gold of Bitu (Bouduku, N. Ashanti).
Portuguese sources affirm that the Ungaro (Wangara, Mandingo)
come as far as "Gyni" and arrange the salt trade between that
place and the 7 kingdoms to the south, in which are the goldmines.
Each merchant brings from 100-200 slaves with him, who
carry the salt on their heads to the gold-producing countries.
They transport from 10,000 to 60,000 mitkals, and only come once
a year to Gyni; they are given a year's credit. Kuntsmann, Abh.
d. Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss. passim, 191 et seq; Schmeller, Ibid.
passim, 46.
470 Ahmed Baba (p. 11) ascribes the wealth of Jenne to the
trade in gold and salt; the latter was at first obtained from
Teghása and latterly from Taudéni. Wood for fuel is fetched
from miles off. The Moors do not sell at the stalls but wait at
the gates, where they expose tablets of salt for sale to the
first bidder; they have agents in Timbuktu. South of Jenne
Caillié found a village principally inhabited by rope-makers,
who prepare ropes for binding together the parts of the large
canoes. Caillié, II., 173.
471 Caron, 138 et seq. Renseignements sur Djenné.
95

Ssilla, the last place in Park's first journey, and formerly a
place of some importance (vide p. 64), which was destroyed 472
during the wars between the Bambara and the Fulbes.
473
Mopti (Isaka, Sagha) is the place of toll for vessels on
the Niger, for which it is admirably suited owing to its
position at the mouth of the Baule; one in 10 is the toll on
slaves, sacks of millet (on the valley route) or bars of salt
(on the return journey). From Mopti onwards, where a great many
settlements become islands of the Niger at the time of highest
water, the cultivation of rice increases in importance. Here
also is to be found the ancient seat of mussulman
civilisation. 474
475
Jafarébe, which lies up stream, and whence a marigut
leads to Jenné during the rainy season, is the place of
transhipment (from donkeys to boats or vice versâ) for goods
going to or coming from Sansánding, and is at the same time the
most southerly point of Mássina.
476
Below Jenne lies Yóaru (Yówaru), which during the
inundation is on the extreme western border of Lake Débu, and in
the dry season is about a mile distant from the small arm, and
is situated in a country inhabited by Fulbes and extremely rich
in cattle. Lower down stream are Dar Salam, 477 the capital of
the province of Sankara, in the midst of a number of ruins;
Tindírma, 478 the former capital of Kurmina, which is considered
by many to be the original seat of the Sonrhay; and Dire 479 also
one of the most ancient Sonrhay settlements on the Niger. The
most northerly point of Mássina is Timbuktu. Towards the west
Mássina extends as far as Bassikúnu 480
on the northern boundary
472 Barth, V., 495.
473 Caillié, II., 239; Barth, V., 479; Caron, 129, 142;
Jaime, "De Koulikoro à Tombouctou, 225.
474 Vide p. 60 et seq., "From Silla and Zágha Islam spread
gradually further and further over the negro country; it was
brought by the Berber tribe of the Zenágha (Ssenhaja) under the
leadership of Abu-Bekr-ben-Omar." Barth, Journ. Lond., 1860,
127 (according to Barth, V., 475, also from Sinso)--Jáka, Park's
Jára, is placed by Barth, S.W. of Mopti. (Barth, V., Map 15.)
129.
475 Barth, IV., 496; V., 26, 279; Binger, I., 385; Caron,
476 Barth, V., 471.
477 A son of Lebbo's lived here, Barth, IV., 383, 483.
478 Barth, IV., 428; V., 473.
479 Barth, IV., 428; V., 473.
96
480 Barth, V., 489, 496; Lenz, II., 191 et seq.; Aliun Sal

of the characteristic Laterite territory, the point of
intersection of the important routes Walata--Sansanding and
Timbuktu--Medina 481
, which are made insecure by robber nomads, as
for instance the dreaded Ulad-el-Alush. Extensive cultivation
of sorghum furnishes the grain for barter with the inhabitants
of the desert, most of whose salt however goes further to the
south. In the town, which contains about 200 houses and a
mosque without a minaret, the Negroes and Arabs live apart; the
former till the soil, the latter are engaged in commerce. The
town is fortified in a curious manner by raising the backs of
the houses, which are themselves built on the extreme boundary;
in advance of these are the encampments of the nomads. From
Bassikúnu onwards camels are no longer used either for riding or
for transport of goods, but asses and oxen. The water-supply of
the whole neighbourhood is provided from stagnant backwaters of
the Niger, so-called dayas (Barth "dhaie"), somewhat resembling
ponds.
On the right bank of the Niger, to the south of Mássina, is
482
the small independent State of SARO (Sarro), a buffer state
between the two great and mutually suspicious neighbours Segu
and Mássina; Barth's map also shows "independent Aswanek" at
this spot.
North of this, 4½ kilometres (about 3 miles) from the
483
Baule, was the former capital of Mássina, Hamdalláhi (properly
speaking et lamdu lillahi, "Praise be to God") which was founded
at the beginning of this century by the Fulbe ruler Sheikh
Ahmedu, a zealous mussulman, who, in the more busy commercial
town of Jenne--which was also unsuitable as a headquarters owing
to its being shut in by water for months together, a state of
affairs to which the Fulbes had never been accustomed in the
whole of their past history--found that both he and the true
believers were disturbed in their religious devotions and
prevented from preserving due humility. The Fulbes of Mássina
are the most fanatical branch of the whole race. They live "in
puritanical vain-glory" as compared with the Fulbes of Sókoto
and Gando, and detest tobacco-smoking, 484
dancing, and
intoxicating drinks; but, on the contrary, insist on a
rigorously prescribed attire and, in place of four wives as
(who was here held captive by Haji Omar of Segu) in Ancelle, 214
et seq.
481 The caravan-route from Timbuktu passes viâ Walata and
Tishit through the Desert to the Lower Senegal.
482 Binger, I., 387 Note, 416; Monteil, 28; Barth, V., 516.
483 Caillié, II., 207; Binger, I., 387; Caron, 138.
484 The once flourishing tobacco-culture (Caillié, II., 168)
has been ruined thereby.
97

allowed by Muhammed, they allow only two. 485 All live in the
greatest simplicity, inclusive of the royal family, the members
of which all live in one and the same court of a circular
building, the Sheikh in the middle and the relations along the
walls. 486 Hamdalláhi was destroyed by Haji Omar in 1863, and at
the present day lies in ruins; in its neighbourhood has sprung
up a village with a population of Bobo. 487 Many of the ruins of
the country 488
also bear witness to Tidiani's wars.
489
The present capital of Mássina is BANDIAGARA, situated to
the east of the Niger, on an eminence about 180 metres (about
600 feet) above the river and close to a marigot. It has a
mixed population of some 5,000 inhabitants, Bobo, Tombo, Mossi,
Bambara, Fulbes, Takulör, Moors and Sonrhay. It is fortified by
means of a tata (mud wall); the streets are clean and fairly
wide, but irregular, and all the houses are of mud. Although
there is a slave-market, Bandiágara, like all Fulbe towns, is
not a commercial town, but rather a sort of "couvent retranché,"
in which, besides the Fulbe chief, a chief of the Tombo also
resides. At the present time Bandiágara, like all the important
places on the Niger, is occupied by French troops; to the N.E.
of Bandiágara is Duéntsa 490 (Duensa, Doventza) a mountainous
country with a town of the same name. This is an important salt
depôt, and also furnishes a number of ostrich-feathers which are
forwarded viâ Timbuktu to Mogador, which is the principal port
for these articles. In the mountains there are still free
inhabitants, probably Tombo. 491
Further to the north the country presents a progressively
greater contrast to the industrial pursuits and commerce of the
492
south. Thus, in Ssarayamo, the capital of the province of Kisso,
with a population of some 5,000, Barth found, it is true, a
number of horses, but no manufactures; even the locally-produced
cotton was not made use of. For the water-journey to Timbuktu
various backwaters of the Niger are used, depending upon the
time of year. The same traveller also found small settlements
485 Barth, IV., 190, 259; Lenz, II., 161.
486 Barth, IV., 484, Note.
487 Caron, 201.
488 Caron, 233.
489 Binger, I., 382, 387; Caron, 185 et seq.; Jaime, 47;
Bull. Marseille, 1894, 386 et seq.
490 Barth, V., 469; G.M., 1886, L.B., 368; Krause,
Kreuzzeitung of 16th Nov. 1897, and G.M., 1887, 217; Caron, 202.
491 Barth, V., 468.
492 Barth, IV., 378, 383.
98

occupied in common by the Fulbes and Tuaregs, 493 two races that
are so hostile to each other. With the first sand-dunes, the
precursors of the desert, appear the temporary encampments of
the Tuaregs "who, in the present state of political degeneration
of the native races, control the whole country, including the
southern bank of the great river and the enormous tangled
conglomeration of its backwaters, for a considerable distance."
To the east of Duéntsa is the province of Dalla 494 (formerly
ruled over by a Fulbe governor), with the capital of the same
name, 495
which is inhabited by Tombo and by a small proportion of
Sonrhay. A Fulbe chieftain of Dalla had, at the beginning of
this century, risen in rebellion against Sheikh Ahmed and had
fled to Mossi, whence he made inroads into the territory of
Mássina.
496 497
The country of Jilgodi (Gilgoji) with the capital Jíbo,
is the southernmost province of Mássina. The country was takes
from the Tombo by the Fulbes, whereby the former sacrificed
their independence as a nation. The Tombo appear to be related
to the Mossi and "to have been formerly very powerful, having
probably extended as far as the shore of the Niger at Timbuktu.
The Portuguese knew of them at the end of the 16th century."
Although, also, in the second half of the 18th century they
still represented an important political power, yet they had
suffered considerably from the continued successful attacks of
the Fulbes from both sides, east and west. 498 They have a
separate chieftain at Bandiágara (vide p. 73). Barth mentions
A'rre 499
as the principal place in the still independent Empire
of the Tombo (Tombokho, Binger). The Tombo language, which is
related to that of the Mossi and Aser (Assuanek), shows a
493 Barth, IV., 391.--The low clay magazines of this part of
the country form sort of money-chests in which are kept the
currency of the land, i.e., tari, strips of cotton two handsbreadth
in width and which are tied up in thick bundles for fear
of fire; the flat roofs also serve as sleeping-places in the hot
weather. Barth, IV., 361.--As regards the Tuaregs (Imosharh,
"the free ones") vide Barth, V., Anh. 3, 573 et seq.; Ratzel,
Vk. III., 176 et seq.; Schirmer "Le Sahara," 218 et seq.
494 Barth, IV., 317, 322.
495 Barth, V., 460.
496 Barth, IV., 313, 569.
497 Barth, IV., 580.
498 Barth, IV., 469.
99
499 Barth, IV., 570.--Petermann's map (Barth, V.) undoubtedly
gives much too large an independent Tombo Empire, whilst
Binger's gives only a small "territoire des Tombo" around
Hamdalláhi and Bandiágara; vide also Barth, IV., 662.

wonderful resemblance in sounds to that of the Fali (between
Lake Chad and the Upper Benue). 500 North of Dalla, and probably
belonging to it, is the town of Hómbori, 501 situated in a
grotesque mountainous district and one of the most ancient
places in the Sudan; at the end of the 16th century a special
Sonrhay governor was appointed to Hómbori, and called the
Hómborikoy. 502
The borderland between the Empires of Mássina and Gando is
503
ARIBINDA, which appears to have once been the most important
of all the districts lying to the south of the Niger. Nominally
it is assigned to Mássina, whose governor often undertakes freebooting
raids into it; as a matter of fact, however, it is not
aggregated to any State but, on the contrary, complete anarchy
prevails in this country, so far removed from great political
centres; it is without a master through having so many masters.
The inhabitants are Sonrhay, under the rule of Fulbes and
Tuaregs, or rather Tuareg cross-breeds, who here, as along the
whole line, in Bornu, Haussa, and on the Niger, are in the act
of pressing forward, 504 a process which is being all the more
accelerated by the opening up of the Niger-Benue to European
trade, and by the consequent decline of the desert trade, which
is their principal source of revenue: an effect of this
intensifying of the struggle for existence which is of farreaching
importance. In the west, however, the French, by their
presence at Timbuktu, have undoubtedly placed a powerful
obstacle in the way of the movement. At places where the Fulbes
are small in numbers they have almost entirely changed their
national character, and only speak Sonrhay. 505 Barth found at
Aribínda, with its vacillating political conditions, slaves
("natural linguists of the wilderness") who spoke three
languages, Temashirht (the language of the Tuaregs), Sonrhay and
Fulfulde. 506 The residence of the Fulbe chieftain, Lamórde 507
(i.e. capital) consisted of groups on the maintain slope and in
the plain; the huts of the latter were connected for defensive
purposes by salient and re-entering walls.
500 Prietze, in Passarge, 415.
501 Barth, IV., 324, 326, 339 et seq.
502 Barth, IV., 648, 662.
503 Barth, IV., 307 et seq.
504 "From the beginning of history there is a constant flow
and ebb of races into the desert"; Schirmer, "Sahara," 239.
505 Barth, IV., 314.
506 Barth, IV., 303.
507 Barth, IV., 310 et seq.
100

To the Fulbe Empire of Mássina belonged TIMBUKTU, the mythenshrouded
"Queen of the desert," the "African Athens," 508 to
which, in the accounts, the most varied names have been given,
all signifying the pasture-ground of the Buktu, a hollow or a
dune; 509 the name is in Sonrhay (probably the original form),
Túmbutu; in Arabic Tim(n)buktu; in Tuáreg Tumbütku or Tumbuktu;
in Portuguese (Valentin) Tambucutu and Tabucuto; in Barros
Tungubutu; the old Portulane called it Tenbuch or Timbutsch; Leo
calls it To(u)mbutum; on the Middle Niger it is Timbutu. 510
Timbuktu, this political chameleon, was never the capital of an
independent Empire. 511
It is true that as a town it at times
enjoyed a certain amount of independence, though its prominently
central position proved more to its disadvantage than otherwise
since, though the apple of discord between powerful conquerors
from east and west, north and south, it was not itself strong
enough to take up a commanding position, the principal reasons
for which were the poorness of the surrounding country and the
motley and disunited character of its population.
Timbuktu was founded about 1100 by the Imosharh; it was
used by them as a camping-ground and was frequently again
forsaken. At first it had only a few scattered buildings,
connected rows of houses being first erected in the second third
of the 10th century of the Flight, more especially as a result
512
of the decline of Walata. Edrisi (about 1150) makes no
mention of it. At the beginning of the 14th century, on the
occasion of the pilgrimage of Mansa Mussa of Melle (1326),
Timbuktu became a dependency of the latter Empire and, shortly
after, about 1329, was plundered by the pagan King of Mossi; 513
he however could not hold the town and, from 1336 on, it
continued for some time to belong to Melle. Even at the time of
his visit Ibn Batuta found a special Overlord of the Tuáregs.
About 1370 Timbuktu was first known of in Europe, and
508 The learned Ahmed Baba had a library of 1,600
manuscripts. Barth, IV., 436.
509 Barth, IV., 419, Note; C.R.S., 1894, 65.
510 Flegel, M.A.G., III., 63, Note; French: Tenboctou,
Tombouctou; English, Timbuctoo.
511 Leo, in his Tumbutum regnum (p. 642 et seq.) describes
the country as a province of Sonrhay.
512 Ahmed Baba, passim, 12, 62; Caron, 254 et seq.; Timbuktu
was not founded by the Sonrhay King Mansa Sliman, as reported by
Leo, but was only restored by him after it had been destroyed by
the Mossi.--Barth, IV., Anh. 9, is the authority for the history
of the town.--Murray, 1817 (account, &c.) accepts several places
as being Timbuktu.
513 Compare with this Binger, I., 481.
101

thenceforward was for centuries food for phantasy and for the
spirit of enterprise. In 1433 it was finally wrested from the
Empire of Melle by the Tuáregs, who placed a governor here.
About 1469 the Sonrhay King, Sonni Ali, conquered Timbuktu after
great bloodshed, and the town was consequently involved in the
wars of succession for the throne of Sonrhay. At the end of the
16th century, about 1590, the Moors under Pasha Jódar (vide
p. 66) established themselves in the town, in the quarter
occupied by the merchants of Ghadames. They guarded the trade
by closing all the gates with the exception of the one leading
to the south (Kábara), and their successors the Ruma have great
influence over the administrations of the town up to the present
day. Inroads by the Moors occurred at the end of the 17th and
in the 18th centuries; notably under Sultan Muley Ismael (1672-
1727). 514 In 1680 Timbuktu is said to have been conquered by the
Mandingo. The direct influence of Morocco was considerable up
to the death of Sultan Sidi Muhamed in 1795. Whether Timbuktu
at the beginning of this century (1803) was really conquered by
Mansong, King of the Bambara, or became a "free town," cannot be
determined with accuracy. 515 In 1826 the Fulbes of Mássina
occupied the town 516 in which, besides the factions of the Fulbes
and the Tuáregs, there has been formed since 1831 that of the
merchants of Ghadames. In 1841, in consequence of a victory
over the Fulbes, the Tuáregs obtained the supremacy, which was
again abolished in 1848 by Sheikh El Bakay, the head of the
Shereefian family of the Kuutsa (Kunta). 517 In 1863 Haji Omar,
the Ruler of the Tukulör State of Segu-Mássina, conquered
Timbuktu--and the Tuáregs apparently retired; they however fell
upon the plunderers and inflicted such slaughter that Omar had
to withdraw with the greatest haste. Hostilities between the
Fulbes and the Tuáregs constitute the earliest history of
Timbuktu. Caron found it in 1887 in complete anarchy; the
Tuáregs, Tidiani of Mássina (the nephew of Omar) and Abiddin
(the head of the Kuntsa) were fighting for possession of it,
whilst in the interior the Arma, 518
the traders and the Moors
215.
514 Matthews, Journ. Americ. Geogr. Soc., New York, 1881,
515 Park. Reisen, p. 90; Ritter, Afr., 446; Barth, IV., 669.
516 Barth, IV., 468.
517 The same that Barth generously protected.
518 The Arama of Raffenel (Nouveau voy., II.), the above
mentioned Ruma, or Erma (plural of rami, a "rifleman"), the
successors of the Moorish conquerors, who took native (Sonrhay)
wives and formed a sort of aristocracy in the towns. Their
principal places were Jenne, Timbuktu, Bámba, Gogo, and Kalna in
Dendi. Barth, IV., 440, 662; Lenz, II., 126.
102

made war upon each other. 519 In January 1894 Timbuktu was
occupied by the French, who have concentrated a considerable
force there, a force which has been largely increased since the
attack upon Tacubao near Gundam (West of Timbuktu, by the
Tuáregs, their principal enemies). 520
Timbuktu is 245 metres (about 800 feet) above-sea level and
some 15 kilometres (10 miles) to the north of the Niger, "where
the great river of West Africa approaches most closely to the
far-projecting and extensive Oasis of Tuat, with its
prolongation in a north-westerly direction, Téfilelet" (the
Sijilmessa of the middle ages). Timbuktu is at the same time
the centre of a sort of peninsula, on whose circumference Kuka
and St. Louis, Sahara and the Guinea Coast are diametrically
opposite to each other; it is also the most northerly point of
521
the territory inundated by the Niger . The size of the town,
which in former days depended upon political circumstances, has
varied greatly; the population was between 5,000 and 20,000. 522
The greater portion are Arabs of Morocco, most of whom however
have a strain of negro blood, and a number of descendants of the
ancient Sonrhay negroes; there are also however the offspring of
all the principal tribes of the Western Sudan, as well as some
Jewish families from Wad Nun, who have bought themselves the
519 Caron, 258.
520 Bull. Marseille, 1894, 385 et seq.
521 Vide Bluzet, Bull. Paris 1896, H. 3; Geogr. Zeitschr,
1896, 172. The ports on the Niger are Kábara and Koriume; in
years of plentiful water, however, as in 1853 and 1894, it may
happen that one can travel on the Rasel-ma right up to the town;
it is said that in 1640 the whole Bagindi quarter was inundated
(Barth, IV., 526; V., 10; C.R.S., 1894, 210). Formerly the
canal from Kábara to Timbuktu was much deeper; vessels could
navigate up to the town the whole year round (Barth, IV., 427).
For plans, vide Barth, IV., 488; C.R.S., 1894, 211, 242;
Vuillot, Map of Timbuktu.
Batuta even in his day gives the correct position
(J. Asiat. passim, 226 et seq.); Jomard has collated (Caillié,
III., 230 et seq.) the data as to the longitudes and latitudes
of Timbuktu from 1720 to 1830 (Delile--Caillié). Even at the
commencement of this century Walckenaer sought to fix the
position of Timbuktu "as the point of intersection of several
lines all intersecting in one and the same point"--(N. Geogr.
Ephem, 1821, 262 et seq).
522 Caillié (II., 312), including the Moorish traders,
estimates it at from 10,000 to 12,000; Barth (IV., 494): about
13,000 residents, and, at the time of the greatest trade, from
5,000 to 10,000 strangers; Lenz (II., 143): about 20,000; Caron
(272): 5,000; Jaime (227): 3,500 (!); C.R.S., 1894, 210:
10,000 to 12,000.
103

ight to live and trade in Timbuktu. 523 In addition to the
ordinary Sonrhay language, Fulfulde and Temashirht are also in
use. 524
525
Timbuktu was formerly surrounded by a wall but since
1826, when it was destroyed by the Fulbes, 526 it has been a
perfectly open town, forming a triangle some 2½ to 3 English
miles in circumference. It is more thickly populated in the
southern part, close to the Niger, than in the northern, near
the desert. It formerly extended 2,000 paces further towards
the north, where now are the remains of buildings and the
"extensive ruins of centuries"; 527 adjoining these is a ring of
reed huts, and it is only in the interior that one finds
connected rows of well-kept mud houses, with terraces and flat
roofs, between which the streets are so narrow that two horsemen
could scarcely pass each other. In 1853 the town had some 980
clay dwellings and several hundred circular reed-huts; it
consisted of 7 separately named quarters and contained 3
mosques, 528 viz: Jingere-ber, the great mosque, built by Mansa
Mussa of Melle, with 9 naves in the old portion and 3 in the
new, and with a high mud tower which gives a touch of character
to the view of the town; Ssan-Kore with 5 naves, built at the
expense of a rich and pious Sonrhay lady 529 and the little Ssídi
Yáhia built at the expense of a Kadi (magistrate--Tr.) of the
town. The old palace was built by an architect from Granada. 530
A few tombs of celebrated men constitute objects of
veneration. 531
The environs of the town are arid; consequently
523 Lenz, II., 147 et seq.
524 Compare Caillié, II., 326. Even if this traveller is
responsible for certain inaccuracies, still justice and
gratitude demand that he should be praised as being an acute
observer and truthful reporter, in spite of the sharp attacks
made upon him by the English, and also bearing in mind his
previous training and the difficulty of making notes.
525 Kunstmann and Schmeller, Abh. d. Bayr. Akad. d. Wiss.
passim; Kunstmann, "Afrika," p. 40.
526 Barth, IV., 490.
527 Leo, even in his day, speaks of great conflagrations here
(p. 645).
528 Barth, IV., 450, 486; Caillié, II., 56, 311, 333 et seq.;
the latter mentions 7.
529 Ahmed Baba, passim, 14.
530 Leo, 642; a quodam Granata viro artificissimo. Binger,
I., 481.
104
531 Batuta mentions the tomb of the celebrated and much-

water and fuel are scarce; most of the provisions have to be
brought from Jenne and Sansanding. 532
Timbuktu is in no sense a self-producing place as is, to a
certain extent, Kano. The only tradesmen are blacksmiths and
leather-workers; pretty articles in leather are also made by the
533
Tuáreg women. "Timbuktu, properly speaking, belongs to no
particular State. It is an entrepôt, and the Tuáregs and Fulbes
are always struggling for the right to raise taxes, without
governing the town." 534 In Barth's time the Fulbes exacted a
tribute of 2000 cowries for each slave, as also from every adult
who failed to perform the customary worship in the mosque on
Friday. Then there were the extortions of the Tuáregs, who, if
the gates were not opened to them, climbed over the walls, and
then had to be quartered and fed, along with their horses, until
payment had been made. 535
Finally there were the presents to be
made to the Sheikh of the Arab Kabyle, of the Kuntsa, who had
been summoned to Timbuktu by the Ghadamese.
The administration of this "neglected town, which was ruled
by so many lords and yet had no ruler," was, in Barth's time, in
the hands of two Sonrhay officials with the title of Emir, who
sought to maintain their position by playing the three factors
of power one against the other. In Lenz's time it was in the
hands of the Kahia (a sort of burgomaster, who was the
descendant of an Andalusian Arab family which had immigrated
from Morocco), and of the Sheikhs of the Kuntsa and of the
536
Tuáregs.
travelled poet Abu Ishac el Toweijin (died 1346), and of the
rich Alexandrian Ibn-el-Koweik, as well as of several pilgrims
to Mecca.
532 Caillié, II., 317; Barth, V., 18; on the other hand Leo
says (643): Regio est frumentis, peculibus, lacte atque butyro
copiosissima; Caillié (II., 313), speaks of magazines with
stores of provisions, so that the town should not be entirely
without supplies in the event of the trade with the S.W. being
suddenly cut off by the Tuáregs, who control it.
533 Leo, (642): frequentissimac hic sunt artificium,
mercatorum, praccipue autem telac atque gossypii textorum
officinae is either an incorrect report or else the
circumstances have completely changed. "The market of Timbuktu
surpasses that of Kano not as regards the quantity, but as
regards the quality of the goods" (Barth).
534 Lenz, II., 147; compare Caillié: "the principal entrepôt
for this part of Africa," II., 309.
535 Caillié, II., 324; Barth, IV., 441, et seq.; V., 41, 33.
536 Lenz, II., 126 et seq.
105

From this purely commercial town, 537 Timbuktu, trade-routes
radiate towards north, west and south, the most important being
those going to Ghadames, Morocco, and up the Niger; whilst those
to St. Louis, Kong and Mossi are also of importance. Timbuktu
is not in direct communication with the Haussa States; there are
no routes of any size going to them. 538 In this century in
particular the town had to suffer from uninterrupted alarms of
war, and Caillié found its commerce to be less than that of
Jenne. 539 The exchange of the gold of the Sudan for the salt of
the Sahara dates from time immemorial. 540 The gold is brought to
Timbuktu from Bambuk and Bure (on the Upper Senegal and Niger),
as well as from the gold-district of Northern Ashanti, Bonduku
and Lobi, and is brought more in the form of rings and plates
than in that of gold-dust. 541
The proper standard of measure of gold in the whole of the
Western Sudan is the mitkal, the weight of which varies,
depending upon the locality, but averages about 4 grammes (62
grains Troy), the value being somewhere about ten shillings. It
542 543
is worked up into ornaments, mostly in Walata. The salt
537 Caillié: "which the needs of commerce have made into a
frightful desert"; compare Ratzel, Anthropogeogr, II., 464 et
seq.
538 At the period when Sonrhay and the Haussa States were
flourishing a brisk trade must also have gone on from Timbuktu
to the East and South-east. Communication with Haussa is
rendered difficult by the unfavourable character of the Niger
below Timbuktu (vide p. 2, Note 5; p. 35, Note 2; pp. 51, 52),
as also by the Tuáregs and more especially, by the pagan Haussas
in the North of Sókoto, the Gobir, Kebbi, and Maradi; vide also
Caillié, II., 316.
539 Caillié, II., 299 et seq.
540 Herodotus (I., IV., 196) mentions a speechless exchange
of goods between the Carthaginians and the natives who paid for
the wares in gold. The territory described by him--
--must be conceived to be the Western Sudan.
541 "Tibber" or "Tibbar"; vide Matthew's Journ., New York,
1881, 216; Ritter, Afr., 1038.--Recently the gold from Bambuk
and Bure has mostly been taken to Saint Louis (Arabic Ndar);
Lenz, II., 149.
542 Barth, V., 23, 70.
106
543 From the 11th Century up to 1596 salt was brought from
Teghása, 70 miles to the north of Timbuktu, the houses of which
are said to have been built of rock-salt just as Herodotus
characteristically depicted salt-works to the south of Mount
Atlas (I., IV., 185); "

comes into the trade in blocks of, on the average, about a yard
in length, which weigh about 60 lbs. and are worth about one
mitkal, which is represented by black strokes and rhomboids; it
reaches its highest price in the spring when, on account of the
gad-flies close to the river, the salt-caravans seldom come;
besides being bartered for gold it is exchanged for the cottonstuffs
of Sansanding and Kano, which latter reach Timbuktu viâ
Ghadames. 544 A not unimportant trade is carried on in kola-nuts,
rice, maize, 545 vegetable-butter (for burning in lamps), and a
certain quantity of wheat and spice for the Arabs. Cowries
still serve for currency, but reach their northernmost limit at
Timbuktu, where, on account of their weight, they are not
carried across the desert. 546 Slaves, ostrich feathers and ivory
go to the North and gum and wax to Saint-Louis 547
; on the other
.--Salt also formerly came to Timbuktu from the great Sebcha
(salt-pan) Ijil in Adrar (north-west of Timbuktu, not far from
the ocean), which yields annually about 20,000 camel-loads of
200 kilogrammes (about 440 lbs.) each. Barth, V., 562; Panet,
G.M., 1859, 105; Vincent in Ancelle passim, 127. The exchange
of this salt from Walata is said to take place in silence and
outside the closed gates of Timbuktu; it is brought to Jenne
(Gyni) on canoes, pulled by ropes. Kunstmann, Abh. d. Bayr.
Akad. d. Wiss. passim, 189, 280; Schmeller, Do. 46.--Since 1596,
Timbuktu has been supplied with salt from Taudeni, which is also
situated in the north at the spot where the great caravan-route
separates, going east and west, in the country of El Jof. The
bed, which is of great thickness, supplies the Sudan with the
best salt. Caillié, II., 304, 402; Barth, V., 24; Lenz, II., 69
et seq., 151; Binger, I., 375.
544 Timbuktu also supplies the Southern Atlas with these
excellent textures.
545 The prices of corn fall from the beginning of January,
when grain is brought in canoes; the rice-crop is gathered in
small boats, as only the tops of the stalks stick out of the
water; the harvest takes place in the middle of December.
546 Cyprea moneta, or the money-cowry, is a gasteropodous
mollusc, of a small and much-prized species, which is obtained
from the Maldive Islands. Leo mentions as coin aurea, nullis
figuris insignita, of the value of 400 Persian cowries, or 62/3
ounces. Between the dates of Barth's and Lenz's visits, 1854-
1880, the price of cowries fell considerably, whilst that of
gold rose enormously, because it found a better sale at Saint-
Louis.
107
547 Caillié relates that in his day elephants were still

hand from the North, chiefly from Wad Nun, come tobacco, (which
is contraband to the Fulbes, in consequence of which there are
house-to-house visitations), dates and European goods. 548
Somewhere about November of each year the great caravan from the
North, Kafla-el-Kebir or Akabar, 549
enters Timbuktu in large
detachments, and by degrees swells to a size of 1000 camels or
more. The return journey takes place (depending upon the course
of business,) in the course of one or of several months and,
indeed, in a number of small detachments which are again divided
up by their owners. The pole-star shows the way to the older
and more experienced leaders; a rock, a sand-dune, a thin belt
of bushes, or the changing colour of the sand all serve as
indications of the route.
The trade of the town, which has altogether lost its former
greatness, appears to be again rather on the increase since its
occupation by the French, who are already busy with a project
550
for a railway from Algiers to Timbuktu.
The port of Timbuktu at the season of low water is Koriume
551
(Korome) ; at the commencement of October the marigot route
still does not reach up to Kábara. Barth saw at this place a
captured in the river. The Arabs collect the gum from acacias.
548 Principally hardware-goods, mirrors, knives, red cloth
and calico. Most of the merchants of Timbuktu do not trade on
their own account but are agents or commissioners for the great
Arab firms at Ghadames, Mógador, Morocco, Fez, Tuat, and even
Tripoli.
549 Olliver, G.M., 1880, 275 (value 775,000 francs, or
£31,000); Caillié, II., 359 et seq.; Barth, V., 32 et seq.;
Lenz, II., 37; Matthew's Journ., New York, passim, 211 et seq.
The size of the caravan depends equally upon the political state
of affairs, and upon the security, with which it is intimately
connected, both in the north and in the south of the Desert.
Tenduf is an important collecting-station in the North (Lenz,
II., 31 et seq., 360), whilst the most important place before
Timbuktu is called Arauan. Caillié, II., 370 et seq.; Aliun
Sal, in Ancelle, 212 et seq.; Lenz, II., 81 et seq.
550 The distance of 2,282 kilometres (about 1,430 miles) will
be traversed by a line 2,700 kilometres (about 1,670 miles) in
length; it will start from Algiers and go viâ El Golea through
the Desert of Amguiden and the Oasis of Tuat to Insalah Nesalah,
and thence almost in a straight line to Timbuktu. C.R.S., 1894,
64 et seq.
551 Barth, IV., 386, 399 et seq.; Caron, 239; Jaime, 214,
217. The luxuriant Niger grass, byrgu, is the chief fodder for
horses and cattle, but in many places makes the use of the
rudder impossible; vessels are then, as usual, propelled by
means of long poles.
108

wharf, for the repair of the large cabin-boats. The boatmen are
slaves, in whose songs the Sonrhay King Askia, "perhaps the
greatest sovereign that ever ruled over the Negro country,"
still lives; the greater portion of the slaves now come from
Samory's and Tiéba's Empires. Kábara, 552
the port of Timbuktu at
the time of high flood, on the continuation of the marigot of
Koriume, was in Barth's time inhabited by 2,000 Sonrhay under
Fulbe officials. The office of harbour-master at Kábara (Kábra)
has been from ancient times up to the present date of great
importance. The goods of the foreign merchants are stored in
clay magazines; the Sonrhay live in reed huts.
Timbuktu is situated at about the centre of the territory
over which is spread the tribe of the SONRHAY (Songhay), who
settled in the country from the point where the Niger enters
Mássina, and from Walata in the west, to Saberma and A'gades in
553 554
the east. Barth estimates their number at two millions.
Their language, Ki-sson-rhay, 555 is very poor and undeveloped.
At the present time they are mostly under the yoke of the
Tuáregs and Fulbes; "both as regards race and civilisation they
no longer offer any typical characteristics, and have moreover
become very much intermixed with their conquerors, and have
accepted Islam." 556 In Barth's time there were still free
Sonrhay settled in the mountainous districts, as, for instance,
the Hómbori 557 ; others lived under the sheltering protection of
the Chalébleb (a large lake-like backwater of the Niger, with
many ramifications,) or of castle-like villages (Kasr) such as
Dárghol, 558
their capital, where are the remains of the once
powerful royal family of the Askia; and finally they were to be
552 Caillié, II., 293 et seq.; Barth, IV., 403 et seq., 427,
484; Lenz, II., 132. Leo, 645: Cabra oppidum . . . "Hic
mercatores ad Gineae aut Melli regnum navigare cupientes naves
conscendunt; huc Nigritae navigio undique confluere solent. In
hac civitate Tumbuti rex iudicem quendam constituit, qui lites
inter cos componerct.
553 Barth, I., 435 et seq.; Krause, Niger-Expedition, I.,
17;--The original seats of the race were perhaps in Mássina;
Barth, V., 473; IV., 259 et seq.; Staudinger, 579. Compare
p. 71.
554 Journ. Lond., 1860, 120.
555 Caillié
elsewhere.
calls the people "Kissour," II., 306, and
556 Monteil, 176; he calls them "Sourhaïs."
557 Barth, 185, 198.
558 Barth, IV., 317; V., 279; for the other settlements of
the free Sonrhay vide Barth, V., 732 et seq.
109

found in Kulman and Tera, whose inhabitants were very warlike
but not in unity with each other. 559 Protection from the Tuáregs
is often afforded by insulation in the Niger, a state of affairs
which here frequently recurs, as, for instance, at the little
town of Rhergo or Ghergo. 560 The "river territory of Burrum, 561
with its numerous islands," at the great bend which the Niger
takes to the S.E., is also of importance. Whilst the ancient
kingdoms of Ghánata and Melle received their civilisation from
the North, especially from Sijilmessa, Sonrhay entered into very
early communication with Egypt 562 "through the enterprising
inhabitants of Aujila" who reached the Niger at Burrum, as also
did the Arabs, who already at the beginning of the 11th century
introduced Islam and the forms of royalty into Sonrhay. Burrum
has recently become of importance as being the southern terminus
of the projected French railway across the Sahara. 563 Lower down
the Niger, in the Sonrhay territory, is the former capital of
the Empire, Gogo (vide p. 65, Note 5), now in ruins, in
comparison with which the polished and vigorous Timbuktu was
always merely a provincial town. A large ruined tower, the
remains of the great principal mosque, 564
is all that remains of
its former greatness; Barth found in the vicinity a wretched
village of some 300 huts. This is the southern boundary of the
Great Desert on the Niger, on both banks of which the sanddunes
559 Compare Monteil, 184: "people of gentle manners who
endure the Fulbé yoke against their will; but who, more attached
to their native soil than to their independence, submit without
complaining to the law of the stronger."
560 The Niger reaches its most northerly point at the hamlet
of E'gedesh (Barth, V., 171) below Ghergo (Hourst: Gheîrago;
G.M., 1895, 175; Barth, V., 152) and has then, at the narrows of
Tóssaie or Tó--sse, which have certainly some effect upon the
bed of the river, only a width of from 200 to 250 paces (Barth,
V., 191).
561 Barth, V., 194 et seq. In 1843-44 the Fulbes of Mássina
transplanted the population of three villages from Burrum to
Gundam, near Timbuktu, in all some 4,000 souls.
562 Compare Barth, V., 183.
563 Vide "Le Transsaharien," in list of works referred to in
this summary. Schirmer takes a pessimistic view of the scheme;
Ferk takes the opposite view in the C.R.S., 1894, 36 et seq.
564 It is the sepulchre of the great ruler Haji Mohammed
Askia; Barth was "deeply moved by the spectacle in this halfopened
corner of the world of the wonderful and mysterious waves
of people which incessantly follow one another, and are then
swallowed up, leaving behind scarcely a trace of their
existence."
110

now cease. 565 The corn-market for the country between Say and
Timbuktu is the island-town of Sinder 566 (which with Garu, which
is close to it, has from 16,000 to 18,000 inhabitants). The
Tuáregs still render these places insecure; a little lower down
the Niger, however, we meet with the architecture and language
of the Haussa, 567 whilst from Birni 568
onwards the Fulbes
predominate and the Empire of Gando commences.
The Empire of SEGU, which lies up the Niger from Mássina,
569
is the outcome of the efforts of the Mandingo to found a new
State on the ruins of the ancient Melle. This great mixed negro
race of the West was formerly settled from Tishit and Walata
(vide ante) to Kátsena, 570 but was carried away towards the south
in the great migration of races. Its domain lies to-day between
the Middle Senegal and the Volta, though isolated families and
colonies are to be met with from Timbuktu to the Guinea Coast.
As regards the name of the people there is considerable
uncertainty; 571 at one time they are called Wakore, Wangara
(plural Wangaraua), at another Sakhersi, Mandingo, Malinke or
pars pro toto Juli. The oldest name, and probably the only one
used to designate the entire people, would appear to be
Wakore; 572
whilst Wangara, the Haussa name, appears to designate
565 To the East of Gogo lay Takédda or Tekádda (5 days'
journey W.S.W. of A'gades, the capital of Aïr), whence an old
caravan-route went northwards, with a branch to the westwards to
Tuat, and one to the eastwards via Ghat to Egypt; it furnishes
good salt. According to Batuta (Jour. Asiat., 1843, 232 et
seq.) there were copper-mines there.--Barth, I., 418, 510.--
Northwards of Gogo is Ssuk, the site of Tademékket or Tademékka,
the ancient commercial town of the Berbers, which was destroyed
by Sonni Ali in the middle of the 15th century, when its
importance was transferred to A'gades. Barth, IV., 510, 605;
V., 184, 459.
566 Barth, V., 197, 275 et seq.
567 Barth, V., 282.
568 Barth, V., 288 et seq.
569 Ratzel, Vk.I., 632 et seq.
570 Barth, II., 94; Journ. Lond., 1860, 117.
571 Compare Barth, IV., 145 and 292 (Wakore or Wangaraua),
573 (Wangara-Melle), 583 (Mandingo or Wangara); Lenz, II., 12
(the ancient race of the Wakore, belonging to the Mandingo
family), 147 (Wangaraua. [Mandingo] -negroes), 253 (Wakore,
related to the Mandingo or Juli).
572 Binger, II., 382: "Ouakoré est aussi, de nos jours,
employé un peu partout."
111

more the eastern tribes (Barth), and Mandingo more the
western. 573 Barth estimates their number at from 6 to 8
millions. 574 The Mandingo comprise both fair- and dark-skinned
people. They are very intelligent and pliable; some tribes have
more proclivity for agricultural pursuits, others for commerce
(Bambara--Jula). The gold-trade has been in their hands from
time immemorial. They are distinguished from the Haussa by
their peaceful mode of life and by their capacity for political
organisation. 575 They acquired for the Bend of the Niger a
special importance, from a cultured and political point of view,
by the very early acceptance of Islam by several of the tribes,
as, for instance, the Malinke and Mande-Jula. Barth 576 includes
among them the Aser, Assuanek or Suaninki (the Sebe of the
Fulbes and the Serracolets of the French, principally in Bághena
and along the Upper Senegal), the Bámbara ("at present the most
powerful, but of "ignoble origin," probably a cross with the
Tombo"), the Mandingo of Bondu, Kaarta and Bambuk; the Juli on
the Upper Niger (who are of importance as kola-nut traders), the
Wangara proper, extending from eastwards of the Juli settlements
as far as Borgu (for instance, in Kong and Sansánne-Mangu as
gold-traders and workmen); whilst he considers the Kru and
Timmáni to be related to them. Binger does not call them
"Mandingues" 577 but "Mandé." 578 According to him their original
country was divided up into the portions on the Niger and on its
great tributaries (ma-ndé) and those lying to the south thereof
and at a distance from the river (ndé), in consequence of which
the people split up into the Nde and the Mande. The universal
symbol of the race, which in any case was scattered abroad from
the Niger, was ma 579
; Mandingo therefore means "worshipper of
573 Barth, Journ. Lond., passim: "Mandi is the name of a
section of the whole tribe."
574 Barth, Journ. Lond., 118.
575 In the same Barth draws attention to the fact that they
differ very much among themselves, but are "a fine race, and are
capable of a high degree of civilisation and intelligence, welldisposed
to trading, and great travellers--even the principal
traders in Katsena being Wangarawa--and capable of political
organisation."
576 Vide Barth.
577 As do most French authors: Caillié portrays them in II.,
37 et seq. and passim.
578 Binger, II., 373 et seq.; Steinthal wrote on "Mande"
-negro dialects.
112
579 The "Ayu," French lamantin, Manatus senegalensis (vide
Vogelii, or manatee, an animal which long remained a mystery, is
a sort of sea-cow which, from Lake Debu onwards, has been

ma." Each tribe, again, has its own symbol, which at the same
time is its divinity (tenné, idol, fetish). Historically, and
in accordance with this tenné, Binger 580
again subdivides the
whole race, classed together by us under the name of Mandingo,
into five great sections:
I. MANDE.
1. Bammana (Bambara); tenné: the alligator (p. 86).
(a) Royal families; (b) families of the smiths (each again
with a different tenné). To this tribe are allied the Samokho
(tenné: the snake) and the Samanke (tenné: the elephant).
2. Malinke (tenné: the hippopotamus) (vide p. 86. Note
6.).
(a) Royal families; (b) other families; (c) griots (balladsingers).
In addition the sub-divisions of the Kaporo and
Taguara.
II. NDE.
3. Susu or Soso (p. 93. Note 4).
4. Sonninke (p. 91).
5. Mande Jula (p. 105).
After this follow portions very difficult to classify, as,
for instance, the Fofana, 581
groups of families, "who live mixed
up among the other Mande and constitute a sort of caste," as
pagans and mussulmans, without any pronounced character; also,
in the south, allied races, as, for instance, amongst others,
the Wei (Liguy).
observed in the Niger, Benuë and Shari: vide Barth, II., 605;
III., 289; V., 104, 476, and Wagner, Vogels Reisen, 277 et seq.
580 Binger speaks throughout of the difficulty of research;
there was no written language, tradition is young and
unreliable, whilst each branch has its own history; added to
this there are the superposition and displacement of races,
marriage, intermingling with slaves, the changes in tatooing and
of language (for a list of languages see Binger, II., 378);
conquered and conquerors each take over something from the
other. The Mande of Kong have the tattooing of the Komono and
Dokhosie, the Mande of Mossi have partly that of the Mossi, the
Dagomba a mixture between the Mande and the Haussa, while the
Fulbes of Wássulu, Ganadugu, Furu and Wahabu have that of the
people with whom they live; these Fulbes have also forgotten
their Fulfulde and speak Mande, just as the Senagha forgot the
Berber language and speak Arabic. Even the simplest numbers
change in commerce. Binger obtained the best ethnological
results by observing the family names or d.amu, although these
alone are not determinative, since slaves or people included in
their civilisation assumed the names of their masters of their
superior neighbours.
581 Binger, II., App. V., 377.
113

The five principal groups were all represented in the
ancient empires round Timbuktu, whose history is also theirs; 582
at first, consequently, easily followed, it is, after the fall
of the latter, often involved, and the further it becomes
removed from the centre of mahomedan culture the darker and more
silent become the Arab sources of information. They formed
themselves into separate groups on the fall of Melle, in about
1540, 583 from which empire other tribes, such as the Siën-re, the
Tagua, Bobo-Jula, and Gonja also detached themselves. 584
585
The BAMMANA, as they call themselves, or Bámbara (i.e.,
"unbelievers"), as they are falsely but universally called, are
the Mandingo who have remained pagans, and who, in order to
escape from the chicanery of their mahomedan fellow-tribesmen,
the Malinke and Mande Jula, and to form a separate empire on the
ruins of Melle, established themselves in its southern remains,
under Kaladian Kurubari, about 1650 and founded the Empire of
Segu. In 1680 his six sons succeeded him as rulers; the
oligarchical form of government lessened the power of the
Bámbara to the advantage of the Sonninke. In the middle of the
18th century there existed a sort of Praetorian administration
by the most influential chiefs. The flames of war spread over
the whole country in consequence of the struggle between the two
most powerful of them, Dabo (or Ngolo) and Sagone (or Sange), a
struggle which lasted from 1748 to 1754. Dabo's 586 party
consisted of the Bámbara, the Uëlad Masuk, the noblest portion
of the Uëlad Mebarek, the A'hel Ssemboru, a section of the
Fulbes of Bakunu, and important fractions of the Sonninke
Diawara; the party of Sagone, on the other hand, consisted of
the Ruma or Erma, the Moorish cross-breeds who had settled in
this neighbourhood, the Senagha, the Uëlad Alush, the warlike
tribe of the Uëlad Mebarek, the A'hel Massa or Saro, a section
of the Sonninke and the MALINKE. 587
Sagone was conquered and
582 Both in Ghanata and Melle, as well as in Sonrhay,
Mandingo and Sonrhay formed the population, "who alternately
coming into power, whether by right or by usurpation, changed
the denomination of the kingdom"; "important fractions of Mandé
have always played an important rôle there" (i.e., in Sonrhay);
Binger, II., App. V., 381.
583 Binger, II., App. V., 372.
584 Binger, II., App. V., 386.
585 Binger, II., App. V., 385 et seq.; Monteil, 39 et seq.
586 Binger, II., App. V., 387, Note; compare Barth, V.,
Anhang L., 512 et seq.
114
587 Binger, II., 392:--The Mali-nke gave its name to the
Empire of Melle, and were predominant there in point of numbers
(possibly "Malinke" denotes the whole west wing of the Wakore?);
on the fall of Melle they withdrew in a northerly direction to

killed, and Dabo reigned till 1787 at Segu-Sikoro. The Bámbara
Empire finally consisted of two States, for the most part
separated, Kaarta in the west and Segu in the east, ruled by
widely-dreaded despots with standing armies, which, including
their commanders, consisted of slaves. 588 At the end of the 18th
century the powerful Bámbara King, Mansong, 589 devasted Kaarta
and Beledugu; the reported conquest of Timbuktu (vide p. 76)
appears to have been an invention. After him nine or ten of his
nephews ruled over the country. The dominion of the Bámbara was
seriously threatened by the formation by Lebbo of the Fulbe
Empire of Mássina (Binger: 1790, Barth: 1816); in consequence
there was once more a marked movement of the Bámbara towards the
south, which continued for a long while. In 1845 they had
reached Tiongi. 590 About 1850 began Sheikh Haji Omar's 591
agitation amongst the easily-moved and fanatical Tukulör. He
proclaimed a holy war (jehad-Tr) on the borders of Futa-Jallon,
but was driven back by the watchful and energetic Faidherbe from
the navigable portion of the Senegal; on his march he devastated
Kaarta, and in 1857 in vain laid siege to Fort Médine on the
Senegal, which was heroically defended by Hall. 592
In 1861 he
conquered Segu, the ancient capital of the Fama of Bámbara, on
the Niger, and, in place of the annihilated Bámbara State,
founded the Tukulör Empire of Segu, making his son Ahmadu, (who
was the enemy of the French, and had made prisoners of Mage and
Quintin,) Sultan. Haji Omar himself turned north-east,
conquered the Fulbe of Mássina, which then became a Tukulör
the Upper Niger. Only a few of the fractions settled in Segu
took part in that battle. Mansong, of Segu, at the end of the
18th century, could not conquer their strong capital, Bangassi,
in Fuladugu. In the first half of the 19th century they appear
on the scene in the fights between Kankan Mahmady and the Siënre
of Tengrela.
588 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 441 et seq.
589 Faidherbe, G.M., 1866, 443; Park, Reisen, 90; he calls
the empire "Manding"; Binger, II., 389.
590 Binger, I., 183.
591 Haji Omar was born about 1804, and was a Torodo from the
neighbourhood of Podor on the Lower Senegal. He made the
pilgrimage to Mecca, at which period he spent 16 years in the
East. His idea was to found a great mahomedan Empire on the
Upper Niger.--G.M., 1864, 69 et seq., and 1866, 443; Gaffarel,
"Sénégal et Soudan franc.," chap. VII.; Soleillet, "Voy. à
Ségou," III., 317 et seq.; Frey, "Campagne, &c.," 493 et seq.;
Faidherbe, Sénégal, 158 et seq.
592 Carrère, Le Siège de Médine (Rev. col.): Lenz, II., 292
et seq.; Faidherbe passim, 182 et seq.
115

State with his nephew Tidiani as ruler, and in 1863 593 even
conquered Timbuktu. Haji Omar was, however, driven back by the
Tuaregs with much loss and retired to Mássina, where he met his
death at Bandiágara at the end of 1863 or beginning of 1864
during a rebellion, in the course of which he was probably
murdered. With a view to still making use of his mighty and
dreaded name his death was long kept secret. Ahmadu of Segu
became well known through his wars with the French. In 1881-82
Gallièni's first mission to him took place. In 1890 Archinard
conquered the town of Segu, at which lived Madane, a son of
Ahmadu. He himself had sought refuge in Nioro (Kaarta), which
was taken by Archinard on the 1st January, 1891. The present
ruler of Segu, who still bears the ancient title of Fama is
completely dependent on the French. The ancient dynasties of
the Kurbari and Diara still continue to struggle for the
supremacy. 594
The Bámbara Empire and, later, the Tukulör Empire of Segu
consisted of Segu proper, and of the provinces of Beledugu,
Bakunu, and Kaarta; their connection was often a loose and
indefinite one. The capital, SEGU,
595
an ancient settlement on
the Niger, which has had various names, is now called Segu-
Sikoro. Batuta speaks of it as Karsekhu. It has at present
from 6,000 to 10,000 inhabitants. Park represents it as
consisting of four towns surrounded by high walls, containing
four-cornered, flat-roofed mud houses, and mosques, and
inhabited by some 30,000 people. Apparently it has not always
been situated exactly on this spot. The market is very brisk;
Gallieni mentions the average prices. The inhabitants are
mostly Bámbara, who are divided up, as it were, into castes:
the highest place is taken by the warriors; then follow in
succession the peasants, smiths, wood-workers, leather-workers,
merchants, the Somono (fishermen of the Niger), and finally the
griots (ballad-singers). Segu has a French garrison with
barracks and an arsenal; it is the port of the French Niger
flotilla.
596
Nyámina (Yamina), admirably situated above Segu on the
Niger, with easy communication with the Senegal basin and with
the salt-producing districts of the Desert, though frequently
destroyed has always risen again from the ruins. Park found it
593 Lenz, II., 167.
594 Monteil, 18 et seq., 28, 39, 188.
595 Batuta, Journ. Asiat., 1843, 201; Park, "Reisen," 175 et
seq.; Barth, IV., 479; Mage "Voyage dans le Soudan occ," 210:
Gallieni "Voyage au Soudan français," 436; Binger, II., 387;
Jaime, passim, 152; Monteil, I., 17 et seq., C.R.S., 1894, 113
et seq.
596 Park, "Reisen," 206; Barth, V., 503; Mage, passim, 185;
Soleillet, passim, 303; Caron, 111.
116

half in ruins, Mage three-fourths uninhabited; Soleillet found a
resident population of some 4,000 to 5,000 and an equal number
of floating-population, while Caron again found only 2,000
Sonniuke merchants, a number of huts in ruins and the tata, or
mud wall, fallen to pieces. Nyámina is of importance in that it
supplies a great proportion of the inhabitants of the Western
Desert with provisions, in which respect Sansánding, below Segu
on the Niger, is also of importance.
Sansánding 597
(Sansándi, Sansandig; ssan-ssándi
(Sonrhay)=ssan-ssáne [Mande], or "Camp," Barth), according to
Barth, had a population of 11,000. Owing to the Bámbara wars it
is now almost completely in ruins; scarcely one-third of the
huts in the place, which is a kilometre in length (about 1,100
yards), are inhabited. The two mosques mentioned by Park still
exist, as also the tomb of a marabout from the Oasis of Tuat.
Sansánding, as the great provision-market for the desert,
exports a quantity of maize, rice and vegetable-butter, as also
very durable and richly ornamented (especially with green silk
embroidery) tobe of excellent quality, to Timbuktu. It is
598
famous for its indigo dye-works. Accounts and calculations in
cowries are here made with the number 80 as unit ("the Bámbara
hundred") 599
, whilst in Timbuktu and Sonrhay the full hundred is
used. The boundary of the Empire of Segu on the Niger is
Jafarébe (vide p. 71), where it adjoins Mássina.
600
Murdia, whose inhabitants already partly speak Arabic, is
an important place in BELEDUGU, some 7 days' journey from
Sansánding and on the left bank of the Niger. Sokolo, 601
(Arabic
Kala), inhabited by some 6,000 Futa (western Fulbes), Bámbara,
Assuanek and by a small colony of Arabs, has not at present the
importance which it possessed formerly as the provincial capital
of the Empire of Melle (vide pp. 64 and 86). All parts of this
597 Park, "Journal of a Mission, etc.," 158 et seq.; Caillié,
II., 376, et passim; Barth, V., 20, 31, 238, 481; Ancelle, 312;
Caron, 121, 316.--Close to Sama, which consists of three
villages and which is an old centre of the weaving industry, for
which its inhabitants were already famous in the 11th century.
Barth, J. Lond., 1860, 124; Caron, 117.
598 At the beginning of this century Sansándi must have been
of even greater importance as a market both for native and
European goods, as evinced by the precise table of prices given
by Park (fire-arms, powder, tools, slaves, ivory, cattle, &c.;
one horse was equivalent to from two to ten slaves). It is
interesting to compare these prices with those given by Caron.
389.
599 Described in detail in Mage, 191.
600 Park, "Reisen," 169; Barth, V., 509; Binger, II., 386,
601 Barth, IV., 612; V., 497; Lenz, II., 212 et seq., 225.
117

fertile territory are surrounded for miles and miles by milletand
maize-plantations.
The most northerly point of the Bámbara--Tukulör Empire is
the little Bámbara town of Farabugu, 602
at the head of which Lenz
found two brothers, one of whom was a mussulman and the other a
pagan. The sole occupation of the inhabitants is dealing in
slaves.
603
To the westward of this town is Gumbu (Gombo--the "Kumba"
of Barth), the principal town of BAGHENA or BAKUNU, with from
15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants. It is divided into two parts,
each with a separate wall and a separate Sheikh. Besides the
low Moorish mud-houses there are also a few tents and reed-huts.
Gumbu is on the route from the Hodh (the land of passage to the
Sahara) to the Senegal, along which the Arabs convey gum to
Medina or Bakel. 604 Lenz found the excessively devout
inhabitants, (almost all of whom could read and write,) of
Medinet-Bakuinet 605
(i.e., the town of Bakunu),--a place situated
on an extensive daya, and half the size of Gumbu,--in temporary
camps and huts in front of the town, with a view to commencing
harvesting operations.
The Fulbes of Bághena have their own Emir, who in Barth's
606
time lived in the Kasr El Imbédie, whilst the chieftain of the
Assuanek of Bághena had his residence in Ershan, 607
both of these
being, politically speaking, stars of the second magnitude as
compared with the Ruler of Segu.
The Fulbe villages of KAARTA, which lies to the west of
Bakunu, were, at the time of Lenz's visit, in a flourishing
condition; agriculture (the growing of pea-nuts) and cattlerearing
were diligently pursued. Almost everyone can read and
write Arabic.
The ancient capital of the Bámbara State of Kaarta, which,
after its conquest by Haji Omar, became the provincial capital
of the Tukulör Empire, is Nioro 608
(Arabic Rhab), with an
uncultured Futa population. It is a fairly large town which,
with its stone-built citadel (quasbah), reminds one of Moorish
towns. Its favourable situation was utilised for extorting high
602 Lenz, II., 209.
603 Barth, V., 508, 509; Lenz, II., 235 et seq.
604 Besides the gum arabic of the acacia horrida the Arabs
export large quantities of araschides to the Senegal and Saint-
Louis; Hübbe-Schleiden, "Ethiopien," 22.
605 Lenz, II., 244.
606 Barth, V., 514.
607 Barth, V., 516.
608 G.M., 1866, 443; Lenz, II., 275 et seq.; Ancelle, 317.
118

tolls from passing traders. By its capture the French put an
end to the Tukulör dominion (vide p. 87).
The large Futa town Kuniakari, 609
which lies S.W. of Nioro,
is no longer on the plateau, at an elevation of some 300 metres
(about 1,000 feet), but in the damp-heat of the basin of the
Senegal; here in 1880 resided, as also at Nioro, a son of Omar,
in a quasbah surrounded by four high stone walls.
To the N.E., Segu extends as far as the independent
610
territory of Saro (vide p. 72; the frontier town is Fatene ),
whilst to the east at Baninko 611 (which is still tributary to
Segu), it adjoins the territory of San. Here the boundary is
undefined and confused; this becomes still more apparent towards
the south, where the northern portion of the excellentlycultivated
country of Miniankala is included in Segu. 612 Even if
the Empire of Segu formerly extended much further to the S.E.,
as far as the neighbourhood of Tengrela, 613
yet it still had the
greater part of it on the left, and never on the right, bank of
the Niger.
The Empire of Segu defines in a westerly direction the true
arable land lying between the primeval forest and the desert,
and which begins at 10° of North Latitude. Cereals are grown in
614
large quantities. Several species of trees are also peculiar
to it: the butter-tree or Shea 615
which yields from its fruit a
609 Lenz, II., 284.
610 Monteil, 29.
611 Binger, I., 133 and 136.
612 Monteil, 40: "Northern Miniankala was a dependency of
Ségou . . . but it must be remembered that these political
connections are very vague, and one must look upon them in
reality as a series of villages which are often in a state of
hostility one against the other."
613 Binger, I., 134.
614 Hösel, Die geogr. Verbreitung der Getreidearten Nord- und
Mittelafrikas.
615 Bassia Parkii s. butyracca, s. Butyrospermum Purkii
(Shea-butter, beurre de cé, karité, Haussa: kadefia;
Clapperton's Micadania), named after Bassi, the curator of the
Botanical Garden at Bologna, and Park. Its price--for instance
from £5 to £610s. per puncheon of 230 gallons at Nupe--depends
upon that of palm-oil.--Park, "Reisen," 181; Clapperton, I.,
644; Allen and Thomson, Expedition, II., 104; Barth, II., 97,
100 (Kátsena); IV., 109, 392, 470, 493, 521 (Adamaua); V., 283;
Binger, I., 48, 118; Staudinger, 643; Ferryman, 150; Kling,
M.D.S., VI., 107.
119

green vegetable fat which plays an important part both in the
life of the native and as an article of export for the
factories; the nette or nere, the fruit of which is a favourite
spice and the principal ingredient of the sauces with which
almost all negro dishes are eaten; the bombax or bentang 616
(Eriodendron Guineense s. anfractuosum, Haussa: rimi), the
favourite shade-tree of the villages, the sacred tree of the
pagans, from which individual groups of huts take the name of
bentang. The characteristic tree, however, of the whole
country, from the Senegal to the Nile, is the monkey-bread tree
(Adansonia digitata) the leaves, fruit and wood of which are all
invaluable in the household economy of the natives, who call it
the baobab. The bentang and baobab are met with as a rule as
solitary giants of the wilderness: they form a valuable
landmark to the traveller, but to the explorer are melancholy
evidences of vanished settlements and generations. Space
unfortunately forbids a closer investigation of the extensive
cultivation of cotton and indigo as the foundation of a vast
industry for this neighbourhood, as well as of the culture and
use of tobacco, or of the consumption of dolo (beer made from
millet, which corresponds to the plam-wine of the southern
territories)--the last two being the means of estimating the
extent to which Islam and its attendant civilisation have been
accepted.
From an ethnological point of view the district of Segu may
be considered as approximately the centre of the sphere of
617
extension of the SONNINKE, who dwell between Timbuktu and Cape
Palmas, now ruling as the larger proportion of the population,
now scattered about as peaceful traders and agriculturalists in
individual villages, most of which are under a foreign rule.
They call themselves Serekholle, or "the white people," 618 which
has been corrupted into Serewule, Serecolle, Saracollet. Barth,
Leo Africanus and others hold them to be identical with the
Assuanek 619 (who have their headquarters in Bakunu, and who are
also called Aser, Marka and Suaninki), with which view, however,
Binger does not agree. 620 Their language, 621
according to the
616 Binger, I., 497; Barth, I., 609; II., 17; IV., 125;
Staudinger, 649; vide also map of the limit of vegetation in
Binger, II., 402.
617 Binger, II., App. V., 380 et seq.
618 Binger, II., App. V., 382, Note 3.
619 Barth, V., 494, 511; Caillié (I, 217) does not consider
them to be a nation, but a corporation of merchants.
620 Binger, passim, Note 2.
120
621 Compare Faidherbe, "Langues sénégalaises," a work in
which he was assisted by Binger; he agrees mostly with Quintin
(Bull. Paris, Sept., 1881).

latter, is a Mande dialect with 25 per cent. of Arabic and
Fulfulde words; the mixing probably took place in Bakunu. The
name Sonni-nke probably originated in Sonni Ali Kilnu, whose
party they espoused on his mounting the throne of Sonrhay, about
1331: they are the people of Sonni. On the accession of the
new reigning family of the Askia at the end of the 15th century
their wanderings in a southwesterly direction commenced. These
were associated with an ever-increasing scattering of the tribe
and its dissemination over wide tracts of country, which were
still further extended by the wars of Haji Omar, even though the
districts of these traders, who wisely submitted to him, were
far less devastated than were those of the Bámbara. 622 A
Sonninke, who, by stirring up a revolt against the French caused
the latter to undertake two campaigns, was Mahmadu Lamin, the
prophet of Gudiuru. 623
The French, with a view to maintaining their rule, and to
ensuring the safety more especially of the telegraph, and of the
lines of communication for their provision columns, have
connected the Upper Niger with the Senegal by means of a chain
of fortifications, which are connected with the ancient negro
settlements, but which form additional protective zones, the
624
latter amounting to as many as 14. Up the Senegal from
Bakel, 625 the great military post built in 1820, is Kayes, 626 the
principal place of the French Sudan, and the starting point of
the Senegal railway, which has been completed as far as
Bafulabe, but the working of which leaves much to be desired. 627
622 Lenz, II., 256.
623 Mahmadu Lamin, a marabout, undertook the pilgrimage to
Mecca, and on his return remained seven years in Uro Galaijo,
where he married and raised a family. From there he went to
Segu to Sheikh Ahmadu, who kept him as a rival in a sort of
captivity, after which he went to Kita and to his native village
of Gudiuru in Medina. He soon proclaimed the holy war (Jehad--
Tr.), and advanced to Bakel, was conquered by Gallieni (1881-82)
and by Frey (1885-86) after severe fighting in the Faleme basin,
and in December, 1887, was defeated and killed not far from the
Gambia.--Gallieni, "Deux campagnes, etc.," passim; Péroz, "Au
Soudan français," 55 et seq.; Faidherbe, "Sénégal," 408 et seq.;
Monteil, 188.
624 Vierkandt, "Volksdichte in westlichen Zentralafrika," 80.
625 Lenz, 298.
626 Gallieni, passim, 374 et seq.; Monteil, 14 et seq. It is
here that the French have one of their "disciplinary
establishments."
627 Jaime, passim, 54 et seq.
121

Next comes Médine (Medina), 628 built in 1855, at the end of the
navigable portion of the Senegal, the most important marketplace
between Saint-Louis and Kong; then Bafulabe, at the
confluence of the two main sources of the Senegal, the Bakhoy
and the Bafing; then Badumbe and Kita, whose central position,
between the basins of the Senegal and Niger and between Mássina
and the Ocean, proved fatal to it in consequence of the numerous
wars which made it, like Timbuktu, a "centre of depopulation." 629
A military road leads from there viâ Kundu to Bamako 630 on the
Niger, the fortifications of which were erected in 1883; whilst
another goes south by Niagassola to Sigiri, at the point where
the Tankisso joins the Upper Niger (Joliba), close to the goldbearing
country of Bure, which lies towards the west. A line
through Futa-Jallon, with its capitals of Labi and Timbo, 631
connects these districts with the Rivières du Sud, the
Dependency of Senegambia, on the Atlantic. 632
The State-organisations of the Western Sudan bear some
resemblance to the volcanic bottom of the ocean: in the one
case we find sudden and great changes of depth in a very short
distance; in the other very old States, (the continuations of
States which even from the European standpoint are very
ancient,) side by side with great political organizations, whose
age can only be reckoned by a few lustres (i.e., periods of 5
years): thus alongside of Segu and Mossi we find Sámory's
Empire.
SAMORY'S EMPIRE, which has been established on the southern
remnants of Segu and of the territories lying to the south of
628 Lenz, II., 292.
629 Vierkandt, passim, 78; compare Monteil, 17.
630 Bamako had formerly great commercial importance; vide
Piétri, Bull. Soc. Géogr. comm. Bordeaux (1881, 572; Park,
"Reisen," 213; Valière in Gallieni, "Deux campagnes," 587 et
seq.; Binger, I., 10, 46).
631 Watt and Winterbottom in Leyden-Murray, III., 174 et
seq.; Mollien, "Découverte, &c.," 245 et seq.
632 Here are at present, between Futa-Jallon and the Ocean,
south of the Rio Pongo, the seats of the Susu or Soso ("one of
the parent tribes of the Wakoré"). From the old historic centre
at the Bend of the Niger they went up the Niger and as far as
the Upper Senegal (in the course of the 13th century): a group
remained in Sankaran. They were driven away from the Senegal
and Niger about 1,500 by the Denianke (Fulbe slaves with a
strain of Mandingo) on to the Upper Gambia and the Kasamanka;
the Jallonke are possibly allied to them. The Griots (balladsingers)
still sing of the battles of the 16th century. It was
only during the last century that the Fulbes of Futa-Jallon were
conquered by the Susa. Binger, II., 391 et seq.
122

it, is typical of the new political organisations of the Western
Sudan, and furnishes an example of how easy it is for the
simple-minded negroes to be led by a superior, intelligent, and
energetic leader, whose mere name often suffices to inspire
thousands with dread or with enthusiasm. Sámory, 633 a Mande-
Jula, was born about 1835; his father was a poor trader in kolanuts
at Sanankoro or Bissandugu. Sámory, together with his
mother, was captured in a slave-raid, but luckily for him
escaped and reached the marabout Sori Ibrahim, Chief of the
Worocoro (S.E. of the Upper Niger), where he acquired a certain
amount of mahomedan lore. He then entered into possession of
the inheritance of old Bitike Suane, Chief of Torong. At first
only a local chieftain, he soon succeeded in conquering his
neighbours; nor did he spare his benefactor, Sori Ibrahim.
About 1874 he entered upon the office of almamy 634 of the Upper
Niger, from which time he extended his territory, by means of
cruel plundering- and devastating-expeditions, on both sides of
the river, as far as Sierra Leone. Since 1882 he has been at
perpetual war with the French (always renewed in spite of
defeats and of treaties,) in the course of which he has been
driven away from the left bank of the Niger. In 1883 Borgnis
Desbordes led an expedition against him; in 1884-85 Coombes,
1885-86 Frey, and 1886-87 Gallieni others. A visit to Paris by
his son Karamokho, who was received with extravagant honours,
only brought about a transitory friendship. In 1887-88 the
"Alexander of the Sudan" in vain sought to extend his empire to
the N.E.; after experiencing great losses he had to again raise
the siege of Sikasso, the capital of Tiéba of Kenedngu. In 1890
he was defeated by Archinard, who took Kankan and, in 1891-92,
by Humbert, between Bissandugu and Sanankoro. In 1893 Monteil
endeavoured, but without success, to break his power. Sámory
withdrew from the devastated West to the richer East, where he
is said to have threatened Kong and taken Bonduku. The
boundaries of Sámory's empire 635
are as follows: to the north
Segu; to the west the Upper Niger (a French possession) and
Sierra Leone; to the south the Hinterland of Liberia and of the
Ivory Coast (the Kru; Suamle, Tiassale; tribes of Lahu); while
633 Described fully in Gallieni's "Deux compagnes au Soudan
français"; Péroz, "Au Soudan français"; "Sénégal et Niger," an
exhaustive work published by authority of the French Admiralty;
Faidherbe, "Sénégal" Frey, "Campagne dans le Haut-Sénégal, &c.";
Binger, I., 144, et seq.
634 Almamy is a mutilated form of Imam or Emir-el-Mummenin
and is, on the Upper Niger, principally the title of such chiefs
as are at the same time possessed of religious qualifications,
i.e., can read and write Arabic ("musulmans lettrés"), Binger,
I., 4, Note: Monteil, 35.
635 Compare Binger, I., 121. Since 1887 Sámory's empire has
been nominally a French Protectorate.
123

to the east the boundary in Binger's time was somewhere about
the Bagoë; it has, however, now advanced far to the eastwards of
this, but is difficult to define accurately owing to the
scantiness of the information available. Binger estimated the
country under military occupation by Sámory at 160,000 square
kilometres (about 62,500 square miles--Tr.), with some 280,000
inhabitants: three-fourths of the country was devastated, with,
at the most, one man to the square kilometre (about 2½ to the
square mile--Tr.), whilst one-fourth had some 4 men to the
square kilometre (about 10 to the square mile--Tr.). In
addition, some 140,000 square kilometres (about 55,000 square
miles--Tr.), were under the protection of Sámory but not
occupied by Sofas. 636
The territory east of the Niger was
formerly particularly well-populated. This is evidenced by the
numerous ruins; from having had a population of from 10 to 12 to
the square kilometre (39 to 47 to the square mile--Tr.) in the
eighties, it has, within 8 years, sunk to 7 (27 to the square
mile--Tr.): along 400 kilometres (about 250 miles--Tr.) of
route Binger came across 36 ruins and 36 inhabited villages, of
which 3 had from 500 to 800 inhabitants, 7 from 150 to 300, 5
from 60 to 100, 17 from 20 to 50, while 4 had under 20
inhabitants. Many of the provinces are nothing but "one
enormous ruin." In places which have been particularly hard hit
one may travel for from two to three days without coming across
a soul. There are, moreover, no direct routes through these
territories, which are avoided by commerce; for instance the
road from Wássulu through Yorobadugu and Ganadugu to Maninia or
Time.
The principal means by which Sámory raised his empire was
by spreading abroad fear and terror, whilst he at the same time
possessed all the physical and moral qualifications for carrying
away with him and fanaticising the credulous and superstitious
populace. Throughout the entire country his name is never
allowed to be mentioned; anyone who spoke of him otherwise than
636 The armed strength of Sámory is composed of the following
categories:--(1.) bilakoro, or "wearer of the blouse," who are
captured children. They look after the horses, and, on reaching
the age of from 14 to 15, receive muskets from their masters.
(2.) kurusitigi, old, married warriors who only serve
occasionally. (3.) sofa, or "father of the horse," who are
armed with muskets. They are recruited from the bilakoro, who
have distinguished themselves in several expeditions, and are
then allowed to wear trousers. They are the flower of Sámory's
army. If they have gained the confidence of their chief they
are placed as garrisons in the villages, which they completely
squeeze out. (4.) sofakong, the commanders of several sofa.
(5.) keletigi, or kongtigi are the rulers of a district in peace
time, who place the whole of their forces at the disposal of the
almamy in time of war; brothers, sons, or specially trusted
persons, frequently former griots (ballad-singers). Binger, I.,
103, et seq.
124

as almamy would be beheaded. "It is despotism in every sense of
the word." Haji Omar had, at any rate, as object, the
foundation of a great mahomedan Empire on the Upper Niger;
Sámory's only object is to find the means of maintaining himself
as ruler, Islam being merely an incident. The only religious
prohibition which is strictly watched is dolo-drinking, which
also is punished with death, because Sámory requires the millet
for his magazines, for feeding his wives and slaves, and for
supplying his (field-) columns. Each village has to cultivate a
field for the almamy, the size of which is fixed by his
representative. Should the harvest be insufficient the poor
Bámbara and the inhabitants of the new provinces have to give up
theirs. The maintenance of Sámory's household and court, the
reward of faithful servants, the expenses in connection with the
army, and the purchase of horses, 637 ammunition and arms, are all
provided for by everyone being allowed to secretly plunder and
rob, and also by the sale of the slaves of war. One half of the
booty belongs to the almamy, the other half to the chiefs and
warriors. 638 Men who are captured are either beheaded or sold.
Women and girls are either kept as slaves or sold, while the
boys become bilakoro, or recruits. "Sámory is nothing else than
a great slave-dealer, who is the source of supply for the
Moorish merchants of the Sahara;" 639
in time of need he even
sells his own people.
In connection with the administration of the country an
640
extensive spy-service is maintained both in the interior and,
more particularly, on the frontiers. Specially-appointed
officials 641 immediately report on important events to the almamy
by means of carriers, and receive his decision. Guards 642 are
stationed over the horses and cattle of the almamy as well as
over plundered crops; in all the larger places emissaries of the
almamy 643
represent him, settle the differences of the traders,
recruit, send back deserters and organize provision-columns,
cultivate the almamy's fields and fetch the produce into the
magazines, and keep Sámory informed of every thing.
637 The exchange of horses for slaves (from 15 to 20 for a
horse) is described by Leo (657 et seq.), as well as the long
years that the traders had to wait for payment.
638 Binger, I., 103.
639 Compare Jaime, 309 et seq.
640 Binger, I., 19, 23.
641 siratigi, Binger, I., 274.
642 kokisi, Binger, I., 74, 83.
643 dugu-kunasigi, Binger, I., 19, 33, et passim.
125

Under Sámory are the chiefs of provinces, 644
territories, or
districts--corresponding to the former division of the country
into "confederations"--who are brothers, sons, or military
commanders of the almamy, and under these again are the villagechiefs
and delegates of the almamy, the dugu-kunasigi, the most
influential among whom represent the former when they go to war
accompanied by their escort of professional warriors, the sofa.
645
The centre of the country is WASSULU, which lies to the
east of the sources of the Niger, and was formerly very fertile
and well-populated, since in its market-places the kola-nuts and
slaves of the south were exchanged for the salt and the horses
of the north; 646 they are now wretched plots of ground with from
300 to 500 inhabitants. In Sámory's empire, which is for ever
stirred by incessant warfare, there can naturally be no question
of a capital, forming a true centre of development. According
to Binger, it did not contain a single place of over 2,000
inhabitants. The theatre of war, and with it the political
centre of gravity, is first north, then south, east or west.
Sanankoro, Kankan, Bissandugu were all residences in turn,
without however retaining the fixed character appertaining
thereto. Of great political importance are the large magazines
of provisions, such as at Dara, near Faraba, 647 as also the
safely-situated residences or depôts of women, such as Kussan,
Nioko, and Sanankoro. 648
The capital of the country between the Niger and the Milo
649
is Falaba, in the Hinterland of Sierra Leone, which has
frequently been destroyed by the sofa.
The territories to the north of Wássulu are important by
reason of their having the shortest route between the western
kola-nut country and the Niger. The most important places are
650
Faraba, where a brother and a son of Sámory's resided, and
644 Binger, I., 70, et passim.
645 Barth, IV., 292; Wássulo; Binger, I., 129, et seq.
646 The price increases with the distance from the place of
origin: a horse, which is only worth from 2 to 3 slaves to the
Moors in the north, fetches from 6 to 10 in Kaarta and Beledugu,
from 10 to 15 in Wolosebugu, and from 15 to 20 in Wássulu.
647 Binger, I., 34. The inhabitants of Wássulu have a very
strong strain of Fulbe blood; Timbuktu, Adrar and Morocco must
have whole colonies of them, who had been sold there as slaves,
whilst others emigrated to the French Sudan and there populate
villages. Binger, I., 130, 131.
648 Binger, I., 159.
649 Binger, 125; Garrett, Proc. London, 1892, 446 ("To the
upper waters of the Niger").
650 Binger, I., 126, 140.
126

Wolosebugu, 651 formerly a frequented market-place, consisting of
several groups. Tenetu, 652
an excellent intersecting-point of
many routes, which has easy communication in all directions, has
altogether sunk away as the result of war. A picture of the
terrible devastation of war was offered by the village of Tula,
lying close by, which Binger had quitted, but found again with
the corpses of 100 people who had died of starvation, while
numbers more lay around in all directions,--among the mines, at
the river-crossings (ferries and fords) and by the wayside.
To the west of Wássulu, at the point where the Milo joins
the Niger, lies the market-town of Sansando and, on the route
653
from Kurussa on the Niger to Wássulu, the town of Kandan.
Caillié here found a lively industry: weaving, smith's-work,
pottery-making (the latter being done by women), as well as a
thriving trade, in the one direction with Jenne, in the other
with Sierra Leone, to which an important kola-route leads, which
however has now been transferred to the north to more populous
districts.
654
The provinces to the south of Wássulu, which are still
called after the ancient political organisations or countries,
are closely bound up with the history of Sámory, for it is here
that he developed into a ruler from being an unknown kola-nut
trader. In Torong lies Bissandugu, 655
Sámory's periodical
capital, "an unfenced town or series of towns," with a mosque,
and estimated by Garrett to contain over 2,700 huts and from
7,000 to 9,000 inhabitants. The previously-mentioned town of
Sanankoro (pp. 93, 94, 96) is in Konia. In Worokoro (i.e.,
alongside the kola nut trees) one comes across the first kolatrees,
which are however still sterile.
656
To the N.E. of Wássulu lies Ganadugu, which formerly
belonged to Segu and then became an independent confederation
under the sovereignty of Dansenu, with its capital at Kunian.
Ganadugu is plundered alternately by Sámory and by his rival
Tiëba. To the east are several Siën-re-provinces, as well as
tracts of country, which are completely devastated; for instance
the district of Yorobadugu, 657
by the sale of whose population
651 Binger, 19, et seq.
652 Binger, 52, et seq; another traveller calls Tenetu "a
charnel-house, with 3,000 corpses."
653 Binger, 128. Caillié, I., 376, et seq, 430, et seq.
654 Binger, I., 131, et seq.
655 Péroz, passim, 371, et seq; Gallieni, "Deux campagnes,"
295, et passim; Garrett, Proc. 1894, 450, et seq.
656 Binger, I., 133, et seq.
657 Binger, 131, 134.
127

Sámory purchased horses--the principal result of the victory.
To traverse them is scarcely possible: provisions are wanting
and most of the paths have been covered up with vegetation;
there is nothing but ruins. Besides this the whole tract is
made unsafe by robbers, as already reported by Caillié.
To the south of Wássulu are provinces under the
protectorate of Sámory; they pay no tribute, but in case of need
supply him with contingents for his army. Among these, and
close to the Ocean, is Modiuledugu, in the Hinterland of
Liberia, with the capital, Mussardu, 658 visited by Anderson in
1868. By far the most important of these territories is the
large district of Worodugu, which is composed, politically, of a
whole series of provinces or village confederations, which
extend as far as Sierra Leone and Liberia. Worodugu (i.e.,
"kola-country"), together with all the strips of country in the
same latitude as far as the Volta (Northern Ashanti), is of
extraordinary importance, both economically and politically, not
only to the neighbouring countries, but also to the whole Sudan,
as being the principal kola-nut producing territory. In the
vicinity of 10° N. Lat. the effect of the sea makes itself felt
upon the vegetation by its becoming uniformly dense. 659
It is to
this so to speak transition-territory that the kola-tree is
peculiar, the fruit of which is the chief article of trade in
the Sudan, and which causes a stir, which is well described by
Barth as follows:--"The extensive market-life in these
districts, where the European usually imagines there is nothing
but seclusion and rude barbarism, contains within it something
that is exciting."
660 661
The kola, Sterculia cola, called guru or goro by the
Haussas and Kanuri, uru by the Mandingo, and also termed Sudancoffee
662
by the Arabs, occurs in two principal varieties; the
658 Binger, I., 132, 137.
659 Here cereals disappear (the northern limit of sorghum is
also that of the horse) and are replaced by root-crops, for
instance yams. Instead of the fruit-trees of the arable country
we find palms. Thus it is that the northern limit of the oilpalm
and the southern limit of the butter-tree are identical;
compare von François, M.D.S.I., 170 et seq.; Staudinger, 626 et
seq.; Binger, II., App. IV., 362 et seq.
660 Abb.; Binger, I., 143.
661 According to Rohlfs (Qu. d. Afr., II., 266 et seq.) it is
only the fresh fruit that is called goro, while the dried fruit
is called kola.
662 Clapperton, I., 502; Nachtigal, I., 667; Monteil, 285.
Lenz (II., 155) holds this to be erroneous and applies this name
to the fruit of the Inga biglobosa.
128

white, Sterculia macrocarpa, and the red, Sterculia acuminata.
The former is mostly cultivated in Anno on the Komoë (the best
coming from Sakala in Worodugu) 663 and is larger than the red
kola of Maninian or Gonja. 664 Medium white or red fruits come
from Kani, Siana, and Tute in Worodugu. Besides these two true
species there are also varieties of kola of less value. 665 The
kola-tree, which somewhat resembles our chestnut, flowers twice
a year, and in ten years gives a rich harvest. The fruit which
is some 10 centimetres (four inches) in length, has a shell
similar to that of the walnut, and contains five or more
chestnut-shaped nuts of various sizes, which can be easily
divided along a black line. The nut has an extraordinarily
bitter taste, and "without doubt is a good tonic and appetiser,"
which is very good for the stomach; it represses the feelings of
hunger and fatigue, 666
663 Binger, I., 309 et seq., 141 et seq.
and is of special value in these
localities, since after eating it the worst water is drinkable
and apparently does one no harm. As an article of luxury which
has become indispensable to even the poorest, "the most
favourite and most wide-spread means of enjoyment" in the whole
Sudan (but more especially as regards its western half), it
"takes the place there of our coffee, and at the same time of
664 It is not so fine but lasts longer, and on this account
is bought by the caravans in preference to the kola of
Worodugu.--Monteil, 92, 284.
665 Dybowski, on his march from the Congo to the Shari,
found, above the mouth of the Ubangi, a variety, kola baleyi
("La route du Tchad," 136); Nachtigal (passim) mentions a slimy
insipid variety from Adamaua; von Stetten mentions several sorts
as being there; the kola-nut which grows in Bali is much better
than that of Mbamkin (to the north of it: Kol. Bl., 1895, 182);
Staudinger (651 et seq.), which is less palatable and is not so
favourite a fruit on the Niger, and is sold in quantities at
Onitsha and in Adamaua, but which is used less for eating
purposes than for staining the teeth red; Lenz (passim) mentions
a false kola, Garcinia Kola, which has not the stimulating
properties of the true kola nut; Schweinfurth speaks of a
Sterculia in East Africa (Lenz II., 153); Passarge, 89.
666 The enjoyment of it gives a "suractivité très
appréciable" (Gallieni; "Deux campagnes," 424); it contains a
quantity of tannin and of alkaloids; Liebig found a larger
quantity of caffeine in one dried nut than in a similar quantity
of coffee-beans (Rohlfs, passim); according to Heckel, who
studied it botanically, chemically and therapeutically ("Des
Kolas africains, etc." Bull. Marseille, 1883), 2,348 of
caffeine. A nut sent home by Rohlfs germinated in the botanical
garden at Munich and developed, up till 1869, into a fairly high
shrub.
129

the pinch of snuff 667 of our grandfathers, of the betel-nut of
the Annamites and Hindoos, and of the opium of the Chinese"
(Monteil). A man who has anything at all upon him must always
have kola. The natives chew it all day long. 668 By means of it
you can win over a negro, body and soul: "in presence of a kola
nut one sees difficulties, which have up till then been proof
against every effort or presents, disappear of themselves; a man
makes it up with his leader if the latter has been annoyed at
his having gone away too early; it pacifies unruly believers;
valuable information is wheedled out of one by means of it; it
will silence a noisy fellow; by means of it one may win the
smile of a pretty woman; one may even flatter a eunuch into
thanking one" 669 (Monteil). As in private- so also in publiclife
the nut plays a great part; as a symbol in treaties,
visits, marriage, declarations of war, submission, judicial
trials, sorcery, 670
also as alms, medicine, love-potions, &c.,
"it is the universal panacea," and consequently "the key-stone
of the commercial movement in the Sudan" (Monteil).
The kola-trade appears to have first developed during this
century. At the beginning of it the nuts were far dearer and
more scarce, and at that time only the chiefs and priests were
671 672 673
allowed to eat it; but even Bowdich, Clapperton, and
Caillié 674
speak of a brisk kola-trade. At the present day the
667 Hovelacque (in Jaime, 100, Note): "the kola is passed
from hand to hand, each one having chewed it as he wishes and
for as long as he likes."
668 Morgen, "Durch Kamerun," 296. The nut is only chewed,
not swallowed.
669 Dybowski's tirailleurs expressed themselves drastically
on coming across kola: "Quand sénégalais trouver kola, lui pas
dormir toute la nuit." (passim).
670 In this respect the kola-nut plays a great rôle in
politics, in the Bambara countries in particular, where
importance is placed upon its colour--all shades from white to
red--and on its size. As regards the sorcerers or keniëlala,
compare Binger I., 42 et seq, 252, 385, Note. For opening the
nuts wrought-iron crackers are used, and are carried in a case,
together with other instruments.--Staudinger, passim.
671 Lenz II., 153.
672 Mission, &c., 438 et seq. (Gooroo or Boosee).
673 Clapperton I., 487: in Fezzan, Tripoli (two dollars for
20), in Sókoto: ditto 628.
674 II., 5, 17, 120, 144, 201, et passim.
130

trade appears to be on the increase. 675 It is of great local
importance, since at all large daily and weekly markets kolanuts
are exposed for sale. Besides this the kola-trade, through
the transit-trade, gave their dominating position 676 to the big
centres, such as Kano. Even the shipping-trade has taken
possession of it: for the cost-trade Lagos and Freetown are the
chief ports, 677 whilst for export to Brazil the chief ports are
Porto Novo (Dahomey) and Ambrizette (south of the mouth of the
Congo). 678
The kola-nut is to be found in the damp and hot
coastland from Sierra Leone to the mouth of the Congo; it is not
met with at more than from 150 to 200 nautical miles from the
coast, nor at a higher elevation than 300 metres (about 1,000
feet).
The zone of greatest yield appears to lie between 6° and 8°
N. Lat., both in Worodugu and Anno (Binger), as well as in
Ashanti (according to Mählys and the Basle missionaries); as a
679
sterile plant it extends as far as 10° N. Lat. One comes
across the trees from Kintampo onwards; but they first bear
fruit some 40 kilometres (25 miles) further to the south at
Koranza. Binger saw the first kola-plantations at Kamelinsu, in
Anno 680 (7° 50' N. Lat.), where women gathered in the fruit and
sorted it according to size and quality. He first saw extensive
plantations, with the trees planted, alternately with palm-oil
trees, in regular squares, at Babraso, 681 whilst the last fruitbearing
trees were met with at Attakru 682
(7° N. Lat.). The
harvest takes place in February, June and October. The late
fruit is better than the earlier.
675 Wolf (M.D.S, II., 83) met a full-blooded Arab in Salaga
who had come from Suakin, through the Empire of the Mahdi,
Wadai, Bornu, and Sókoto, in order to buy ko'a-nuts.
676 Barth II., 150 et seq.; Monteil, 286; Timbuktu: Barth
V., 27; Dore in Libtako (from Wássulo and Miniana): Barth V.,
292.
677 In Sierra Leone 45 kilogrammes (100 lb.) cost from 50 to
150 francs (£2 to £6), according to the season and the demand;
at Gorre (Cape Verd) they already cost some 50 per cent. mo e.--
Lenz II., 153.
678 Lenz II., 153. As regards the export of kola, vide
Moloney, "Sketch of the forestry of West Africa," 158 et seq.
679 According to Monteil, as far as 12° N. Lat.
680 Binger II., 218.
681 Binger II., 244.
682 Binger II., 311.
131

Kola-nuts require very careful handling in transport, which
demands a certain amount of moisture and of keeping away the
air; every 4 or 5 days they must be unpacked and the soiled ones
removed. The carrying-baskets for the caravans from Kano are
made at that place from withes, 683 in the shape of four-sided
truncated pyramids, lined inside with leather; two of these,
each of which holds from 3,000 to 4,000 kolas, form an ass's
load, while one is that for a porter. 684 The nuts last longest
if packed between layers of the leaves of a special plant. 685
When dried they can be sent long distances, and will keep good
for a long time; they, however, then lose a great deal of their
value. 686 The price depends upon quality, durability, and the
distance from the place where they are grown. Binger found that
the cheapest were at Kong, Kintampo and Grumania. In Salaga a
kola costs from 1 to 7 cowries, in Kong from 2 to 12, in Mossi
from 40 to 50, at Say from 70 to 80, at Sókoto 100, at Kano from
120 to 140, at Kuka from 200 to 300 and even up to 1,000
cowries. 687
The districts where they are produced must not even be
entered by the Mandingo, Mossi and Haussas, who purchase them;
they are several days' journey to the south of the market-
688
places, and the Lo, a sort of caste of organised Mande Jula,
who envelop the material gain in a veil of religious mystery,
bring the nuts to secluded and little-known spots, whence they
are conveyed, mostly by women, to the proper kola-markets. The
first zone 689 of these kola-markets comprises those of Worodugu,
viz.: Odienne, Tute, 690 Kani, 691
Siana and Sakala, each with from
1,500 to 3,000 inhabitants (kola-traders of Jula or Siën-re
origin). A second zone, the preparatory one to that of the
683 Nachtigal: from dum-matting.
684 Monteil; Caillié II, 5; they are carried on the head.
Caillié could scarcely lift them.
685 According to Monteil, 284, they are those of the buttertree;
on the other hand compare Binger I., 314; II., 135.
686 Monteil and Rohlfs, passim. Nachtigal furnishes a
capital report on the treatment and diseases of the guro, which
is bought with such avidity by the Kanuri (I., 668).
687 Monteil, 285; Binger, I., 312 et seq, et passim.
688 Binger I., 142 et seq.; the "lous" of Caillié (II., 118)?
689 Compare Binger I., 141.
690 Caillié II., 17; Barth V., 27; Teute, inhabited by the
kola middle-men.
691 Caillié II., 17.
132

north, is formed in the west by the districts of Tiongi,
Tengrela, Maninian 692 and Sambatijila, 693 where the traders from
the north divide their bars of salt each into 12 pieces, kokotla
of three fingers' breadth, and where they buy travelling-baskets
and blankets, which the merchants from Kano bring with them
themselves. One kokotla is worth from 200 to 600 kolas. The
first large unit is here 100 ("the kola hundred"), as opposed to
the 80 ("Bambara hundred") in Samory's Empire. The principal
kola-routes are: that to Sierra Leone; that to the Upper Niger,
and further on to Jenne--Timbuktu (via Maninian to the west, or
Kong to the east); as well as that via Mossi and Dore, leading
to Timbuktu, and, lastly, the great Haussa caravan-route which,
depending upon political conditions, goes by the most varied
routes to the east and north-east, and crosses the Niger between
Rabba and Say. Along the first two passes the kola of
Worodugu, 694
whilst along the two last passes that from Ashanti
(Gonja).
The great trade of the Western Sudan, which has so much
increased in our century--which, by its degree of culture, must
be highly valued as spontaneous proof of human intelligence and
energy, carrying along with it life and blessing from afar--is
evinced by the number of the caravans, by means of which, in
such a country and with such inhabitants, trade is alone
rendered possible. Such caravans are those of the Haussas,
695 696 697
Mandingo, Mossi, Arabs and Moors, and of the Asbens (Kelowi).
698
The first place is taken by the Haussa caravans, and
692 Caillié I., 452; Barth's Miniana?
693 Caillié I., 456 et seq.
694 Marchand considers that the best and quickest way from
the Coast to this part of the Sudan is by the Bandama (or Lahu),
because it is very convenient, the belt of primeval forest is
only 73 kilometres (45 miles) wide, the stream itself is
navigable for 106 kilometres (66 miles), up as far as Thiassale,
and then there only remain 30 kilometres (20 miles) to reach the
Sudan. Bull. Marseille. 1894, 63.
695 Caillié II., 64 et seq., 116 et seq. (from 500 to 600
people); Binger I., 275 et seq., 357 et seq., and map of the
trade-routes, II., 401.
696 Binger II., 52 et seq, et passim.
697 Their domain is the Desert as far as the mouth of the
Senegal; Frey ("Campagne, &c," 437) saw at Bakel a caravan with
400 animals; camels, pack-oxen, and asses.
133
698 Barth (II., 49 et seq) estimates the aïri, the great
salt-caravan of these Berber cross-breeds from Bilma to the
Sudan at 3,500 camel-loads, of the value of 150 million cowries
or 60,000 Spanish dollars; compare p. 36.

amongst these again by the kola-caravans, which trade between
Kano and Gonja and which enrich the places through which they
pass and give them a higher civilisation. Between March and May
twenty caravans set out annually from Kano alone for Gonja, the
first of which return about the middle of October. 699
Clapperton 700 states that the caravans consist of almost 1,000
men and women, with the same number of beasts of burden; Kling 701
speaks of 1,000 and even of 2,000 people. This magnitude is
reached by the banding together of several groups of from 200 to
300 people when traversing dangerous localities--such as forestcountry,
or country inhabited by warlike and thieving tribes--as
for instance Kebbi, Gurma, and Borgu. 702 Wolf reports that in
the latter a caravan of 300 Haussas was completely
exterminated. 703 In other places, such as between Salaga and
Kintampo, higher duties are levied, it is true, but then there
is security. 704 From the kola-markets a number of Haussas go
down to the Coast, mostly to Accra, to buy European goods. 705
706
The merchants who wish to travel together select amongst
their number a leader, who is given the title of madúgu. 707
699 Monteil, 209; they are "milch-cows" for the territories
through which they pass, as also for the riff-raff.--Monteil,
205.
700 Clapperton II., 109.
701 M.D.S, VI., 133; III., 148.
702 Binger II., 80. In Adamaua, on the contrary, which is
comparatively a safe country, trains of 500 people with 40 asses
move from 5 to 6 days apart from each other. von Stetten, Kol.
Bl., 1895, 184. For the routes of the Haussas in Adamaua, vide
Passarge's small map.
703 M.D.S., IV., 9, 11.
704 Binger II., 122.
705 Kling, passim.
706 What follows here is principally from Monteil's excellent
description (209 et seq.).
707 Vide also Staudinger, 89; Kling, M.D.S., VI., 133;
Flegel, passim. In advance are the men who have to prepare the
quarters (Kling, passim, III., 148); on starting on a journey a
marabout delivers an inspiriting prayer; in the same way he
offers up a prayer before entering dangerous tracts, accompanied
by antics on all hands (Monteil, 263). Griots (minstrels) with
bells and musical-instruments, incite by extempore speeches, and
sing the praise of the Ruler who is being visited, calling out
as though they were heralds.
134

During the journey he has a much power as the King of Kano
himself, that is to say absolute authority. He selects the
quarters for the night (which are mostly determined by the
water-supply), patches up quarrels, and deals with the "local
authorities" with a view to purchasing the passage of the
caravans; he also allots the tolls to be levied on the caravan,
in accordance with the value of the respective loads. The large
merchants, who arrange the caravans, with their porters, 708
slaves, hired asses, pack-oxen, mules, and horses, are joined by
small traders--pataki or fataki--whose whole possessions are
constituted by the load which they carry on their heads. The
caravan advances slowly, but in close order, with several camels
at the head, which have been hired for special northern stages;
they each carry four loads of kola. Next come the heavily-laden
women, 709 who, in addition to their load of from 50 to 60
kilogrammes (110 to 132 lbs.), carry the necessary householdutensils
and often a child as well. Behind these march the
porters, in Indian file 710
like the women, or else alone, or
driving the heavily-loaded animals. On either side are the
armed owners of the goods, part being mounted. The rear is
brought up by the chief of the caravan, the madúgu, followed by
a gang of importunate camp-followers, beggars and riff-raff. On
leaving Kano the following are carried in the baskets ultimately
intended for the reception of the kola: ordinary and heavilyembroidered
trousers, ordinary smocks, and the much-prized
túrkedis (for women), which are deeply-dyed with indigo and made
shiny by blows from a wooden pin; leather, in which Kano does an
important trade, is also taken. Haussa caravans seldom have
their night-quarters in inhabited places. At large places,
708 These carry astonishing burdens: light ones weigh from
40 to 60 lbs., average loads are from 60 to 80 lbs., whilst big,
well-seasoned porters carry up to 125 lbs. Staudinger, 107;
Kling, passim; compare Passarge, 66. They march for 5 to 6
hours every day, whilst they rest during the great heat; compare
Wolf, M.D.S., IV., 14. In consequence of their passion for
games of chance, (which is psychologically connected with their
great physical efforts), they have often to go hungry, borrow
and fall into debt, more especially in the towns. Staudinger,
142.
709 The women are cheaper than the men (Passarge, 255). The
best women-porters are the Tappa women from Nupe (q.v.). On the
journey they spin cotton, and, if there is a long halt, deal in
provisions; whilst the men work pretty mats, with black and red
designs on them, out of palm-fibres (Binger II., 143, Note).
710 The paths are narrow runs, in which one porter treads in
the footsteps of the other. Morgen reports (M.D.S., IV., 151)
that on the route Banyo-Tibati (Adamaua) there were as many as
12 foot-tracks side by side. As regards South Adamaua, compare
von Stetten, K. Bl., 1895, 112.
135

where they halt for some time, there are specially prepared
caravanserais. In the "savanna," however, they encamp, as a
rule close to a stream which runs the whole year round, on a
flat space, as open as possible, and beneath the shade of large
trees. These songo or zango are the indications of all great
Haussa routes. 711 They consist of a number of, often several
hundred, small huts, or only of semi-circular wind-shelters made
of branches with the leaves on, which are either found on the
spot and simply erected or else are quickly made. Each songo
has its own name, at one time being called after a river, at
another after the high trees near which it is, or else after
some other characteristic. The progress of the caravans is
principally delayed by the everlasting exaction of tolls. In
countries which are agitated by war they have far greater
difficulties to overcome, and are either dispersed or
destroyed. 712
The route, when this is possible, is the same both
711 Büttner, M.D.S., IV., 190; Staudinger, 168; von Stetten,
passim, 135; Passarge, 153, 229. Now and again, too, one comes
across a tomb surrounded by stones along the route, which, by
the way, changes considerably according to the time of year and
physical and political obstacles. In the quieter countries
women are to be found everywhere by the sides of the route
selling provisions.
712 In Siberma (Jerma), for example, the through journey is
"a concatenation of worries and robberies of every description";
a trader once significantly remarked to Monteil: "we buy our
necks every day." Monteil (210) describes the endless fatigues
and dangers that are encountered: when the caravan arrives at
the encampment, fixed upon beforehand, the loads are taken off
always in the same regular order; the slaves then water the
animals and load them to the pasture-ground. The women prepare
the meal. All men not told off to guard the loads fetch
branches to build the leafy huts, or else to repair them. The
camp is then surrounded with a continuous fence as protection
against nocturnal robbers. Meanwhile the madugu is engaged in
treating, either in the village or in the camp, with the
chieftain and principal people of the place as to how much duty
is to be paid in kola, stuffs or other currency. The discussion
lasts a long time, because, to the demands of the local seigneur
have to be added those of chiefs who have come from great
distances (which are based upon the claim "that one might
equally have gone through their country"). Never does it happen
that the negociations are terminated before nightfall. Should
it eventually happen that both sides are satisfied, then one of
the griots (minstrel-herald) of the madugu announces the fact in
a loud voice; also that no one must approach the camp during the
night or cross the enclosing fence or he will be shot if he does
so. In spite of this the villagers attempt to steal. On the
following day there ensue fresh demands and fresh negociations
which, perhaps, deprive the caravan of a whole day.
136

on going and returning. Monteil mentions the following route:
from Kano viâ Gando, Sókoto, Argungu, Giuae and Dosso to Say; 713
from here there is a stage down the valley of the Niger which is
usually crossed at Kirtassi (Kirotashi); the caravan then enters
Gurma, reaches Sudu M'Bjio (also called Fad N'Gurma and Nungu),
the capital of Gurma, follows the boundary of Mossi and then
passes through Gurunsi (Grussi), Mamprusi and Dagomba to Sálaga,
the capital of Gonja.
KONG is a town which Binger, as the first European to visit
it, describes, together with its territory, in his excellent
work. It owes its importance to its proximity to the kola
district. The Empire or country of Kong is situated to the
eastward of Sámory's Empire, and is of importance as being the
capital of the Mande Jula, one of the five principal branches of
714
the Mandingo which, according to Binger, was formed about
1350, on the advent of the Sonni dynasty, into Sonrhay, 715 as a
conservative support to the ancient dynasty, and as an enemy of
the Sonni-nke, and which at first only consisted of the five
great families of the Dau, Wattara, Keru, Baru and Ture. The
Jula were of great importance, in that they were the first of
the Mandingo in the vicinity of Jenne to accept the faith of
Islam, where they also by degrees became the most important
commercial people 716 on the Upper Niger. 717
About 1500, in
713 The woods and wildernesses between Kano and Say, which
are rendered unsafe and dangerous by robbers, notably the Kebbi,
are traversed by forced-marches and without a halt, in the
course of which people even succumb to fatigue, which latter is
much increased by the silence which has to be observed, and
which is unbearable to a negro, who is able to endure the
greatest hardships if only he is allowed to sing. Barth (IV.,
95, 133, 225; V., 317, 353) frequently depicts such forcedmarches,
which have previously been described by Clapperton, and
recently, again, by Monteil.
714 Binger mentions seven great races within the Bend of the
Niger; the Mande, Siën-re, Gurunga, Mo, Dagomba, Ashanti and
allied-races, Fulbe, and in addition some 60 smaller tribes and
isolated Haussa. Bull. Lyon, 1890, 694.
715 Binger, II, 376, 384, 393 et seq.: "couche, souche du
trône" (this throne of Sonrhay is said to have been gained by a
foreigner, according to Binger a Mandingo, by killing a big
snake; Binger, 373); Barth's Juli.
137
716 Most French authors (Caillié, II, 82, 160, and more
recently Monteil) understand, by the word Jula, simply
merchants. Binger (I., 30), on the other hand, declares
explicitly that they are a separate tribe. He classifies the
merchants in the Bend of the Niger as follows: (1) The
temporary merchant, who trades for the occasion, with a view to
procuring a wife or slave, and then becomes a peasant again.
(2) The small traders, who are mostly smiths of Wássulu and

consequence of the victories of Mohammed Askia, they moved out
of Sonrhay, and at the end of the 16th century, after the
arrival of the Moors upon the scene, they moved yet further to
the south. In the great Bambara war of 1748-54 they sided with
Sagone, after whose death, from fear of Bendugu, they migrated
to Dafina and as far as Mossi. At the present day the Mande
Jula form (among the Mandingo) a people separate in themselves.
All pagan Mandingo are to them Bambara or unbelievers. Outside
of Kong they are scattered all over the Bend of the Niger in
numerous colonies, as in Jenneri, Massina, Mossi, Mianka,
Bendugu, Kenedugu, Follona, Jemmara, Taguano, Kurudugu, and
Worodugu. They are to be found at all trade-centres as far as
the Ocean, so that with Mande, Haussa and Arabic one can travel
from Cape Verde to Egypt. The Jula occupies himself with trade,
industry (weaving) and agriculture. He only wages war for
defensive purposes or out of revenge, and seldom to obtain
slaves. The institution of the tenne (family fetish) has become
somewhat lost with him; in the same way he has freed himself
from the rough tyranny of the griots "in which is evinced a
marked superiority over the other branches of the Mande family."
Kong is said to have been founded 718 at the same time as
Jenne, viz., 1043-44. This is not impossible, but is plainly
very doubtful. It is first mentioned by Park and Bowdich, 719
and
Worokoro, who barter goods of their own make of clay, iron or
wood for small quantities of salt and kola, but who do not
travel far (korokoro); frequently also sorcerers (kenielala).
(3) Mando Jula, and Haussas. These undertake protracted
journeys, and deal with the greater and lesser chieftains, from
whom they purchase the prisoners of war in exchange for arms,
ammunition, stuffs, &c. They often have to wait years for
payment; they then start family life; "ils ont des femmes un peu
partout." Many settle down in the great trading-places and make
their sons and slaves travel; others again become kola traders
in Worodugu. Their property is usually at stake. (4) Moorish
traders who go to Segu, Nyamina and Bamako.
717 Passarge (564) considers this step to be a decadence
through intermixture with inferior races; it was, however,
directly required by the country, as it gave it, by the great
gateway of the Niger valley, gold and slaves from the south, and
salt and cattle from the north.
The Jula gave its name to the Upper Niger. Each favoured
nation here has its "river," and, if it is too large to possess
in its entirety, is satisfied with a portion of it; thus the
Niger is the Juli-ba of the Mandingo, and, further down its
course, the Mayo of the Fulbes, the Eghírrëu of the Tuáregs, the
I-'ssa or Ssai of the Sonrhay, the Kuára (probably) of the
Kómbori and the Baki-n-rua of the Haussas. Barth, IV., 243.
718 Binger, I., 323 et seq.; II., 394.
138
719 "Mission, etc," 263; compare Ritter, "Afrika," 377 et

as a town first by Barth. The ancient inhabitants were the
Fallafalla, a tribe related to the Taguano, at present settled
on the right bank of the Komoë, and also the Nabe and Zazere,
close to the Pakhalla on the left bank of the Komoë, and the
Mioru on both banks of the Upper Komoë. 720 Kong existed as an
unimportant place before the arrival of the Jula, which,
however, the latter did not dare to occupy, much less two small
places in its vicinity. They came from the north (from the
direction of Jenne-Segu) and west (Tengrela-Worodugu), and did
not appear in great numbers, but, like the Fulbes, in small
detachments and by degrees. More intelligent and active than
the old residents, they gradually attained, thanks to mahomedan
civilization, to greater influence at the end of the 17th
century, and from the middle of the 18th century, to still more
under the leadership of the Wáttara family. About 1790, under
Seku Wáttara, they became, after conquering the Fallafalla,
masters of the town of Kong itself. Upon his death his 12 sons
divided the power between them and settled down in the places on
the great routes leading to Kong. One of them, usually the
eldest, was supreme. Since the end of the forties Karamokho
Ule 721 Wáttara has been "King" of Kong, and resides in that town.
All the numerous members of the Wáttara family, 722 spread in
small lordships over the country, recognize the absolute
authority of the "King" and of the jemmaa of Kong, a sort of
"council of the elders." For the defence of the country, for
the chastisement of rebellious villages, and for the occupation
of the more important and more threatened trade-routes, as for
instance that to Jenne, the Jula make use of the ancient
inhabitants conquered by them--their vassals. 723
Their mode of
seq. (Kong=Gonja).
720 Kipirri (Siën-re) and Wei (Mandingo) adjoin it on the
south; Binger, Bull. Lyon, 1890, 683, and II., 213.
721 Ule, or "the red," was the name given to him on account
of his pale complexion, which also always indicates noble
descent. His elder brother was excluded from the succession on
account of his dissolute life.
722 A genealogical table of the Wáttara family will be
founded in Binger, I., 325.
139
723 As vassals, Binger (I., 376) cites the Bobo Jula,
Dokhosie, and Tiëfo. In the centre of the Bend of the Niger he
describes also the "savage" Mbuing (I., 267 et seq.), the
Pallaga (I., 273 et seq.), the Komono (I., 338, et seq.), and
the almost extinct Karaboro (I., 277). As regards the somangi
or armed captives, remnants of ancient races, vide Binger, II.,
209. Partly robbers by profession, like the Pallaga, who,
favoured by their thickly-wooded country, frequently interrupt
direct communication, as for instance on the stretch Lera-Kongpartly
as quite immoderate dolo-drinkers, like the Komono--these

colonisation and conquest is by no means warlike, but peaceful,
in which it resembles that of the Fulbe-Borroro. Whilst,
however, the latter only infiltrated themselves under sufferance
as herds, and only obtained the rulership by force of arms, the
Jula reached the same goal by spiritual means. The pagan
Kinglets ("roitelets fétichistes") when once they had entered
their country exacted exorbitant tolls. Slowly and cautiously
one or two of their families settled in all the larger places
from Kong to Bobojilasu and, by degrees, as far as the
neighbourhood of Jenne. These then organised mahomedan schools
to which other settlers also sent their children; they made
themselves indispensable to the chieftians by their trade,
sought to win their confidence and got mixed up, as advisers, in
internal affairs; the spiritual and political centre of gravity
was always Kong, so that by their wisdom, patience and tenacity,
the occupied territories came under their protectorate quite of
themselves. Agricultural villages (konkosu) were started and
settled by sending out slaves from the principal centres. In
addition to being engaged in trade, everyone occupies himself
with weaving, and dyeing, arts which must have been introduced
by the Haussas. In contrast to the Fulbes and Tuaregs religious
fanaticism is not found among the far-travelling Mande Jula,
which is likewise the case with the Haussas; the former are the
poorer and more orthodox, the latter the richer and more
liberally-inclined, representing trains of thought which here
stand in direct connection with the residence, mode of life and
earnings of the people.
The political centre of a people in the Western Sudan is
first of all dependent upon the personal ability of its ruler
and of the chiefs upon its frontiers; hence there exists a
continuous state of unsettledness within it, and the
impossibility of defining a boundary according to European
ideas. In Kong's palmiest days the influence of the chiefs of
this town extended not only over the territory of Kong proper,
but also over the whole of the Kenedugu and the Bobo countries,
where members of the ruling family of Wáttara levied taxes as
governors. They were followed by other families, notably by the
tribes, equally incapable of being reached, either by the
civilisation of Mássina or Sonrhay, or of the Coast, are in the
very lowest stage of the civilisation of the Western Sudan;
which category would also include the inhabitants of the forests
and mountains to the east of the Niger. They have their own
languages. Men and women go about either naked or provided with
only a narrow apron or tuft of leaves. In addition to the
conquering foreigners they have also native rulers; thus Binger
found a "shadow-king" of the Komono in Niambuambo (I., 344 et
seq.). On the point of losing their ethnographical
individuality and adopting civilisation are the Dokhosie (Binger
I., 356); they do not get drunk as much as do the Komono;
circumcision is universal; they are gradually forgetting their
own language and beginning to talk Mande.
140

Dauda (Dau) and Senu. The Dauda became independent and formed
Tiëba's Empire, whilst the Senu obtained the supremacy over the
Bobo Jula. 724 Exactly corresponding to the north-and-south
direction taken by trade, the Empire of Kong, which is itself
based upon trade and commerce, is a long zone-shaped strip
stretching from Wandarama in the south (8° 30' N. Lat.) to some
155 miles south of Jenne (some 12° N. Lat.) 725
where the
influence becomes subdivided among a number of "confederations"
of small tribes.
726
The town of Kong or Pong, one of the most important
trade-centres within the Bend of the Niger is situated at an
elevation of some 700 metres (some 2,300 ft.) on a broad plain
to the west of the Komoë. According to Binger's estimate it has
a population of some 15,000, 727 and is divided into seven qbaïla
or quarters, which are named after their respective inhabitants,
each having its own headman and a mosque, or else a simple house
of prayer. There are also suburbs in the north and south which
are separated from the town by plantations of maize, millet and
tobacco. 728 Kong is an open town, irregularly built, and has
winding narrow streets. The houses are made of mud and have
flat roofs. The population are almost entirely mahomedan 729
and
724 Monteil, 74.
725 Binger, II., 210 et seq.; I., 387; Bull. Lyon, 1890, 681.
726 Barth, IV., 575; Binger, I., 294 et seq.; II., 200 et
seq.; Bull. Lyon, passim, 684 et seq. As regards the fabulous
Mountains of Kong, which were, however, accepted by De Lanoye,
the myth with reference thereto has been exploded by Binger's
journey--that traveller says on the subject, "one does not even
perceive a ridge of hills; the chain of mountains of Kong never
existed except in the imagination of certain ill-informed
travellers." Binger, I., 285. Baikie had, moreover, already
denied the existence of the Mountains of Kong; vide Barth,
Baikie's Thätigkeit am untern Niger, &c, S.A. d. Z. f. Allg.
Erdk., Berlin, 1863, p. 21. A compilation on this subject is
given by Duveyrier in the C.R.S., 1889, 390 et seq. Whilst
communication with the west is at present cut off by Sámory Kong
still remains connected with the Coast vià Bonduku--Kumassi or
Salaga--Krachi; the main routes to the north pass vià Bobojilasu
to Jenne in the west and Wagadugu in the east, and farther on to
Timbuktu.
727 From 12,000 to 20,000; compare Binger, I., 298; Bull.
Lyon, passim, and Mitt. Wien. 1893, 442.
728 Sketch in Binger, I., 294.
141
729 Binger divides them up into: erudite Mussulmans, the
recognised ruling class; non-erudite Mussulmans, but strict
followers of the doctrines of the Koran; lastly Mussulmans who

only speak Mande; they live partly in a certain amount of
affluence. Agriculture is in the hands of the slaves who live
in the konkosu, or agricultural villages, and work under the
supervision of the masters or of the members of their families.
There is but little cattle-raising. Horse-breeding, an
occupation of wealthy traders, who no longer travel themselves,
is here of small account owing to the proximity of the dense
vegetation, which is inimical to horses; in any case it reaches,
at Kong, one of its most southerly limits. The chief industry
is the preparation of very durable cotton-stuffs, which have a
sale throughout the whole Bend of the Niger, and the fame of
which extends as far as Timbuktu (Barth). The cleansing and
spinning of the cotton is looked after mostly by women. On all
the open spaces in the town looms are erected in which are woven
the narrow strips which, when bound together, make garments.
The merchants never travel without taking their loom with them
as a resource, for all, without exception, know how to weave.
The indigo-dyeing industry is conducted mostly by Haussas in the
Daura quarter, and at Marrabasu, 730 where Binger counted 150 vats
from 1⋅8 to 2 metres (6 to 7 ft.) in depth, and 1⋅2 metres
(4 ft.) in diameter. The trade is carried on principally by the
able-bodied men, with the help of the entire family. The
principal article of trade is kola; after this follow salt,
stuffs, gold, slaves, horses, vegetable-butter, European goods
(cheap stuffs, arms and ammunition), food-supplies and spices.
Whilst one can buy the ordinary necessaries of life every day,
the real market takes place once every five days on the large
square in the middle of the town, which is "une véritable
foire." On the northern side, (the market for the men,) stuffs,
clothes, European hardware, &c. are exposed for sale, whilst on
the south side, (the women's market,) are cotton, indigo, wood,
meat, provisions of all sorts and delicacies, and also palm oil;
dolo is drunk at a little distance off. 731
Credit is allowed
from one market day to the next. Cowries and gold-dust
constitute the currency. In counting the unit is not the ba
(80) of the Bambara, but the sira (200).
The political head of Kong is the chief of the Wáttara
family, who is assisted by the jemaa. The next highest rank is
taken by the "mayor" of the town, the most powerful among the
drink dolo.
730 Marraba is the Mande name for the Haussas and marraba
dugu that of the country from the east of Kong to the Niger,
which is traversed by the Haussas and in part also settled by
them.
731 Butchers, itinerant barbers, a few tailors and goldweighers
are also there; singing beggar-boys and even a species
of street-policemen, the du, complete the picture of public
life.
142

principal men of the qbaïla. The almamy, the religious chief,
at the time of Binger's visit played no very important political
part, but rather that of "minister for religion and
instruction;" he held religious discourses with the leading men
and superintended the schools. As there are some 20 of the
latter in Kong, there are but very few persons who cannot read
and write Arabic. Pilgrimages to Mecca take place about every
20 years and under the influence of religion it not infrequently
occurs that the slaves are liberated. 732
733
The gold-bearing country of BONDUKU, which lies S.E. of
Kong on the route to Ashanti and to the Coast has an important
mediatory position with regard to the Hinterland. Its capital
of the same name (also called Bontuku and Bitugu) 734 has, from
time immemorial, carried on a gold-trade with Jenne as reported
by Ahmad Baba, who calls it Bit or Bitu. It is said to have
been founded even before Jenne (1043) [?]; the mound of rubbish,
several metres in height, which lies within the town of Bonduku
points to its being one of the oldest towns in the Sudan, whilst
numerous ruins show that it was either formerly very much larger
or has been several times destroyed; at present it has 3,000
inhabitants. The local market is of minor importance, and even
provisions are often deficient; on the other hand, Bonduku is
very important as an emporium in the transit-trade of gold, 735
732 The slaves represent the accumulated wealth; it is not
magnanimity which causes them to be liberated, but it is done as
a penance. Asses, which have been allowed to go loose, wander
through the streets, and are looked upon as sacred animals which
bring luck. Binger, I., 385, Note 1. Liberation of this nature
of this nature is also reported from the Benuë, where it takes
place on production of a written document to the local chief in
presence of seven witnesses, and on taking a new name.
Staudinger, 467, 574; Ferryman, 41.
733 In consequence of the number of languages spoken here
there is a regular confusion in names. Bonduku is called Gaman
or Diamman by the Ashantis and kindred tribes, Bottogo or
Gottogo by the Mandingo, and Bitugu by the Haussas.
734 Ahmed Baba, passim, 11; Bowdich, 215, 250; Binger, II.,
161 et seq.; Bull. Lyon, 1890, 678; Mitt. Wien, 1893, 442;
Barth, IV., 575.
143
735 The gold of the Western Sudan is found in two localities,
viz., on the Upper Senegal and in Ashanti, with its western and
northern frontier strips. In the Senegal district are included
the countries of Bondu (on the left bank of the Faleme), Bambuk
(between the Faleme and the Bafing), and Bure (between Bakhoy-
Senegal and Tankisso-Niger). In the district of Ashanti (Takwa
or Tarquah, Abosu, Wassa, etc.) are the goldfields of Anno and
Bonduki in the west, and Bole, Lobi, Grussi, Niëniëge in the
north on the Volta and its tributaries, where they reach

furthest north at about 11° 30' N. Lat. The gold is found in
quartz-veins or else as alluvial gold in beds of blue clay or
gravel. The natives do not understand the use of the stulm, but
only dig shafts for the workmen, some 3 feet in diameter but of
considerable depth (15 and even 25 metres, i.e., from 50 ft. to
80 ft. deep), and which are lighted by lamps of palm-oil. The
mines are often so close together that the place is "regularly
honeycombed." The digging is done by men, while the women and
children attend to the washing out in calabashes. In this way
much is lost. The largest pieces belong to the chieftain; a
great quantity of gold is either buried in the huts or placed in
the grave with persons of rank. In the dry season work is only
carried on at the mines near water-courses, in which work
strangers are also allowed to participate on payment; in the
rainy season, however, the more profitable but more distant
quartz-mines can be worked. In the former, or alluvial works,
fine gold-dust is mostly obtained, whilst in the latter, nuggets
are frequently found up to four ounces av. (128 grammes).
Melted-down gold is also to be met with; it is the so-called
fetish-gold and always represents figures. The day's output
amounts in Bure to some 4 grammes (15 francs or 12 shillings).
Gold is here the one product which is exchanged in all
directions, in the first place for provisions, which are brought
by the Jula, Starvation is of frequent occurrence. The
principal place in Bure is Didi, whose lofty mountain, about 817
metres (some 2700 ft.) in height, is always a landmark for the
trader, being easily seen from a distance. From a political
point of view, Bure is "a sort of republic in which the rulers
are the four most powerful families." Whilst gold is here found
in open localities, the principal gold-bearing districts of
Ashanti are to be found in the dense vegetation. The gold is
usually carried to market in quills, which for safety's sake are
worn as grisgris, or amulets. At many places almost every
native has a gold-balance; in Kong, on the other hand, there are
official gold-weighers in each quarter. For weights, grains of
seed are principally employed, but teeth, etc., are also used.
The normal unit of weight for the whole Sudan is the mitkal,
which weighs about 4 grammes (61⋅73 gr.), though it is subject to
great variation in the different gold-markets; besides this, in
the weighing-out the trader has great opportunities for
obtaining an advantage, the buying-weights being greater than
the selling-weights. In the factories the mitkal is no longer
used, but the ounce Troy (32 grammes).
Gold finding and the gold-trade of the Western Sudan have
existed from time immemorial. Herodotus' remark on this subject
has been already quoted. Edrisi describes the gold-country as
an island, flooded by the "Nile"--which calls to mind Jenne and
the whole northern portion of the Bend of the Niger--and names
Wargla as the principal market. The first European settlement
on the Guinea Coast was at a mine, Elmina. The gold- and salttrades
of the Ungaros (Wangara, Mandingo), between Gyni (Jenne)
144

kola, stuffs from Kong, Baule and Grussi, slaves, and German and
English goods.
Payment for the latter is made exclusively in gold. The
great market-place lies to the westward of the town, which is
divided up into numerous groups, corresponding to the different
nationalities. There is also a small market in the centre,
which is occupied by the Mandingo, who have migrated from the
north. The northern portion of the town is occupied by the
Haussas, who, as is the case everywhere, carry on the native art
of dyeing; in the western part are the Pakhalla, a race allied
to the Ashantis. The "King" does not reside in Bonduku, but at
a little place called Amenvi; 736
his successor on the throne is,
and the seven kingdoms to the south of it, were well known to
the Portuguese. Park saw precious jewels in Manding, and
Bowdich speaks of an astonishing wealth of gold in Ashanti.--
Herodotus, I., IV., 195, 196. (According to his version, girls
drew out gold from the mud by means of birds' feathers smeared
with pitch; he, of course, refers to the quills used for
purposes of transport. The island spoken of by him as being on
the Libyan coast may with tolerable certainty be put down as
Arguin, which, on account of its excellent situation, has
frequently attained to both historical and commercial
importance, notably for us (Germans) owing to its having been
occupied by the Great Elector); Edrisi, 40; Schmeller und
Kunstmann, Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss, passim; Ahmed Baba, passim; for
further information as to the gold in Bondu vide Raffenel, "Voy.
dans l'A. occ." and "Nouveau voyage," I., 129 et seq.--As
regards Bure and Manding vide: Park, "Reisen," 268 et seq.;
Caillié, I., 391; Hecquard, "Reisen, etc.," 241; Reade, G. M.,
1870, 302 et seq.; Gallieni, "Voy." 290 et seq. and "Deux camp."
599 et seq.; Péroz, "Au Soudan fr.," 427 et seq.--As regards
Bambuk vide: "History of the mines from 1716 on," in the
"Annuaire du Sénégal," Saint-Louis, 1864, 198 et seq.; Leyden-
Murray, éd. fr., III., 62; Park, "Journal of a Mission, etc.,"
53 et seq.; Lenz, II., 344; Gallieni, "Deux camp." 298 et seq.;
Noirot, "A travers le Fouta-Djallon et le Bambouk," 296 et seq.
As regards Ashanti and neighbouring countries, vide: Bossman,
"Reyse nach Guinea," 99 et seq.; Bowdich, 45, 72, 178, 345;
Caillié, II., 144; Barth, I., 512, 524; IV., 574; V., 23; Burton
and Cameron, "To the Gold Coast for Gold," 286 et seq., 338 et
seq.; Glover, Proc. Lond., 1874, 217; Barret, L'A occ. I., 106;
Ramseyer und Kühne, Tageb., 272 et seq.; G.M, 1880, 175 and
1886, 30; Binger, I., 308 et seq., 415, 430; II., 103, 164 et
seq., 198 et seq., 241 et seq.; Bull. Lyon, passim, 680.
145
736 The place possesses no cultivations; these are here
hidden in the dense vegetation in order to protect them, from
being robbed by their own fellow tribesmen on the occasion of
great orgies, and against enemies. The men when engaged in
cultivation are absent for long periods from their villages,
which are then only inhabited by women. Binger, II., 170, 187,
197.

as is the case with all the Agni-Ashantis, his sister's son.
The ruler of Anno, which lies to the west of Bonduku, and the
chief product of which is white kola, equally does not live in
the many-named capital Grumania, 737 but in Awabu, which contains
only 30 huts; the little place vouchsafes a greater amount of
authority than it is possible to obtain in the disturbed
commercial-life, and amongst the different race-groups, of the
larger place. An important tribe in the vicinity of Bonduku are
the Liguy, a branch of the Wei, one of the most intelligent
sections of the Mandingo. They have probably immigrated from
Liberia, work the gold-fields of their territory, and produce a
quantity of woven-stuffs; they are also the only middle-men
between the kola-producers of Northern Ashanti and the traders,
but are of special interest from the fact of their having
themselves made a written language. 738 The Ton, 739
who also
reside in the neighbourhood of Bonduku, are allied to the
Ashantis.
The real chief-market for kola, which is brought in from
740
all directions, is Kintampo (Kirby: Quantampoh, Krause:
Kintumfo, Bowdich and Dupuis; Kantano; one also meets with
Kintempo and Kuntampo), which is situated between Bonduku and
Salaga. The place consists of a market-place surrounded by the
quarters of the Mande and Liguy, Haussas and Dandawa or Kotokole
(mostly from Yóruba), Ashantis, 741
Dagomba and Mossi--a motley
assortment of peoples who have been brought together by trade.
"So many quarters, so many villages," each of which preserves
its national type of huts, as also of grouping them together.
The advantageous situation of Kintampo is impaired by the
cupidity of the kabosiere (chiefs) of the Ashantis, who either
demand too high toll or else entirely suppress the trade with
737 Binger, II., 219 et seq.
738 Forbes first brought this to notice. Koelle, grammar of
the Vei language. Binger, II., 109 et seq., 151.
739 The Ton are, according to Binger (II., 180 et seq.),
"excessively clean." The use of soap is known throughout the
whole of the Western Sudan. It is made of all sorts of fats;
the best is that made from Carapa guineensis.
740 Kirby Proc., 1884, 449; Krause, Kreuz-Ztg, 16th November,
1887; Wolf, M.D.S., II., 83; Kling, M.D.S., VI., 136 et seq.;
Binger, II., 135 et seq.; Bull. Lyon, passim, 676. The
population is put down at from 3,000 to 40,000; this great
discrepancy is explained by the fact that in the first figure
the floating-population (which is very difficult to determine),
and the slaves, are not included.
741 As regards the Galli, who are privileged Ashanti
merchants, compare Binger, II., 169.
146

the Coast. Besides kola 742
the following are also articles of
trade: slaves, native stuffs, gold, spices (pepper), sheabutter,
cattle, tobacco and European goods. The prices vary
with the season of the year. In the rainy season, for instance,
when communication with Salaga is interrupted by the marshes of
Konkronsu, salt, which comes from the Volta, is dear. Cowries
are scarce; for cash one only receives half as much in the way
of goods as if one gives the same amount in cowries.
At a distance of seven days' journey to the east--and more
743
quickly reached by the Haussa than Kintampo--is Salaga, the
capital of the country of GONJA (Inta of Bowdich), situated a
few hours to the east of the Volta, just below the union of its
three sources, and pretty well in the centre of the powerful
Niger semicircle, from the circumference of which routes radiate
in all directions: viâ Kong and Tengrela to Segu and Jenne-
Bandiagara; viâ Bobojilasu or Wagadugu to Timbuktu and Dori-Say;
viâ Sansanne-Mangu to Kirotashi; viâ Wangara and Nikki to Gomba,
Bussa, or Rabba. 744
Besides this there is the proximity to the
sea, to which the valley of the Volta is a natural route, and to
which the main routes from the interior continue in a straight
line to the Togo and Gold Coasts, as, for instance, from
Atakpame to Klein-Popo, Krachi to Lome, or from Krachi on by
steam-launches, or from Adafu on by steamers down the Volta to
its mouth at Ada; and lastly, viâ Ateobu and Kumasi to Accra or
Cape Coast Castle; routes which have all, from time immemorial,
served a lively trade between the narrow strip along the coast
and the elevated plateau. "Salaga is the key of the valley of
the Volta and of the mountain-passes." Its importance is based
upon the variety of the goods, a fact arising from its
favourable central position. These goods are all purchaseable
at very moderate prices, but the trade has very much fallen off
since the beginning of the century, as the inhabitants neglected
to share in the transit-trade, or to introduce weaving or
dyeing. Consequently the bare trade-commissions, which they
received for business concluded through their mediation, were
insufficient to bring them into a state of prosperity. The
742 A brisk trade in kola-nuts is also carried on at Ateobu
(English station S.E. of Kintampo; M.D.S. II., 88; Kol. Bl.,
1895, 297), Koranza (which itself produces them; Bowdich, 251;
Kirby, Proc., passim), and Takla (West of Kintampo; Binger, II.,
146).
743 Bowdich, 131, 254, 451; Barth IV., 575; Binger, II., 86
et seq. (sketch 95); Monteil, 209 et seq.; Von François, M.D.S.
I., 88, 157 et seq.; Wolf, M.D.S. II., 82 et seq.; Kling,
M.D.S., III., 147 et seq.; VI., 137.
744 The first named route, as also the second viâ Bobojilasu,
are the main commercial arteries of the Mandingo, the second
eastern-half of the route is that of the Mossi, while the third
and fourth are Haussa and Yóruba routes.
147

population of the town, formerly estimated at from 50,000 to
60,000, was put down by Binger at 3,000 (residents only, and
during the rainy season), and by Kling at 20,000; a third of
them are strangers, for whom there are sufficient empty houses
in the caravan-quarter (West). There are people of Gonja
(cross-bred Mandingo, who had immigrated some time back), Mande
Jula, Haussas, and representatives of the various neighbouring
tribes, viz.: Dagomba, Yórubas, Ashantis, Barba (Borgu),
Pakhalla and Ton; even Fulbes 745 are not lacking. All the races
of the basin of the Niger meet here. Most of them profess the
faith of Islam, 746 even though only in appearance, and
accompanied by many fetish rites. The slaves attend to
agriculture under the supervision of the owner's family in the
town. 747 The town is composed of eight groups. 748
"The streets
and open spaces abound in dirt, and exhale terrible odours."
The conditions of the water-supply are most unfavourable, and
small-pox always rages.
The principal trade takes place in the dry season, from
December to April, but more especially in January and February,
when the great Haussa and Mossi caravans are there. The traders
sit everywhere, in the open spaces and in the narrow alleys,
beneath their umbrellas and sun-shades, with their wares spread
out before them on the ground. In spite of the large number of
visitors, which has been estimated at as many as 10,000, perfect
order reigns throughout the whole place, which is then converted
into one huge market. Amongst other things which are bartered
749 750 751
are slaves, kola, European goods, salt, leather articles,
745 Binger, II., 95; Wolf, M.D.S. II., 83; in any case they
are cross-breeds.
746 Binger saw, in Salaga, three men who had done the
pilgrimage to Mecca. These pilgrimages are made either viâ
Kuka, Khartum, and Suakin, or viâ Timbuktu, Ghadames, and
Tripoli; the journey, there and back, requires at least seven
years, and the pilgrims have to work frequently en route in
order to obtain the means of subsistence. Salaga contains five
mosques, of which one, however, is in ruins.
747 Such settlements are called by the owner's name, with the
suffixes, iri, su, pe, or kade (meaning "village"), according as
Dagomsa, Mande, or Gonja is spoken.
748 The organisation in groups ensures more freedom of
movement on market-days, when the traffic gets blocked, and also
separates the tribes; while the intervals between them furnish
the materials for the construction of the mud huts.
749 Salaga was, at the end of the eighties, the greatest
slave-market of the Western Sudan (the position of these varies
in accordance with the great theatres of war); some 15,000
slaves were sold annually.
148

native straw-hats, hardware, calabashes, very beautiful basketwork,
cotton-stuffs, 752
pottery, horses, asses (from Mossi), and
hump-backed cattle, provisions of all sorts, soap, palm-oil,
wood, water and shea-butter. Gold-dust is alone traded in. The
principal currency consists of cowries, which here have already
four times the value that they had at the Coast (1,000=one
shilling).
Political life seems almost to disappear in the stirring
business life. Gonja formerly belonged to Ashanti, but already
753
at the beginning of this century was separated from it by
broad desert zones, the results of war. Political power makes
so little impression that Binger could scarcely find out who was
the real "Sultan." The latter had fled from Salaga and settled
in the village of Pembi 754 (Pambi), some four kilometres (2½
miles) to the south-east. On account of the taxes, which he
used formerly to levy on each load of kola, he was called the
"kola King." 755
An important halting-stage on the way to the sea is the
750 Mostly English goods; the Haussas, however, also bring
goods from Tripoli which here meet with those brought from
Guinea; in this respect Salaga forms the continuation of the
route Bauchi, Keffi, Ilorin. The short journey to Tripoli, and
the cheap mode of travelling of the Arabs, in spite of the long
desert and land route, make up for the longer sea journey round
Cape Palmas and the costly European mode of transport. The
following articles are in demand: arms, powder, gin, glassware,
cloths, brass, paper, bead-rosaries, antimony. Much comes from
the factories on the lower Niger.
751 Salt comes from the Coast (Accra) up the Volta; the
small-grained sea-salt from Grand Bassam is not liked. As
regards salt, compare p. 31, Note 1; 36, Note 1; 38, 39, 49, 66
Notes 2 and 5; 68 Note 4; 70 Note 6; 73, 79, 80 Note 4; 83 Note
4; 125 Note 1.
752 Here the strips from Mossi and Haussa enter into
concurrence with those from Jimini and Anno.
753 According to Bowdich and Dupuis; compare Barth, IV., 265,
and Binger, II., 114, History of Gonja.
754 Von François, M.D.S., I., 88, 159; Kling, M.D.S., III.,
147; Binger II., 94.
755 Salaga was recently destroyed in a war between the Kings
of Yendi and Pembi (Kol. Bl., 1895, 297). If the efforts of the
Germans to draw the trade to the favourably-situated town of
Krachi are successful, the prospect of favourably developing
Togoland will be thereby considerably enhanced. The territory
of Salaga, by an Anglo-German Agreement, is at present in a
Neutral Zone.
149

double town of Kette-Krachi, 756 situated on the Volta, an
emporium for Haussa and Mossi calicoes and salt, and which is
flourishing under German Government. Krachi, which is situated
directly on the Volta, is the "residence," and has dirty narrow
lanes and is only inhabited by natives. It lies half an hour's
distance from the new and friendly caravan-town of Kette, which
is occupied only by foreign merchants, mostly Haussas, who
travel to Kano, Yola and Ngáumdere; traders even from Timbuktu,
Tripoli, Bornu and Baghirmi are represented. In a few years the
population has risen from 6,000 to between 25,000 and 30,000; it
increases by double this amount at caravan time. On account of
its importance it has taken the place of Bismarckburg as the
German station. As a place of passage, Kpandu, 757
which is
situated on the Volta, close to the coast and to the westward of
Misahöhe, is, with its numerous lodging-places and
caravanserais, of importance.
On all the trade-routes Islam is in process of advancing
towards the sea, which, however, it has not yet reached. It,
however, penetrates with difficulty into Northern Ashanti, Togo
and Dahomey, because trade, along with which it is brought by
the Mande Jula and Haussas, avoids the difficult, dangerous,
thinly-peopled, and therefore less profitable, forests and
mountains. In these districts, the supreme political power is
758
in the hands of an organised fetish-priesthood, represented by
priests and priestesses, to whose influence the chieftains have,
in a great measure, to submit. Along the whole line, however,
Islam zealously makes propaganda. 759
Whilst Samory controls the right bank of the Upper Niger,
and Kong the territory of the Upper Komoë and partly that of the
760
Volta, TIEBA'S EMPIRE is well placed on the Sikasso mountain
mass--important as being the point whence flow several rivers,
and from which also the only route of any importance going from
west to east, i.e., that from Jenne viâ San, Bobojilasu and
Wagadugu to Say, can be interrupted.
Some of the leading Mande-Jula families were sent out from
Kong to raise tribute in the Protectorates to the north. These
warlike tax-collectors settled by degrees in the country, and
the Dauda became so powerful that they elevated themselves to
the dignity of a royal family and became independent; this took
756 v. François, Kling and Doering in the M.D.S., passim;
Kol. Bl., 1894, 426, 451; Gruner, Mitt., Leipzig, 1895, XXVIII.
757 Kling, M.D.S., III., 142, et passim.
758 Binger, II., 189; v. François, M.D.S., I., 149: Wolf,
M.D.S., I., 183; Kling, M.D.S., II., 195; III, 49; d'Albéca,
Ann. de Géogr., 15, 183.
759 Büttner reports as to this, M.D.S., VI., 199.
760 Binger, I, 231 et seq., 505; Monteil, 28, 51 et seq., 74.
150

place after severe wars, which were waged by Daula, Tiëba's
father, and of which many ruins in the hitherto populous country
bear witness. From this time onwards the Dauda were always
violent enemies of the Wattara of Kong, who retained the Bobo
countries on the Volta. The present fama 761 of Kenedugu, Tiëba,
is dreaded because up to now he has never been defeated, and is
also personally able, and a man of proverbial generosity. His
first wife exercises great influence over him. He does not, as
does Sámory, convert his country into a desert, but himself
institutes agricultural-villages. "No country is as well
cultivated as his." The soil is dug up to a depth of 40
centimetres (16 inches) or even 50 centimetres (20 inches). The
lougans (cultivation) extend for a great distance around the
villages, two or three times as far as elsewhere. In each
village there is a lougan belonging to the fama, the produce of
which belongs to him; in addition, his own slave-villages give
him their whole produce, whilst places founded by him give him
one-half of theirs. Tiëba takes care of trade, the value of
which he recognises, and especially looks after the safety of
the caravans; for instance, he destroyed some villages in
Miniankala which had attacked his salt-caravans, and killed the
free-booting Fama Sabari, of Kimberi, who extorted payments
which it was impossible to raise. Furthermore, unlike Sámory,
he does not kill the grown-up prisoners, but takes them first of
all to his capital, and then to the farms in the neighbourhood
belonging to him, and finally allows them to found villages in
remote districts, all of which, looked at from his point of
view, is a sort of process of civilisation and education.
Tiëba's warriors are given a good many of the prisoners, whilst
those who are sold are mostly children. 762
As his rule is purely despotic Tiëba is compelled to
maintain agents and spies at all the larger places, especially
on the frontier; his successor and commander-in-chief is his
brother Damba. The boundaries of Tiëba's Empire are very
confused and variable, especially in the south and west.
Between Sámory's and Tiëba's Empires Binger found a broad zone
in which the inhabitants did not know to whom they belonged;
they were robbed by both sides. Neutrality does not exist in
763
these regions, which resemble the ancient "marches" of Europe.
In the north, the southern part of the district of Miniankala
belongs to Tiëba's Empire, 764 whilst to the east, Suro only
belongs to it in name. 765
It consists, like the Empire of
761 An old Bambara title.
762 Jaime characterises both Tiëba and Samory as great slavedealers
for the Moors.
763 Binger, I., 220.
764 Monteil, 40; the Mienka of Binger.
151
765 Monteil, 68. The great neighbours of Kenedugu are Segu,

Sámory, of both fully-occupied territories and of mere spheres
of influence; the political power graduates little by little
from the centre, and then becomes quite dispersed. The centre
of the various greater or lesser districts or provinces, or mere
groups of villages with the land adjoining them, is Kenedugu,
with its capital Sikasso, 766 which is well-situated from both a
strategical and commercial point of view, and is surrounded by a
tata from 7 to 8 metres (23 to 27 ft.) in height. Tiëba's
residence in the interior is surrounded by another such tata.
Sikasso is noted for its favourable conditions of water-supply,
and has most successfully developed since it was unsuccessfully
besieged by Samory 767 in 1888; Binger estimated its population at
from 4,000 to 5,000, Monteil at from 18,000 to 20,000. In
Binger's time a sister of Tiëba's, resident in the ancient
capital, Daulabugu, administered the province from that place, 768
whilst Tiëba's mother lives in the village of Bugula. 769 The
capital of Bendugu (North), which is a Protectorate of Tiëba's,
is the great salt-market Bla, 770 which receives salt from Ijil
(viâ Tishit-Segu), as also from Taudeni (viâ Jenne). The
countries to the south, of which the centre is Tengrela, 771
situated on a formerly frequented salt- and kola-route, stand in
the same state of dependency; as also does the territory of
Follona, where Pege, a vassal of Tiëba's, rules of Niële, 772
which formerly stood in another place. The country was laid
waste in the time of Tiëba's father, who died in 1877; "as far
as the eye can reach, one sees nothing but ruins, which are
indicated by the presence of gigantic baobab trees." Binger
Dafina, Kong and Sámory.
766 Binger, I., 95 et seq., 232; Bull. Lyon, 1890, 658;
Monteil, 63 et seq.
767 The siege was carried out, not from the customary large
sansanne, but from a number of small ones, surrounded by
palisades (diassa); it cost Sámory about 10,000 men, in addition
to which Binger calculates the value of the powder expended in
the course of 18 months (72,000 kilogrammes or 10 tons 11 cwt.),
at 14,400 slaves.
768 Binger, I., 232.
769 Monteil, 66.
770 Binger, I., 136, 139, 233.
771 Caillié, II., 87 et seq. (Tangrera); Barth, IV., 577
(Tanéra); Binger, I., 182.
772 Binger, I., 235 et seq. The identity of Ngokho, which is
situated in the neighbourhood, with the "Gago" of Leo Africanus
(p. 237) appears open to question; compare p. 65, Note 5.
152

gives an interesting account of the life on Pege's farms 773 as
well as of the smith's work at the blast-furnaces, 774 as, for
instance, at Umalokho, which consists of three groups, viz.:
that of the smiths, Mande-Jula and Siën-re. Tiëba's Empire is
the chief seat of these Siën-re or Senufo; 775
the former is their
own name, the latter that given to them by the Mandingo; they
are agriculturalists, and to a certain extent cattle-rearers.
Their manners are easy according to European ideas. Most of
them are pagans; like the Bambara and Malinke, they have sacred
places, trees and fetish-huts. The women are tattooed all over
their bodies. The Siën-re are not Mandingo, although they have
assumed the family names of the latter--probably since the
downfall of the Empire of Melle. They appear to be an oldsettled
race, having only the word "salt country" to express the
north, and "kola country" to express the south. Their language
is still almost monosyllabic; the words most required in trade
are borrowed from Mande.
North of Tiëba's Empire an independent political position
776
is occupied by the small state of SAN, situated between
Baninko on the west (which belongs to Segu), and Massina to the
east. At the head of the State of San is an almamy. San, which
is situated on the only great route running east and west
through the Bend of the Niger, at which place also routes
running north and south from Timbuktu and Massina to Kong and
Gonja intersect, is a thriving commercial-place because the
commerce--as in Kano and Salaga--pays absolutely no duty, and is
carried on in perfect security. San is frequented by Ruma 777
from Timbuktu who bring salt, 778 Jula from Massina and Haussas 779
with stuffs and embroidered-clothes, the people of Kong, the
Bobo with excellent copper- and ironware, and Fulbes with the
produce of their herds.
To the north-east of Tiëba's Empire, between it and Mossi,
are the districts or countries of the Bobo and Dafing, i.e.,
773 Binger, I., 246, et seq.
774 Binger, I., 259 et seq.
775 Binger, I., 212 et seq. Senufo, or Siënufo, means "those
who say Siën (French Siène) when they wish to signify a man."
776 Binger, I., 386, et passim; Monteil, 35 et seq., and
C.R.S., 1893, 56; Barth, Ssa (V., 481)?
777 Vide p. 77, Note 1; Monteil writes it "Armat;" they have
become black.
778 Besides
Ijil.
this salt from Taudeni other salt comes from
779 This is the easternmost place which the peace-loving
trading race have reached.
153

BOBOLAND and DAFINA, which are aggregations of Village-States,
which have the most varied political organizations within the
tribes themselves. As in Miniankala, 780 which lies more to the
westward, one finds, in the midst of the wilderness, numerous
clearings of several kilometres in diameter, which have been
cultivated, and contain from 7 to 15 villages, each of which if
fortified. This species of Village-State (confédération), or
rather Confederation of Village-States, has its elected chief,
who bears the title of fama. The village of the fama gives its
name to the group, and the individual villages which go to
compose it are called sukhala, or "dependencies." The same
organization is very wide-spread on the left bank of the Niger,
as, for instance, in Beledugu 781 and on the Senegal; for
instance, at Bambuk. 782 From Bondukhoy onwards in Boboland the
rule of the fama ceases; 783 the villages are independent of each
other and often at enmity, so that intercourse is rendered
difficult. Boboland is the heart of the fetish countries, from
the Bambara territory in the west to Dore in Libtako in the
east, where Islamism begins to take the ascendancy. 784 The
Bobo 785 belong to the motley intermixed races who occupy the
interior of the Bend of the Niger, which is, at present,
comparatively speaking, but little penetrated by the great
nations of the Fulbe, Mandingo, and Haussa which surround it,
notwithstanding which they are a mixed race. They may be
divided up into the two classes, 786 viz., the civilized Bobo Jula
and the Bobo ule (i.e., the red or fair), and the lower placed
Bobo niëniëge and Bobo fing (i.e., the black). The Bobo are
agriculturalists, hunters, and good smiths. 787
780 Monteil, 43.
Rude but honest,
like the Bambara, shy and timid, they cling fast to their native
soil, and contemplate philosophically the energy of their
oppressors. They cannot endure captivity; nowhere did Monteil
see Bobo slaves. All are completely in the power of the
sorcerers; "no important transaction, either on a large or small
781 Binger, I., 407.
782 Gallieni, "Deux campagnes, &c.," 300.
783 Monteil, 99.
784 Monteil, 160, 165.
785 Barth, IV., 585.
786 Binger, I., 399.
787 Monteil, 36. Smith's work, judging from this, appears to
be the most ancient art of the Western Sudan, whilst that of
weaving was imported from the Mandingo and Haussas, and dyeing
from the latter.
154

scale, is undertaken without consulting these men, whose
influence is much enhanced by their knowledge of poisons." 788
Both men and women are passionate smokers. The great majority
go about naked; 789 amongst the Niëniëge the chiefs are
distinguishable from the rest by a sort of plaid. 790 The
dwellings of the Bobo are remarkable in that they are provided
with basements 791 (Binger ascribes this fact to their having
formerly been cave-dwellers). 792
At one time the groups of huts
are separated from each other, and the villages are composed of
small sections of huts, which, as a rule, belong to one family;
whilst at another time they form groups with such narrow lanes
that one can step from the flat roof of one house on to that of
another.
Boboland includes the region of the Upper Volta, and is
divided into three parts, one belonging to Kong, another to
Tiëba's Empire, while the third is independent. The seat of the
793
Fama of the independent Bobo is Bussura, under whose dominion
is also Bobojilasu, 794 formerly a dependency of Kong. Bussura,
20 days' journey to the north of Bobojilasu, and nearly as far
from Jenne and Wagadugu, is an important road-junction at the
centre of this triangle. Binger estimates the population of the
town, which is also called "Sia," at from 3,000 to 3,500
residents, with a floating population of from 1,000 to 1,500.
He calls the former, Bobofing, who go unclothed; Bobó Jula, who
clothe themselves and do a little trading; Dafing, who also
trade; Mande Jula, from Kong, who are the principal traders, and
finally a few Haussas and Sonninke, merchants and dyers. The
place consequently consists of five separate villages, of which
the principal are those of the Bobo chieftain and of the Imam.
The principal trade is in gold, kola, salt, and stuffs.
Celebrated calicoes of very fine thread and of great durability
are woven here. There is a market once every five days. 795
788 Monteil, 88 et seq., 97.
789 The "braves" wear a bila (a very narrow apron which
terminates in a tail-like tassel).
790 Binger, I., 424.
791 Monteil, 68. "The construction of his dwelling betrays
his somewhat timorous nature, and also his lack of sociability."
792 Binger, I., 403.
793 Monteil, 93.
794 Binger, I., 366 et seq. (with sketch), and Bull. Lyon,
1890, 668 et seq.; Monteil, 85 et seq.
155
795 Binger estimates the profits of a man trading in salt and
kola between Bobojilasu and Kintampo at 1.10 francs per diem. A
great deal of trade is carried out in the huts through the

Equally undetermined and unsettled, depending upon the
capabilities of the village chieftains, is political life in
Dafina, 796 on the Upper Black Volta, which has been independent
for 50 years. The native population, the Dafing, is a very
mixed one, owing to the several waves of Mande who have swept
over it--as for instance on the downfall of Melle towards the
end of the 17th century, and again as a result of the wars of
the Tukulör Haji Omar, 1850-1862; they came from Senegal, Futa,
and from the Upper Niger. Whilst Binger mentions Wahabu, 797
founded by a Mecca pilgrim, as being the most important of the
miniature States, Monteil names as the true capital Lanfiëra 798 ,
which from being a small village was raised to this dignity by
its Almamy, and which possesses one of the finest mosques in the
Western Sudan. Several influential Mecca pilgrims enter into
rivalry with the Almamy of Lanfiëra. Of importance to Dafina,
which lies in the centre of the Bend of the Niger, is a Fulbe-
"enclave" of 20 villages, the principal place of which, Bareni,
is the residence of a distinguished chieftain. To the
southwards thereof the advanced guards of the Fulbes lie
scattered about in small colonies (as far as Duki and Kotedugu,
vide p. 14), whilst they are to be found as prisoners or crossbreeds
in a strip of territory as far as Kong. A number of
villages have also been made by the Marka, 799
Bambara crossbreeds
(?), who carry on trade--"the Jews of the black race"and
rule over the Sommo, a branch of the Bobo.
Still more favourably situated by its central position
800
within the area of the Niger, is MOSSI, a land having an area
of at least 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 square miles), and
situated on a high plateau at an elevation of over 900 metres
(3,000 feet). Throughout all the attacks which devastated the
Sudan, it, as a bulwark of paganism, preserved both its
independence and the quite individual character of its
civilisation. To the north it borders on Libtako, 801
to the east
instrumentality of intermediaries; the imports to Kong along
this route alone is estimated by Binger at 1,200,000 francs
(£48,000).
796 Binger, I., 389 et seq.
797 Binger, I., 415.
798 Monteil, 111.
799 Monteil, 108; Binger, II., 40; Barth, IV., 568.
800 Binger, I., 449 et seq.; Monteil, 121 et seq.; Barth,
Wolf and King also write it Muschi; Bowdich, 262; Mosee.--
Crozat, Rapport sur la mission du Mossi.
156
801 From Libtako Fulbes come each year with their herds in
order to visit the districts of Northern Mossi, which are rich
in grasses and water; they at the same time rob the villages.

on Gurma and Pama, to the south on Mamprusi (Mangu), and to the
west on Gurunsi and Massina (Yátenga). Formerly it was possibly
of greater extent. Tradition carries back the origin of the
family to the beginning of the world. According to this the
first naba had 333 children, amongst whom he divided his empire
at his death--even in the present day the Naba of Wagadugu
boasts that he causes his land to be administered by 333 Nabas.
Mossi is divided up into a series of dominions whose inert and
worn-out chiefs undoubtedly recognise the authority of the "Naba
of Nabas," but only out of mutual distrust; his prestige is
maintained automatically by means of a political "passion for
levelling up," because each attempt of a vassal to raise himself
to power is at once suppressed by all the others. By this means
Mossi has been spared wars of any magnitude, and, thanks to a
long period of peace, has attained to prosperity. Already at
the beginning of the 14th century it was an important Empire, 802
whose prince took part in the conquest of Timbuktu in 1326 or
1329. In the 15th century the Mossi again withdrew to the south
before the Inmsharh, but have preserved the influence of the
latter in their clothing and weapons (a sabre with cross-hilt).
The Jolof Prince Bemoy, who visited Lisbon in 1488, described
Mossi in such a way that it was taken to be the land of the
much-sought-after Priest Johannes. In 1498-1499 it was laid
waste by Haji Mohammed Askia of Sonrhay. In 1533 the Portuguese
sent an embassy to Mossi, which, according to Ahmed Baba's
account, was, about 1584, a powerful empire.
The immigration of the Mandingo in consequence of the great
Bambara war of 1754-1760 is of great importance to the country,
as it was by this that Islam first began to obtain a footing.
At present a vehement struggle is silently going on between
fetishism and Islamism, which is concentrated in the person of
the Naba, who is surrounded by a wall of the adherents of both
sides, each of which lays claim to him. Owing to the perfect
flatness of the soil and to the long period of peace the
scattering of the settlements attains to its highest degree in
Mossi; "there are no villages, but districts, in which the
groups of huts are from 50 to 100 metres (55 to 110 yards)
apart, clustered round those of the chieftains." There are no
fortifications. The soil produces millet, beans, cotton, and
indigo, whilst very fine horses and asses, which are much sought
after, are reared; there are industries in metal-leather and
cotton-goods; the latter being excellently made by the Mossi,
who ornament them with homemade silk. Mossi merchants are to be
803
met with in all large market-towns between Timbuktu and the
Monteil, 144.
802 Barth, IV., 613, 621; Binger, I., 481 et seq.--Binger
believes the conquest of Timbuktu to have been effected in
conjunction with the Mandingo, or else under their leadership.
803 Jaime, 63, 230.
157

Coast. Being the best archers in the Western Sudan they always
travel armed, frequently in caravans of up to 500 men 804 ; they
are famous for the length of their marches. Protected, as on an
island, by a circle of races of lower civilisation, the Mossi
are in a position to develop independently, although race-types
are rare even here; they call themselves Mo or Morho; their
language, the Mor, 805 is allied to Tombo, Aser, and the dialect
of the Tengelin (or the Fali group, on the Benuë). Binger
depicts the race as in full process of decline, 806
while Monteil
takes a more favourable view.
807
The capital of Mossi is Wagadugu, the population of which
is estimated by Binger at 5,000. It contains the residence of
the Naba and the groups of the mussulmans of Mande descent, and
those of the Sonrhay, Haussas, and Fulbes; in addition there are
seven villages round the town, each of which has its own Naba.
The huts are circular, and made of clay or mats, according as
the people are mussulmans or fetish-worshippers. The residence
of the Naba, the mosques and the dwelling of the Imam or
Almamy 808 are of Arab form. Between the huts there are swampy
depressions from whose edges the natives draw water, which is
laden with organisms and communicates the guinea-worm, 809
which
is here very common, to the people. There is a market every
third day at which, besides the necessaries of life, the
following are sold, viz.: salt, kola, asses, horses, slaves and
Mossi- and Haussa-stuffs, the latter even cheaper than at
Salaga; dolo is drunk there in large quantities, and griots
crack their sorry jokes. The great kola-route coming from the
south leads to the N.W. via Yatenga and Massina to various
emporiums for the salt of Taudeni (Sofurula, Duentsa, Timbuktu),
and to the N.E., in the direction of Haussa, to Dore, the
804 Wolf, M.D.S., II., 83; Kling, III., 148.
805 Binger, I., 482; Prietze, in Passarge, 415, 554; it
contains a few words of Mande origin.
806 "Everybody lives poorly."
807 Barth, IV., 266, Note (Wógho-dogho) and 577 et seq.;
Binger, I., 458 et seq. (Waghadugu or Worhodorho, i.e., many
huts); Sketch in Binger, II., 397; Monteil, 132 et seq.--Krause
unfortunately made no report.
808 The Almamy is here not the prince but has only indirect,
though ever-increasing, political influence; his son has already
made the great pilgrimage.
809 As regards this land-scourge of the travelling people of
the Sudan, called in Haussa ngidui or misery, compare Barth,
II., 660; Staudinger, 513; Barret, "L'Afr. occ.," I., 220; Lota,
"Deux ans etc." 58 et seq. (La filaire de Médine); Béchet, "Cinq
ans etc" 236 et seq.; Kling, M.D.S., III., 148.
158

principal place in Libtako, and one much visited by the Mossi.
Whilst the main direction of these routes remains always the
same, they vary considerably in particular sections; for
instance, in a southerly direction the traders, to avoid the
cupidity of the poor population of Gurunsi, make the principal
stages "one after the other, as on the squares of a chess-board,
whilst they continually protect themselves" (Binger). Centres
of some importance and residences of Nabas are Yako, 810 Mani, 811
Kaye, 812 Pensa, Bussomo, 813 and Kupela, 814
all Village-States, each
of from 10 to 50 groups, and with some 3,000 inhabitants.
815
N.W. of Mossi, between it and Mássina, lies YATENGA, so
well-suited for horse-breeding, and which, with its savannahlike
character, is a sort of preparation for the desert.
Yátenga stands in a sort of doubtful relationship of dependency
in regard to Mossi, and, like it, is, politically speaking,
organised in a number of Village-States, whose Nabas in Binger's
time acknowledged the authority of the Naba of Wadiuge, whilst
Monteil mentions another capital, Sissamba. The parent stem of
the population is formed by the Mossi, with whom are associated
the Sonrhay, Tombo, Fulbes, and Bobo Ule.
Individuality in a marked degree is possessed by the Bimba,
a race allied to the Mossi, who inhabit GURMA,
816
which lies to
the eastward, on the Niger, and which has been preserved in
spite of, or rather in consequence of, its long contests against
Sonrhay, Haussas, and Fulbes, for which reason also its
political institutions appear to be fewer in number but greater
in extent than in the more peaceful Mossi. Gurma is probably a
Sonrhay name, and means "the land to the south of the river;" in
any case its northern half was colonised by Sonrhay. Already in
1429 we hear of an expedition against Gurma by the Sonrhay King
810 The ceremonial at the court of this kinglet is most
complicated and has very humiliating forms (Monteil). Binger,
I., 479, 502; Monteil, 124.
811 Binger declares that this, and not Wagadugu, is the most
important market in the country; I., 467.
812 Monteil, 150. Close by is the water-knot of Wegu.
813 Barth, IV., 581, and Journal London, 1860, 122.
814 Barth, IV., 293, 578, 583; it has a Fulbe resident, and
is known for its cheap calicoes; Barth calls it Kulfela.
815 Barth, IV., 570, 581 (Yádega, coinciding with the Tombo
Empire on the map in Vol. V.); Binger, I., 465, Note; 505 et
seq.; Monteil, 121.
816 Clapperton, II., 116, and Appendix; Barth, IV., 261 et
seq., 568, 622; Binger, I., 481; II., 58; Gruner, Kol. Z., 1895,
194, and Mitt. Leipzig, 1895, XXIX.
159

Sonni Ali, which was followed by many more, undertaken by other
rulers, to which fact desert tracts of country still bear
witness. According to Clapperton's account, the Fulbes
endeavoured at the beginning of this century to occupy the
country, but were only able to keep the connecting-route between
Mássina and Haussa, and did not at all interfere with the
independence of the chieftains. Their influence here is slowly
on the wane, as is confirmed both by Barth and Gruner, the
latter of whom drew the empire into the German sphere of
influence. The Over-king rules in Machakuale, 817 but had to be
sought out in his entrenched-camp against the Fulbes; he is a
mussulman, and can read and write Arabic; at the residence he
was represented by the Queen-Mother; the most powerful
provincial-kings, who "are naturally fairly independent," are
the rules of Bissúggu and Fada Gurma. 818
The space between Gurma and the coast-strip of Ashanti as
far as Yóruba is filled up by the State-organisations of
Gurunsi, Mamprusi--Mangu--Pama, Dagomba, and Borgu, where
several sub-kings, who rule the village-chiefs, themselves
acknowledge the authority of the most powerful in each country.
The lowest place in political life is occupied by GRUSSI
(Binger: Gurunsi), which lies to the south of Mossi, and is
watered by three arms of the Volta. The relatively dense
population, as professional robbers and waylayers, are dreaded
by the caravans. At the sound of a whistle they hasten up
ready-armed 820
and bar the way to the travellers, of whose
approach the nearest inhabitants are warned by mounted men.
Their poverty and greed, mistrust and fear of slave-raids ("the
fish-pond of Mossi"--Binger), are the causes of their hostility.
The people is composed of heterogeneous elements, is still
entirely given up to fetish-worship, and, according as they are
closer to or further away from them, show resemblances to the
Mossi, Bimba, Mampurga-Dagomba, Gonja, and even to the Ashantis,
by whom they appear to have been hunted away into their
817 Myakuali or Nando, Barth's Nungu or Benába (IV., 577).
On account of the warlike character of the population there was
very little traffic with Mossi.
818 fada=residence in Haussa; the Over-lords are said to have
once upon a time ruled here, but to have destroyed it; Monteil,
210; Fada Gurma=Nungu=Sudu M'Bojio; Kol. Z., passim. In any
case these residences are subject to great changes; vide Barth,
IV., 262.
819 v. François, M.D.S., I., 143 et seq.; Binger, II., 34 et
seq.--One here comes across three kings of salt; that from
Taudeni, sea-salt (viâ Salaga), and that from the small sebcha
of Daboya on the White Volta.--Bowdich, 251; Binger, I., 315,
375; II, 51, 100.
820 Like the Mossi they mostly carry poisoned arrows.
819
160

wildernesses. The Gurunga still go quite naked: "when they
come to Gambaga they are pointed at, because neither have they
anything on, nor have they brought anything of value to
exchange." At the places along the trade-routes, the traffic
and Islam combined have by degrees begun to exercise a
civilising influence, though the routes through a country of
this description are but little used, and are therefore hard to
find and easily missed. The slave-hunters from all sides,
however, exploit it with great eagerness; as the farmsteads are
not united into communities, 821
there is no head-chieftain; in
fact often many of the communities and groups have not even a
chieftain at all.
The Gurunga feed on beans, tamarind-meal, millet, and
groundnuts; they also rear small brown cattle.
On the occasion of Binger's visit the country had been much
exhausted by the predatory raids of an adventurer, Gandiári,
from Saberma, and of his successor, Babotu, 822 who ruled the
country to the south and south-west of Mossi. The scene of
these raids had been Sati, three days' journey to the south of
Ladio, in addition to which Baporo and Pura 823 are also mentioned
as settlements; there are no places of any importance whatever
in the country. The two last-named indicate the northern limits
of the gold industry, whilst the Red Volta is here another
important line of demarcation: to its east Haussa, and to its
west Mande, is the principal language of commerce. 824
To the north of Gurunsi are the little-known territories of
the wild Kipirsi and of the Sommo; to the west is the gold
country Lobi and that of the Niëniëge; to the south are Gonja
and the States of Wa; whilst to the east are Dagomba and
Mamprusi.
MAMPRUSI, 825
a small State situated on the left bank of the
White Volta, was 200 years ago much larger and extended as far
as Sansanne-Mangu and westwards to the Red Volta. It is in
possession of the direct route between Mossi and Gonja, on which
821 Where this is, however, the case the huts, from motives
of security, are placed so close together that one can step from
one flat roof on to another, as in some of the Bobo villages.
Binger, I., 434. Many of the huts have basements: "It is the
transition-dwelling from the cave to the hut, and the people are
in fact semi-troglodytes." Bull. Lyon, passim, 673.
822 Binger, I., 503 et seq.
823 Binger, II., 35.
824 Binger, I., 479.
825 Binger, II., 37 et seq. The language of the country
closely approaches that of Mossi, but has also borrowed numerous
expressions from Wolof Mande and Haussa.
161

have been formed the places of Wal-Wale 826 and Gambaga, 827
each
with from 2,500 to 3,000 inhabitants. These--the Mampurga--are
aborigines closely allied to the Mossi, or are rather the
recognised oldest race, to which Mande and Haussa immigrants
have been added. The ruler, mampurga naba, resides in a little
place called Nalirugu.
The most precise political organisation, thanks to the
energy of its ruler, is, at the present time, possessed by
DAGOMBA, which lies somewhere midway between the Niger at Gurma
and the Coast at Ashanti. The inhabitants are coated with a
superficial varnish of mahomedanism, but are nevertheless arrant
drunkards. They are, however, diligent and manure their fields.
828
The most important settlement is Yendi, favourably situated
on the caravan-route which runs from the kola country towards
the north and east. The traffic, however, avoids Yendi as far
as possible, as the Over-King exacts extraordinarily high tolls,
whilst his brother also robs the traders as much as he can. The
town is healthy, and has from 20,000 to 30,000 inhabitants,
distributed over eight quarters. The King, who is surrounded by
great ceremonial and pomp, is a tyrannical despot, who has the
country on his borders very sharply watched, and relies in the
first instance upon his well-disciplined calvalry. His
representative and prime-minister is the galadima, next to whom
the most important personage is the executioner; the chiefs of
the quarters, the minister for foreign affairs, and the limam
also exercise considerable influence. The progress of Islam is
here also based upon economical grounds: the traders, mostly
Haussa, are at the same time the bankers, who have the principal
men in their hands; they are often resident, as dyers and owners
of tobacco-plantations, and fulfil the office of school-master.
Political centres of second rank in Dagomba are Karga 829 and
Bimbillo. 830
The organisation of MANGU, the State to the north of
Dagomba, is on the same lines as is the latter, i.e., with an
Over-king, prime minister, and chief for foreign affairs, but is
not of quite so formal a character. The capital is the ancient
826 Barth, IV., 266 (Wola-Wola, dependent upon Yendi);
Binger, II. 46 et seq. Binger here saw twenty-one indigo-vats
in operation.--The principal food from here southwards consists
of yams.
827 Barth, IV., 569; Binger, II., 58; v. François, M.D.S.I.,
passim.
828 Bowdich, 259 (Yahndi, capital of Dagwumba); Barth, IV.,
266, 574; Binger, II., 78; v. François, passim; Gruner, Kol. Z.
and Mitt. Leipzig, 1895.
829 Binger, II., 65; v. François and Gruner, passim.
830 Kling, M.D.S., III., 149.
162

Mandingo settlement of Sansanne-Mangu, 831
a former encampment (as
its name signifies), close to the water-parting between the
Niger and the Ocean, and an important route-junction, from which
routes lead to Kuande, Pama, Yanga, Gambaga and, viâ Yendi, to
Krachi. It is built upon one of the numerous ridges of hills
which stretch out over the country from Salaga. In olden days
it transmitted the gold-trade from the south to Sonrhay. Its
possession is of special importance to Germany. Gambaga (vide
supra), which Binger puts down as belonging to Mamprusi, is
mentioned by Gruner as the residence of an Under-king of Mangu.
Mangu has good relations with Gurma.
832
The little State of PAMA, the king of which lives at
Great Pama, is also of importance for the development of
Togoland, which naturally tends towards Mossi and Gurma.
Between Pama and Gurma there extends an arid wilderness five
days' journey in width, in which no trace of mankind is visible;
for years it has not been crossed by a caravan, but passed round
on the west. It is certainly the result of human devastation.
The EMPIRE OF BORGU (Burgho, Barbar, Bariba--the last two
appear to be the names of the people--and pars pro toto
Bussangsi) shares with Gurma the possession of the land of
passage between Pul-Haussa and the kola-district. In 1501, as
the result of war, it was taken by Haji Mohammed Askia, of
833
Sonrhay. Since the beginning of this century its warlike
inhabitants have been fighting against the Fulbes, whom they
bave successfully opposed. They are cowardly, cringing, cruel,
and the most dangerous waylayers of the Haussa caravans, many of
which are exterminated by them; they are also keen slavehunters.
834
Every place is surrounded by parapet and ditch. On
the borderland towards Gurma Gruner found, in trackless
mountains, some still independent remains of the ancient
population, whilst at the foot of them the upper layers have
already been mahomedanized. Their independence is assisted by
their mode of settlement; only one family occupies a farmstead,
a sort of mediaeval castle, within which is a miniature
embankment of earth. Baulks notched together serve as a
staircase to the terreplein.
Borgu is subdivided into a number of States, of which the
835
most important is Bussa, with its capital of the same name.
831 Barth, IV., 574 (Sansanne-Mangu means "camp of
Mohammed"); Binger, II., 55, 232 (Sansanne-Mangu means "camp of
Mango or Grumania, the capital of Anno"); Gruner, Kol.-Z., 1895,
194; Doering, Kol.-Z., 1895, 210 et seq.; Mitt. Leipzig, passim.
832 Gruner; passim.
833 Barth, IV., 628.
834 Clapperton, II., 64; Binger, II, 54 et seq.; Wolf,
M.D.S., IV., 9 et seq.; Ferryman, 144; Gruner, Lecture, Leipzig.
163
835 Clapperton, II., 145 et seq.; Landers, Journ. Lond. 1830,

Clapperton found it to be on an island in the Niger, the Lander
brothers and Flegel, on the other hand, found it on the right
bank of the river; the latter found it of less importance than
he had expected, but quite independent of Gando. Up till just
before this time passage across it had been altogether
forbidden. Bussa is well known in the whole neighbourhood as
the meeting place of all the riff-raff from Nupe and the North,
who here find protection. There is no legitimate trade but,
rather, an extensive system of robbery. These conditions should
be altered by the establishment of a French fort at Bussa, as
the terminus of the route from Dahomey to the Niger. At Bussa
begin the Rapids of the Niger, which extend as far as Rabba;
they can, it is true, be navigated in canoes, though the natives
prefer to go round by land. Besides Bussa, Clapperton, 836
mentions Wawa, Kiama and Nikki 837 as important towns in Borgu.
The latter is even at the present day an important and wellsituated
point of junction of routes in the centre of the
country, and was the goal almost reached by Wolf. The king
rules at Perere. Gruner mentions Kuande as being the last place
in Borgu. Wangára, the capital of the district of Sugu,
consists of a residential-quarter, and of a trade-quarter; in
the latter, markets are held every four days, of which Wolf
gives a detailed scale of prices. Sugu is tributary to Borgu.
Semere, which belongs to it, "is a place composed of 15
villages, containing in all 4,000 huts, together with fields and
large open spaces with shady trees, all enclosed within one
common ring-wall," and is an important slave-market. The
importance of all these places consists in their being situated
on the great kola-route to Haussa, as also are Dadaura, Paratau,
the capital of Chaucho (or Sogode), Fasugu, Wu (Bo), Yerrepá and
Napárri. 838
To the south of this district, in which the kolatree
grows, and whose traffic consequently gravitates towards
180; Barth, IV., 249; V. 235; Flegel, M.A.G., II., 250; III., 43
et seq.; Ferryman, 144, 167; v. Carnap, Kol.-Z, 1895, 210
(formerly commonly written "Bussa"; within the walls there is
plenty of open space between the "clusters of scattered huts";
Clapperton estimated the population of the town at from 10,000
to 12,000; already in 1584 Ahmed Baba mentions it as being very
powerful).
et seq.
836 Clapperton, II., 66, 106, 169.
837 Wolf, M.D.S., IV., 15; d'Albéca, Ann. de géogr. 15, 166
164
838 Wolf, passim, 3 et seq.; Kling, M.D.S., III., 149 et
seq.; VI., 107; Büttner, M.D.S., IV., 190 et seq.; d'Albéca and
Rouire, passim. These settlements are all of considerable size
(from 3,000 to 5,000 resident inhabitants) and the scene of
lively moslem propaganda; in Dadaura Büttner met with two limams
one being for the natives, and the other for mahomedans passing
through, while in Fasugu there were three hajis.

the Interior is the country of the oil-palm, in the zone
extending from Liberia to the Oil Rivers, 839
in which the traffic
is with Europeans, and which consequently gravitates towards the
Coast. Palm-oil and palm-nuts are exported. Black middlemen
buy the oil, (the price of which varies with the supply and
demand,) in all the large places, whilst in Dahomey this is done
on behalf of the King. The principal ports of export are Grand
Bassam, Accra, Porto Novo, Lagos, Brass and Akassa.
Amongst the countries of Africa the Western Sudan has its
own complete geographical individuality, in which, owing to the
lie of the country and the general characteristics of the soil,
the natural zones of particular forms of vegetable growth extend
unfettered in an easterly and westerly direction: thus we
have:--the fringe of the desert; the frontier-belt of cereals
and root-crops; the zones of the butter-tree, of the oil-palm of
the kola-tree and of dense vegetation. It followed that
intercourse and commerce between the zones--thanks to the wealth
of the produce and to the intelligence of great tribes--has for
long ages been in course of development in a northerly and
southerly direction. The great waterway of the Niger, acting as
a route in both directions, only plays a subordinate part, as
illustrating the roadless character of Africa; in many places
even it was formerly used much more than it is now. Once every
year in the dry season a great wave of traffic flows over the
country and reaches its highest point in January. Besides this
small but ever-operating factor the intermixture of races is
promoted by the migrations of the Mandingo, Haussas and Fulbes
between whose places of residence the remnants of earliersettled
tribes form the groundwork of a great "Magma."
The starting-point of the State-organisations of the
Western Sudan is the village and not the tribe. The
consciousness of a tribal entity only develops gradually.
Everywhere one sees the tribe degenerate into Village-States,
839 The northern limit of the oi-palm coincides with the
southern limit of the butter-tree (v. François, M.D.S., I.,
170); Rohlfs found it even to the north of the Benuë (Qu. d. A.,
201), Kling in the back-country of Togo as far as 9° 40'N. Lat.
(M.D.S., VI., 107), v. Puttkamer at Bida (M.D.S., II., 102;
compare Flegel, Briefe, 48). According to the "Journal officiel
du Dahomey et Dépendances" there are annually exported from
Dahomey alone some 10,000 casks (puncheons of some 500 to 600
kilogrammes, or 1,100 to 1,300 lbs.) of oil, and 20,000 casks of
nuts. D'Albéca reckons the average produce of a palm at 10⋅8
francs (8s. 8d.). The natives obtain from it a wine which is
better than that of the real wine-palm. Accounts as to the
preparation of oil are given by Bouche, "La côte des esclaves et
Dahomey," 196; Rohlfs, Qu. d. A., 220; Moloney, "Forestry of
West Africa"; Binger, II., 250 et seq.; d'Albéca, passim, 173 et
seq.; Ferryman, 16 et seq.; Staudinger, 636.
165

which either live apathetically alongside each other or else
make war upon each other; never by their own initiative do they
unite into one harmonious whole. The village is a sort of
"State-cell" complete in itself and capable of existence, and
constitutes the primitive State. Under gifted individuals or
under hostile pressure several "State-cells" become united and
assume another form, on a higher scale, and become a "cell
State," which may be of the most varied extent, from three or
four settlements up to hundreds. It is the political form
usually to be met with in the Sudan, and may be either
homogeneous--with all the cells grouped in an equal manner
around the chief--or heterogeneous when it is divided up into
groups which are dependent upon subordinate chieftains, who are
either members of some great family or are strangers. The
highest standard of political being has been reached by the
Fulbes. Being herds, they avoid the mountains and forests, and
do not occupy the whole extent of the country; they, however,
possess large centres and the routes connecting them, so that
the Fulbe State, in its entirety, gives one the impression of a
network, composed of a number of meshes of varied dimensionsi.e.,
the settlements. The extent of country into which it has
thus hastily entered is, however, far too large for it. The
improvement of the "mesh State" over the "cell State," consists
in its bringing, (owing to the number and similarity of its
systems of government, 840
) all the various tribes, as well as a
great tract of country, under the sway, even if incompletely, of
one single Over-lord. The Mandingo and Haussas have not brought
it to that pitch of perfection, the highest degree having been
attained to by Kong. Weak spots in the State exist where
communication with the centres is interrupted, as, for instance,
on the Benuë, by the Bassama between Bauchi and Yola, and again
between Yola and Marrua, or in Kebbi and Gober. The most
important factor in the future of the Fulbe State is the
preservation of the genuine herds, the Borroro, the patriarchal
element upon which it is founded. Pul-Haussa is no pure
theocracy, as was believed on many sides. To be sure, the
Fulbes are a pious race, but their political institutions are
those of all mahomedan peoples, and are borrowed from the koran;
titles, administration and ceremonial are modelled in general
upon those of Bornu. The cohesion of the Empire is provided for
in the first place by the patriarchal conception, which may sink
into lethargy, but can also burst out in fanatical enthusiasm.
The lamdiulbe of Sókoto is the Father of the entire pastoralpeople,
as also is each sultan in his own empire, and, in the
fourth or fifth degree, each chieftain in his own village.
Personal ability, historical preeminence, wealth, amount of
tribute and distance from the centre, all determine the rank of
the vassals. A well-ordered system of supervision by princes
840 Only the ruling family of the Bauchi is not of Fulbe
descent; it has however become completely assimilated to it.
166

and officials 841 keeps them within bounds. Those who are
refractory are punished by having their tributes increased, by
sending claimants to the throne into their countries, or by
applying to neighbouring States, and, finally, by arrest and
deposition. The lamidos come each year to Kaura or Wurno, with
much pomp and with a military escort, to pay tribute. This is
necessary on account of the dangerous character of many wooded
and mountainous places inhabited by hostile pagans, which one
may term the interior boundaries of the State, and which
encircle the greater and lesser Pagan Village-States within the
Fulbe meshes. The outer limits of Pul-Haussa have a very
different character. The district near Borgu was, at the
beginning of this century, subjected to great disturbances,
which were, however, gradually quieted down. When, in Barth's
time, the governor of Hadeja had made himself independent, the
Fulbes did not send another governor to this district, but
appointed the rulers of the walled-places to act as their
functionaries. The frontier district to the west and northwest,
that adjoining the Maradi, Gobiri and Kebbi, and which is
protected by dense forests and by desert-tracts extending up to
40 kilometres (25 miles) in width (just as the Fulbes are
protected by the walls of their large towns) has been the scene
of desperate battles; this district also constitutes a secondary
boundary with respect to the Tuaregs. The same character of
having been the scene of uninterrupted strife lasting over
centuries is possessed by the strip of frontier between Ilorin
and Ibadan. In the west the boundary of the lethargic State of
Gando has been altered to the advantage of the warlike
inhabitants of Gurma and Borgu. Finally in the south the Fulbes
are in process of advancing along the whole line, Tibati and
Ngáumdere projecting far into the chaos of the Pagan Village
States. Frontier-zones ("barriers" is the term used by Binger,
and "frontier-marches" that employed by Monteil) are universal
also in the Bend of the Niger. They are either entirely desert
(as is the zone 5 days' journey in width between Gurma and Pama,
the land of former struggles (Sonrhay) and of present peace, and
as are also numerous tracts where war is still going on) or are
in process of becoming so. Where still inhabited they are
attacked either from one (as in Tibati) or from both sides, and
are devastated; as is the case with the zone, some 40 to 50
kilometres (25 to 30 miles) in width, between Tiëba's and
Samory's Empires, the latter of which is nothing more nor less
than a State formed out of the plundered marchlands. 842
ancient and valuable testimony as to the existence of frontierstrips
is Leo's remark as to the States separated aliquo deserto
ar,noso. Between the smaller States these tracts are narrow,
between the larger ones they are wide; though here other factors
841 Thus the osiri, the prime minister, controls the King of
Kano by annual tours of inspection.
167
842 The opposite is the case with Kong, which is a kola-route
raised to the dignity of a State.
An

come into operation, as, for instance, proximity to dense
vegetation or to the Sahara; Monteil mentions the astounding
distance of 70 kilometres (45 miles) between Libtako and Yagha.
The age of the various zones can be determined as follows,
viz.: by their having no ruins at all, these being the most
ancient; by their having old ruins; lastly by their having new
ruins; in this connection the vegetation also affords a clue.
That their lack of water or provisions, or the fact of their
being frequented by desperate robbers, should have caused the
traffic to have avoided them, is only natural. A foreshadowing
of the modern boundary is to be found on frequented routes
where, in the midst of the frontier zone between two countries,
a boundary-mark is in existence, as, for instance, a stream, a
marsh, a tree, or the edge of the forest. Saráki is a frontier
town belonging to both Nupe and Yoruba.
The chief difference between the Negro State and the
European State consists in the dependence of the former upon the
rise and fall of individuals; politics are of a more personal
nature, while the personality is more political than is the case
with us, where it is limited and confined by laws and
institutions. The individual almost has the choice of being
either a political nonentity or an absolute autocrat. Hence the
great quantity of adventurers and of Mecca pilgrims who, thanks
to personal qualifications, or to their spiritual horizon having
been elevated as a result of their journey, come to the fore as
founders of new States; hence, however, also the oscillation and
littleness, and the total disappearance, of States founded
originally upon a short-lived personality, and upon an often
incompletely-developed consciousness of existence as a separate
race. If one may compare the European States to a mosaic
pavement of which the pieces are, it is true, of various sizes,
but which all fit into one another, then the Western Sudan may
be compared to a political sea studded with countless islands.
The object of this work, rendered possible by journeys
extending over a century, has been to give a picture of the
constant change and intermingling going on throughout this mass
of human beings, who constantly pass and repass between the
Ocean and the Desert, and who are divided up between
mahomedanism and fetish-worship. Quite unknown a century ago,
and fifty years ago only known in its main outlines, the Western
Sudan now belongs to the best-explored portions of Africa,
thanks to the devoted self-sacrificing energy of a number of
travellers, but more especially of the greatest among them, who
succeeded in grasping the most minute connections between the
living and the dead, with a glance just as keen and tender as
his character was great and noble, and whose work must ever
remain the foundation for the description of this portion of the
earth, an imperishable monument to German spirit and German
conscientiousness, and which will for ever cause the name of
BARTH to shine forth in letters of gold.
168

I N D E X
A.
Abbeokuta--confederation--58. Ec.
Abuja--territory--59. Fc.
Accra--town--114. DEc.
Ada--114.
Adafu--114.
Adamaua--country--41. Gc.
Adar--country of a pagan tribe of
same name--29, 30. EFb.
Adrar (or Aderer)--country--66,
Note 2.
Adumre--town--44. Gc.
A'gades--town--82. Fa.
Agaie--town--55. Fc.
Aïr--country--66. Fa.
Akassa--town--129. Fd.
A'kpoto--race--37.
Almamy--title, used by Samory, &c.,
24, 94, 110, 119.
Alorie (see Ilorin).
Ambrizette--town--100.
Amenvi--town--112. Dc.
Anassárawa--state and town--38. Fc.
Anka--town--30. Fb.
Anno--district--100, 112. Dc.
Argungu--town--29, 105. Eb.
Aribinda--district--74. Db.
Aro--town--59.
A'rre--town--74. Db.
Asa--river--56.
Asbens--race--102. Fa.
Aser--tribe--84.
A'sewa (see Mauri).
Assuanek--race--60, 84.
Asses--34, 72, 101, 103, 115, 122,
123.
Atakpame--114.
Ateobu--town--114. Dc.
Attakru--town--101.
Auellimmide--branch of the Tuàreg
tribe--67.
Awabu--village--112. Dc.
B.
Ba--the Bámbara hundred--the number
"80"--89.
Badde (or Bedde)--territory--33.
Bado--suburb of Sókoto--28. Fb.
Badumbe--town--92.
Bafing--river--92. Bb.
169

Bafulabe--town--92. Bb.
Bafut--town--45.
Bághena--country--60, 63, 65, 89.
Baghirmi--country--117. Hb.
Bagoë--river--94 (see Baule).
Bakel--town--89, 92. Bb.
Bakhoy--river--92 (see Baule).
Bakúndi--town--40. Gc.
Bakunu--country and town--60 (see
Bághena). 89.
Bálda--town--43. Gb.
Bamako--town--93. Gb.
Bámbara--race--65, 84, 85, 86.
Bambàra hundred--102.
Bambuk--country--80, 119. Bb.
Bammana--race (see Bámbara).
Bandama--river--CDc.
Bandiagara--town--73, 113. Db.
Baninko--state--90, 119. Cb.
Banyo--state and town--41, 45. Gc.
Baobab--tree--91.
Baporo--settlement--125.
Bara--province--67.
Barba--people of Borgu--114.
Bareni--village--121.
Basikúnu--town--71. Ca.
Bassama--pagan tribe--39. Gc.
Bauchi--province and tow--38. FGbc.
Baule--country--110. CDc.
Baule, or Mayel Balevel--river--69,
70.
Bebene--state and town--44. Gc.
Bedde--town--33.
Beledugu--country--89, 119. Cb.
Bendugu--district--106, 118. Cb.
Benenduga--66.
Bentang--tree--91.
Benuë--river--41, Note 1. FGc.
Berebere (or Kanuri)--race--39.
Berebere (Lafia)--town--39.
Bibene (or Bibena)--44.
Bida--town--54. Fc.
Bikini--52.
Bilakoro--94, Note 3, 95.
Bimba--race inhabiting Gurma--124.
Bimbillo--town--127.
Biram--town--32.
Birni--a town surrounded by a
rampart--32, Note, 7.
Birni--town--83.
Birni-n-Gbari (see Guari). Fb.
Birni-n-Hadeja--town--32. Fb.
Birni-n-Kebbi--town--49. Eb.
170

Bissandugu--district--94, 97. Cbc.
Bisuggu--town--124. Eb.
Bitugu (see Bonduku).
Bla--town--118. Cb.
Bobo--country and race--119. Db.
Bobo-Jula--tribe--86.
Bobo-Jilasu--town--107. Db.
Bole--town--Cb and Dc.
Bondu--country--84. Bb.
Bondukoy--town--119. Db.
Bonduku--gold-district and town--80,
110. Dc.
Borgu--empire--59, 27. Ebc.
Bornu--country--32, 33. Gb.
Boti (or Botu)--town, &c.--50, 52.
Eb.
Bubanjidda--state--42, 47. Gc.
Bugula--town--118.
Bunsa--town--50.
Bure--gold-bearing district--
70, Note 2, 80, 93. Cb.
Burrum--territory--82.
Bussa--state and town--113, 128.
Eb.
Bussura--town--120. Db.
Bussomo--town--124. Db.
Butter-tree--91.
C.
Camels--72, 103.
Cattle--45, 90, 109, 113, 115, 118,
125.
Cavalry--20, 41, Note 3.
Chad--lake--41.
Chalebleb--lake--82.
Chamba--town--44. Gc.
Champalauel--town--51.
Chaucho--state--128. Ec.
Congo--river--69.
Corn--80, 83, 90, 109, 115.
Cotton--35, 39, 49, 73, 80, 89, 91,
109, 113, 115, 121, 122.
Cotton--strips--32, 43, Note 2, 51,
Note 6, 73, Note 6.
Cowries--28, 32, 35, 43, 45, 71, 79,
80, 89, 101, 110, 113, 115.
Cross--river--59.
171

D.
Dadaura--town--128.
Dafina--country--119, 121. Db.
Dafing--people of Dafina--119, 121.
Dagomba--people and state--105, 114,
126. DEbc.
Dalla--province and town--73. Db.
Dallul--a dry nullah--2, Note 5, 49,
Note 5.
Dar Salam--town--71.
Dara--provision store--96.
Dárghol--town--67, 82.
Dates--81.
Daulabugu--town--118. Cb.
Daura--district and town--32. Fb.
Dayas--backwaters of the Niger--2,
Note 5, 72, 89.
Debu--lake--2, Note 5, 68, 71.
Déndina (or Dendi)--state--50. Eb.
Dhaic (see Dayas).
Dire--town--71.
Dodo--a heathen god--32.
Dokhosie--race--2. Db.
Dolo--beer made from millet--91, 95,
110, 123.
Doma--town--38, Note 4. Fc.
Donga--river--40.
Dore (or Dori)--town--51, 119. Eb.
Dorghol (see Darghol).
Dosso--town--50, 105.
Doventza (see Duentsa).
Duensa--town--73. Db.
Dugu-Kunasigi--96.
Duki--121.
Dyeing and dye-works--32, 35, 42,
53, 89, 109, 111, 127.
E.
Ede--district--58. Ec.
Egba--territory--58.
Egga--town--54. Fc.
Ejigbo--district--58.
El Hodh--country--65, 89.
Elorie or Elorny (see Ilorin).
Engaski--territory--59. Eb.
Epe--town--59. Ec.
Ershan--town--90.
172

F.
Fada-n-Gurma (see Nungu).
Falaba--town--97.
Fali--tribe--74.
Fama--the ruler of Segu, Kenedugu,
&c.--87, 116, 119.
Faraba--96, 97. Cb.
Farabugu town--89.
Faro--river--41, 43.
Fataki--small traders--103.
Fatene--town--90.
Feri--cotton-strips, used as
currency--32, 43, Note 2, 51,
Note 6.
Fetish, &c.--18, 51, 59, 85, 106,
114, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123,
125.
Fofana--85.
Fogha--salt valley--8, Note 1, 36,
Note 1, 49, Note 5. Fb.
Follona--country--106, 118.
Fuladugu--country. Cb.
Fulbe--race--12.
" history of the--23.
Fulfúlde--the language of the Fulbes
--12.
Futa--the western Fulbe--89. Bab.
Futa-Jallon--country--93. Bb.
G.
Galajo--country and town--50. Eb.
Galadina--prime minister in Gambaga
--126 (see also 42, 43).
Galim--heathen state--41, Note 3.
Gambaga--town--126. DEb.
Ganadugu--confederation--95--97.
Gando--empire and town--48. EFbc.
Gárua--town--44. Gc.
Gasa--district and town. Hd.
Gashka--state and town--42, 44. Gc.
Gassol--town--40, Note 7. Gc.
Gendero--mountains--41, Note 3.
Gerki--town--32.
Ghánata--empire and town--60. Inset
map.
Gire--town--13.
Giuae--105.
Gober--country--30. Fb.
Gobin--vale--28.
Gold--51, 61, 70, 79, 80, 84, 109,
110 and Note 5, 113, 115, 121,
125, 126.
173

Gomba--town--113. Eb.
Gombe-town--32. Gb.
Gonja--country--113. DEc.
Goro--Haussa and Kanuri for the
kola-nut--98.
Griots--ballad singers or minstrels
--65, 85, 88, 106, 123.
Grumania--town--101, 112.
Grussi (see Gurunsi).
Guari--country and town--52. Fbc.
Guber--town--30. Fb.
Gulbi-n-Gandi--river--27. Fb.
Gulbi-n-Rimi--river--27. Fb.
Gum (Arabic)--43, 81, 89.
Gumbu--town--89. Cb.
Gummel--province--33. FGb.
Gundumi--forest--28.
Gurin--town--43.
Gurma--country--124. Eb.
Guru--Haussa and Kanuri for the
kola-nut--98.
Gururga--inhabitants of Gurunsi--
125.
Gurunsi--country--105, 125. Db.
H.
Hadeja--province--32. FGb.
Hamárua (or Bassama)--pagan tribe
--39.
Haussa states--legitimate 10--
bastard 11.
Haussas--race--7.
Hodh (El)--country--65, 89.
Hómbori--tribe and mountains--67,
82--town 74.
Horses--43, 73, 79, 98, Note 3, 109,
115, 122, 123, 124.
I.
Ibadan--state and town--57. Ec.
Ibi--town--40. Fc.
Ibo--tribe--3, Note 2, 44.
Igbo (or Ibo. which see).
Ijil--salt⋅pan--118.
Ilesha--district--58. Fc.
Ilo--town--52. Eb.
Ilorin--town--56. EFc.
Indian-corn (see maize).
Indigo--35, Note 3, 89, 91, 109,
122.
Iresha (see Ilesha).
Iron--17, 54, 78, Note 4.
174

Isaka (see Mopti).
Isehin--district--58. Ec.
Ivory--10, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 81.
Iwa--district--58. Ec.
Iyesha (see Ilesha).
J.
Jafarébe--town--71, 89.
Jemaa--a council--110.
Jemmara--province--13, 51, Note 9,
106.
Jenne--town--69. Db.
Jenneri--neighbourhood of Jenne--71.
Db.
Jerma--the Fulfulde name for
Saberma, which see.
Jibo--town--74. Db.
Jibu (or Shebu)--town--40. Fc.
Jikum (or Juku) tribe--40.
Jilgodi--country--74.
Jinne--Bambara for Jenne, which see.
Johba--river--93.
Juku--tribe--10.
Jula (Mande-- ).
Juli--race--see Wakore.
K.
Kaarta--country, &c.--66, 90. BCb.
Kábara--town--81-82.
Kab siere--Ashanti chiefs--113.
Kado--subject tribes--51.
Kaiser Wilhelms-burg (or Ngila)--
town--46. Gd.
Kala--Arabic name for Sokolo, which
see.
Kalam, province--32. Gb.
Kalliul--town--Fb.
Kámbari--tribe--52.
Kameliusu--town--100.
Kamerun--German colony--15. FGcd.
Kani--town--99, 101. Cc.
Kankan--town--96-97. Cb.
Kano--province and town--33-80. Fb.
Kanuri--race--39.
Karga--town--127.
Karamama--town--52. Eb.
Kasr--fortified village--82.
Kassaure--province--32. Fb.
Katagum--province and town--32. Gb.
Kátsena--province and town--30. Fb.
Katsínna--river--39, 40.
Kaura--town--28. Fb.
Kaye--town--123.
175

Kayes--town--92. Bb.
Kebbi--province--27, 29, 48. Eb.
Keffi--state and town--37. Fc.
Keletigi--94, Note 3.
Kenedugu--district--106, 116. CDb.
Kette--Krachi--town--115. Ec.
Kiama--town--128.
Kintampo--town--100, 113. Dc.
Kipirsi--tribe--126.
Kirotashi (or Kirtassi)--town--52,
105. Eb.
Ki-sso--province--73.
Ki-sson-rhay--the language of the
Sonrhay--82.
Kita--town--92. Cb.
Klein-Popo--town. 114.
Kogi-n-Anassarawa--river--37.
Kokotla--bar of salt--102.
Kola-nut trade, &c.--35, 51, 70, 80,
84, 97, 98, 113, 115, 121, 123.
Komadugu--river--32.
Kompa--town--52. Eb.
Kong--country and town--105. Dbc.
Kongtigi--94, Note 3.
Komoë--river--106. CDbc.
Komono--race--2. Dc.
Koma--district--97.
Konja--state and town--44. Gc.
Konkosu--agricultural slave-
villages--108, 109.
Konkronsu--marshes--113.
Konni--town--30. Fb.
Kontsha (see Konja).
Koranza--town--100.
Koriume (or Korome)--part of
Timbuktu--81.
Korórofa--province--10. FGc.
Kotedugu--121.
Kpandu--town--116.
Krachi (see Kette).
Kru--race--84.
Kuande District and town--127, 128.
Ebc.
Kuka--town--101. Gb.
Kulfu--55.
Kunde--town--47. Gc.
Kundi (or Bakúndi--town--10. Gc.
Kundu--town--93. Cb.
Kunian--town--97.
Kumakari--town--90. Bb.
Kupela--town--124.
Kúrmina--province--67.
Kurudugu--106.
176

Kurusa, town--97. Cb.
Kurusitigi--94, Note 3.
Kussan--town--96. Cb.
L.
Labe--town--93. Bb.
Labu--country--94.
Ladio--settlement--125.
Lafai--town--55. Fc.
Lafia (--Bereberg)--town--39. Fc.
Lafiagie--town--55.
Lagos--town--129. Ec.
Lakka--44-59.
Lame--town--44, 59. Gc.
Lamido--prince--45.
Lamórde--town, Fulbe for "capital"
--75. Db.
Lanfiera--town--121. Db.
Laro--town--44. Gc.
Laube--caste of the "joiners" on the
Senegal--18.
Lere--town--44, 59. Gc.
Libtako (or Liptako) province--51.
DEb.
Liguy--tribe--112.
Lo--a caste--101.
Lobi--gold-district--80, 126.
Logore--river--46.
Loko--town--38, Note 4. Fc.
Lokója--town--54. Fc.
Lome--town--114.
Lougan--cultivation--117.
M.
Ma--race symbol--85 and Note 1.
Mábube--caste of the "weavers"--18.
Machakuale--town--124. Eb.
Mahalba--town--45.
Maize--80, 89, 109.
Malinke--race--(see Wakore).
Mamprusi--country--105. DEb.
Mampurga--inhabitants of Mamprusi--
126.
Mándara--province--32, 33. Gb.
Mande--race (see Wakore) also 85.
Mande--Jula-race--85.
Mandingo--race (see Wakore).
Mangu--state--127 (see Mamprusi).
Mani--town--123. Db.
Maninia--95.
Maninian--district--101. Cc.
Marabout--11, Note 6, 93.
Maradi--land of a pagan tribe of
177

same name--29, 30.
Marghi--province--32, 33. Gb.
Marigot--2, Note 5, 70, 71, 73, 81.
Marka--91; and see Assuanek--121.
Marrabasu--109.
Márrua--state and town--43. Gb.
Máshena--province and town--33.
FGb.
Mássina--country--68. CDab.
Mauri--state--49. Eb.
Mayel-Balevel (or Baule) river--69,
70.
Mayo-Kebbi--river--43, Note 8, 44.
Mbum--state and tribe--46. Gc.
Medina--town--71, 92.
Melle--ancient empire--60, 63.
Inset map.
Mendif--mountain--43.
Messau--province--32. FGb.
Mianka--106.
Milo--river--96, 97. Cbc.
Miniankala--district--3, Note 2,
117, 119.
Mioru--tribe--106.
Mitkal--standard measure of gold
66, 80, 110, Note 5.
Mo--people of Mossi--123.
Modiuledugu--country--98.
Mopti--town--70.
Mor--the language of Mossi--123.
Mora--town--33. Gb.
Morho--people of Mossi--123.
Mossi--country and tribe--119, 121.
Db.
Murdia--town--89.
Muri--country and town--39. Gc.
Mussardu--town--98. Cc.
Mussgu--province--32, 33. GHb.
N.
Naba--chief of Mossi--122.
Nabe--tribe--106.
Nadiango--town--51.
Nago--tribe--57.
Nalirugu--town--126.
Nassarawa (or Anassarawa)--state and
town--38.
Ndé--race--85.
Ngámdere (see Ngaumdere).
Ngáumdere--state and town--42, 46.
Gc.
Ngila (or Kaiser-Wilhelmsburg)--
town--46. Gd.
178

Ngussum--province--33.
Niagassola--town--93.
Niako--town--96.
Niële--town--118.
Niëniëge--tribe--120, 126.
Nikki--town--128. Ec.
Nioro--district and town--90. BCa.
Nkoranza--town. Dc.
Nungu--town--105, 124. Eb.
Nupe--kingdom--52. EFbc.
Nyámina--town--88. Cb.
Nyfe (see Nupe). EFbc.
O.
Odienne--town--101. Cc.
Ogbo-Mosho--district--58. Ec.
Ogboni--fetish-priests--59.
Ogun--river--58.
Osogbo--district--58.
Ostrich--feathers--61, 66, 73, 81.
Oxen--72, 103.
Oyo--town--57. Ec.
P.
Pakhalla--river--106, 111, 112.
Palm-oil--110, 115, 129.
Pama--state and town--121, 127.
DEb.
Pambi (see Pembi). Dc.
Paratau--town--128. Ec.
Pataki--small traders--103.
Pembi--village--115. Dc.
Pensa--town--124. Db.
Perere--town--128. Ec.
Pong (see Kong).
Porto Novo--town--100. Ec.
Pura--settlement--125.
Q.
Qbaïla--quarters of a town--109.
Quasbah--a citadel--90.
R.
Rabba--town--53, 102, 128. Fbc.
Rano--town--32. Fb.
Rei Buba--town--47. Gc.
Rhab--Arab name for Nioro, which
see.
Rhergo--town--82.
Rice--70, 71, 80, 89.
Rimi--Haussa name for the bentang
tree--91.
Rivières du Sud--dependency of
179

Sene-gambia--93.
Rudu--sleeping-platform--29, Note 1.
Rukhala--a dependency--119.
Ruma--race--67.
S.
Saberma--state--49. Eb.
Sagha (see Mopti).
Sakala--town--101. Cc.
Sakhersi--race (see Wakore).
Salaga--town--101, 113. Dc.
Salia (or Saria)--37.
Salt--8, Note 1, 31, Note 1, 36, 37,
38, 39, 49, 51, 61, 66, 70, 71,
72, 73, 79, 80, 102, 109, 113,
115, 118, 119, 121, 123.
Saltpetre--36.
Samanke--tribe--85.
Samere--district--128.
Sambatijila--district--101.
Samfara (see Sánfara).
Samokho--tribe--85.
Samory's Empire--93. Cbc.
San--state and town--90, 112. Db.
Sanaga--river--46. FGcd.
Sanankoro--93, 94, 96, 97.
Sánfara--province--28. Fb.
Sanga (or Congo)--river--8, 47. Hd.
Sankara--province--71. Da.
Sansanding--town--71, 80, 88. Cb.
Sansando--town--97.
Sansanne--camp--38, Note 4.
Sansanne-Mango--town--84, 127. Eb.
Saráki (or Sarayi)--town--55. EFc.
Sarayamo--town--73. Da.
Saria--province--Fbc.
Saria--town--36, 37. Fb.
Saro--state and town--72, 90. CDb.
Sati--town--125. Db.
Say--town--18, 52, 101. Eb.
Sebcha--a salt-pan--38, 49.
Sebe, Fulbe name for the Assuaneks,
which see.
Segu--empire--65, 83. Cb.
Segu (or Segu-Sikoro)--town--88.
BCab.
Senegal--river--ABab.
Senufo (see Siën-re).
Serekholle--the Sonninke tribe--
which see.
Serracolets--French name for the
Assuaneks--which see.
Shari--river--Hb.
180

Shea-butter, or vegetable-butter
--80, 89, 91, 109, 113, 115.
Shebu (or Jibu)--town--40. Fc.
Shonga--state and town--55. Fc.
Sia (or Bussura), which see.
Siana--town--99, 101.
Siën-re--tribe--86, 97, 118.
Sigiri--town--93. Cb.
Sikasso--town--116, 117. Cb.
Sijilmessa--town--83.
Sinder--town--83. Eb.
Sira--the unit "200"--110.
Sissamba--town--124. Db.
Slaves--35, 37, 39, 42, 46, 47, 53,
70, 71, 73, 75, 79, 81, 87, 89,
95, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115, 123,
128.
Sofakong--94 and Note 3, 96.
Sofas--94 and Note 3.
Sofurula--123.
Soghoran--tribe--67.
Sokolo--town--89. Cb.
Sókoto--the provinces of--27.
" --town--27. Fb.
Somono--fisherfolk of the Niger--88.
Sommo--tribe--121, 126.
Songo--halting place for caravans
--104.
Sonninke--race--85, 91.
Sonrhay--ancient empire--60, 65;
race--82. Inset map.
Sorro (see Saro).
Soso (or Saria)--town--37.
Soso (see Susu)--race.
Spices--80, 91, 109, 113.
Ssarki-n-hauri--chief of Mahalba in
Tibati--45.
Suamle--tribe--94.
Suaninki--race--(see Assuanek).
Sudu M'Bjio (see Nungu).
Sugu--district--128.
Sürmi--town--29. Fb.
Susu--race--85.
T.
Taguano--district and race--106.
Tangrela--district--101, 118. Cb.
Tappa--race--inhabitants of Nupe--
53.
Tarábba--river--40. Gc.
Tari--cotton-strips used as
currency--73, Note 6.
Tata--a mud wall--30, 73, 88, 117,
181

118.
Temashirht--language of the
Tuaregs--75, 78.
Tenenku--town--69. CDb.
Tenne--fetish or idol--85, 106.
Tessaua--district--32. Fb.
Tibati--country and town--41, 95.
Gc.
Tiéba's Empire--116. CDbc.
Tikar--district--45. Gc.
Timbo--town--98. Bb.
Timbuktu--town--Da.
Tiongi--district--101.
Tobacco--81, 91, 109, 113, 127.
Tobe--native clothing--35, 37, 53,
89.
Togoland--German colony--116.
Toróde--state and town--51. Eb.
Ton--tribe--112, 114.
Turkédi--native clothing for women
--35, 104.
Tute--town--99, 101. Cc.
U.
Ulad-el-Alush--robber nomad tribe
--72.
Umalokho--town--118.
Uru--Mandingo name for the kola-nut
--98.
V.
Vegetable-butter--80, 89, 91, 109,
113, 115.
Volta--river--98. DEbc.
W.
Wa--states--126. Dbc.
Wadan--town--56 and Note 2.
Wadiuge--town--124.
Wagadugu--town--113, 123. Do.
Wahabu--small state--121.
Waílube--caste of the "tailors"--18.
Wakore--race inhabiting Segu--60,
84.
Wal-Wale--town--126. Db.
Walata--town--60. Ca.
Wambaibe--caste of the "singers"
--18.
Wanangi (or Wonangi)--town--54.
Wanangi--river--54.
Wandarama--108.
Wangara (plural Wangaraua) see
Wakore.
182

Wangára--113, 128.
Wasse--town--39. Fc.
Wássulu--district--94, 96. Cc.
Waúlube--caste of the "beggars"--18.
Wawa, town--127.
Wax--81.
Weaving--36, 42, 53, 97, 121.
Wei--race--85.
Wheat--80.
Wolosebugu--town--97.
Womba--55.
Worodugu--district--67, 98.
Worokoro--97.
Wósse (or Wasse)--town--39. Fc.
Wukari--town--40. Fc.
Wurno--town--28. Fb.
Wute--state and tribe--46. Gcd.
Y.
Yabu (see Yebu).
Yagha--state--51.
Yako--town--123. Db., tribe--39.
Yakoba (or Bauchi)--town--39. Fb.
Yamina--town (see Nyámina).
Yanga--town--127.
Yátenga--district--122, 124.
Yauri--country--52. EFb.
Yebu--tribe--59.
Yelu--town--50. Eb.
Yendi--town--126. Dc.
Yoaru--town--71. Da.
Yoko--town--46.
Yola--town in Adamaua--42. Gc.
Yola--town in Muri--40, Note 7. Gc.
Yorobadugu--district--94.
Yóruba--country--55. Ec.
" race and language--56, 114.
Z.
Zango--halting-place for caravans
--104.
Zaria (or Saria)--37.
Zezere--tribe--106.
Zebba--town--51. Eb.
Zhebu (or Jibu)--town--40.
Zinder--province of Bornu--33. Fb.
183