Asian Thought - Philosophy and Religion

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ C H A P T E R 1 9Asian ThoughtCHAPTER OBJECTIVESIn this chapter we will address thefollowing questions:◆ What Do Hindus Believe?◆ What Are the Basic Beliefsof Buddhists?◆ Are the Beliefs of Confuciansand Daoists the Same as Thoseof Hindus and Buddhists?◆ Where Are Zen Buddhism andShinto Practiced, and What AreTheir Teachings?◆ Are There Significant Differencesamong World Religions?The wisdom and mysticism of the Easthave, indeed, very much to give us eventhough they speak their own languagewhich is impossible to imitate. They shouldremind us of that which is familiar inour own culture and which we havealready forgotten, and we should directour attention to that which we havepushed aside as insignificant, namelythe fate of our own inner man. 1

The Nature ofAsian Religion◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆We live in an increasinglyinternationalworld, where relationsbetween Asian countriesand those of Europe and the Americas havebecome more crucial than ever before. Modernscience and technology have created for the firsttime in recorded history a universal pattern ofcivilization, a world society which desperatelyneeds some understanding of diversity.There is great diversity among world religions.For hundreds of millions of Asians, theirreligion—no matter what form it takes—is a vitalconcern of their daily lives, not a mere oneday-a-weekobservance. The peoples of non-Western cultures see religion as integrally relatedto and inseparable from all the other areas of lifeand experience. They generally look upon theirreligion as the basis of their culture, which givesform and meaning to the rest of existence. Ourattempt here is to understand certain beliefsabout the transcendent, humanity, and the universethat have been the basis of well-establishedcultures and beautiful art in the Asian world.Asian philosophy is a way of life.The HinduTradition“Hinduism, literally‘the belief of the peopleof India,’ is the predominantfaith of India◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆and of no other nation.” 2 Taken as a whole, Hinduismis one of the oldest religious traditions inthe world. But it is difficult to study, for it is alsoone of the most diversified religious traditions.There are divisions and subdivisions into whichwe cannot go, and you should be aware that weare necessarily oversimplifying in this discussion.The problem is further complicated by the factthat there are no exact equivalents in English forcertain Indian terms and concepts.Philosophy (darshana) in the Hindu traditionmeans “seeing the truth” and applying thistruth to the problems of everyday life. Thus, forIndian thinkers, the purpose of studying philosophyis not merely to gain knowledge for its ownsake or to satisfy one’s curiosity, but to discoverand live the highest kind of life, the life that willbring permanent self-realization or bliss. Peoplemust recover truths themselves, not just acceptthem on blind faith or from the testimony of others.Unless people have convictions and live in accordancewith them, they are not philosophers.Hinduism arose on Indian soil and is largelyconfined to Indian people. India, however, hasknown other traditions, including Buddhism,Christianity, and Islam. What is called Hinduismtoday has influenced many other parts of Asiaand is steadily growing in parts of Europe andthe United States.HINDU SCRIPTUREOne indication of the difficulty of setting forththe central points in Hindu thought is that thereare many texts that, collectively, can be calledHindu Scripture. First, there are the Vedas (literally“knowledge”—that is, sacred knowledge).These are texts written some fifteen hundredyears before the common era. The earliest textsare the Rig Veda, a collection of over one thousandhymns addressed to the gods—hymns toIndra, the god of civilization, war, and storm; toVaruna, the guardian of morality; and to manyothers, most of them now forgotten. Included inthe Vedas are the Brahmanas, lengthy treatisesconcerned with the details of the sacrificial ritualadministered by the Brahmin class. Finally, in theeighth to fifth centuries B.C.E., there were addedto these the most famous of the early Indianwritings, the Upanishads, which attempted toexplain the inner meaning of the reality behindthe religious quest in a philosophical manner. Allthese writings form the essential canon of sacredscriptures in the orthodox Hindu tradition.In the period following the Upanishads,there was, within Hinduism, a great developmentof devotional religion. This was expressedstrikingly in the most famous of Indian scriptures,the Bhagavadgita, or “Song of the Lord.”There is some doubt as to when the Gita wascompiled, but it was probably some time duringthe period 200 B.C.E to 200 C.E. No other scrip-408 ◆ Chapter 19

ture is more widely read in India today. To readthe Gita is to be introduced to some of the mainthemes of Hindu thought as well as to some ofthe main practices of Hindu life. It also introducesone to splendid Hindu poetry and to thegod Krishna.It is convenient to name four major periodsof Hindu thought: first, the early period of Vedicpolytheism; second, the period of the Vedanta(literally, “the end of the Veda”), with its descriptionsof Absolute Brahman; third, a periodbeginning about 200 B.C.E., with an emphasis onbhakti (devotional worship of a theistic god);and last, the modern period, with its responseto Western influence. 3“During the classicalperiod—those centuries between 450 B.C. andA.D. 600—occurred the emergence of a Hinduculture that absorbed into itself many differentstrands of mythology, ritual, and doctrine. Thisluxuriance of religious standpoints may sometimesbaffle the outsider, but it testifies to an importantand enduring characteristic of Indianculture—its desire to express and to nurture asmany different approaches to the Truth as possible,and to conserve within itself the multiplicityof cultural influences that have affected theIndian subcontinent.” 4BRAHMAN AND THE SELFCentral to much of Hindu philosophy is the emphasison the one unchanging reality that transcendsspace, time, causality, and all particularthings. This Absolute cannot be comprehendedby human thought or adequately expressed inwords and concepts. According to the nondualisticview (which emphasizes the oneness of existence)only Brahman is real, and the individualsouls and the universe are illusory veils obscuringBrahman. Other views hold that the self and thephysical world may be real, although they are finiteand imperfect. There are also differencesamong philosophical thinkers about whether theultimate reality is nonpersonal, superpersonal, orpersonal. But all agree on the possibility of everysoul’s attaining liberation (moksha) from thebondage of the physical world.Closely allied to the concept of Brahman isthe concept of the self, or soul, or atman. Thetrue self of each person is identical with Brahman.From the transcendental standpoint, theself is immortal, free, and identical with Brahman.The divine nature of the self is veiled, butnot destroyed, by false images and ignorance, forit is ultimately without traits and beyond language.The true destiny of the self is the realizationof this identity with Brahman. From thephenomenal standpoint, there are many individualselves, enmeshed in the world of affairs andseeking deliverance from the round of births anddeaths. Thus we need to distinguish between thereal and the empirical self.What are the relations among Brahman, theself, and the universe that we perceive? A Hinduscholar says: “Brahman is the sole reality, and itappears both as the objective universe and as theindividual subject. The former is an illusorymanifestation of Brahman, while the latter isBrahman itself appearing under the limitationswhich form part of that illusory universe.” 5 Theobjects of the empirical world, although of a certainorder of worldly reality, are appearances inthat they belong to the world of cause and effect,to which Brahman does not belong. The individualself, however, is not illusory in this sense.The self is Brahman appearing under limitingconditions. It is not a phenomenon of ignorancethe way physical objects are. Through an intuitive,non-logical experience one realizes theidentity of the eternal self and Brahman.CENTRAL VALUES IN HINDUISMAll Hindu systems of thought seem to agreethat there are four main values to be completedand brought to perfection in the course of rebirth.In ascending order of importance they are:(1) Artha (wealth) and (2) Kama (sensuality).These are the worldly or secular values. They arelegitimate if they are kept in their places and donot stifle other values. Material prosperity, goodhealth, and long life are desired by most Indians.However, both the life of activity and renunciationare recognized. (3) Dharma (social andAsian Thought ◆ 409

individual duties) includes all caste roles andobligations of occupation, gender, kin, generation,and temperament, as well as other ethicalresponsibilities. (4) Moksha (release from finitudeand imperfection) is the intrinsic or eternalvalue, and the supreme spiritual ideal. It givesliberation from the wheel of existence, and cannotbe achieved without complete experienceand resolution of the other three. Discipline isessential if we are to achieve illumination, andthe overcoming of selfishness is essential if we areto realize our genuine self and attain release. Unlessa person achieves release in this life, which israre indeed, she or he is destined to repeat theround of more existences.According to Hinduism, no soul is eternallydamned. The law of karma, the law of sowingand reaping, determines the form that will betaken in each new existence. This is the law ofcause and effect in human life. Through our conductwe determine our own destiny in that goodkarma is acquired by living up to our dharmicduties and bad karma by ignoring or violatingour given dharma. An unethical life may lead torebirth below the station of the present life, anda life of goodness may lead to a more favored existenceor to ultimate liberation from the roundof rebirths. Thus, the doctrines of karma and rebirthare said to be grounded in the moral structuresof the universe. They permit freedom andethical advance in that they are under our controland are not determined by cosmic or environmentalforces completely beyond our influence.Because of its intricate dependence on thestructure of dharma, the theory of karma andrebirth determines a person’s position in the traditionalcaste system, in which there are fourmain castes and many subcastes or divisionswithin these. The caste system has been underattack in recent decades, having been outlawedin the Indian Constitution of 1949, and variousoutstanding leaders of Hinduism have called attentionto the continued abuses of caste andhave worked hard to bring about its practicalelimination. Nevertheless, the caste system ishighly resistant to change, not only because ofthe belief that a person’s present social status isregulated by the law of karma but also becauseof ingrained social hierarchies based on notionsof purity and contamination.The concept of the four ashramas, or stagesin the life of the individual, relates the goal of liberationto the needs and tasks of daily life in society.A man’s duties are set by the stage of life atwhich he has arrived. The four stages are (1) thelife of a celibate student under the mentorship ofa teacher; (2) a long period of householdership,beginning with marriage, when a person assumesthe responsibilities of parenthood and other socialobligations and when one provides for thosededicated to the spiritual quest; (3) a period ofincreased religiosity, when householder dutiescan be passed on to the next generation, duringwhich one retires to the forest with his wife topractice rituals and for meditation and reflection;and (4) by complete renunciation of familyand caste and by practicing austerities and rigidself-control, a person seeks union with Brahman.If the person is successful in the fourth stage,struggle and strife cease and he gains peace andfreedom through union with the all-embracingWorld Soul. The inner spirit of humanity is thefocus of attention, and its development, illumination,and release are the highest values. Thesestations were primarily for men. At the time oftraditional Hinduism, women were excludedfrom the more rigorous structures of the ashramasand received their spiritual merit from workingto uphold the dharmic obligations of theirhusbands.YOGAWe have already mentioned that, for the Hindu,discipline is essential if one is to achieve illumination:discipline of both body and mind.Yoga is a technique of physical and spiritualtraining by which the bodily and psychic energiesare controlled, unified, and directed in orderto attain liberation from the world. Yoga is theliberating union of the self (atman) with the Self(Brahman).410 ◆ Chapter 19

In classical yoga, after the yogi has undergonea long initiatory period of training under amaster—the guru—no one else need exist in hisor her world. The yogi sheds not only materialdistractions but also psychic hindrances such asmemories, desires, fears, yearnings, and theresidue of dreams and impressions; all with thegoal of liberation. The importance of classicalyoga is that it teaches the complete independenceand freedom of the self based on the confidencethat the individual mind is able throughits own powers to transcend the suffering causedby matter, illusions, and supernatural agencies.Only knowledge can bring liberation. Withoutthis goal, everything—study, work, meditation—isvalueless.RELIGIOUS EXPRESSIONSTraditional worship of a god in Hinduism isknown as puja. It can be practiced by anyone regardlessof gender, age, or station in life, fromthe most erudite philosopher to the simpliststreet sweeper. Because Hinduism is not normallya congregational religion that is practicedin a house of worship by people as a group, theperformance of puja is left to the individual.Usually there is a puja room or niche within theHindu home, where an image of the god or goddessis enshrined in a painting, a sculpture, orother symbolic referent with flowers, incense,and food. The divinity is invoked with symbolicsounds, prayers, and songs, and often worshipincludes the use of fire or water. The choice ofgod or gods, whether it be Krishna, Rama, Shiva,Kali, Shri, or any one of a great variety from theHindu pantheon, is often a matter of family affiliationor the needs of a given worship. Hindutemples, cared for and presided over by priests,are usually dedicated to a specific divinity andprovide an especially quiet place for individualdevotion. Seasonal festivities commemoratinglocal myths and figures are expressive and celebratoryaffairs, often lasting many days and includingpeople from all social backgrounds. Finally,Hindu worship can take the form ofpilgrimage to area shrines or to the holy city ofKashi (modern Banaras) and its sacred riverGanges. Possessing great adaptability and tolerance,Hinduism includes, rather than excludes,unique forms of religious expression. There are anumber of reform movements in India today,and some outstanding thinkers have been remoldingthe Indian consciousness and outlook. 6In “The Spirit of Indian Philosophy,” SirSarvepalli Radhakrishnan, 7 after pointing out thediversity of views held by Indian thinkers, indicatesseven attitudes that are characteristic of theIndian philosophical mind. (1) Concentrationon the spiritual. Philosophy and religion areclosely related. Humans are spiritual in natureand are primarily interested in their spiritual destinyand not in material welfare. (2) Belief in theintimate relationship of philosophy and life.(3) The introspective attitude and concern forthe inner life. The inner spirit of a person, thesubject rather than the object, is the focus of attentionand gives the best clue to the nature ofthe universe. (4) The affinity with idealism. Becausereality is “ultimately one and ultimatelyspiritual,” the tendency is toward nondualisticidealism. (5) The acceptance of direct perceptionas the only method through which reality can beknown. When the mind becomes free from theimpurities of attachment and aversion throughthe practice of yoga or spiritual disciplines, it perceivestruth directly, as one perceives a fruit lyingon the palm of one’s hand. Reason is useful butinsufficient; it leads the seeker as far as it can andthen bows out. To know reality is to experienceit or to become one with it. (6) A consciousnessof tradition and an acceptance of the insights ofseers who have lived in the past. This has not,however, made Indian philosophy dogmatic orcreedal. (7) An “overall synthetic tradition.” Thesystems of thought are seen as complementingeach other. This stress on the synthetic visionhad made possible an intellectual and religioustolerance toward differences within Hinduismand toward other faiths and systems of thought.Hinduism is thus not a fixed and uniform doctrinalsystem; it is broad, inclusive, and tolerantof different points of view.Asian Thought ◆ 411

The BuddhistQuest forEnlightenmentTHE BUDDHABuddhist philosophyhas much in common◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ with Hindu philosophy,but it also departsradically from it at certain points and hencewas known among adherents of Hinduism asthe “Great Heresy.” Siddhartha Gautama, thefounder of Buddhism (see biography and excerpt,pp. 414–415), lived in Northern Indiain the fifth century B.C.E. Gautama, althoughreared in luxury and under sheltered conditions,became greatly concerned about the widespreadmisery under which people lived. He left hishome and family and wandered into the forest insearch of the truth about the meaning of existence.Finally, after six years, and lengthy experimentationwith asceticism, he returned to theMiddle Way (see excerpt, pp. 415). One nightshortly thereafter, under the Bo Tree, the truth,it is said, flashed into his mind and he became the“Enlightened One”—the Buddha. Contrary tothe spirit of his teaching, Gautama was later idolizedand deified, and temples, ceremonies, and apriesthood arose. As a result of Buddha’s teachingand influence, Buddhist thought flourishedin India for more than a thousand years. Todayit is found mainly in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Myanmar(Burma), Thailand, Tibet, China, Korea,and Japan. In the course of its expansion it haschanged considerably.Buddhism makes a fundamental break withHinduism in its rejection not only of the Vedicscriptures but also of the concepts of Brahmanand atman—the metaphysical absolute and thechangeless self. Experience, it is said, gives noclear indication of such an all-inclusive WorldSoul. Gautama rejected the authority ascribedto the ancient gods and urged believers to relymainly on the resources within themselves. Healso rejected the caste system; wisdom and notbirth or caste is of importance. He was impressedby ceaseless change, which he observedas pervading everything, and by finiteness andsuffering. Gautama was not only a man of greathuman sympathy and goodwill; he was a thinkerof great philosophic power who decided tospend his life in teaching others to gain understanding.THE THREE MARKS OF EXISTENCEAND THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHSThe central core of Buddhist philosophy is foundin the Three Marks of Existence. By carefully observingour everyday experience, unimpeded bynormal belief systems and opinions, we noticethat the world of our senses is marked by transitorinessor impermanence. We then notice anatta,an inability to determine through experientialchannels of knowledge whether or not thereis a Self; this “no doctrine of a Self” quickly becamein early Buddhism the “doctrine of noSelf,” whereby we can find no independentessence in existing things. Finally, we discoverdukkha, suffering, that is experienced because ofour attachment to things which change.The doctrine of the Four Noble Truths thenfocuses on the relationship between sufferingand attachment or desire. There is, first, the factof the existence of suffering. Unhappiness orpain accompanies the experiences of birth, illness,failure to satisfy desires, separation fromfriends and loved ones, old age, and death. Theproblem of suffering is the universal problem oflife in a world that is finite and changing. Eventhe more fortunate are unable to ward off oldage and death.The second noble truth discloses the causeof suffering. Suffering is caused by desires, ortanha, which in its original and literal meaning is“thirst.” These desires or cravings are many, andthey tend to grow or increase as we attempt tosatisfy them. The greatest attachment, however,is to existence itself, for what we want most isto continue indefinitely, to have life as we nowknow it. The world, however, is marked bychange and it is our attachment to these changingthings (and especially to our own selves) thatcauses us the greatest suffering.The third noble truth is that release is possible.Because we cannot alter the transitory natureof the experiential world, we have to focus412 ◆ Chapter 19

our attention on something else: our attachmentto this world. By getting rid of our attachmentand desire we automatically get rid of our suffering.By eradicating our desire, we also reduceour ignorance and see for the first time the truenature of the self as a conditioned entity interdependentwith all other things in a “chain ofcausation.” Real happiness comes with this freedomfrom attachment and if we can gain suchenlightenment, the wheel of existence can beended and nirvana experienced.The fourth noble truth is that there is a wayout through the Noble Eightfold Path. Rightknowledge about the nature of one’s self is ameans of removing attachment and suffering.THE NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATHAND NIRVANAThe Noble Eightfold Path consists of the followingsteps: (1) Right understanding. We needto realize that the cessation of suffering comesthrough the elimination of ignorance and ofcraving, desire, and thirst for a world and a selfmarked by transitoriness. Without understanding,we do not know the direction from whichrelease is to come. (2) Right aspiration or purpose.Without the goal of enlightenment we arenot likely to make a start or to put forth vigorouseffort. (3) Right speech. We should betruthful, kind, and humble, and never gossip,slander, or boast. (4) Right conduct. We mustnot harm other living creatures and must avoidkilling, stealing, eating meat, intoxication, andother evils. (5) Right mode of livelihood. Ourmode of living and our vocation should be inharmony with the goals toward which we aspireand should be especially consistent with theethics of nonviolence. (6) Right striving oreffort. Discipline is necessary in the attainmentof knowledge. (7) Right mindfulness. Ourthoughts are important, and must not be permittedto wander or dwell on desires that needto be suppressed. (8) Right concentration.When we are able through meditation and concentrationto identify ourselves with truth, thegoal of mystic illumination is reached. At thispoint we are no longer subject to rebirth, and wemay achieve the experience of nirvana.What is nirvana? Literally, the term means“blowing out, extinction, ceasing to be.” Doesthis mean that Buddhist thinkers have set forth areligion or philosophy of escape? Such, however,would be a superficial interpretation, which inno way explains the sense of joyous fulfillmentand the appeal of Buddhism to large numbers ofpeople. What is extinguished is attachment toany belief in an eternal, permanent self and to allnotions of individuality. The elimination of thebonds of rebirth, of suffering, of ignorance, ofdesire, is the liberation that is nirvana. Cessationof striving, being bound by rebirth, is said tobring a sense of liberation or freedom, peace andcontentment, joy, insight, and love or compassionfor all living beings.In order to achieve this freedom, compassion,and wisdom, certain ethical behaviors mustbe followed. In the earliest Buddhist dialoguesfive prohibitions are given:1. Avoid taking life (animal or human).2. Avoid stealing (taking what is not offered).3. Avoid illicit sexual relations.4. Avoid lying.5. Avoid intoxicants. 8The law of karma and the doctrine of rebirthwere retained by Buddhists when they rejectedHinduism. The law of karma is a strongincentive to choose the good and avoid its opposite.If we realize that we are our own saviors,our sense of responsibility is likely to be keen.One should give aid to others, however, wheneverthis is possible, physically through almsgivingand the like, and spiritually throughknowledge and enlightenment.DIVISIONS WITHIN BUDDHISMAlthough Buddhism arose in India and flourishedthere for more than one thousand years, itis found today mainly in other countries of Asia. 9In the course of its development, Buddhismmoved from early Buddhism and split into twoAsian Thought ◆ 413

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆The BuddhaSiddhartha Gautama (fifth century B.C.E.) was the founderof the Buddhist religion. His father was a chieftain or king inNorthern India. Siddhartha was “the man who had everything”:he was handsome and wealthy and had a model wife and a babyson. It is said that at the time of his birth a prophetic sage predictedthat if he became attached to the world and its ways, hewould unify India and become a great conqueror; if he saw thetrue nature of the human condition and forsook the world, hewould become a world redeemer.His father wanted to keep him attached to the world, butSiddhartha eventually turned from material things. On one occasionwhen he was horseback riding, he saw in turn a decrepit oldman, a man racked with pain and disease, and a corpse. Thus hediscovered the facts regarding old age, disease, and death; he becametroubled over the sorrows of human life and felt a deep desireto help. He also saw a wandering holy man with simple garband a shaved head. At age 29, he left the palace and his family,and went off alone to seek release from the misery of the world,to discover the cause of human suffering, and to find its spiritualcure. This was the “Great Renunciation.”After some years of searching, during which he tried asceticism,extreme self-mortification, and more moderate programsof meditation, insight and enlightenment came while he wassitting under a sacred Bo tree. He became the Buddha, theEnlightened One. Buddha then spent his long life teachingand preaching. He established an order of monks and lateran order of nuns. His teachings are founded in the “ThreeMarks of Existence,” the “Four Noble Truths,” and the“Noble Eightfold Path.”414 ◆ Chapter 19

Excerpt from:The Buddha’s First Sermon,known as The Foundation of theKingdom of Righteousness or TheSetting in Motion of the Wheelof the Dhamma, taken from theMahavaggaNote: To read Buddhist literature, you should understand that theseare not historical documents in the sense of precise, objective recordingsof events. Happenings in the life of the Buddha, reports of dialoguesbetween various individuals, parables and stories—all thesewere set down long after the time of the Buddha and were shaped toteach his ideas as later generations came to understand them.This, monks, is the Middle Path, the knowledge of whichthe Tathagata has gained, which leads to insight, which leads towisdom, which conduces to calm, to knowledge, to perfect enlightenment,to Nirvana.This, monks, is the Noble Truth of Suffering: birth is suffering;decay is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering;presence of objects we hate is suffering; separation from objectswe love is suffering; not to obtain what we desire is suffering.In brief, the five aggregates which spring from grasping,they are painful.This, monks, is the Noble Truth concerning the Origin ofSuffering: verily it originates in that craving which causes therenewal of becomings, is accompanied by sensual delight, andseeks satisfaction now here, now there; that is to say, craving forpleasures, craving for becoming, craving for not becoming.This, monks, is the Noble Truth concerning the Cessationof Suffering: verily, it is passionless, cessation without remainderof this very craving; the laying aside of, the giving up, the beingfree from, the harboring no longer of, this craving.This monks, is the Noble Truth concerning the Path whichleads to the cessation of Suffering: verily, it is this noble EightfoldPath, that is to say, right views, right intent, right speech,right conduct, right means of livelihood, right endeavor, rightmindfulness, and right meditation.This is the Noble Truth concerning suffering. Thus,monks, in things which formerly had not been heard of have Iobtained insight, knowledge, understanding, wisdom, intuition.This Noble Truth concerning Suffering must be understood.Thus, monks, in things which formerly had not been heard ofhave I obtained insight, knowledge, understanding, wisdom,and intuition.Clarence H. Hamilton, ed., Buddhism: A Religion of InfiniteCompassion (New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1952), p. 29.Asian Thought ◆ 415

main branches with various subdivisions withineach of these branches. The first branch, Theravada(“Doctrine of the Elders”), or Hinayana(“Small Vehicle”), or Pali Buddhism, prevailsmainly in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Myanmar(Burma), and Thailand. It was a more conservativeand individualistic philosophy of escapefrom suffering. Buddha is represented as a greatteacher and master who taught the true way; heis not seen as an incarnation of a cosmic principleor power. Theravada Buddhism, a movementin which monks were central, is now becoming alaypersons’ movement and showing considerablevitality. The second branch, Mahayana(“Great Vehicle”) Buddhism, is found mainlyin China, Mongolia, Nepal, Tibet, Korea, andJapan. It is a more broad-minded philosophywith a universal outlook, and it stresses thevirtues of wisdom and love. Without minimizingindividual enlightenment and freedom from illusion,there is greater stress on compassion for allliving beings. For example, a Bodhisattva is onewho, like Buddha, having attained enlightenment,refuses to enter the fully enlightened stateso as to be able to continue to serve his or herfellows. Whereas Theravada Buddhism conceivesthe Buddha as a human and stresses individualenlightenment, in the Mahayana branch ofBuddhism the Buddha is more likely to be conceivedas the transcendental eternal principle orAbsolute, which may bring release to all people.Confuciusand Lao-zi*Chinese civilizationwas old when Westerncivilization was in the◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆process of formation.About the sixth century B.C.E., Confucius andLao-zi attempted to organize the wisdom of thetime into a more orderly system. Both men livedin a period of unrest and confusion, and theysought to restore peace and harmony amongpeople and between them and the order of na-*The Pinyin System of romanization (spelling) of Chinesecharacters is used in the text of this chapter.ture. Lao-zi taught that behind all existence isthe impersonal Dao (Way). Dao is the way theuniverse works; it is the reality that is immanentin nature and humanity. Confucius revised andsystematized the earlier classics. He was an ableteacher and administrator, with a practical turn ofmind, more interested in helping his people livewell than in considering speculative questions.The teachings of Confucius were reaffirmedby Mencius (Meng-zi), a Chinese philosopherwho lived one century later. For twenty-five centuries,Chinese ethical ideals, in the form knownas “Confucianism,” were influential in the developmentof Chinese culture. With the establishmentof the People’s Republic in 1949 byMao Ze-dong, the habits and customs of Chinesesociety were radically transformed. Many ofthese customs are returning.Philosophy among the Chinese has tended,on the whole, to be practical and this-worldly.The interest is in achieving a harmonious adjustmentto other people, to society in general, andto the demands of nature. There is less emphasison questions of logic, epistemology, and metaphysicsthan on moral problems and social philosophy.Chinese writers, furthermore, tend toset forth their convictions in the form of aphorisms,illustrations, and stories that convey generalmeaning but omit analytical precision, systematicreasoning, and argument. For example,in the Confucian Analects the paragraphs consistof only a few words or perhaps a few sentences.THE ORDER IN NATURETraditional Chinese philosophy is predominantlya system of ethical realism. Operating throughhuman life and the universe is “one all-pervadingprinciple, rational and ethical in nature.” 10 Forthe Chinese, says Francis C. M. Wei, “orderlinessand regularity are the fundamental characteristicsof the universe.” 11 The concepts of Heaven(Tian) and the Dao, or Way, are prominent.Heaven, for the Confucians, is the dependableorder of the Universe and the ground andguardian of the moral law. Heaven not only governshuman affairs in accordance with the moral416 ◆ Chapter 19

order of things but gives us a disposition towardharmony and the right. Dao, for the Daoists, aswe have seen, is the way the universe works andthe reality that is immanent in nature and humanity.The Dao of Heaven transcends the ordinaryexperience of nature and humanity, givesmeaning to the universe, and helps us do thingsin the right way. When Heaven is described inpersonal terms, it may be thought of as Transcendenceor Providence. When Heaven is describedin impersonal terms, it may be regardedas the “law of nature” or as fate, which determinesnatural and human events.In Chinese philosophy, the stress is on thedynamic and changing nature of the process inthe midst of which we live. This resembles someWestern “process” philosophies. From earlyChinese thinking, the concepts “Yang” and“Yin” have been inherited. Yang is the activeforce that is the initiating, creative factor in existence;Yin is the more passive and receptive factor.Through the interaction of these two forces,natural processes go on.HUMANITY AND THE GOOD SOCIETYIn Confucianism, humans occupy a high place inthe general scheme of things; we alone can understandthe order of things and live accordingto a moral ideal. Normal persons ought to aspireto be superior people. They should strive fortheir own development, renounce worldly lusts,and become courteous and gentle. Such personsexhibit integrity of mind in that they are honestwith themselves and with others. They are sincerein speech and action and moderate in allthings. They avoid avarice, quarrelsomeness, andcovetousness, and delight in aiding others. Suchsuperior persons do not go to excess in any direction.They exercise moderation and strive forthe “golden mean” or the “just medium,” whichenables virtue and happiness to continue andincrease through history.Until the Maoist revolution, the concepts ofthe community and of social propriety were centralin Chinese culture. The basic institution wasthe family, which usually contained as a householdnot only the parents and unmarried childrenbut all the sons with their wives and childrenand other dependent relatives. Reverencefor ancestors and elders was extremely strong intraditional Chinese society. Different attitudeswere called for depending on whether a personwas dealing with parents, spouse, an official orlandowner, a child, or whomever. Different personshad different duties and “places” accordingto their abilities and their stations in life.Before the introduction of Buddhism inChina, Chinese religious and ethical ideals weredominated by Confucianism and, to a lesserextent, by Daoism. Confucianism was concernedmainly with personal and social relations,whereas Daoism cultivated a sense of the individual’soneness or unity with the order of theuniverse, while putting less emphasis on conventionsand rules. When Buddhism was introducedinto China, many educated Chinese adopted itbecause of its comprehensive and systematiccharacter. For a number of centuries, many ofthe ablest Chinese thinkers were Buddhists orwere profoundly influenced by Buddhist ideas.Mao Ze-dongMarxism 12has taken◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ firm root in China todayand perhaps maybe regarded as a fourth religion in Chinesehistory. Mao Ze-dong (1893–1976), politicalleader, statesman, poet, and philosopher, took ashis goal the radical transformation of Chinesesociety. He was guided in this enterprise by ideasof Western origin, first, nineteenth-century liberalism,and, then Leninist collectivism. But atthe same time he was determined that this“people’s China” should place a high value on itsown culture.A basic aspect of revolutionary change intwentieth-century China has been the effort ofyoung intellectuals to break away from the dependenttraditions of the old society. Dissatisfactionwith the restrictions of traditional familylife led many educated young Chinese at the turnof the century to seek new ways of modernizingtheir society. Mao Ze-dong was one of numerousAsian Thought ◆ 417

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ConfuciusKong fu-zi (6th–5th cent. B.C.E.), whom the modern Westernworld calls Confucius, was a teacher and administrator whosedown-to-earth philosophy has shaped the history of China tothe twentieth century. He has been called the most influentialand most revered person in Chinese history. The youngest ofeleven children whose father died at an early age, he grew up inordinary circumstances and became a self-educated man by hardwork. He held various governmental positions, including ministerof justice. His main contribution came through his teaching.He made no claim to originality and said that he was a transmitterof the wisdom of the ancient sages. He stressed literature,principles of conduct, and statecraft. The task of education, hesaid, was to produce the superior person. The ideal is the harmonyof the individual and the well-ordered society based onthe mutual respect and moral obligation between ruler and minister,father and son, elder brother and younger brother, husbandand wife, and friend and friend. Among the many virtueshe stressed are filial piety and benevolent love. His teachings,found mainly in the Analects (4th cent. B.C.E.), a collection ofhis aphorisms, became part of the Chinese classics.418 ◆ Chapter 19

Excerpt from Confucius:The Analects*Note: The Analects is a collection of sayings by Confucius and hispupils pertaining to his teachings and deeds. It was probably puttogether by some of his pupils and their pupils.1:1. Confucius said, “Is it not a pleasure to learn and to repeator practice from time to time what has been learned? Is itnot delightful to have friends coming from afar? Is one nota superior man if he does not feel hurt even though he isnot recognized?”1:2. Yu-Tzu said, “Few of those who are filial sons and respectfulbrothers will show disrespect to superiors, and therenever has been a man who is not disrespectful to superiorsand yet creates disorder. A superior man is devoted to thefundamentals (the root). When the root is firmly established,the moral law (Tao) will grow. Filial piety andbrotherly respect are the root of humanity.1:3. Confucius said, “A man with clever words and an ingratiatingappearance is seldom a man of humanity.”1:4. Tseng-Tzu said, “Every day I examine myself on threepoints: whether in counseling others I have not been loyal;whether in intercourse with my friends I have not beenfaithful; and whether I have not repeated again and againand practiced the instructions of my teacher.”1:6. Young men should be filial when at home and respectful totheir elders when away from home. They should be earnestand faithful. They should love all extensively and be intimatewith men of humanity. When they have any energyto spare after the performance of moral duties, they shoulduse it to study literature and the arts.1:8. Confucius said, “If the superior man is not grave, he willnot inspire awe, and his learning will not be on a firm foundation....When you have made mistakes, don’t be afraidto correct them.The Wade-Giles system of transliteration has been kept in this quoted material,as in others in this chapter.Wing-Tsit Chan, ed. and trans., A Source Book in ChinesePhilosophy, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963).Asian Thought ◆ 419

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Lao-ziThe age of a hundred philosophers in China (6th–5th cent.B.C.E.) gave rise to myriad new forms of thought, but none hasso beguiled us spiritually as that of Lao-zi. Thought to be a contemporaryof Confucius, Lao-zi was an archivist at the courtpalace of Loyang. Legend tells us that when he was about 60,Lao-zi grew weary of a world of chaos and social fragmentationand set off wandering to the west. The western gatekeeper askedhim to deposit his wisdom before passing, and the result was theLao-zi, also titled the Dao De Jing. These aphoristic and enigmaticpassages express a view of life that is quietistic, yielding,receptive, and ultimately affirming of the world just as it isfound. Humans are but a small part of the larger ebb and flow ofnatural change and the best chance for survival comes from perfectand invisible attunement to one’s surroundings. No oneknows if Lao-zi (which means “old man”) really lived or not,but in the end it may not matter, for as is said in traditionalChina, Daoism is but a state of mind.students alienated from old ways of life, but unlikemany of his contemporaries Mao was sensitiveto the social roots of China’s political order.Early in his life, Mao realized the depth of populardiscontent in China with the existing order ofthings. The problem was how to sustain and directsuch mass anger in support of a social revolution.Mao’s rural upbringing made him awareof the tendency of the peasants to avoid politicalinvolvement; they were inclined to eat the bitternessof life’s hardships and injustices. But he alsoknew of China’s long tradition of peasant rebellions.His solution to this problem of how to involvea basically conservative rural population ina revolution that would completely reshape peasantlife developed only after years of effort to organizesupport for the communist movement inthe Chinese countryside.On May 4, 1919, the students of Beijingprotested the compromising of Chinese interestsat the Versailles Peace Conference. Theystaged anti-Western political demonstrationsand sought to reshape their country’s politicaltradition from elitism to mass participation. The“May Fourth” generation, as they becameknown, was deeply influenced by the success ofthe Bolshevik revolution of 1917 in neighboringRussia. Mao Ze-dong found in Marxism–Leninism concepts that could be used to revolutionizeChina, and he also saw that China’s revolutionaryintellectuals continued to use theirnew ideology in traditional ways.420 ◆ Chapter 19

Excerpt from Lao-zi:The Dao De JingEmpty your mind of all thoughts.Let your heart be at peace.Watch the turmoil of beings,but contemplate their return.Each separate being in the universereturns to the common source.Returning to the source is serenity.If you don’t realize the source,you stumble in confusion and sorrow.When you realize where you come from,you naturally become tolerant,disinterested, amused,kindhearted as a grandmother,dignified as a king.Immersed in the wonder of the Dao,you can deal with whatever life brings you,and when death comes, you are ready.As we have seen, the conflicts and contradictionsin life did find expression in some ofChina’s philosophical traditions, most explicitlythe Daoist concepts of yin and yang. Daoism emphasizedthe ironies and tensions inherent insocial institutions; in contrast, however, Confucianism,the philosophy that dominated China’spolitical tradition, sought rule through elite consensusdesigned to produce the harmonious life.Under Mao and Communist Party influence, aphilosophy of conflict has influenced Chineseculture. The Marxist–Leninist concepts of dialecticalmaterialism and class struggle have held formany Chinese a greater sense of reality thanConfucian harmony, although there is a definiteresurgence of Neo-Confucianism in Taiwan,Hong Kong, and to a degree in China itself. MaoZe-dong was only the most influential memberof a generation that rejected the Confucian traditionin favor of a doctrine of struggle and change.Inspired by the Marxist dialectic, Mao developeda philosophy of social change. He wrote:Changes in society are due chiefly to the developmentof the internal contradictions in society,that is the contradiction between the productiveforces and the relations of production, the contradictionbetween classes and the contradictionbetween the old and the new; it is the developmentof these contradictions that pushes societyforward and gives the impetus for the suppressionof the old by the new. . . . This dialecticalworld outlook teaches us primarily how toAsian Thought ◆ 421

observe and analyze the movement of oppositesin different things and ...to indicate methodsfor resolving contradictions. 13The Chinese commitment to the ongoingdialectic has brought many upheavals in the political,social, and cultural traditions of China.“Once Mao Tse-tung’s thought is grasped bythe broad masses, it becomes an inexhaustiblesource of strength and a spiritual atom bomb ofinfinite power.” 14 Mao himself remarked that hewished to be remembered by future generationsonly as a great teacher. 15 In the Chinese Confuciantradition, however, a teacher has long beenconsidered a model to be emulated by students,a source of authority, rather than just an independentintellect who stimulates students totheir own achievements. Thus Mao, even as ateacher of revolution, is likely to remain a powerfulmodel figure who will long be held up foremulation by China’s millions, a symbol of thetransformation of China. 16The Value Systemof the Japanese◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Japanese culture hasbeen strongly influencedby Confucianismand Chinese cultureand also by Buddhism and Indian culture. Yet inJapan these acquisitions have been remoldedinto something distinctive and uniquely Japanese.Because of a common ancestry and languageand because of living on a chain of islands separatedfrom the mainland of Asia, Japanese peopleshave been able to develop distinctive traits incomparative isolation.SHINTOISMThe Japanese value system goes back to an earlytribal society in which life was centered aroundthe family, the villages, and small neighborhoods.Religious values and moral standardswere scarcely distinguished from each other orfrom the problem of keeping order and makinga living. The veneration of the sun; worship ofthe kami (the nature spirits); reverence for thespirits of ancestors; and respect for and loyalty toparents, older people, and all those in positionsof authority were part of one’s duties. Shinto isthe name used to cover many of these activitiesand beliefs. At an early date it was the tribal folkreligion centering around the family and localshrines (Shrine Shinto), but eventually it becamea patriotic state cult connected with the chieftainand court (State Shinto).Shintoism is the traditional Japanese religion.Shinto means literally “the way of thegods,” but the term was not applied until thesixth century C.E., when it was necessary to distinguishthe ancient faith from the encroachingBuddhism. Originally, Shintoism was pantheisticand had no written records or written literature,no codified laws, no traditions of philosophicalinquiry, and only a rough experience inthe arts and sciences. The early belief was that allperceptible objects were in some way alive, inhabitedby good or evil spirits. The first tales tobe composed speak of waterways, vegetation,and stones that could talk; however, this wasmore than a simple animism. 17The muchcelebratedJapanese appreciation of nature—a twisted tree, snow falling gently in the distance—cancertainly be traced back to earlyShintoism. Later, however, the original naturedeities were developed into a complex, institutionalreligion, with a priesthood, shrines, andmonasteries all embodying the cult of the Emperor,as the son of the great Sun Goddess. Fromthis conviction grew the idea of the Emperor asdivine and of Shinto as the state religion.ZEN BUDDHISMDuring the early centuries of the common era,Chinese culture, especially Confucianism, andIndian cultures by way of Buddhism, had an influencein Japan. The Confucian emphasis onloyalty was carried over into the evolving ethicalcode of the warrior class. Buddhism was introducedand changed on Japanese soil. Zen becamethe most influential sect of Buddhism inJapan. As Buddhism moved slowly across Asia, itbegan to receive influences from the different422 ◆ Chapter 19

countries through which it passed. Buddhismreached China as early as the first century C.E.and in due course passed on from China to Koreaand Japan. During these travels and transitions,Buddhism developed several divergent forms ofteaching, among them one in particular that, underits Japanese name of Zen, was destined tohave a strong influence on Western societies inthe second half of the twentieth century.Zen became the most influential sect ofBuddhism in Japan. Zen, from the ChineseChan has as one of its chief features zazen, sittingmeditation. Zen Buddhism came to serve notonly people seeking salvation and wisdom, butalso soldiers; it strengthened the soldiers’ selfdisciplineand gave them poise and courage evenin the face of death.Although Zen has its basis in MahayanaBuddhism, it returns to some of the earliest valuesemphasized in the Theravada tradition. LikeTheravada, Zen focuses on the simplicity of themoment. Reality is not transcendent but can becaptured in the fullness of the fleeting here andnow. Complete awareness of the experience ofeach moment as it comes and goes is the goal ofZen meditation.According to Zen there is no struggle in the factitself such as between the finite and the infinite,between flesh and the spirit. These are idle distinctionsfictitiously designed by the intellect forits own interest. Those who take them too seriouslyor those who try to read them into thevery fact of life are those who take the finger forthe moon. When we are hungry we eat; whenwe are sleepy we lay ourselves down; and wheredoes the infinite come in here? Are not we completein ourselves and each in himself ? Life as itis lived suffices. 18The discovery of this “reality” is the Zen goal.When questioned about life’s “meaning,”about “the reality of the Self,” about the “originsof the Universe,” or “the nature of nirvana,”the Buddha maintained a “noble silence.”This is also Zen’s way. Such questions are consideredessentially irrelevant in the attaining ofspiritual freedom. The Zen philosopher Dogentalks about the “without-thinking” mode that“neither affirms nor denies, accepts nor rejects,believes nor disbelieves.” Like the exhaustedperson leaning on the lawnmower whose eyesgaze downward, the ideal Zen mind thinks andfeels nothing specific whatsoever: “He simply isas he is, with no intentional attitude at all.” 19 Final“answers” cannot be reached by way of argumentor any so-called facts. Thus Zen attemptsto force the mind beyond the pattern of ordinarythought processes through the use of the koan,a nonsensical statement or question for whichthere is no logical response. In the use of thekoan, the intention is to force attention on thetruth that explanations in words or phrases explaining“meaning” belong to thought and languageand not to actuality. By breaking down familiardistinctions and differences, Zen followersbelieve they can bring about a grasp of the emptytransitory reality, which is a condition that transcendsall opposites. In this fashion, the discipleof Zen is pushed toward a personal experience,toward an illuminating realization of the unityof life.To be prepared for this experience, everythingin Zen—its art, poetry, philosophy, rituals,and techniques—is presented as a tool for thedestruction of our illusion that we are selves.Only with the obliteration of that self, that “temporaryindividuality,” will persons be put intouch with “the Is-ness of the Is”—the present,ordinary moment of experience.INDIVIDUAL VIRTUESAND CULTURAL VALUESThe period from about 1100 to 1600 C.E. sawthe development of the code, the Bushido, of thesamurai or warrior class, the bushi. This was atime when many of the Japanese values that havepersisted were codified. The code stressed an almostspartan life. The samurai was taught to livesimply; to seek only the necessities in food,clothing, and shelter; not to desire great possessions;to rise early and avoid idle talk; and toavoid frivolities.The code of the samurai does not differgreatly from that of the merchant and theAsian Thought ◆ 423

peasant, or worker on the land, for the warriorcode came to be accepted by all classes. Merchantsand peasants, like others in society, are expectedto be honest, to work hard, and to placepublic interest above private gain. Althoughsome character traits are generally or universallydesirable in that they apply to all people, manyduties depend on the status of the person and onhis or her social role or particular circumstances.One has different obligations to one’s father,older brother, younger brother, neighbor, mereacquaintance, or a stranger. Rigid adherence to adetailed set of social conventions is expected.Formalized behavior tends to prevent conflictsand make possible a smoothly functioning societyin which political values are primary andloyalty is the outstanding value.Japanese standards and values are basedmainly on a respect for external authority. Theauthority of the emperor, the elders, or traditionis always present. In the past, the Japanese as apeople were more willing than Westerners tomake their personal desires and wills subordinateto social standards and to accept authority.The Japanese value system and rules of conductcontain contradictory elements, as do thesystems of other societies. Conformism and thedesire for self-expression, the suppression ofemotion at times and emotional outbursts onoccasion, military ruthlessness and a basic compassionand normally peaceful ways of living—these are a few of the contradictory aspects.The end of World War II wrought manychanges in the Japanese way of life. The atomicbombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August1945 brought defeat and surrender with startlingsuddenness. Defeat seemed to deny the validityof the foundation of Japanese national life andto undermine the national morality. Japanesemoral standards, traditions, and expectationsseemed to be thrown into reverse. The Japanesesoon discovered, however, that the occupationforces were not going to exact severe termsbut were anxious to help them discover betterways of living. Furthermore, the occupationleaders assumed the superiority of democraticways. They praised freedom as the basis for matureand responsible moral decisions. What wasto become of the Japanese emphasis on conformityand authority? What was to be the basisfor moral action after the Emperor, publicly beforethe Diet (legislature) and the nation, disclaimedhis divine origin, the racial superiority ofthe Japanese people, and the divine destiny of thenation? The entire value system seemed to beshattered.Defeat, surrender, occupation, and inflationare only outstanding events in a long series ofrapid changes that Japan has been undergoingfor nearly a century. Industrialization, urbanization,secularization as a result of a weakeningof the traditional religions, the introductionof foreign ideas and ways of doing things,and modernization along many lines also haveoccurred. While undergoing rapid social andeconomic change, Japan has moved away froma closed, tradition-bound, authoritarian societytoward an open, affluent, capitalistic society patternedafter the models of Western Europe andNorth America.Reflections There are a few broad◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ differences in outlookbetween East andWest. The East and the West tend to view theobjective or natural world of the senses from differentperspectives. The West has tended in recenttimes to emphasize the empirical world, asseen in scientific progress. The Hindu thinker ismore likely to emphasize the inner nature of theself and a reality beyond the world of the senses,which is regarded as fleeting and illusory. TheBuddhist thinker, however, like the Westerner,takes account of the empirical world but focusesinstead on its transitory quality and the need fornonattachment to it.Partly as a result of differences in theories ofknowledge and views of reality, the East andWest have contrasting attitudes toward humandesires and their fulfillment. In the West, there isa tendency to emphasize desires and the need tosatisfy them. The effort to satisfy desires has led424 ◆ Chapter 19

to an interest in things and the comforts andpleasures of this world. It has led to competition,to the acquisitive society, and sometimes to unrestand even war. In the East, on the otherhand, there is greater emphasis on discipline,self-control, moderation, detachment, and evenrenunciation. Buddhism, with its claim that sufferingand misery come from desire and strivingand its stress on release from desire and the sufferingit brings, did have a strong influence inChina, Japan, and other Asian countries. Itneeds to be pointed out, however, that bothChina—with the People’s Revolution—andJapan—through adopting capitalistic goals—have reworked much of their religious heritage.Thinkers in the West put more emphasisthan do most Eastern thinkers on the reality andthe value of time. In the West, we find processphilosophies and concepts of creative evolutionand progress attractive. (Only recently haveAsian scholars become interested in processphilosophy.) Thus time has a role in Westernnotions of salvation. For the Hindu or the Buddhist,on the other hand, the good is not in thispresent world of things, and it is not to be gainedby manipulating nature, altering society, or seekingpleasure for ourselves. The good is foundthrough the quest for the One within or beyond,or in attaining liberating knowledge.People in the West tend to view nature (inthe sense of the external world) as something tobe exploited. It is used for recreation and fun,and is predominantly exploited for financial gain.Western imagery is expressed in terms of “harnessingnature,” “taming the wilderness,” or“conquering space.” Think of the problem theWest has with air and water pollution, strip mining,and the defacing of nature for purposes ofadvertising. In the Asian world a pervasive conceptis “harmony with nature.” The Asians feelthat nature is life-sustaining and gives them theirfood, shelter, and the material for their arts andsciences. There is something ineffable, a sense ofoneness, and a nature mysticism that cannot bedescribed adequately by the terms and conceptsof scientific and philosophical treatises. It isperhaps best expressed in the gardens, flowerarrangements, and the nature art of the Japanese.Apart from these differences regarding thevalue of certain kinds of knowledge, the role ofdesires, the nature of the time process, and theattitude toward nature, there is considerableagreement about morals and values. That is, thethings approved and called good and the thingsdisapproved and called evil differ only in minordetails. Love and compassion, freedom, and responsibilityare emphasized in both Eastern andWestern systems.◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Glossary TermsATMAN The Hindu concept of the soul or self afterenlightenment. The true self of each individual isidentical with Brahman. The true destiny of the selfis the realization of union with Brahman.BHAGAVADGITA A particular Hindu scripture thathas the form of a dialogue between the hero Arjunaand Krishna, an incarnation of the God Vishnu. Themost well-known of the Hindu Scriptures; called theGita and the Song of the Lord. (Sometimes writtenBhagavad-Gita.)BODHISATTVA A term used in Buddhism for a personaspiring to enlightenment, one who is a Buddhato-be;a Buddhist wise and holy person.BRAHMAN The central concept in Hindu philosophyof the impersonal supreme being or ultimate reality.The primal source and ultimate goal of all beings,with which Atman, when enlightened, knows itselfto be identical.KARMA In Hinduism, the cosmic law of sowing andreaping, of cause and effect in human life. The lawAsian Thought ◆ 425

determines the form that will be taken in each newexistence or rebirth. Action is seen as bringing upononeself inevitable results, good or bad.NIRVANA The extinction of the finite, changing,desiring self. A cessation of striving that liberates andenlightens one. The elimination of ignorance, lust,and selfishness, which are at the root of suffering.SHINTO The name given to the many activities andbeliefs of the traditional Japanese religion.TRANSLITERATION The spelling of words translatedfrom a different foreign script. For example, Arabicscript, dissimilar to the script of English words, canyield Qur’an or Koran, Muslim or Moslem, and variousEnglish spellings of “Mohammed.”UPANISHADS A group of philosophical treatises, usuallyin dialogue form, composed between the eighthand sixth centuries B.C.E. They comprise part of theHindu Scripture and represent an advance beyondthe Vedas, having as their principal message theunity of Brahman and Atman.◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Chapter ReviewTHE NATURE OF ASIAN RELIGION1. We live in a world society that desperately needssome understanding of its diversity, especiallythe great diversity among world religions.2. The peoples of Asian cultures view religion asintegrally related to and inseparable from allother areas of life and experience.THE HINDU TRADITION1. Hinduism has been practiced for some 5,000years, making it one of the oldest religious traditionsin the world.2. The purpose of Hindu philosophy is to see thetruth and to apply the truth to problems ofeveryday life.3. Hindu Scripture is extensive and when collectedincludes the Vedas and the widely readBhagavadgita.4. Four major periods of Hindu thought includeVedic polytheism; the Vedanta and the presentationof Absolute Brahman; Bhakti, or theliterature of devotional theism, including theBhagavadgita; and the modern period.5. Central to Hindu philosophy is Brahman, theone unchanging reality that transcends space,time, causality, and all particular things.6. The concept of the self, atman, is closely alliedwith Brahman.7. Four main values of Hinduism are: artha(wealth), kama sensuality, dharma (duty orrighteousness), and moksha (enlightenmentor release from finitude).8. Karma, the law of cause and effect in humanlife, determines the dharmic form that atmanwill take in each new existence.9. The four ashramas, or stages of life, are student,householder, forest dweller, and renunciant.10. Yoga is a technique of physical and spiritualtraining by which the bodily and psychic energiesare controlled, unified, and directed inorder to attain liberation from the world.THE BUDDHIST QUESTFOR ENLIGHTENMENT1. Siddhartha Gautama was the founder of Buddhism,which flourished in India for more thana thousand years. He became known as theBuddha or “Enlightened One.”2. The central core of Buddhist philosophy isfound in “The Four Noble Truths.”3. The Noble Eightfold Path can lead to nirvana,the experience of cessation of suffering, theliberation from human striving.4. Two main branches with various subdivisionsarose in Buddhism, the main divisions beingTheravada and Mahayana.426 ◆ Chapter 19

CONFUCIUS AND LAO-ZI1. Confucius and Lao-Zi attempted to organizethe wisdom of the time into a more orderly system.Philosophy among the Chinese has beenpractical and this-worldly. They emphasizedmoral problems and social philosophy.2. Traditional Chinese philosophy proposes a systemof ethical realism in which man occupies ahigh place in nature.3. Confucianism was concerned mainly with personaland social relations, whereas Daoism cultivateda sense of oneness with the order ofthe universe.MAO ZE-DONG1. Marxism may be regarded as the religion ofChina today with Mao Ze-dong as its founder.THE VALUE SYSTEM OF THE JAPANESE1. The Japanese value system began in an earlytribal society. Standards and values were basedmainly on respect for external authority, ensuringa smoothly functioning society. In Japan,since the end of World War II, there has beenconsiderable movement toward a capitalisticsociety similar to that of Western Europeand America.2. Shinto, literally “the way of the Gods,” is thename used to cover many activities and beliefs ofthe Japanese.3. Zen Buddhism, the most influential sect of Buddhismin Japan, stresses the universe as one indissolublesubstance, one total whole, of whichman is only a part. Zen focuses on everyday, ordinaryexperience, on living the experience ofeach moment.4. Individual virtues and cultural values are reflectedin the Bushido code and respect forexternal authority; however, contradictoryelements can be found, as in systems ofother societies.REFLECTIONS1. There are basic sources of misunderstanding betweenEast and West: economic and technologicaldifferences; contrasting ideals; differences inoutlook on reality and satisfying desires; respectivedifferences concerning time, and attitudestoward nature.2. The things approved and disapproved differ inminor details; there is considerable agreementabout morals and values.◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Study Questions and Projects1. Judaism and Christianity are Middle Eastern inorigin. To what extent do their value systemsagree with and differ from the Asian philosophiesconsidered in this chapter?2. Discuss briefly the differences between East andWest in their attitude toward sense perception,human desires, the time process, and the worldof nature.3. What are some conclusions to be drawn from astudy of the value systems of the Occident andAsia? What are some contributions Asia canmake to the Occident, and vice versa?4. Why is it important to study Asian philosophies?What problems are involved in makingsuch studies?5. Discuss the following in the Hindu tradition:the aim of studying philosophy; the relationsamong Brahman, the self, and the universe; thegoal of life and the steps to achieve it.6. What are the four main values in the Hindu outlookon life?7. Give the distinctive characteristics of Indianphilosophy.8. Discuss the following in Buddhism: what it acceptsand rejects in Hinduism; the Three Marksof Existence; the Four Noble Truths; the EightfoldPath; and Nirvana.9. What are some virtues or character traits that arestressed by Buddhists?Asian Thought ◆ 427

10. Discuss the place of philosophy and the generalvalue system found in traditional Chinese civilization,especially under Confucianism.11. What is the relation between nature, the individual,and the good society in traditional Chinesethought?12. Discuss the elements, native and foreign, thatcontributed to the Japanese value system.13. Explain the crisis in the area of values faced byJapan in this century, and the way the crisis isbeing met.14. Write a term paper on “The Functions of Mythin Hebraic and Asian scriptures.”15. Write an essay, “The Religion of MaoZe-dong.”◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Suggested ReadingsDavis, W. Japanese Religion and Society: Paradigmsof Structure and Change. Albany, N.Y.: StateUniversity of New York Press, 1992.The author provides an important and timelystudy of the interrelationships between Japanesereligion and society.Dumoulin, H. Zen Enlightenment, Origins andMeaning. New York: Weatherhill, 1979.An historical and philosophical introduction toZen Buddhism that uses primary texts to focuson Zen experience.Forman, R. K. C. (ed.). Religions of the World. 3rded. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993.Written by scholars in their respective areasof specialization, this text provides a detailedoverview of significant faiths of the past and ofthe major religions of the world today.Hardacre, H. Shinto and the State: 1868–1988.Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,1989.Important Japanese religion–state issues duringthe nineteenth and twentieth centuries arediscussed.Hiriyana, M. Essentials of Indian Philosophy. Flushing,N.Y.: Asia Book Corporation 1978.A classic treatment of six major philosophicaltraditions of India.Kalupahana, D. J. Buddhist Philosophy: A HistoricalAnalysis. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii,1976.This introduction to Buddhism examines its basicphilosophical teachings and historical development.The author’s orientation is primarilyphilosophical.Kasulis, T. Zen Action/Zen Person. Honolulu: Universityof Hawaii Press, 1985.This book on Zen Buddhism is unmatched forits clarity and precision.Kitagawa, J., and Cummings, M. (eds.). Buddhismin Asian History. New York: Macmillan, 1989.A collection of essays appropriate for studentsinterested in further information on various featuresof Buddhism.Klostermaier, K. K. A Survey of Hinduism. Albany,N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1989.A recent scholarly exploration.Munro, D. J. The Concept of Man in Early China.Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press,1969.An excellent discussion of Confucianism andDaoism, focusing on issues of the human mind,equality, and the nature of society. In 1977 TheConcept of Man in Contemporary China followedfrom the University of Michigan Press.Nishida, K. An Inquiry into the Good. New Haven,Conn.: Yale University Press, 1990.An important work for understanding modernJapanese thought as written by a preeminentJapanese philosopher.428 ◆ Chapter 19

Pas, J. F. (ed.). The Turning of the Tide: Religionin China Today. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1990.A critical examination of various aspects of thepresent state of religion in China.Raju, P. T. Introduction to Comparative Philosophy.Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois UniversityPress, 1970.This paperback, written by an outstandingIndian philosopher, examines both Asian andWestern world views.Rice, E. Eastern Definitions. Garden City, N.Y.:Doubleday, 1978.This short encyclopedia of Asian religions definesterms from Hinduism, Sufism, Buddhism, Islam,Zen, Daoism, the Sikhs, and Zoroastrianism.◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆Notes1. Carl J. Jung, from N. W. Ross, Three Ways ofAsian Wisdom (New York: Simon and Schuster,1966), p. 9.2. R. K. C. Forman, (ed.)., Religions of the World,3rd ed. (New York: St. Martin’s, 1993), p. 83.3. For a more detailed look at these periods, seeKlaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism(Albany: State University of New York Press,1989).4. N. Smart, The Religious Experience of Mankind,3rd ed. (New York: Scribner’s, 1985), p. 126.We advise any student of religion to refer to thisbook.5. M. Hiriyanna, The Essentials of Indian Philosophy(London: Allen and Unwin, 1949), p. 158.6. See V. S. Naravane, Modern Indian Thought:A Philosophical Survey (London: Asia PublishingHouse, 1964).7. S. Radhakrishnan, and C. A. Moore, eds., ASource Book in Indian Philosophy (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1957), pp. xx–xxvi.8. See David Little and Sumner B. Twiss, “Religionand Morality in Theravada Buddhism,”in Charles S. Prebish, ed., Buddhist Ethics:A Cross-Cultural Approach (Dubuque, Iowa:Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1992),p. 60.9. We discuss Zen Buddhism, one of the mostimportant divisions of Buddhism, later in thischapter under The Value System of the Japanese,pp. 422–24.10. Quoted in C. A. Moore, ed., Essays in East-WestPhilosophy (Honolulu: University of HawaiiPress, 1951), p. 301. (East–West Philosophers’Conference.)11. F. C. M. Wei, The Spirit of Chinese Culture(New York: Scribner’s, 1947), p. 91.12. See Chapter 12 for an introduction to thedialectical materialism of Marx.13. Mao Tse-tung, “On Contradiction” (1937), inSelected Works of Mao Tse-tung, Vol. I (Peking:Foreign Language Press, 1961–1965), pp.314–15.14. Lin Piao, “Foreword to the Second Edition,”Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung(Peking: The East Is Red Publishing House,1967), pp. vii, ix.15. E. Snow, The Long Revolution (New York: RandomHouse, 1972), p. 169.16. For much of this discussion we are indebted toa fine, arresting introduction to Mao’s China:R. H. Solomon, A Revolution Is Not a DinnerParty (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press,Doubleday, 1975).17. See Chapter 17, p. 362.18. Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism(First Series) (New York: Grove Press, 1961),p. 19.19. T. P. Kasulis, Zen Action/Zen Person (Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press, 1985), p. 75.Asian Thought ◆ 429