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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306PREFACEThis manual covers the general principles of nontactical wheeled vehicle operation. It also describes specialinstructions for tactical vehicle operation. Military and civilian drivers of government-owned vehicles will usethis manual as a guide for safe and efficient operation of a vehicle.Instructions in this manual will help the wheeled vehicle driver maintain a high degree of driving efficiency.This manual does not restrict its contents to any particular vehicle. It is a guide to normal everyday operationsand to driving under difficult conditions. When more information is needed for a specific vehicle, check thetechnical manual written for that vehicle.The proponent of this publication is the US Army Transportation School. Send comments and recommendationson DA Form 2028 (Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) directly to Commandant,US Army Transportation School, ATTN: ATSP-TDR Fort Eustis, VA 23604-5389. Air Force personnel submitAF Form 847 (Recommendation for Change of Publication) to HQ USAF/LGTV, The Pentagon, Room 4B238,Washington, D. C. 20330-5130.This publication implements the following international agreements:STANAG 2002, Marking of Contaminated or Dangerous Load Areas, Complete Equipments,Supplies and Stores (Edition 6).STANAG 2025, Basic Military Road Traffic Regulations (Edition 5).Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.vii

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 1BASIC REGULATIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIESThe military and civilian vehicle driver must meetspecific qualifications to be certified He must knowhis responsibilities and be familiar with the formsthat pertain to vehicle operation.OFFICIAL USE REQUIREMENT“Official use” is defined as the employment orauthorization of employment of a governmentmotor vehicle (owned, leased, or rented, ifrequired) in the discharge or performance of anofficial duty, function, or service. (Certain restrictionson using government vehicles are also contained inAR 58-1 and AFM 77-310, Volume 1.)The law provides penalties for the willful use orauthorization of any government-owned,government-leased, or government-rented motorvehicle for other than official purposes. Civilianemployees who misuse government vehicles willhave action taken in accordance with the CivilianPersonnel Manual. Penalties for military personnelare prescribed in the Uniform Code ofMilitary Justice.IDENTIFICATION CARDA valid motor vehicle license issued in any of the 50states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, orsimilar licensing jurisdiction will be sufficientqualification for military and civilian personnelto operate commercially-designed, generalpurposevehicles up to 1 1/2-ton cargo trucks.Personnel who operate vehicles in excess of 14,000pounds gross vehicle weight (GVW) must possessan AF Form 2293 (US Air Force Motor VehicleOperator Identification Card) (Figure 1-1), aDA Form 5984-E (Operator’s IdentificationCard) (Figure 1-2), or an OF 346 (US GovernmentMotor Vehicle Operator’s Identification Card)(Figure 1-3), if units do not possess ComputerAssisted Transportation Systems (CATS) orUnit Level Logistics System (ULLS) hardwareand software. Personnel performing either temporaryor permanent change-of-station duty inUnited States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE)require an AF Form 2293 or OF 346.The OF 346 or AF Form 2293 is your officialoperator’s card Your card shows types of vehiclesyou are qualitled to operate. All limitations may alsobe indicated on your operator ID card, such as“Valid Only with Glasses.” Do not operate vehiclesyou have not been trained on or authorized tooperate. Be sure to sign your card when it is issuedto you and keep it with you whenever you drive.The OF 346 or AF Form 2293 is good only foroperating government vehicles that have beenproperly dispatched. It is not valid for operatingprivately owned vehicles or for driving when yourstate operator’s permit has been revoked orsuspended. Keep your OF 346 or AF Form 2293current at all times.For Army Only: DA Form 5984-E is your officialoperator’s card if you are a ULLS user. See theULLS users manual ADSM-18-L3N-AWA-ZTH-EUM for complete information concerningmaintenance.QUALIFICATION RECORDDA Form 348 (Figure 1-4) or ULLS computergeneratedDA Form 5983-E (Equipment OperatorQualification Record [Except Aircraft]) (Figure 1-5),and AF Form 22% (Vehicle Operator Information[Part 3]) (Figure 1-6) provide the means for recordingthe complete history of your driving qualificationsand equipment-operating experience. Required foreach equipment operator, DA Form 348, DA Form5983-E, or AF Form 22% reflects your qualifications,experience, performance, and test results.(For complete information concerning maintenanceof DA Form 348, refer to AR 600-55. For informationconcerning maintenance of DA Form 5983-Erefer to ULLS end user manual ADSM-18-L3N-AWA-ZTH-EUM.)1-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306AUTHORIZATION FORMVehicles are assigned to drivers by means of a dispatchform. This form is issued to you when you aredispatched on any type of motorized vehicle. It isyour authorization to operate that particular vehicle,and it must be kept current. You must have a validauthorization in your vehicle whenever you are ondispatch.For Army Only: DD Form 1970 (Motor EquipmentUtilization Record) (or for ULLS users,DA Form 5983-E) is your dispatch authorizationform for Army vehicles.DRIVER QUALIFICATIONSTo be a military or civilian driver, you must–Be qualified and licensed.Be physically, mentally, and emotionally stable.Be informed about the vehicle and the localtraffic laws.Have sound knowledge of driving techniques.Have sufficient experience, evidenced by goodsafety habits and driving skills.Have a courteous and responsible driverattitude.1-2

FM 21-306/AFMAN 24-306skills. Obey instructions given to you by your com-mander or supervisor and the person delegated torelay them. Maintain a neat appearance and prac-tice courtesy.The mission of the armed services depends on youand your vehicle for mobility. Your unit’s successdepends to a great extent on how good you are atyour job. Apply yourself, your knowledge, and your1-3

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306DRIVER RESPONSIBILITIESAs a driver, you are responsible for–Safely operating your vehicle and complyingwith applicable federal, state, local and hostnationlaws and regulations.Doing before-, during-, and after-operation inspectionsof your vehicle.Following all operator maintenance outlined inthe appropriate vehicle technical manual(Army) or order (Air Force).Caring for and cleaning your vehicle and itsequipment at all times.Ensuring the safety and comfort of your passengers(includes ensuring — that seat andshoulder belts are fastened). The senior occupantwill ensure that passengers comply. Fornontactical vehicles, passengers are seate withsafety strap in place.Ensuring the security of the vehicle and cargoentrusted to you.Exercising common sense.Notifying your supervisor/NCO of any change inyour status, for example, inability to drive dueto physical condition or withdrawal of your stateoperator’s license.The life expectancy and capability of your vehicledepend on you. Remember, you are subject to correctiveaction by your commander for incidents ofabuse, misuse, and damage to unit-assigned vehicles(AR 58-1, AFR 77-4).CAUTIONFor Air Force Only: As a vehicle operatoryou may be required to operate two-wayradio equipment. Do not attempt to operatethe two-way radio equipment in your vehicleunless you have been instructed to do so.Your supervisor will determine whether youare qualified to efficiently operate thisequipment. He will furnish local standardprocedures, codes, and so forth which maybe published in base directives or Air Forcepublication supplements.1-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306FUEL-EFFICIENT OPERATIONAs a qualified vehicle operator, you should operateyour vehicle in the most fuel-efficient manner. To doso, you must adopt a fuel-conservation attitude. Applyingthese tips will help develop this attitude:Plan trips to avoid unnecessary “cold starts.”Consolidate short trips whenever possible.Reduce vehicle’s cool-down time, and selectyour route with consideration for terrain,weather, and type of vehicle.Maintain your vehicle with particular attentionto proper tire inflation, brakes grabbingor pulling, oil and lubrication specifications,and tune-ups.Adhere to speed limits when driving lowerspeeds not only reduce air resistance but alsoare safer.1-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 2TRAFFIC CONTROLSThis chapter implements STANAG 2025.Except when specifically directed otherwise,military and civilian drivers must comply with all civiltraffic laws and ordinances. Civilian traffic policehave full authority for regulating all traffic in townsand on public roads. Military police have fullauthority over all military vehicles wherever theymay be.TRAFFIC CONTROLLERSCivilian and military police normally control trafficusing a system of signs, signals, devices, and markings.When an authorized official (police, trafficwarden military police) is directing traffic, obey hiSsignals rather than traffic lights or signs. A trafficofficial usually signals traffic to stop by holding uphis hands, palms toward traffic, and by giving a longblast on his whistle. To start traffic, he motions withhis hand and arm toward the direction of travel,giving two initial short blasts on his whistle. He usesthree blasts or a series of short blasts on his whistleto warn any motorists or pedestrians of unusual ordangerous conditions, approaching emergency, andso forth. At night, visual signals may be given with aflashlight or lighted traffic baton or wand. Flagmenat railroad crossings or road construction sites useflags or color-coded sign paddles. When driving inhost nations, drivers need to understand the visualand audible signals used by traffic control personnel.(See Appendix A.)SIGNALSYou must be familiar with three categories of signalscommonly used to control traffic. First, you mustknow the meaning and proper use of those handsignals common to both military and civilian drivers.Second, you must know the hand signals used bypolice to control traffic. Third, you must know thesignals used to control military vehicles in convoy.(See Appendix B.)Signaling DistanceAlways signal in advance of making a turn or stopping.If you do not signal until you have alreadystarted to turn or stop, you might as well not signal.By that time, it is too late for other drivers to takewhatever action may be necessary. The law usuallyrequires you to signal at least 100 feet in advance.This is the minimum distance. The faster you aregoing the farther in advance you should signal.Your signaling distance should never be less thanthe distance required for stopping or slowingdown sufficiently to make a turn. For example, asignal for a stop when you are traveling 40 MPHshould never be given less than 140 feet in advanceof the stop. When driving on the open highway, agood rule is to give all signals at least 300 feet inadvance.Hand SignalsHand signals are given with the left hand and armout the driver’s window of left-hand drive vehicles(Figure 2-1). The signal for stopping and slowingdown is given by pointing the arm and hand down,palm back. The left turn signal is given by pointingthe arm and hand straight out, palm forward Theright turn signal is given by pointing the arm andhand straight up from the elbow, palm forward.Make your signals clearly. You cannot be understoodif you merely put your hand lazily out of thewindow. Be careful not to give signals that you donot mean. Some drivers rest their elbows on thewindowsill and idly tap the top of the vehicle withtheir fingers. To drivers behind them, this may looklike a right-turn signal. Other drivers let their handstrail out the window holding a cigarette. If you dothis, the driver behind may think you are slowingdown or stopping. If the vehicle you are driving hasno turn signals and the cargo bed is wider than thecab, stretch your arm out as far as possible whensignaling to make sure your signal is visible to the2-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306driver following you. When giving a hand signal fora turn, finish signaling before you actually make theturn so that you can have both hands on the wheel.Electrical SignalsAlmost all vehicles have at least one electrical signal—the stoplight at the rear which goes on when the driverdepresses the brake pedal. The stoplight does notalways take the place of the hand signal for stoppingor slowing down. Many times you slow downwithout using your brakes. Many other times, especiallyif you are a good driver, you start using yourbrakes only in the last feet of travel. Furthermore,the stoplight may not be visible except to the driverof the vehicle immediately behind you.Turn SignalsThese flashing-light signals are usually legal substitutesfor hand signals, but there are times whenthey are hard to see. In late afternoon and earlyevening, the lenses may reflect the light of the sun,making it very difficult to tell whether the signalsare flashing or not. On the other hand, a flashinglightsignal is much more likely to be seen at nightthan a hand signal. The important thing is that thesignal be clearly seen. Therefore, the method ofsignaling should depend on light conditions andlegal requirements. A good rule is to use both handsignals and flashing-light signals in the daytime(especially when the sun is low) and to use flashinglightsignals at night.Emergency FlashersFour-way flasher lights are used to warn other trafficof a vehicle halted due to an emergency in a trafficlane or on the shoulder adjacent to a traffic lane.When a vehicle halts in an authorized space,flasher lights are normally not used. Most statesprohibit their use on a vehicle in motion excepton emergency vehicles. Four-way flasher lightsare not a substitute for warning devices containedin the highway warning kit.For Air Force Only: Vehicles operating on theflight line, such as maintenance servicing vehicles,may use the four-way flasher where authorizedinstead of nonrevolving, pulsating hazard warninglights prescribed by TO 36-1-3.HornWhat should you do if you see a vehicle comingfrom the opposite direction turn suddenly out intoyour lane? Apply your brakes and blow your hornat the same time. Your horn is the best means youhave of alerting a temporarily inattentive driver toyour presence. It immediately enlists his aid inattempting to avoid a collision instead of leavingthe whole burden on you. Use your horn alsowhenever you have to come out of a blind alley ordriveway, when you come to curves on mountainousroads where visibility is limited, and immediatelybefore backing.Use your horn courteously. A long blast is usuallyunnecessary. Pressing the horn button lightly onceor twice will ordinarily serve to get the attention ofanother driver or pedestrian. The only lawful useof the horn is as a reasonable warning device.Never use it to greet friends or express irritation ata delay or at another driver’s errors.Other SignalsIn addition to hand and electrical signals, driversare constantly signaling to each other merely by theposition of their vehicles on the road. When yousee a driver move toward the center of the roadyou assume that he is about to turn left or pull outto pass. When you see him move toward the right,you assume that he is going to turn right or stop.2-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Whether you realize it or not, you are guided by theposition signaling of other drivers. Misleading positionsignals are as dangerous as misleading handsignals. The driver who pulls to the right beforeturning left is inviting an accident because he is, ineffect, misinforming other drivers of his intentions.TRAFFIC SIGNALSNo traffic signal is more important than the trafficlight (Figure 2-2). Few drivers actually run throughred lights. Their common sense usually keeps themfrom that. They speed up as they approach a greenlight to make sure they get through before it turnsred; or when stopped at a red light, they watch thegreen light showing in the opposite direction andstart to move into the intersection as soon as theyellow appears. This practice often results in anaccident.TRAFFIC SIGNSThe United States is moving toward an internationalsystem of traffic signs that emphasizes picturesand symbols rather than written messages.Symbolic signs are not entirely new. The familiarcurve and crossroad symbols have been used formany years. Symbols have several advantagesover word messages. They provide almost instantcommunication to the driver since they can beunderstood at a glance without having to be read.Also, they overcome language barriers. Familiaritywith the symbolic signs will help military driversoperating in overseas areas. International signs andmarkings are discussed in Appendixes A and B(STANAG 2025).On signs that contain messages in words, color andshape provide the driver with information at firstglance before he is close enough to read the words(Figures 2-5 through 2-6).International Traffic SignsThis system of road signs was agreed upon at theUnited Nations Conference on Road and MotorTransport in September 1949. It was the UnitedNations’ desire to ensure safety and to facilitateinternational road traffic by adopting a uniformsystem of road signaling. Although these signs arenot military, Army personnel should be familiarwith them since they are used in most overseasareas. Dimensions of signs are standardized ineach country to ensure maximum uniformity. (SeeAppendix A.)International Military Route Signs(NATO)North Atlantic Treaty Organization countries havestandardized road signs. These signs are shown andexplained in GTA 55-3-20. (See Appendixes A and B.)2-3

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306PAVEMENT MARKINGSRoad markings guide and warn drivers, as well asregulate traffic. Markings may be either yellow orwhite and used alone or in combination. Each hasa different meaning. Yellow centerlines indicatethat there is two-way traffic flowing in oppositedirections. White lines separate lanes of trafficgoing in the same direction.Pavement markings are widely used to control theflow of traffic (Figure 2-7). These markings may beused to indicate—The middle of the road.Nonpassing and passing zones by using a solidline for a nonpassing zone and a broken linefor a passing zone.Crosswalks, reduced speed zones, schoolzones, and approaches to railroad crossings.2-8

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 3SPEED CONTROLSpeed not only makes accidents more likely, but alsomakes death in accidents more likely. There areseveral statutes in the law book dealing with speed.The most important and common sense rule is: NOPERSON SHALL DRIVE A VEHICLE ON AHIGHWAY AT A SPEED GREATER THAN ISREASONABLE AND PRUDENT UNDER THEEXISTING CONDITIONS. However, conditionsare constantly changing and it may be necessary todrive slower than the posted speed limit.Although many improvements have been made insafety equipment on vehicles, the most importantsafety factor in any vehicle is the control the driverhas over the machine. The faster the vehicle goesand the more of that control the driver gives up,the less chance he has of avoiding an accident andthe more deadly the accident will be. Accidentstatistics show that speed is a factor in one-fifth ofall accidents and in almost half of the fatal accidents.Speed affects your ability to turn, pass, slow down,and stop. Nothing is more important to safe drivingthan careful control of speed.STOPPINGThe following factors affect your ability to bring yourvehicle to a stop:Type and condition of road surface, such asconcrete, asphalt, or gravel.Foreign material on the road, such as ice, snow,leaves, or mud.Road configuration, such as uphill or downhill,straight, curve, high crown, or dip.Tire condition, such as type and condition oftread and tire inflation.Brakes, such as type and state of repair andadjustment.For any speed, the distance required to stop avehicle in an emergency depends on three things–driver perception time, driver reaction time, andvehicle stopped time. During driver perceptiontime and driver reaction time, the vehicle slowsdown very little because the brakes have not yet beenapplied.Perception DistancePerception distance is that distance traveledbetween the time a dangerous situation is firstseen by the driver and the time he actuallyrecognizes it as being dangerous. This timevaries widely in different situations. The distancetraveled will vary with the speed of thevehicle and the individual mental response ofthe driver.Reaction DistanceReaction distance is that distance traveled by avehicle during which the driver determines thepreventive action to be taken and actually setsthe vehicle controls in motion. In stopping, itwould include the time required to move the footfrom the accelerator to the brake pedal. Someemergencies require complex reactions involvingdecisions to turn, increase speed, or stop and consequentlyrequire increased time for the driver todecide how to react.Braking DistanceAbility to slow down depends on how hard andsteadily the operator presses the brake, how efficientthe brakes are compared to the weight of the vehicleand its load and how slippery the road surface is.Most vehicles can be stopped on a dry road surfacewithin the distance required by state laws, but snow,ice, rain, and gravel reduce the vehicle’s stoppingability and increase the distance necessary to bringthe vehicle to a complete stop.Vehicles equipped with air brakes take additionaltime because it takes the air time to travel through3-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306down, a driver may often avoid a collision by swerv-ing to one side. It is normally safer to swerve to theright than to the left. It is better to run off the roadto the right than to collide head on. However, aspeeding vehicle cannot be turned sharply withoutthe risk of turning over. The faster a vehicle is goingthe more distance it takes to turn safely from astraight path.the system to engage the brakes. This is called brakelag. The distance the vehicle travels during thebrake lag is called brake lag distance.AVOIDING COLLISIONSMany times you can avoid a collision merely byslowing down. Even after it is too late to stop or slow3-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 4GOOD DRIVING PRACTICESFifty years ago, when there were few vehicles androads were narrow, there were two simple trafficrules. One required a driver to turn to the rightwhen meeting a vehicle coming from the oppositedirection. The other required him to turn to the leftwhen overtaking and passing a vehicle going in thesame direction. At other times, a driver could usethe center or any other part of the road. It is easy toimagine the confusion and wreckage that wouldresult if these were the only rules followed today.OBEYING THE RULES OF THE ROADRules of the road are standardized throughout theUnited States to promote highway safety. However,they may be modified by local laws and ordinancesor by appropriate civil or military authority. Suchmodifications will be normally indicated by trafficcontrol personnel or by signs or markings. Driverswill be informed of applicable rules and variationswhen operating outside the continental UnitedStates.The following are the general rules of the road formilitary and civilian drivers:Operate vehicles on the right of the highway,giving approaching traffic at least one-half ofthe road unless conditions or directions indicateotherwise. When overtaking and passing othervehicles, pass to the left and remain on the leftuntil safely clear of the overtaken vehicle. However,DO NOT overtake and pass anothervehicle unless the left side of the road is clearlyvisible and free of oncoming traffic. Ensure thatyou have sufficient distance to pass and safelyreturn to the right without coming within 100feet of an approaching vehicle. You may passon the right when the vehicle you are passinghas signaled and is making a left turn. Becautious because the vehicle may block yourview and another driver’s view of you. Youmay also pass on the right if you are on a streetor highway designed for two or more lanes oftraffic in both directions or on a one-waystreet with at least two lanes. Under suchconditions, keep movement from one lane toanother to the minimum. If you must changelanes, signal your intentions, and then ensurethat such movement can be made safely anddoes not interfere with the movement of trafficin other lanes. You may not pass on the right ifyou must drive off the pavement or the mainportion of the roadway to get around anothervehicle.DO NOT start, stop, or turn a vehicle from itscourse on the highway without ensuring thatmaking such a change is reasonably safe. Also,give adequate warning of your intentions. Makea visual survey of the traffic that may be affectedby the movement of your vehicle. You mustknow how to judge the speed of oncomingvehicles and the effect of your movement uponeither their speed or direction. Give clear warningsignals that are standard, appropriate toyour intentions, and timed to give reasonablewarning. A proper signal of intention to turnright or left will be given continuously during notless than the last 100 feet traveled by the vehiclebefore turning. To turn right at an intersection,approach the turn at the extreme right of thetraveled way and make the turn itself as close tothe right as practicable. To turn left, approachthe turn to the right of, and close to, the centerline,leaving the intersection to the right of thecenterline of the entered road An exception isa one-way road which will be entered to the leftof the centerline. A turn to reverse the directionof a vehicle will not be made unless a vehicleapproaching from either direction can see themovement from a distance of 500 feet.Observe the rules of right-of-way with judgmentand courtesy. The safe driver gives the right-ofwayrather than taking it. In general, when twovehicles enter an intersection at about the sametime, the vehicle on the left yields the right-ofwayto the vehicle on the right. Always yieldright-of-way to the first vehicle arriving at anintersection. When entering a through highwayfrom a secondary road, give the right-of-way totraffic on the main thoroughfare. Fire, police,4-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306and emergency vehicles have the right-of-wayover all other vehicles. However, military emergencyvehicles are required to be operated withdue regard for life, property, and traffic laws.Obey directions given by traffic control personnelor signs regardless of conflict with thegeneral rules quoted.Highway speeds to be observed under normalconditions vary somewhat from state to state.These speeds are generally posted on regulatorysigns with warnings where reduction in speed isdirected. Safe highway speeds are determined byanalysis of traffic, highway design, and populationdensities. Posted speed indicates the results of suchanalysis under conditions of average traffic, drypavement, and good visibility. At no time shouldvehicles be operated in excess of posted limits.Driver judgment should be consciously developed todetermine speeds suitable to other conditions.Safe driving requires constant adjustment tochanging driving conditions. The military driverwill be trained to judge and maintain safe followingdistances to ensure adequate reaction timeand stopping distances at any speed and undervarying conditions.DRIVING ON THE RIGHTOn two-lane roads, the law requires you to driveon the right-hand side of the road, not only whenmeeting another vehicle, but also as a general rule.Driving on the left-hand side of the road is permittedonly in certain situations, such as passing. Thedanger of ignoring this law is obvious. Yet, morethan one-seventh of fatal accidents are the result ofhead-on and sideswipe collisions, the kind thatoccur because a driver is on the wrong side of theroad. Driving with a portion of your vehicle on thewrong side is a violation of this law.Why do people drive on the wrong side of the road?One reason is speed When a person is driving fast,he wants to be sure that he has plenty of room.Because he senses the danger of running off theside of the road, he instinctively moves toward thecenter. In avoiding one danger, the driver exposeshimself to another. A second reason people driveon the wrong side of the road is that they fail toconcentrate on driving. Their minds are occupiedwith conversation, with settling a quarrel, worrying,or trying to remember detailed instructions given bytheir supervisors – everything except driving. Theireyes may be off the road and on a passenger in theback seat. The military vehicle driver will refrainfrom unnecessary conversation while driving. Whenyou are driving, give all your attention to it.HANDLING CURVESWhen thinking of vehicle accidents, people arelikely to think of one vehicle crashing into another.Thousands of people are killed each year incollisions between vehicles, but more are killedin one-vehicle accidents. A driver loses control ofhis vehicle, skids off the road and careens into atelephone pole, or his vehicle turns over and over asit rolls down an embankment into a ditch. A curveis a likely place for this kind of accident.If you took physics in school you learned two rulesabout moving bodies:Moving bodies tend to remain in motion.Moving bodies tend to follow a straight path.To make a moving body follow a curved path, youhave to use force to overcome its natural tendencyto follow a straight one. A vehicle on a curve is amoving body with a natural tendency to go straightahead. At each point on the curve the driver mustuse force to keep the vehicle turning. The naturaltendency to go straight ahead increases much morerapidly than the speed. At 60 MPH, it takes ninetimes as much force to keep a vehicle turning as itdoes at 20 MPH.More important, effective steering depends on thetraction between the road and the tires. Tractionrefers to the tendency of the rubber of the tire tostick to the road instead of slipping and sliding overit. The part of a tire in contact with the road at anyone time is about the size of the sole of a shoe. Foursmall patches of rubber are the only connectionbetween the road and the vehicle.Anyone who has ever been in a skid knows thattraction can be broken. Whenever the tendency ofthe vehicle to travel in a straight line becomes toopowerful for the traction holding the vehicle on thecurve, the tires slide on the road and the vehiclestarts to skid.4-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306The force represented by the natural tendency of thevehicle to follow a straight line is opposed by theforce you place on the steering wheel to turn thevehicle. These opposing forces can cause you to losecontrol of the vehicle. The only thing you can do toprevent skidding is to drive slowly enough to makethe curve safely. (Chapter 9 discusses what to do ifyou go into a skid.)When driving on a curve, do the following:As you approach a curve, slow down enough sothat after you are in the curve, you can keep yourengine pulling and maintain your speed.Do not wait until you are in the curve to applyyour brakes.If you must apply your brakes in a curve, becareful. Use a gentle pumping motion until youare sure it is safe to keep continuous pressureon the pedal.Start turning your wheels just before you reachthe point at which the road begins to turn.Once in a curve, stay on your own side of theroad and stay as far over as you reasonably can.Do not try to make a curve easier by cuttingacross the lane of oncoming traffic.Maintain a moderate speed and the curve willbe easy enough to handle on your side of theroad.You cannot judge the next curve by the last one.Roads with uniformly sharp or gentle curves areprobably safer than roads with curves of varyingdegrees. But on most roads, curves vary a good deal.Assume that unfamiliar curves are sharp. You canalways speed up if you are wrong, but you may notalways be able to slow down.USING SELECTIVE VISIONSafe drivers must know what is going on at all timesaround their vehicle. Not looking properly is amajor cause of accidents. All drivers look ahead,but many do not look far enough ahead. Stoppingor changing lanes can take a lot of distance; so youmust know what the traffic is doing on all sides ofyou. You must look far ahead to be sure you haveroom to move safely.Most good drivers look 12 to 15 seconds aheadThat means looking ahead the distance you willtravel in 12 to 15 seconds. At lower speeds, that isabout one block; at highway speeds, about a quarterof a mile. If you do not look that far ahead, you mayhave to stop too quickly or change lanes quickly.Looking 12 to 15 seconds ahead does not mean notpayuing attention to closer things. Good driversshift their attention back and forth, near and far.Look for vehicles coming onto the highway, intoyour lane, or turning. Watch for brake lights fromslow moving vehicles. By seeing these things farenough ahead, you can change your speed or changelanes if necessary to avoid a problem. Look for hills,curves, or anything for which you must slowdown orchange lanes. Pay attention to traffic signals andsigns. If a light has been green for a long time, it willprobably change before you get there. Start slowingdown and be ready to stop. Traffic signs may alertyou to road conditions where you may have tochange speed.TURNING LEFTSometimes when you are making a left turn at anintersection, your vision of traffic coming from theright will be obstructed by a passenger sitting besideyou on the front seat. If your vehicle is equippedwith individual bucket seats, adjusting the passengerseat several inches backward of the driver’s seat willgive you abetter view to the right. If the vehicle hasa standard seat, you may have to lean forward to seearound your passenger. If necessary, ask him to leanback to give you a better view.Be sure there is enough space to turn left. Whenturning left –Signal your intent to turn and slow down.If there are two left turn lanes, take the righthandturn lane.Be sure you are in the center of the intersection.Start to turn only after you are sure yourvehicle’s rear will clear the centerline.4-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Be sure there is an adequate gap to turn in frontof traffic.Watch your vehicle’s progress in the side mirrors.Steer the vehicle wide of the lane, if necessary.When the vehicle’s wheels are into the lane,steer left to put the vehicle in the lane andstraighten up.If applicable, watch for oncoming traffic.Cancel your signal.TURNING RIGHTBefore making any turns, signal your intention atleast 100 feet ahead of the intersection. Whenmaking a right turn –Be sure there is enough space to turn right.Signal your intent to turn and slow downgradually as you approach the turn.Be sure to let oncoming traffic clear before youmake your turn.Stay as close as possible to the right edge of theroad or street.Never swerve to the left before turning right.Position your vehicle in the right-hand lane.Keep your vehicle’s rear close to the curb. Donot turn wide to the left as you start the turn; thedriver behind you might think you are turningleft.Pull forward into the intersection past the rightcorner; you must do this so the vehicle’s rearwheels can clear the curb. Turn the steeringwheel hard to the right.Check your vehicle’s progress using the rightside mirrors.Watch oncoming cars if swinging wide into theleft or oncoming lane.Cancel your signal.If the speed is right the turn should be easily madewithout swerving. If your tires squeal when you turn,it is likely that you are trying to take the turn too fast.ABSTAINING FROM ALCOHOL ANDOTHER DRUGSDrinking is a factor in at least half of the fatal motorvehicle accidents in the United States. Most of thepeople involved in these accidents did not haveenough to drink to be considered drunk, but there isreason to believe that the driver who has had a drinkor two may be more dangerous than the one who isclearly drunk. He usually does not realize that hisdriving ability is impaired. He often thinks he candrive better. “Whiskey courage” is an old story. Onthe highway, it is a tragic one.Alcohol is not the only drug that impairs drivingability. Barbiturates, antihistamines, and othermedicines in common use may cause drowsiness. Ifyou are uncertain about the effects of a particularmedicine, check with your doctor or druggist beforetaking it. If he says that it may make you sleepy, donot take it before driving. You must stay alert to stayalive.Narcotics may dull the senses, induce profoundsleep, or cause stupor, coma, or convulsions. Effectson the central nervous system include hilarity,carelessness, talkativeness, euphoria, distortionof sensation and perception, impairment ofjudgment and memory, distortion of emotionalresponsiveness, irritability, and confusion. Youcannot take drugs and operate your vehicle safely.RESTINGIf you have experienced loss of sleep or for someother reason feel an unusual sleepiness to the pointthat you think your driving may be unsafe, notify yoursupervisor. He will adjust your duties accordingly.This does not excuse you from keeping yourselfphysically capable of performing your duty, andrepeated incidents will require a physical checkupand/or disciplinary action.For Army Only:Drivers will not be assigned todrive military vehicles for more than 10 continuoushours. They will not have a combined duty period(driving plus other duties) longer than 12 hours in4-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306It is generally a good idea to pass at a speed at least10 to 15 MPH faster than the speed of the vehiclebeing passed If your speed is only 5 MPH faster, itwill take you twice the time and almost twice thedistance to completely pass the other vehicle.On the other hand, there is no point in passing at toofast a speed. In passing at 20 MPH faster instead of15 MPH faster than the speed of the vehicle beingpassed, the advantage amounts to only 1 or 2 secondsgained It is usually offset by the danger of increasedspeed If too much increased speed is required topass and return to your lane, the wise decision is notto pass.As a general rule, your passing speed should be from10 to 15 MPH faster than the speed of the vehicleyou are passing. Suppose, however, that you want topass a vehicle traveling at 50 MPH when the speedlimit is 55 MPH. In this case, driving your vehicle 10to 15 MPH faster would be unlawful because passingis no excuse for exceeding the speed limit. Yet if youpass at 55 MPH, you will need 2,640 feet or exactlyhalf smile to pass the other vehicle. When the driverahead of you is traveling just under the speed limit,the safest thing to do is forget about passing. Settledown behind him at a safe following distance. Youmay reach your destination a few minutes later thanif you had attempted to pass, but at least you will nothave broken the law.Passing on the Right. Passing on the right, except asexplained, is usually dangerous and unlawful. It putsyou on the other driver’s blind side. He may beintending to make a right turn or to pull over to theright side of the road. In either case, an accident isalmost certain. There are, however, three situationsin which passing on the right is permissible andreasonably safe:If the highway has at least two lanes going ineach direction.If all lanes of traffic move in the same direction(one-way street).If the vehicle you are passing is in a left-turnlane.Passing On Three-Lane Highways. Passing on athree-lane highway demands extra caution. Do notpass except in the center lane, and then only when thecenter lane is marked for passing in your direction.The center lane may be so marked that it is openfor passing in both directions. Before passing,make sure that none of the vehicles coming fromthe opposite direction are moving out to pass.Never use the center lane to pass if your view of theroad ahead is obstructed by a hill or curve. The oneexception to using only the center lane for passing isthat you may pass in the right lane if the vehicle inthe center lane is making a left turn.SignalingWhen passing, do not just pull out and start aroundLook ahead and behind to be sure it is safe to pass.Let the driver of the vehicle ahead know what youintend to do. He may be getting ready to pass thevehicle ahead of him or to turn left. Blow your hornas a signal to him. At night, give the driver ahead anadditional signal by flashing your headlights fromlow to high beam and back to low. However, do notuse the light signal as a substitute for the horn signal.The horn signal is required by law inmost localities,and it puts the driver of the vehicle being passedunder a legal obligation to help you pass.The driver of the vehicle behind you also needs toknow what you are going to do. He may be pullingout to pass you. Give a left-turn signal to let himknow that you are about to pull out to pass.BEING PASSEDWhen you are being passed, the law requires you tohelp the other driver get by. When the driver of thepassing vehicle blows his horn, you must do onething give way to the right. Even if you are alreadyon your own side of the road, move over as close assafety will permit to the right-hand edge of the road.The law does not permit you to increase your speedSpeeding up forces the passing driver to cover moredistance and take more time to get by you. It exposesboth of you to unnecessary danger.When you are being passed, it is usually safest tomaintain a steady speed. By doing this, you allow thepassing driver to judge passing distance with greateraccuracy. If you slow down, you may mislead himinto overestimating his speed. Nevertheless, if anattempt to pass you becomes dangerous, you may beable to make it safer for everyone by slowing downand allowing the passing vehicle to get back into theproper lane in less time and distance.5-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306If, however, you see that a driver is trying to get backinto line behind you, rather than ahead of you, donot slow down. In this case, it is much safer to speedup a little to give him more room. When dangerdevelops in passing, do not stand on your rights. Useall driving skill to avoid an accident.5-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 6INTERSECTIONSThe most dangerous place on a street or highway isan intersection. An elementary law of physics saysthat two bales cannot occupy the same space at thesame time. Hundreds of thousands of drivers andpedestrians have demonstrated the truth of this lawby losing their lives at intersections. An intersectionis any place where two or more roads join or crosseach other. You are required to slow down whenapproaching all intersections – whether or not youhave the right-of-way. The following rules of theroad are normal; however, state and local laws takeprecedence. The main question faced by drivers atan intersection is “Who has the right-of-way?”INTERSECTIONS WITHOUTTRAFFIC CONTROLSWhen approaching a major road from a minor road,you must yield to the traffic on the major road. Ifyou are entering an intersection with traffic alreadyin it, you must yield to that traffic regardless of thetype of road.When two vehicles approach an intersection atthe same time, which one has the right-of-way? Thelaw states that when two vehicles enter an intersectionfrom different highways at the same time, the driveron the left must yield to the driver on the right.The law does not give right-of-way to anyone; it onlystates who must yield it. Therefore, you shouldalways be alert for those who fall to yield, and youmust do everything possible to avoid an accident.INTERSECTIONS WITH TRAFFICCONTROLSTraffic LightsTraffic lights greatly simplify right-of-way problemssince the traffic on one road is stopped while thetraffic on the other is permitted to proceed. Forvehicles coming from opposite directions on theroad which has the green light, the right-of-way rulesare the same as those that would apply in the absenceof traffic signals. At some intersections, however,you may not make a left turn unless a special left-turngreen light is showing. Sometimes the sign is in theform of a traffic light showing a green arrow, however,these rules may vary from state to state.At other intersections where there are signs permittingyou may make a right turn on a red light. Toturn right on a red light at one of these intersections,you must be in the right-turn lane and must give aright-turn signal. You ordinarily have the right-ofwayover pedestrians who are crossing the street youare turning into because the light is red for them.Nevertheless, it is unlawful for you to do anythingthat might endanger them, even if they refuse to yieldthe right-of-way to you.Traffic SignsAt an intersection where stop signs have beenerected, you must come to a complete stop. You maynot enter the intersection, whether to go straightthrough or to turn right or left, until you are sure thatthe movement can be made safely.When required to stop at an intersection where aline has been painted on the street indicating theplace to stop, stop there (Figure 6-l). When theplace to stop is not marked by a line, stop closeenough to the intersection so that you can see anytraffic that may be approaching from your right orleft. Do not, however, block a crosswalk.Pedestrians crossing at an intersection have theright-of-way over vehicles. Do not start again untilyou are sure the way is clear. Do not enter theintersection if there is traffic on the intersectingstreet that will reach the intersection before youhave cleared it.Stop signs are sometimes placed at intersectionswhere lights have also been erected. When trafficlights are in operation, obey them instead of thesigns. Furthermore, a traffic officer’s signaling mustbe obeyed regardless of traffic lights or signs.6-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306At intersections governed by yield signs, you mustslow down to a speed reasonable for the conditionsand yield the right-of-way.TURNS AT INTERSECTIONSBefore making any turn, signal your intention at least100 feet ahead of the intersection. Never turn orchange lanes without first looking to make sure thatit can be done safely.When you make a right turn at an intersection, stayas close as possible to the right edge of the road orstreet. Never swerve to the left before turning right(Figure 6-2).Never swerve to the right before turning left(Figure 6-3). When making a left turn–First, get into the lane nearest the centerline inadvance of the turn.Then slow down gradually as you approach theturn.Be sure to let oncoming traffic clear before youmake your turn. Then enter the lane to the rightof the centerline of the street into which you areturning.Many drivers swerve in the opposite directionbefore turning to make the turn easier. If thespeed is right, the turn should be easily madewithout swerving. If your tires squeal when youturn, it may mean your tires are underinflated, butit is more likely that you are trying to take the turntoo fast.NOTE: Swerving in the opposite directionbefore making a turn is likely to mislead otherdrivers and cause an accident.SPECIAL INTERSECTIONSOn new highways, an increasing number of intersectionsare designed so that one road passes overthe other instead of crossing it. To turn right or leftat such intersections, it is necessary to use connectingroads to get onto the crossroads. These elevated6-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306intersections and their connecting roads are oftenconfusing to drivers who are not used to them, andthe method of making turns may vary from one to theother. Whenever you come to an intersection whereone road passes over or under the other, slow downand pay careful attention to the signs that tell youhow to make the turn you want to make.CloverleafsIntersections where the roads cross each other atdifferent levels may be designed in a number of ways.The most common type is the cloverleaf design(Figure 6-4). To turn right, you take a right turnbefore you get to the bridge that carries one roadover the other. To turn left, you take the right turnjust after the bridge. This road will carry you aroundto join the crossroad in a three-quarter circle at anordinary intersection. The advantage of cloverleafsand similar intersections is that you do not have tocross the path of other traffic to make a turn.Traffic CirclesA rather common type of special intersection is thetraffic circle. Upon entering the traffic circle, allvehicles turn in the same direction – to the right.Almost all traffic circles have at least two lanes, andsome have more. You simply continue around thecircle in a counterclockwise direction until you cometo the road or street you want. Then you leave thetraffic circle by making a right turn.As you travel around the circle, use the inside laneif practicable, but be sure to get in the outside lanewell before you come to the place where you intendto leave the circle. Never attempt to make a rightturn from the inside lane. Look and signal beforeyou turn or change lanes.At traffic circles, the whole circle is considered anintersection. The vehicles already in the trafficcircle have the right-of-way over those approachingthe circle on the roads leading into it unless trafficsigns indicate otherwise.Railroad CrossingsTo move safely through a railroad crossing, developthe following habits:Identify all warning signs, signals, and protectivedevices.Before crossing the tracks, look both ways andlisten for approaching trains.After a train has passed, be sure no other trainis approaching from either direction beforestarting across.Never stop on railroad tracks.Do not rely on mechanical equipment (flashinglights) to be sure the way is safe to cross.Never take familiar crossings for granted orassume that no train is coming.Be particularly alert for trains after dark whencrossings are not protected by gates or flashinglights. Frequently drivers drive into the sides oftrains at such crossings.Stop your vehicle between 15 and 50 feetfrom a railroad crossing when transportinghazardous materials or passengers (in a vehicledesigned to transport 16 or more personsincluding the driver).When driving a bus, open your forward door ifit will help you see or hear an approaching train.PRIVATE DRIVEWAYSWhen coming out of a private driveway, yield theright-of-way to all vehicles on the street or highwayyou are entering. Stop for any pedestrians who maybe on the sidewalk and about to cross the driveway.6-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 7PEDESTRIANS, BICYCLISTS, AND ANIMALSPedestrians, bicyclists, and animals pose specialproblems for drivers. It is often difficult to seepedestrians, bicyclists, and animals on the road Youmust be alert to avoid collisions with them.PEDESTRIANSPedestrians are a poor match for the automobile. Inthe United States, about 10,000 of them are killed intraffic accidents each year. When pedestrians areinvolved in collisions, speeds of no greater than 15or 20 MPH often prove fatal.It is true that pedestrians often violate laws passedfor their protection. They may walk along highwayswith their backs to oncoming traffic. They oftenignore crosswalks and cross in the middle of a block.Children dart out into the street without looking fortraffic. Nevertheless, after one has killed a child, itis not much comfort to know that the child was atleast partly to blame. Pedestrians will be safe onstreets and highways only when drivers are willing tobe their brothers’ keepers.You should let the pedestrian know your intentions.Whenever a pedestrian may be affected by you turning,stopping, or starting, the law requires you toblow your horn regardless of which of you has theright-of-way. Be careful how you blow your horn. Along, loud blast can frighten and confuse apedestrian, increasing instead of minimizing thedanger. Use your horn as a warning signal, not as acommand to get out of your way. Whenever youblow your horn to warn a pedestrian, your footshould be off the accelerator and ready to depressthe brake pedal.Anticipate the pedestrian’s intentions. If you see aperson in the street, slowdown and get ready to stop.He may be able to take care of himself, but do notdepend on it. He may get confused and walk rightin front of you. Never pass another vehicle that hasstopped to permit a pedestrian to cross.Watch people on the sidewalks and at the side of theroad. They may not stay there. Leave room betweenyour vehicle and a row of parked vehicles. Someonemay step out from between them at any moment.When near pedestrians, drive slowly.If you should come upon a pedestrian walking withhis back to you on your side of the highway, blowyour horn well before you get to him. If he is warnedof your approach, he is unlikely to step out in frontof you. When you pass a pedestrian walking along ahighway, allow plenty of room between him and yourvehicle.In school zones, slowdown to the posted speed limitand watch for children. Obey the directions givenby members of the school safety patrol or by schoolCrossing gaurds.When stopped by the stop signal of a school bus, donot move until the bus is placed in motion and thehighway is clear of students.Observe these rules at intersections:At intersections with no traffic lights,pedestrians have the right-of-way.A blind pedestrian is entitled by law to specialconsideration at intersections with no trafficlights. If a blind pedestrian holds out a whitecane or a white cane tipped with red or if heis accompanied by a guide dog, all vehiclesapproaching the intersection must stop. Theymust remain stopped until the blind pedestrianhas completed his crossing.At intersections controlled by ordinary trafficlights, pedestrians obey the same signals asdrivers. When crossing on a green light, theyhave the right-of-way. If a light changes to yellowor red while a pedestrian is still in thestreet, drivers must allow him to complete hiscrossing safely.7-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306At some intersections, special lights instructpedestrians either to walk or to wait. Wherethese lights are in operation, pedestrians mustobey them instead of the regular traffic lights.Pedestrians crossing on a special pedestriansignal have the right-of-way just as they do whencrossing on a green light.If you are going through an intersection on agreen light and a pedestrian starts to cross infront of you against a red light, warn him withyour horn. If he does not stop, then you muststop. If you save a life, losing your right-of-waywill be worthwhile. The safe driver yields theright-of-way to a pedestrian when thepedestrian is entitled to it and even when he isnot.Obey traffic rules when you are a pedestrian. As amilitary vehicle driver, you will frequently find yourselfin this role. When you walk, be as careful as youwant pedestrians to be when you are driving.When you cross a street, cross at an intersection orcrosswalk if one is available. Before you cross, stopand look in both directions. Be sure that you can getall the way across or to a safety island before the lightchanges.Remember, pedestrians as well as drivers must obeytraffic lights. Never start to cross on a red or yellowlight. Do not start to cross on a green light if youknow it is just about to change.When walking or jogging along a road withoutsidewalks, use the left shoulder and face oncomingtraffic. When a vehicle approaches, get off as far asnecessary for safety. At night, carry a flashlight or alight-reflecting object that will enable drivers to seeyou better. The lights of an oncoming vehicle maybe bright enough to blind you, but its driver may notsee you.BICYCLISTSThe number of bicycles being used on streets andhighways is growing daily, both for exercise purposesand for transportation in city areas. Bicyclists areexpected to obey the same traffic rules and regulationsas vehicle drivers, but many are children whomay not obey or even know the rules.A major problem for drivers is their inability to seebicyclists, especially at night. Sometimes they maybe in the blind spot of your vehicle. Keep on thelookout and slow down when you approachbicyclists. Tap your horn lightly if necessary to letthem know where you are. Give them plenty of roomwhen passing and be prepared to stop suddenly.ANIMALSStock laws vary from state to state and in someinstances are not properly enforced. Therefore,a vehicle operator should always be alert to thepossibility of a collision with an animal. Collisionwith even a small animal can cause serious vehicledamage and endanger human life. As a vehicleoperator, you must be thoroughly familiar with andobey all local laws. You must also exercise your bestjudgment and drive defensively at all times to avoidendangering animals, human life, and property.7-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 8OPERATING PRACTICES AND MANEUVERSThe objective of your training as a military driveris to teach you how to do your job efficientlywith maximum safety, comfort, and economy.Good driving habits are attained through constantpractice. During your daily driving,review the techniques discussed below. Testyourself occasionally to see how you measureup. In this way, you can avoid slipping into bad,perhaps dangerous habits.DRIVING PRACTICESMake the following general practices part of yourroutine daily driving methods:Always sit in an erect, comfortable positionwith your shoulders parallel to the back of thedriver’s seat.Adjust the seat if necessary so that you can easilymanipulate the vehicle controls and have a clearview to the front.Adjust side and rearview mirrors so that theygive unobstructed views.Fasten shoulder and seat belts.Lock doors, if applicable.The position of the hands on the steering wheel is ofprime importance for vehicle control particularly inemergencies. Place your hands on opposite sides ofthe steering wheel at 10 and 2 o’clock or 10 and 4o’clock positions. Hold the rim, not the spokes.Maintain a firm, but comfortable grip. Removehands from the wheel only when signaling, adjustingcontrols, or performing other acts essential todriving. A driver should be ready for a complete,controlled turn of the wheel in a fraction of a secondat all times.Before putting the vehicle into motion, carefullycheck traffic conditions, particularly the immediatefront and rear of the vehicle where children orobjects difficult to see could be located.Try to anticipate future situations. Continuallyglance far ahead and be prepared for otherdrivers’ errors or unsafe maneuvers. Keep a closewatch at all times on conditions behind your vehicleby regularly glancing at the rearview mirrors.Anticipation and good judgment can preclude alarge percentage of emergency situations – drivedefensively.STARTINGInstructions on starting both manual and automaticshift vehicles are found in Chapter 16. However,the following points are given on specific startingconditions.On HillsWhen you have to start on an upgrade, use yourparking brake to keep the vehicle from rolling backward.Keep the parking brake on while you shift intolow gear and begin to release the clutch pedal slowly.When the vehicle begins to pull against the brake,release the brake slowly. In this way, you can startwithout danger of rolling back and losing control ofyour vehicle. It may not be necessary to use theparking brake in vehicles equipped with automatictransmission or special devices that prevent rollingback on halls.On Slippery SurfacesIf you have to start on a slippery surface, such as iceor loose dirt, use second or a higher gear instead oflow gear. Feed the gas and release the clutch pedalvery slowly to avoid spinning the rear wheels.STEERING AND TURNINGThe best and safest position of the hands on thesteering wheel is on either side of the wheel a littleabove the center (the 10 and 2 o’clock positions) orthe right hand can be positioned a little below therenter (10 and 4 o’clock positions). Two hands arenecessary both for beginners and for experienced8-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306drivers. Your grip on the wheel should be firm, butnot tight.When you round a corner or make any other sharpturn, use the hand-over-hand steering method(Figure 8-l). If you are turning to the right, beginby placing your right hand near the top of the wheeland pull the wheel down to the right. As the righthand nears the bottom of the circle, let the left handtake over, starting at a position on the left of thewheel, a little below the top. As the left hand nearsthe bottom of the circle, again place the right handat the top of the wheel to continue the turn, ifnecessary. As you complete the turn and releasepressure on the steering wheel it will slide throughyour hands because the front wheels tend to returnto their normal straightforward position. At lowspeeds and on some old vehicles, the wheels mustbe brought back to their normal position byreversing the direction of steering.Do not turn sharply to change lanes. Light pressureon the steering wheel will allow you to drift graduallyfrom one lane to another. Before you change lanes,remember to look for traffic that may be coming upbehind you and to give a turn signal.BRAKING AND STOPPINGThe proper use of brakes is one of the mostimportant elements of good driving as well as oneof the best indicators of driving capability. Yourbrakes are used in all stopping procedures, butthey are seldom used alone. Emergency stops maybe exceptional for the professional driver, butbeing prepared for them should be routine.The heavier the vehicle, the more work the brakesmust do to stop it, and the more heat they absorb.But the brakes, tires, springs, and shock absorberson heavy vehicles are designed to work best when thevehicle is fully loaded. Empty trucks require greaterstopping distances because they have less traction.They can bounce and lock up their wheels, brakingpoorly. This is not usually the case with buses.Use these general procedures for braking:Release the accelerator pedal.Downshift within the operating range of theengine (RPM) (if manual transmission).Depress the brake pedal.As the vehicle begins to reduce speed, decreasebrake pedal pressure.Stop smoothly by releasing the brake pressuregradually as the stopping rate increases.As the vehicle halts, push in the clutch pedal(manual transmission), and release the brakepedal.After stopping, shift to neutral and reapplythe brake just enough to keep the vehicle stationary.Now release the clutch pedal(manual transmission).Use the engine retarder for descending grades,in city traffic, or in any situation where slowingis required but not on slippery road surfaces(such as rain, snow, sleet, or ice).8-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306NOTE: Apply the Jacobs brake (Chapter 18)only if wheels have good traction.GROUND GUIDE SAFETYPROCEDURESGround guides must be trained in standard hand andarm signals and flashlight signals before guiding awheeled vehicle. Hand and arm signals are the basicmethod used for ground guiding. Drivers andground guides will coordinate signals before groundguide operations. Examples of hand and arm signalsare in Appendixes A and B. Additional hand andarm signals are in FM 21-60. Voice signals betweenaground guide and driver can be misunderstood andshould not be used except in an emergency.Before a wheeled vehicle is started for movement,a member of the crew or the driver must walkcompletely around the vehicle to ensure no one orno object is in danger from the vehicle’s movement.At no time will ground guides run or walk backwardswhile guiding a vehicle.CAUTIONThe ground guides should keep 10 yardsbetween themselves and the vehicle front orrear and corners. They should never bedirectly behind the vehicle. Ground guideswill not position themselves between thevehicle being guided and another objectwhere an inadvertent engine surge ormomentary loss of vehicle control couldcause injury. Drivers of vehicles will immediatelystop their vehicles if they lose sight ofground guides or note that the guide isdangerously positioned between the vehicleand another object. Drivers of vehicles insuch cases will secure their vehicle, dismount,and make an on-the-spot correctionbefore commencing operations.Use the procedure below when there is only oneground guide or when a ground guide is not available,such as in the civilian domain. The groundguide or the vehicle driver will dismount and walkcompletely around the vehicle to –Verify clearance.Determine visual clear distance with a groundreference point from the cab of the vehicle.Mount the vehicle, sound the horn, and back tothe rear of the preselected ground referencepoint. Stop and repeat the process as necessaryuntil the desired vehicle position is obtained.Only one ground guide gives signals to the driver.Be sure that everyone involved (the driver andground guides) understand who will give the signaland who will receive it before any movement is done.If sight between the driver and the ground guidemaking the signal is lost, the driver must stop thevehicle until the signal is again visible or the confusionis cleared up.During movement within an assembly area, wheeledvehicles require ground guides when moving forwardand when backing. Ground guides are alsorequired when vehicles enter a field site operationsarea.At night the best method to ground guide a vehicleinto the area is to use a screened flashlight. Guidesmove forward to make sure the way is clear, thenturn around to face the vehicle, and give the propersignal with the flashlight. The driver moves thevehicle forward until the flashlight signal goes out.Then he stops the vehicle. This process is repeatedas the vehicle is moved forward to its final stop.Ground guides are required when wheeled vehiclesare backed. However, the number of ground guidesused is determined by visibility restrictions (cargo,darkness, and so forth). The horn will be soundedbefore any backing operation is done. When backingat night, use the same flashlight procedures tosafely back the vehicle.Figure 8-2 shows where the ground guides willbe positioned when backing and moving vehiclesforward.BACKINGTo turn while backing, turn the steering wheel inthe same direction as you would if you were goingforward. To back to the right, turn the wheel to theright. To back to the left, turn the wheel to the left.Back slowly. In a vehicle with standard gears, youcannot control your speed safely while backing8-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306unless you use the clutch as well as the accelerator.Always come to a full stop before shifting intoforward gear.Keep looking back until you have stopped If youshift your eyes to the front as soon as you are readyto stop, you will be backing blindly for several feet.When backing in very close quarters such as adriveway or when visibility through the rear windowis poor, you may find it necessary to use your righthand on the steering wheel while you look out theleft window to see where you are going.WARNINGNEVER OPEN EITHER DOOR WHILEYOUR VEHICLE IS IN MOTION. Atbest, backing is more dangerous than goingforward. You cannot see as well and yourvehicle is harder to control. Before you backeven a short distance, make sure there are nochildren around. Many youngsters havebeen crushed under the wheels of the familycar while playing in their own backyards ordriveways. Never back long distances unlessabsolutely necessary. It is much safer toturn around and cover the distance goingforward.TURNING AROUNDThe best, safest, and often quickest way to turnaround is to drive around the block, making threeright turns and a final left turn. This eliminates theproblems of most left turns. In some cases, however,such as a dead-end street or other tight space, youhave to turn the vehicle completely around. Carefullyfollow these suggestions:Select a place where you have at least 500 feetof clear visibility in each direction.Do not attempt any turnaround near hills orcurves or where visibility is limited.Be sure there are no signs prohibiting the turn.Be sure there is enough space to complete theturn safely.Check for vehicular and pedestrian trafficbefore and during the turn.8-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Remember that the responsibility for avoiding anaccident rests with you. Neither of the followingturns should be made on roads with heavy traffic.U-TurnsU-turns are not legal everywhere, so be sure to lookfor prohibiting signs before making one. IN CITIESAND TOWNS, U-TURNS ARE ALLOWED ATINTERSECTIONS ONLY. To make a U-turn, followthese steps (Figure 8-3):Move into the proper lane. On a two-lane streetmove as far right as possible. On four-lane anddivided streets, move into the left-turn lane.Check for traffic signal, stop, and then signal aleft turn.Check for oncoming traffic and for room tocomplete the turn; then make a sharp left turn.Slowly finish your turn, positioning your vehiclein the-far right lane. Straighten your wheels andproceed.right. AS you approach the opposite curb or edge,turn your steering wheel back again to the left. Bygoing forward and keeping your wheel to the left,you should now be able to clear the curb or edge onyour right and complete your turn. If the road is verynarrow, you may have to repeat the above steps.You can also make a road turn by stopping close tothe right curb or road edge and backing to the left.Just before you get to the opposite curb or edge, turnyour wheel hard to the right and then go forwardWhen you use this method, you have to be careful tostart far enough away from the right curb or edge sothat your front wheels will not run into the curb orgo off the road when you start backing to the left.When you make these turns, it is not necessary toreverse your steering wheel just before you stopmoving. You can do this after you have stoppedHowever, turning the wheels while you are stillmoving is easier and saves wear on the tires andsteering mechanism.In business districts, where traffic is usually heavy,no method of turning around may be practical orsafe. In such places, the best way to reverse yourdirection is to drive around the block.NOTE: Use turn signals, four-way flashers,and if possible, aground guide/road guard.PARKINGRoad TurnsIf you cannot make a U-turn and no side road isavailable, use the road turn. There are two ways ofmaking a road turn. The easiest is to come to acomplete stop at the right curb or edge of the road,using the shoulder if available. After checking to seethat the road is clear of traffic in both directions,start turning to the left. Turn your steering wheel asquickly as possible as far to the left as it will go. Justbefore you get into the opposite curb or edge,reverse the steering wheel as far to the right as it willgo. Now back up, keeping the steering wheel to theParallel ParkingParallel parking to the curb between vehicles isdifficult for many, if not most, drivers. You canparallel park easily if you follow this step-by-stepmethod (Figures 8-4 and 8-5):Select a large enough space. You need at least6 feet more than the length of your vehicle.About 1 l/2 car lengths or 25 feet are adequatefor a sedan in almost any case. The width of theparking space should be approximately 8 feetfor l/2-ton vehicles or sedans.Give the hand signal for stopping. Pull upalongside the vehicle parked in the space aheadof the space you intend to use. Your vehicleshould be 1 to 2 feet away from that vehicle, andthe rear bumpers of both vehicles should beeven.8-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Start backing slowly. Turn your steering wheelas hard as you can to the right as soon as yourvehicle starts moving. With your wheel all theway over to the right, continue backing untilyour vehicle is at a 45-degree angle to the curb.At this point your right front door will be oppositethe rear bumper of the other vehicle.Straighten the front wheels. Go straight back ashort distance until the right end of your frontbumper is opposite the left end of the rearbumper of the other vehicle.Pause a moment. Now turn your steering wheelhard to the left and back slowly the rest of theway into the space, straightening your frontwheels just as they approach the curb. (If youfind that you cannot get all the way into thespace, usually the best thing to do is to drive allthe way out, get your vehicle ahead of the space,and start all over again.)Pull forward Your vehicle should divide theparking space, leaving as much distancebetween your vehicle and the vehicle ahead asthere is between your vehicle and the vehiclebehind. Your front and rear wheels should bean equal distance from the curb and no morethan a foot away from it.Turn off the engine. Before you leave yourvehicle, turn off the engine, set the hand brake,and put the vehicle in reverse gear. If yourvehicle has an automatic transmission, place thelever in the park position. For multifuel (diesel)engine vehicles, pull the engine fuel stop out andset the gearshift in the neutral position. Otherwise,the engine may start if the vehicle movesslightly while the transmission is in gear. Whenparking on a downgrade, if there is a curb, turnyour wheels so that the front of your right tire isagainst the curb. When parking on an upgrade,turn the wheels left away from the curb so thatthe back of the right front tire locks against thecurb. Doing this will ensure that your vehicledoes not roll. When parking uphill without acurb, use chocks behind the front tires. Whenparking downhill without a curb, place chocksin front of the front tires.The parking brake is the primary safety item.Only use chock blocks as a secondary safetyitem in conjunction with the parkingbrake. Using chock blocks alone is not safe oreffective. The parking brake must be set at alltimes when the vehicle is parked.Except on one-way streets, always park on the rightside of the street. Remember to lock the ignitionswitch on vehicles of commercial design and take thekey with you. Turn off the master switch on tacticalvehicles. (Exceptions may be directed by localcommanders.)Diagonal ParkingDiagonal or angle parking is easy enough formost drivers. However, you should rememberthe following:Give the hand signal for stopping.Begin turning into the parking space from aposition about 5 feet from the row of parkedvehicles.Turn your steering wheel in the direction of thespace and enter the space with your vehicle asstraight as possible with the angle of the space.Use the parked vehicle or line marking on theleft as a guide, but be very careful to allowenough clearance between your vehicle and thevehicles parked on either side.When coming out of a diagonal parking space, backvery slowly until you are out far enough to see trafficthat may be coming and stop if necessary. Turn yoursteering wheel sharply when your left front wheel isopposite the rear bumper of the vehicle parked onyour left. If you turn sooner, you are likely to sideswipethe other vehicle as you back out.Improper ParkingParking improperly may inconvenience andendanger other drivers. Do not park –In violation of local traffic laws.In an intersection or in front of a driveway.8-6

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306ELEMENTS OF SAFE DRIVINGThe ability to mechanically operate a motorvehicle is not the only qualification of the safedriver. This skill must be augmented by a definitesense of personal responsibility and by aknowledge of and unceasing respect for the laws ofphysics, physiology, and psychology as they affectthe driver and his vehicle. Since safety is a commandresponsibility, it is the duty of commanders at alllevels to ensure compliance with these nonstatutorylaws. Instruction for military drivers should includean explanation of these elements and examples ofthe results of common violations.Physiological ConsiderationsTo operate a vehicle with the maximum degree ofsafety, the driver must maintain top physical condition.Any deterioration in physical condition willreduce this degree of safety. Prospective drivershaving physical defects that will interfere with safevehicle operation should be eliminated from thedriver training program. Instructors and supervisorsshould be constantly alert to evidence of anyincapacitating disease such as heart trouble, asthma,or epilepsy; of vision deficiencies not detected inphysical examination and of dangerously slowreaction time. Although temporary, the effects offatigue, drugs, and alcohol seriously impair thephysical condition of the driver and may be regardedas a contributing factor to accidents.Psychological ConsiderationsTo drive properly and safely, a driver must have aproper attitude toward driving and must have emotionalcontrol. Faulty attitudes toward driving mayoften be detected by instructors and supervisorypersonnel. These attitudes may be eliminated tosome degree through instruction and counseling. Ifthe driver does not respond to corrective measuresand continues to show evidence of faulty attitudes,it is advisable to drop him from the program.Other psychological considerations include overconfidence,egotism, rationalization, and impatience.Overconfidence encourages the taking ofunnecessary chances. Egotism disregards the rightsof others. Rationalization prevents the driverfrom recognizing and correcting his own faults.Impatience leads to unsafe driving through refusalto adjust to driving conditions.Since emotions such as anger, fear, and grief affectthe driver’s ability to think clearly and reactpromptly, safe driving requires a high degree ofemotional control. Emotional control may bedeveloped in the driver through self-discipline.This, however, requires his full cooperation andthe will to overcome emotional instability. Avoidselecting drivers who show evidence of unregulatedemotion.Effect of Physical LawsThe laws of nature are constant and automatic. It isimpossible to drive properly and safely withoutrecognizing such natural forces as gravity, friction,centrifugal force, and kinetic energy. Instructionsfor the military driver should include, but not belimited to, the following paragraphs.Gravity. Gravity is the force that pulls a body towardthe center of the earth. It is measured in terms ofweight. Without the force of gravity, the wheeledvehicle would be weightless and impossible to controlby conventional means (starting, stopping, orsteering). The force of gravity increases downhillspeeds and stopping distances. It exerts a rearwardpull on upgrades requiring increased power tothe vehicle at rest, making it necessary to takeprecautions while parking. Absolutely level terrainis the exception rather than the rule. Therefore, thedriver must always be aware of the power of gravity(Figure 8-6).Friction. Friction is the resistance to motion causedby contact between two surfaces (Figure 8-7). Itresults from the interlocking of slight irregularitieson surfaces in contact. When an attempt is made to8-8

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306animal, but it is the safest thing to do. If you doanything else, the animal may be killed anyway aswell as several human beings.VEHICLE FIRESPreventing Vehicle FiresSwitch the vehicle engine off during refueling. Donot allow smoking or open flames within 50 feet ofa vehicle during fueling or at an accident scenewhere there is danger from spilled gasoline orother flammables.CAUTIONKeep the gasoline nozzle in contact with thegas tank when fueling.When flares are authorized, issue instructionsfor their handling and storage on the vehicle.Since flares are a potential fire hazard, it isimperative that drivers take the prescribedprecautions when handling them.NOTE: Ignited flares will not be attached to avehicle. Further information concerningwarning devices is contained in Chapter 13.When transporting explosives or flammable cargo,do not allow smoking within 50 feet of your vehicle.Also, do not allow your vehicle to become exposedto open flames or explosives when it is loaded withflammables or explosives. Flares are prohibited onvehicles transporting explosives or flammable cargo.Vehicles designed for transporting bulk flammableliquids will be permanently marked with warningsigns. When a general-purpose vehicle is used totransport liquid fuels or other dangerous cargo, it isyour responsibility to place the prescribed warningsigns on your vehicle. When you are dispatched totransport dangerous cargo, ask your supervisor forspecial instructions and warning signs for yourtruck. TM 9-1300-206 prescribes the warningsigns for vehicles transporting hazardous cargo inthe continental United States (CONUS). Whenoperating overseas, be sure you have the requiredwarning signs for all the countries in which you willbe driving. Emergency measures to be taken whenbulk fuel transporters develop leaks are given inChapter 19.CAUTIONWhen dispensing fuel to another vehicle ora tank, a ground cable must be secured to thedispensing vehicle and the vehicle or tankbeing filled.Fighting Vehicle FiresYou have only limited resources for fighting a vehiclefire, so send for help from professional fire fighterswhen possible. Your fire fighting equipment usuallyconsists of a hand fire extinguisher and any naturalmaterials that may be available, such as sand andwater. Those resources, when applied at the start ofa fire, have a good chance of bringing it under control.However, once the fire has become major, youplace yourself in danger with little possibility forsuccess when you attempt to extinguish it with inadequateequipment.When you discover your vehicle is on fire, pull it offthe road in an open area away from buidling, trees,brush, or vehicles, or anything that might catch fire.Do not pull into a service station. Notify the fire andpolice departments. Keep the fire from spreading.Before trying to put out the fire, be sure it does notspread any further. With an engine fire, turn off theengine as soon as possible. Do not open the hood ifyou can avoid it. Discharge fire extinguishersthrough louvers, the radiator, or from the undersideof the vehicle.Use the right type of fire extinguisher. B:C rating isdesigned to work on electrical and liquid fires. TheA:B:C: type is designed to work on burning wood,paper, and cloth as well as electrical and liquid fires.Know how to use the fire extinguisher. Stay far awayfrom the fire. Aim at the source or the base of thefire, not up in the flames. Position yourself upwind;let the wind carry the extinguisher to the fire ratherthan carry the flames to you. Only try to extinguishthe fire if you know what you are doing.9-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CAUTIONWhen attempting to extinguish a fire, keepthe wind to your back. In this position, theflames and poisonous fumes from the chemicalextinguisher will be blown away from you.You usually discover cargo fires in trucks andtrailers by smelling or observing smoke escapingfrom around doors and/or from under the tarpaulin.Unless an adequate source of fire fightingequipment is available, do not open the cargodoors or remove the tarpaulin until you havemoved your vehicle to a safe location where helpcan be obtained, preferably from a fire department.After help has been obtained, the doors may beopened cautiously or the tarpaulin partially removedand the source of the fire located. You may have toremove part of the cargo to find the source of thefire. Fires in a closed van or under a secure tarpaulincan only smother due to lack of oxygen.Underinflated tires generate excessive heat duringoperation, a condition which, especially on dualwheels, may result in the tires igniting. Tiresdragged along the road surface because of a lockedwheel may begin to burn. Fires resulting from theseconditions may be prevented by keeping your tiresproperly inflated, recognizing any difference in theperformance of your vehicle that would indicate alocked wheel, and promptly taking corrective action.If a tire does start burning on your vehicle, you maynot be able to extinguish it with your fire fightingequipment; however, you may prevent furtherdamage by employing the following measures:When possible, remove the wheel from yourvehicle and attempt to extinguish the fire bycovering it with sand, mud, or water.When the wheel cannot be safely removed,drive your vehicle into sand, mud, or waterand cover any exposed parts with mud or asimilar substance.When the fire cannot be controlled by the aboveprocedures, use your vehicle fire fighting equipmentor other suitable substance to prevent thefire from spreading.CAUTIONDo not attempt to transport a burned tire onyour truck unless the fire is completely extinguishedand the tire has cooled to normaltemperature.9-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 10ACCIDENT CAUSES AND REPORTSThe driver rather than the machine is at fault in thegreatest percentage of motor vehicle accidents. Ifyou cause an accident, you may be as effective as anenemy would be in disabling a vehicle and inflictingcasualties. The minimum cost to the government isloss of use of the vehicle, but there are almost alwaysadditional costs. For instance, parts for repairs areexpensive; maintenance personnel must expendadditional unplanned time; and you may be injuredand require medical attention. An accident couldcost your life.PRIMARY CAUSES OF ACCIDENTSIn most accidents, the driver has violated trafficregulations. The most common causes of vehicleaccidents are —Traveling at a speed too fast for conditions.Following too closely.Driving while fatigued or under the influence ofalcohol or drugs.Wrongfully assuming right-of-way.Misjudging clearances on turns, in passing, andso forth.Backing without exercising caution.PROCEDURE IN CASE OF ANACCIDENTIf you are involved in a motor vehicle accident, takecertain steps to protect your own interest and thatof the government and to aid others involved in theaccident. Some steps to take follow.If anyone seems injured, render first aid Thensummon the nearest military or civilian doctoror ambulance, whichever can be secured inless time. Military personnel with only minorinjuries should be sent to a military hospitalwhen practicable.If fire breaks out and you cannot put it out witha fire extinguisher or sand, send for the firedepartment.If civil police are not present, send for them.State laws require that police be summoned toall motor vehicle accidents. In such matters, themilitary cooperates with civil authorities whoare responsible for investigating all accidents onpublic highways.If you are in an area controlled by armed servicespolice, send for them or ask someone to doso. The armed services police must completetheir own investigation of the accident. Youshould cooperate and assist them in every way.When there are enough people available, youmay be able to get aid more quickly by sendingone person to summon doctors; another,firemen; and still another, police.Whenever practical, report the accident to yourcommanding officer by telephone as soon as youhave finished your duties at the scene of theaccident. If an assistant driver is present, havehim phone while you attend to other matters. Inan emergency, you can usually get permission touse a nearby telephone without charge. Yourunit headquarters will accept a collect tollcharge if you must report an accident by longdistance.PRECAUTIONARY MEASURESPrecautions Against Further AccidentsAfter a motor vehicle accident, the vehicle orvehicles involved are frequently in dangerous locations.Often a crowd collects in the road. To preventadditional accidents, damage, or injury, be sure topost guards, flags, flares, or lights (except in a blackout)to warn all other traffic to proceed with caution.10-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306If civil or armed forces police are present, they willdirect traffic. If troops are present, they should beasked to act as guards. If neither police nor troopsare present, civilians should act as guards. Cargo,glass, or other debris spilled on the highway as aresult of the accident will be cleared from the roadsurface as soon as possible.Precautions Against FireGasoline exposed to the air forms a highly flammablevapor. Avoid this danger by shutting off allengines and prohibiting smoking whenever there isspilled gasoline or whenever vehicles are badlywrecked. Permit no open flame within 50 feet of thewreck. Spread sand or dirt over spilled gasoline assoon as possible. A fire extinguisher is your firstdefense against fire. If you need to supplement thefire extinguisher with other methods, use sand ordirt. However, remember that water cannot be usedon gasoline fires as it causes them to spreadRemoval of Vehicle From Accident SceneMoving the vehicle from the scene of the accidentmust be governed by laws or regulations of the stateor area where the accident occurred. Obtain all thenecessary data relating to the accident beforemoving the vehicle. Make sure to mark the exactposition of all vehicles and objects before movingthem.PREPARATION OF ACCIDENTFORMSDD Form 518 (Accident-IdentificationCard)The purpose of DD Form 518 is to give any personsinvolved in an accident all of the information thatthey require from you. You fill this form out at thescene of the accident or as promptly as possible andgive it to the person directly concerned. If the accidentinvolves a parked vehicle and the person concernedis not present, place the DD Form 518 in thevehicle or secure on the windshield. Notify localauthorities and then stand by the scene of the accidentfor their arrival, if practical. Figure 10-1 is aproperly completed DD Form 518.NOTE: Disclosure of social security number(SSN) is voluntary. No disciplinary action istaken in cases where the SSN is not provided.SF 91 (Operator’s Report of MotorVehicle Accident)Always stop and investigate any accident in whichyou are involved. The only possible exception to thisrule might be in combat or in case of military necessitywhen you are operating under definite ordersnot to stop. Even though an accident is minor or notyour fault, you must report it so that the facts will beclearly presented and so that you can give the namesof witnesses. This protects both you and yourgovernment against claims and exaggerations. Forthe purpose of reporting an accident, use SF 91.Figure 10-2 is a sample form filled out. Study it sothat you will know how to fill it out in case the needarises.10-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306In completing SF 91, keep the following generalinstructions in mind:Secure hard-to-get facts first. After makingsure that your vehicle will not cause anotheraccident and that the injured are cared for andother precautions are taken, your first responsibilityis to get the names and addresses of thepeople involved in the accident and of all witnesses.If you do not do this promptly, you maynot be able to get the information at all.Do not leave the scene of the accident until youhave carefully noted facts that would be hard toget later, such as condition of the road, positionof the vehicles, amount of damage, and otherdetails.Fill in items that you know or can easily get, suchas your own name, the make of your vehicle, andso forth, after you have done everything else.This can even be done after you have left thescene of the accident.Be exact. Be sure that your report gives a clearpicture of what actually happened. If anothervehicle is involved, your diagram of the accidentshould show exactly where the vehicles werebefore and after the crash and exactly whatobstacles blocked either driver’s view. Everyname should be spelled correctly and everystreet address listed by number. On highwayswhere there are no house numbers, use mileagemarkers, power line or telephone pole numbers,or intersecting roads to pinpoint the location ofthe accident. State damage you can see; forexample, crushed right rear wheel, bent orbroken axle, crumpled fender. If someoneclaims that you have damaged property, but youcannot see the damage, note only that he claimsbent frame. Follow the same procedures withinjuries. Report cuts, burns, broken bones, andso forth, of which you are certain and note onlythat a person claims an injury when you have noway of knowing the truth, such as a strained backor internal injuries. If you cannot get the exactinformation on some item. write unknown andif there is a blank that does not pertain to youraccident, write NA or none. By making an entryin every blank, the reviewer will be assured youdid not overlook anything.Never express an opinion either orally or inwriting to claimants or their agents concerningliability, investigation findings, or the possibilityof claim approval.Use more paper if necessary. If you need morespace, use a separate sheet of paper to answera question. Write see attached in the space bythe question on your report and attach the extrasheet securely to the report form.Check each item. In securing information forthe report, remember that you are an agent ofthe US government. As you fill in each item ofthe report, check it against what you can observeand against your common sense. When theother driver gives you his name, make sure it isthe same as the name on his driver’s permit. Ifnot, find out why. If somebody gives you anaddress that you think is incorrect or does notexist, question him further as tactfully as youcan. If you have reason to doubt any informationthat you write on your report, be sure to callattention to your doubts by a note.Check the entire report. After you havefinished, look over the entire report to makesure that it is complete and accurate. Imagineyourself as the investigating officer. He mustform his picture of the accident from yourreport. His decision concerning the accidentwill be based on the information in your report.In fairness to yourself, you must make sure thatall your answers are clear before you turn in theform. If you are satisfied that this is so, sign thereport and turn it in to the commanding officeror immediate supervisor.NOTE: An employee of a federal agency whofails to report accurately a motor vehicle accidentinvolving a federal vehicle may be subjectto administrative sanctions.10-3

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 11HAZARDS AND SAFETY MEASURESAs a military driver, you will have to face manyhazardous driving situations. Hazards may be theresult of weather, time of day, or season of the year.They may be caused by conditions of the road or ofyour vehicle or other vehicles.NIGHT DRIVINGDarkness increases driving dangers. Although trafficis not as heavy at night, the fatality rate fornighttime drivers is double that for daytime drivers.On the basis of mileage driven, night driving is twoto three times more dangerous than day driving.Fatigue and sharply reduced vision are primarilyresponsible for this greater danger. Also, drinkingdrivers are more likely to be on the road at night.Reduced VisionIn the daytime, a driver can often see severalthousand feet ahead if the road is straight and thereare no obstructions. At night, even with good headlights,a driver can usually see no more than a fewhundred feet ahead. The headlights may be powerful,but the amount of the beam reflected by anobject or a pedestrian may be very small, and itdecreases very rapidly as the distance increases. Anobject 100 feet away reflects only one-fourth as muchlight as an object 50 feet away, and an object 200 feetaway, only one-sixteenth as much.Hills and curves reduce vision during the daytime,but not nearly as much as they do at night. In thedaytime, a driver going downhill can ordinarily seethe level road at the bottom and/or the upgrade ofthe next hill At night, his headlight beams slantdownward with his vehicle, illuminating only theroad directly ahead. Curves have a similar effect.As a driver rounds a curve at night, his headlights donot follow the path of the curve. They shine acrossthe road, leaving most of the curve in darkness.Vision to the sides and the rear is also greatlyrestricted at night. It is especially important at nightthat rearview mirrors be properly adjusted. If theyare not, a driver may have little warning of vehiclescoming from behind.Glare from the headlights of other vehicles oftenresults in several seconds of near blindness. This isespecially true if the headlights of the other vehicleare out of adjustment or if the other driver fails tolower or dim his beams. However, even the glarefrom properly adjusted and dimmed headlights mayaffect some drivers. The light from buildings orsigns along the road may also be blinding. It takesmost drivers at least 2 or 3 seconds to recover fromthe effects of glare. At 50 MPH, 3 seconds means219 feet.A dirty windshield multiplies the effect of glare. Inthe headlight beams of an approaching vehicle, thespecks of dirt on your windshield seem to glow andturn the windshield into a wall of light that is almostimpossible to see through. You cannot drive safely,especially at night, without a clean windshield.When parking at night, never leave your headlightson. They are just as likely to blind approachingdrivers when your vehicle is standing still as theyare when it is moving. They may also confuseapproaching drivers about the exact position of theroad. This danger is increased if you are parked onthe wrong side of the road. Whenever you park onor along a highway at night, turn on your parkinglights or four-way emergency flasher.NOTE: Emergency vehicles may leave headlightson when they are required to illuminatean area in an emergency.Seeing is especially difficult at dusk. There is nolonger enough natural light to see clearly withoutusing headlights, but there is too much natural lightfor the eyes to adjust properly for night driving.The twilight hazard is especially serious in the fallas the days grow shorter and it begins to get darkas people are driving home from work. Many ofthem do not notice the darkness increasing fromday to day and fail to take it into account in theirdriving.11-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306FatigueMany drivers on the road after dark are likely to betired. The majority of them have done a day’s work.Others have been driving all day and are trying toadd a few more miles before they stop for the night.Seeing things through a drowsy haze, a tired drivermay need several seconds to recognize danger anddecide what to do about it. His decisions may bewrong and his reactions slow.When you are tired, it takes longer to recover fromthe effects of glare and also your eyes often playtricks on you. More than one driver has been killedor seriously injured trying to avoid a collision witha pedestrian or animal that existed only in hisimagination. Tired drivers greatly increase thehazards of night driving.Safe Night DrivingSpeed. The basic rule for safe night driving isNEVER OUTRUN YOUR HEADLIGHTS. Yourstopping distance should always be less than yoursight distance. The law requires headlights that willenable you to see clearly any person on the highwayfor as much as 200 feet ahead of your vehicle. (Sincethe effectiveness of headlights diminishes greatly asthe distance increases, headlights must be in goodworking order to meet legal requirements.) Whateffect should this rule have on your speed? At 55MPH, the stopping distance for a vehicle with brakesmeeting the legal stopping distance requirements is307 feet, or 107 feet more than the distance you cansee. At 50 MPH, the stopping distance is 258 feet,or 58 feet more than the distance you can see. At 45MPH, it is 217 feet, or 17 feet more than the distanceyou can see.Speeds of 50 and 55 MPH, safe and legal undergood conditions in the daytime, are very oftenunsafe and illegal at night. They may be unsafebecause by the time your headlights reveal adangerous condition, it may be too late to stop.These speeds may also be illegal under the basicprovisions of the speed law which makes it unlawfulto drive at a speed greater than is reasonable andprudent under existing conditions.As a general rule, keep your speed under 50 MPHat night. On curves or hills, your speed should beeven lower – low enough so that you are always ableto stop within the range of your headlights.Some drivers, preparing for long trips, prefer todrive at night because traffic is lighter, and theycan make better time. Traffic is lighter, but on amileage basis, the chances of getting killed orkilling someone are two to three times as great.Plan trips so that you can drive during daylighthours rather than at night. Unnecessary nightdriving does not make sense.Lights. Most state laws require you to turn yourheadlights on from sunset to sunrise. In the daytime,turn on your lights whenever rain, fog, or snowimpairs visibility or if there is not enough light foryou to see an object clearly 200 feet ahead of you.Keep your headlights on low beam when driving inplaces where enough light is provided by streetlamps. Where there is no street illumination, useyour high beams except when meeting or followinganother vehicle.Lower your high beams when you are approachinga vehicle coming toward you. As you meet anothervehicle at night, watch the road ahead of you. Donot look directly at the lights of the other vehicle. Ifthe driver of the other vehicle fails to lower hisheadlights, do not flick your lights to remind him.Avoid looking directly at the bright lights, glance tothe right side of the road, then quickly look ahead todetermine the other vehicle’s position.As soon as you have met and passed a vehicle, switchon your high beams again. It is dangerous to meetanother vehicle with high beams, but it is alsodangerous to drive along with low beams when thereis no reason for it.NOTE: Never drive with only your parkinglights on. If conditions are such that there isreduced visibility, your headlights should beon.WEATHERBad weather means poor driving conditions.Rain, snow, and sleet reduce visibility and makepavements dangerous. In fog, and sometimes inheavy rain or snow, you may be able to see only afew feet ahead. Braking distances on slipperypavements may be from 2 to 10 times as great ason dry pavement. The danger of swerving sharplyto one side or the other when you apply yourbrakes is much greater on slippery pavements,11-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306especially if the brakes are out of adjustment andthe pressure is not equalized.RainMost drivers slow down or pull off the road in aheavy downpour, but many do not realize that roadsare likely to be especially slick just after rain ordrizzle begins. The first few drops loosen grease anddirt accumulated on the road surface. Loosenedgrease and dirt mix with raindrops, quickly coveringthe road with an extremely dangerous, slippery film.Later on, after the water has washed some of thegrease and dirt away, the road is likely to be lessslippery. To the safe driver, the first few drops ofrain are danger signals telling him to slowdown andbe extra cautious. On wet pavements, allow at leasttwice the normal following distance. For example,when following on wet pavement, use a 4-secondinstead of a 2-second rule.In wet weather, extra caution is necessary on mountainroads. Rocks, loosened by water seepage, mayfall onto the road Water beneath the pavement mayfreeze during a cold snap and cause the pavement tobuckle. A driver may suddenly find brokenpavement or rocks in his path as he rounds acurve. Unless he is driving slowly, he may notbe able to avoid them. Wet roads may also causehydroplaning, a condition in which directionalcontrol is partially or totally lost.Snow and IceSnow and ice reduce traction even more than a wetpavement does. A thin layer of soft snow that allowstires to sink through to the road can be negotiatedby a careful driver. Packed snow or ice is anothermatter. When driving on snow or ice, make sureyour vehicle is equipped with chains, snow tires, orstudded tires. Even then, you must use extremecaution to maintain traction and keep from skiddingwhen you attempt to stop or turn. When roads aredangerous because of weather, drive with extraalertness at reduced speed according to conditions.Even when a road is generally clear of ice, you maysuddenly come upon unexpected patches of it.Melting snow running down from the upper side ofa banked curve may freeze on the pavement as thesun sets. Because the decks of bridges cool muchmore rapidly than other road surfaces, moistureoften condenses on them and freezes quickly intothin sheets of ice when the temperature drops. Agood winter driving rule is to slow down before youcome to bridges and shaded places. Be especiallycareful in late afternoon and after dark.FogFog is dangerous at any time, but particularly so atnight. Fog can sometimes be so thick that a drivercan barely see the front of his own vehicle. The onlything to do in dense fog is to get off the road asquickly as possible.Sometimes, on otherwise fairly clear nights, thick fogcollects in small pockets at the bottom of hills. Whenyou run into one of these pockets, slow down asquickly as you can and switch on your low-beamheadlights. When you have passed through the fog,continue to drive slowly. One pocket of fog is usuallya warning. There will probably be more fog at thebottom of the next hill. Continue to drive slowlyuntil you are sure you are completely out of the fogarea.SEASONAL HAZARDSFallen leaves often make roads dangerous becausetires are likely to skid on them when a driver applieshis brakes, especially if the leaves are wet. In winterand spring, dirt roads are likely to be muddy. Thewheels of vehicles turning from dirt roads ontopaved roads track mud and dirt onto the pavement.At such places, there is an increased danger of skidding.When you see leaves, mud, loose dirt, or sandon the road ahead of you, slow down.Spring and summer foliage may greatly reduce sightdistances, especially on curves and at intersections.A driver, though familiar with a road, may not realizehow quickly sight distances have been reduced whenspring foliage appears. Unless he adjusts his speedto the changed conditions, he may have an accident.SECONDARY ROADSSecondary roads, built for local transportation andnot as main highways, may be hazardous, dependinglargely on how you drive on them. The fact that aroad is paved does not necessarily mean that it wasdesigned for heavy traffic or regular highway speeds.So-called “farm-to-market” roads are much more11-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306serviceable than the dirt roads they have replacedHowever, they were still built for local transportation.On these roads, hills are likely to be steeperand curves sharper than on primary roads. Sightdistances are often very short.You can recognize secondary roads by their rectangularroute signs. A driver who is unfamiliar withone of these roads must be on his guard for suddenbends and sharp dips. You cannot drive them safelyat speeds that would be normal on primary highways.Probably the highest reasonable speed on most ofthem is 40 to 45 MPH. These roads are not unsafe,but the person who drives on them as though theywere express highways is on his way to an accident.Gravel roads are particularly dangerous because oftheir loose surface and flat (unbanked) curves.Stopping distances at all speeds are greater andskids and spinouts are more likely to occur. Ongravel roads, you must keep your vehicle under closecontrol and drive at a much lower speed than wouldbe safe on a paved road.SMOKING, EATING, AND DRINKINGThe use of tobacco and alcohol reduces your abilityto see. Eating and smoking impair senses. Never eator smoke when operating a vehicle, and do not drinkalcoholic beverages 8 hours before or when driving.OVERLOADING AND CROWDINGNo vehicle is safe when it is overloaded or crowdedto the point that the driver’s normal vision of theroad is obstructed and he has difficulty operatingthe vehicle. As a general rule, you cannot drivesafely if you allow more than three persons,including yourself, in the front seat of a vehiclewith the gearshift lever on the steering column ormore than two persons with the gearshift on the floorof the vehicle. In some compact vehicles, the maximumsafe limit may be only two, regardless of wherethe gearshift is. Overcrowding in the back seat(more than three persons) is dangerous because it islikely to interfere with the line of sight from therearview mirror. When a vehicle is equipped withseat belts, the number of passengers should notexceed the number of seat belts provided.Do not use a car as a truck. A heavy load decreasesperformance and increases stopping distances. Itmay damage the springs, shock absorbers, tires, andtransmission. A heavy load or one that is not evenlydistributed may upset the trim and balance of avehicle, making curves and stops more dangerous.Loads on trucks and trailers should be securelyfastened to prevent any part of them from falling off.(See Chapter 18 for loading instructions.)Never drive a motorcycle, motor scooter, or motorbikewithout wearing a safety helmet and eyeprotectors (nonshattering). Keep your lights on,day or night, so that other drivers can see you moreeasily. Never carry more than the number ofriders for which the vehicle was designed.SCHOOL BUSESExcept on highways with a median strip, all traffic inboth directions must come to a compete stop whenevera school bus stops to take on passengers or letthem off (Figure 11-1). In some localities, this ruleapplies to certain other vehicles, such as city, church,or Sunday school buses. Traffic must remainstopped until the bus driver turns off the special stoplights on the front and rear and/or withdraws thespecial stop sign located on the left side of the bus.EMERGENCY VEHICLESPolice cars, ambulances, and fire engines areentitled to the right-of-way whenever they givean audible warning of their approach. The warningis usually a siren, sometimes a bell. Additional warningis usually given by a flashing red or blue light.The law requires you to drive to the right-hand curbor edge of the road and come to a complete stop.You must remain stopped until the emergencyvehicle has passed or until you are directed to startagain by a police officer.Though laws and regulations require you to pull tothe right side of the road, they do not require you todo it carelessly or without regard to consequences.Be sure to look before you turn your steering wheel.If you turn suddenly to the right without looking, youmay collide with the emergency vehicle or with someother vehicle.11-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Never follow within 500 feet of a fire truck or otheremergency vehicle. Never drive into or park in ablock where an emergency vehicle has stopped inanswer to a fire alarm. If you do, you will exposeyourself to unnecessary danger and may hinder thework of the fire department. Never drive over a firehose unless directed to do so by a fireman or policeofficer.BREAKDOWNSIf your vehicle breaks down, get it off the maintraveled portion of the road if possible. If you havea flat tire, you may damage the tire beyond repair ifyou drive on it, but you should take this risk ifnecessary to avoid greater danger. When yourvehicle is disabled at night, always leave your parkinglights on as a warning to other drivers. Day or night,turn on your four-way flasher warning lights.Place warning devices contained in the highwaywarning kit as prescribed in the kit instructionalmanual. If the instructions are not with the kit,follow the procedures in Chapter 13.If you cannot get your vehicle off the road and it isobstructed from view by a curve or hill, walk backalong the shoulder of the road to a position whereyou can signal approaching drivers to stop in time.Do not attempt to make repairs on your vehiclewhile it is in an exposed position on the road.For Army Only: Make limited repairs, if possible,or notify your unit maintenance personnel accordingto the operating procedure of your unit.For Air Force Only: For disabled vehicles on base,notify vehicle maintenance through your unitvehicle control officer during normal duty hews.After normal duty hours, notify the on-dutyvehicle operation dispatcher. For off-base vehicledisabilities, contact the vehicle operations officer/superintendent to obtain vehicle repair instructions(AFR 77-4 and AFM 77-310, Volume 1).SAFETYSafety is a command responsibility. The driver mustreceive adequate instruction on safe practices whenvehicles are operated. Safety, properly taught andconstantly emphasized, will prevent much needlessmanpower equipment loss during critical militaryoperations. The AR 385-series of Army regulationsdefines safety responsibility. A few of the safetyhazards that you should avoid are as follows:Moving vehicles without first checking on bothsides, front, rear, and underneath to ensure thatyou can maneuver without endangering personnelor equipment. Always post ground guideswhen maneuvering a vehicle in a motor pool orbivouac area, especially at night and underblackout conditions in any off-road area when itis too dark to see your surroundings.11-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Running engines in closed areas withoutadequate ventilation.Using cutting wheels or torches without wearingprotective goggles.Using defective or improper tools.Wearing rings or watches when working aroundthe vehicle.Failing to use proper support when changingwheels.Climbing over bumpers and running boardswithout first removing ice or frost.Maneuvering vehicles with vision obscured byfrost or dirt on windshield and mirrors.Driving too fast for roads or traffic conditions.Backing without a ground guide.Smoking during refueling operations.Failing to wear seat belt, helmet, and hearingand eye protection.11-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 12GRIDS AND STRIP MAPSAn easy way to become familiar with the area inwhich you are operating is by studying a map. Fromthe map you can determine the major roads andwhere they go. Also, you can find obviouslandmarks such as mountains, valleys, coastlines,rivers, cities, railroads, crossroads, and bridges.The two basic types of maps are the grid map andthe strip map. FM 21-26 covers map reading.USING THE MILITARY GRIDREFERENCE SYSTEMTo keep from getting lost, you have to know howto find out where you are. There are no streetaddresses in a combat area, but a military map canspot your location accurately. The map has linesrunning up and down (north and south) and across(east and west). These lines form small squares1,000 meters on each side called grid squares.The lines that form grid squares are numbered alongthe outside edge of the map picture. No two gridsquares will have the same number. The precisionof a point location is shown by the number of digitsin the coordinates the more digits, the more precisethe location; for example–1181 is a 1,000 meter grid square.115813 is to the nearest 100 meters.11508133 is to the nearest 10 meters.For instance, suppose your address is grid square1181. How do you know this? Start from the leftand read right until you come to 11, the first halfof your address. Then read up to 81, the other half.Your address is somewhere in gridsquare 1181(Figure 12-1).Grid square 1181 gives your general neighborhood,but there is a lot of ground inside that grid square.To make your address more accurate, just addanother number to the first half and another numberto the other half, so your address has six numbersinstead of four.To get those extra numbers pretend that each gridsquare has 10 lines inside it running north and southand another 10 running east and west. This makes100 smaller squares. You can estimate where theseimaginary lines are.If you are halfway between line 11 and line 12, thenext number is 5 and the first half of your address is115. If you are also three-tenths of the way betweenline 81 and line 82, then the second half of youraddress is 813. (If you are exactly on line 81, thesecond half would be 810.) Figure 12-2 shows thatif you were where the dot is in the grid square 1181,then your address would be 115813.12-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306The most accurate way to determine the coordinatesof a point on a map is to use a coordinate scale(Figure 12-3). You do not have to use imaginarylines because you can find the exact coordinates onthe coordinate scale and protractor or the plottingscale. Located on both of these devices are twocoordinate scales: 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 meters.When you use either of these devices, be sure to usethe correct scale.Use the coordinate scales to determine the coordinatesof a point (Point A) already plotted on a map(Figure 12-4). First, locate the grid square in whichthe point is located The number of the vertical gridline on the left (west) side of the grid square will bethe first and second digits of the coordinates (11).The number of the horizontal grid line on the bottom(south) side of the grid square will be the fourth andfifth digits of the coordinates (81).To determine the third and sixth digits of the coordinates,place the coordinate scale on the bottomgrid square containing point A. Be sure the zeros ofthe coordinate scale are in the lower left-hand(south-west) corner of the grid square. Slide thecoordinate scale to the right, keeping the bottom ofthe scale on the bottom grid line until point A isunder the vertical (right-hand) scale.To determine a six-digit coordinate, the 100-metermark on the bottom scale, which is nearest the northsouthgrid line, is the third digit, 5. The 100-metermark on the right-hand scale, which is nearest pointA, is the sixth digit, 3. Putting these together, youhave 115813.To determine an eight-digit coordinate, whichlocates a point on the ground to within 10 meters,keep in mind that there are 100 meters between each100-meter mark (number) on the scale. A short tickmark indicates 50 meters between each 100-metermark. As shown in Figure 12-2, the grid line crossesthe bottom scale on the 500-meter mark, this makesthe third and fourth digits 50. If the grid line crossedthe scale between the 500- and 600-meter mark, youmust interpolate how many meters it is beyond 500meters. To determine the seventh and eighth digits,read the right-hand scale where the point is on thescale. As shown, the point is between the 300- markand the 50-meter tick mark. You must estimate howmany 10s the point is beyond the 300 mark. In thiscase it is 3, which makes the seventh and eighthdigits, 33. Putting these together, you have11508133.To determine the correct two-letter 100,000-metersquare identifier, look at the grid reference boxin the margin of the map. Place the 100,000 -meter square identifier in front of the coordinateGL 11508133 (Figures 12-5 through 12-7).ESTIMATING THE DISTANCEMaps are drawn to scale so by measuring thedistance on the map you can estimate the distanceon the ground. This scale may be indicated by anote such as”3 inches equals 1 mile.” This meansthat 3 inches on the map equals 1 mile on theground. You can then use a 3-inch strip of paperas a ruler to measure the number of miles on themap. Sometimes instead of a note, a ruler is printedon the map for you. Another way to show the scaleis by a representative fraction; for instance, l/63,360or 1:63,360. This means that one unit of distance onthe map equals 63,360 units on the ground. Forinstance, 1 inch on the map equals 63,360 inches onthe ground which equals 5,280 feet or 1 mile.United States units for measuring distance are interms of miles, yards, and feet. In most overseasareas, the metric system is used. You need to knowmetric measurements and how they compare to oursbecause your speedometer and odometer willmeasure in miles. A kilometer equals a little oversix-tenths of a mile. The following conversionmethod shows how to convert (approximately) to themetric systemKilometers (km) to miles (mi): multiply km by.62.Example: 37 km x .62 = 22.94 or 23 mi.Miles to kilometers: multiply mi by 1.6.Example: 23 mi x 1.6 = 36.8 or 37 km.12-2

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306ESTIMATING THE TIMEHaving estimated the distance, the next step is tofigure-the time you will need. In estimating time,remember that your maximum allowable speed mustnot exceed that shown on the caution plate in the cabor that specified by your commander. Your averagespeed will be less than your maximum speed, asaverage speed includes halts and traffic slowdowns.For detailed information, refer to FM 55-30.RECOGNIZING MILITARY SIGNSIn addition to the signs and devices normallyencountered in civilian and military driving, youmust know signs peculiar to the military service.These include signs or symbols and installationmarkers. Military signs and symbols can befound in FM 101-5-1.USING A STRIP MAPThe strip map (Figures 12-8 and 12-9) is a sketch ofa route of march. It may or may not be drawn toscale, but it should show the identifying landmarks.A strip map may include varying degrees of information,such as —Start point and release point.Routes and route numbers.Major towns.Major roads and crossroads.Mileage between points.Bivouac, rest, halt, and petroleum, oils, andlubricants (POL) areas.Directional arrows.Legend.When you are assigned a driving mission, you aretold which route to follow. However, you muststudy the map and check the road system for alternateroutes so that you can make detours whennecessary.12-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306If you turn on the wrong road, your sense of direc- At times, the simplest way to get on the right roadtion should help you find your way. The task is may be to ask directions, but do not follow sugmucheasier if you have oriented yourself properly gested shortcuts. Make your questions specific.in the beginning and have picked out landmarks Ask the way to a particular town or definite route.along the way. Check your road map to find the Again, a knowledge of the country is vital. Armedroad you are on and either select a new route or services police, if available, are a valuable andreturn to the one you were following originally.authorized source of information.12-6

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 13OPERATION OF GOVERNMENT VEHICLES OFF POST/BASEOff post/base dispatches may be limited to thoseapproved by the motor transport officer or hisdesignated representative. Off post/base operationof a government vehicle involves driver responsibilityadditional to on post/base operation. Previouschapters contain guidance on generaltechniques and methods of highway driving. Thischapter gives instructions that you should followclosely while on an off post/base dispatch. If theinstructions are not clear to you or if you desire moredetailed instructions, discuss the matter with yoursupervisor or dispatcher before starting on an offPost/base dispatch.DISPATCHER’S RESPONSIBILITYThe unit vehicle control officer/dispatcher will provideyou with required items for an off post/basedispatch, along with necessary instructions andinformation regarding the route. He will recommenda route to follow and furnish a map indicatingthe route. The recommended route will offer thebest repair facilities and communication services.He will give you a list of these facilities withtelephone numbers. The location of the repairfacility, as well as locations of roadside telephonebooths, when considered necessary, will be markedon the map furnished.OFF POST/BASE DRIVING ITEMSAND EQUIPMENTProof of AuthorizationTo prove you are authorized to take a governmentvehicle off post/base, you must have in yourpossession a valid state driver’s license, yourOF 346, and your dispatch document (For ArmyOnly: DD Form 1970). Check local proceduresfor other authorizations required for offpost/base dispatches.Credit CardThe US Government National Credit Card iscontrolled since it could possibly be misused if lostand then found by dishonest persons. You will beexpected to sign for this item and to limit its useto an absolute minimum. Proper servicing ofvehicles before departure from the post/base willreduce the need for credit card purchases.When required, you may procure the following itemsand services with the credit card:Gasoline (regular unleaded, premium unleaded,special unleaded).Gasoline (aviation grade, unleaded for boats,diesel marine fuel oil, and aviation turbine fuel).Gasohol.Diesel fuels.NOTE: Drivers of government vehicles willuse self-service pumps when available atcommercial service stations to purchase thefuels noted above.Lubricating service and lubricants (includingdifferential and transmission lubricant).Oil falter elements and servicing.Ethylene glycol antifreeze.Brake fluid.Air filters (replacement of throwaway typeonly, cleaning of permanent type).Battery charging.Tire and tube repairs.Mounting and dismounting snow tires orchains.13-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Emergency replacement of spark plugs, fanand generator belts, windshield wiper armsand blades, lamps, and so forth.Washing, waxing, and cleaning services whenthe overall in-house cost exceeds the cost ofobtaining like services through commercialresources.Other emergency repairs, known in theautomobile trade as “road repairs.”Emergency roadside repair involves replacing orrepairing automotive accessories at the point ofbreakdown. Repair is limited to the guidelines ofthe region responsible for that TMP and/or thelocal installation policies. Repairs of this typeinclude tires, tubes, batteries, and automotiveaccessories. When government facilities arenearby, use them instead of commercialfacilities if possible. Normally, the dispatcherwill advise you if a government facility is readilyavailable or if you must use a commercialsource. You may be held liable for the bill if thisprocedure is not followed.Remember, you are responsible for the control andpurchases made with the card issued to you. Creditcard purchases must be substantiated by a copy ofthe service station delivery receipt. In addition tothe information normally shown on deliveryreceipts, ensure that the speedometer reading andthe registration (or license) number of the vehicleand your name, grade, and organization are put onthe receipt. The receipt must also show the creditcard number; date of purchase; name and addressof the station; the grade, quantity, and price pergallon of fuel; and the total amount charged. Whenevera purchase is made by credit card, you will turnin a copy of the purchase receipt to the dispatcherwith your credit card when you return to yourpost/base.Toll TicketsWhen routes off post/base include locations wherepassage would require a toll, tickets may be furnishedto you at the time of dispatch if available. Ifnot, follow local policy for being reimbursed for tollsand parking fees. Upon your return, you will turn into the dispatcher the ticket receipt given to you bythe toll keeper or any unused tickets.Accident FormsUse SF 91 (Operator’s Report of Motor VehicleAccident) according to instructions in Chapter 10.DD Form 518 (Accident-Identification Card) iscompleted and furnished as identification accordingto instructions in Chapter 10.Spare Tire and Tool KitYou must be sure that the vehicle is equipped, as aminimum with a suitable jack, lug wrench, andscrewdriver, as well as any additional tools based onconditions such as bad weather, difficult terrain,warfare, and so forth. The unit vehicle controlofficer will provide a spare tire and tool kit.Route Maps and Driver InformationThe map may be cut from an ordinary road mapand securely attached to a card in order to reducebulk and provide a map which is ready to read.Additional maps of cities along the route will beincluded if necessary. The map or card should bemarked to show the north direction and the scale, ifnecessary. You may be furnished a strip map withmap symbols to assist you in reading it.Attached to the route map will be a list of suggestedrepair stations and their telephone numbers. Thesestations will be numbered and indicated by locationmarkings on the map. See illustrations on maps inChapter 12. (Specific and detailed instructions fromthe dispatcher should be written and clipped to themap along with the listing, or you should write theinstructions in your personal note pad. Do not relyon remembering these details while driving.)A military operator should have a copy of thismanual during an off post/base dispatch so that hecan refer to its instructions. However, this doesnot eliminate his responsibility to understand itsinstructions before the trip.Government InvoiceEmergency roadside repairs, materials, supplies,and labor services may be obtained by using SF 44(Purchase Order Invoice Voucher). If necessary,the off post dispatcher will furnish you appropriateforms at the time of dispatch. You will sign forthem since they are controlled items. Emergency13-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306roadside repairs include the repair or replacementof minor assemblies, such as starters, generators,distributors, fuel pumps, water pumps, carburetors,and similar minor component assemblies. Whenyou make purchases using a government invoice,turn in a copy of the invoice to the dispatcher uponyour return to your post/base.For Army Only : Drivers of Army vehicles must beauthorized at the time of dispatch to pay parking feesin order to obtain reimbursement.Highway Warning KitThis kit has reflectors that can be used in all caseswhere warning is necessary (Figure 13-1). All AirForce or Army motor vehicles capable of carrying10 or more persons or with a rated capacity ofmore than 4 tons will be equipped with approvedhighway warning kits. Vehicles of lesser capacitythat regularly operate over public highways willalso be equipped with warning kits. These kitsstay with vehicles regularly used on public highways.Additional kits are stored in post/basemotor pools. They are issued for specific trips whenrequired, such as when vehicles are used for accidentinvestigation. Convoys will be equipped withone kit for each 10 vehicles, with a minimum of twokits per convoy. Of the total kits, at least one will becarried in the trail vehicle. Instructions for use willaccompany each kit when issued.For Air Force Only: The unit vehicle controlofficer/NCO will furnish the highway warning kitthrough unit supply channels (AFR 77-4).Whenever a vehicle is inoperative or unable to moveon a traveled portion of any highway or the shoulder,the following instructions will be complied withimmediately (except in blackouts or within businessor residential districts where traffic conditionsdo not permit or warrant the placing ofwarning devices):Make every reasonable effort to move thevehicle from the traveled portion of the roadwaycompletely onto the shoulder if possible.When lights are required (sunset to sunrise),place a reflector in the obstructed lane, or onthe shoulder of the road if the vehicle is on orover the shoulder, between the vehicle and theapproaching traffic using that lane. Do thisbefore trying to repair the vehicle. Place thereflectors as follows:–––One reflector in the center of the lane of trafficoccupied by the vehicle, not less than 40 paces(about 100 feet) from the vehicle in the directionof traffic approaching in that lane. If thevehicle is on or over the shoulder and does notoccupy a traffic lane, place the warning devicealongside the edge of the roadway to avoidobstructing the traffic lane.One reflector on the traffic side of thevehicle four paces (about 10 feet) to its rear,in the direction of traffic approaching in thatlane.One reflector not less than 40 paces from thevehicle in the opposite direction.– If the motor vehicle is stopped within 300feet of a curve, crest of a hill, or otherobstruction to view, one reflector not lessthan 40 paces nor more than 120 paces fromthe vehicle to afford ample warning to otherhighway users.When lights are not required (sunrise to sunset),place red flags or reflectors with flags mountedon them as prescribed for night. (Since mostwarning kits contain only two flags, the reflectorplaced 20 feet behind the vehicle will have noflag mounted on it.)Whenever convoys or convoy components must stopon or near the traveled roadway, the convoy commanderor the person in charge must immediatelyensure that emergency warning devices are correctlyplacedA basic vehicle highway warning kit containing threesets of reflectors and two red flags is acceptable inmost states. Some states also require items such asflares in the kit. However, vehicles transportingcompressed gases, explosives, or flammable liquidswill use three red electric flashing lanterns insteadof flares. Check the kit and/or additional itemsperiodically to ensure compliance with local legalrequirements.For Air Force Only : Obtain highway warning kitand/or items through local purchase or base supply.13-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306OFF POST/BASE REPAIR SERVICEYour supervisor or dispatcher can furnish localprocedures and policies on the off post/base area tobe served by your installation’s vehicle maintenancecrew. When your vehicle needs service at an offpost/base location and you are too far away forpractical vehicle maintenance furnished from thepost/base, proceed according to the instructionsbelow.If the nearest suggested repair station will accept acollect telephone call, use this method to obtainservice. If the station will not accept a collecttelephone call, call your post/base motor transportofficer, to contact a repair station or to help insome other way. When acceptable service fromother than suggested repair stations is moreconvenient and timesaving, be sure the creditcard or government invoice will be honoredbefore requesting service be performed. Thegovernment invoice used is SF 44.Contact the nearest military installation for majorrepairs not listed in the paragraph above when it isdetermined that such assistance would be advantageousto the government. For instance, whenthe mission requires repair or service without delayor when the vehicle must be towed for safetyreasons, it would be advantageous to request servicefrom a suggested repair station or some otheracceptable service station. If in doubt on what todo, contact your motor transport officer or officerof the day at your home post/base or activity.For Air Force Only: Use AF Form 15 (UnitedStates Air Force Invoice) to get emergency repairs,materials, supplies, and labor services. Use it forservices that are not authorized to be procured on acredit card. The form was originally intended foruse with aircraft. Some modification of the form isrequired for use with vehicles. Emergency roadsiderepairs include the repair or replacement of minorassemblies, such as starters, generators, distributors,fuel pumps, water pumps, and similarcomponent assemblies. AF Form 15A (InvoiceEnvelope) is used with the AF Form 15. A creditcard can also be used for service normally acquiredwith an AF Form 15 when the vendor refuses toaccept an AF Form 15. A statement concerningthe refusal of the AF Form 15 must accompany thedelivery receipt. When purchases are made using agovernment invoice, turn in a copy of the invoice tothe dispatcher when you return to your post/base.For additional guidance, refer to Career DevelopmentCourse, CDC 603X0.13-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 14PROCEDURES FOR TRANSPORTING PERSONNELAs the driver of a government vehicle transportingmilitary or civilian personnel, you have specialobligations to your passengers. These are in additionto the responsibilities previously described foroperating your vehicle.GENERAL PROCEDURESMany passengers transported will be from otherposts/bases, or they may be visiting dignitariesfrom nearby cities. The first impression of yourinstallation a person gets is usually the one he willremember most. How you perform your dutieswhen transporting personnel reflects the type ofmotor transportation operation you have. Nomatter who you are transporting (officers, noncommissionedofficers, enlisted personnel, orcivilians), you should always –Report promptly to the person requestingtransportation.Show courtesy to all passengers regardless ofgrade.Open and close the vehicle door for passengersespecially at the destination.See that all passengers have secured seat andshoulder belts.Park your vehicle so passengers load and unloadon the curbside. (Never arrange for passengersto enter or dismount on the traffic side.)NOTE: Ordinarily, the passenger seatingarrangement needs no assistance from thedriver. Expect the lowest-ranking person toenter the vehicle first and dismount last.The highest-ranking person enters thevehicle last and dismounts first. Rememberthis when positioning your vehicle to allowyour passengers to dismount.Off Post/BaseSPECIAL SITUATIONSYou may have to transport personnel to off post/basedestinations such as airports, train stations, and busstations. When picking up personnel off post/base,park as near the exit or entrance as possible. Thenreport to the information section and publicly pageyour passengers. If you parked the vehicle a blockor more from the station, tell your passengers tomeet you at the front of the entrance; then go for thevehicle. When transporting personnel to stations,you must only deliver them to the station entrance.Very Important PersonsAS a military driver, you may have the opportunityto transport very important persons (VIPs) –highrankingofficers or civilians— who visit yourPost/base. If you are chosen to drive for VIPs, youwill usually be assigned this job for their entire visit,usually 1 to 3 days. A group of VIPs will normallyconsist of three to eight persons. They will beaccompanied by one person to whom you reportand from whom you take orders. He will have allthe information on where and when you should beavailable with your vehicle. Between runs, be surethat your vehicle is ready for further service. Keepthe vehicle wiped off, windows clean, floor swept,and ash trays emptied. You and your vehicle mustbe neat and clean at all times. If your vehicle isneeded past normal duty hours, a change ofuniform is in order.Salute when you report to an officer to tell him histransportation is available. When the officer reportsto your vehicle, you must only stand at attention andopen the door. If, however, additional officersaccompany the officer to whom you reported,salute when the other officers report to thevehicle.If, when you report to an officer, your request isrelayed by an NCO or civilian, return to the vehicle.14-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Stand at parade rest by the vehicle door the officerwill enter. When you see him coming, open the door,stand at attention, and salute.Once you have saluted the officer and are touringthe post/base on inspection, you must only open (orclose) the door and stand at attention when he entersand leaves the vehicle.When personnel on an inspection tour leave thevehicle, your position is at the vehicle door they willenter when they return. Stand at parade rest. Donot wait inside the vehicle.When transporting general officers, unease theappropriate star plates and flags. When a generalofficer is not present, plates and flags will becased.For Army Only: When you hear the sound of retreat,halt your vehicle. If you are driving a bus or truck,only the senior occupant dismounts and renders theappropriate courtesy, If you are driving any othervehicle, you and all other occupants dismount andrender the appropriate courtesy.CAUTIONWhen dismounting on the traffic side, watchfor traffic coming and going.For Air Force Only : When you hear the sound ofretreat, stop your vehicle and remain seated.NOTE: The above applies when the Americanflag is passing.Buses, Trucks, and Panel VansBuses. When transporting personnel on buses –Secure all equipment to prevent possible injuryto passengers.Permit only authorized passengers to ride inyour vehicle.Permit passengers to board or leave the vehicleonly when the vehicle is stopped.Do not permit passengers to extend legs or armsoutside the vehicle when it is in motion.Never permit a passenger to obstruct your clearview of the road. You must have maximumVisibility to drive safely.See that baggage, if carried, is safely stowed andsecured and not in the way of your passengers.Obey the regulations prohibiting the overloadof vehicles.Place the vehicle next to the curb or to theextreme right of the roadway when receiving ordischarging passengers.Do not allow smoking on shuttle vehicles.Stop the vehicle between 15 and 50 feet beforerailroad crossings. Listen and look in bothdirections for trains. Before crossing after atrain has passed, be sure another train is notcoming in the other direction on other tracks. Ifthe vehicle has manual transmission, do notchange gears while crossing the tracks.Slow down and carefully check for othervehicles at these locations:– Streetcar crossings.— Railroad tracks used only for industrialswitching within a business district.– Where a policeman or flagman is directingtraffic.– Where a traffic signal shows green.— Crossings marked exempt crossing.Avoid sudden stops and starts or any jerkymovement.Comply with federal, state, municipal, and arealaws and regulations pertaining to the operationof buses and mass personnel carrying vehicleswhen your vehicle is used over public streets orhighways.14-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Stop at drawbridges that do not have a signallight or traffic control attendant. Stop at least50 feet before the draw of the bridge.Be sure the draw is completely closed beforecrossing.Slow down and be sure it is safe to cross whenthere is a traffic light showing green or thereis an attendant or traffic officer that controlstraffic whenever the bridge opens.Trucks and Panel Vans. Permit passengers to becarried only in trucks equipped with sideboards andend enclosures (to include safety straps) at least 36inches above the standing surface of the vehiclebody. Require all passengers to be seated whenthe vehicle is in motion. Safety straps must beconnected when transporting personnel. Whenyour vehicle is hauling cargo, do not carry passengersother than members of the work crew handlingthe cargo or maintenance personnel with theirtoolboxes and maintenance materials. In such cases,be sure your passengers have enough room to stayseated within the vehicle. You must lower the tailgatewhen loading or unloading personnel andsecure it before moving the vehicle.When transporting personnel, you are responsiblefor delivering them to their destinations safely andon time. You should –Be courteous and responsive to the instructionsof official passengers, troop commanders, andcargo security personnel who may travel withyou. Talk as little as possible while en route.When loading or discharging officer personnelobserve the rules of military courtesy.Not exceed the passenger limit of your vehicleexcept in an emergency or as directed by yoursupervisor. Generally, when all passengers areseated and the weight limit of the vehicle is notexceeded, the passengers may be carried safely.Walk to the rear of the vehicle before starting toensure the tailgate and safety strap are in placeand all passengers are seated.Walk to the rear of the vehicle after stopping,release the safety strap, and lower the tailgatebefore allowing passengers to dismount.Do not move your vehicle if any personnel are inunsafe positions, such as standing; attempting toride between the cab and body; hanging onsideboards, running boards, or fenders; or sitting onthe tailgate or sides of the truck.Adjust the vehicle tarpaulin according to the weatheror as directed by your supervisor. Always ensure thereis proper ventilation to prevent the accumulation ofexhaust gases in the cargo compartment.For Air Force Only: You may transport personnelin the cargo bed of l/4- or 3/4-ton general-purposepickup trucks if you follow these safety procedures:Be sure vehicle is equipped with a workingtailgate.Be sure passengers are seated on the cargo deckwith no portion of their bodies overhanging thevehicle sides or rear.Do not operate the vehicle off base.Be cautious when entering and exiting pickuptrucks. Tailgates do not have to be lowered forpersonnel to enter and exit the cargo deck of thevehicle.Emergency VehiclesYou may be designated as a driver of an ambulanceor other emergency vehicle. However, you must stillconform to normal traffic regulations unless otherwisedirected by your supervisor. Emergency runswill be restricted to actual emergencies.The speed of emergency vehicles will be reasonableand proper with due regard for actual and potentialhazards. At no time during operation on or offpost/base will the speed of ambulances exceed thelegal speed limit for regular vehicles. Police vehicleswill exceed the posted speed limits only in emergenciesand as directed by the provost marshal orsecurity police directives.Certain emergency vehicles are equipped withwarning devices. Use these warning devices,usually a siren and red or blue flashing light, torequest that other vehicles yield the right-of-way.Under no circumstances assume that these signalsgive full clearance to operate the vehicle withoutsuitable regard for life, property, and traffic laws.14-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Unless ordered otherwise by the medical officer incharge, do not use the sirens on ambulances. Exceptwhen responding to an emergency call, observe alltraffic laws carefully during the transfer of patients.When responding to an emergency, emergencyvehicles may proceed through a stop sign or light (ifnot in violation of local law), only after slowing downor stopping to assure safe operation.Police vehicles responding to emergency calls usesirens and flashing lights according to local directivesor as directed by the provost marshal or chiefof the Air Force security police.The foregoing provisions do not relieve emergencyvehicle operators from the responsibility to drivewith regard for the safety of all persons and property.Nor do any of these provisions protect the driverfrom the consequence of any reckless disregard forthe safety and well-being of others.As an emergency vehicle operator, you willreceive additional driver training and must belicensed in accordance with AR 600-55 to operateemergency vehicles. You should gain as muchknowledge as possible in the operation of emergencyvehicles and be fully familiar with localoperating procedures for such vehicles. The safeoperation of emergency vehicles and the transportationof personnel on such vehicles demand moredriving skill and knowledge than ordinary vehicleoperation requires. Remember at all times thatemergency vehicle accidents are possible and are,in fact, quite frequent and serious.14-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 15MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITIESThe responsibilities of a military vehicle driverinclude keeping the vehicle in safe operating conditionand maintaining its mechanical efficiency.PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCEPreventive maintenance checks and services(PMCS) is commonly known as operator maintenance.It is that part of the overall maintenanceprogram that the using organization must performon its assigned equipment. PMCS is the systematiccare of a vehicle, including daily cleaning, servicing,and inspecting for maintenance discrepancies. Itspurpose is to maintain serviceability at reduced cost.Detecting and correcting defects in their early stagesbefore they develop into major defects results inlower maintenance costs and less vehicle out-ofcommissiontime. Unless regulations direct otherwise,the vehicle operator performs organizationalmaintenance.As the driver, you must properly and safely operateyour vehicle. You are the most important singlefactor in preventive maintenance. Daily maintenanceof your vehicle includes –Inspecting servicing adjusting and cleaningthe vehicle according to procedures outlined inthe vehicle technical manual (Army) or technicalorder (Air Force).Recording any deficiencies and shortcomings,both those that you correct by replacing partsand those that you do not correct. Deficienciesare malfunctions that may result in an unsafecondition to personnel or serious damage to thevehicle for example, loose battery connectionsor a missing or broken rearview mirror or wiperblade on the driver’s side. Shortcomings aredefects or malfunctions that must be correctedto make the vehicle completely serviceable; forexample, a missing battery cap or brokenspeedometer.(For Army Only: Use DA Form 2404.) (For AirForce Only : Use AF Form 1800 series, asappropriate, as specified by AFM 77-310,Volume 2, Chapter 6, for your particular vehicle.)Lubricating your vehicle according to proceduresoutlined in the vehicle lubrication order(Army) or -1 technical order (Air Force).Helping your unit maintenance personnel performscheduled periodic services on yourvehicle.You must be thoroughly familiar with the technicalmanual and lubrication order (Army) and technicalorder (Air Force) for your vehicle. Refer tothem frequently when maintaining your equipment.Do not tinker — an enthusiastic operatorwith inadequate knowledge and skills can causeserious damage.INSPECTIONSYou must perform before-, during-, and afteroperationinspections, and provide routine serviceand repairs on your vehicle.Before OperationBefore-operation inspection is a visual inspectionto make sure the vehicle is safe and in good operatingcondition before it is driven. Many defects,especially leaks, are more apparent after the vehiclehas been parked overnight.Proper before-operation inspection and servicingand proper starting procedures will increase theuseful life of your vehicle. Refer to the vehicle technicalmanual (Army) and Chapter 16 of this manualfor before-operation and starting procedures.During OperationDuring-operation inspection consists of theoperator being alert to indications of vehicle15-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306malfunction while driving, such as unusualvibrations, noise, and odors; abnormal instrumentreadings; and erratic brake and steeringoperations.Good drivers habitually inspect their vehicles ateach halt. A walk-around inspection to check thetires, suspension, and load (an abbreviatedafter-operation check) is appropriate. During thisinspection, you may discover and correct equipmentfaults that might cause a breakdown. Maintenancepersonnel are normally available in the rearelement of convoys to help you make repairs beyondyour capabilities or to provide vehicle recovery ifrequired. However, you must also notify your supervisoras soon as possible of your problem and keephim informed of its status. Unusual noises, vibrations,and changes in engine performance detecteden route but not identified should be reported toyour supervisor.After OperationAfter-operation inspection consists of all dailyvehicle services and correction, if possible, of anydeficiencies found This inspection prepares thevehicle for operation on a moment’s notice. Afteroperationmaintenance procedures are prescribedin your vehicle technical manual (Army).NOTE: As a vehicle operator, you areultimately liable for the proper operationand care of your vehicle. Therefore, theimportance of performing before-, during-,and after-operation checks cannot be overstressed.You could beheld liable for damagesto your vehicle if you fail to properly inspectfor and annotate discrepancies.EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCEFORMS AND RECORDSArmyWhen you are dispatched, you will be given an equipmentrecord folder containing all records and formspertaining to your vehicle. The equipment andmaintenance records found in this folder are —DD Form 1970 (Motor Equipment UtilizationRecord) (or for ULLS users, DA Form 5983-E).This is a dispatch form and is further explainedin DA Pam 738-750. (When using this form, youwill not maintain the automatic data processing(ADP) card mentioned below.)DA Form 2404 (Equipment Inspection andMaintenance Worksheet) (or for ULLS users,DA Form 5988-E). When using DD Form 1970,you may be required to maintain two DA Forms2404. A daily form is used to record deficienciesnoted during vehicle inspection. It must be withthe vehicle whenever it is being operated Adeferred maintenance form is carried only whenitems on the vehicle are on deferred maintenance.These forms are further explained inDA Pam 738-750.Automatic data processing (ADP) card. This isa dispatch form issued by a transportationmotor pool (TMP) using an ADP system. Whenusing this system, you will not use DD Form 1970or the daily DA Form 2404. (You may still berequired to maintain the deferred maintenanceform, DA Form 2404.)SF 91 (Operator’s Report of Motor VehicleAccident). You must complete this form wheneveryou are involved in a motor vehicle accident.This form is further explained in Chapter10 (Army/Air Force).DD Form 518 (Accident-Identification Card).You must complete this form whenever you areinvolved in a motor vehicle accident. This formis further explained in Chapter 10 (Army/AirForce).Air ForceUse the information below to perform inspectionsand maintenance required by your operator’sinspection guide and trouble report (AF Forms1800,1806,1807,1810, 1812, and 1819).Damage. Inspect the general condition of thevehicle. Check for tampering or damage that mayhave occurred since the vehicle was last operatedInspect doors, windows, windshields, seats, andupholstery. Examine paint condition and legibilityof markings.Leaks. Inspect the engine compartment and lookunder the vehicle for evidence of leaks.15-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Tire, Jack, and Lug Wrench. Be sure lugs aretight, and tires have correct air pressure and atleast 4/32 inch (military) and 2/32 inch (commercial)tread remaining. The spare tire mustalso have the appropriate tread remaining inaccordance with TM 9-2610-200-24.NOTE: When a vehicle is supported on a jackstand, chock at least one wheel. When bothfront wheels are in a raised position chock therear wheels.Fuel, Oil, and Coolant. Check fuel, engine oil, andcoolant. Add amounts necessary to bring them tothe correct levels. Do not overfill. Add onlypremixed coolant solution.Battery. Inspect fluid levels, terminal, clamps,hold down, and so forth for security and corrosion.Add water, clean surfaces, and tighten any looseconnections.WARNINGPersonnel should remove watches, rings,ID tags, and all jewelry before checking orinspecting the batteries.Horn. Inspect the horn for security of mounting andoperation.Lights and Reelectors. Inspect all lights and reflectorsfor condition and proper operation.Instruments. During operation, monitor all instrumentreadings for indications of malfunctions. Donot continue to operate the vehicle if instrumentreadings are not within acceptable limits or if warninglights are lit.Windshield Wipers. Inspect for condition of bladesand proper operation of blades and wiper assembly.Windshield. Clean windshield and other glass daily.Inspect for cracks or discoloration that wouldobstruct your visibility. Fill windshield washerreservoir.Cargo and Mounted Equipment. Inspect for security,proper operation, and damage of mounted equipment.Mounted equipment will receive the sametype of service and inspection as the vehicle.Vehicle Components. Clean inside and outside ofvehicle as neededSteering. During operation, cheek for abnormalsteering.Safety Devices. Inspect condition and operation ofall safety devices, such as seat belts, horn, lights,warning buzzer, warning decals, and fire extinguisher.Drive Belts and Pulley. Inspect belts for deterioration,wear, and proper tension.Brakes. Inspect brake pedal free travel. Brakepedal should have some free travel, but it should notexceed one-half of the total pedal travel distance.Inspect parking brake for operation and effectiveness.For special-purpose vehicles, inspect (dailywhen used) and adjust levels of hydraulic fluid in themaster cylinder reservoir as necessary.Lube and Oil Change. Maintain lube and oil at theprescribed levels. This includes any special (daily,weekly) lubrication requirements specified for yourvehicle or mounted equipment. Make sure thatlubrication and oil changes are done at establishedintervals (miles or month).Other. The “other” space on the operator’s inspectionguide and trouble report is provided for inspectionsand the recording of defects found duringvehicle inspections that are not otherwise coveredby the form.Defects. If no defects are found during the beforeoperationchecks and all cleaning and servicingrequirements have been met, you are ready to startoperating the vehicle. If you do find vehicle defects,enter the details in the appropriate space on theoperator’s inspection guide and trouble report.When correction of these defects exceeds theoperator’s responsibility, take the AF form andthe vehicle to the vehicle diagnostic and qualityassurance section for corrective action. In somecases, required maintenance of your vehicle may bedelayed by maintenance control due to the type ofdefect or to maintenance work backlog. Whenmaintenance is deferred maintenance control willenter the status code and initial your form to showthat defects have been reported and maintenancedelayed. You must retain this form in the vehicle asa record of defects that have been reported to maintenancecontrol. Any new maintenance defects not15-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306previously reported and identified as delayed maintenancemust be reported to maintenance control.Maintenance control will update your inspectionguide when delayed maintenance items have beencompleted. (Refer to AFM 77-310, Volume 2, formore specific information on reporting a vehicle formaintenance.)15-4

FM 21-305/AFMNM 24-306CHAPTER 16SPARK IGNITION AND COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINESConventional gasoline-fueled, spark ignitionengines and multipurpose diesel-fueled enginesdiffer in their principles of operation. Before-,starting-, and during-operation procedures also differfor conventional and diesel engines.SPARK IGNITION ENGINESOperating PrinciplesIn spark ignition engines, the vehicle’s ignitionprovides the spark that ignites the fuel-air mixturein the engine’s cylinder. The battery provides currentto produce the spark. Once the current leavesits source, it flows in a definite path to the cylinders.When the fuel mixture ignites, it causes the expandinggases of the burning fuel to force the pistondown on its power stroke.Starting ProceduresIt is always a good policy to check your technicalmanual or manufacturer’s instructions beforetrying to operate an unfamiliar vehicle.Before beginning the starting procedure, makesure the seat is adjusted so you can comfortablymanipulate the vehicle controls. Be sure the parkingbrake is set and the transmission is in theneutral or park position. If the vehicle is equippedwith special attachments, be sure all power controllevers are in neutral. Then –Depress the clutch pedal to release thetransmission load.Turn on the ignition key or switch.Pull out the choke if applicable. During warmweather or when the engine is warm, yougenerally do not need to use the choke. Inextremely cold weather, pull the choke controlout all the way. (Some vehicles have anautomatic choke that you can set by pressingthe accelerator to the floor and releasing itbefore starting the engine.)Engage the starter. If the engine does notstart within 10 seconds, release the starter andcheck to see if you have performed the otheroperations correctly. (If the 10- to 15-secondtime limit is exceeded the battery and startingmotor may be damaged. If the starter hasbeen engaged without results, wait at least 30seconds; then engage the starter again. Notifyyour supervisor if your engine fails tostart after repeated attempts.)As soon as the engine starts, push in the chokecontrol partway and adjust the throttle for asmooth idle. Use the choke only as necessaryto start the engine and bring it to operatingtemperature. (Do not race a cold engine. Ittakes time for the oil to circulate to all parts.If the engine is raced while cold, the lack oflubrication may seriously damage the pistons,bearings, and cylinder walls. Racing theengine also wastes fuel.)Note the oil pressure and charging systemindicators. The charging system shows somecharge unless the engine is idling slowly. The oilpressure indicator should show some pressure. Invehicles with oil pressure and generator lightindicator the lights should go out immediatelyafter the engine is started. If the gauges do notshow the proper indication or the lightindicators do not go out after the engine hasstarted, stop the engine and notify yoursupervisor.COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINESOperating PrinciplesMultifuel Engines. The multifuel engine is a diesel(compression ignition) engine (Figure 16-1).Unlike the conventional gasoline engine, it hasno spark plugs. The heat of compression ignitesthe fuel. A piston coming up on the compressionstroke compresses the air in the cylinder until itreaches an extremely high temperature. At thistime, fuel is injected into the cylinder under high16-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306pressure. The temperature within the cylinder third choice is MIL-G-3056 combat gasoline. (Thisignites the fuel. The expanding gases of the burn- is considered emergency fuel since it does not peringfuel force the piston down on its power stroke. form as well as other acceptable fuels in multifuelengines. It may even shorten the life of the engine.)CAUTIONFigure 16-2 shows the multifuel engine modelsAlways park a diesel/multifuel-powered found in 2 l/2-ton and 5-ton trucks. The fourvehicle in neutral with the emergency brake engines shown in Figure 16-2 operate similarly.applied (except in extreme cold weather) One important difference, however, is the fueland chock the wheels. If you parked it in filter arrangement. Both multifuel engines havegear, a slight bump by another vehicle may three filters – primary, secondary, and final. Thestart the engine, causing the vehicle to move location and type of filters are different in someout of control. Complete details on the cases. Figure 16-3 shows the locations of filters onoperation of diesel multifuel engines are in the different model engines shown in Figure 16-2.TM 9-2815-21O-34-1.Diesel Fuel Engines. Figure 16-4 shows the dieselfuel engines found in 5-ton trucks. Diesel fuelA variety of fuels may be used in multifuel engines. engines-use grades DF1 or DF2 diesel fuel.Acceptable types are as follows. First choices areVV-F-800 diesel fuel, MIL-F-16884 marine fuel oil, On the M939-series vehicles, the filter is locatedand CITE MIL-F-46005 compression ignition fuel. under the left-front fender. On the M915, the filterSecond choices are SPEC MIL-J-5624 jet fuel and is located on the left side of the engine. Both requirejet A and jet A-1 commercial aviation kerosene. The daily maintenance.16-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Before-, Starting-, and During-OperationProceduresDrivers converting from vehicles powered by conventionalspark ignition gasoline engines tovehicles powered by compression ignition enginesshould become thoroughly familiar with the before-,starting-, and during-operation procedures required bycompression ignition engines. Consult the vehicletechnical manual before trying to start or operatethe vehicle.16-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Before-Operation Procedures. The vehicle technicalmanual prescribes before-operation services. Mostof these apply to both gasoline and multifuelvehicles. The fuel falters, however, require specialattention. Before operating a multifuel vehicle, thefollowing filter service is mandatoryAfter ensuring that the engine stop lever ispulled out, turn on the vehicle accessory switchto start the in-tank fuel pump.Open the drain cock on the bottom of theprimary fuel filter. (On scraper types, give thehandle on top of the filter two complete turns toloosen any foreign matter in the filter element.)Drain off 1 pint of the contents into a clean jaror can. Examine the drained-off fuel for dirt orwater. (Water will form as small globules orblobs.)If fuel drained from the primary filter iscontaminated with dirt or water, drain thesecondary filter.If the final filter shows that the fuel iscontaminated, turn off the accessoryswitch and report the condition to yoursupervisor.Hydrostatic lock occurs when fuel, water, or otherliquid is on top of one or more of the pistons. Whenthe piston rams this fluid against the cylinder head,it can ruin or seriously damage the engine. Theprocedure to check for hydrostatic lock is simple.With the gearshift in neutral, hand brake applied,fuel off, and accessory switch on, push the clutchpedal to the floor. Then depress the starter buttonwith a hard, firm push for 2 or 3 seconds. Look forthese signs of hydrostatic lock: hard thud in theengine as it turns over, engine turning over andquitting with a thunk, or engine not turning over atall. If there is any evidence of hydrostatic lock,remove your fingers from the starter button at onceand report the problem to your supervisor.Starting-Operation Procedures. After determiningthe engine is free of hydrostatic lock, start theengine. Follow these procedures:Make sure that the transmission is in neutral andthe parking brake is applied.Push the engine stop lever all the way in.Turn the accessory switch to the on position.Depress the clutch while operating the starter.Press the starter button with a hard, firm push.(Not firmly closing the starter switch maydamage the starting motor and switch.)Release the starter button as soon as theengine fires. Never depress the starter switchfor longer than 10 seconds at one time.Usually 10 seconds is sufficient. If the enginedoes not start, wait at least 2 minutes and tryagain. If the multifuel engine does not start inthree tries, report the condition to yoursupervisor. Do not start multifuel engines bytowing or pushing, except in an emergency.After the engine has started, let it idle for 3to 5 minutes or until the engine heat reaches140°F. Engine idling speed should not exceedthe RPM prescribed in the vehicletechnical manual. Too slow an idle createsvibrations that will loosen some parts andmay break others. The warm-up benefits the16-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306entire engine, but it is especially importantfor the turbo-supercharger. Exhaust gasturns the turbo-supercharger at approximately30,000 RPM at idle speed and up to 60,000 RPMat operating speed. Idling at a low speed allowstime for the oil to circulate.Observe the oil pressure gauge closely duringthe first 20 seconds of idling. If pressure doesnot reach 15 pounds per square inch (psi) at 800to 1,000 RPM, stop the engine immediately andreport the condition to your supervisor.Allow engine coolant temperature to reach140°F before putting the vehicle in motion.Drive at moderate speed until the temperaturereaches 170° to 200°F.Heavy black smoke, engine missing, and powerloss may indicate a dirty air cleaner. When thered flag in the air cleaner is up over halfway,cleaning is required. Follow instructions in yourvehicle technical manual or technical orderwhen cleaning the air cleaner.If the vehicle is equipped with air or airhydraulic brakes, do not move it until the airpressure reaches the required level. When thebuzzer stops, there is enough pressure tooperate the brakes. Changes in air pressure areregistered on the pressure gauge. The vehiclemanual specifies the amount of air pressure thatshould be maintained.(For Air Force Only: Operating instructions andoperating maintenance requirements are containedin the -1 technical order for each vehicle.)During-Operation Procedures. Do not idle theengine of a parked vehicle except when necessaryto keep the engine warm in extremely coldweather.WARNINGKeep windows, curtains, and tarps open toprevent dangerous accumulation of carbonmonoxide inside vehicle while the engine isidling.Never let the vehicle idle for long periods of time.In addition to wasting fuel, excess idling allowscarbon formation and oil dilution to take place inthe engine. Never run the engine to recharge arundown battery unless your immediate supervisorspecifically instructs you to do so. Never leave avehicle unattended with the engine ruining.Do not exceed allowable speeds indicated on thevehicle instruction plate (if applicable) or operate atan engine speed low enough to cause the engine tolabor. Vehicle instruction plates are usually locatedon the instrument panel.16-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 17MANUAL SHIFT AND AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSIONSThe vehicle driver must be prepared to drivevehicles with either manual or automatic transmission.Each transmission type requires specificmethods to ensure smooth operation.MANUAL SHIFT OPERATIONClutch OperationA clutch provides the means to apply engine powerto the wheels smoothly and gradually. Learn wherethe clutch starts to engage, how far the pedal movesto become fully engaged, how much free play thepedal has, and how fast you should engage theclutch.Keep your foot off the clutch pedal except whenactually starting, stopping, or shifting gears. Even aslight constant pressure on the clutch pedal causesexcessive wear. For this reason, when stopped on ahill, never slip your clutch to keep from rolling backward.Instead use your brakes. While waiting for along line at traffic lights or when halted for otherreasons, depress the clutch pedal and move thetransmission shift lever into neutral. Release theclutch after shifting into neutral.When slowing a government vehicle to stop or toturn, be sure to reduce speed to 15 MPH or lessbefore depressing the clutch pedal. Coasting avehicle at a high speed with the clutch pedaldepressed is dangerous. Vehicle control becomesmore difficuly, and the clutch may be damaged.Damage resulting from this practice is consideredvehicle abuse.Skill in manual shifting is a requirement of gooddriving. Poor manual shifting results in poor vehicleperformance and can damage the vehicle. Know thegearshift lever positions so well that you can shift toany gear without looking at the shift lever. Thegearshift pattern is usually diagramed on the vehiclecaution plate. Never move the gear shift lever fromone position to another while the engine is runninguntil you have fully depressed the clutch pedal withyour left foot. To shift gears smoothly and quietly,keep the pedal fully depressed until the shift hasbeen completed When shifting gears in a 1 l/2-tonor larger truck, you may be required to use thedouble-clutching instructions.Clutch Shifting Procedure. After acquainting yourselfwith the vehicle’s instruments and controls, youare ready to begin driving operations. Start andwarm the engine with the transmission in neutral.Then start moving the vehicle in low or first gear.Follow these steps:Depress the clutch pedal and shift into low gear.Check the inside and outside rearview mirrors.Check blind spots and give signal.Let the clutch pedal up slowly, pausing atfriction point or when you feel it taking holdHesitate; then check mirrors again for traffic.Release the parking brake.Slowly release the clutch pedal and at the sametime slightly depress the accelerator.When driving operation is underway, removeyour left foot from the clutch pedal completely.Double-Clutch Shifting Procedure. Good drivingpractice in trucks (1 l/2-ton or larger) often requiresdouble-clutching to properly engage the gears andto prevent loss of momentum. To shift to a lowergear by double-clutching–Release pressure from the accelerator as youbegin depressing the clutch pedal.When the clutch pedal is fully depressed, movethe gearshift lever to the neutral position.Release the clutch pedal and at the same timedepress the accelerator to speed up the engine.Let up on the accelerator and depress the clutchpedal.17-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306While the clutch pedal is depressed, move thegearshift lever to the next lower gear speedRelease the clutch pedal and at the same timedepress the accelerator to maintain enginespeed as the load is again connected to theengine.The procedure is the same for shifting to a highergear speed, except that the engine is not acceleratedwhale the gear is in neutral.CAUTIONWhen shifting gears in rough terrain andon hills, never let your vehicle slow downto a point where the engine begins to laboror jerk before shifting into a lower gearratio. Always anticipate the need for extrapower and shift gears accordingly. Whendescending a hill, with or without a heavycargo, always drive with your vehicle ingear and the clutch pedal out.Spark Ignition Engine Braking OperationIf the hill is steep enough to require using brakes toreduce speed, shift into the next lower gear at thecrest of the hill and use the engine compression asa brake. Take extreme care to prevent excessiveengine speed while descending a hill. Judge thenecessary gear and shift, if necessary, at the crest ofthe hill BEFORE SPEED HAS INCREASEDFROM DOWNHILL MOVEMENT. Ordinarily,the gear required to ascend a hill is proper to use todescend it. GEARING DOWN AFTER ENGINESPEED HAS INCREASED MAY EXTEN-SIVELY DAMAGE THE ENGINE. Except whenused to compensate for brake failure, damage resultingfrom this practice is considered vehicle abuse.With proper gear selection, intermittent applicationof brakes will reduce the speed of the vehicle to safelimits.CAUTIONThe preceding paragraph applies to sparkignition engines only. Compression ignition(multifuel/diesel) engines should not beused to reduce speed. This practice willdamage compression ignition engines.When preparing to stop the vehicle, remove yourfoot from the accelerator and use the engine compressionas a brake to help stop the vehicle. Do notdepress the clutch pedal until the motor is operatingat low speed and is no longer serving as a brake.Then depress the clutch pedal before the enginebegins to labor from slow speed. Apply the footbrake to help this braking action. When preparingto turn or stop, avoid downshifting above 20 MPH.(Braking on icy roads requires a special techniquewhich is discussed in Chapter 21.)NOTE: The above rules apply to most vehicles.To meet the military’s transportation needs formoving heavy equipment and traveling overrough terrain, new vehicles are constantly beingdeveloped. These vehicles may have more complicatedtransmissions, such as multi-gear rangesand dual-speed axles or other special features.Be sure you understand how a new vehicleoperates. Read the veehicle operator’s technicalmanual before trying to operate it.AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSIONOPERATIONSelector Lever PositionsWhile some military vehicles are equipped withmanual transmission, an increasing number areequipped with automatic transmissions. Thoughoperation of automatic shift vehicles is quite simple,the good driver must learn to operate them smoothlyand properly.In vehicles equipped with automatic transmissions,initial gear selection is controlled with a selectorlever. When in drive (D or DR), shifting from driveto low (L) and returning to drive is controlledautomatically by engine speed. Acquaint yourselfwith the vehicle and learn the selector lever positions,since there are a number of different automatictransmissions. The selector lever positionsare as follows:P (park position) is used to lock the transmissionso the vehicle will not roll while parked,on light vehicles such as sedans and pickups.In some heavier vehicles, the park positiondoes not lock the transmission. In vehicleswith a park position, start the engine from thepark position.17-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306N (neutral position) is used to start engines ofvehicles without a park position. In the neutralposition, the engine is disengaged from the driveshaft of the vehicle.D or DR (drive position) is used to move thevehicle forward. With the shift lever at D or DR,the vehicle moves forward as you depress theaccelerator. After starting the engine in theneutral or park position, change the selector toD or DR to move forward. To avoid prematureforward movement, apply the brake while in thedrive position until you are ready to move thevehicle. The transmission automatically shiftsto higher gears as the speed increases.L (low or power position) is used to negotiatesteep grades and rough terrain or when thebraking power of the engine is required. Thetransmission will not shift automatically tohigher gear ratios when the lever is in the lowposition. When the low range is no longerneeded, release the accelerator temporarily andmove the shift lever to the drive position fornormal gear progression. In the drive position,the low range is engaged automatically whenthe engine speed is reduced. If the acceleratoris suddenly fully depressed when thevehicle is in the drive position, the low rangebecomes engaged. (This procedure may beused to provide a sudden burst of speed forpassing.) When a predetermined enginespeed has been attained, the transmissionautomatically returns to driving range.R (reverse position) is used to move the vehiclein reverse. Some shift levers must be raisedslightly to be moved to the reverse position.Others require you to depress a button on theend of the lever before moving to R. Parkvehicles without a park position in the reverseposition. Bring your vehicle to a full halt beforeplacing it in R; then set the parking brake.A good driver will become thoroughly familiarwith the vehicle instruments and controlsbefore driving it. He will always check theselector positions before he moves the lever.Serious accidents can happen if you do not followthese rules. For example, R or reverse is on theextreme right on some shift selectors, on the extremeleft on others, and in an intermediate position onothers. From force of habit, if you are in a differentvehicle from the one you have been driving, youcould move the selector to R, thinking you weremoving it to D or L. The vehicle would move in anentirely opposite direction than you anticipated.A good driver will shift from D or DR according todriving needs. Never shift from D or DR to L at ahigh rate of speed because this will seriously damagethe transmission and could result in a severe accidentby causing a skid on wet or slippery pavement.Dual-Range Driving PositionsTactical vehicles may be equipped with automatictransmissions. Due to the diverse conditions underwhich they may be required to operate, tacticalvehicle automatic transmissions are designed forgreater flexibility than commercial types. Flexibilityis attained with low and high transmission ranges.The vehicle technical manual contains instructionsfor your particular vehicle. Consult it frequently.Vehicles equipped with dual-range driving positionsoffer the operator a selection of two ranges indriving pattern D or DR. Use them according toyour driving needs as prescribed below. (On somevehicles, these positions are F1 and F2.)D (Fl) position is used for all ordinary driving. It –Provides four forward speeds.Shifts automatically to fourth gear.Increases economy by reducing engine speedDR (F2) position is used for congested areas, roughterrain, and mountain driving. It –Provides three forward speeds automatically.Will not shift into fourth speed unless the engineis accelerated to a very high RPM.Uses the engine as a brake on long, steepdowngrades.17-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Operating ProcedureTo put the vehicle in motion –Apply the foot brake.Select the proper transmission lever position —forward or reverse.Place the transfer shift lever in the appropriaterange.Check traffic conditions front and rear, usingmirrors if necessary.Release the parking brake.Check again for traffic blind spots to the left orright rear. Signal if pulling away from a curb.Release the foot brake.Depress the accelerator pedal gradually for asmooth start.CAUTIONGovernment vehicle operators are not permittedto tow or push automatic shiftvehicles for the purpose of starting them.(For Air Force Only: During normal dutyhours, contact the maintenance controlsection of vehicle maintenance to start thevehicle with a booster battery, jumpercables, or other equipment. After dutyhours, contact vehicle operations forwrecker service. For detailed instructions,see your supervisor.)JUMP STARTING VEHICLESThousands of people are injured each year fromauto battery explosions. Nearly two-thirds of theseinjuries involve the eyes. Most soldiers, at one timeor another, will use jumper cables to start a vehicle,and chances are they are not aware of the dangerinvolved. As a commander or supervisor, you areresponsible for the safety of your troops, both on andoff duty. Stress that they should use one of theprocedures below to jump start a vehicle.Using Jumper Cables to Start EngineUse the following procedure to start an engine usingjumper cables on a 12-volt system (Figure 17-1):Position the jump starting vehicle with batteriesopposite the batteries of the disabled vehicle.Stop the engine of the jump starting vehicle.Open battery compartment doors of bothvehicles. Pull both battery boxes onto runningboards.WARNINGOne jumper cable must connect positiveterminals. The other jumper cable mustconnect the negative terminal of the jumpstarting vehicle to the body of the disabledvehicle away from the batteries. Failure todo so may cause batteries to explode, injuringor killing personnel.Clamp one jumper cable (2) to the positiveterminal (1) of the jump starting vehicle and thepositive terminal (3) of the disabled vehicle.Clamp the other jumper cable (5) to the negativeterminal (6) of the jump starting vehicle andthe body (4) of the disabled vehicle.Start the engine of the jump starting vehicle.Start the engine of the disabled vehicle. If theengine does not start after four tries, notify yoursupervisor.WARNINGBe sure jumper cable clamps do not contactother jumper cable clamps or terminals.Failure to do so may causebatteries to explode, injuring or killingpersonnel.Remove jumper cables (2) and (5).17-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Using Slave Cables to Start EngineUse the following procedure to start an engine usingNATO slave cables (Figure 17-2):Position the right side of the slaving (recharging)vehicle to the right side of the vehicleneeding slave start.Stop the slaving vehicle engine.Pull the cover (4) from the slave receptacle (3)of the disabled vehicle. The receptacle (3) islocated below the grab handle (1) on the rightside of the vehicle. -CAUTIONWhen slaving, always connect the slavecable to the disabled vehicle first. Damageto the batteries or cable may result fromimproperly connecting hot batteriesbefore connecting the cable to the receptacleof the disabled vehicle.Connect the slave cable (2) to the disabledvehicle. Connect the slave” cable (2) to theslaving vehicle.NOTE: Turn off all unnecessary electricalswitches in both vehicles.Start the slaving vehicle engine. Pull out thehand throttle control until idle speed is between700 to 800 RPM.Start the slaved vehicle engine.After the engine starts, disconnect the slavecable (2) from both vehicles.Put the covers (4) back over the receptacles (3).Clean and stow the slaving cable (2).Operate the slaved vehicle. If the voltmeter (6)is not in the green area, notify organizationalmaintenance.17-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-30617-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 18TRUCKS, TRACTORS,SEMITRAILERS, AND SPECIAL-PURPOSEVEHICLESThe operation instructions and traffic regulationsfound elsewhere in this manual will generally applyto trucks, tractors, semitrailers, and other specialpurposevehicles. However, there are additonalspecial instructions for operating and loading thisequipment.STARTING/STOPPING THETRACTOR-SEMITRAILERStarting the Engine and Putting theVehicle in MotionStart the engine following instructions contained inthe operator’s manual for the vehicle concernedThen do the followingCheck all instruments, including ammeter, heat,and fuel, air, and oil pressure gauges.CAUTIONAlways build up air pressure to FULLTANK CAPACITY before moving thevehicle.Be sure all seat belts or restraining devices aresecured.With the engine warmed up and the air pressuregauge at the correct pressure, depress the clutchpedal and move the gearshift lever to the lowestforward gear.NOTE: When using a tractor equipped with atwo-speed axle, be sure the selector button isdown or in the low-range position. Whenusing a tractor equipped with an auxiliarytransmission be sure the gearshift for auxiliarytransmission is in the low-range position.These procedures are for when your vehicle isheavily loaded or additional power is neededThe gearshift lever for an auxiliary transmissionis to the right of the main gearshift lever.With the gearshift lever in the lowest forwardgear, locate the semitrailer hand brake lever onthe steering post just behind the steering wheelPull it toward you. This applies brakes to thetrailer only.Release the tractor emergency brake. Push thesemitrailer brake lever away from you. As youpush it away, release the clutch GENTLY andaccelerate slightly. Doing so lets you start offwithout rolling backward, even on an upgrade.This step is very important.Accelerate further and release the clutchpedal completely. Remove your foot from thepedal so you do not ride the clutch and causeunnecessary wear on the clutch plate.Operation of Gears When Starting Out (ShiftingUp). The vehicle is now moving. After buildingup enough speed to overcome any lugging of theengine in first gear, shift to the next higher gear asfollows:Depress the clutch pedal and release theaccelerator at the same time.When the engine idles down bring the gearshiftlever to the neutral position.Release the clutch pedal.Depress the clutch pedal and put the gearshiftlever in the next higher gear.Release the clutch pedal GENTLY andaccelerate at the same time (doubleclutching).To smoothly shift, doubleclutchingis essential on all transmissionsexcept synchromesh transmissions.18-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CAUTIONIf gears fail to mesh because of faulty timingDO NOT USE FORCE TO MOVE THELEVER. Instead, return the gearshift leverto the neutral position, release the clutch,reaccelerate the engine, depress the clutchpedal, and try again. Repeat these stepsuntil the lever goes into the next higher gearsmoothly. If the gears fail to mesh after twoor three tries, stop the vehicle safely and startover. Continue up through the gears untilyou reach the allowed road speed Rememberto always accelerate enough to overcomeany lugging of the engine before shifting tothe next higher gear.Operation of Gears When Going Upgrade (ShiftingDown). When necessary, shift from a higher to alower gear as follows:Depress the clutch pedal and release theaccelerator. At the same time, move thegearshift lever to the neutral position.Release the clutch pedal.With the clutch released and the gearshift inneutral, accelerate enough to mesh the next gearwithout clashing.Immediately after accelerating depress theclutch pedal and move the gearshift to the nextlower gear.Release the clutch GENTLY. At the same timetake up the clutching shock by acceleratingenough to smoothly shift.DO NOT FORCE THE GEAR. Remember, youmust accelerate to a slightly higher RPM thanrequired for the lower gear to smoothly shift.Properly using the clutch compensates for anydifference in speed between the engine and transmission.UNLESS THE CLUTCH ISRELEASED GENTLY, IT CANNOT DO WHATIT IS SUPPOSED TO DO. Force is never necessaryto properly shift.Operation of Interaxle Differential. The interaxledifferential may be locked or unlocked at anyspeed. However, be sure all axles are turning at thesame rate before engaging the differential. Be sureto lock the axle only at low speeds and when easingupon the throttle.Vehicles equipped with interaxle differentials normallyoperate on a paved surface in an unlockedposition to prolong tire life.At the first sign of a slippery or icy highway, lock theinteraxle differential. The locked position is usedfor normal operation on a dirt road to assure maximumtraction and to prevent overworking of thedifferential. Always use the locked position for thefollowing conditions:When ice or snow is on the highway (with orwithout tire chains).When loose sand, mud, or other slippery offhighwayroad conditions exist.When operating on a dynamometer is requiredor when you are blocked up.When loss of traction is anticipated.Stopping the VehicleSmoothly stop the vehicle by following these steps:Wait until the vehicle has slowed down almostto idling speed before depressing the clutchpedal.Apply the brakes firmly. Then as the vehicleslows down, release the brakes gradually. Whenthe vehicle is about to stop, there will not bemuch force on the brakes.The instant the vehicle stops, release the brakescompletely. This prevents a jerk or reboundThen reapply the brakes to hold the vehicle inplace.Do not intermittently apply (fan) brakes in normalslowing or stopping; this wastes air pressure anddoes not help you make a good stop. In normaloperation use the foot (service) brakes alone sincethey control the tractor and trailer simultaneously.Except when necessary, avoid sudden stops toprevent possible damage to cargo and vehicle.18-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Skidding or locked wheels, normally due to hardbraking in emergency or hazardous conditions,causes jackknifing. Locked or skidding wheels willtend to take the lead or come around.Tractor jackknifing occurs when the rear tractorwheels lock and skid to the left or right. To gaincontrol, steer in the direction of the skid.Semitrailer jackknifing occurs when the semitrailerwheels lock and skid to the left or right. Controlmust be regained immediately if it is to be regainedat all. To regain control, quickly release the brakesto get the wheels turning. DO NOT USE THESEMITRAILER HAND BRAKE.NOTE: Use the semitrailer hand brakeALONE ONLY to prevent roll while stoppedon an incline and when coupling the tractorand trailer.WARNINGDo not use the semitrailer hand brake indriving because you may make the trailerskid or jackknife. Also, never use the semitrailerhand brake for parking because allthe air may leak out, unlocking the brakes (intrailers that do not have spring valves).USING THE ENGINE RETARDER(JACOBS BRAKE)Many military vehicles are equipped with an engineretarder system that lets the engine act as a brake.Use the engine retarder for descending gradesin city traffic or in any situation where slowingis required. Do not use it on slippery road surfaces(such as rain, snow, sleet, or ice). Usingthe engine brake on slippery surfaces can causethe vehicle to skid. The engine retarder is mosteffective between RPMs specified in thevehicle’s TM.Do not use the engine retarder in any gear exceptthose outlined in the vehicle’s TM when descendingsteep grades. Never let the engine speed drop belowthe RPM specified in the vehicle’s TM with theengine retarder applied or it will seriously damagethe transmission. Do not engage the engine retarderwhen shifting or when the transmission is in neutral.Use the following procedures when the towingvehicle tires have good traction:Select a gear that lets the engine with the engineretarder applied control the truck speed withthe engine at or below the recommended RPMand service brakes not applied. Thus, as youapproach a downgrade, progressively select agear that when combined with the engine retarderlets you maintain an engine speed at therecommended RPM.As the engine speed exceeds the recommendedvehicle RPM, apply the service brakes once toslow the engine speed to the recommendedRPM. Release the engine retarder. Downshiftone gear (for example, if you are in 10th gear,downshift to 9th gear) and reapply the engineretarder. Repeat this procedure until you canmaintain the engine speed at the RPM listed inthe vehicle operator’s TM.If the engine speeds above the RPM specifiedin the vehicle’s TM, apply the service brakesonce to slow the vehicle speed and regaincontrol.WARNINGFailure to follow the downhill driving proceduresmay cause you to lose vehicle controland result in severe injury or death. .CAUTIONExcessive use of the service brake to controldownhill speed will cause the loss of brakingpower due to heat buildup.If the transmission speeds above the RPM specifiedin the vehicle’s TM and the transmission totallydisengages, do the following:Release the engine retarder.Upshift the transmission to the next higher gear(for example, if you are in 10th gear, upshift tollth gear).Apply the service brakes once to slow thevehicle speed and help regain control of thevehicle.18-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306If the transmission totally disengages from theengine due to a shift being made with the engineretarder applied and the engine speed returns tolow idle free wheeling, accelerate the engine toreengage the transmission.If a total loss of braking occurs due to heat buildup–Apply the engine retarder (place switch in highmode).Upshift as the engine speed approaches theRPM specified in the vehicle’s TM. Beforeeach upshift, release the engine retarder.In the gear specified in the vehicle’s TM, continueto apply the engine retarder and maintaindirectional control of the vehicle.The driver must understand the importance of theproper downhill braking procedures and the use ofthe engine retarder especially on slippery surfacesas outlined above. Drivers must know that if theseprocedures are not followed death or serious injurycan result. Also the driver must know that brakingability and braking techniques are different whenloaded. The driver must think and plan ahead. Thedriver must increase his following distance andreduce his speed consistent with road and trafficconditions.PLACING THE CHOCK BLOCKSWhen on level ground place one chock block infront of the rear duals. Place the other chock blockbehind the rear duals of the side wheel (Figure 18-1).For single-axle trailers, place one chock block infront of the left wheel and the other chock blockbehind the opposite rear wheels.When uncoupling place chock blocks firmly behindwheels on both sides of the semitrailer when parkinguphill. Place blocks in front of wheels on adowngrade. On level ground wheels should beblocked on one side in front and one side in rear.COUPLING/UNCOUPLING THETRACTOR AND SEMITRAILERThe tractor and semitrailer are separate unitsjoined together by the tractor’s fifth wheel and thesemitrailer kingpin. The fifth wheel on the tractorand the kingpin on the semitrailer form a couplingheld together by the fifth wheel couplingjaws. When not joined to the tractor, the semitraileris held upright by two legs that supportthe front end.CouplingNOTE: Due to the different types of vehiclesand fifth wheels, these procedures may differslightly from vehicle to vehicle.To couple the tractor and semitrailer–Check all coupling devices on the tractor andsemitrailer for condition and working order.Set the coupling jaws by swinging the lockingplunger safety latch right or left to free thelocking plunger lever. Move the lockingplunger lever toward the front of the truck untilit stays in the forward position. Coupler jawsare now unlocked.Position the tractor so that the fifth wheelcoupler jaws line up with the semitrailerkingpin.18-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Check the fifth wheel wedge adjustment (ifappropriate) for the type of terrain. Positionwedges fully below the walking beam for highwayoperations and back and away from thewalking beam for cross-country operations.To position wedge–— Remove the two cap screws from eachwedge.— Remove the wedges and reverse theposition.— Using the same holes, reinstall and tightenthe cap screws.Be sure chock blocks are properly placed atsemitrailer wheels. If chock blocks are not inplace, properly position them (Figure 18-1).Be sure all moving parts and the top of thefifth wheel (semitrailer coupler) are properlylubricated.After checks are completed, start the tractorand line it up with the semitrailer in a straightline. Sound the horn before backing. Whenbacking use ground guides.Back the tractor up Slowly and maneuver sothe kingpin of the semitrailer is in line withthe coupling jaws of the tractor’s fifth wheel(Figure 18-2).——Stop the tractor in front of the semitrailer.Place the transmission shift lever in neutral.Apply the tractor’s parking brake.Adjust the height of the semitrailer to theheight of the tractor’s fifith wheel. Use thecrank handle on the semitrailer to raise orlower the landing legs, so the semitrailer’sapproach ramps are slightly lower than thetractor’s fifith wheel.Pull the fifth wheel plunger handle forward andthen out to open the coupler jaws.Remove dummy couplings from the air connectionson the semitrailer.Connect air line hoses from the tractor to thesemitrailer:Attach the emergency hose on the tractor(color coded red) to the emergency couplingon the semitrailer.Attach the service hose (color coded yellowor blue) to the service coupling on thesemitrailer.CAUTIONBe sure the service air hose from the tractoris connected to the service coupling, theemergency air hose, to the emergency couplingon the semitrailer.18-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306WARNINGAir brake hose shut-off valves must be openat all times during the normal operation ofthe tractor and the semitrailer, and the semitrailerbrakes must be functional Failure todo this will cause injury or death.The tractor may come with either the lever shutoffvalves or the handle shut-off valves. Toposition the valves–— Open the lever shut-off valves; place thelevers in the down position. Place the leverin the up position to close the shut-off valves.— Open the handle shut-off valves; place thehandles in the vertical (up) position.Place the handles in the horizontal (down)position to close the shut-off valves.Press in the trailer air supply valve; hold it inplace for 15 seconds. Release the valve. Thevalve should stay in the engaged positionindicating the semitrailer air brake systemhas proper air pressure. If the valve doesnot stay in the engaged position, disconnectthe air couplings and notify your supervisor.Pull down the trailer air brake hand controllever to engage the semitrailer brakes(Figure 18-3).Release the parking brake lever (Figure 18-4).Place the transmission selector lever in reverse.Resume backing up.Stop the vehicle when the coupling jaws closearound the semitrailer kingpin.Place the transmission selector lever in neutraland apply the parking brake lever.Visually check to make sure the jaws have completelyclosed.With the trailer air brake control handleengaged, release the parking brake lever,place the transmission selector lever infirst, and slightly depress the acceleratorpedal. The tractor will not move forward ifthe fifth wheel is properly connected tothe semitrailer.CAUTIONStop the vehicle immediately if the tractormoves forward and repeat previous sixsteps.Place the transmission selector lever in neutraland apply the parking brake lever.Connect the electrical cable to the electricreceptacle on the semitrailer (Figure 18-5).Check the semitrailer lights:— Turn the light switch to service drive.— Operate the turn signal switch and direct theground guides to check for the properoperation of the semitrailer signal lights.— Depress the brake pedal and direct theground guides to check for the properoperation of the semitrailer stoplights.Turn the crank to raise the landing gear on thesemitrailer. Be sure the crank handle is stowedsecurely.Stow the landing gear float pads in the racks;remove and stow the chock blocks.Check the operation of the semitrailer brakesusing the trailer brake hand control in the cab.18-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-30618-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306UncouplingWARNINGUse ground guides when backing up to parkthe semitrailer. Failure to do so coulddamage the vehicle or cause injury or death.To uncouple the tractor and semitrailer–Place the semitrailer in the proper location.Place the transmission selector lever in neutral.Engage the air brake hand control lever. Applythe parking brake.Place wheel chocks in front of and behind thesemitrailer wheels.Place the landing gear float pads on the groundunder the semitrailer landing gear.Turn the crank handle until the landing gearfirmly contacts the float pads.Disconnect and remove the electrical cablefrom the semitrailer and secure the cable on thetractor.Turn the air brake hose shut-off valve levers tothe closed position.NOTE: The trailer air supply valve insidethe vehicle cab will automatically pop backand disengage when the air couplings aredisconnected.Disconnect the air couplings from the semitrailerand secure the air hose on the tractor.Install dummy couplings on the semitrailer aircouplings.Release the semitrailer kingpin by pulling theplunger handle forward then out to open thefifth wheel coupling jaws.Place the transmission selector lever in driveand release the parking brake.Enter the cab and move the tractor forwarduntil the trailer kingpin is free from the lockguard and the landing gear is supporting thetrailer weight. Then stop for a moment. Do notpull all the way from under the trailer yet toensure the landing gear will support the trailer.If it collapses, the rear frame area of your truckcan catch the front of the trailer before equipment is damaged.Have a crew member observe the semitrailerkingpin to be sure it clears properly duringseparation of the vehicles. Be sure the kingpinwill clear the rear three cross-member whenyou pull the tractor out from under the trailer.Pull slowly forward to allow the semitrailergooseneck and kingpin to totally clear the rearframe area of the tractor.MANEUVERING THETRACTOR-SEMITRAILERThe tractor (towing vehicle) is usually equipped withair brakes. The semitrailer may be controlled byhand-controlled trailer brakes or by automaticallycontrolled semitrailer brakes. When driving atowing vehicle and semitrailer, keep in mind theoverall length of the unit when you pass othervehicles and when you turn. Remember, the unit ishinged in the middle and therefore turns and backsdifferently than a truck. Further, the distribution ofweight will affect stopping.When driving a tractor/semitrailer, you must allowfor offtracking on it. Therefore, when entering aright-hand curve, position the front of the vehicle asclose to the centerline as possible (without lettingyour semitrailer tire cross the centerline) to keep thesemitrailer tires from running off the pavement.When driving into a left-hand curve, move as closeas possible to the shoulder of the road (withoutrunning off the road) to keep the semitrailer tiresfrom crossing the centerline. Do not brake while ina curve. Brake before entering the curve.BackingSound horn before backing. Back a semitrailer byreversing the direction you use to back a truck.Always use ground guides to help backingoperations.18-8

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Backing to the Left. Turn the steering wheel to theright until the trailer is headed in the desired direction.Then turn the tractor wheels to the left to putthe tractor on the same line of travel as the semitrailer.This method is known as backing sight side(Figure 18-6). Use this method whenever possible.ParkingDo not use the trailer hand brake control as a parkingbrake. Using the semitrailer hand control topark can cause all the air to leak out.CONNECTING ANDDISCONNECTINGPINTLE-CONNECTED TRAILERRefer to the appropriate trailer technical manualfor complete trailer operation procedures.Backing to the Right. Reverse the proceduredescribed above. This is known as backing blindside (Figure 18-7). Use it only when there is notenough space to manipulate your vehicle for backingsight side.ConnectingTo connect the trailer to the vehicle –Align tow pintle with trailer lunette.Remove the cotter pin raise the latch, and openthe pintle hook lock.Use ground guides.Sound horn before backing.Back up the vehicle until the trailer lunette canbe lowered onto the pintle hook.Close the pintle hook lock, close the latch, andreplace the cotter pin.Pass the left safety chain under the trailerlunette and secure it to the right lifting shackleof the towing vehicle. Pass the right safety chainunder the Iunette and secure it to the left liftingshackle of the towing vehicle.Raise the landing (support) legs and secureproperly.NOTE: Crossing the chains under the trailerlunette in an X figure decreases the distancethe trailer pintle will travel if droppedConnect the intervehicular service brake hose,emergency brake hose, and electrical cable.NOTE: The location of the service air couplings,emergency air couplings, and trailerelectrical outlet may vary from model tomodel.18-9

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Turn on both the service and emergency brakesair cutoff cocks.Release trailer hand brakes.Check the operation of the trailer brakes andlights.WARNINGFailure to turn on the air cutoff cocks willcause loss of brakes on the trailer. This mayinjure personnel.DisconnectingTo disconnect the trailer from the vehicle(Figure 18-8)–Sound horn before backing.Use ground guides.Lower landing (support) legs.Park the trailer and apply the vehicle and trailerhand brakes.Turn off both the service and emergency brakesair cutoff cocks completely.WARNINGFailure to turn off the air cutoff cocks completelymay cause loss of vehicle brakes.This may injure personnel.Disconnect the intervehicular service brake andemergency brake hoses, the electrical cable, andsafety chains.Remove the cotter pin. Raise the latch. Openthe pintle hook lock.Disconnect the lunette from the pintle hook.Close the pintle hook lock and the latch.Replace the-cotter pin.Set trailer brake.18-10

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306LOADING TRUCKS ANDSEMITRAILERSDistribution of CargoThe distribution of cargo definitely bears on the lifeof the tires, axles, frame, and other vehicle parts.Although a vehicle may not be overloaded beyondits weight capacity, individual tires and axles maystill be overloaded due to faulty cargo distribution.When loading be sure the maximum capacity of thevehicle is not exceeded over anyone of the axles. Ifpossible, distribute the load to reduce the maximumaxle loading (Figure 18-9).WARNINGThe driver must be sure the vehicle handbrake is set and wheel chocks are placedunder the rear wheels to prevent any forwardor rear movement of the vehicle while beingloaded.Learn the capacity of any vehicle assigned to youbefore you leave the dispatcher’s office. No vehicleshould be loaded beyond its rated capacity withoutwritten authority from your supervisor. You canusually get the weight of the load from the shippingagency. If in doubt about the weight of special loads,contact your supervisor for instruction beforemoving.Responsibility for CargoThe driver should help load his vehicle to ensure theload is properly secured to avoid damage duringmovement. Inspect all cargo loaded in your vehicle;be sure that its weight does not exceed the vehicle’scapacity and that it is secured against falling orshifting.Shippers must ensure they have adequate chains,cables, or special tools required to secure a loadwhen blocking, bracing, or banding. After the loadhas been secured to the vehicle, recheck securitybefore covering the load This may prevent shiftingor loss of load en route. The driver covers the loadwith the tarpaulin and lashes the tarpaulin in place.18-11

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-30618-12

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306The driver is responsible for the cargo from theloading point to receipt at destination. The informationbelow will help you protect the loadProtection Against the Weather. Use the sides, tailgate,tarpaulin, curtains, and ropes on the vehiclewhenever needed to protect the load from rainsnow, sun sand, or dust. Draw tarpaulins tight overthe bows or sides. Tie them down to the propercleats with the tie-down ropes, using two halfhitches. If properly tied down the canvas will lookneat and will be free from wrinkles and bulges. Ifimproperly placed on the vehicle, the canvas willdevelop rubbed spots and tears that will soon makeit worthless. If the canvas is not in use, it shouldbe folded during transport. However, the canvasshould not be stored if it is wet. As soon aspracticable after the job is done, spread out thewet canvas and let it dry before storing it.Protection Against Pilferage. When cargo isprotected against the weather, you also protect it tosome degree against pilferage. However, you muststay constantly aware of this danger. Keeping closewatch of people approaching your vehicle providesthe best protection. Loads may be pilfered whilemoving as well as while halted. If your cargo isparticularly valuable or you are operating in an areawhere theft is common, you may be given armedguards to help you.LoadLashing. Two 60-to 70-foot lengths of 3/8-inchrope will usually be enough to secure the tarpaulin.Use the following procedure (Figure 18-10):Fasten the end of one rope to one of the frontlash hooks or rings (Al).Pass the rope diagonally across the top of theload through or under the second rope supporton the opposite side (A2). Pull the rope tight.Pass the rope diagonally back across the top ofthe load through or under the third rope support (A3). Pull the rope tight.Continue this process until you reach the rear ofthe vehicle. Secure the rope.With the second rope, repeat the entire process,starting at the front lash hook or ring (Bl).Special Loads. When transporting a load thatextends beyond the sides or more than 4 feetbeyond the front or rear, mark the part of the loadthat extends beyond the truck body with red flags(measuring not less than 12 inches square) indaytime and with red lights at night. On loadsextending one-third the length of the cargo bed,determine if a special permit is required asexplained below.Vertical Height of Load. When vehicles are loadedwith substantial weight concentrated high above theground, the possibility of a high center of gravityexists. This situation becomes critical when you tryto drive around a corner or make a short-radius turnat too great a speed. When this occurs, centrifugalforce, which is always present in turns, joined by thehigh center of gravity point, results in an increasedtendency of the load to tip over. To preclude thisand possible damage to your vehicle and cargo–Load the heaviest items on the bottom of yourvehicle.Avoid stacking heavy items too high.Slow your vehicle before turning and watch forpossible load leaning.Oversize and Overweight Vehicles. Before operatinga truck or trailer loaded with unusually heavy orodd-size loads check with your supervisor to determineif the load is within state and local laws limitingload weight and dimensions on public highways.Your supervisor must arrange to obtain special permitsbefore moving oversize or overweight vehicleson public highways.18-13

Overhead Vehicle Clearance. Know the overheadclearance of your vehicle. Signs on most overpassesindicate the clearance in feet and inches. Whentransporting an unusual load, if you are not completelysure of the clearance, drive very slowly whenyou approach the underpass so that you can stop intime if the load or vehicle will not clear. Be awareof other low hanging objects, such as electrical wires,stop lights, and tree limbs.Hazardous Cargo. Ammunition, gasoline, and liquidfuels require special handling. When carrying hazardouscargo, take the following precautions:Handle cargo with care and avoid overloading.Keep the engine turned off during loading andunloading.Do not allow smoking within 50 feet of thevehicle during loading and unloading or in thevehicle while it is moving.Carry the prescribed number and type of serviceablefire extinguishers.Secure the load against shifting.Post dangerous cargo warning devices on thefront, rear, and both sides of the vehicle.Load unpalletized shells with their sidesparallel to the vehicle body.Inspect gasoline cans for leaks. Do not permitdefective cans to be loadedKeep gasoline cans, whether full or empty,tightly closed.Remove tarpaulins from gasoline cans unlessotherwise instructed. If you use tarpaulins, airand dry them before folding and storing.Maintain safe distances from other traffic.Avoid sudden stops or turns. (See Chapter 8.)NOTE: Under normal driving conditionson an open highway, the safe following distancefor trucks, tractor and semitrailercombinations, and similar vehicles is 300feet daytime and 500 feet nighttime. Increasethe following distance in adverse weather andunder other poor driving conditions. In somelocalities, the legal required minimum followingdistance may increase to 1,000 feet undernormal driving conditions. Check with localauthorities for the required minimum followingdistance.Have your vehicle technically inspected whentransporting ammunition explosives, or otherhazardous material. You will get a copy of theinspection report, DD Form 626 (Motor VehicleInspection).Never drive a vehicle transporting hazardouscargo through a tunnel.Never park a vehicle loaded with hazardouscargo overnight in a building or a populatedarea.Always have your protective mask and protectiveointment kit with you when carrying chemicalammunition.Perishable Cargo. Perishable cargo normally consistsof fresh foods. Prompt delivery is essential.Vehicles that transport fresh foodstuffs must be keptclean and free from contamination and odors.OPERATING SPECIAL-PURPOSEVEHICLESThe driving principles learned for regular vehiclesalso apply to special-purpose vehicles. However,each special-purpose vehicle may require additionaltraining for operation; some, for instance, ambulances,require training not directly related to driving.The applicable vehicle technical manual ormanufacturer’s manual furnishes information onspecial-purpose vehicles and their operation.DO NOT operate special equipment until yourOF 346 or AF Form 2293 has been validated toindicate that you are qualified to operate that particularvehicle or equipment. Your supervisor cantell you how to obtain this information.18-14

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 19DANGEROUS/HAZARDOUS CARGO AND MATERIALSThis chapter implements STANAG 2002.Transporting dangerous/hazardous cargo is perhapsthe most demanding job a military driver willever perform. Much of the cargo that trucks moveis dangerous, delicate, or unwieldly. It may beexplosive, radioactive, sensitive to shock, or simplyoversize or overweight. Rules covering these specialcargoes are special themselves. Before dispatchinga vehicle to the loading site, the truckmaster oroperations officer ensures the driver is properlytrained in the correct procedures to load, block, andbrace the special or hazardous cargo.Various forms are necessary for transporting specialcargo. The driver must keep these forms safely onboard the vehicle when transporting special cargo.Although the driver need not fill out any of theseforms, he must be familiar with their purpose andwhere he needs to sign them:DD Form 836 (Special Instructions for MotorVehicle Drivers) (Figure 19-1).DD Form 626 (Motor Vehicle InspectionReport) (Figure 19-2).GENERAL SAFETY MEASURESObserve these safety measures when dealing withhazardous materials:Establish a safety program (AR 385-10) forloading, unloading and handling hazardousmaterials. Be sure each person involved in theoperation is familiar with its contents.Provide qualified supervisors to direct and controlthe loading, unloading and handling of hazardousmaterials. Supervisors must thoroughlyunderstand the hazards involved and willindoctrinate subordinates on special precautionsand emergency situations that may arise.Designate specific segregated areas for containerrestowing activities, if available, and forin-transit storage purposes.Mark hazardous materials operating andstorage areas with appropriate warning signs.(See Appendix C, extract of STANAG 2002.)When appropriate, initiate security measures toprevent theft, sabotage, and so forth.When handling explosives or flammablematerials ––––––Prohibit smoking except in an establishedsmoking area and provide facilities for safedisposal of smoking materials.Prohibit matches, lighters, or other sparkingor open-flame producing items in the hazardousarea.Prohibit footwear strengthened with nails orother spark-producing metal, unless thefootwear is covered with rubber, leather, orother nonsparking material.Establish fire fighting and other emergencyplans and provide for fire fighting and otheremergency equipment.Avoid jars or shocks, particularly with sensitiveexplosives used in detonators. Subjectnuclear weapons to minimum handling andminimum exposure to shock.Ensure that protective clothing and/or equipmentis used during handling of toxic oxidizers,fuels, or chemical agents. This may includemasks, goggles, gloves, or other garments.Suitable neutralizing agents should be availablefor personnel handling toxic gases, etiologicagents, and white phosphorus.19-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306NOTE: This is an extremely important form used whenever you have dangerous or hazardouscargo. Read it carefully before you sign it.19-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-30619-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-30619-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Keep personnel clear of loads being lifted byterminal or marshaling yard equipment.Keep roadways and marshaling yard aisles ingood repair to minimize the danger of topplingcontainer-bearing transporters.TRANSPORTING DANGEROUS/HAZARDOUS CARGOIn addition to the rules that apply to generalcargo, these general rules apply to mostdangerous/hazardous cargo:Inspect vehicles that carry dangerous/hazardous cargo according to DD Form626. The inspector checks to see that thevehicle can be operated safely and is free ofgrease accumulations that can cause a fire.Once the vehicle passes inspection, attachthe proper placards to the vehicle front, rear,and sides to identify its cargo (Figure 19-3).(Use bilingual placards when outside ofCONUS.)When loading and unloading, the driver must –– Set the vehicle’s brakes.– Chock at least one wheel if the vehicle is ona grade.–––Chock the semitrailer when separated fromthe tractor.Turn off the vehicle’s motor unless it isproviding power to the vehicle accessoriesused to load or unload.Keep smokers 50 feet or more away from thevehicle.When driving with dangerous/hazardous cargo,keep a safe distance from the other traffic.Avoid sudden stops and turns. Do not smokeinside the vehicle. Do not enter tunnels or parkovernight in populated areas.Unless there is no practicable alternative, a motorvehicle which contains hazardous materials must beoperated over routes which do not go through ornear heavily populated areas, places where crowdsare assembled, tunnels, narrow streets, or alleys.Operating convenience does not determine thepracticability to operate a motor vehicle accordingto this paragraph. This paragraph does not apply toradioactive materials.Except as provided below, the driver or anotherindividual qualified to operate the vehicle mustattend a motor vehicle which contains Class A or Bexplosives at all times. The driver of a motor vehiclewhich contains hazardous materials other than ClassA or B explosives and which is located on a publicstreet or highway must attend it. However, the19-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306vehicle need not be attended while its driver is performingduties which are incident and necessary toto his duties as the operator of the vehicle.For purposes of this section –A motor vehicle is attended when the person incharge of it is awake in it (not in the sleeperberth) or is within 100 feet of it and has anunobstructed field of view of it.A qualified representative of the unit is a personwho meets all these criteria— The unit has designated him to attend thevehicle.— He is aware of the nature of the hazardousmaterials contained in the vehicle.— He has been instructed on the procedures tofollow in emergencies.— He is authorized and has the ability to movethe vehicle.A safe haven is an area specifially approved inwriting by local, state, or federal governmentalauthorities for the parking of unattendedvehicles containing Class A or B explosives.These rules do not relieve a driver from any legalobligation relating to placing warning devices whena motor vehicle is stopped on a public street orhighway. A motor vehicle which contains Class A orB explosives must not be parked under any of thesecircumstances:On or within 5 feet of the traveled portion of apublic street or highway.On private property (including premises of afueling or eating facility) without the knowledgeand consent of the person who is in charge ofthe property and who is aware of the nature ofthe hazardous materials the vehicle contains.Within 300 feet of a bridge, tunnel, dwelling,building or place where people work, congregate,or assemble except for brief periodswhen the necessities of operation require thevehicle to be parked and make it impracticableto park the vehicle in any other place.A motor vehicle which contains hazardous materialsother than Class A or B explosives must not beparked on or within 5 feet of the traveled portion ofpublic streets or highways except for brief periodswhen the necessities of operation require the vehicleto be parked and make it impracticable to park thevehicle in any other place.These rules do not apply to motor vehicles whichcontain Class A or B explosives if all the followingconditions exist:The vehicle is located in the unit motor pool, onthe property of the shipper or consignee of theexplosives, in a safe haven, or in the case of avehicle containing 50 pounds of either Class Aor B explosives, on a construction or survey site.The responsible individual of the explosives isaware of the nature of the explosives the vehiclecontains and has been instructed on the proceduresto follow in emergencies.The vehicle is within the responsible individual’sunobstructed field of view or is located in a safehaven.MissilesMissiles are very different from most items the Armytransports because they can be at the same timeoverweight, sensitive, and flammable. These complexcharacteristics call for special loading procedures.In fact, the procedures are so special that theArmy publishes detailed loading and bracing drawingsfor each missile system.Ammunition and ExplosivesArmy motor vehicles often transport ammunitionand explosives. Although safety is always important,it is especially so when the cargo itself is dangerous.A vehicle carrying explosives must be equipped withtwo fully charged dry chemical fire extinguishers.One of them must be mounted on the outside of thecab on the driver’s side; the other mounted insidethe cab.NOTE: All fire extinguisher’s must beinspected monthly to make sure they have notbeen damaged and the hose nozzles are notclogged. The inspection date and the initials19-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306or name of the inspector must be recorded ona tag; the tag must be attached to the extinguisher.Another tag, indicating the date ofthe last weight-test, must also be attached tothe extinguisher. Obtain instructions on theseprocedures from your local or military firestation.Block and brace the load well to prevent its shiftingduring travel. Drawings of approved methods ofblocking and bracing are available from the USArmy Ammunition Procurement and SupplyAgency. Refer to FM 55-17 before loading, blocking,or bracing any ammunition or explosive load.Be sure that detonating caps for such explosivesas dynamite are not carried in the same vehicle asthe explosives. While loading or unloading, handleexplosives with care.CAUTIONThe truck’s tailboard or tailgate must beclosed and secured to be sure all ammunitionor explosives stay inside the cargocompartment.Chemical AgentsFederal agencies govern and regulate the transportof hazardous chemicals and related items within theUnited States. A brief summary of the regulationsand safety standards to be used to load and unloadthis kind of cargo follows.The Vehicle. The cargo compartment of the vehiclemust be a closed body or one covered with a fireresistant tarpaulin. The vehicle must be equippedwith red lanterns, red reflectors, red cloths, and twofire extinguishers for use in emergencies.Loading and Unloading Safely. In addition tothose precautions already explained, load containerswith valves or fittings so damage to valvesor fittings during transit is prevented. Vehicles,once unloaded, should be swept clean. The sidesand floors should be tested for contamination anddecontaminated if necessary.Driver Instructions. Each driver of a motor vehicletransporting dangerous chemicals must be given fulland complete information about the shipment tohelp him safely deliver the cargo to its destination.When the vehicle is loaded, the driver is informed ofnecessary safety precautions verbally and in writing,using DD Form 836.Liquid FuelsWhen carrying gasoline or other liquid fuels, youneed two fully charged fire extinguishers. (The sameas for ammunition.)Inspect gasoline cans for leaks. Do not let defectivecans be loaded. Keep all gasoline cans, full orempty, tightly closed. When hauling gasoline in acargo truck, remove tarpaulins unless otherwiseinstructed. If you must use tarpaulins, carefully airand dry them before they are folded and stored.TRANSPORTING HAZARDOUSMATERIALS BY HIGHWAYBecause the transportation of ammunition,explosives, flammables, chemical agents, andradioactive materials is dangerous, it is essential thatpersonnel involved know and observe applicablesafety regulations.A vehicle transporting Class A or B ammunition,explosives, or other hazardous material is inspectedat —The origin of shipment. At this time deficienciesare corrected before the transporter entersa sensitive area.At trailer transfer points (when prime moversare exchanged).At destination, before delivery is accepted.In CONUS, the shipper uses DD Form 626 as aguide to and record of the inspection. In an overseastheater, DD Form 626 (modified appropriately) maybe used or may serve as a model for a locallyproduced inspection form.In CONUS, military shippers use DD Form 836 toinstruct drivers of military and commercial vehiclestransporting dangerous material. Sections of theform outline actions to be taken in case of fire,accident, and breakdown and provide for entry ofspecific information by the shipper or transportationofficer. This form (appropriately modified) may19-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306also be used in an overseas theater or may serve asa model for a locally produced instruction form.The driver must have shipping papers available at alltimes. (See CFR 49 177.817.)In CONUS, military vehicles transporting ammunition,flammable materials, or toxic chemicals mustcomply with DOT regulations governing highwaymovement of these materials. In an overseastheater, such movement must comply with theaterpolicies and host-nation requirements.Follow these general safety guidelines for motortransport of ammunition and explosives:To prevent accidental movement of thetransporter while it is being loaded or unloaded,stop the engine, place the vehicle in gear, andset the parking brake and block the wheels.Handle the explosives with care. Do not jar orshock them.Prohibit smoking within 50 feet of a transporterloaded with explosive or flammable liquids.(The driver will not smoke during transport.)Prohibit open flames, such as matches, cigarettelighters, and torches, within 100 feet of atransporter loaded with explosives or flammableliquids.Each truck hauling explosives or flammablesmust have two dry chemical fire extinguishers,one inside the truck cab and one outside on thedriver’s side. Be sure drivers know how to checkthe serviceability of the extinguishers and howto use them.Vehicles will be driven at a safe distance fromother traffic. Caution drivers against suddenstops or turns.Clearly label or placard vehicles to warn othertraffic.During highway movement of chemical agents, hazardouschemicals, and chemical ammunition, thedriver should have a protective mask, protectiveclothing, and appropriate protective and first aiditems, such as burn ointment, as necessary.The driver must know the hazardous nature of hiscargo, such as symptoms produced by toxic chemicalagents and action to take in case of fire, spillage, orother emergency.DETECTING FUEL LEAKAGEOCCURRING ON A PUBLICHIGHWAYImmediately upon detecting a leak in the cargotank–Turn off the vehicle’s electrical system. Extinguishany cigarettes or open flames in thevicinity. Remove the vehicle’s fire extinguisherfrom its bracket and keep it close at hand If anassistant driver or other person is available, tellhim to man the fire extinguisher.Notify police of the hazardous situation by themost expeditious means.Inspect the leak. Determine if a field expedient,for example, a wooden plug or rubber matting,can be used to control the leak.Place highway warning devices at prescribedlocations. Do not use flares.Keep spectators away from areas where flammableliquids are spilled or toxic fumes haveaccumulated.Guard against smoking by spectators or passingmotorists. If personnel are available, postguards to warn passing vehicle drivers of the firehazardNotify nearby residents when spillage mayplace them in danger.When civilian police and/or fire fighting personnelarrive, tell them the nature of the cargo. Followinstructions issued by fire or police department personneluntil the hazard is neutralized. Military personnelwill inform civilian investigators andcooperate with civilian authorities in clearing thedamaged equipment from the highway.19-8

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306DETECTING FUEL LEAKAGEOCCURRING OFF THE ROADEmergency ProceduresImmediately upon detecting a leak in the cargotank –Turn off the vehicle’s electrical system. Extinguishall sources of ignition in the area.If the tanker is a semitrailer, lower the landinglegs, disconnect the semitrailer from the tractor,and drive the tractor a safe distance from thesemitrailer.Remove the vehicle fire extinguisher from itsbracket and keep it close at hand If an assistantdriver or other person is available, tell him toman the fire extinguisher.Inspect the leak. Determine if a field expedient,for example, a wooden plug or rubber matting,can be used to control the leak.If space is available in another compartment ofthe tanker, transfer the fuel from the leakingcompartment to the secure one. However, thisprocedure is not recommended when fumeshave accumulated around the tanker pump.Fuel TransferWhen other fuel-transporting vehicles are availableand not filled to capacity, you may transfer fuel fromthe leaking compartment to their cargo compartments.When this method is used, use only the pumpon the secure vehicle and separate the vehicles themaximum distance allowed by the available hose.Fuel JettisoningWhen fuel cannot be transferred from the leakingcompartment, contact your nearest hazardousmaterial protection facility (local fire station) forpermission to locate a proper location to jettisonfuel.CAUTIONArmy, Department of Defense, and federalregulations prohibit routine discharge ofUSING SAFETY PROCEDURESIf you use petroleum tank vehicles, know andobserve the safety precautions in this sectionand those in the chapters dealing with specificvehicles and operations. These proceduresapply to all the vehicles in this manual. Whenrefueling aircraft, however, follow the additionalinstructions in FM 10-68.Whenever you operate a tank vehicle or transfer aproduct, follow these safety procedures:Position the tank vehicle in the transfer area sothat it is headed toward the nearest exit andaway from buildings or other obstructions. Donot let other vehicles block exit routes.When possible, conduct petroleum operationson level ground Always stop the engine and setthe brakes. If you are on a grade, chock thewheels.Keep at least 25 feet between the tank vehiclesduring receipt and issue operations. To avoidcongestion during transfers to other vehicles,maintain a distance of 100 feet between the tankvehicles engaged in transfer operations. Also,be sure you have a clear escape route when thetank vehicles are parked overnight in the designatedparking area.During all loading, unloading, and fuelservicingoperations, keep the tractor coupledto the tank semitrailer. However, if the semitraileris used for temporary storage, you maykeep it uncoupled from the tractor.Keep the manhole cover open during all loading,unloading, and fuel-servicing operations.Do this so the tank shell does not collapse if avent fails. When opening the manhole cover,stand on the windward side of the vehicle.19-9

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306When transferring a product, the driver of thereceiving vehicle operates the dispensing nozzleof the discharge hose. By doing this, the drivercan top off his own vehicle at the proper level.When the transfer operation is completed, carrythe nozzle and the discharge hose back to thefuel tank vehicle. Do not drag it on the groundKeep the canvas top and rear curtain of thetractor in place whenever the vehicle is carrying,loading, or unloading a product. The top andcurtain keep the tractor from being splashedwith fuel from the vehicle catwalks.Check the pressure vacuum relief valves frequentlyin cold weather to be sure they areoperating properly.Fire PreventionAside from enemy attack, fire is the greatest dangerduring fuel tank vehicle operations. To preventfires –Post NO SMOKING signs around the area ofoperation. Observe no smoking rules. Do notlet anyone carry matches or lighters when workingaround a fuel tank vehicle.Keep a dry chemical fire extinguisher mannedand ready for use during all petroleum tankvehicle operations. At permanent fuelinginstallations, build a covered storage point inwhich a carbon dioxide, foam, or dry chemicalfire extinguisher and sand may be kept. Keepthis storage point close to the loading andunloading area. Inspect all fire extinguishersat this storage point monthly to be sure theyhave not been damaged and the hose nozzlesare not clogged. Record the inspection dateand the initials or name of the inspector ona tag; attach the tag to the extinguisher.Bond and ground all vehicles and equipmentbefore you start any petroleum tank vehicleoperation.Stop all petroleum operations if there is anenemy attack, electrical storm, or a fire in thearea.Keep all possible sources of vapor ignition awayduring fuel tank vehicle operations.Be sure the drop tube or discharge hose is closeto the bottom of the tank during top loading.This cuts down on vapors and static electricity.When top loading jet fuel, start pumping at areduced flow rate until the lower end of the droptube or discharge hose is covered with theproduct.Use explosion-proof extension lights, flashlights,and electric lanterns. Be sure all electricalequipment used is explosion-proof and ingood operating condition.Do not drag hoses across the rear decks ofcombat vehicles or near their exhaust systems.Armor plates and exhaust pipes get hot duringoperation, could damage hoses, and could causea fire.Do not drive past or near a fire until it is safe todo so.Stop the flow of fuel and close the manholecover if a fire is in a tank compartment.Wash immediately with soap and water if you getfuel on your skin.Wet fuel-soaked clothes with water and removethem immediately. If you do not have any water,temporarily ground yourself by holding a pieceof grounded equipment with both hands. Thenremove your hands from grounded equipmentand take off your clothes. This grounding actionremoves the danger of a static spark ignitingyour clothes.Bonding and GroundingBonding is the process of electrically connecting twounits to equalize any static potential that might existbetween them. Bonding also forms a path for anystatic potential that might develop while the operationis in progress.Grounding is the process of electrically connectingsingle or bonded units to ground rods so that anystatic potential that might exist at the beginning of19-10

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306the operation or that might develop during theoperation, is discharged into the earth.Always bond and ground both vehicles and equipmentbefore you start petroleum operations. To dothis, first ground the tank vehicle and the other unitinvolved to the ground rod. If you use only oneground rod to do this, you do not need to bond Ifyou use two rods, bond the tank vehicle to the otherunit by running a cable between them. Then touchthe hose, drop tube, or discharge nozzle to fill thecap before you remove it. During the operation,keep the nozzle in contact with the fill opening at alltimes. When the operation is completed, close thefill cover before disconnecting the bonding andgrounding cables.Spill ControlFuel spills or overflows at tank vehicle receipt andissue points can pollute the soil, create a firehazard, and cause a loss of fuel. To prevent spillsor overflows —Gauge both the receiving tank and the tankvehicle before and after a transfer. Whentraveling cross-country, use a gauge stick tomeasure the amount of product in the tankcompartment.Attend all discharge nozzles or loading armsconstantly while refueling. Also do not use nozzleswith notched handles. If you find a nozzle witha notched handle, modify-it so the handle cannotbe held open in the locked position.Do not exceed safe refueling rates. Also, top offall containers at a reduced flow rate and fillcontainers only to prescribed levels. At thecompletion of every operation, drain all hosesections into an appropriate container.Keep nozzles, hoses, or drop tubes inside containersto avoid spray.Try to keep the product from entering streamsor sewers except as directed by police or firedepartment personnel.Fill drums and cans on the ground or on aground rack.Use the pressure control when filling a 500-gallon collapsible drum. If you do not have apressure control or meter, leave a 1 1/2-inchdepression in the top of the drum to allow forproduct expansion. Whenever the drums areair-lifted, you MUST use the pressure control.Park loaded bulk petroleum transportingvehicles under shade whenever possible. Heatfrom the sun will cause the POL to expand. Ifnatural cover is not available, use a camouflagescreen system to shade the tanker.19-11

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 20VEHICLE CAMOUFLAGE AND NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, ANDCHEMICAL OPERATIONSActual operations prove that what you do in trainingyou will also do during warfare. Part of thistraining will come through field exercises andmaneuvers simulating warlike conditions. Youmust know what to do during passive defense andblackout driving and when driving under nuclear,biological, and chemical (NBC) conditions. Theunit SOP contains warning systems; actions to takewhen under aircraft, guerrilla, and NBC attack; andconduct in a motor march or convoy. Learn what isexpected of you so that you will automatically dothe right thing at the right time.This chapter implements STANAG 2002.methods and materials in sparsely vegetated or barrenareas such as deserts, predominantly snowcoveredareas, and thinly wooded areas.The modular system consists of a hexagon screen, adiamond-shaped screen, a support system, and arepair kit. The screens are made of synthetic,lightweight, water-resistant material. Any numberof screens can be joined together to cover an area.The screens are fastened together by a quickconnect-disconnectsystem to facilitate their joiningor separation.VEHICLE CAMOUFLAGEOPERATIONSStationary Vehicle Camouflage andConcealmentA stationary vehicle can best be camouflaged byplacing it under vegetation to break up the regularpattern of shadows and by covering all partslikely to reflect light noticeably. Use blankets, shelterhalves, or pieces of dark burlap to cover thewindshield, cab window, a wet vehicle body, lightpaint on insignia, and so forth. Use foliage to coverheadlights. Fishnet or chicken wire scatteredwith artificial material or with vegetation can beused to cover the vehicle when trees or bushesare not available. When snow is on the ground,cover the vehicle with white cloth. Be sure thatcolor and texture blend with the surroundingarea. For information on drape net sizes, refer toTM 5-1080-200-13&P.Camouflage Screen SystemThe camouflage screen system is the principalartificial expedient for camouflaging vehicles.Use it when concealment by natural methods ormaterials is not possible or to supplement naturalRadar-transparent screens (Type I screens) areidentified by a five-sided tag attached to the screensat every other corner. (The tag identifies the screenas either woodland, snow, or desert.) The radartransparentcamouflage screen system, designed foruse over active radar equipment, inhibits detectionof the concealed items by visual and photographicmeans.CAUTIONThe radar-transparent screen can be placedover most active radar equipment.Camouflage screens induce interference incontinuous-wave radar systems. Consultappropriate end item technical manual/orderfor any restrictions or limitations.Radar-scattering screens (Type II screens) areidentified by a rectangular tag attached to thescreen at every other corner. (The tag identifies thescreen as either woodland, snow, or desert.) Theradar-scattering camouflage screen system can betemporarily placed over halted vehicles, weapons,and materials, and over semipermanent positionsand installations. It prevents the enemy from locatingand identifying the camouflaged items withvisual, photographic, or radar devices.20-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306NOTE: The woodland and desert 18 batten spreaders, which support thescreens come in seasonal patterns. Onescreens. (Batten spreaders can be of differentside of the screen has a spring-summerdesigns and are interchangeable.)pattern; the other side, a fall-winterpattern. The desert screen has arid andA locking device called a spreader adaptersemiarid sides.assembly. (Batten spreaders and spreaderadapter assemblies are made from a plasticRadar-scattering screens and radar-transparentmaterial.)screens are not visually different. The only differencebetween the two screens is that the radarscatteringscreens have stainless steel filamentsA carrying case for the support system.impregnated in the garnish material. Because of The repair kit contains sufficient material fortheir minute size the steel filaments cannot be operator/crew personnel to repair the screendetected, but give the radar-scattering screen its (Figure 20-2).radar-reflective capabilities. The procedures toerect, strike, or repair the radar-scattering andradar-transparent screens are the same.The only difference between the woodland anddesert screens are the pattern, incising, and colors.Use woodland screens in woodland environments;desert screens, in desert environments. The proceduresto erect, strike, or repair the woodland anddesert screens are the same.The screen system and support system haveseparate carrying cases. The camouflage screensystems should be stored in a cool, dry place.Combat support units and combat troop units usethe camouflage screen system to conceal stationarytarget signatures, weapons, vehicles, and semipermanentpositions when natural cover or concealmentmay be inadequate or absent.The support system is used with radar-scattering or The lightweight camouflage screen system canradar-transparent screen systems (Figure 20-1). also help to conceal permanent noticeableThe support system consists of —objects and objects in a fixed pattern or arraythat present obvious targets. - However, per-12 aluminum pole sections (4-foot), which can manent installation camouflage usually requiresbe extended to various heights.construction of concealment features, such asfalse roofs, dummy buildings, and garnished wire18 aluminum stakes. netting.20-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Dimensions of the screen system and supportsystem are —Weight and cube of the packaged camouflagescreen system: 70 pounds, 5.0 cubic feet.Weight and cube of the packaged supportsystem 70 pounds, 3.1 cubic feet.Erection ofVehicleCamouflage Screens OverWhen erecting the camouflage screen over avehicle, take extreme care to prevent the screenfrom snagging and tearing on any sharp corners orvehicle accessories, such as mirrors, bumpers,mounted armament, and so forth. When joiningmultiple screens, first spread the screens to bejoined over a level ground site free from large rocksand sharp objects. Be sure the same pattern designon all screens is facing the same way.CAUTIONKeep screens away from all exhaustsystems including those on vehicles,heaters, and stoves. Screens can bedamaged if not struck and removed fromthe back blast area of field artillery beforetiring.To effectively conceal a vehicle, maintain a minimumspace of 2 feet between the screen and the topof the vehicle. Never drape screens over a vehicle.Use the support system at all times. Draping thescreen shows the outline of the vehicle underneathand lets the enemy immediately recognize thevehicle, thus defeating the purpose of camouflage.Disguise the shape of the screens as much as possibleby placing the support assemblies beneath thescreens at various positions and heights.To ease assembly and disassembly of the support polesections, keep both ends of the pole free from dirt,mud, and foreign matter. Wipe both ends cleanbefore assembly. Take care to prevent damageto the pole ends, which could cause an improperfit. Inspect the pole ends for burrs or damagebefore assembly.If you must erect the screens in muddy area providethe support poles with a firm footing by placing themon top of any appropriate material available, such as aflat rock, boards, or brush. If such material is notavailable, you may need to add another 4-foot polesection in order to reach firm footing and then repositionthe pole assemblies as required.CAUTIONWhen multimodule configuration is used (8feet high or more), the camouflage screens canbe blown down when winds exceed 20 MPH.Equipment would be damagedAfter screens are erected, check them daily forproper erection and retighten as required. Check thescreens more frequently during high winds and heavysnowfalls. Do not let lots of snow or ice accumulateon screens. Remove snow or ice from the20-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306screen as soon as it starts to sag and begins to showsigns of stress or strain due to excessive weight.Follow these special precautions when erecting theradar-scattering screen over whip antennas used onthe AN/GRC-106 radio sets or similar radios withwhip antennas:Mark a 16-inch diameter circle in the garnishmaterial over the antenna. Use the antenna asthe center of the circle.Cut the garnish material for a distance ofapproximately three-fourths of the circle’scircumference. Do not completely cut thegarnish material around the circle’s circumference.Do not cut the netting.Lay the garnish material flap back to exposethe netting. Temporarily secure the flap to thescreen with plastic straps provided in therepair kit.Place the screen so that the radio antenna islocated in the center of the exposed netting.Be sure to maintain approximately 8 inchesbetween the antenna and garnish material atall times.Place all aluminum support poles at least 4feet from the antenna.After the antenna is removed repair thescreen by removing the plastic straps holdingdown the garnish flap. Reposition thegarnish flap to its original position and secureit in place with plastic straps.WARNINGFLAMMABLE MATERIAL: The radarscatteringscreen will ignite and burn if itcomes near or touches the whip antennason the AN/GRC-106 radio sets or similarsets with whip antennas when the radio istransmitting.CAUTIONDo not place the radar-scattering screensystem over active radar equipment. It willseriously interfere with the operation ofany radar equipment.The procedures to erect a two-module camouflagescreen system are shown in Figure 20-3.Figures 20-4 and 20-5 show how to fold screensfor storage.20-4

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306OPERATIONS UNDER NUCLEAR,BIOLOGICAL, AND CHEMICAL (NBC)CONDITIONSAfter a suitable period following NBC contaminationof an area, you may operate your vehiclethrough the area safely using the protectivemeasures you have been taught. Time limits varydepending on the use of protective clothing,temperature, nature of the contaminant, type of soiland terrain, and task to be performed. If your missionrequires you to operate your vehicle in aradiologically contaminated area, your commandingofficer must decide the maximum dose to whichyou will be exposed.Practices for Operating Vehicle inContaminated AreaThe following practices are helpful in carrying outyour mission:Before entering chemically contaminatedareas, put on protective clothing and theprotective mask.Use hard-surface roads, if available.Avoid unnecessary splashing if roads aremuddy.Clean the wheels of your vehicle after crossingthe area.Guard against splashes from tree branches.Move through the area as rapidly as safetyrules wi11 allow.Vehicle Operation While WearingProtective MasksUnder combat conditions, situations change. Youmay be moving forward with assault troops, in afoxhole, or standing by in a replacement area somedistance from the combat area. In any of thesesituations, you are subject to enemy gas attack.Therefore, always remember your mission comesfirst. Thus, you may be operating your vehiclewhile wearing your protective mask. Althoughwearing your protective mask may be inconvenientand slightly uncomfortable, the ease with whichyou can wear it for an extended period improveswith practice and self-discipline. Train yourself todrive while wearing the mask. Above all, keep iton until instructed to remove it. The undisciplinedsoldier, feeling terribly sick, uncomfortable,and ill at ease, will remove his mask and die.A well-trained disciplined soldier will keep hismask on and live. Trucks must move. If you remaincalm and do not panic, you have a much betterchance of completing your mission.Marker DescriptionsUse the triangular signs described in this chapterand Appendix C (STANAG 2002) to mark NBCcontaminated areas, chemical minefield, boobytraps, and unexploded munitions unless the area isto be abandoned to threat forces. The colors ofthe signs indicate the nature of the contaminationor danger. These include the primary color and thesecondary color (Figure 20-6). The primary coloris used for the background of the front surface andfor the entire back surface. The secondary color isused for additional markings and inscriptions onthe front surface.Areas containing more than one type of contaminationor other hazard are marked with the relevantsigns placed close to each other. However, the signGAS MINES is assumed to include the presence ofhigh-explosive mines and booby traps as well aschemical mines. Simulated contaminated areas aremarked exactly as if they were real.The signs are the shape of a right isosceles triangle(90 degrees by 45 degrees by 45 degrees).They are made of plastic, wood, metal, orother rigid material with holes or “ears” that areused to hang them above the ground. They areplaced on wire boundary fences, poles, trees, orrocks. STANAG 2002 prescribes the coloring andmarkings of the signs. The signs may be massproducedby major commands for distribution tosubordinate units or may be made locally. The baseof the triangle is about 28 centimeters (11 inches);the opposite sides, about 20 centimeters (8 inches)each (Figure 20-7).Chemical Contamination Marker. This triangle isyellow on both sides. The word GAS in red 5 -centimeter (2-inch) block letters is placed on thefront side of the marker facing away from the20-10

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306contamination. Use fluorescent paint, if available.Place the name of the agent (if known) and the dateand time of detection on the front of the markerwith paint, marking pencil, or grease pencil at thetime of emplacement.Biological Contamination Maker. This triangle isblue on both sides. The letters BIO in red 5-centimeter (2-inch) block letters are placed on thefront side of the marker facing away from the contamination.Use fluorescent paint, if available.Place the name of the agent (if known) and the dateand time of detection on the front of the marker atthe time of emplacement.Radiological Contamination Marker. This triangle iswhite on both sides. The word ATOM in black 5-centimeter (2-inch) block letters is placed on thefront side of the marker facing away from the contamination.Place the dose rate, date and time ofreading, and the date and time of burst (ifknown) on the front of the marker at the time ofemplacement.Chemical Minefield Marker. This triangle is red onboth sides. The words GAS MINES in yellow 2.5-centimeter (l-inch) block letters with a horizontalyellow 2.5-centimeter (1-inch) stripe underneaththe lettering are placed on the front side of themarker facing away from the contamination. Usefluorescent paint, if available. You may inscribe thename of the chemical agent in the mines and thedate of emplacement on the front of the marker ifthe commander desires.Booby Trap Marker. This triangle is red on bothsides. A white 4-centimeter (1.6-inch) horizontalstripe is painted on the front side of the markerfacing away from the booby-trapped area.Unexploded Munition Marker. This triangle is redon both sides. A white bomb at least 10 centimeters(4 inches) tall is painted on the front side of themarker facing away from the dangerous area.Special Radiological Marking ProceduresThe marking of radiologically contaminated areasmerely indicates a hazard. Newly arrived troopsmust determine its extent using instrument readings,surveys, and information from other units.At the commander’s discretion, a radiologicallycontaminated area need not be marked when it is amilitary advantage to not do so. In this case, takepositive measures to warn other friendly forces ofthe radiologically contaminated area.Place signs on all probable routes leading into contaminatedareas at the points where the dose ratereaches 1 rad per hour (rad/hr) measured 1 meterabove the ground.Levels of radiation less than 1 rad/hr normally arenot marked even though long stays in areas of oldcontamination might produce significant doses.Units planning prolonged stays in any area during anuclear war must check the area with radiac instrumentseven if it is marked.20-11

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306NOTE: The unit responsible for the areacorrects or moves signs periodically toaccount for radioactive decay.Commanders leaving an area or otherwise giving upresponsibility for an area should leave perimetersigns in place – unless the area is being abandonedto threat forces. The commander taking over theresponsibility for the area will continue the periodiccorrection or movement of the signs and removethem when they are no longer necessary.Mark dumps for radiologically contaminatedmaterial at intervals around the perimeter withsigns that are visible from one another.Equipment DecontaminationAs soon after contamination as the situation permits,decontaminate unit equipment is as follows.Vehicles. Each tactical vehicle is authorized oneM11 portable decontaminating apparatus that willhold 1 ½ quarts of decontaminating agent DS2.20-12

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306The M11 apparatus is not intended to decontaminateof the entire vehicle. One filling of DS2 issufficient for emergency decontamination of theoperator controls. Tank crews and armored personnelcarrier drivers use the M11 to decontaminatethose parts of their vehicles thatpersonnel will touch during a mission; for example,areas touched when entering or leaving the vehicle.If sufficient DS2 is not available, use mud rags orany other expedient. Decontaminate contaminatedwood surfaces and tires with slurry.NOTE: If the driver of a vehicle realizesthe vehicle is contaminated, all occupantsmask and continue their mission untilthe situation permits decontamination.Decontaminate the vehicle with DS2, soapy water,solvents, or slurry. (Lightly contaminated vehiclesmay be decontaminated by airing.)Crew-Served Weapons. Decontaminate theseweapons using the methods described above. Ifconsidered necessary, decontaminate the bore byusing cleaning solvent or hot soapy water. Decontaminateammunition DS2 solution, wiped withgasoline-soaked rags, and then dried.If DS2 is not available, ammunition may be washedwith cool soapy water, rinsed, and dried thoroughly.Dispose of ammunition corroded from contact withchemical agents, particularly if the brass cannot becleaned. Do not use dry super tropical bleach(STB) on ammunition contaminated with mustardtypeblister agents because when mixed they mayignite and start a fire.Optical Instruments. Decontaminate optical instrumentsby blotting with rags, wiping with an organicsolvent (only lens-cleaning solvent is used for thelens), and then allowing them to air-dry. If available,hot air may be used to decontaminate mostoptical instruments.Communications and Radar Equipment. Decontaminatecommunications and radar equipmentusing hot air, if available. The next best method isby airing or weathering. The metal parts of fieldtelephones and radios are decontaminated by theheat given off during operation.NOTE: Any metal surface decontaminatedwith DS2 must then be cleaned to removethe DS2, which is corrosive.Support-Level EquipmentDecontamination StationsEquipment decontamination stations are located asfar forward as possible. A specialized decontaminationteam or unit normally runs them. Atypical layout for such a station is described inFM 3-100. Collapsible tanks may be used to storewater. Use standard decontaminating materials andequipment, if available. Brooms, mops, and pailsmay be used if the standard equipment is not available.Dispose of contaminated wash water in sucha way that it is not a hazard. (A sump pit is onemeans of disposing of the wash water.)Personnel Decontamination Stations(PDSs)Large-scale personnel decontamination stations(Figure 20-8) may be of three types: permanent,semipermanent, and field expedient. The permanentPDS is located in a building specificallydesigned and built for this purpose only. The semipermanentPDS is normally set up in an existingstructure that has been modified to serve the purpose.These two types of PDSs are usually establishedat higher levels of command where locationswill be relatively static. See FM 3-100 for detailsand sample layouts of these two PDSs.The field expedient PDS may be established inmany configurations depending on the availableequipment and location. If water is not available, amobile PDS can be established using the M12A1power-driven decontamination apparatus (PDDA).The field expedient personnel decontamination stationsare normally located as far forward as possibleand near a medical aid station, if possible. Aclothing exchange facility and a first aid andmonitoring facility are operated in conjunctionwith the field expedient PDS. In addition, the fieldexpedient PDS should be located in an area thatprovides concealment from air and ground observationand where contaminated water can be disposedof safely.In an emergency when a PDDA is not available,you may need to establish a field expedient PDS to20-13

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306first decontaminate it by turning or removing a toplayer of soil or sand or by using available decon-laminating agents. Preferably, the area selectedshould have overhead cover. If not, provide thiscover to protect against chemical attack. The areashould be located to take advantage of any availablecover and concealment and camouflaged tohinder enemy detection.decontaminate personnel units that cannot bewithdrawn from combat. The PDS provides freshclothing, equipment, and a means to dispose ofcontaminated clothing, equipment, and water.An uncontaminated area near a source of water(such as a stream, well, or water storage facility) isselected, if possible. If the area is contaminated20-14

FM 21-30/AFMAN 24-306The following materials and equipment can beusedContainers (such as GI cans, boxes, or plasticbags) in which to put contaminated clothing asit is removed.Water pump and hose (if PDDA is notavailable).Water heater, improvised (if an M1 or M2water heater is not available).An overhead pipe with shower heads(ordinary pipe or rubber hose with holes canbe used).Lumber and nails for benches and walks.Pails of soapy water and clear water withbrushes to decontaminate of boots and masks.Tarpaulin or any other material to use asoverhead cover.Medical tent or substitute.Clothing exchange tent or substitute.Assistants are required at the various stationswithin the PDS to supervise and help personnelgoing through the line.FM 3-100 details a recommended undressing procedure.However, the undressing procedure shouldbe modified according to the facilities and conditionsat the specific PDS.The unit SOP should include a personnel decontaminationstation annex that gives guidance on thefollowingOrganization of the decontamination line.Personnel required at stations on the line andtheir duties.Supplies required.Description of boot-cleaning buckets andinstructions for use, frequency of contentsrenewal, disposal of contaminated waste, andreplenishing buckets.Undressing procedure, including a practicalunmasking procedure for personnel goingthrough the line.Procedures for decontaminating individualequipment and reissue before departure fromthe PDS.Coordination forclothing.disposing of contaminatedIf units with both male and female personnel needto be decontaminated, the PDS may be set up toprovide separate facilities for males and females.To do this, establish two lines of decontaminationpoints (shower heads) separated by a canvas tarpaulin.Female assistants, if available, would assistthe females; and male assistants, the males. HOW-EVER, IF SUCH ARRANGEMENTS ARE NOTAVAILABLE, THE PRIMARY CONCERNMUST BE THE PRESERVATION OF LIFEAND THE IMMEDIATE REMOVAL OF THECONTAMINANT FROM ALL PERSONNELWITHOUT REGARD TO GENDER. In eithercase, once personnel have departed the showerarea (are no longer in a life-death situation),separate dressing areas should be provided for menand women.Decontamination Materials and TheirUseSTB Decontaminating Agent (Bleach). Super tropicalbleach can be applied undiluted but should beused either as a dry mix (with earth) or a wet mix(with water). Do not leave it on contaminated surfacesfor longer than 24 hours because it corrodesmetals. STB neutralizes liquid chemical agents bychemical action. Dry bleach in direct contact withliquid blister agents reacts violently and can causeflame and heavy vapor. STB is chemically active,causing vigorous corrosion of metals. Wet mix iseffective against biological agents.20-15

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306DS2 Decontaminating Agent. Ready-to-use solutionis available in 1 1/3-quart cans and 5-gallondrums. DS2 can be applied easily with the M11decontaminating apparatus, a broom, or a swab.One application of DS2 should be made to thecontaminated surface and flushed with water after30 minutes. The solution is effective at temperaturesfrom -26° to 52° C (-15° to 125° F). DS2neutralizes all known chemical agents and mostbiological agents. It reacts with G-agents, V-agents,and blister agents to reduce their hazards within 30minutes after application.Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate). Make a solutionby stirring 2 pounds of washing soda into 2 ½gallons of water. Then apply it to the contaminatedsurface. Washing soda neutralizes most chemicalagents and is especially effective against G-agents.It is used as a washing agent for blister agents.Decontamination is faster with concentrated solutions.Caustic Soda (Lye). Make a 5 percent solution bystirring 1 pound of lye into 2 ½ gallons of water.Then apply it to the contaminated surface. Causticsoda neutralizes chemical agents and biologicalagents. It is especially effective against G-agents.Decontamination is faster with concentrated solutions.Fuels and Solvents. Fuel is applied to contaminatedareas and ignited. Solvents (likegasoline, kerosene, or carbon tetrachloride) areapplied with swabs, taking care not to spreadthe contamination. Ignited fuels destroy agents.Solvents merely remove them, but sufficient solventcan dilute most dangerous contamination.Water or Steam. Water or steam is applied underhigh pressure. The action of hot water is speededby using soap or other detergent. Hot water mayalso be applied with swabs. Water or steamremoves dirt or grease containing chemical agentsor radioactive material. Hot soapy water removesG-agents and physically removes other chemicaland radiological contamination.CAUTIONUse temperature and air velocities that aresafe for the particular equipment involved.Effluent air will be contaminated.Hot Air. Hot air is used in special situations, suchas decontamination of delicate instruments contaminatedwith liquid agents or decontamination ofaircraft cabins, using the engine heaters. Hot airevaporates liquid chemical contaminants.WARNINGDrain water and condensed steam into aproperly marked sump pit. If you mustdrain into a stream, notify friendly unitsdownstream.20-16

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 21OFF-ROAD AND WINTER DRIVINGOff-road and winter driving conditions presentspecial challenges for the vehicle driver. This chaptergives guidance on driving off-road and duringwinter conditions.OFF-ROAD DRIVINGCAUTIONThe operator should first check the vehicletechnical manual for the equipmentoperated and follow instructions for drivingunder other than normal conditions. Drivingtechniques differ for rear-wheel drive,front-wheel drive, and all-wheel drivevehicles.DitchesCross shallow ditches by shifting into low gear orrange and proceeding slowly. Enter the ditch obliquelyso that one wheel leaves the ditch as the otherwheel on the same side enters it. When crossingdeep ditches, use the lowest forward gear and fourwheeldrive if the vehicle is so equipped. When youreach the bottom, accelerate the motor enough tokeep rolling as you go up the other side. If the ditchis deep and has very steep sides, you may have to cutaway the tops of the banks before trying to cross.Gullies and RavinesGullies and ravines are natural formations causedby running water. Look these formations overcarefully to find a place to cross and to ensure thatyour vehicle can get across. Examine both banks.If water is flowing in the ravine, check its depth.Put your vehicle in low gear and slowly approachthe ravine at a right angle to the edge. Using thefoot brake, ease the front wheels into the gully;take care to have them strike the bottom at thesame time. Bring your engine up to normaloperating speed as your wheels hit the bottom.Accelerate enough to climb as your front wheelstouch the opposite bank.WoodsWoods help to conceal you and your vehicle from airobservation, but they present certain problems.Fairly open woods with trees at least as far apart asthe width of your vehicle will allow passage if you canmaneuver your vehicle around the trees. Use anestablished trail if possible. Do not plan to returnon the same route because these same saplings maystop or damage your vehicle when braced against it.If the trees are too dense and prevent your passage,drive as closely as possible to the edge of the woodsusing shadows for concealment. Although woodscan bean obstacle to vehicles, they are not to the footsoldier. Wooded areas are likely spots for guerrillas,partisans, or enemy troops. Be alert to the possibilityof an ambush.Stumps. A high tree stump, if straddled by yourvehicle, can seriously damage the vehicle axles andother low parts. Moreover, stumps can injure yourtires. Check ground clearances and drive withcaution.Low Limbs. When you drive through wooded areas,whether on country roads or cross-country, lowhanginglimbs may break your tarp bows or rip yourtop and radio antennas. (It is usually best to removethe canvas top and the bows for field operation.)Survey the route to determine if your vehicle canproceed without damage from low-hanging limbs orif it is practicable to remove obstructing limbs.Timber. Fallen trees may often be crossed by pilingdirt or other material on each side and then drivingover it if required and if angle crossings cannot beachieved.Rocky TerrainDo not try to straddle large boulders; they willdamage axles and other low parts of your vehicle.Move very slowly when driving in very rocky terrain.Carry an extra spare tire if one is available as thereis greater danger of flats. Remove stones betweendual tires as often as possible to prevent breaking thesidewalls of the tires.21-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Mud and SwampsEvery military vehicle has enough power in its lowestgear to pull out of mud if it gets traction. Try to pullout slowly in low gear or low range if your vehicle isequipped with an automatic transmission. Placingboards, brush, or similar material under the vehicle’swheels can increase traction. Remember the followingpoints:Select the gear that will get you through. Rollonto the soft area at a medium speed for theselected gear. Carefully maintain a steadythrottle until you reach solid ground.If stopped by mud rolling up in front of yourwheels, you may have to back off and hit it againwith regained momentum. Under most conditions,this technique requires prompt action.Otherwise, the mud will fill the tracks behindyour wheels and slow or stop your backing. Youmust have solid footing within reach of yourvehicle to do this.If you get stuck in a vehicle equipped with anautomatic transmission, try to pull out slowly inlow gear or low range. If you cannot pull outand if brush or boards do not provide theneeded traction, get another vehicle to pull youout. When other vehicles are not available andyour vehicle is equipped with a winch, attachyour winch cable to a tree or solid object andpull yourself out with winch power. Do not rockyour vehicle; it will only dig in.StreamsYour vehicle technical manual/order containsspecific instructions on fording streams. In additionto those instructions, follow these precautionsbefore fordingCheck the stream bottom to determine how firma support you can expect.If you expect some sinking, determine if thissinking added to the water depth will exceedyour vehicle’s fording limit. If the fording limitwill be exceeded, find another crossing point.After reaching dry land, test your brakes whilemoving at a reduced speed. If your brakes do notoperate properly, continue at a slow speed whilemaintaining a light steady pressure on the brakepedal to cause a slight drag on them. The heatshould dry your brakes.NOTE: See the appropriate vehicle -10 TMfor correct procedure.SandProcedures. The main objective when driving insand is to maintain movement with the least amountof strain on the vehicle, its engine, and its powertrain. To do this–Estimate if a sandy area is drivable.Adjust the tire pressure to meet changingconditions.Use various aids to improve bearing surfaces.Exercise sound driving techniques.Your ability to do these things well comes onlythrough experience.Tire Pressure. Reduce tire pressure when driving insoft sand and over dunes. This increases the amountof tire surface in contact with the sand to providebetter flotation (support). However, never reducetire pressure so much that the tire slips on the rim.Refer to your vehicle technical manual/order forproper tire pressure. When operating with reducedtire pressure, drive at low speed. Inflate tires tonormal pressure (for cross-country or hard surface,as appropriate) as soon as the situation permits.Accessories. To help you meet, take proper actionfor, and overcome the many difficult conditionsassociated with extended driving in sand, youshould be provided with –A tire gauge.The means to inflate tires if your vehicle is notso equipped.Spare valve cores.Readily available material for use under wheelsin extremely soft areas.21-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Shovels and tow chains or cables.Vehicle lubrication and servicing at morefrequent intervals as specified by your unitcommander.Driving. To start on sand–Be sure tires have proper tire pressure.Follow normal engine-starting procedures.Select a gear or range that will start you with aminimum of, or no, clutch slippage and wheelspinning.Accelerate gradually.To drive on sand –Maintain a steady and even rate of movement.Avoid unnecessary shifting of gears. If yourvehicle is equipped with an automatic transmission,keep it in low range.Anticipate difficult spots and try to bypass them.Head for a small stretch of soft sand withincreased speed, when necessary, to take advantageof momentum.Stop before entering an extensive stretch ofsoft sand. Reduce the tire pressure, if necessary.Start off in a gear or range that you thinkwill take you through with little need for furthershifting and a minimum of clutch slippageand wheel spinning. As soon as the need forlow tire pressure ceases, stop and reinflate toappropriate pressure.Approach a dune (hill of sand piled up by thewind) from the windward (most gradual)slope at a 90-degree angle. Select the propergear or range to avoid shifting while on theslope. Maintain as much momentum as possiblewhile going up the slope; be prepared tochange direction as you reach the crest. Ridethe crest if necessary to seek a safe route. Ifyou must use the lee (steepest) slope, select apoint where the angle of approach will allowthe front bumper to clear.Follow in the tracks of preceding vehicles orbreak a new path depending on conditions.Make wide turns. Sharp turns can stall or evenoverturn your vehicle.To stop in sand –Let your vehicle roll to a halt if practicable.Otherwise, brake gradually. This prevents tiresfrom digging in, which happens when brakesare used.Try to stop on a downhill slope. This gives youan advantage when starting.Freeing Vehicle. At the first sign that your vehicle isbogging down, try a lower gear. If it still bogsdown –Stop power to the driving wheels. If you continueto use the motor to force the vehicle out ofthe sand, it will only sink deeper. It will be moredifficult to get out.Check tires for sand operation inflation. Hightemperature may have built up the pressure.Lower the tire pressure, if necessary, for emergencymovement over a short distance. (Checkthe vehicle technical manual/order for theallowable minimum tire pressure.)As soon as the need for low tire pressureceases, stop and reinflate tire to appropriatepressure.Try to drive on.If lowered tire pressure is not enough to free thevehicle, use any or all of the following procedures:Shovel a clear path ahead of the wheels.Lay boards, brush channels, canvas, wire nettingrope ladders, or some similar materialunder and in front of the tires for better flotationand traction.Use the winch or a tow if you see that continuedoperation of the vehicle under its own powerwill only cause it to sink deeper into the sand.21-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306If a vehicle is bellied down and must be pulledout, unload the vehicle to the extent needed.As soon as the need for low pressure ceases,stop and reinflate tire to appropriate pressure.Vehicle Care. In addition to responsibilities containedin your vehicle technical manual/order, youmust —Keep valve caps on all tires.Check engine temperature and oil pressurefrequently.If overheating occurs, check for loose or brokenfan belt. Correct as necessary.Clean the oil spout before adding oil. Removeany accumulation of sand or dirt around thefiller hole.Clean the spouts of gasoline containers beforeusing them for refueling. Under extremely dirtyconditions, falter gasoline when filling tank.Inspect nuts, bolts, springs, mountings, andaccessories frequently for evidence of loosenessor damage.When halted overnight or for any extendedperiod, park with the rear of the vehicletoward the wind. If this is not possible, coverthe windshield and radiator with a tarpaulinto prevent sand from accumulating in theengine compartment and damage to thewindshield.WINTER DRIVINGParticularly during cold weather, exercise extremecare starting and operating your vehicle. Keep yourvehicle in the best mechanical condition possible.Otherwise, it will not operate properly. Carbonmonoxide poisoning is an added hazard. Thispoisoning from inhaling the exhaust fumes of thevehicle usually results in death. To avoid it, neversleep in the cab of your vehicle with the engine orheater running. Whenever the heater is used whiledriving, leave a window open slightly. Inspect thevehicle exhaust manifold, muffler, and tail pipe forserviceability and tightness daily. Never leave theengine ruining while working on the vehicle in aclosed building. Remember these points:Vehicles equipped with mud and snow tires willslide more on icy road surfaces than those withcommercial tread. Mud and snow treads aremore effective on roads covered with looselypacked snow.All-wheel drive vehicles without chainsgenerally perform better than two-wheel drivevehicles with chains on rear wheels.Chains give a good bite in snow or mud but tendto slide and slip on ice and packed snow.Sand, cinders, or dirt scattered on icy road surfacesgives more traction than chains.Fresh snow may conceal an icy road surface.Although snow or ice may be melting on roads,it may remain solidly packed or frozen onbridges.Better traction is gained when the load is distributedevenly on all wheels.Three to eleven times more distance is requiredto stop a vehicle on pavement covered with iceor snow.Isolated patches of ice may be on an otherwiseclear road, especially in shaded areas.Cold weather engine starting and warm-up proceduresapply. Avoid excessive use of the chokebecause unburned gasoline will wash down thecylinder walls, destroying the oil film and dilutingthe engine oil. Do not race a cold engine.As a last resort when the engine will not start, towthe vehicle with another or call your unit maintenancecrew according to unit policies. Do notpush the vehicle.Start driving in second or third gear rather than firstor low. Engage the clutch gradually (or in D2, high,with automatic transmission), and accelerate nomore than necessary to keep from stalling.Avoid quick acceleration on slick roads. It willprobably cause you to skid.21-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Driving methods and practices discussed inChapter 8 apply, modified as follows:Drive at reduced speeds so you can stopquicker.Give turn signals sooner than usual. This givesother drivers more time to react.Pump your brakes to warn early of your intentionto stop.Maintain at least double the normal distancefrom the vehicle ahead.Good all-around visibility is the first requirement forsafe driving. Keep windshields, windows, mirrors,headlights, spotlights, and body lights clean and freeof snow and ice. If defrosters are not available, keepwindshields clean by using the windshield wiper,wedging the rear of the hood open so motor heat isvented toward the windshield, or thoroughly ventilatinginside the vehicle. Cover windshields ofvehicles parked in open lots with cardboard or canvasto prevent overnight frosting.Descend moderate grades in the gear normally usedto climb the same grade. On steep or very slipperygrades, use at least one gear lower and go slower.When visibility is poor, use low-beam headlights towarn other drivers of your position. Stop, park offthe roadway, and wait for conditions to improve ifvisibility is zero. If you absolutely must continue,have an assistant driver or passenger walk in front ofthe vehicle as a guide.Avoid vehicle tracks, rocks, and other objects thatmight throw the vehicle sideways and start a skid.Keep the cab door open when crossing frozenstreams. You may need to get out in a hurry if theice thins.After driving through slush or water, test yourbrakes while moving at a reduced speed. If yourbrakes do not operate normally, continue at a slowspeed whale maintaining moderate pressure on yourbrake pedal to create a slight drag. The heatgenerated by friction between the brake shoe andbrake drum will dry your brakes.On roads that slope toward side ditches, you mayneed to straddle the center or crown to avoid slidingto the side. Watch carefully for approaching traffic.WARNINGDrivers of large vehicles should be awarethat the shoulder of the road may give waydue to vehicle weight.If unsure about a difficult stretch of road, stop andinspect it carefully before going across. Select a gearthat will get you through. If following a vehicle, waituntil it crosses. You may need to render assistanceif it gets stuck.To drive through heavy slush, shift down beforeentering it and keep moving. If wheels begin to spin,disengage the clutch at once, back up, and try againor try rocking by shifting rapidly between forwardand reverse gears.At traffic stops –Gradually ease up on the gas. Leave vehicle ingear.Apply brakes intermittently and lightly. Useengine compression as much as possible toassist braking.Disengage the clutch at the last possiblemoment to prevent stalling.Avoid sudden braking on slick roads so you willnot skid.When parking –Place brush, boards, or other suitable materialbeneath wheels when parking for an extendedperiod on wet, slushy, or muddy surfaces. Thiskeeps the tires from freezing to the ground orbeing "pocketed" in ice.Do not set the parking brake when parkingbrake linings may freeze to the brake drums.Instead, block the wheels and place the transmissionin the appropriate gear for parking asdirected by the vehicle technical manual/order.21-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Tire ChainsChains are designed to creep or move on the tires.Tighten them by hand, never with tools. Creepingor moving of chains reduces the possibility of thelinks gouging into tires. When using chains continuously,check their fit and condition at each halt.Install repair links as soon as one of the cross chainsis broken.When installing tire chains under normalconditions —Check the chains’ condition. Eliminate twists.On some vehicles, tire chains must be installedon all driving wheels. Check the vehicleoperator’s TM.Drape chains over tires with OPEN ENDS OFCROSS CHAIN HOOKS AWAY FROM THETIRE and with fasteners on the trailing ends ofthe side chains.Tuck the first cross chain under the front of thetire. Move the vehicle forward until the fastenersare hub high.Straighten and center the chains.Lift the ends of the side chains to determinewhich links will be hooked into the fasteners.If installing on duals, first fasten chains betweenwheels, then inner chains, and finally the outerchain. If installing on singles, fasten the innerchain before the outer chain.When the vehicle is mired —Determine if you want to install your chains witha forward or backward wheel motion.Check the chains' condition. Eliminate twists.Drape chains over tires with OPEN ENDS OFCROSS CHAIN HOOKS AWAY FROM THETIRE and with fasteners on the trailing ends ofthe side chains.Locate the first cross chain near mud or snowline.If the chains are dual, fold the inner half of thechain over top of the outer half. This makes adoubled chain on the outer wheel. For thisreason, the methods listed below then apply toeither dual or single wheels.Secure one end of each side chain to the wheelby a strong wire, cord, or chain passed throughthe opening in the wheel and fasten to the innerand outer side chains adjacent to the first crosschain.Pull the chain back to take up slack and alignwith tire. To keep the loose chain from onewheel from being caught up by the other, pile itclose behind the wheel to which it is secured.Revolve wheels slowly to draw chains aroundtires. Stop when fasteners are at the top of thetires.Pull side chains up tight to select links to behooked into fasteners. Hook the inner sidechain first.When the vehicle has been moved to solidground, loosen and remove the temporarywires, cords, or chains. Adjust the chains totheir proper position.Vehicle CareIn addition to the responsibilities contained in yourvehicle technical manual/order, follow these proceduresfor vehicle care in cold weather.Keep all fuel tanks and containers as nearly full aspossible to keep moisture from condensing insidethe fuel tanks and containers. Moisture not onlycontaminates the gasoline but also may freeze in thefuel lines. Filter the gasoline through a chamois toremove water.Drain the air tanks in your vehicle each time it isstopped long enough for the tanks to become coldThis reduces the chance of moisture collecting in thetanks, entering the brake lines, freezing and makingthe brakes inoperative.On brief halts during extremely cold weather, letthe engine run at a fast idle so that the ammetershows a charge. A fast idle results in better21-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306burning of fuel and a more even engine temperature.Under normal operating conditions, stopthe engine during brief halts. This will preventplug fouling and overheating.On long halts, park your vehicle with the rear endtoward the wind to keep snow out of the engine.When it is very cold, cover the radiator and hoodwith a tarpaulin or other suitable material.In severe cold, start the engine frequently betweenoperating periods to keep it warm.21-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 22VEHICLE RECOVERYThis chapter describes a few of the more commonfield vehicle recovery procedures – operationsyou can perform with limited resources. In any ofthese operations, remember to use brainpower tomake up for a lack of available horsepower. Takeyour time in figuring your rigging and include areasonable factor for safety. Sloppy planningresults in wasted time and may further damageyour vehicle and equipment as well as injure yourselfand others. Recovery failures are often thedirect result of haste.(For Army Only : Refer to FM 20-22 for furtherinformation.)RECOVERY PROCEDURERemember the steps in Figure 22-1 to improvechances of vehicle recovery:Use a wrecker whenever possible. It is designedfor towing.Use a tow bar in preference to chains, ropes orcables. Tow bars keep the towed vehicle fromrunning into the towing vehicle.Connect cables, chains, or ropes, if used, to thepintle of the towing vehicle and to the liftingshackles of the towed vehicle.In cities or heavy traffic, tie the front liftingshackles of the towed vehicle tightly to the rearlifting shackles of the towing vehicle and connectthe air brakes.Proceed slowly at 5 to 10 MPH because thetowed vehicle will skid on turns at higherspeeds.When using a tow bar, connect a chain betweenthe two vehicles for safety in case the bar breaksor becomes disconnected.Be sure a driver is in every motor vehicle beingtowed to control it, unless a wrecker is towingthe vehicle.CAUTIONAlways use rigger’s gloves when handlingchains, cables, and wire rope.TOWING VEHICLESBefore towing any vehicle, refer to the vehicle technicalmanual/order. The following are general rulesfor towingMove towed loads at slow speed. Avoid quickstops.Mark towing vehicles with warning lights orflags.ANCHORING VEHICLESTrees, stumps, or rocks are natural anchors. Alwaysattach your lines near the ground when using a treeor a stump as an anchor. You should lash the firsttree or stump to a second one to provide addedsupport for the line. When using a rock as ananchor, be sure it is large and firmly embedded inthe ground.22-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Construct anchors when natural ones are not available.The deadman is one of the best types of constructedanchors and can be used for heavy loads(Figure 22-2). It consists of a log timber, steelbeam, or other similar object buried in the groundwith a deadline connected to it at the center. Toconstruct a deadman, follow these steps:Select a place where the direction of pull is asnearly horizontal as possible, such as a sharpbank or crest. Thus, you obtain moreholding power with less digging.When digging slant the bank at least 15degrees from the vertical and undercut towardthe disabled vehicle.Drive stakes in front of the deadman at eachend to hold it in place.Tie the deadline to the center of the deadmanso the main or standing part of the line leadsfrom the bottom of the deadman. Dig anarrow trench for the deadline; bear to thecenter of the deadman. If the deadline has atendency to cut into the ground, place a log orplank under the line at the outlet from theinclined trench.Tie the deadline to the center of the deadmanso the main part of the line leads to thebottom. This will keep the deadman fromrotating out of the hold. -WINCH RECOVERYMany military trucks are equipped with winches.how how to get the most from a winch withoutdanger to personnel or abuse to the equipment.For Army Only: Your vehicle technical manualcompletely describes the winch on your vehicleand details of its operation, care, and maintenance.FM 20-22 explains general characteristics, effectivecapacities, and details for use.To ensure your safety, the protection of your equipment,and the success of your recovery operation,use the following as a guide:Check the capacity of your winch. Thecapacity shown on the manufacturer’s plate isthe maximum with one layer of cable on thedrum. Each successive layer increases thediameter of the drum and reduces the winchcapacity to as little as 50 percent of the ratedcapacity when the last layer is being wound onthe drum.Check the cable for rust, kirks, or frays.Estimate the total resistance. Consider grade orslope, weight of the vehicle, and type of terrain.Then add a reasonable factor for safety.Check your equipment. Be sure you rig safelyto overcome the resistance with the equipmentavailable.Select or provide a suitable anchor.Remember, the purpose of this operation isto recover a vehicle, not to pull stumps.Rig and check rigging. Do not put power onyour winch until you check every element inyour rigging and are satisfied that you madeno mistakes.Clear personnel from the danger area. Allpersons observing the operation should standoutside the angle formed by the cable understress at a distance at least equal to thedistance between the two most distant pointsin the rigging. Clear personnel away beforetightening the cable.22-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Single-Vehicle Winch OperationIf you have been individually dispatched and getinto a spot where your traction is not enough to getyou through, use your winch and suitable rigging topull you through or get you back to solid footing.Working alone or with your crew, recovery maytake time, but do not skimp on planning. Yourtraining should keep you out of the really bad spots,and if you remain calm, you should get through byapplying a little extra effort.Vehicle Without Winch (Dual Wheels). Dual wheelsand ropes may be used to winch out vehicles notequipped with winches (Figure 22-4). Fasten oneend of each rope to a rear wheel hub and the otherto an anchor. Place the rope between the duals andthrough one of the holes in the wheel disk. Tie therope around the hub where it will be clear of thevalve stem. Move the vehicle in reverse gear towind the rope.Vehicle With Winch. Select or construct a stronganchor. Attach a snatch block to the anchor withyour tow chain. Run the winch cable throughthe block and back to the truck (Figure 22-3).Take up the slack gradually and pull the truckforward with its winch. Power may be applied tothe wheels at the same time. Your vehicle technicalmanual/order technical order gives details on theoperation.22-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Vehicle Without Winch (Single Wheels). Place a barthrough the hole in the end of the axle flange of eachrear wheel. On each wheel, fasten one end of therope to the bar and the other to an anchor. Movethe vehicle in reverse gear to wind the rope in behindthe bar (File 22-5). This procedure cannot be usedon vehicles equipped with a Center Tire InflationSystem (CTIS).Two-Vehicle Winch OperationMechanical advantage is gained by using amechanism to transmit force. A small force, whenmoved through a long distance by one or moremechanisms (pulleys), will move a large weight(vehicle) for a short distance. Use one of the followingprocedures when rigging for greater mechanicaladvantage.Two-Part Line. This simple hookup gives a 2:1mechanical advantage (Figure 22-6). Attach asnatch block to the load. Next, run your winch cablethrough the block and secure the cable to the winchvehicle. Place a log in front of the towing vehicle tohelp hold its ground.Three-Part Line. To get a mechanical advantage of31, use two snatch blocks – one at the load and oneon the winch vehicle (Figure 22-7). Thread thewinch cable first through the block on the load, backthrough the block on the winch, and then again tothe load where it is secured.Four-Part Line. To get a 4:1 mechanical advantage,use two snatch blocks – a double-sheave block forthe load and a single-sheave block for the winchvehicle (Figure 22-8). Thread the winch cablethrough one sheave of the double block attached tothe load back through the single sheave on the winchvehicle, and again to the load through the secondsheave of the double block. Finally secure it to thewinch vehicle.Winch SafetyCable. Recovery operations take time. Do nothurry. A broken winch line reacts like a whip. Whenhooking to a vehicle, use both shackles wheneverpossible so effort is applied equally and damage tothe vehicle is minimized.Never bend the wire cable at a sharp angle.Straighten out all kinks and twists as you take up theslack. Do not let tractors or vehicles with metaltracks run over the cable. Such abuse flattens thecable, exposes the Manila hemp core, and lets waterenter, causing internal rust and weakening the cable.WARNINGStand clear of a winch cable before it istightened. A cable being tightened maybreak and whip back with enough force toseriously maim or kill.After using the winch, have one person or preferablytwo pull back on the cable while it is wound slowlyand evenly on the drum in accordance with theappropriate vehicle operator -10 TM. Keep thecable lubricated according to the vehicle lubricationorder.Shear Pin. When the winch is overloaded, theshear pin breaks to protect the cable. Never usemakeshift shearing of unknown strength toreplace a broken pin. Too strong a pin may snapthe cable and damage the winch. Use onlyauthorized replacement pins. Do not depend onthe shear pin for protection. Even with the properpin installed, a kinked, damaged, or weakenedcable may snap. Vehicles with electric wincheshave circuit breakers to protect the winch fromoverloading. Check the appropriate vehicleoperator -10 TM for correct winch.22-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306MAN POWER RECOVERYRecovery operations with limited man power andmaterial at hand can be successful if you haveenough time.If your vehicle has dropped into a hole or ditch,man power can get it out. First, find an 8-footlength of timber or similar material with a diameterthat available personnel can handle. Place asuitable fulcrum near the point of lift — a log orrock that will not move when pressure is applied.Rig the lever under the bumper for the first lift.Block when you have gained all you can. Rerig fora second lift with the point of the lever under theaxle if possible. Lift and block. Repeat these stepsuntil the vehicle can be backed off without toomuch trouble.If you are alone and must move a light vehicle ashort distance without power, use a lever. You willneed a fairly long pole or crowbar, a rope, cable, orchain, and a suitable anchorage for the point of thebar. The distance from the lever to the point of attachmentof the tow rope must be quite short togive you enough advantage. You will not move veryfar at each try, but you will be able to move slowly.22-5

FM 21-306/AFMAN 24-306A-FRAME RECOVERYNarrow ditches, slit trenches, and shell holes canquickly stop your truck. They are commonobstacles to off-road movement and maybe hard tosee. If your front wheels should drop into one, theA-frame is a very useful recovery tool (Figures 22-9and 22- 10). It is not very difficult to put togethernor too complicated to use. You need two 8-footpoles with a large enough diameter to support thefront end of your truck. Lash them together nearthe top with a figure eight or girth knot; use yourtow chain or a length of rope. Dig two 10- to 12-inch holes 5 or 6 feet apart to hold the legs in positionwhen power is applied. Rest the upper end ofthe A-frame on the hood of the truck with the legsin the anchor holes. Select a suitable anchor infront of the truck. Tie a line from the A-frame jointto the anchor, bringing the frame up to a positionwhere the frame joint is directly over or slightly tothe rear of the bumper. Move your winch linethrough a snatch block fastened to the A-framejoint and secure it to the front bumper.Winch up the front end of the truck until thewheels clear the ditch. Then slowly back thevehicle off to solid ground. When safely awayfrom the edge of the ditch, lower the wheels andunhitch your rig. If you have no winch, anothervehicle may be used for power, though more riggingwill be required.FIELD EXPEDIENTSField expedients are one-time emergency operationsor procedures that you may use to get out oftight spots during tactical operations. Use expeclientsonly under unusual or emergency conditions.The equipment is usually prepared as needed frommaterials at hand, most of which are designed orintended to serve another purpose. For instance,tire chains used as tow chains area field expedient.A truck tarpaulin used to wrap a l/4-ton truck tofloat it across a river is another example. The listof field expedients that have been successfully usedis long. It is beyond the scope of this text todescribe all of them. However, the few describedbelow give you an idea of the possibilities.Substitutes for a JackIf an outside dual is flat, a practical substitute for ajack is to run the inside dual up on a small rock orlog. This lifts the outside tire off the ground so youcan change the tire.Another simple method, good for any wheel on an allwheeldrive vehicle, is to rig an inclined plane withtwo logs of suitable size (or a stone and a log)(Figure 22-11). When the vehicle is driven ahead theaxle is pushed up the log until the wheel clears theground. Set brakes and block the vehicle securely.You can easily back off when your job is completed.22-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306To raise the front end, make your own bumperjack by fastening a 5-foot piece of timber at anangle to the front bumper with a chain or rope(Figure 22-12). Move your vehicle backward untilthe timber is vertical and the wheel clears theground. Set brakes and block the vehicle securelybefore working on the tire. When through, pullforward and unhitch.Method for Raising a WheelIf one of your driving wheels falls in a deep hole, youcan get out with a log and a chain (Figure 22-13).Chain the log to the wheel and move forward slowlyto prevent spinning. If the wheel spins, the log willdamage the fender or other parts of your vehicle.After clearing the hole, force the log under thewheel to keep it from falling back into the hole.Use of a SkidA flat tire or bad wheel that you cannot repairshould not stop your four-wheel drive (4 x 4)22-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306vehicle. Use a skid on the rear wheels only(Figure 22-14). If necessary, change wheels fromone hub to another. Use a skid in the followingmanner:Obtain a pole 4 inches in diameter and 6 to 8feet long.Place one end of the pole above the crossmember near the transmission and the otherend on the ground.Pass the pole under the spring U-bolts, align itwith the spring and lash it securely to thespring.Move the vehicle, using front-wheel drive.Starting will be difficult, but once moving, thevehicle will ride and handle surprisingly well.Substitutes for Tire ChainRope or tow chains can be wrapped around thewheels as tire chain substitutes. Fasten themsecurely, but leave slack around the tires to preventdamage. Remember, these are only temporary substitutes.Remove them as soon as possible.Engine Failures During Field DrivingFuel or ignition troubles commonly cause enginefailures in the field. You can correct some ofthese by field expedients, but remember, theseare only field expedients, not repairs. Inform yourunit maintenance personnel as soon as possible sothat proper repairs can be made, if necessary. Afew of these field expedients are described below.22-8

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306(For Army Only : More field expedients areexplained in FM 20-22 and appropriate operatorvehicle -10 TM.)Shorted Distributor Cap. A cracked distributor capwill cause your engine to miss and backfire, particularlyin damp weather when the crack is filledwith moisture. To correct this, carefully clean anddry the distributor cap, scrape the crack or runner,and fill the crack with tar or other sticky material(Figure 22-15).Frozen Fuel Lines. Condensation in your fuel tankmay get into the fuel lines and freeze in cold weather.This effectively cuts off the fuel supply to your carburetor.Thaw out these spots using hot water.Never use a flame or any device that could cause aspark directly on the line.Leaking Line Fitting. Leaks at fuel line fittings candevelop from the vibrations caused by cross-countryoperation and may result in an extremely dangerouscondition if not discovered and corrected promptly.To correct this deficiency, unscrew the coupling nut,wind a piece of string clockwise behind the flare,slide the coupling nut over this temporary gasket,and tighten with a wrench (Figure 22-17).Broken Distributor Point Spring. If your engine cutsout, stops, and cannot be restarted, the cause maybe a broken distributor point spring. Take off thedistributor cap and if this is the cause, cut a pieceof rubber from a tire and double it behind thespring (Figure 22- 16). The engine will then startand operate at slow speeds. The rubber substitutecannot close the point fast enough for high-speedoperation.Fuel Pump Vapor Lock High temperatures vaporizinggasoline in the fuel line causes this failure. Thefuel pump will not pump vapor. Soak a cloth inwater and place it over the fuel pump (Figure 22-18)to cool the fuel pump and condensate the vapor.The evaporation of moisture from the cloth has arefrigerating action that is most effective in hot, dryclimates.Other. Two other common occurrences that candamage your engine are a punctured radiator and abroken fan belt.If you have a punctured radiator, cut the cooling fins.Push them back from the tubes in front of the leakytubes so you have enough room to work. Cut theleaking tube in half and fold the ends back threequartersof an inch. Close the ends by pressing themflat with pliers. This repair may hold permanently,22-9

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306but radiator efficiency is reduced when several tubesare cut, and the engine may overheat.If you have a broken fan belt and no availablereplacement, use a fiber rope from the vehicletarpaulin or a piece of field telephone wire. Loopthe rope around the pulley three or four times andtie with a square knot. Find and replace faulty fanbelts during your daily maintenance service andinspection.22-10

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 23NIGHT VISION GOGGLE DRIVING TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURESAND OPERATIONS UNDER BLACKOUT CONDITIONSNight operations in combat, combat support, andcombat service support units have played an importantrole in many US Army battles. In fact, the abilityto conduct effective tactical transportation operationsduring hours of darkness and limited visibility is along-standing Army objective. Today’s technologyprovides the wheeled vehicle operator with the abilityto meet these objectives using night vision goggles(NVGs). Your ability to safely and effectively driveusing NVGs depends on your understanding thedevice’s limitations and capabilities, the amount ofambient (available) light, driving ability, proficiencywith NVGs, familiarity with the terrain, andavailability of NVGs.NIGHT VISION GOGGLESGeneral CharacteristicsNight vision goggles are image-intensificationdevices that improve visibility during periods of lowlight levels. They amplify available ambient light,such as moonlight and starlight. NVGs, however,do not magnify an image. An object viewedthrough the goggles looks the same size as if it wereseen in the day without the goggles. Objects thatare hard to see during the day are also hard to seeat night through the goggles. NVG performance isdirectly related to the amount of ambient light.During periods of high ambient light, resolution isimproved and objects can be identified at greaterdistances. However, visual acuity (the accuracywith which an object is seen) with NVGs will neverbe as good as it is with the naked eye duringdaylight conditions.Rain, haze, fog, snow, or smoke and viewing intoshadows and other darkened areas greatly reducethe effectiveness of NVGs.Vision using NVGs equals the vision of an unaideddriver with less than perfect vision. The best casefor a driver with 20/20 vision wearing the goggles is20/40 with the AN/PVS-7 and 20/50 with theAN/PVS-5.The goggles affect depth perception and distanceestimation. For the first 20 feet in front of the user,the NVG decreases depth perception. From 20 to500 feet, depth discrimination roughly equals thatof the unaided eye. NVGs reduce depth perceptionbeyond 500 feet and distance viewing. This is duemainly to reduced visual acuity and lack ofperipheral vision. Peripheral vision lets a personsee things on the side of the field of visionwhile concentrating on looking straight ahead atan object. Color discrimination is absent when gogglesare used.Single Color Vision. The picture seen with NVGs isgreen. It is also less distinct than normal daylightvision. As a result, it is hard to distinguish betweencertain objects or features. Shadows, for example,are hard to distinguish from puddles of water, walls,or diches and vice versa when viewed through thegoggles at night.Color Adaptation. Because of the green color inNVGs, you may see one of two things when youremove the goggles after several minutes. If youlook at the lighter of two backgrounds, you may seethe complement or opposite of the green color towhich you had become adapted. If you look at thedarker of the two backgrounds, you might see anafter-image of the green light to which you hadbecome adapted. Do not be concerned about thisafter-image. It is a normal physical reaction.Second Versus Third Generation NightVision GogglesNVGs have been produced over a period of 25 years.There are two distinct generations (models) ofdevices with militarily significant performance differences.AN/PVS-5 devices are second generation.AN/PVS-7 devices have been produced in bothsecond and third generation versions. Externalexamination will not determine if a PVS-7 issecond or third generation. Commanders shouldask supporting maintenance units to identify secondand third generation PVS-7 devices during routine23-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306maintenance checks. (PVS-7 devices can beupgraded from second to third generation bychanging the tubes. However, the cost of changingthe tube is high and is not necessary unless the tubeis not functioning properly.)Third generation devices have increased performanceand longer tube life. Normally, a secondgeneration device operating under quarter moonconditions and a third generation device operatingunder starlight conditions provide the operatorwith equal quality images. Under bright light (fullmoon) conditions, the performance of the twodevices will seem exactly alike.Second generation devices have a tube lifeprojected at 2,500 hours. They tend to fail slowly,so maintenance personnel must periodically checkthe devices to ensure they are performing at a satisfactorylevel. An operator may not notice thegradual loss of performance normal for secondgeneration devices.Third generation devices have a tube life designedto last 7,500 hours. When they eventually fail, theytend to fail quickly. Check them periodically inaccordance with the applicable technical manualand local policies.Second generation devices are sensitive to all visiblelight as well as light in the near infrared spectrum. Allflashlights, even those with blue-green filters, will beseen by second generation devices and may make itharder to see other objects in the field of view.Third generation devices are sensitive to yellow andred visible light as well as light in the near infrared.They have reduced sensitivity to blue or green light.Flashlights with blue-green falters minimally affectthe performance of third generation devices.Operational Characteristics and CareConsiderationsTake special care in dusty, sandy, and humid conditions.Never store NVGs wet or in a wet carryingcase.Moisture may form on the eyepieces when they arefirst placed on the head. This is caused by heat andmoisture given off by the body. It is more noticeablein cold temperatures when there is a significanttemperature difference between the goggles and thebody. Demisting shields are provided to preventcollection of moisture on the lenses. Do not useantimisting chemicals or chemically treated cloths onthe demisting shield or lenses.Install the lens covers when not wearing the goggles.Do not hang the goggles from your neck bythe safety strap without covering the objectivelenses (the objective lenses may be scratched).When installing or removing a battery, be sure theselector switch is in the OFF position. If the switchis on, intermittent electrical contact is made whenunscrewing or screwing the battery cap. Thiscauses a flicker or power surge to the tubes, whichmay cause burn spots on the tubes.Always remove the battery before storing the gogglesto avoid turning the switch on accidentallywhen placing the goggles in the case. If the gogglesare stored for a long period of time with the batteryinstalled, corrosion can develop.CAUTIONFor lithium batteries, this increases thepossibility of battery venting, which cancause serious injury to personnel andequipment.Avoid rough treatment of the NVGs. Mistreatmentmay cause the tubes or the electrical system to fail.If the goggles do not operate when the switch isturned on and the battery is fully charged, check thewiring for breaks or the battery terminals for thepresence of oxidation.Never operate the NVGs during daylight hours.Doing so a commonly causes tube failure.You may use the infrared (IR) light on the gogglesto illuminate the instrument panel or to read mapswhen you do not want to turn on the interior light.However, continuous use of the IR light shortensthe battery life.CAUTIONUse of the IR light makes the NVG anactive system. As such, it can be detectedby the enemy and will severely limit visionoutside the vehicle.23-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Resolution checks are required on NVGs every 180days using either the TS-3895U/V test set or thealternate test method (direct support level). Performthis test as instructed in the applicablesystems’ technical manual:AN/PVS-5 (A, B, C models):TM 11-5855-238-10.AN/PVS-7A TM 11-5855-262-10-1.AN/PVS-7B: TM 11-5855-262-10-2.Proper Focusing ProceduresImproper focusing adjustments significantly reducevisual acuity and increase eye fatigue.Eye Relief. Eye relief is the distance between theNVG eyepiece lens and the eye. It is recommendedthat the eye relief for the NVG be 1 inch. This distancemay not be achievable because of helmet/-helmet liner configurations and facial features, suchas deep set eyes or protruding foreheads. If eyerelief is too little, an unnecessary strain is placedupon the eyes, which accelerates fatigue, However,if the eye relief is too large, a significant loss of fieldof view can occur.Interpupillary Distance (IPD). IPD is the distancebetween the pupils of the eyes. It is also called eyespan. The center of the intensifier tubes shouldalign with the pupil of the eyes. The distancebetween the center of the tubes should equal theuser’s IPD. If the tubes are not aligned, the eyestend to drift towards the center of the tubes. Thisleads to focusing problems and eye fatigue. It hasalso been attributed as the cause of short-termreduction of near depth perception.IPD is adjusted with the interpupillary lever clampon the AN/PVS-5 series. On the AN/PVS-7 series,it is adjusted by moving the eyepieces apart orcloser together. The common method of aligningthe tubes is the subjective overlapping of the imagesuntil a single, clear, circular field of view is reached.This procedure, however, makes most people bringthe tubes too close together. A more objective andaccurate method involves using a millimeter ruler tomeasure from the outside edge of one objective lens(or eyepiece lens) to the inside edge of the other.This will require all NVG users to be measured fortheir distant IPD at their clinic. Record andmemorize this value given in millimeters.Eyepiece Lens Adjustment. The eyepiece focusrings, also referred to as the diopter adjustmentrings, focus the image at the eyepiece lens. Theyallow those who wear corrective lenses to accommodatefor certain problems, such as farsightedness.However, they will not correct astigmatism.It is recommended that corrective lenses be wornwith the NVG. (Eyeglasses can only be worn withthe AN/PVS-7 series. AN/PVS-5 users may wearcontact lenses.)Objective Lens Adjustment. The objective focusknob is adjusted as a function of distance (calledfocal range) from the object. The focal range of theNVGs is between 10 inches and infinity. The vastmajority of driving with NVGs requires the opticalinfinity setting. You must focus the goggles outdoorsat night or indoors with a small light source,such as a 7 l/2-watt light bulb. Focusing on a smalllight source or lettering on a nearby sign is not sufficientfor proper adjustment ! You need a visualacuity chart that can be hung on a tree at slightlylower than eyesight. Because it is closer to the opticalinfinity distance, 20 feet is the desired distancebetween the user and the chart.Focus one knob at a time. DO NOT close the othereye. Instead, block the eye with the palm of yourhand or with a 3 x 5 card. First, rotate the objectivefocus ring to get the clearest focus on the eye chart.Next, position the eyepiece focus ring at its fullcounterclockwise setting. (For reading use, firstturn to full clockwise setting.) Rotate the eye focusring clockwise (counterclockwise for reading).STOP when the image is clear. Do not continueclockwise because the image will remain clear atthe expense of eye fatigue. If you feel you havegone too far clockwise, start the ring backcounterclockwise until the image blurs; then startagain clockwise until the clearest image is reached.The appropriate line on the visual acuity chartshould now be readable at the distances givenbelow.10 Feet 20 FeetAN/PVS-5 Series 20/25 20/50AN/PVS-7 Series 20/20 20/4023-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Failure of the visual performance checks is determinedwhen the following lines on the eye chart arenot readable at the distances given below.10 Feet 20 FeetAN/PVS-5 Series 20/30 20/70AN/PVS-7 Series 20/25 20/50Defective TubesTube operation must be checked before each mission.If any of the following tube conditions exist(Figure 23-l), take the appropriate action beforeusing the goggles.Shading. Both tubes should show a perfect circle.If shading is present, you will not see a fully circularimage (Figure 23-1A). Shading always begins onthe edge and moves inward. Replace the tubes ifthis condition exists.Edge Glow. This is a bright area in the outer portionof the viewing area (Figure 23-lB). To check for thisdefect, cup your hand over the lens to block out alllight. Replace the tubes if this condition exists.Bright Spots (White Dots). A pinhole in the phosphorousscreen causes this condition. Spots mayflicker or appear constant (Figure 23-lC). Checkby cupping your hand over the lens to block outall light. If bright spots or white dots arevisible, turn in the NVG to direct support (DS)maintenance where it can be properly checkedwith a TS-3895U/V test set.Dark Spots. Black marks that may look like spots orstreaks are acceptable as long as they do not interferewith the mission. No action is required whensuch dark spots occur (Figure 23-lD).Fixed Pattern Noise (Honeycomb). A fainthoneycomb pattern occurs most often in highlight levels. This condition is acceptable as longas the pattern does not interfere with the mission(Figure 23-lE).Flashing, Flickering, or Intermittent Operation. TheNVG may appear to flicker on and off, or the outputmay flash. This can occur in one or both tubes.If you see more than one flicker, consult thetroubleshooting chart in the operator’s manual.DRIVING WITH NIGHT VISIONGOGGLESThreat Night CapabilityThreat forces consider darkness an advantage.They do not stop operations at night but continueto operate using night vision devices. Most threatnight vision devices are infrared. They include drivingaids on vehicles. (FM 17-95 discusses thistopic in detail.)23-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Effects of LightAny detectable light source in the vehicle’s cab mayaffect your ability to see with NVGs. The adverseeffect of panel lights on the goggles is greatestduring low ambient light conditions.Vehicle Lighting System. NVG compatibility is bestachieved by eliminating all interior and exteriorlight sources. Tape lights that cannot be controlledto reduce the amount of light they emit. Instrumentsand gauges can normally be read with NVGswithout instrument lighting.WARNINGVehicles without NVGs may not see you.Ensure the route selected is in an areawhere other traffic (commercial andtactical) is precluded. If the route does notpreclude this, establish some form oftraffic control.Dark Adaptation. No dark adaptation period isnecessary for effective viewing through NVGs. Infact, viewing through goggles for a short period oftime lessens the normal dark adaptation period.After using NVGs, it takes about 2 minutes to reachthe 30-minute dark adaptation level.Lasers. Lasers are used on the battlefield, both intraining and in combat. Lasers affect NVGs muchas other light sources do. Most lasers will not causepermanent damage to NVGs. In fact, the gogglesprotect the operator’s eyes from the damagingeffects of lasers, even if the laser is bright enough todamage the goggles. If the goggles are damaged,you can probably continue to use the goggles with abright or dark spot at the point where the tube wasdamaged. If you think that a laser is being directedat you, look away to reduce the effects of the laseron the goggles and eyesight.Object Identification. Viewing an area lit by artificiallights, such as flares, will limit your ability to seeobjects outside the lighted area. Your ability to seeobjects within the lighted area depends on thebrightness of the light and the object’s distancefrom you. Try to keep the light source outside thefield of view of the goggles.Using goggles will enable you to detect lightsources that are not visible to the unaided eye.You can detect light from vehicles, flashlights, IRlight sticks, and burning cigarettes at great distances.The capability of goggles to detect theselight sources improves as the ambient light levelDECREASES.When using NVGs, some objects will be more difficultto distinguish (low contrast against the background)than during the day when color clues areavailable.Weather ConsiderationsRain, haze, fog, snow, or smoke greatly reducesNVG effectiveness. As visibility decreases, you willnotice a gradual reduction in light and visual sharpness.When you realize your visibility is reduced,try to determine the severity of the Condition. Ifdriving can be conducted safely with the goggles,continue the mission. If not, adjust your drivingspeed, remove the goggles, and turn on your headlightsor switch to blackout drive lights. Use NVGsonly when the situation permits and it is safe to doso. Table 23-1 lists countermeasures to use whenfaced with specific vehicle lighting conditions thatdegrade NVG performance, such as using NVGs inconjunction with blackout drive.Visual clues to the presence of visibility restrictionsinclude —A halo around artificial lights when usinggoggles. The halo effect tends to increasewhen atmospheric obscurations are present.Note the size of this halo effect around lightsin the staging area. If the halo becomesnoticeably larger, a restriction could bedeveloping.An increase in "image noise’’ when atmosphericinterference is present or whenambient light level is low. This is similar inappearance to the “snow” seen on televisionwith poor reception.23-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Ground Speed LimitationsMost drivers tend to overdrive their capability tosee. To avoid obstacles, you must understand therelationship between the NVG visual rangecapability and speed.Different light levels affect the distance at whichyou can identify an object. This, in turn, limits theground speed at which you can safely drive. Therange limitation graph (Figure 23-2) shows how todetermine the maximum range that an object canbe identified. It also gives the commander a goodrough estimate of the goggle’s working range. Thegraph addresses a hazard 3 meters in length and 15centimeters in diameter (the size of a small pole ora bare tree limb) with 30 percent contrast.To find the minimum range at which an object canbe detected in a given ambient light condition,follow the chart along the top at a point representingthe ambient light condition. Move downuntil the range curve is-intercepted. Read the minimumrange (meters) an object can be identified atthe left.After computing the range at which an object canbe detected, use the ground speed limitationgraph (Figure 23-3) to determine a safe speed fordriving with goggles. This graph gives the commandera good rough estimate of ground speedlimitations for nonconvoy movements. Follow thegraph along the left side at the predetermineddetection range. Move right until the 10-seconddriver response line is intercepted. (This linemeasures the time it takes for the operator to reactto an object at a given distance and a given speed.)From the intersection, move down and read thesafe ground speed for driving with the AN/PVS-5or AN/PVS-7.23-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306AR 600-55, Chapter 8, requires commanders toestablish speed limitations for all modes of drivingwhile wearing the NVG. In deciding whatthose limitations are, they must consider thefollowing factors as a minimum:The type of NVG being used for driving, theage of the tubes, and the generation of tubes(second or third) of the goggles. For example,an AN/PVS-7 equipped with third generationtubes will outperform an AN/PVS-5 withsecond generation tubes in terms of improvedresolution.The type of vehicle used for training.NOTE: As a general rule, driving withNVGs should never exceed 25 MPHunder any circumstance. Speed underconvoy conditions should not exceed thelimitations established for normalconvoy movement without NVGs.Vehicle PreparationThe design of some Army vehicles will affect yourability to see outside the windshield. To reduce theloss of night vision because of vehicle shortcomings,properly prepare the vehicle for night driving withNVGs.Weather conditions.Mode of driving, such as convoy, off-road, andcross-country.Terrain.Amount of light available (Appendix D).Type of mission.23-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Dirty windshields can reduce your ability to seeoutside your vehicle. Keep them clean. Removedirt, grease, bugs, and scratches before eachmission.Vehicle instruments are easier to read under highlevels of instrument lighting. However, the level oflight needed for the best reading interferes with thegoggle’s ability to see dim objects OUTSIDE thevehicle. Interior lights also interfere with goggleperformance. They reflect off the windshield,reduce outside visibility, and are subject to enemydetection. To minimize these effects, turn off allinterior lights and turn off or tape all exterior lights.Driver PreparationProper preparation of the vehicle and groundfacilities for driving with NVGs will contributegreatly to the success of a night mission. Themission, however, may fail unless you are physicallyand mentally prepared. To ensure yourreadiness —Keep physically fit.Eat a well-balanced diet.Get enough rest.Avoid self-medication.Avoid the use of tobacco and alcohol.Learn and apply night vision principles(Appendix D).Avoid all bright lights (including sunlight)during the day. Wear sunglasses whenoutside.Participate in frequent night driving.Driving With Goggles and EmergencyProceduresThe ability to drive with NVGs is developedthrough training. The more you drive with goggles,the more you learn about them. As a result, yougain confidence in your ability and in the capabilityof the device. On the other hand, overconfidenceis a main fault associated with NVG use. Afterwearing the device for only a short time, you mayfeel you have complete visual acuity and depth perceptionwhen in fact you do not.Driving techniques and visual clues used duringunaided night driving (without NVGs) also apply toaided night driving (with NVGs). The advantage ofNVG use is improved ground reference and objectidentification. However, the field of view is greatlyreduced. Use a continual scanning pattern to makeup for this. To view an area while using NVGs, turnyour head slowly until the goggles point in thedesired direction. Rapid head movement caninduce vertigo, which may lead to dizziness andnausea.WARNINGNever use NVGs on public highways. Theeffect of oncoming headlights on thedevice may cause some very dangeroussituations; the operator will be unable tosee other objects in the field of view. If thelight is sufficiently bright, the devices allhave a bright source protection featurethat shuts down the NVG to protect it. Ifthe bright source protection is activated,the NVG will be off for at least 2 seconds.Although unlikely to occur, drivers with NVGsmay face the situation described above in anNVG-controlled training area. To minimize theeffect of headlights from an oncoming vehicle onNVGs, SLOW DOWN. Look away so that the lightsource is just outside the goggle’s field of view. Pulloff to the far right-hand side of the road, and stopthe vehicle. NVG training at this point is now compromisedas other vehicles with headlights on mayappear. DO NOT CONTINUE DRIVING WITHNVGs unless authorized by a responsible officer orindividual, such as the range control officer.If your vehicle malfunctions while you are drivingwith NVGs, or if the goggles fail or begin to fail,SLOW DOWN. Pull off to the far right-hand sideof the road, and stop the vehicle. ImmediatelyWARN approaching NVG-equipped drivers withhand and arm signals and NVG-compatible lightsources, such as an IR light stick or tactical flashlight.DO NOT turn on your four-way emergencyflasher lights; they may blind approaching driverswith NVGs. If your vehicle breaks down on a road23-8

FM 2-305/AFMAN 24-306hidden from approaching drivers by a curve or hill,walk back along the shoulder of the road to a positionwhere you can signal them to slow down intime. Do not try to repair your vehicle while it is inan exposed position on the road! If you are in avehicle and see the scene described above, SLOWDOWN and proceed with caution.If the NVG’s low battery indicator turns on,REPLACE the batteries. DO NOT WAIT untilthe goggles shut down due to a weak or dead batterywhile driving. Slow down, pull off to the farright-hand side of the road, and stop the vehicle.You (or the assistant operator if accompanied byone) must warn approaching traffic FIRST beforeyou try to switch batteries from another NVG orreplace the batteries if spares are available. DONOT switch goggles or you will have to refocus thedevice to suit your eyesight.Operating a vehicle while wearing the goggles(AN/PVS-7 series only) over the NBC protectivemask further reduces the field of view to about 20degrees and is not recommended.Driving with one lens focused inside and one focusedoutside the vehicle can cause spatial disorientation(dizziness, nausea) and is not recommended.The assistant (shotgun) operator plays an importantrole in driving with NVGs. The driver mustfocus the goggles for distance vision even thoughthis makes instrument reading difficult. An assistantoperator wearing NVGs can compensate forthis by alternating between distance and close-upviewing and telling the driver the status of warninglights, speedometer, fuel gauge, and otherinstrument readings. Depending on the vehicleconfiguration, the assistant operator may need tosit directly behind the driver to gain a better viewof the instrument panel. The assistant operatormust also use a slow scanning pattern and tell thedriver of any obstacles inside or outside his fieldof view.When parking vehicles in areas where NVG tacticallighting is used, trained ground guidesequipped with NVGs should direct drivers toparking spots. Neither drivers nor guidesshould remove their NVGs until the vehicle isin the desired parking spot. Modify flashlightsused by ground guides for NVG compatibility(Table 23-2). Alternative light sourcesfor use during tactical operations are availablein the Army supply system. Table 23-2 listsNVG-compatible items and their stock numbers.23-9

FM 21-306/AFMAN 24-306Convoy DrivingConvoy driving with the NVG presents some uniqueproblems, some influenced by the type of terrain androad surface. The major concern is keeping a safedistance between the vehicles in the convoy. Resolution,bar patterns, or IR light sticks affixed to therear center of each vehicle are valuable aids tokeeping safe distances between vehicles.Convoy movement over winding or hilly terrain cancause the loss of visual contact with the leadvehicle. Therefore, a high degree of speed disciplineis required to maintain safe distances. Dirtor extremely dusty surfaces also cause problemskeeping visual contact with the lead vehicle. Whendriving on these surfaces, the convoy’s speed mustbe reduced. Convoys composed of different typesof vehicles should proceed at the speed of theslowest vehicle. As a general rule, the speed limitshould not exceed that established for blackoutdriving without the use of NVGs.For safety reasons, permit convoy driving withNVGs only if every driver and assistant operatorare NVG-equipped. If insufficient quantities ofNVGs prohibit this, a mix of NVG and blackoutdrive may be used. Group the NVG-equippedvehicles together at the rear of the convoy. Donot disperse and intermix them with othervehicles not equipped with NVGs. If grouped inthis manner, be sure the last non-NVG-equippedvehicle has its rear blackout drive lights off.Motorcycle and All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV)OperationMotorcycles and ATVs may be operated withNVGs. Since a motorcycle or ATV operator doesnot have an assistant driver, the limitations ofNVGs may require him to slow down proportionatelymore than a wheeled vehicle operatorwhen using the goggles. A motorcycle or ATVoperator usually requires much more training withNVGs than a wheeled vehicle operator to achieveequal levels of proficiency and safety. The additionalweight that the goggles place on theoperator’s head and the position of this weight mayrequire the motorcycle or ATV operator toredevelop his sense of balance during training.In general, operate the motorcycle or ATV withheadlights off, or at most, with blackout markerlights on. Turn instrument lights off. Users ofAN/PVS-5 goggles should focus both tubes for distancevision, even though this makes instrumentreading difficult.The limited field of view of NVGs will have agreater impact on motorcycle and ATV users thanon other vehicles. Operators must practice andtrain to turn their heads from side to side to makeup for the loss of peripheral vision.NVG Training Mission Planning andBriefingsNight driving operations are more easily conductedwhen ambient light sources provide the greatestamount of hemispherical illumination. Try toschedule qualification training on a night whenthe moon offers NOT LESS THAN 25 PERCENTILLUMINATION (quarter moon) and is positionedat least 30 degrees above the horizon.Every NVG training mission should be plannedand briefed with all possible situations considered, toinclude deteriorating weather, disorientation, lossof depth perception, and equipment failure. Allprimary and assistant drivers must know theirresponsibilities under each situation. Communicationbetween driver and vehicle commander is critical.The driver must constantly advise the vehiclecommander of any reduction in vision.At a minimum these subjects should be discussedduring a night vision goggle briefing:Weather, including winds, sunset, moonrise,moonset, percent moon available, ambientlight level, and effect of cloud coverage onambient light levels. Weather forecastsshould cover from 1 hour before trainingbegins through 1 hour after training ends. Ifactual weather conditions deteriorate, modifynight training as necessary.Light-level planning calendar. The commander,helped by supporting weather personnel, candevelop a light-level calendar to predict whenoptimum levels of ambient light will exist.Further, a computer program termedNIGHTVIS provides NVG users with accurateforecasts of favorable/unfavorable times ofuse. You can get this user-friendly software23-10

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306program by writing to Commander, US ArmyAtmospheric Sciences Laboratory, ATTN:ALCAS-AE-A, White Sands Missile Range,NM 88002-5501.Visibilty restrictions, such as smoke, haze, or fog.Hazard map review for obstructions located inthe training area.Mission to be performed.Vehicle and site preparation/lighting.Driver and assistant driver duties andresponsibilities.Parking and recovery plans.Emergency procedures, such as what to do if atube fails while driving.Medical evacuation/fire support.Personal equipment.Safety.Draw all charts, drawings, and diagrams to scale asaccurately as possible. Conduct a reconnaissance ofthe selected route during the day and night. Thearea should have a variety of road and terrain conditionsavailable; for example, heavy/little overheadcanopy, hilly roads, off-road terrain, unimprovedroads, and good and poor contrast. It should also bean area where other traffic is precluded.Conduct the formal briefing far enough in advanceof the scheduled departure to allow time to resolveany problems raised during the briefing. Schedule afinal briefing just before departure time to–Update weather conditions.Confirm time schedule.Discuss any mission changes.Ensure goggles are property focused.Ensure a sufficient quantity of spare batteriesare available.Review safety precautions and emergencyprocedures.Give the commander time to reemphasizeimportant aspects of the mission.Commanders/team leaders should hold individualbriefings after the formal briefing. Each drivershould be required to discuss the entire mission.Support RequirementsSupport requirements for conducting safe NVGdriver training include the following:Before driving a route at night, check it duringthe day for obstructions. Post a hazard map inthe briefing room. Update it when a newobstruction is detected.Set up the tactical site/staging area lightingsystem for night training. Tactical lights forboth aided and unaided vision are requiredwhen operating at a tactical site.A command and control vehicle equippedwith NVGs must be on the route duringqualification and refresher training. Establishcommunication between the command andcontrol vehicle and the TOC. MEDEVACand fire support personnel must be on site oron standby.Get an eye chart from your servicing medicalcompany. Make it available for drivers toproperly focus the NVG before the start ofactual driving.If the route selected does not preclude othertraffic, such as commercial traffic, militarypolice support may be needed for trafficcontrol purposes.WARNINGBefore training begins, all support personnelnot involved with NVG training should bebriefed on what will be going on and whatthey should and should not do; for example,random use of flashlights or other lights andwalking around and between vehicles.23-11

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306TRAINING PROGRAMSCommand ConsiderationsCommanders must fully understand the limitationsand requirements of night driving operations. Thesuccess of any night operation depends on theamount and quality of preparation and trainingconducted before the mission. Night operationsrequire extensive training and maximum supportand attention from commanders.Commanders must establish and support nighttraining programs. Mission goals must be realisticand developed around the proficiency andexperience of the unit in night operations.Using drivers in day and night roles reduces theirability to operate effectively at night. Because nightdriving is more tiring than day driving, commandersmust ensure that personnel get every opportunity torest. When drivers are scheduled for night driving,commanders should consider limiting workloads tonight driving only.Maintenance requirements for day and night drivingare greater than those required for day operationsalone. To allow enough time for maintenance,commanders should decrease day operations whennight missions are scheduled. Maintenance personnelmay have to be divided into two shiftss to supportday and night operations.Commanders should be alert to signs of fatigue,overconfidence, or carelessness that personnelengaged in night driving display. A carefullyplanned and executed night driving safety awarenessprogram is essential for accident-free operations.Commanders must ensure that leaders at thelowest level emphasize and enforce the spirit andthe standards of this program.Commanders must ensure that proper facilities areavailable for night training. Failure to provide theproper training environment reduces an individual’sability to perform night driving and creates anunsafe situation.Until the entire unit is fully trained in all aspects ofnight missions, commanders may consider dedicatinga platoon or company solely to tactical nightoperations. Once established and proficient,this element can then help train the remainder ofthe organization.Since the introduction of NVGs, many units haveestablished aggressive NVG training programs.Their experience has shown that night tactical missionsare much more effective under ALL ambientlight levels when conducted with the use of NVGs.Psychological and Physiological TrainingConsiderationsTraining with NVGs is relatively new and challenging.Initially, some drivers may be bothered by soreneck muscles, headaches, and fatigue. Some maydevelop anxiety due to reduced depth perception.Most of the mental and physical effects of NVGscan be reduced if the following considerations areincluded in NVG training programs.The first NVG driving lesson should be conductedover a short range, for example, 3 to 5 kilometers,and when a high ambient light level exists. Thisprocedure introduces the driver to NVGs duringideal conditions; the short route helps preventfatigue. As training progresses, conduct longertraining periods in lower ambient light levels.Using these procedures increases the student’sendurance and confidence.Students experience greater fatigue during nightdriving. Duty hours for drivers, instructors, datacollectors, and support personnel undergoing nighttraining should not exceed 8 continuous hours aday. (Instructors conducting NVG training shouldbe restricted to 4 hours of instruction within a 24-hour period.) A typical duty day would be 1600 to0200 hours. To comply with this requirement, dutyshould be limited to driving and academic trainingonly. Additional duty, requiring a soldier’spresence during the day, should be avoided whenpossible.NOTE: Aviation experience has shownthat 1 hour of flying with NVGs equals 3hours of flying without them.Commanders should consider using reversed cycletraining for personnel selected to receive NVGtraining. This procedure means training at nightand resting during the day. It enables the soldierto physically and mentally adjust to night operations23-12

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306and provides continuity to a unit night trainingeffort. Individual soldiers require at least 5 days tobegin physical adaptation to a night training cycle.Physical adaptation is essentially complete after 2to 3 weeks, but training efficiency is again reducedduring the period of adjustment back to day cycle.Training PrerequisitesDriving proficiency with NVGs can be maintainedonly through a training program that requires frequentNVG driving. Drivers who do not maintainNVG proficiency must receive refresher training.In accordance with AR 600-55, Chapter 8, studentsmust be licensed motor vehicle operators, receiveNVG academic subjects before receiving hands-ontraining in a vehicle, and pass a written exam.Academic training makes students aware of thelimitations of NVG driving and ensures a saferoperating environment.AR 600-55, Appendix J contains a list of mandatoryacademic subjects and driving (hands-on) tasks fordriver qualification or refresher training, as well asinstructor qualification requirements.An NVG-equipped instructor must be in the cabof the vehicle at all times during qualification/refresher training.Exportable Training PackageTC 21-305-2 is an exportable training package forunits authorized either the AN/PVS-5 orAN/PVS-7 series NVG. It is available throughnormal publication channels. This training circularincludes lesson plans, advance sheets, papercopies of viewgraph transparencies, a sampletraining calendar, eye charts, written examinationand quizzes with answer sheets, and a performanceevaluation checklist (road test). Lessonplans contain the conditions and standards forthose mandatory academic and hands-on tasksoutlined in AR 600-55, Appendix J.Two training videotapes support this trainingand must be ordered separately through yourlocal training and audiovisual center (TASC).The videotapes provide instruction on operationalfunctions, care, preventive maintenance,and proper wear of the AN/PVS-5 series andAN/PVS-7B NVG. TC 21-305-2 providesinstructions for ordering either video.Standing Operating ProceduresStanding operating procedures should cover allaspects of a unit’s training program. Eachoperator should become thoroughly familiar withthe contents of the SOP and of this chapter. Theinformation that follows is minimal and isprovided for guidance only. Each SOP must bedeveloped to meet the particular training needsof the unit. The following information should beaddressed:Hemispherical illumination limitations forNVG training.Rest requirements for personnel undergoingNVG training.Vehicle lighting configurations for night andNVG driving.Command and control vehicle for tacticaloperations.Additional light sources authorized forNVG driving.Care and security of the NVG.Weather requirements for night and NVGtraining.Vehicle speed limitations.Emergency procedures whale driving withNVGs, such as goggle failure and vehiclebreakdowns.Driver and assistant driver responsibilities.Qualification/refresher training requirements.NVG instructor qualification requirements.NVG licensing procedures (SF 46/OF 346).NVG-related accident reporting procedures.23-13

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306OPERATIONS UNDER BLACKOUTCONDITIONSWhen operating under blackout conditions, besure your blackout marker lights are functioningproperly. Lower the windshield to improvevisibility. Drive at reduced speeds. If in a column,watch the rear blackout marker lights of the vehicleahead to be sure you are following at the correctdistance. Remember, the white blackout stoplightof the vehicle ahead is on the right and left side.Normally, the blackout stoplight is a separate unitmounted on the right and left taillights. It flashes awhite light when brakes are applied.Front Lights Each front light has one pair of cat’seyes. They show white when on. Each pair appearsas one light when you are more than 60 feet away.When you are 60 feet away, you can see one pair ofcat’s eyes in each light. This warns you that thevehicle is near.Blackout Marker LightsTo show the location of vehicles during blackouts,military vehicles are equipped with four blackoutmarker lights. Two of these lights are on the rearcorners of the vehicles and the other two are onthe front (Figures 23-4 and 23-5). They do notilluminate the road but indicate the position of avehicle as much as 250 yards ahead, depending onthe weather. They cannot be seen from an airplaneflying higher than 400 feet.When operating a vehicle in a convoy underblackout conditions, if practicable post a personequipped with a screened flashlight or largewhite piece of material in the rear of your vehicleto warn the following driver if he approaches tooclosely. An alert rear guard can usually detect avehicle at a reasonable distance, even one with nolamps. In blackout operation, vehicles will maintaina speed of 5 to 10 MPH (8 to 16 kilometersper hour).NOTE: When a vehicle is disabled on theside of the road, the driver is posted atthe rear of the disabled vehicle with ascreened flashlight or large white piece ofmaterial to warn approaching vehicles ofthe danger.Taillights. Each rear lamp has two pairs of “cat’seyes” that show red when on. Each pair appears asone red light when you are 60 to 180 feet (20 to 60yards) away and as two pairs of cat’s eyes in eachlight at less than 60 feet.Remember, one point of light tells you that you aretoo far behind the vehicle ahead. Two lights assureyou that you are following at a proper distance.Four lights warn that you are getting too close.Blackout Driving LightThe blackout driving light is mounted to the left ofthe left headlight (Figure 23-5). It furnishes a diffusedlight beam for limited illumination when youare driving under blackout conditions.23-14

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 24MOTOR MARCHES AND CONVOYSThe wheeled vehicle driver must know specificprocedures for maintaining convoy speed, halting,and handling breakdowns. The driver must alsoknow convoy and aircraft loading signals as well asNATO convoy flags.PROPER SPEED AND GAPThe road, weather, and amount of space neededbetween vehicles to allow for stopping without rearendcollisions and for letting faster-moving vehiclespull into the column after passing determine speedand gap.Of all the space around your vehicle, the area aheadof the vehicle – the space you are driving into – ismost important. You need space ahead in case youmust suddenly stop. According to accident reports,trucks and buses most often run into the vehicle infront of them. The most frequent cause is followingtoo closely. If the vehicle ahead of you is smallerthan yours, it can probably stop faster than you can.This may cause you to crash into it if you follow tooclosely.One good rule to determine how much space to keepin front of you is to allow at least one second for each10 feet of vehicle length at speeds below 40 MPH.At greater speeds, add one second for safety. Forexample, if you are driving a 40-foot vehicle, leave 4seconds between you and the vehicle ahead; in a60-foot vehicle, 6 seconds. Over 40 MPH, you need5 seconds for a 40-foot vehicle; 7 seconds for a60-foot vehicle.To know how much space you have, wait until thevehicle ahead passes a shadow on the road, apavement marking, or some other clear landmark.Then count the seconds, one thousand and one,one thousand and two, and so on, until you reachthe same spot. Compare your count with the ruleof one second for every 10 feet of length. If youare driving a 40-foot truck and only count twoseconds, you are too close. Drop back a little andrecount until you have the right number of secondsof following distance. After some practice, youwill know how far back you should drive. When theroad is slippery, you need more space to stop.Maintain your proper place in the convoy. If youhave no other orders, a good general rule is to keepa distance in yards that is twice the rate of speed atwhich you are driving. For example, if you are travelingat 25 MPH, leave 50 yards between your vehicleand the one just ahead at 30 MPH, 60 yards; at 35MPH, 70 yards; and so forth. Remember, this distanceis in yards, not feet. The number by which youmultiply, in this case, 2, is called the speedometermultiplier (SM). The convoy commander may set aspeedometer multiplier greater than 2.In applying the speedometer multiplier, you mustbe able to judge distances. You can do this moreeasily if you practice estimating distances. Take aknown distance, such as the length of a truck orthe distance between telephone poles; observecarefully how that distance looks to you. Try thisin different light conditions, such as day, night,and dusk. You will soon be able to estimate distancesaccurately.VEHICLE FAILURESIf your vehicle fails while you are driving in a convoy,remember these basic rules:Signal a stop and pull off the road.Signal vehicles behind you to proceed.Correct the trouble if possible and fall back inthe column at one of the breaks (halts). If youor a mechanic left with you cannot repair thetrouble, wait for the trail officer and tell himyour difficulties. He will make the necessaryarrangements.VEHICLE HALTSA convoy halt is made for your personal convenienceand for checking your vehicle. Make the at-halt24-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306preventive maintenance check at each halt. Be sureto keep off the road if possible while checking yourvehicle. If you must halt on the road, designate yourassistant driver as a guard to warn other traffic.AIRCRAFT-LOADING AND CONVOYCONTROL SIGNALSUse and obey hand signals in a convoy just as youwould when driving individually. In addition tothe signals for right and left turns, stopping, andso forth, you must learn convoy control signals.(Signals used by personnel directing the loadingof vehicles on aircraft are the same as those usedfor convoy control.) Whenever a march column ishalted on a curve or downgrade, or whenever somedrivers cannot see the signal, signals may be relayedalong the column or transmitted by messenger to allconcerned.NATO CONVOY FLAGSMark each march unit of a convoy with flags 12inches high and 18 inches long. The lead vehicle hasa blue flag; the rear vehicle, a green flag. Mount theflags on the left front of the lead and trail vehicles,respectively. There they will not interfere with thedriver’s vision or with any functional component ofthe vehicle.The convoy commander and march unitcommander’s vehicle must have a white and blackflag on the left front bumper. This flag is divideddiagonally from the lower left corner to the upperright corner. The upper left triangle is white; thelower right triangle, black. See FM 55-312 for additionalinformation. OCONUS convoys must complywith MACOM and host nation regulations.24-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306CHAPTER 25OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES ON AIR FORCE FLIGHT LINES(FOR AIR FORCE ONLY)Motor vehicles operating on the flight line arenecessary to normal operations and maintenance.However, they present a clear and possible danger,both to aircraft and ground personnel. Carelessness,haste, and disregard of existing safety standardsby flight line vehicle operators are inexcusableand are primary sources of aircraft collisions andpersonnel injury. This chapter discusses applicabledirectives covering flight line vehicle traffic.NOTE: For the purpose of this chapter,the term “flight line” includes runways,taxiways, aircraft parking ramps,hangars, and associated maintenance/-servicing areas where aircraft maybe encountered, excluding aircraft onpermanent static display.AUTHORIZATIONSOnly operators and vehicles designated by theinstallation chief of airfield management, asprescribed in this manual and AFR 55-48, willbe given access to the flight line. Before drivingon the flight line, these operators will begiven special instructions on standard flight linetraffic controls and tower signals, advised of theparticular hazards involved, and tested to ensurethe instructions are understood. These operatorswill complete local flight line drivers’ familiarizationtraining and possess proper documentationauthorizing flight line driving.The individual’s commander will certify onAF Form 171 (Request for Driver’s Trainingand Additions to US Government MotorVehicle Operator’s Permit) that the individual hasattended the flight line driving familiarization program.Certification of completion will be enteredon the operator’s record, AF Form 483 (Certificateof Competency).No other person will be allowed to operate avehicle on the flight line except for specified shortperiods and only by temporary written permissionand instruction of the installation chief of airfieldmanagement as prescribed in AFR 55-48. Permitsfor driving on flight lines will be kept to a minimum,consistent with operations requirements.The installation chief of airfield managementshould periodically review the instructional materialbeing presented to potential fright line vehicleoperators to ensure that the material is current.Vehicle operators performing on-the-job training(OJT) for flight line duties will not operate avehicle within 50 feet of aircraft. This restrictiondoes not apply to fire fighting vehicles and equipment,OJT operators who are towing aircraft,loading/unloading materials-handling equipment(MHE), and aircraft-servicing vehicles. In allcases, drivers on OJT must be qualified to operatethe vehicle, and the qualified instructor mustaccompany him.FLIGHT LINE SAFETY PRECAUTIONSCareful attention and strict adherence to flight linesafety precautions will prevent accidental damageto aircraft and possible injury to both flightand ground personnel. Bicycle operators on theflight line will also conform to these measures.Observe the following precautions at all times whenoperating vehicles on the flight line:Do not drive vehicles within 10 feet of aparked aircraft, except when the aircraft isbeing serviced, loaded, or off-loaded. Thenuse spotters to guide the vehicle’s approach tothe aircraft. Never drive vehicles under anypart of the aircraft. Also, do not back ordrive vehicles forward directly toward anyaircraft, except as authorized in certainloading, unloading, or fueling operations. Inthese cases, place pre-positioned wheelchocks between the aircraft and theapproaching vehicle to keep vehicles fromstriking the aircraft. Post guides as a required25-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306safety measure. Keep chocks in position untilvehicles leave from within the 10-foot safetydistance requirement. When parked on theflight line, do not point vehicles directlytoward an aircraft. Chock all powered vehiclesand all equipment mounted on wheels that donot have an integral braking system when leftunattended on the flight line. Leave vehiclesunlocked with keys in the ignition whenparked on the flight line.CAUTIONAll vehicles must approach parked aircraftwith the driver’s side of the vehicle towardthe aircraft.For maximum safety, do not park or drive anyvehicle closer than 25 feet in front or 200 feetto the rear of any aircraft when engines areoperating or are about to be started. Vehiclesparked at the side of the aircraft will belocated clear of the wing tips and willbe clearly visible to personnel in the aircraftcockpit.Under no circumstances will vehicles stand infront of, or drive into, the path of taxiingaircraft except “guide” or “follow me”vehicles. No vehicle will be driven between theaircraft and the “follow me” guide.Operators must be particularly cautious whenthey must drive across runways. They willcompletely stop at the runway holdline (twoyellow parallel stripes painted on the taxiwaysurface). This marking is normally at least100 feet from the runway edge.Installation airfield management officers willsurvey vehicle runway crossing proceduresannually to ensure that flight safety is notbeing compromised. If runway crossingconditions require it, traffic signals,electrically controlled from the tower, will beinstalled.All flight line vehicles will fully stop beforethey enter or cross a taxiway. Beforeproceeding the operator will determinevisually that the way is clear.Vehicles on the flight line are a major sourceof foreign objects that damage aircraft tiresand are ingested into jet engines withdisastrous results. Before airfield operations,operators will ensure all equipment carried ontheir vehicles is properly stowed and securedand the vehicles are inspected for objects thatcould damage aircraft. When dual-wheeledvehicles are operated on unpaved surfaces,they frequently pick up rocks between thetires. Operators will stop when reaching theairfield pavement and remove any rocks thatare wedged between the tires or treads.A serious mishap potential exists whenvehicles are operated in the path of radiobeams used for aircraft navigation. Flight linevehicle operators will be instructed on thelocation and necessary precautions to betaken when operating near such equipment.General-purpose vehicles will not tow compressors,auxiliary power units, and similarequipment unless properly equipped withhitches designed for that purpose. Tugs orother vehicles with suitable trailer hitches willnormally be used. Equipment will never betowed faster than 15 MPH. Safety chains willnot be required on aerospace groundequipment (AGE). Pintle hook safety pinswill be used in all pintle hook towingoperations. Vehicle and wheeled equipmentthat do not have integral braking systems,when parked within 25 feet of any aircraft, willhave one rear wheel chocked fore and aft.Except in unusual places, general-purposevehicles will not operate at a speed greaterthan 15 MPH while on the fight line. Specialpurposevehicles will not exceed 10 MPH. Novehicle will operate in excess of 5 MPH whennear aircraft. Aircraft will not be towed atspeeds greater than 5 MPH at any time.During emergencies, fire and crash equipmentand ambulances may exceed speed limits withprudence only when personnel and propertyare not endangered. Drivers will stop whenemergency vehicles are seen or heard.Headlights shining toward a moving aircraftat night will be turned off immediately so the25-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306pilot will not be blinded or his night visionaffected. The vehicle’s parking lights will beturned on so its position will be known. Theheadlights will remain off until the aircraft isout of range. During hours of darkness orinclement weather, all motor vehicles willnormally use emergency warning flashers(directional lights front and rear) whenparked on the airfield’s aircraft movementareas. Unit commanders may waive thisrequirement at locations where aircraftparking ramp lighting is otherwise ample orwhen vehicles are parked within clearlydesignated areas within the unit’s own ramp orin any other areas that have been coordinatedwith the airfield manager.Passengers in or on government vehicles willbe particularly cautious. They will remainseated while the vehicle is moving andkeep their arms and legs within the vehiclebody. Passengers will not ride on tugs ortowing vehicles unless a suitable seat withback and side guard is installed. They willnot ride on any part of moving equipmentnot designed especially for passengers.Passenger-carrying vehicles will stop only atthe side of aircraft when actually loading orunloading personnel.When the driver’s seat is vacated, turn off theignition, set the brakes, and place the gearlever in reverse gear. Use park if the vehiclehas automatic transmission.Use chocks to secure all vehicles and wheeledequipment that do not have an integralbraking system when they are left parkedunattended on the aircraft parking ramp.Aircraft-servicing support vehicles that require thevehicle engine to operate as the power source forauxiliary components may be left unattended while theengine is running. When the driver’s seat is notoccupied set the parking brake, place the transmissionin neutral or park, and chock the rear wheels.Applicable equipment includes lavatory-servicingtrucks, vehicle- mounted aircraft baggage, belt conveyors,water tank trucks, truck-mounted aircraft baggage,truck-mounted air conditioners, fleet-sinkinghigh-lift trucks, refuelers, ambulances, and staircasetrucks.Emergency vehicles that must remain in operationat the scene of an emergency may be parked withthe engine running, the parking brake set, the transmissionin neutral or park, and the rear wheelschocked when the driver’s seat is not occupied.AGE-towing vehicles may be placed in neutral andleft running while the driver completes hookupoperations. This facilitates movement of the AGEtowingvehicle by hand to align pintle and tongue.Drivers must shut off the vehicle, set the parkingbrake, and place the vehicle in park or reverse ifthey do not drive off with the AGE equipmentimmediately following hookup.CONTROL TOWER SIGNALSTower personnel control all vehicles operating onthe flight line. Vehicle operators will observeand obey their light signals and radio instructions.Control tower light signals will be postedin plain view of vehicle operators on either thedash panel or other appropriate location.The following light signals flashed from the controltower are designed to control flight time vehicletraffic:Steady green light – clear to cross.Steady red light – stop. Do not move vehicleFlashing red light – clear runway/taxiway.Flashing white light – return to starting point.Red and green light – general warning.Exercise extreme caution.“FOLLOW ME” VEHICLES“Follow me” vehicles used to guide aircraft willbe equipped with signs easily visible at nightreading STOP and FOLLOW ME. They shouldalso be equipped with two-way radio facilities forcommunication on control tower frequencies.When approaching the parking spot, the “followme” vehicle operator should illuminate the stop signal,move the vehicle from the intended path of25-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306aircraft travel, and position it laterally, clear to theaircraft wing tip. The marshal, who may be thevehicle operator, will then guide the aircraft to theparking spot using marshaling signals contained inapplicable Air Force directives. To accommodatethe optimum safe taxiing speed of aircraft, guiding“follow me” vehicles can exceed the normal 15MPH flight line speed limit. Tugs will not be usedas “follow me” vehicles at any time.REFUELING VEHICLES ANDSERVICING EQUIPMENTOperators of vehicles and servicing equipment willapproach the aircraft so that the operator’s side isadjacent to the aircraft. At no time, except in certainbacking operations, will you drive your vehicleor equipment directly toward the parked aircraft.A sudden brake failure could result in collision.Where backing is absolutely necessary in theapproach to aircraft, post a guide and place chocksto prevent your vehicle from backing into theaircraft. Even with this precaution, do not backtoward the aircraft at a speed too fast for thebumper chocks to efficiently stop the vehicle in caseof brake failure.When approaching an aircraft to be fueled ordefueled by a truck, the operator will approach theaircraft parallel to the wings (except in instanceswhere single point locations of the aircraft require adifferent approach). Check with your supervisorfor specific instructions. Always remember to leavethe vehicle door ajar while servicing operations areperformed so that you can move the vehicle morequickly in an emergency.Stop the fuel-servicing equipment at least 20 feetfrom the aircraft, upwind if possible, and move intoservicing position cautiously upon signal fromdirecting personnel. Keep a distance of 20 feetbetween the fueling unit and aircraft fuel intakeand/or vents. Keep a minimum of 10 feet at alltimes between the fueling unit and any portion ofthe aircraft. Check to see that suitable tire extinguishersare in position before beginning fuel transferoperations. When servicing aircraft withvehicles equipped with power takeoff in lieu of apumping engine, keep a 10-foot minimum clearancebetween the vehicle and the leading edge of thewing. Do not back these vehicles toward the trailingedge of the wing. Exercise caution to make surethat the prime mover exhaust system is outside theminimum 20-foot separation distance from theaircraft filler points or vents.Never drive or park fuel-servicing vehicles underany portion of the aircraft.TO 00-25-172 has additional guidance on positioningrefueling vehicles and servicing equipment foraircraft.AIRCRAFT-TOWING VEHICLEOPERATOR’S RESPONSIBILITIESAND QUALIFICATIONSTowing aircraft is, in itself, not a hazardousoperation when done properly. Experience hasproven that inexperienced personnel and failureto follow established towing procedures containedin applicable rules and regulations usuallycause towing mishaps.As a towing operator, you must operate yourvehicle in a safe manner. Follow the instructionsyour team supervisor issues. Also obey emergencystopinstructions given by any team member.The OJT operator will receive special towingequipment training in his organization byqualified instructor personnel who are thoroughlyfamiliar with the type of equipment and operatingprocedures to be performed. The OJT operatorwill possess a current AF Form 2293 orOF 346 when operating special-purpose vehicleswith more than 14,000 GVW. A currentAF Form 2296 will be on file in the base driverevaluation section.An authorized, qualified instructor will be in thetowing vehicle when training is conducted.Operators will receive training on each specifictype of towing vehicle that they are to operate.Qualifications will be entered on their AFForm 2296 and OF 346. Training will be conductedfor each specific piece of equipment towedby pintle hook on/off base. Qualifications will beentered in the appropriate training records.Vehicle operators will not tow aircraft unlessaccompanied by a qualified operator in anauthorized seated position who is certain that thestudent has been sufficiently instructed and trained25-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306on the type of towing vehicle being used andaircraft to be moved.When approaching the aircraft to be moved, thetow vehicle operator will stop at least 50 feet fromthe aircraft. He will proceed only on specificinstruction from the noncommissioned oflicer incharge (NCOIC) of the towing team. The tow barwill be unhooked from the towing vehicle andmoved into the aircraft hookup position by hand.The operator will not exceed a maximum speed of 5MPH. Before the towing vehicle is unhooked fromthe aircraft, put chocks in place and set the aircraftbrakes.Towing equipment will not be dispatched to oroperated by personnel not having a currentoperator’s permit (properly authenticated for thetype of vehicle being requested).FORKLIFT OPERATOR’SINSTRUCTIONSThe forklift in its various sizes and capacities is thebasic piece of aircraft cargo-handling equipment.It is used mainly for moving cargo to and fromaircraft and for raising and lowering loads betweenthe ground and the aircraft. Forklifts will beoperated at all times only by licensed drivers. Theywill never be driven faster than 10 MPH on rampsor 5 MPH close to aircraft.Forklift ManeuversWhen maneuvering forklifts close to aircraft, use aguide to help the driver determine safe clearances.Use bumper blocks placed on ramps to preventunintentional contact with aircraft. Before lifting orlowering a load, completely stop the forklift. At notime will forklift drivers raise or lower a load whilemoving. Forklifts will never be driven under anypart of an aircraft except when the type of aircraftinvolved requires it. When long distances must betraveled or when bulky loads are carried, theforklift will be driven in reverse so the operator hasa less obstructed field of vision. The forks ofparked forklifts will be lowered flat on the groundto prevent injury to personnel working or walking inthe area. On parked and unattended forklifts, theoperating levers will be in neutral, the ignitionswitched off, and the hand brake set. This will bedone whenever the forklift is unattended.Forklift Operation and SafetyWARNINGOperating forklifts with extension tines willchange the center of balance and lessenthe weight that can be safely lifted. OSHAstandards should be met or a variance tothe OSHA standards should be approvedbefore use.Use the following general guide for safe and efficientoperation of forklifts in cargo handling:Stay within rated capacity.Lift with mast vertical or tilted slightly back,never forward.Keep loaded fork tines as low as practicablewhile moving.Do not raise or lower load while traveling.Watch rear-end swinging.Proceed slowly and cautiously around corners.Watch blind corners; signal with horn.Select lower gears before descending ramps.Avoid sudden stops or starts.Do not descend ramps with load in front.Back down slowly.Watch overhead clearances.For better vision, drive backwards with bulkyloads.Ensure floor strength is adequate to supportboth vehicle and load.Use care in high-piling watch for falling stock.Be careful when handling long lengths of barstock, lumber, and so forth. Watch swing, andif necessary, use a walking guide.25-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Keep load against carriage.Keep load balanced laterally.Spread forks according to load width.Lower heavy loads slowly; stop them slowly.Keep clear of loading dock edges.Check bridge plates between loading docks,trucks, and cars for sufficient width, strength,and security.When loading or unloading highway trucks ortrailers, be sure vehicle brakes are set and/orwheels chocked and support vehicle body withjacks or braces if springs are weak.Never tilt an elevated load forward except toplace it on a stockpile.Be sure all objects of irregular shape,including aircraft engines, are securelychained to the forklift frame before beingraised lowered, or moved. Normally, placelarge irregularly shaped objects on palletsfor stability before raising or transportingthem.Do not exceed 5 MPH around aircraft.Let only the operator on the forklift.Check foot brakes and hand brakes foreffective operation.Do not load or unload cargo while aircraft isbeing serviced with fuel or oxygen. (Forexception, refer to TO 00-25-172.)Keep an adequate fire extinguisher available.Have tail stand installed on tricycle-landinggear-type aircraft (ii equipped).Have adequate lighting.Remove ice and snow from area beforeloading and unloading or make the area safeby using appropriate materials.Use extreme care when operating on loadingdocks that are wet and slippery.25-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306APPENDIX AINTERNATIONAL MILITARY ROUTE SIGNS (NATO) AND ROADSIGNSThe international military route sign system canbe used with any existing civil system to meetmilitary requirements in areas where North AtlanticTreaty Organization (NATO) military forcesare operating.INTERNATIONAL MILITARY ROUTESIGNS (NATO)Standard military signs include hazard (warning)signs, regulatory signs, and guide signs (Figures A-1through A-6).Hazard SignsThese signs indicate traffic hazards, such as roadjunctions and dangerous curves. They are normallyused only in areas under military authority. Hazardsigns are square and placed with one corner pointingdownward. A purely military sign not includedin the host-nation’s system will have a yellow backgroundwith the legend or symbol in black. In thecase of a sign included in the Geneva Convention orhost nation’s system, the appropriate sign is shownon the same yellow background.Regulatory SignsRegulatory signs are used to regulate and controltraffic. They are square and have a black backgroundon which the legend is shown in white withthe following exceptions which are in differentcolors: bridge classification signs, stop signs, noentry signs, and signs erected by the military for thecontrol of civilians under specified circumstances.Guide SignsGuide signs are used to indicate locations, distances,directions, routes, and similar information.Guide signs for routes are rectangular with the longaxis vertical. The appropriate legend or symbol androute number are shown in white on a black background.Guide signs for casualty evacuation routesare either rectangular or shaped like a cross withred symbols on a white background.Directional discs are used with other guide signs toindicate the direction of a route or with any majorunit or formation sign to indicate the route to thatunit. The disc is less than 16 inches in diameter andbears a black arrow on a white background. Eightequally spaced holes around the rim allow the discto be nailed with the arrow pointing in any desireddirection.A-1

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FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306APPENDIX DNIGHT VISION PRINCIPLESVision is the most important sense you use whiledriving. It makes you aware of the position of yourvehicle in relation to the road. You need gooddepth perception to determine height and distance,good visual acuity to identify terrain features andobstacles that lie along the road and good nightvision techniques to be efficient in night operations.When driving during daylight hours, eyes can rapidlyidentify and interpret visual clues. During hours ofdarkness, however, illumination is reduced, andvision is limited. Wheeled vehicle operators with20/20 daylight vision may not have adequate nightvision.To increase your capability to operate at night, youmust understand night vision principles and the useof night vision techniques for viewing at night. Thisappendix includes information about the anatomyof the eye, types of vision, visual problems thataffect night vision, differences between day andnight vision, target detection, dark adaptation, nightvision scanning techniques, distance estimation anddepth perception visual illusions, measures used toprotect night vision, self-imposed stresses, theeffect of nerve agents on night vision, sourcesof ambient light and meteorological considerations.EVALUATION OF NIGHT VISIONYour ability to drive at night is based on your abilityto see at night and how well you train your nightvision. Although the limits of night vision vary fromperson to person, most drivers never learn to usetheir night vision to its fullest capacity. A personwith average night vision who uses night vision techniquesis more effective than someone with superiornight vision who does not use these techniques.ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OFTHE EYEThe eye is similar to a camera. The cornea, lens,and iris combination gathers and controls theamount of light that enters the retina (Figure D-l).The parts of the eye are described as follows:The CORNEA is a transparent tissue coveringthe front of the eye like a watch crystal coversa watch. (Contact lenses are fitted over thecornea.)The IRIS is a thin circular curtain which is thecolored part of the eye. A person’s eye colordepends on the amount of pigment in the iris.Light blue has the least amount and darkbrown the most.The PUPIL is a hole in the center of the iris.It is black because the inside of the eye is dark.The size varies with the amount of lightentering the eye. It gets smaller with increasedlight.The LENS is a transparent, semisoft materialabout half the size of a dine. It can changeshape to focus on objects at different distancesfrom the eye.The RETINA is the lining at the back of theeye where the image is formed. It consists ofrod cells, which see black and white, and conecells, which see colors. The picture seen bythe retina is sent to the brain along the opticnerve.Light enters your eye through the pupil. The iriscontrols the amount of light entering the eye. Thelight passes through the lens which focuses it ontothe retina at the back of the eye. The picture seenby the retina is upside down the brain turns it rightside up. The brain gets a slightly different picturefrom each eye and usually combines them to makeone picture.TYPES OF VISIONThere are three types of vision. Each type requiresdifferent sensory perceptors to identify animage.D-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Photopic VisionPhotopic vision is experienced during daylighthours or when a high level of artificial light exists.Under these conditions, sight is achieved primarilyby the cones, especially those concentrated in thefovea. Due to the high light condition, rod cells arebleached out and become less effective. Sharpimage interpretation (fine resolution of detail) andcolor vision are characteristic of photopic vision.Under these conditions, objects are detected withperipheral vision but are viewed primarily withcentral (foveal) vision.Mesopic VisionMesopic vision is experienced at dawn and duskand during periods of mid-level light. Vision isachieved by a combination of the rods and cones.Visual acuity steadily decreases; the available lightdecreases. A reduction in color vision occurs asthe light level decreases; the cones become lesseffective. Due to gradual loss of cone sensitivity,greater emphasis is placed on off-center visionand scanning to detect objects.Scotopic VisionScotopic vision is experienced in low-level lightconditions. Cone cells become ineffective causingpoor resolution of detail. Visual acuitydecreases to 20/200 or less. Color perception istotally lost. A central blind spot occurs due to theloss of cone sensitivity. Objects must be viewedusing off-center viewing and scanning. The naturalreflex of looking directly at an object must bereoriented by night vision training. The usescotopic vision demands searching - movements ofofthe eyes to locate an object and small eye movementsto keep the object in sight. Characteristically,in this type of vision a dim image mayfade away if your eyes are held stationary formore than a few seconds.VISUAL PROBLEMS AFFECTINGNIGHT VISIONTwo visual deficiencies that may become moreapparent at night are presbyopia and nightmyopia. Another visual problem that affectsnight vision is astigmatism.PresbyopiaThis deficiency, which commonly occurs inindividuals over 40 years of age, is due tohardening of the lens. It involves a loss of theeye’s ability to focus diverging light rays from nearobjects. As a result, light transmission from thelens to the retina decreases light scattering or glareincreases. As presbyopia increases, instruments,maps, and checklists become more difficult toread, especially in red light. Certain types ofbifocal lenses that compensate for this conditioncan correct this deficiency.Night MyopiaAt night, the spectrum of available light changes;blue wavelengths of light are dominant. Therefore,a person who is slightly nearsighted (myopic) willD-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306find it hard to see at night; blurred vision couldoccur. Special lenses can be prescribed to correctmyopia.AstigmatismAstigmatism is an irregularity of the eye thatproduces an out-of-focus condition. For example,if you focus on power poles (vertical), the wires(horizontal) will be out of focus in most cases. Thetypical prescription for glasses is written showingthree numbers for each eye. The first number is thespherical portion of your prescription, which can becompensated for by NVGs. The second number isthe astigmatism in degrees, and the third number isthe axis of the astigmatism in degrees.DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DAY ANDNIGHT VISIONColorOne way night vision differs from day vision is incolor vision. As light levels decrease, the eyes shiftfrom photopic vision (cones) to scotopic vision(rods). With this shift, the eyes become less sensitiveto the red end of the spectrum and more sensitiveto the blue part of the spectrum. Colorperception is not possible with the rods. Colors ofnonlighted objects cannot be determined at nightunder very low light conditions. You can distinguishbetween light and dark colors at night only interms of the brightness of reflected light. If, however,the brightness of a color is above thethreshold for cone vision, the color can be seen.DetailPerception of fine detail is impossible at night. Lowlight conditions greatly reduce visual acuity. At 0.1footcandle (level of full moonlight), acuity is oneseventhas good as it is in average daylight. Therefore,objects must be rather large or nearby to beseen at night. Identification at night must depend onthe perception of generalized contours and outlinesand not on small distinguishing features.Retinal SensitivityAnother important distinction between night visionand day vision is the difference in the sensitivity ofvarious parts of the retina under these two conditions.The central part of the eye is not sensitive to starlightlevels. During darkness or with low-level light,central vision becomes less effective, and a relativeblind spot (5 to 10 degrees wide) develops. This isdue to the concentration of cones in the area immediatelysurrounding the fovea of the retina.Since the central fields of vision for each eye arelaid over each other for binocular (two-eyed) vision,a night blind spot occurs during periods of low-levelillumination. If an object is viewed directly, it maynot be detected because of this blind spot (FigureD-2).Because of the central blind spot, as distance increases,larger and larger objects will not be seen. Tosee things clearly at night, use off-center vision andscanning techniques.D-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306TARGET DETECTIONWith 20/20 vision detection of a target dependsseveral factors including–Target size and distance (relative target size).Overall brightness (luminance).Brightness and color contrast between targetand background.Location of eye focus.Angle between central visual axis and target.DARK ADAPTATIONDark adaptation is the process by which your eyesincrease their sensitivity to low-light levels. Peopledark-adapt to varying degrees and at differentrates. During the first 30 minutes, the sensitivity ofthe eye increases roughly ten thousandfold, withlittle further increase after that time.Going suddenly from bright light into darknessoccurs often; for example, when you enter a movietheater during the day or leave a brightly lit roomat night. In both cases, the sensations are thesame. At first you see very little, if anything.After several minutes you can see dim forms andvery large outlines. As time passes you see moredetails of the surroundings.onThe lower the level of light, the more rapidly youcomplete dark adaptation. For example, you needless time to completely dark-adapt after beingexposed to a darkened theater than after beingexposed to the brightness of day.Maximum dark adaptation is reached in 30 to 45minutes under minimal lighting conditions. If thedark-adapted eye is exposed to a bright light, thesensitivity of that eye is temporarily impaired. Theamount of impairment depends on the intensity andduration of the exposure. Exposure to a flare orlightning may seriously impair your night vision.Recovery to dark adaptation could take from 5 to45 minutes in continued darkness.Night vision goggles affect dark adaptation. If youdark-adapt before donning the goggles and removethem in a darkened environment, expect to regainfull dark adaptation in 2 to 10 minutes.NIGHT VISION SCANNINGTECHNIQUESDark adaption is only the first step to maximizeyour ability to see at night. Applying night visiontechniques will help you to overcome many of thephysical limitations of your eyes.Scanning techniques are important to identify anobject at night. To scan effectively, scan from rightto left or left to right using a slow, regular scanningmovement (Figure D-3).D-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Viewing an object using central vision duringdaylight poses no limitation. If you use the sametechnique at night, you may not see the object. Thisis due to the night blind spot that exists duringperiods of low light. To makeup for this limitationuse off-center vision. This technique requires youto view an object by looking 10 degrees above,below, or to either side of, rather than directly at anobject. This lets your peripheral vision maintaincontact with an object.Even when off-center viewing is practiced, theimage of an object viewed longer than 2 to 3seconds tends to bleach out and become a solidtone. As a result, the object is no longer visible.This produces a potentially unsafe operating condition.To overcome this limitation, be aware of thephenomenon. Avoid looking at an object longerthan 2 or 3 seconds.Visual acuity is greatly reduced at night. Therefore,objects must be identified by their shape or outline.Your familiarity with the architectural design of thestructures common to the area will determine yoursuccess using this technique, For example, the outlineof a building with a high roof and a steeple canbe easily recognized in the United States as achurch. Churches in other parts of the world mayhave entirely different distinguishing features.Man-made features depicted on your map can helpyou recognize outlines during night driving,DISTANCE ESTIMATION AND DEPTHPERCEPTIONDistance estimation and depth perception clues areeasily recognized using central vision duringperiods of good lighting. But as light levelsdecrease, your ability to correctly judge distancesdecreases, and you tend to have visual illusions. Aknowledge of distance estimation and depth perceptionclues will help you to better judge distanceat night.Distance and depth perception clues may bemonocular (one-eyed) or binocular (two-eyed).The binocular clues depend on the slightly differentview each eye has of the object. Consequently,binocular perception is useful only when the objectis close enough to make the viewing angle of thetwo eyes obviously different. Because they arerarely improved by study and training, binocularclues are not discussed here. Monocular clues usedto help distance estimation and depth perceptionare discussed below.Geometric PerspectiveAn object has an apparent different shape dependingon the distance and angle from which it is seen(Figure D-4). Geometric perspective clues includelinear perspective, apparent foreshortening verticalposition in the field, and motion parallax.D-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Linear Perspective. Parallel lines such as railroadtracks or runway lights (Figure D-4A) tend to convergeas distance from the observer increases.Apparent Foreshortening. The true shape of anobject or terrain feature seems oval when seen froma distance. As the distance to the object or terrainfeature decreases, the apparent perspectivechanges to its true shape or form. Figure D-4Billustrates how the shape of a body of waterchanges when viewed at different distances at thesame altitude.Vertical Position in the Field. Objects or terrain featuresat a distance from the observer seem higheron the horizon than objects or terrain featuresthat are closer to the observer. The highestvehicle in Figure D-4C looks the closest to thetop and is judged to be the greatest distance fromthe observer.Motion Parallax. This clue to depth perception isoften considered the most important. Motionparallax is the apparent relative motion of stillobjects as seen by an observer moving across thelandscape. Near objects seem to move backward,past, or opposite the path of motion. Far objectsseem either to move in the direction of motion orremain fixed. The rate of apparent movementdepends on the distance the observer is from theobject. For example, as you drive along a road, apicket fence whizzes by while a tree further awayfrom the road passes more slowly. Mountains inthe distance seem to be freed or to move with thevehicle.Retinal Image SizeThe brain perceives the size of an image focused onthe retina to be a certain size. To determine distanceusing the retinal image, consider three factors:known size of objects, increasing/decreasingsize of objects, and land associations.Known Size of Objects. The nearer an object is tothe observer, the larger its retinal image. The brainlearns from experience to associate the distance offamiliar objects by the size of their retinal image. Astructure will fix a specific angle on the retina basedon the distance from the observer. If the angle issmall, the observer judges the structure to be at agreat distance. If the angle is large, the building isjudged as being close. To use this clue, you mustknow the actual size of the object and have seen itbefore. If you have not seen it before, determine anobject’s distance primarily by motion parallax.IncreasinglDecreasing Size of Objects. If the retinalimage size of an object increases, it is gettingcloser. If the image size decreases the object ismoving farther away. If the image size is constant,the object is at a fixed distance.Land Associations. Comparing an object, such asa motor pool, with an object of known size, suchas a 5-ton truck will help determine the object’srelative size and apparent distance from the observer.Objects ordinarily associated together arejudged to be about the same distance.VISUAL ILLUSIONSAs visual information decreases, the probability ofspatial disorientation increases. Reduced visualreferences also create illusions that can cause spatialdisorientation.AutokinesisWhen a person stares at a still light in the dark,the light seems to move. This occurrence can berapidly demonstrated by staring at a lightedcigarette in a dark room. Apparent movement willstart after 8 to 10 seconds. Although the cause isnot known, it seems to be related to the loss of surroundingreferences that normally serve to stabilizeyour visual perceptions. This illusion can beeliminated or reduced by visual scanning, increasingthe number of lights, or varying the brightnessof the light. The most important of the three solutionsis visual scanning.Relative MotionA person sitting in a car at a railroad crossing waitingfor a train to pass often experiences the illusionof relative motion. Even though the car is notmoving, the person feels that it is moving. The onlyway to correct this illusion is to understand thatsuch illusions do occur and to not react to them onthe vehicle’s controls. Using proper scanning techniquescan help prevent this illusion.D-6

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Reversible Perspective IllusionA vehicle may seem to be moving away when itis in fact approaching you. This illusion is oftenexperienced when a vehicle is driving parallel toyour course. To determine its direction, watch itslights. If the brightness of the lights increases, thevehicle is approaching you. If the lights dim, thevehicle is retreating.Structural IllusionsHeat waves, rain, snow, sleet, or other factors thatblock vision cause structural illusions. For example,a straight line may appear to be curved when seenthrough a desert heat wave.Size-Distance IllusionThis illusion results from staring at a point oflight that approaches and then retreats from theobserver. Instead of seeing the light advancing orreceding, the lights may seem to expand and contractat a fixed distance. Without additional distanceclues, accurate range estimation is extremelydifficult. Using proper scanning techniques canhelp prevent this illusion.NIGHT VISION PROTECTIONNight vision should be protected whenever possible.There are various precautions you can take.SunglassesRepeated exposure to bright sunlight has an increasinglynegative effect on dark adaptation. Thiseffect is intensified by reflective surfaces, such assand and snow. Exposure to bright sunlight for 2 to5 hours definately decreases your scotopic visualsensitivity for as long as 5 hours. Additionally, yourrate of dark adaptation and degree of night visionwill decrease. These effects combine with eachother and may persist for several days.If night driving is expected, use military neutraldensity (N-15) sunglasses or equivalent falter lenseswhen exposed to bright sunlight. This precautionwill maximize your rate of dark adaptation at nightand improve your night vision sensitivity.Night Tactical Operations PrecautionsDuring a night tactical mission, expect toexperience battlefield condition such as artilleryflashes, flares, and searchlight as well as oncomingvehicle headlights and lightning. These conditionswill cause total or partial loss of your night vision.When you are confronted with these conditions, usethe following techniques:If a flash or high-intensity light is expectedfrom a certain direction, turn the vehicle awayfrom the light source. When such a conditionoccurs unexpectedly and cannot be avoided,save your dark adaptation by closing one eye.Once the light source is no longer a factor, theeye that was closed will provide enough nightvision to continue driving. This is possiblebecause dark adaptation occurs independentlyin each eye. Viewing with one dark-adaptedeye, however, will cause depth perceptionproblems.Select routes to avoid built-up areas withheavy concentrations of light. If youencounter these conditions, alter your route toavoid brightly lighted areas. A decrease indark adaptation from a single light source,such as a farmhouse or an automobile can bereduced; turn your head and eyes away fromthe light.When flares are used to light the viewing areaor if they are set off near your position,maneuver the vehicle away from the flare tothe edge of the lighted area Thus yourexposure to the light source is minimized.Use short bursts of fire when firing automaticweapons. Close one eye or look away fromthe firing to minimize loss of dark adaptation.SELF-IMPOSED STRESSESMany self-imposed stresses limit night vision. Beaware of these restrictions to ensure that you avoidthem before driving at night.D-7

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306SmokingSmoking significantly increases the amount ofcarbon monoxide carried by the hemoglobin of redblood cells. This reduces the blood’s ability to combinewith oxygen. The smoker effectively loses 20percent of his night vision at sea level.AlcoholAlcohol is a sedative that impairs coordination andjudgment. As a result, you will fail to apply the propernight vision techniques. You begin to stare at objects,and your Scanning techniques become disorganized.FatigueYou will not be mentally alert if you are tired whenperforming night driving. Your response to nightsituations that require immediate reaction will slowdown. Depending on the degree of fatigue, yourperformance may become a safety hazard.NutritionMissing or postponing meals can negatively affectnight driving performance. The resulting hungerpains cause unpleasant feelings, distraction, breakdowninhabit pattern, shortened attention span, andother physical changes.Failure to eat foods that provide sufficient vitaminA can reduce night vision. Food high in vitamin Ainclude eggs, butter, cheese, carrots, squash, peas,and all types of green vegetables. A balanced dietnormally provides an adequate amount of vitaminA. Excess amounts of vitamin A will not increaseyour night vision ability and may be harmful.Physical Conditioning and Sleep and RestRequirementsBecause of the physical stresses of night driving,you will tire more easily. To overcome this, exercisedaily. Good physical fitness will help you conductnight driving with less fatigue and will improve yournight scanning efficency. However, too much exercisein one day may leave you too tired for night driving.Night driving is more tiring and stressful than daydriving. Therefore, get adequate rest and sleepbefore driving.NERVE AGENTS AND NIGHT VISIONExposure of the eyes to very small amounts of nerveagents negatively affects night vision. Chemicalalarms are not sensitive enough to detect the lowlevels of nerve agent gas that can cause miosis (contractingof the pupils). Miosis may occur graduallythrough exposure to low levels of nerve agent gasover a long period of time. However, exposure to ahigh level can cause miosis in the few seconds ittakes to put on a protective mask.The onset of miosis is tricky in that it is not alwaysimmediately painful. Miotic subjects may not realizetheir condition even when carrying out tasksrequiring vision in low ambient light. After anattack by nerve agents, especially the more lastingtypes, commanders should assume there will besome loss in night vision among personnel otherwisefit for duty. No drug can cure the effects ofmiosis without causing other visual problems thatmay be just as severe.SOURCES OF AMBIENT LIGHTSources of ambient light include the moon, backgroundillumination, artificial light, and solar light.The MoonThe moon provides the greatest source of ambientlight at night. It rises in the east and sets in the west.The time at which it rises and sets changes continually.The moon angle changes approximately 1.5 degreesper hour (1 degree every 4 minutes). Light from themoon is brightest when the moon is at its highest point.Background IlluminationNatural light sources provide background illuminationat night. Besides the light provided by the sun andmoon, the following natural light sources add to nightbrightness:Airglow (also called night-sky luminance).Aurora (also called Northern Lights in the NorthernHemisphere and Southern Aurora in theSouthern Hemisphere).Starlight.Zodiacal light (also called counterglow).D-8

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306Artificial LightLights from cities, automobiles, fires, and flaresnormally are sources of small amounts of artificiallight. The lights of a large metropolitan area will,however, increase the light level around the city.The light from these sources is most pronounce-d inovercast conditions.Solar LightAmbient solar light is usable for certain periods followingsunset and before sunrise. After sunset,solar light steadily decreases until the level of lightis not usable to the unaided eye. This occurs whenthe sun is 12 degrees below the horizon. Beforesunrise, solar light becomes usable when the risingsun is 12 degrees below the horizon.METEOROLOGICALCONSIDERATIONSAtmospheric conditions can affect hemisphericalillumination. Because weather conditions vary,light levels cannot always be accurately predicted.An awareness of these factors will help to evaluatethe available ambient light. Some meteorologicalconditions that restrict hemispherical illuminationare discussed below.Due to reduced vision at night, you may fail to detecta gradual increase in cloud coverage. At night, youmust be alert for the following indications thatclouds are present:A gradual reduction in light level.Obscuration of the moon and stars.Shadows resulting in varying levels of ambientlight.Humidity reduces transmission of light through theatmosphere. When humidity is high, ambient lightis greatly reduced High dew point temperaturesindicate high humidity. An increase in the humiditycontent of the air will decrease the brightness ofground lights.Restrictions, such as fog, dust, haze, or smoke,reduce hemispherical illumination. These conditionsare greater at lower altitudes and intensify astemperatures decrease and the dew point spreadapproaches zero.At least one weather occurrence INCREASESillumination. Lightning flashes have an effectsimilar to that of a bright flare. The brightness ofthe illumination depends on the closeness of thethunderstorm.D-9

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306GLOSSARYADPAFAFMAFRAFTOARATTNATVCCARCATSCFRCONUSDDADA PamDD FormDOTDSautomatic data processingAir ForceAir Force ManualAir Force RegulationAir Force Technical OrderArmy Regulationattentionall-terrain vehicleCelsiuscustomer account representativeComputer-Assisted TransportationSystemsCode of Federal Regulationscontinental United StatesdriveDepartment of the ArmyDepartment of the Army PamphletDepartment of Defense FormDepartment of Transportationdirect supportNNATONBCNCONCOICNVGOFOICOJTOSHAPPDDAPDSPMCSPOLpsiRrad/hrRPMneutralNorth Atlantic Treaty Organizationnuclear, biological, and chemicalnoncommissioned officernoncommissioned officer in chargenight vision goggleOptional Formofficer in chargeon-the-job trainingOccupational Safety and Health Actparkpower-driven decontamination apparatuspersonnel decontamination stationpreventive maintenance checks and servicespetroleum, oils, and lubricantspounds per square inchreverserads per hourrevolutions per minuteFFMGIGTAGVWFahrenheitField Manualgovernment issuegraphic training aidgross vehicle weightSFSMSOPSSNSTANAGSTBStandard Formspeedometer multiplierstanding operating proceduressocial security numberstandardization agreementsuper tropical bleachIPDIRkmLMHEmiMPHinterpupillary distanceinfraredkilometerlowmaterials-handling equipmentmilemiles per hourTAMMSTCTMTMPTOUCMJULLSUSAFEVIPThe Army Maintenance Management SystemTraining CircularTechnical Manualtransportation motor poolTechnical OrderUniform Code of Military JusticeUnit Level Logistics SystemUnited States Air Forces in Europevery important personGlossary-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306REFERENCESSOURCES USEDThese are the sources quoted or paraphrased in this publication.ARMY PUBLICATIONSArmy RegulationsAR 190-5. Motor Vehicle Traffic Supervision. 8 July 1988.AR 310-25. Dictionary of United States Army Terms. 15 October 1983.AR 310-50. Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes. 15 November 1985.AR 746-1. Packaging of Army Materiel for Shipment and Storage. 8 October 1985.Department of the Army FormDA Form 2028. Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms. February 1974.Field ManualsFM 8-35. Evacuation of the Sick and Wounded. 22 December 1983.FM 10-68. Aircraft Refueling. 29 May 1987.FM 17-95. Cavalry Operations. 14 February 1986.FM 55-15. Transportation Reference Data. 9 June 1986.FM 55-30. Army Motor Transport Units and Operations. 14 March 1980.Technical ManualsTM 5-1080-200-13&P. Operator’s, Organizational, and Direct Support Maintenance Manual, IncludingRepair Parts and Special Tools List, for Lightweight Camouflage Screen Systems and Support Systems.29 January 1987.TM 9-1300-206. Ammunition and Explosives Standards. 30 August 1973.TM 9-2320-272-10. Operator’s Manual for Truck 5-Ton, 6 X 6, M939 and M939A1 Series (Diesel), . . . .25 July 1984.TM 9-2815-210-34-1. Troubleshooting Direct Support and General Support Level Engine Assembly,Diesel (Multifuel). 3 April 1981.TM 9-2815-210-34-2-1. Maintenance, Direct Support and General Support Level Engine Assembly, Diesel(Multifuel). 3 April 1981.References-1

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306TM 9-2815-210-34-2-2. Maintenance, Direct Support and General Support Level Engine Assembly, Diesel(Multifuel). 3 April 1981.AIR FORCE PUBLICATIONSAir Force FormsAF Form 15. United States Air Force Invoice. May 1987.AF Form 15A. Invoice Envelope.AF Form 847. Recommendation for Change of Publication.INTERNATIONAL STANDARDIZATION AGREEMENTSSTANAG 2002 (Edition 6). NBC, Marking of Contaminated or Dangerous Land Areas, CompleteEquipment, Supplies and Stores. 12 October 1976.STANAG 2025 (Edition 5). Basic Military Road Traffic Regulations. September 1975.DOCUMENTS NEEDEDThese documents must be available to the intended users of this publication.ARMY PUBLICATIONSArmy Regulations*AR 55-29. Military Convoy Operations in CONUS. 3 September 1971.*AR 55-162. Permits for Oversize, Overweight or Other Special Military Movements on Public Highwaysin the United States. 1 January 1979.*AR 55-355. Defense Traffic Management Regulation. 31 July 1986.*AR 385-10. Army Safety Program. 23 May 1988.*AR 385-40. Accident Reporting and Records. 1 April 1987.*AR 385-55. Prevention of Motor Vehicle Accidents. 12 March 1987.*AR 600-55. Motor Vehicle Driver and Equipment Operator Selection Training, Testing, and Licensing.26 September 1986.Department of the Army Forms*DA Form 348. Equipment Operator’s Qualification Record (Except Aircraft). October 1964.*DA Form 2401. Organization Control Record for Equipment. April 1%2.*This source was also used to develop this publication.References-2

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306*DA Form 2404. Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet. April 1979.*DA Form 2408. Equipment Log Assembly (Records). January 1986.*DA Form 2408-14. Uncorrected Fault Record January 1%4.*DA Form 5983-E. Equipment Operator Qualification Record (EGA). March 1991.*DA Form 5984-E. Operator’s Permit Record. March 1991.Department of the Army Pamphlet*DA Pam 738-750. Functional User’s Manual for the Army Maintenance Management System (TAMMS).31 October 1989.Field Manuals*FM 3-100. NBC Operations. 17 September 1985.*FM 5-20. Camouflage. 20 May 1968.*FM 5-36. Route Reconnaissance and Classification. 10 May 1985.*FM 20-22. Vehicle Recovery Operations. 18 September 1990.*FM 21-26. Map Reading and Navigation. 30 September 1987.*FM 21-60. Visual Signals. 30 September 1987.FM 55-312. Military Convoy Operations in the Continental United States. 3 April 1991.FM 101-5-1. Operational Terms and Symbols. 21 October 1985.Technical ManualTM 9-2610-200-24. Organizational, Direct Support, and General Support Maintenance Care,Maintenance, and Repair of Pneumatic Tires and Inner Tubes. 1 February 1985.Training Circular*TC 21-305-2. Night Vision Goggles: Training Program for Night Vision Goggle Driving Operations.14 November 1990.AIR FORCE PUBLICATIONSAir Force Forms*AF Form 171. Request for Driver’s Training and Additions to US Government Motor Vehicle Operator’sPermit. May 1987.*AF Form 483. Certificate of Competency. February 1985.*This source was also used to develop this publication.References-3

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306*AF Form 1800. Operator’s Inspection Guide and Trouble Report (General Purpose Vehicles). April 1987.AF Form 1806 (Currently AFTO 373). Operator’s Inspection Guide and Trouble Report (Aircraft Towing,Base Maintenance, Deicers, High Reach and Snow Removal). July 1986.AF Form 1807 (Currently AFTO 421). Operator’s Inspection Guide and Trouble Report (Fuel Servicing).September 1987.AF Form 1812. Operator’s Inspection Guide and Trouble Report (530A/B, 750A, P-6, P-8, P-12 P-13,1,000/1,500-Gallon Water Distributors, F6/F7). November 1979.AF Form 1819. Operator’s Inspection Guide and Trouble Report (P2/4, 0-llA/B, P-10, P-10A, RP2, P-15,Firefighting Vehicles). November 1979.*AF Form 2293. US Air Force Motor Vehicle Operator Identification Card (Computer Generated).February 1987.AF Form 2296. Vehicle Operator Information (Part 3) (Computer Generated). February 1987.Air Force Manuals.AFM 77-310, Vol. 1. Vehicle Operations, Acquisition, Management, and Use of Motor Vehicles.July 1987.AFM 77-310, Vol. 2. Vehicle Maintenance Management. April 1987.Air Force RegulationsAFR 55-48. Airfield Management and Base Operations. February 1988.AFR 77-4. Vehicle Control. January 1989.Career Development Course*CDC 603XO, Skill Levels 3,5,7,9.Technical OrdersTO 00-20-B-5. USAF Motor Vehicle and Vehicular Equipment Inspection. 7 April 1988.*TO 00-25-172. Ground Servicing of Aircraft and Static Grounding/Bonding (ATOS). 1 February 1988.TO 36-1-3. Painting Marking and Lighting Requirements for USAF Vehicles. 7 November 1988.DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE PUBLICATIONSDepartment of Defense Forms*DD Form 314. Preventive Maintenance Schedule and Record. December 1953.*DD Form 518. Accident Identification Card. October 1978.*This source was also used to develop this publication.Reference-4

FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306*DD Form 626. Motor Vehicle Inspection. April 1978.*DD Form 836. Special Instructions for Motor Vehicle Drivers. May 1971.*DD Form 1360. Operator Qualifications and Record of Licensing, Examination, and Performance (AirForce).*DD Form 1970. Motor Equipment Utilization Record. April 1981.MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS*Civilian Personnel Manual.GTA 55-3-20. Know Your European International Road Signs. March 1983.Code of Federal RegulationsTitle 31. Money and Finance: Treasury. July 1990.Title 49.177.817. Shipping Papers. 1 October 1989.Optional Form*OF 346. US Government Motor Vehicle Operator’s Identification Card. November 1985.Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ).Unit Level Logistics System Users Manual ADSM-18-L3N-AWA-ZTH-EUM. 15 February 1989.STANDARD FORMS*SF 44. Purchase Order Invoice Voucher. October 1983.*SF 91. Operator’s Report of Motor Vehicle Accident. November 1976.READINGS RECOMMENDEDThese readings contain relevant supplemental information.ARMY PUBLICATIONSArmy RegulationAR 58-1. Management, Acquisition, and Use of Administrative Use Motor Vehicles. 15 December 1979.Department of the Army PamphletDA Pam 25-30. Consolidated Index of Army Publications and Blank Forms. 30 September 1990.* This source was also used to develop this publication.References-5

FM 21-305/AFMAN 2-306Field ManualFM 19-25. Military Police Traffic Operations. 30 September 1977.Technical ManualTM 9-500. Data Sheets for Ordnance Type Materiel. 11 September 1%2.NOTE: Personnel can obtain applicable publicationsthrough their unit customer account representative(CAR).References-6

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FM 21-305AFMAN 24-30627 AUGUST 1993By Order of the Secretary of the Army:Official:GORDON R. SULLIVANGeneral, United States ArmyChief of StaffMILTON H. HAMILTONAdministrative Assistant to theSecretary of the Army04640By Order of the Secretary of the Air Force:Official:MERRILL A. McPEAKGeneral, United States Air ForceChief of StaffEDWARD A. PARDINIColonel, United States Air ForceDirector of Information ManagementDistribution:Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11 Erequirements for FM 21-305, Manual for the Wheeled Vehicle Driver (Qty rqr block no. 1055).✰ U. S . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1993 0 - 358-949 : QL 3✰ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 993-358-949/90297

PIN: 007205-000