Garden Spectacle, Ming Dynasty, by Qiu Ying (previous

Garden Spectacle, Ming Dynasty, by Qiu Ying (previous page)

Charms of Classical Chinese Gardens 

— An ideal ambience for domestic life and pleasures 

Supervised by 

Information Office of the State Council 

People’s Republic of China 

China Architecture & Building Press 

China Intercontinental Press

Charms of Classical Chinese Gardens 

— An ideal ambience for domestic life and pleasures 

Chief Consultant: Cai Wu 

Chief Planer: Li Bing 

Chief Coordinators: Guo Changjian 

Zhao Chen 

Chief Editors: Li Min 

Wu Wei 

Editorial Board 

Director: Zhao Chen 

Vice-directors: Zhang Huizhen, Sun Libo 

Members: Luo Zhewen, Wang Boyang, Li Min, Li Zhihui, Zhang Zhenguang, 

Wang Yanbin, Zhang Zhihua, Feng Yizheng, Bai Yumei, Fei Hailing, 

Li Xingjian, Li Li, Chen Qiuping 

Supervisor: Information Office of the State Council,People′s Republic of China

Prologue 

P 

eople, after toil and moil, have to take a rest, refreshing their body and mind 

through entertainment and pleasures as an indispensable part of their way of 

life. Through the ages, people have long since made use of natural conditions 

and resources such as bricks, tiles, earth, wood, stone, spring and other living creatures and 

vegetation to build an amiable environment for their settlement. Gardens, among others, 

are certainly the best choice of all. Landscape gardening in China boasts a long history, 

dating back to 3000 years ago. From the Shang Dynasty (16th-11th centuries B.C.) to the 

late Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), with their creative and pioneering endeavors, the Chinese 

garden architects of all the ages have altogether created a unique artistic style of Chinese 

gardening architecture, making a brilliant contribution to the history of the world gardening 

architecture. 

Compared with the gardening art of the West, the Chinese landscape gardening distinctly 

expressed the love and aspiration for the beauty of nature and pleasures of life cherished by 

the Chinese nation, fully embodying the philosophic idea of the“unity of universe and 

man”and achieving an effect of “being done by man, as if created by nature.” It has passed 

down to us a great deal of distinguished gardening architecture that will be treasured forever. 

This album, with its artistic photo works and succinct commentaries, is intended to give a 

comprehensive introduction to the history of the Chinese classical gardens, their architectural 

features and artistic achievements. It will not only help our foreign friends have a 

further understanding of China, but also promote the level of knowledge of traditional 

Chinese culture and gardening art for our fellow countrymen. So, these lines of words are 

written as the prologue for this creditable and valuable works. 

Luo Zhewen 

Early summer of 2006

Contents 

Prologue 

Poetic Ambience 

in China 

Historical Context of the 

Classical Gardens 

Key Architectural Elements 

Architectural Forms and Styles 

Artistic Features 

Influence on the World 

Famous Gardens 

and Scenic Spots 

009 

012 

018 

027 

032 

037 

Imperial Gardens 

043 

046 Beijing Yuanmingyuan (Garden of Perfection 

and Brightness) 

054 

068 

086 

096 

102 

106 

Beijing Summer Palace 

Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde 

Beijing Beihai Park 

Beijing Temple of Heaven 

Beijing Imperial Garden of the Palace Museum 

Pool of Glorious Purity, Lintong 

Private Gardens 112 Humble Administrator's Garden in Suzhou 

120 Garden of the Master of Nets in Suzhou 

132 Lingering Garden in Suzhou 

142 Mountain Villa in Elegant Surroundings in Suzhou 

148 Garden of Herbs in Suzhou

152 Lion Grove Garden in Suzhou 

158 Garden of Seclusion and Meditation in Suzhou 

164 Yangzhou Geyuan Garden (Garden of Bamboos) 

170 Yangzhou He Family's Garden 

174 Nanjing Zhanyuan Garden 

178 Nanjing Xuyuan Garden 

182 Shanghai Garden of Peace and Pleasure 

192 Shanghai Ancient Garden of Ripples 

196 The Pond of Drunken Master Bai in Shanghai 

200 Shady Mountain Garden in Guangdong 

204 Guangdong Keyuan Garden 

Temple Gardens 210 The Temple of the Pool and the Wild Mulberry in Beijing 

214 Yangzhou Temple of Great Brightness 

218 Temple to the God of Mount Tai in Shandong 

222 Confucius Family Mansion, Confucius Temple 

and Confucius Woods at Qu Fu 

226 

230 

Chengdu Memorial Temple to the Military 

Marquis Zhuge Liang 

Chengdu Thatched Cottage of Du Fu 

Scenic Spots and 

Historical Relics 236 West Lake in Hangzhou 

242 Slender West Lake in Yangzhou 

248 Lijiang River in Guilin 

252 Mount Huangshan in Anhui Province 

258 Black Dragon Pool in Lijiang

Poetic Ambience in China

010 Poetic Ambience in China

Poetic Ambience in China 

China, known as“huaxia” in ancient times, is a civilized old 

country with a long history of 5000 years. The classical garden 

architecture, as a brilliant gem in the treasury of the traditional 

Chinese culture, has a long history and is famed for its artistic 

achievements all over the world. Sir G.A. Jellicoe, the English 

landscape architect, in his speech at the annual conference of 

International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA) in 1954, 

pointed out that ancient Greece, Western Asia and China were the 

major motive forces in the development of world landscape 

architecture. He said that the Chinese gardening art had produced 

important influence upon Japan and the 18th century Europe. 

The history of the Chinese garden architecture can date back to the 

period of Shang and Zhou Dynasties (16th -221 B.C.) over 3000 

years ago. The“garden”in the period was called“you”, especially 

for the royalties and noblemen to amuse themselves with 

landscape and hunting. According to historical documents, the 

terminology of“garden”was first found in the literary works 

after the period of the Western Jin (265-316). When Buddhism 

was introduced to China in the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), 

monasteries and temples were building up across the country along 

with their gardens. In the Tang Dynasty (618-907), two great 

poets, Wang Wei and Bai Juyi, took the lead in building their villas 

one after another at the Wangchuan River and in Mt. Lushan 

respectively, bringing about the upsurge of building private landscape 

gardens. Up to the Qing Dynasty (1616-1911), the Chinese 

gardens had developed to various systems, such as imperial gardens, 

private gardens, temple gardens and cemetery gardens 

(mausoleums), etc. 

Pines Dancing in the Winds in Valleys, 

by Li Tang (about 1049-1130) in the Song Dynasty 

Poetic Ambience in China 011 

The Mountains stand tall with peaks one higher than another. The white 

clouds float in the sky. The paths loom through the woods and rocks. And 

a waterfall is running down into a stream twisting along the ravines. The 

perfect skill of the painter endowed his artwork with a poetic style.

012 Poetic Ambience in China 

Historical Context of the Classical 

Gardens 

Origin of Gardens in the Dynasties of 

Shang and Zhou 

The construction of landscape gardens in China was probably 

initiated early in the Shang-Yin Dynasty (16th-11th centuries B. 

C.). Such kind of places, named “you” at the time, were commonly 

fenced round for growing plants, birds and animals and 

serving royalties and nobles as the leisure-hunting grounds. According 

to the Books of Odes and the Records of the Historian, King 

Wenwang of Zhou constructed the Lingtai Podium Garden, 

Lingzhao Water Garden and Lingyou Hunting Garden for his 

pleasure. 

Built in Haojing (capital of Zhou, west to Chang'an County, 

Shaanxi Provice), the three gardens mentioned above were regarded 

as the earliest ones of the natural landscape gardens in 

China in the recorded history. As the symbols of high mountains, 

vast oceans and wild fields respectively, the three gardens implied 

that“every inch of land belongs to the king”(just like a proverb 

says:“Kings have long arms.”) since monarchs regarded themselves 

as the sons of God. Moreover, even the princes and dukes 

also possessed their own“gardens” just as kings did. The difference 

was that their gardens might be smaller in size than those of 

the kings. During the Warring States Period (475-221 B.C.), the 

gardens were constructed on higher plane. Many of them are wellknown 

masterpieces such as the Gusu Podium, Heavenly Pond, 

Wutong (phoenix tree) Garden, and Luyuan (Deer-Feedlot) 

Garden, all built by Fu Chai, the King of Kingdom Wu. 

Styles and Systems of Gardens 

in the Dynasties of Qin and Han 

In the period of Qin (221-206B.C.) and Han Dynasties (206B.C.- 

A.D.220), the“you”was developing into“yuan”. The garden 

construction came to its climax for the first time. Soon after the 

First Emperor of Qin (259-210 B.C.) had unified China, he began 

dreaming of an eternal life so as to enjoy his life time forever! To 

serve the purpose, the alchemists told the Emperor if he could 

wander among the various palace gardens mysteriously as a supernatural 

being, he would be living forever. 

Therefore the Emperor bended himself on constructing his 

“fairyland”--“Shanglinyuan Garden”-- on a large scale in 

Xianyang, the capital of Qin. It was a vast complex of palaces 

combining with gardens, including the most famous palace 

“Efanggong Palace” (E-Pang Palace). Although not yet finished by 

the time when the Qin Dynasty was overthrown, the complex, 

however, had produced a monumental influence on the designs of 

later imperial gardens. 

In the reign (140-87B.C.) of Emperor Wudi of Han, he continued 

the construction of the“Shanglinyuan Garden” on a large scale. As 

a result, this imperial garden consisted of more than 70 palaces and 

annexes, extending over 200 kilometers and covering an area of five 

counties. According to the Chronicles of the Han Dynasty, the 

completed project was capable of serving as a comprehensive pleasure 

resort, though it had been originally planned to build as a royal 

hunting ground. One of its major buildings was the Jianzhang 

Palace, which was finished in 104 B.C. According to the Illustrated 

Imperial Palace of Han,Zhao Boju, Song Dynasty

Record on the Capital Chang'an Area (San-fu-huang-tu), the Jianzhang 

Palace was more than 10 kilometers in circumference and comprised 

so many buildings involving a total of “one thousand gates and ten 

thousand rooms”. It was located outside the capital city of Chang'an, 

west of the Weiyang Palace. To its north was the Taiye Lake (the 

Celestial Lake) with three islands named Penglai, Fangzhang and 

Yingzhou, simulating the legendary fairyland in oceans. In addition 

to the natural vegetation, so many exotic fruit and rare trees were 

transplanted there from other areas. 

In the Han Dynasty, the landscape architects already had mastered 

good skills in waterscape-making. There were many large man-made 

lakes dug in the palace gardens, being the key part of imperial gardens 

along with the rockeries, which set an example for the construction 

of a watery-and-rockery landscape in imperial gardens in the later 

2000 years. The vast lakes were built to simulate the oceans and a 

fairyland in the fables. According to historical records, many waterscape 

systems at that time were of splendid designs. For example, 

water was spouting from a bronze dragon's mouth into a cup held 

by a bronze immortal. The design really counts for a great deal in 

China, even for the history of the world landscape architecture. 

Autumn Scenery of Mts. Queshan and Huabuzhu,Zhao Mengfu (1254-1322), Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) 

The Chinese painting presents the autumn scenes of Jinan in ancient times, in Shandong Province. 

This painting had been kept in the imperial court of Qing. 


Garden Construction in the Dynasties of 

Sui and Tang 

From the period of the Three kingdoms to the Southern and 

Northern Dynasties (220- 581), the landscape gardening was 

developing from simply modeling on a specific natural scenery to 

applying the way of generalization and abstract idea to the design 

of landscapes. At the same time, more attention was paid to the 

functions of entertainment, a garden could play in its spacious 

area, thereby gradually forming up a unique artistic system in the 

Chinese gardening architecture. Another group of famous gardens 

were set up in the period, such as “Hualin Garden (Garden of 

Flourishing Woods)” and“Leyou Garden (Garden of Pleasant 

Tour)”. In these gardens, so many rockeries were piled up, with 

fantastic peaks, caves and waterfalls flowing amidst them, to create 

a natural scenery. All of these fully demonstrated the execution of 

garden architecture in China had attained a higher level at the 

time. However in the period of the Western Jin (265-316) or later, 

making most use of natural sceneries to embellish people's gardens 

was staging a comeback and prevalent at the time.


Landscape Bonsai of Tang Tricolor Glazed Pottery,Tang Dynasty 

At the early stage of the Sui Dynasty (581-617) with its capital in 

Chang'an, Emperor Wendi of Sui followed a thrifty policy, 

attaching importance to his people's subsistence. So there were 

only two gardens constructed in his reign. They were Daxing 

Garden (Garden of Great Flourish) in the north, and the Fu-rong 

Yuan (Lotus Garden) at the southeast corner of the capital, which 

was also well known as the Qujiang Lake (the Winding River) for 

its beautiful landscape. It was regarded as the best garden in the 

capital then. 

Afterwards, Emperor Yangdi moved his capital to the city of 

Luoyang and launched a massive construction of palaces and 

gardens for his enjoyment. Even a canal was dug to link the capital 

with Hangzhou for his tour of the south China. According to the 

Chronicles of the Sui Dynasty, as soon as being enthroned, the 

Emperor began to build Xianyang Palace in his capital. Rare 

timbers and boulders, exotic plants and herbs, and precious birds 

and animals were collected from all parts of the country. Moreover, 

the Emperor ordered to set up a number of temporary abodes 

outside the capital, such as“Jiangdu Palace” in Yangzhou, which 

was a gigantic complex involving thousands of rooms built with 

the most exquisite craftsmanship never seen before. 

The gardens constructed in the Tang Dynasty (618-907) were 

even more magnificent than those in the Han Dynasty. In his 

poem“On Emperor”, Luo Binwang ( 619-684),one of the great 

poets of Tang,wrote“He possesses himself of the land over 

thousands of kilometers. He gets his palace surrounded with 

dozens of walls. Unless you have a look at where an emperor lives, 

you could never understand how dignified he is.”There were 

three major imperial palaces and three imperial gardens in the 

capital considered as the typical of the kind at that time. The three 

palaces were: Taiji Palace (Palace of Supreme Being),Daming 

Palace (Palace of Great Brightness), and Xingqing Palace (Palace 

of Prosperity and Celebration). They were also called the Western 

Imperial Palace, Eastern Imperial Place and Southern Imperial 

Place respectively. The three gardens were: Western-, Eastern- and 

Forbidden Gardens. Take the Daming Palace for example. It was 

noted not only for its grand building, Hanyuan Hall(the Hall of 

Containing Vatality), set up on the Lofty Terrace, and also for the 

Taiye Chi (Celestial Lake) to its north. The lake, with Penglai Isle 

on it, was enclosed with a 400-bay cloister. At the southeastern 

corner of the city lay the clear Qujiang Lake, which was lined by 

the palaces and pavilions row upon row, with flourishing plants in 

the background. Du Fu (712-770), one of the most famous poets 

of Tang, wrote many poems to praise the Furong Garden at 

Qujiang, still appealing to everyone today. But finally such an 

imperial garden was turned to be a public scenic spot. Either the 

nobles or ordinary people, even the emperors, were swarming into 

the garden for enjoyment on traditional Chinese festivals or 

holidays. Another landscape garden should be mentioned was the 

villa-garden built by the great poet Wang Wei. Located in the

A Scene of the Riverbank at Dusk, 

by Dong Yuan (?-963) in the Southern Tang Period (937-975) 

mountain area southeast of Chang'an, the garden comprised more 

than 20 scenic sights. Since only a few of them were artificially 

made, the garden was well known for its natural landscape. 


The Garden Culture in the Dynasties of 

Song and Yuan 

During the years from 960 to 1911 (from Song Dynasty to Qing 

Dynasty), the Chinese garden art developed into a stage of maturity. 

In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), greater importance was attached 

to the civil officials. The biased personnel policy brought about a 

great number of higher-paid, and arrogant civil officials more than 

the military ones. Both the royals and populace then were pursuing 

after a taste of leading an elegant and snug life, indulging themselves 

in writing sentimental poems and enjoying paintings. The 

North Song Dynasty (960-1127) had its capital established in 

Bianzhou (now Kaifeng city), known as the“East Capital”at 

that time. The emperors often summoned the painters to first work 

out a blueprint of palaces, then to construct them. As a result, the 

schools of boundary painting and secretariat painting developed 

rapidly along with the advancement of the architectural technology. 

There were four famous gardens in the capital city in the early stage 

of Song. They were Yujinyuan (Nectar Garden), Yichunyuan 

(Pleasant Spring Garden), Qionglinyuan (Jade Woods Garden) 

and Jinmingchi (Golden-brightness Lake). A group of palaces 

were set up after the enthronement of Emperor Huizong. All of 

them were magnificent with carved beams and painted columns, 

and attached gardens. As for the imperial gardens of Song, the 

outstanding one was the Longevity Hill piled up in the reign of 

Emperor Huizong. The landscape garden gained high praise for its 

large scale and refined structures. Emperor Huizong was a talented 

and free-spirited person, well versed in calligraphy and painting, as 

well as literature and music. He used many precious plants and 

exotic rocks transported from south China in the construction 

(beginning in 1117) of the Longevity Hill garden. It took more 

than 10 years to complete the construction, and thousands of 

labors were employed for the project. The elaborately designed 

imperial garden was of perfect beauty; waves of the lake lapping 

banks, waterfalls gushing down from the rockeries, paths looming 

from the mountainous woods and ravines and farm cottages


scattered in the rustic field. A herb plantation and a Taoist 

monastery were located west of the Longevity Hill,where was the 

place to produce the elixir for Emperor Huizong who believed in 

Taoism and mysticisms. As a typical imperial landscape garden in 

the Northern Song Dynasty, the Longevity Hill realized the idea 

expressed in the landscape paintings of Song and brought the 

gardening art to its acme at that time. The combination of the 

garden architecture with the gist of classical Chinese painting was 

regarded as the tradition of the imperial garden designs in the 

following dynasties. 

Similar to the imperial gardens, the resplendence of the garden 

architecture was demonstrated by private gardens of the Song 

Dynasty. In his work“On the Notable Gardens in Luoyang”, Li 

Gefei listed more than 20 famous gardens in the capital of 

Song. Meantime, the garden culture in south China saw its 

prosperity in and after the period. A great deal of private 

gardens was constructed, such as the Gentle Waves Pavilion 

Garden (Cang-Lang-Ting Garden) and the Mountain Villa in 

Elegant Surroundings (Huan-Xiu-Shan-Zhuang) in Suzhou, 

and Shenyuan Garden in Shaoxing, etc. 

The most famous imperial garden in the Yuan Dynasty (1279- 

1368) was the West Garden, or the“Three Lakes” (Sanhai) now 

in Beijing. During the Liao Dynasty, the garden was developed 

into a temporary abode for the emperor in 938. Later, in the Jin 

Dynasty, the Central Capital was established there in 1151. And 

in the year 1163, a Golden Sea was built on the same site. During 

the Yuan Dynasty, when the Great Capital was founded, the 

Golden Sea was renamed as Taiye (Celestial) Lake. In the“Golden 

Sea”, an isle was piled up and rockeries were set up with rocks 

transported from the Longevity Hill in Bianliang. The isle had 

been called“Qionghua Dao (jasper isle)”, and was later renamed 

as Longevity Hill. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the 

garden was further enlarged and named as “Xiyuan” (West 

Garden). Similar to the imperial gardens of Qin and Han, the 

artistic style and layout of the West Garden essentially followed the 

traditional concept of execution of “one lake and three hills”, 

imitating the Penglai, Fangzhang and Yingzhou three Islands on 

high seas where, as a legend says, the celestial immortals live. 

In the period of Song and Yuan Dynasties, the style of the 

landscape paintings created by the literati gradually became mature. 

These paintings were characterized by their literary atmosphere, 

stressing a taste for resemblance of a painted object not only in form 

but also in spirit and the combination of the realistic style and the 

style of freehand brushwork painting. Many landscape painters 

Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde in winter

toured the famous mountains and rivers to experience and observe 

natural landscapes and people's life in order to grasp the live motifs 

of their objects so as to show vividly in their paintings. 

The style of the landscape paintings was turning from realism to 

romanticism in Song and Yuan Dynasties. Meanwhile the gardening 

art was affected by the transformation to a certain extent since 

many of the notable lettermen and painters were vying with one 

another for building their private gardens. Some of the painters 

were active for garden constructions, such as Ni Zan, one of the 

The Cloud-Crowned Peak in the Lingering Garden (Suzhou) 


most famous painters of Yuan, who took part in designing the 

rockeries of the Lion Grove Garden in Suzhou, and his achievement 

proved a splendid heritage for the later generations. It was the 

participation of the literati that lent a great impetus to the 

development of the gardening art at that time. 

Garden Architecture in the Dynasties of 

Ming and Qing 

Generally speaking, the classical gardens in China can be classified 

into four systems: imperial, private, temple and scenic gardens. In 

the periods of Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911), the 

layout and execution of the four types of gardens had already been 

perfect, featuring in general layout, space arrangement, architectural 

style and plant disposition respectively. As for the regional 

distribution, Beijing is noted for the imperial gardens, the Southeast 

China for the private ones, and the South China for the 

Lingnan (southern areas beyond the Five Ridges) styles. And the 

temple and scenic gardens can be seen anywhere all over the 

country. 

The imperial gardens of Ming and Qing Dynasties were mainly 

constructed in Beijing, some within the city, and most of the grand 

ones and temporary imperial abodes in the north-west suburbs not 

far from downtown. Embraced by the green mountains with many 

fountain sources, these suburban gardens surrounded the capital as 

stars greeting the moon. In addition, so many ancient temples and 

private gardens of past dynasties were also scattered around the 

city. 

Among the imperial gardens in the suburbs, the most famous ones 

were known as“three hills and five gardens”. They were the 

Gardens of Jingyiyuan (Garden of Tranquility and Appropriateness 

on the Fragrant Hill), Jingmingyuan (Garden of Light and 

Tranquility on the Jade Spring Hill), Qingyiyuan (Garden of Clear 

Ripples on the Longevity Hill), Changchunyuan (Enjoy-the- 

Spring Garden) and Yuanmingyuan (Garden of Perfection and


Brightness). The last one was also called “the Garden of Gardens” 

which was honored as the climax of the Chinese imperial garden 

designs. And the Qingyiyuan Garden mentioned above was extended 

in 1884 and renamed as Yihe Yuan (Summer Palace). It is 

famed for its magnificent hill, rippling lake, and exquisite architectural 

structures such as pavilions, temples, towers, galleries and 

bridges. Moreover, a massive palace-garden complex was also 

constructed north at the foot of the Great Wall. That was the 

Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde. 

During the years from the reign (1521-1566) of Emperor Jiajing 

(1507-1566) of Ming to the reign (1736-1796) of Emperor 

Qianlong(1711-1799)of Qing, the construction of private 

gardens was in its heyday. For instance, more than 70 gardens 

A Waterfall in the Lion Grove Garden (Suzhou) 

were built in Hangzhou, and about 30 in Yangzhou, 100 in 

Beijing and 36 in Nanjing. Most of them emerged in the South, 

especially in Suzhou, such as the Humble Administrator's Garden, 

Lingering Garden, Garden of the Master of Nets and Mountain 

Villa in Elegant Surroundings. They were regarded as the masterpieces 

of the landscape gardens constructed by the literati in 

Ming and Qing. 

In the development of the Chinese gardening art, the technical 

exchanges often occurred between the South and North. The 

Emperors Kangxi (1654-1722) and Qianlong had promoted such 

exchanges to a new height when they frequently toured of the 

South. The private gardens then took the lead in the landscape 

architecture in China, especially when they introduced some 

foreign models and decoration. Even imperial gardens followed 

suit the styles of the private gardens at the time. Such cases could 

be seen among many giant imperial gardens, especially in the 

Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde, Summer Palace and 

Yuanmingyuan Garden in Beijing. By the time, the Chinese 

Gardens had developed to be a comprehensive artistic architectural 

product embodying various knowledge of landscape, gardening, 

sculpture, calligraphy, paintings and literature, bearing the unique 

model of natural landscape with Chinese characteristics. Li Yu 

(1610-1680), a great dramatist in the early Qing Dynasty, wrote 

in his works,“The key of a garden lies in its essence, not its luxury, 

and in its novelty and elegance, not its exquisiteness and flourish.” 

That is fully identical to the aesthetic taste of Chinese people who 

favor natural beauty. 

Key Architectural Elements 

As an artistic works with the dual functions of practical use and 

aesthetic value, the execution of classic gardens could be done 

according to rules. Qian Rong (1759-1844), a renowned scholar 

in the early Qing Dynasty, had said,“The garden construction is 

similar to the poem composition: Complexity must be based on a 

certain rule, making the end works echo in concert with the

The Mid-Lake Pavillion in the Heyuan Garden (Yangzhou) 

The Marble Boat in the Summer Palace (Beijing) 

The Tower of Misty Rain in the Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde 


beginning. A good structure must avoid a messy layout.”The 

design of the Chinese classical garden usually bases upon the 

regulations of “theory, skill and style”. The garden construction 

is supported with eight key architectural elements as the following. 

Landscape Creation of Mountains and Waters 

Mountains and waters are the essential elements forming the 

natural scenery. According to the traditional theory of garden 

designing, the topographic arrangement is an indispensable means 

to the construction of the landscape gardens, determining the 

contour of a landscape garden. Such man-made landscapes in 

gardens should be identical to the natural landscape. 

As it differs from the mountain in nature, the rockery is used to be 

called“jiashan”(artificial hill) in China. In addition, so many 

watery sceneries are also formed“artificially”in the gardens, 

such as lakes, waterfalls, ponds, and streams. All of them are made 

by man, but seem to be a reproduction of nature, for they are 

endowed with the proper natural characters. Designed by the great 

landscape architect Ge Yu-liang (1764-1830), the rockeries in the 

Mountain Villa in Elegant Surroundings (in Suzhou) are regarded 

as the typical model for making artificial hills. 

The rockeries in the Chinese classical gardens are piled up with 

soils or rocks. The soil hills are created mainly with soil, along with 

rocks as their framework and ornaments, as well as the breast walls. 

In addition, the hills are covered with plants, reproducing the views 

in mountain areas. Compared with the soil ones, the hills piled up 

with rocks seem more complex both in structure and decoration. 

They appeal to people with their amazing peaks, cliffs, precipices 

and caves, as well as their winding paths, and present more natural 

features. For example, the Lion Grove Garden (in Suzhou) is 

distinguished for its layout of the rockeries. The visitors there 

always find themselves touring as if in a labyrinth if they walk on 

the zigzag paths looming from the bizarre gorges, mysterious 

caverns and dense woods.


The parterres bordered with stones can be seen anywhere in the 

Chinese classical gardens. They are piled up in the similar but 

much simpler way as the rockeries, in an attempt to show a real 

mountain vegetation in the garden. 

Of the key natural elements, water seems more genial towards 

mankind than mountain. Therefore, it is applied in the garden 

designs more frequently. A waterscape would add a poetic atmosphere 

to a garden by providing opportunities for some poetic 

activities taking place, such as lotus plucking, fishing, and floating 

cups. Moreover, the proper arrangement of waters along with 

rockeries and plants would present a garden with spectacles. 

Fountains and waterfalls are the artificial waterscapes commonly 

made in the Chinese gardens with a variety of shapes. The 

fountains and waterfalls also serve as the sources of the streams, the 

other moving waterscape in the Chinese gardens. The streams 

extend zigzag along their gravel beds, looking like as if they come 

from remote sources along an endless course. Lined by trees, the 

streams try their ways through the mountain valleys, presenting a 

scene of mountains and waters accompanying each other without 

parting. The lakes and ponds are the grandeur waterscapes in the 

gardens, but much smaller than the natural ones. Their shorelines 

are curved and link with some branches and inlets, resulting in 

producing a view of boundless vastness. Usually some islands piled 

up in the waters, with bridges as the means of transportation and 

decoration. Waves are lapping the banks, ornamental plants 

growing and golden fish swimming in the water. All of these aims 

to reproduce the wild prospects of nature, such as lotus ponds or 

fish ponds. 

Arrangement of Architectural Structures 

The creation of landscape gardens is based on the practical requirements 

of human beings for living in an ideal ambience with nature 

as intimate as possible. The entertainment architecture can meet 

such important requirements, serving not only as a shelter from 

wind and rain, but also as the key place for pleasures, especially 

Ornamental Lattice Windows Without Glass 

in the Geyuan Garden (Yangzhou) 

Brick Gate Tower in the Garden of Master of Nets (Suzhou) 

Patterns on a pavement in the Lion Grove Garden (Suzhou)

Fructus Forsythiae on the rear slope of the Longevity Hill in 

the Summer Palace, Beijing 

Colorful autumn leaves on the Fragrant Hill, Beijing 

Magnolia Purple in the Summer Palace, Beijing 


when they nestle in the hills, with waters, flowers and trees as their 

background. 

The landscape architectural structures in the gardens are considered 

as the materialized symbols of human as well as their concepts 

on life in certain environments. They are mainly laid in the primary 

position, creating a poetic or painting-like ambience. Of them, 

some seem to be the colorful Chinese paintings of the Song 

Dynasty, such as the splendid palaces and pavilions in the Summer 

Palace in Beijing, and some look like the graceful water-brush 

paintings, just as the delicate mansions with the whitewashed walls 

and black tiles nestled amidst the green bamboos in the classical 

gardens of Suzhou. 

As for their utilization functions, the landscape architecture in the 

Chinese classical gardens can be classified into four systems: 

① Landscape Structures for Enjoyment: Many structures are 

constructed individually in the gardens, each serving as a unique 

scenery, such as the detached halls, towers, pavilions, and galleries, 

etc. 

② Courtyards for Residence: The courtyards are enclosed, independent 

relatively in space but linking closely with the outer world 

via the landscape arrangement, such as the Garden of Harmonious 

Delight in the Summer Palace in Beijing. 

③ Facilities for Transportation: In the gardens, some facilities can 

either serve as sceneries or a means of transportation, including 

paths, bridges, walkways and docks. 

④ Small Ornamental Creations: So many small ornaments are 

properly disposed to match the landscape, such as the ornamented 

or painted doors, windows and walls; and hedgerows, pergolas, 

sculptures, or garden lamps, furniture in the open air and other 

decorative details of the structures. 

The design of the Chinese classical garden stresses the harmonious


relation between the architecture and the natural prospects. The 

architectural structures usually occupy the primary position as the 

focus of the landscape, playing their outstanding roles to show the 

motif of the design. It is well known that the 40 sights in the 

Yuanmingyuan Garden and 72 scenes in the Mountain Summer 

Resort at Chengde are mostly named after the buildings. The Long 

Corridor in the Summer Palace itself not only serves as a scenic spot 

but also as a guiding course for the visitors. Moreover, almost all 

the architecture and facilities in the Chinese classical gardens, such 

as towers, pavilions, bridges and walls, are serving as scenic spots 

or a single special scene. In addition, the epigraphy boards with 

inscriptions and couplets on pillars attached to the buildings, and 

the fine arts and calligraphy inside the buildings are not only the 

ornaments, but also the literary and artistic symbols interpreting 

the designing concepts of the gardens. 

Disposition of Plants 

Vegetation is considered to be one of the major landscape elements 

in nature for its variety, which could enliven the gardens and enrich 

the space with alteration and peace. Dating back to more than 2000 

years ago, the flora landscapes were already created in the gardens of 

Qin's emperors and dukes, and over 3,000 species of plants grew in 

the Shanglinyuan Garden of Han Dynasty Emperor Wudi. 

Plants in various shapes, colors, with light and smells bring to people 

a lot of joys. “The distant hill looks like a giant green screen, while 

the nearby stream is lined up by the drooping willows”.“Thick foliage 

over-shades the courtyard while a few trees and blossoms dot before 

the window-panes”.“Willows dance in the morning breeze,and 

night raindrops rattled on the leaves of bananas leaves”. Many 

descriptions on the garden landscapes appeared in the ancient book 

“Yuanye (On Garden Designing)” written by Ji Cheng in 1631. 

In the Chinese gardens, the ornamental plants can produce their 

unique artistic effects, such as adding more luster to landscapes, 

buildings, and showing the changes of seasons, or being used as 

Flowers in spring 

Goose Pond in the town of Lanting (Orchid Pavilion)

A Screening View 

shelters to cover a courtyard or walls, or showing a half-hidden view 

of something, making a shady effect, or conveying the sounds from 

wild field, or attracting bees and butterflies with their wafting 

fragrance. In its capital city of the Song Dynasty, the plants in the 

famous gardens were applied for landscape designing. And later in 

the Ming and Qing Dynasties, literati liked to make plants 

personalized so as to express their own personal feelings. According 

to historical records, many plants were used to name landscape 

gardens, such as the Green Vine Studio, Cherry House, Lotus 

Ferry, and Peony Hall, etc. Stories of flora landscapes can be often 

found in the Chinese literary masterpieces. 

Lively Garden Animals 


The animals have always played their important roles in the landscape 

gardens as well as in the ecosystem. As plants, animals were also 

introduced into gardens to make them livelier. According to the 

Records of the Historian, Kings Zhouwang of Shang and Wenwang 

of Zhou domesticated animals in their gardens for enjoyment 3,000 

years ago, including pheasants, hares, deer, waterfowls and fish. 

Followed by the Dynasties of Qin and Han, special yards were 

prepared in the Imperial Forest Park to keep the animals, such as 

tigers, deer and dogs. The emperors would conduct game hunting in 

the park every winter with their royalties and lords. 

Some renowned poets in the Tang Dynasty, as Wang Wei and Bai 

Juyi, also raised cranes and deer in their gardens in order to get their 

poetic inspirations from the animals. In the Longevity Hill Garden 

of Song, much more exotic birds and animals were bred along with 

the precious plants among the bizarre rockeries. The wild swans, 

cranes and swan-geese took the Yuanminyuan Garden as their 

habitat in the Qing Dynasty. In the Mountain Summer Resort at 

Chengde, a variety of scenic spots were named after the animals by 

the Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong, such as“Birds Singing in the 

Woods”,“Viewing Fish on piled Rockeries”,“Reindeer Slope” 

and“Horse Testing Ground”. 

The entertaining animals would be carefully selected for a certain 

garden to match its special landscape. For example, waterfowls and 

fish are the best choice for a waterscape garden, while some beasts 

and birds for a hilly garden. In addition, a garden has to prepare 

itself for meeting the “intruders” since some other wild animals 

might choose the place as their habitat. The living animals would 

bring life to the gardens. 

Astronomical and Meteorological Factors 

The Astronomical and meteorological phenomena could influence 

the garden designing. In the ancient times, people already knew how


to make timely use of the natural phenomena to create some scene in 

the garden, including use of sunlight, moonlight, sunrise or sunset, 

clouds, or raining and snowing views in the garden. 

Opposite Scenery composed of the door and lattice windows by the Xuanwu 

Lake, Nanjing 

Linear Landscape composed of the stone steps in the garden of Xilingyinshe 

(Xiling Seal-Engravers'Society) in Hongzhou 

The landscape gardens are all built under the sun, being affected by 

the astronomical and meteorological phenomena. For example, 

the tones and colors of the garden will be affected by the different 

showing of the sunlight or moonlight at different time and the 

seasonal changes:“Flowers in spring”,“fruits in autumn”,“lotus in 

summer” and“snow in winter”. 

The designs of the traditional Chinese gardens emphasize how to 

make timely use of the effects produced on earth by nature. 

“Banana trees are planted for listening to the raindrops rattling on 

their leaves”;“digging a pond is to view the mirrored moon 

gleaming in the water.”And“setting up a thatched cottage is for 

listening to soughing in the pine woods.”So many accounts can 

be found in the book“On Garden Designing”. Plant disposition 

should depend upon the seasonal variations so as to possibly create 

more beautiful sceneries in the gardens. For example, light green 

twigs bursting out in spring; thick shady foliage in summer; leaves 

as lovely as blossoms in autumn; and withered branches in winter 

calling for inspiration for a landscape painting. People can enjoy 

beautiful sceneries round the year, perceptual of the true meaning 

of the changes of seasons. 

Layout of Scenic Spots 

The landscape in a garden consists of the scenic spots and scenic areas 

as well as the touring courses. The“linear landscapes” means a series 

of scenic spots to be arranged along a single route, including the paths, 

shorelines of the ponds or lakes, and hedgerows, etc. Vertically they 

include the contour lines of buildings and the skylines of woods' tops. 

Among them, the landscapes along the garden paths are the most 

popular. So the garden paths not only serve as the touring routes, but 

also act as the key links of the scenic spots. 

The paths in the gardens act as links to connect together the scenes 

in a garden with the visitors. The tourists will be surprised to find 

one after another wonderful sights along the meandering paths.

The garden passageways are usually characterized by various 

factors as the following: 

① Touring Courses: The scenic spots are lined along a certain 

path. Following the path, the tourists could enjoy all the sights. 

② Special Passageways: They are built on special purpose with 

dual functions, serving as the scenic spots and acting as the 

passageways. The structures include the galleries and bend bridges, 

etc. 

③ Twisting and circular courses: Most of the walkways in the 

Chinese classical gardens are constructed to be zigzag, aiming to 

make the landscapes stand out and the space in a broad view. In 

addition, some circling routes are paved, each around a certain area 

but joined with others. All of these courses are linked together, 

forming a network covering all the sections of a garden. 

④ Variation in Forms: The passageways in the Chinese classical 

gardens are generally paved with bricks or slabs. Moreover, the 

courtyards, steps, squares, galleries, tunnels and bridges are also 

adopted to serve as passageways. 

Epigraph board and couplets 

in the Prosperity Temple (Changshu) 


⑤ Exquisite Decorations: In the Chinese ancient gardens, the paved 

paths were always finished elaborately to match the landscapes 

around. For example, the stone steps leading up to a mountain were 

constructed with sheet slabs or blocks, but the bypaths around a lake 

were usually paved with gravels or smaller grit since they could 

resound as beating waves when people step on them. 

In the Chinese classical gardens, screening scenery, opposite 

scenery and ornamental scenery are always used in the layout of the 

linear landscapes. 

Screening Scenery: the screening scenes usually act as screens hiding 

the other sights behind. The so-called“garden within a garden”is 

generally formed by way of division by the screening scenes.“A 

serpentine path in a mountain”or“a path leading to a quiet 

reclusion”are always created by means of a screening scene as well. 

Opposite Scenery: The opposite scenery is used to link up other 

scenes in the garden. It often uses columns, lintels, hanging fascias, 

railings or gates or portals to form a framework to contain the view 

of a certain scenery, so it is also known as “framed scenery.” 

Spot Scenery: The spot scenery is adopted to intersperse a space 

with ornamental objects or bring life to a dead corner. Many 

objects could be used to create the spot views, such as flowers, 

plants, rockeries, stalagmites and stele inscriptions. 

Spiced with Poetry 

It is a popular way to write a few lines of verse as a dedication to a 

painting in the blank together with the signature of the writer and 

his or her personal seal for the purpose of developing the implications 

of the painting. 

The garden designing also pays attention to the use of verses to 

explain the theme of a landscape, always known as a written


dedication to the landscape. Even a few lines of verses were written 

as a dedication to each scenic spot, serving as an antique object for 

appreciation. 

The motif of a garden was generally generated from the garden 

designer's and master's favor and yearning towards the natural 

prospects. For example, one of the most famous classical gardens in 

Suzhou was named the“Garden of Master of Nets,” meaning“a 

fisherman”, or implicating“retiring from the sea.” So the garden 

was characterized by a waterscape together with other sceneries of 

plants, animals, rockeries and buildings. 

Coupling with the natural landscapes, the poetry dedication could 

felicitously express the motif of the garden, suggesting a feeling of 

poetic aesthetic taste. The dedications for the garden buildings are 

usually carved or painted on the boards and pillars, known as the 

epigraph boards and pillar couplets. And those for the landscapes 

are mostly carved directly on the cliffs or rocks of hilltops, full of 

cultural and artistic elegance. Jia Zheng, a hero in the famous 

Chinese novel, the“Dream of the Red Mansion”, commented on 

the dedication to the Grand View Garden:“ Without the poetry 

dedication to the garden, any landscapes or buildings would loss 

their attractions, no matter how massive they are!” 

The ample connotations of such inscriptions bring more aesthetic 

inspirations to the visitors. For example, a building in the bamboo 

grove of the“Gentle Waves Pavilion”was named as“Emerald 

Green Exquisiteness”. A couplet to the building reads“Bamboos 

in the wind soughing like blowing flute; flowing water in the 

stream murmuring like playing a lyre,” which remind the visitors 

of a situation far beyond the landscape itself displays. Such kind of 

dedications to gardens can be found everywhere throughout 

China. One of the most renowned should be the couplet on the 

front pillars of the Daguan Tower (Tower of Grand Views) in the 

city of Kunming. The magnificent couplet was inscribed on a pair 

of scrolls, composed with 180 words by Sun Ranweng (?-1775) 

and known as the longest of the Chinese couplets. 

An interior view of the Exquisite Hall 

in the Humble Administrator's Garden (Suzhou) 

Decorations and Furnishings 

In the Chinese classical gardens, the interior and exterior 

decorations, fitments, and furnishings are attributed to the key 

architectural elements, mainly including furniture, stationery, 

draperies, screens, bric-a-bracs, calligraphic works and paintings. 

Especially, the small facilities and carved/engraved ornaments with 

high aesthetic and practical values are adopted for a touch up of the 

gardens, such as the decorated archways, gate towers, parterres,

Cloud-Crowned Pavilion in the Lingering Garden (Suzhou) 

Winding Gallery in the Mansion of Prince Regent 

flower pots, balusters, sculptures and pavements. 

The adoption of the decorations and furnishings is mainly for the 

gardening aesthetic conception of“intimacy with nature, enjoyment 

of life”. The traditional Chinese“auspicious culture” plays 

its role in the design, combining with the personality and sentiments 

of the garden's masters. For example, in the waterside 

pavilion of the Spouse Garden (in Suzhou) stands a flooring 

ornamental screen called“Pine, bamboo and Plum — Three 

Companies in Cold Winter”, an arts-and-crafts work with open- 


work patterns, and it is said to be a relic of the Ming Dynasty. 

In the Suzhou classical gardens, the courtyards are usually furnished 

with stone (or brick) stools and tables in simple and antique 

style. The windows and doors of the buildings are finely finished. 

And the furniture indoors are mainly made of rosewood, sanders, 

and ebony. The styles are determined in accord with the styles of 

the buildings. The“Garden of the Master of Nets”has been 

regarded as a symbol of the Chinese classical gardens, for its 

exquisitely decorated windows and doors, elegant furniture and 

furnishings, and unique pavements and lattice windows. 

Architectural Forms and Styles 

In the designing of the traditional Chinese gardens, more attention 

was paid to the arrangements of the architectural structures in 

order to endow them with natural beauty and humanity features. 

The landscape structures are considered as the materialized symbols 

of the image of human beings together with their ideals and 

strength for life. In ancient China, no matter what kind the gardens 

were, imperial, private or temple or scenic gardens, they were 

constructed for the only purpose of living in the woods or by the 

water side, in order to establish a close relationship with nature. 

Therefore, many functional buildings incorporated with the purpose 

were elaborately designed. Take the imperial gardens for 

example, palaces for the state affairs, houses in the inner court for 

residence, and scenic spots for enjoyment. Though smaller the 

private gardens are in size, they still have all sorts of such functional 

buildings, which are divided into different areas for different 

purposes. 

The design of a Chinese classical garden tried to create natural 

beauty within a limited space as much as possible, building a small 

poetic world to meet the human requirements both for residence 

and amusement. Therefore, the forms and styles of buildings in the 

garden vary so as to properly match the landscapes around and


specially for their various functions. The popular architectural 

structures in the gardens are seen as pavilions towers, galleries, 

halls, mansions, studios, bridges, boat houses, pagodas, decorated 

walls and small carvings and sculptures, etc. 

Pavilion, Gallery, Terrace and Waterside 

Pavilion 

In the Chinese classical gardens, the pavilions, galleries, terraces 

and water-side pavilion are the most popular landscape buildings. 

The history of terrace and waterside pavilion constructions dates 

back to the dynasties of Shang and Zhou more then 3000 years 

ago. The book“On Garden Designing” says that“building a 

pavilion or a waterside pavilion according to where is needed.” 

“A waterside pavilion hidden amidst blossoms or a pavilion sitting 

on a lake is truly to make a perfect garden.” 

Pavilion (tíííííng) 

A pavilion serves as a belvedere as well as a shelter from the sun and 

rain. It is small in size, but elegant in shape, being located at any 

place. It is simple in structure: its roof is supported by columns, 

without walls, or with low bulwarks. Such kind of architectural 

structure can be seen in all the gardens, just as the saying goes“No 

pavilions, no gardens.” 

The pavilions in the Chinese classical gardens differ from each 

other in their plane forms: Triangle, square, pentagonal, hexagon, 

octagon, mushroom and fan, etc. And as for their shapes, they are 

classified to be the single-eave, double-eave and triple-eave ones. 

They are also built differently with wood, stone, bamboo, or even 

bronze, but most of them are wooden structure with a tiled roof. 

According to their locations, the pavilions are classified as the 

mountain pavilion, waterside pavilion, bridge pavilion and gallery 

pavilion, etc. 

Bearing the distinct national features as well as their vivid forms 

and shapes, the pavilions in the Chinese classical gardens have 

shown a unique charm of the Chinese garden architecture. 

Gallery (lang) 

Similar to the pavilion, the gallery is also a most popular structure 

of the Chinese garden architecture. It is a long belt-like structure 

with the roof supported by columns. It is open on one side or on 

both sides, and single-layered or double-layered, serving as a 

touring course and joining the views along it. 

The galleries could also be classified into the systems of land 

gallery, sloping gallery, and bridge gallery, etc. They are the 

transitions between the landscape buildings and wild green. They 

may be long or short, straight or winding in accord with the 

surroundings. With their unique and diverse styles, the galleries 

serve different functions, e.g. as a scenic view, or passageways, 

resting place, and playing grounds. They also act as a joint linking 

the views scattered around. Meanwhile, they also serve as the 

partitions separating the spaces into the smaller areas, thus bringing 

variations of spaces to the gardens. 

Terrace (tai) 

A terrace is an open structure with a flat surface. It is one of the most 

ancient garden architectural forms in China, dating back to the 

period of Shang Dynasty. 

According to historical documents, the earliest terraces in China 

were constructed with consolidated earth for sightseeing more 

than 3000 years ago. The ancient palaces were mostly set up on 

terraces, in order to enhance their grandiosity and magnificence. In 

addition, both the emperors and the populace in ancient China 

paid worships to gods and ancestors on the high terraces. As a 

result, the construction of the terraces became very popular across 

the country. The famous terrace structures were emerging one after 

another in the imperial gardens; the most famous ones are the 

Lingtai Podium (Observatory at Divine Terrace), Gusu Podium 

and Bronze Sparrow Terrace. Later, podium structure became 

popular in society and developed to be patio in front of halls, moon

mount, heavenly mount atop of mountains and floating stage on 

water. For example, the Altar of Heaven in Temple of Heaven, the 

Statue of an Immortal Holding a Dew Plate Over Head in Beihai 

Park and Gully of Pear Blossoms Accompanying Moonlight in the 

Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde, and the Cloud-crowned 

Terrace in Lingering Garden and the Prosperous Spring Terrace in 

Slender West Lake Garden. 

Waterside Pavilion (xie) 

A waterside pavilion originated from the terrace on the waterside. 

That is a single pavilion structure on a terrace with a part of which 

protruding out over the water. In the Chinese classical gardens, 

such kind of waterside pavilions were made of lighter materials, 

such as wood. They were built mainly for people to view the 

waterscapes and for taking a rest. They were usually surrounded 

with lower flat railings or flooring lattice windows and doors, 

leaving a complete open space for prospects. Almost all the details 

of the waterside pavilions were elaborately designed and made, 

looking as refined craftworks such as the hanging fascias under the 

eaves and the round-ridge or hip-and-gable roofs in traditional 

Chinese styles. 

Hall With Doors on Four Sides in the Garden of Drunken Master Bai 

Hall, Chamber, Kiosk and House 


Halls(tīīīīīng) 

Generally speaking, the halls in the classical gardens are the main 

places for garden masters to entertain their guests. They are bigger 

in size with elaborately decorated doors and windows. Doors and 

windows may be planned on the front or rear facet of the wall. Or 

a hall with doors on its four sides is built for prospects. According 

to their functions or shapes, the halls are classified as the tea hall, 

grand hall, hall partitioned into two parts, parlor of blossoms, and 

boat-style hall, etc. 

Chamber(tang) 

The chambers in the gardens are those main rooms for residence, 

where the patriarchs of the family live in and serve as the ceremonial 

quarters of the family. They are usually arranged on the central 

axial line of a cluster of buildings, neatly laid out, and dandily 

embellished. The flooring screens and curio shelves are used as the 

partitions. The main chambers, provided for respected and senior 

family members to live in, symbolize the status and importance of 

the family members. 

The Halls and chambers are the main buildings in the Chinese 

classical gardens. They are usually located not far from the main 

gate along the central axial line. With beautiful landscapes in 

background, they are simply but elegantly shaped. The halls differ 

from chambers in their structures and decorations. And they used 

different building materials, for example, square and flat timbers 

are usually used for building halls, while round columns for 

chambers. Since the Ming Dynasty, the term “ting-tang”is used 

for both of the structures. The halls and chambers finally developed 

to be the grand halls in the imperial gardens to meet the need 

of the ritual ceremonial system and imperial sumptuous ostentation. 

Kiosk(xuan) 

The kiosks are the architectural structures in smaller size. Most of 

them stand on the higher ground or by side of waters, serving for


sightseeing. They were originally named after a sort of curtained 

carriage with a high front in ancient China. Therefore, the awning 

under the front eave of a hall or chamber is also called “xuan”, for 

it is similar in form to the carriage. Such kind of small installment 

are well known for their elegant form and style. They erect 

everywhere in the Chinese classical gardens. 

House(guan) 

The houses were the places for the dignitaries to hold parties in 

ancient times. And the houses in the Chinese classical gardens were 

related with the living quarters. 

In the Chinese classical private gardens, the kiosks and houses are 

similar to the halls and chambers, but smaller in size and less 

important in position. But in imperial gardens, a massive complex 

or a detached scenic area might be endowed with the name of 

“guan”or“xuan”. Take the examples of the Pavilion for Listening 

to Oriole (Ting-Li Guan) of the Summer Palace in Bejing and 

the Kiosk Close to Mountain (Shan Jin Xuan) of the Mountain 

Summer Resort at Chengde. So“guan” or“xuan”can be used 

as a general name for some landscape complex. 

Pavilion of Emperor in the Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde 

Tower, multilayered Pavilion, Studio and Room 

Tower(lou) 

The tower means a tall building with two or more layers. In the 

Ming Dynasty, the towers were usually located in the rear part of 

a garden, serving as the bedrooms, studies, or the place for 

sightseeing. A tower itself always serves as a scenic view in a garden, 

especially when it stands facing waters and with mountain in the 

background. 

Multilayered Pavilion(ge) 

The multi-layered pavilion developed from the pile-supported 

building. It is similar to the tower in shape but smaller in size. The 

multi-layer pavilions are constructed in square or polygonal form. 

Most of them are double-layered. The walls on all sides are opened 

with windows. They are generally used as a library or belvederes. 

They also serve as the family chapels for enshrining giant josses. 

The towers and multi-layered pavilions are the tall buildings in the 

gardens. Both of them are huge and vary in shapes with the Chinese 

round roofs. But the towers are usually for residence, and the 

pavilions for storage. In the Chinese classical gardens, it is not easy 

to tell the definite differences between the towers and multilayered 

pavilions. Therefore, people call them “lou-ge”, a compound 

term. Among this sort of buildings, the most famous ones 

include the Yellow Crane Tower (Huang-He Lou) in the City of 

Wuhan and Prince Teng's Pavilion (Teng-Wang Ge) in the City 

of Nanchang, etc. 

Studio(zhai) 

“zhai”is originally related to a religious discipline in Chinese 

meaning. And when“zhai”is used to name an architectural 

structure, it implies that the structure is to serve as the place special 

for people to practice their moral cultivations. Therefore, differing 

from the halls and chambers, the studios are less decorated and far 

from bustling areas. For example, the Studio of Modesty (Ji-Xu 

Zhai) of the Garden of Master of Nets Garden in Suzhou and

Not-mooring Boat in the Garden of Rosy Clouds of Autumn in Shanghai 

A White Pagoda in the Slender West Lake Garden in Yangzhou 

Studio of Tranquil Heart(Jing-Xin Zhai)are regarded as the 

typical of this kind of buildings. 

Room(shi) 

The rooms in the gardens are mostly arranged beside the halls and 

chambers. The functions of them are similar to the studios. So the 

rooms are usually named with the term“zhai-shi”. For example, 

the Lyre Room (Qin Shi) of the Garden of Master of Nets in 

Suzhou was a one-bay room structure for the master to play his lyre. 


There were various rooms (by the names of zhai or shi) constructed 

by the intellectuals in their gardens, with the themes in accord with 

the sentiments of their masters. 

Bridge, Marble Boat, Pagoda and Wall 

Bridge(qiao) 

The bridges in the Chinese classical gardens have two functions: As 

a means of transportation and offering a scene themselves. Many 

of them are noted as the most famous scenic views such as the 

Broken Bridge (Duan Qiao) on the West Lake in Hangzhou, Fivepavilion 

Bridge (Wu-Ting Qiao) in the Slender West Lake Garden 

in Yangzhou and Seventeen-Arch Bridge (Shiqi-Kong Qiao) of the 

Summer Palace in Beijing. 

The bridges vary in structure. They can be classified as the flat-deck 

bridge, zigzag bridge, arch bridge, pavilion bridge and gallery 

bridge, etc. Usually flat-deck bridges are adopted for the smaller 

gardens and zigzag ones for the middle-size gardens. As for the 

bridges in the larger gardens, they are always arranged as an 

independent scenery as a finishing touch. There are so many kinds 

of materials used in bridge construction, such as stone, wood, 

bamboo and bines. 

Marble Boat (fang) 

The marble boat, or not-mooring boat, is the boat-shaped structure 

in the garden, serving as a scenic view or for sightseeing. It is 

a derivative of the“hua-fang”, a kind of painted pleasure boat in 

ancient China. Such boat structures mostly set up on or by waters, 

providing a platform for people to enjoy landscape as if sailing in 

a boat on waters. 

Similar to a real boat, a not-mooring boat is usually composed of 

three parts. Its bow is raised up, in shape of a pavilion. The central 

part is lower for pleasures and resting. The stern is the highest part, 

in the form of a tower, acting as a belvedere. The not-mooring boat 

always protrudes its bow over water with a flat-deck as a springboard 

to link it to the bank. The well-known boats include the


Marble Boat (Qing-Yan Fang) of the Summer Palace in Beijing, 

Stone Boat (Shi Fang) of the Lion Grove Garden and Land Boat 

(Fragrant Islet, or Han Fang) of Humble Administrator's Garden 

both in Suzhou. 

Pagoda(ta) 

The construction of the pagodas was initiated in India. Such 

structures were originally adopted as the dagobas for enshrining 

the relics (sarias) of Buddha (also known as stupas for sarias). They 

were usually located in the center of a monastery or temple, where 

the monks worshiped and prayed to Buddha. And in China, 

pagodas are mainly built in the temple gardens and imperial 

gardens. In the larger gardens, they usually stand at the bend of a 

Lattice windows without glass in the Heyuan Garden,Yangzhou 

stream or on the hilltop (or a mountain peak) as a guard for peace 

and good luck. 

The pagoda has various forms and types. Most of them are of 

square shape at their early stage. And then the forms of hexagon, 

octagon, dodecagon, round and cross ones appeared. They were 

made of wood, brick, stone, copper, metal and colored glaze, etc. 

As for shapes, they could be classified into single-layered, tower- 

styled and lamasery-styled. So many pagodas in China are very 

famous, such as the Baoshu Pagoda in the West Lake Garden 

(Hangzhou), Glazed Pagoda on the Fragrant Hill (Beijing), Pagoda 

of the Diamond Throne in the Temple of Azure Cloud (Bi- 

Yun Si, Beijing) and Grand Wild Goose Pagoda (Xi'an) 

Wall(qiang) 

The walls are the most popular structures in the Chinese classical 

gardens. They are used to enclose or box off the landscape areas, or 

to serve as a background or a screening scene. The landscape walls 

are classified into the interior wall and exterior wall. The classical 

gardens in South China are mainly located in downtowns and 

therefore enclosed with high walls to separate them from the busy 

streets. Such landscape walls are elegant in style and form with their 

own aesthetic features. 

Among the variations of the landscape walls, the whitewashed and 

cloud-style walls are the most popular. The tops of the whitewashed 

walls are covered with bricks and tiles. Similarly, the cloud 

walls are of great variety of shapes, such as dragon-shaped and 

wave-shaped walls. The landscape walls are commonly decorated 

with the lattice windows without glass. Their tops and surfaces are 

also ornamented with patterns. The whitewashed walls often serve 

as the backgrounds to the piled rockeries and plants in the gardens, 

making the views look as the ink-wash paintings. In addition to the 

patterned windows, the window openings and door openings are 

also properly used for wall decorations. The well-designed walls 

would bring more attractions to the gardens, such as the Dragonshaped 

Wall of the Garden of Peace and Pleasure in Shanghai, the 

Sloping Wall of the Beihai Park in Beijing and the whitewashed 

walls to the tower-gallery of Heyuan Garden in Yangzhou. 

Artistic Features 

The Chinese classical gardens are ambience for pleasures and entertainment 

integrating all the elements of the garden architecture as a 

whole, such as hills, waters, plants and buildings. As for its aesthetic

Overlooking the Jade Island in the Distance (Qiong Dao of Beihai Park, Beijing) 

comprehensive qualities, the landscape garden architecture could be 

regarded as one of the top form in the traditional Chinese architecture. 

Its artistic features involve five aspects as follows: 

Upholding a Friendly Relationship with Nature 

Expressing Our Feeling for the Landscapes 

The Chinese landscape gardens are basically built up as the natural 

landscape gardens. They always follow the traditional conception 

in the construction: Taking natural landscape as the model for 

gardens. 

Mountains and waters are indispensable to the natural scenery. 

The charm of prospects usually comes from their best union. Just 

as an old Chinese saying goes,“Taking waters as its blood, mountain 

can live on; taking mountain as their countenance, waters become 

more charming.”In ancient China,“mountains and waters”are 


synonyms for natural landscapes. “Guilin 

landscape is the best in the whole world.” It 

boasts not only towering verdure mountains, 

but also the limpid Lijiang River. Chinese 

people have long since taken advantage of the 

natural elements for building their rockeries 

and lakes in gardens, in an attempt to live in 

a poetic ambience that is harmonious with 

nature. 

With regard to the plastic arts, the soft and 

flexible water is, instinctively, a strong 

contrast to the dignified and powerful 

mountain.“The benevolent prefer 

mountains, while the wise favor waters.” 

The saying suggests a profound philosophic 

connotation, and both mountains and 

waters endow the landscapes with a united 

but individually different aesthetic value. 

The aesthetic effect of the hills in a garden lies in its verdant plants, 

not its size, wherein“a small hill can present more prospects and 

a few rocks can be appealing.” For example, the Mountain Villa in 

Elegant Surroundings in Suzhou is famed for its rockeries. Though 

not large in size, it boasts so many rockeries with deep and quiet 

caves, a typical masterpiece of its kind. Moreover, rockeries could 

also be used as screens to partition the garden ground and extend 

the depth of field. 

Similar to the layout of the rockeries, the waterscape should be paid 

more attention to in the garden designing. As the artistic reproduction 

of the natural elements, those man-made lakes, ponds, rivers, 

streams and waterfalls can produce an aesthetic taste to the garden 

in various forms. For example, the Garden of the Master of Nets 

in Suzhou has a lake occupying an area of only 400 square meters. 

However the small lake looks boundless, for its myriads of waves 

are rippling all the time. The Eight-tone Ravine (Ba-yin Jian) in the


Garden for Ease of Mind in Wuxi, is another example of using a 

little pond to create a vivid prospect. 

Making Use of Natural Scenes Skilfully in 

Light of the Actual Circumstances 

Making good use of natural scenery should be strictly according to 

the actual conditions and circumstances. The book“On Garden 

Designing”points out: The views in the gardens should be planned 

in accord with the environments. The traditional theory on the 

execution is based on the extension and development of a landscape. 

Making use of nature beauty is to use natural scenery outside of the 

garden to develop or enrich the garden's view inside. “On Garden 

Designing” is probably the earliest book in China to give an 

account of this method. There are so many examples to illustrate 

the successful execution in this way of scenic gardens in China. 

Take the example of the Prince Teng's Pavilion in Nanchang. 

Constructed in the Tang Dynasty, it used the scenes over the Gan 

River as its background. “The lonely wild duck is flying in the 

evening glow. The autumn river is colored by the sky tone”. This 

is the verse from a Tang poet specially describing the scenery of the 

Pavilion. And the Yueyang Tower (in the City of Yueyang) looks 

more charming when it is viewed together with the Dongting Lake 

nearby and green mountains in the distance. Particularly, the West 

Lake is more famous for its top ten landscapes, one complementing 

the other, making the whole scenic area look like a large colorful 

landscape painting ! 

Making use of natural beauty can be done by five approaches: a) 

using a nearby scenery; b) a scene in the distance; c) a scene from 

above; d) a scene from below; and e) using a scene in different 

weather and seasons. No matter where and when the views are 

made use of, the key is to apply them to the landscape of the gardens 

timely and exactly. 

Introducing the views nearby: For example, in the late Qing 

Dynasty, the middle and west sections of the Humble 

Administrator's Garden were two detached gardens standing by 

each other's side. There was a pavilion on a raised ground in the east 

of the western garden. It overlooked the two gardens and, in turn, 

served as a view shared by the two gardens. So it was named“Yi 

Liang Ting”(Pavilion for the Two), that is, the small pavilion 

brings beauty to the two gardens. 

Introducing the views in the distance: The use of scenes in the 

distance could be realized via certain vistas, and the higher buildings 

or ground within the gardens. For example, the Pavilion of 

Real Lake and Hill (Hu-Shan-Zhen-Yi Ting) in the Summer 

Palace uses the shadowy view of the tower on the Jade Spring Hill 

(Yu-Quan Hill) on the west. In the Mountain Summer Resort at 

Chengde, the Clear Lake (Cheng Hu) area uses the fantastic view 

of the Peak of Chime-stone Hammer (Qing-Chui Peak) in the 

distance as its backdrop. And the Mountain Viewing Chamber in 

the Humble Administrator's Garden in Suzhou uses the views 

from the Tiger Hill (Hu Qiu), and Monastery of Ordination 

Banners (Jie-Zhuang Monastery) uses the distant mountains in 

the southwest. 

Introducing the views from above, below and in different weather 

and seasons: Such kind of views may appear randomly, such as“a 

group of wild geese flying above in the spring”, and“the midautumn 

moon reflected in the pond”. Sometimes, sounds could be 

Angeling under the Shady Tree 

Shen Zhou, Ming Dynasty

also adopted as the borrowed objects, such as “the singing of a 

woodchopper in the mountain forest”, and “the echoes of the 

morning bell-tolling and evening drum-beating in the distant 

temple.” 

The buildings, small architectural structures and ornaments in the 

Chinese classical gardens are always arranged in close relations with 

the natural elements, that is, the landscapes in the gardens are 

planned accurately in accord with the environment. In a garden, 

the layout of the buildings will produce a strong effect on the 

artistic style of the garden. If an imperial garden seeks for an air of 

the superiority of emperors or a simple taste of sequestered 

mountains, styles of its buildings are the determining factors. For 

example, the buildings in the Summer Palace are resplendent and 

magnificent, implying that the masters of the Palace are the 

emperors reigning over the country. And the buildings in the 

Suzhou classical gardens are decorated with merely whitewashed 

walls and grey tiles, just looking like an elegant ink-wash painting. 

The styles of buildings can directly reflect the personalities of the 

garden owners. 

Combining the Inconcrete with the Concrete 

Showing the Large in the Small 

Combining the inconcrete with the concrete is the essential 

conception of the traditional Chinese paintings. And the designing 

of the Chinese classical gardens has always pursued for a “sense 

of painting”. Therefore, most painting theories and skills are 

adopted in the landscape garden planning. In order to endow the 

gardens with most meaningful connotations and poetic variations, 

so many wonderful views are created by means of the use of natural 

scenery, opposite scenery, screening scenery, framed scenery and 

leaking scenery, etc. 

How to integrate the inconcrete with the concrete as a whole and 

to make a large scene against a small background relies on the 

proper arrangement of the space. The garden structures randomly 


scattered can produce an effect of extending the depth of field. And 

the winding walkways amid the landscape structures would make 

visitors surprised to find a number of sights at every turn. Visitors 

through the various lattice windows without glass on the garden 

walls can have a full view of a small garden or a part of the big ones. 

In the Chinese classical gardens, the scenes are sorted as natural and 

artificial, and inconcrete and concrete. The concrete landscape 

structures are usually encompassed within an area, leaving the 

visionary circumference as the open space. The views scattered in 

a garden complement with each other, presenting a complete view 

as a whole. 

The Chinese classical garden architecture is a typical comprehensive 

art, which changes with the operations of time and space. The 

garden designing not only requires to plan the use of space, but also 

the display of scenes in their own sequence and dependence on the 

changes of seasons. For example, some views should be positioned 

in a certain sequence of order to display them earlier or later. And 

the effect of time and seasons on the views should be taken into 

account as well. In addition to the combination of the inconcrete 

and the concrete, the coexistence of the dynamic and the static state 

should also be considered in the landscape layout. A rippling 

stream winds about a still hill. The flying butterflies are dancing 

around the quiet flowers. Through these dynamic and static views, 

the visitors would feel the charm of the garden art. 

Expressing Feelings for Plants and Blossoms 

Harmony Enlivening the Garden Ambience 

The proper plant disposition is the most flexible and vivid way for 

integrating the natural spaces with architectural spaces in a garden. 

In the Chinese classical gardens, plant is a key player in the garden 

landscape. In the long course of plant cultivation and observation, 

the garden architects have expressed their feelings for a variety of 

plants according to their ecological properties, shapes and names,


some even being personified. For example, pine tree, bamboo and 

plum blossom are the cold-resisting plants, so they are regarded as 

the“Three Friends in the Cold Winter”. The evergreen pine tree 

was made a symbol of longevity. The erected bamboo symbolizes 

a man of moral integrity. The graceful peony is called the king of 

flowers and honored as the national flower. Moreover, the 

straightness of pine, the flexibility of willow branch, the faint 

fragrance of orchid and the charming gesture of silk tree, are all 

considered as the ornamental plants in the garden designing. 

The garden architects in ancient China already understood how to 

respect nature. They tried to keep the age-old trees originally 

growing at the construction sites, letting them still growing among 

the new plants and buildings. The book“On Garden Designing” 

has such descriptions: When the location of a planned construction 

is hampered by a time-honored tree, consider to sidestep the 

construction instead of cutting down the old tree. The reason is 

that it is easier to construct a richly decorated building than to grow 

an ancient tree. As a result, the Chinese classical gardens are able 

to show the visitors the most charming views, such as the paths 

paved amid flowers, walls shaded with vines, ponds shadowed with 

the drifting duckweeds, and windows with the reflected patterns of 

green bamboo. 

In addition to their landscape sentiments, people in ancient China 

also expressed their passions to the animals and even made them 

personified. Dog and horse are thought as loyal to their owners. 

Crow is a symbol of filial devotion. Peacock represents richness and 

honor. And a couple of mandarin ducks implied happy marriage. 

Such aesthetic tastes have determined the animal arrangements in 

the gardens. Most of the Chinese classical gardens kept the 

domesticated animals and, at least, the caged birds, potted fish, 

dogs and cats. Wild animals can also be used as sceneries in a 

garden. The book“On Garden Designing” contains so many 

descriptions on the views relating to the animals:“Crows high in 

the wind and a few trees bathing in the evening glow”,“wild geese 

flying in the light of a waning moon, leaving behind several 

honks”, “raising deer for enjoying, and breeding fish for fishing”, 

and“the noises from cicadas make the woods seem more quiet, 

and the warbles of birds help promote the stillness of the mountains.” 

Cultivating a Good Taste in Description of 

Landscapes by Way of Analogy or Metaphor 

The“aesthetic conception of a landscape garden”comes from 

the people’s visual perception wherefrom a feeling for the garden 

arises. The real image of the garden made a deep impression on the 

visitor, which interacts with his or her feelings for it. In the 

designing of the Chinese classical gardens, the garden landscapes 

have always been endowed with the aesthetic taste or styles of 

poetry and painting.“A landscape may be finite, but its aesthetic 

conception is infinite”. The unity of the real image and the 

aesthetic taste for the garden landscape is the utmost goal for the 

garden architects to achieve. 

The aesthetic taste for a landscape garden arises from the natural 

sights and their interrelations. The visionary conception, however, 

is higher or more than what people really see. As the sights change 

with their surroundings, the garden architect usually defines the 

main contents of a garden by a theme so as to lead its development 

to a planned direction. 

There is an old saying in China:“Whether the scenery is beautiful 

or not depends on the aesthetic taste of a man.” Taste also changes 

with the sights. The knowledge of the purpose and the theme of a 

garden can help promote a visitor's perspective and taste. In this 

case, the landscape garden features a double function: either for 

pleasures or for visitors to learn something new from it. 

As mentioned above, the Chinese garden architecture is a comprehensive 

art, which changes with time and space, and offers information 

of various kinds. Therefore, the theme of a garden should 

be based on its dominant natural circumstance. Here are some well 

known scenic spots whose names are the typical examples for the

Mountains and Waters, by Tang Yin, Ming Dynasty 


expression of the unity of a beautiful scene and the aesthetic taste 

for it: The “Broken Bridge With the Thawing Snow”and 

“Autumn Moon on the Calm Lake”in the West Lake Garden in 

Hangzhou, and“Four Bridges amidst Misty Rain”in the Slender 

West Lake Garden in Yangzhou, and the“Hammer Peak in 

the Evening Glow”in the Mountain Summer Resort at Chengde. 

In the designing of Chinese gardens, the aesthetic conception is 

results of one's cultural level and one's aesthetic taste for landscapes. 

Expressing one's feelings for landscape and making use of nature 

beauty are the two essential ways to enrich the conception. The 

natural beauty to be utilized in a garden is not only a concrete 

spectacle, but also suggests a poetic conception, such as the scenes 

of“evening bell”, “morning moon”, “fisherman's song”,“lotus 

fragrance, and flying wild-duck”, all these natural scenes would 

arouse a sentimental or thoughtful feelings of the looker for the 

landscapes. 

The Chinese garden art has made great contributions to the world 

garden architecture, including the idea and execution of building 

a garden landscape with the aesthetic conception, mainly to 

express people's feelings for nature beauty. To create an elegant, 

fetching and tasteful garden is surely the nuclear cultural value that 

the entire Chinese garden architects pursue. As the poets and 

painters, the garden architects devoted their efforts to and feelings 

for the construction of gardening landscape, making the garden 

like a moving poem or a lively painting. 

Influence on the World 

The Chinese classical gardening architecture has distinguished 

itself in the history of the world gardening culture with its 

time-honored civilization and unique gardening technology. 

By way of cultural exchanges with foreign countries, the 

Chinese garden art has produced significant effect on the 

designing as well as the artistic styles of the gardening cultures 

of other countries. The Chinese classical garden architecture


has made positive contributions to the development of the 

gardening culture all over the world. 

The world landscape garden architecture is mainly classified into 

two systems: the Western and Eastern system. As the typical of 

its group in the Eastern system, the Chinese landscape architecture 

can build landscape gardens by modeling on natural beauty 

as a dreamland. The Western system, taking the European 

landscape architecture as its representative, is noted by their 

making the natural scenes in good order and neatness for domestic 

life. That is, the Eastern system tries to have a full understanding 

and development of the natural beauty, while the Western 

stresses a geometrical formalist beauty of gardens. 

China has long since had exchanges with its neighboring countries 

in Eastern Asia of the gardening architecture. For example, the 

landscape layout and architectural structures in Tang style can be 

found almost in all the classical gardens of South Korea. For 

another example, the Kyung-Bok Palace(Gyong-bok kung) in 

Seoul of South Korea, named its primary hall as“Hall of Diligent 

Government”, a popular name of structures in many Chinese 

imperial palaces and gardens in the past dynasties. 

Japan had few written records of its landscape architecture before 

the Asuka Period (593-709). It has learnt from the diagrams carved 

on the ancient mirrors unearthed by archaeologists that the dwellings 

at that time were usually ornamented with merely a few trees. 

Starting from the 7th century, Japan had absorbed a great deal of 

cultural knowledge from the Chinese Tang Dynasty, including the 

Chinese techniques on architecture and gardening art. Combined 

with the beautiful natural prospects in this island nation, the 

natural landscape gardens with the typical native characters were 

brought about in Japan. The courtyards with a strolling-aboutfountain 

style structure appeared in the Japanese imperial palaces, 

modeling on the styles of the palaces in the Qin and Han dynasties 

of China, and the immortal fairyland“Three Penglai Isles”was 

also imitated setting up in the ponds of such courtyards. 

Ancient landscape garden in Hanoi, Vietnam 

From the Asuka Period (593-709) to Nara Period (710-794), more 

accomplishments of Chinese civilization were introduced to Japan, 

to greatly promote the Japanese landscape architecture. According 

to the relics unearthed, a garden structure popular in the Jin 

Dynasty (265-420) of China had been introduced into Japan by 

that time. It was the “Floating Cups on a Winding Stream”. In 

the Heian period (794-1185), the pond-fountain courtyards became 

prevailing in the imperial gardens and the mansions of the 

Japanese nobles. They were also in the form of the fairyland,“hills 

standing in the pond”, similar to the pond-hill courtyards of the 

Tang Dynasty. During the Song Dynasty (907-1279) of China, 

Zen Buddhism and tea-making were introduced to Japan from 

China, paving way for the development of the art of tea brewing 

and serving and the chaniwa (garden attached to the tea serving 

house) in Japan. Later in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the book 

“On Garden Designing” was introduced to Japan. It was renamed 

as“Wonderful Workmanship Surpassing Nature”, exerting a strong 

effect on the Japanese landscape architecture from then. 

As for the landscape designing, the Japanese had followed the 

symbolism and abstractionism, a school of thought derived from 

the Zen Buddhism and the Neo-Confucianism passed over to

Japan. They designed their gardens in the impressionistic manner, 

trying to“condense a large landscape into a very limited area”. In 

the period, the gardens in the extremely impressionistic style 

appeared in Japan. They were called Karesansui in Japanese 

pronunciation, being the Zen gardens made of sand and rocks 

without any water. Among them, the Rock Garden at Komyoji 

Temple (Jodo Sect) in Kamakura has been regarded as the 

representative. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty in China, one of 

its government officials Zhu Shun-shui exiled to Japan (1665). He 

spent more time on the garden designing while giving his lectures. 

The Koishikawa Korakuen Garden (1668-1669) constructed by a 

Japanese noble family was named by him.“Korakuen”means 

“taking a pleasure afterward”, quoting from a Chinese classic 

“Mencius”, referring to“Concern about the state affairs first and 

take personal pleasures afterwards”. Mr. Zhu introduced a type of 

the “moon bridge” into the garden from China. This was the first 

time to transfer the technology of the Chinese arch bridge to Japan. 

The time for the European to learn the Chinese landscape architecture 

dates back to the early Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368) when 

Italian traveler Marco Polo (1254-1323) paid a visit to the classical 

gardens in Hangzhou. He brought with him a great number of 

Chinese Garden of Friendship 

Sydney,Australia 

Lattice windows of Chinese Garden of Friendship 

Sydney,Australia 


Oriental stories back to his motherland after he had spent 17 years 

in China. He presented the charming Chinese civilization to the 

world in his book entitled“The Travels of Marco Polo”, inspiring 

the European to show their interests to China. 

Since the late 17th century, some European merchants and churchmen 

who were touring in China had introduced the Chinese 

architecture and garden art to the West systematically. In the year 

of 1685, William Temple published his book“On Gardens of 

Epicuras” and made a contrast between the European geometric 

gardens and the Chinese natural gardens. The book promoted the 

constructions of the British natural gardens. 

In 1757, the foremost British architect Sir William Chambers 

(1723-1796) published his book“Design of Chinese Buildings, 

Furniture, Dresses, Machines and Utensils”. Three fourth of it was 

devoted to the introduction of the Chinese gardens. In 1772, he 

wrote another work“Dissertation on Oriental Gardens”, focusing 

on the Chinese garden art. He had toured of China twice. He was 

appointed as the Architect of the King's Works (1761), and later 

the Chief Architect (1782). His works had guided the development 

of the British natural landscape architecture. And it was he


who made the Britain endow its natural gardens with more refined 

impressionist taste. 

Since there was a striking contrast between the Chinese classical 

garden in natural form and the European garden following the 

rationalist aesthetic principles, the introduction of the Chinese 

style to Britain had greatly affected the designing of the British 

natural gardens. And then, the so-called Anglo-Chinese style 

garden came into being and was confirmed as a current style 

Yuehui Garden, champion of the landscape garden making at 

'99 World Horticulture Fair held in Kunming 

throughout the Europe in the 18th century. For example, engaged 

by Empress Dowager Augusta (King's mother), Sir William Chambers 

began to renovate the imperial Kew Garden in 1758-1759. He 

designed more scenic spots in the garden with many attractive 

chinoiseries, such as the pagoda and the Confucius temple. 

Afterwards, the form of chinoiserie became popular all over the 

Europe. Moreover, the Chinese model of gardens brought about 

the layout variations to the European gardens. The natural and 

irregular shapes replaced the extremely geometric and symmetric

forms by waterscapes and plant disposition. And the concept on 

the seasonal variations was also adopted in their designs. 

The Chinese influence on the European landscape architecture 

should include the introduction of the Chinese ornamental plants. 

Over 1000 species of plants have been introduced to Europe from 

China, such as golden-rain tree, ginkgo, and dove tree. In the Kew 

Garden, there are 11 species of tree peony introduced from China. 

And many of the native flowers of China have become the major 

species of flowers in Europe, such as cuckoo, camellia, yulan 

magnolia and Chinese rose. Some plants blossoming in winter also 

came from China, as plum blossom, calyx canthus, and lonicera 

periclymenum. Therefore, there is a book on the Chinese landscape 

plants entitled “China - Mother of Gardens”, which was 

written by the British horticulturist E. H. witson. 

The Chinese garden art is a crystallized product of the Chinese 

civilization.In the past 50 years, the Chinese landscape architecture 

has been made known extensively abroad via various cultural 

exchange activities, especially with the replica of architectural 

structures to present the artistic charm of them,such as the 

“Astor Court”in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art in 

USA,“Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Classical Chinese Garden (Yi-Yuan 

Garden)” in Canada, Chinese Bonsai Garden (Yun-Xiu Garden) 

in Singapore, and the Chinese Garden of Friendship (Yi-Yuan 

Garden) in Australia, etc. In 1999, the '99 World Horticultural 

Exposition held in Kunming of China attracted over 10,000,000 

visitors. The Yuehui Garden designed by Guangdong Province 

won the championship of the landscape garden making and was 

awarded the “Best Exhibition Project” as well. 

Over the past several hundreds of years, the Chinese classical 

gardens have been regarded as the models to be reproduced by the 

garden designers abroad. As a result, the development of gardens 

in the Eastern Asian and Western European countries has promoted 

the development of the gardens in the whole world. There 

is no doubt that the Chinese classical gardens are the most splendid 

Senso-ji Temple, Tokyo, Japan 


cultural heritages to the whole world with their artistic charms and 

unique national features. 

Since Mt. Taishan was included in the list of World Natural and 

Cultural Heritages by UNESCO in I990, many Chinese wonders 

have been also listed each as one of the World Natural and Cultural 

Heritages, such as the imperial gardens ( including Mountain 

Summer Resort at Chengde and Summer Palace in Beijing) and 

private classical gardens (including Humble Administrator's 

Garden, Lingering Garden, Garden of the Master of Nets and 

Mountain Villa in Elegant Surroundings in Suzhou), mountains 

(including Mt. Wuyishan in Fujian, Mt.Wutaishan in Shanxi and 

Mt.Huangshan in Anhui), and the scenic spots (including Ancient 

City of Lijiang, and Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan Scenic Area). 

Indeed, they are certainly the invaluable wealth shared by the 

people all over the world.

Garden Spectacle, Ming Dynasty, by Qiu Ying (previous

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