The cerebral hemispheres - the area of the brain believed <strong>to</strong> deal with advancedmental processes in humans - are exceptionally well developed in orcas, <strong>and</strong> thecerebral cortex is highly convoluted. A further indica<strong>to</strong>r is the brain weight <strong>to</strong> spinalcord ratio. In humans, this ratio is around 50:1, in apes 8:1 <strong>and</strong> in horses about 3:1,.Bottlenose dolphins (close cousins <strong>to</strong> orcas) compare favourably <strong>to</strong> homo sapiens, witha ratio of 40:1.Echolocation, communication <strong>and</strong> dialectIn the realm of the orca, sound rather than sight is the dominant sense. Studies haverevealed that orcas possess excellent vision, both above <strong>and</strong> below water. However,underwater, shifting patterns of light <strong>and</strong> shadow, combined with wave action <strong>and</strong> turbidwaters, may render sight unreliable <strong>and</strong> sound becomes the primary <strong>to</strong>ol, both forhunting <strong>and</strong> for social interaction. <strong>Orcas</strong> use a highly sophisticated system known assonar or echolocation when hunting their prey. The orca unleashes a rapid series ofhigh-pitched clicks which are directed through the fatty tissue in the forehead known asthe melon. By listening <strong>to</strong> the echoes which reflect off the body of prey species in itspath, the orca is able <strong>to</strong> form an 'acoustic image', or sound picture, which preciselylocates <strong>and</strong> identifies its prey, even in the darkest waters.<strong>Orcas</strong> communicate via a series of pure-<strong>to</strong>ne, bird-like whistles, grunts, squeaks <strong>and</strong>harsh, shrieking calls, which vary depending on the context. If individuals are routinelyforaging or travelling, calls are basically stereotyped, with only slight variations induration <strong>and</strong> pitch. However, some situations create a great deal of excitement, such aswhen two pods meet after a separation period. At such times, vocal activity is oftenintense <strong>and</strong> the calls produced are shorter in duration, higher in pitch <strong>and</strong> rapidlyrepeated. When playing, both adults <strong>and</strong> calves emit an array of squeaks, squeals <strong>and</strong>whistles.Sound carries much further in water than in air, <strong>and</strong> calls may travel as far as 10 km (6.2miles) underwater, enabling individuals <strong>to</strong> keep in vocal contact with other podmembers whilst foraging, even when out of visual range.Researchers use underwater microphones (hydrophones) <strong>to</strong> eavesdrop on the richacoustic world of the orca. In the late 1970's John Ford discovered that each orca podhas its own distinctive call reper<strong>to</strong>ire, known as a dialect. Dialects are extremely rare inthe animal kingdom, only orcas <strong>and</strong> humans share dialects among individuals living inthe same area.Young orcas apparently learn pod dialect by mimicking their mothers <strong>and</strong> other podmembers. It seems likely that dialect serves as an 'acoustic membership card', readilyidentifying pod members <strong>and</strong> helping <strong>to</strong> preserve the social cohesion of the group. It isalso possible that dialect plays a role in mating behaviour. Perhaps orcas consciouslychoose a mate who communicates in a different dialect, (therefore a member of adifferent pod), thus helping <strong>to</strong> avoid inbreeding. 4Orca studies in other parts of the world<strong>Orcas</strong> are widely-distributed in every ocean of the world <strong>and</strong> thrive in a wide variety ofhabitats. However, they are more concentrated in cooler waters, particularly <strong>to</strong>ward thepolar regions <strong>and</strong> may even enter areas of ice floe in search of prey. The largestconcentrations are found in the waters off Icel<strong>and</strong>, Norway, Alaska, British Columbia,northern Japan <strong>and</strong> Antarctica. Elsewhere, sightings are more sporadic.Different populations may vary subtly in appearance, for example orcas in the Antarcticare smaller <strong>and</strong> have a yellowish hue. Off Australia <strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong>, orcas tend<strong>to</strong>wards dark purplish-brown, whilst off Mexico, the greyish saddle patch behind thedorsal fin is much plainer <strong>and</strong> more featureless than in resident populations off BritishColumbia.11
Most of what we know about the habits <strong>and</strong> social behaviour of orcas in the wild isderived from more than a quarter of a century of study in British Columbia <strong>and</strong>Washing<strong>to</strong>n State. In recent years, scientists <strong>and</strong> researchers in other parts of the worldhave also begun <strong>to</strong> study local orca populations, inspired by the groundbreaking work ofMichael Bigg <strong>and</strong> his colleagues. In the mid-80's, researchers in Alaska began pho<strong>to</strong>identificationstudies <strong>and</strong> found social composition <strong>and</strong> behaviour <strong>to</strong> be very similar <strong>to</strong>the BC communities.In Argentina, researchers have witnessed male orcas intentionally str<strong>and</strong>ing themselvesin order <strong>to</strong> seize sealion prey; <strong>and</strong> off the Crozet Isl<strong>and</strong>s in the Indian Ocean,researchers have documented that females routinely teach their calves deliberatestr<strong>and</strong>ing techniques as part of hunting behaviour. 512
- Page 2 and 3: IntroductionContentsSection 1 The s
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• Thor, Stella, Oscar and Maggie,
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identification techniques and under
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of discrediting the accepted link b
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In their quest to promote their pro
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eality, taken the form of peaceful
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make a great deal from these transa
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without a valid capture permit, Sea
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Attendance at Sea World's Ohio park
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park. One student observed that kee
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Many people now believe that marine
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The way forward: cetacean-free faci
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The future of current captives:Thos
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under his flippers, his 'papilloma'
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Lolita: Captured in August 1970 at
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In Keiko's case, orca scientists ha
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Section 8Conclusions and recommenda
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APPENDIXTable 1 Current distributio
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24 NOAA. October 1993. Protected sp
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pp1-102.92 Awbrey, F. November 1991
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8, p34.156 Kleiman, D. March 1989."