Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato Production

This publication is prepared by PAN Germanyfor PAN UK.Pesticide Action Network (PAN)Founded in 1982, the Pesticide Action Network is aninternational coalition of over 600 citizens groups in more than60 countries, working to oppose the misuse of pesticides and topromote sustainable agriculture and ecologically sound pestmanagement.PAN Germany was established in 1984 as part of thisglobal network and has continually been involved in initiatives toreduce the use of hazardous pesticides and to promotesustainable pest management systems on national, Europeanand global levels.AcknowledgementsFirst, we want to express our gratitude to the universitiesand organisations that have given the permission to use theirphotos for the OISAT project. (For more details see p. 43)We also wish to thank all the individuals, groups andorganizations that have prepared the bases for the most controlmeasures presented in this field guide, may it have been bypreserving traditional experience, on field trials, on fieldresearch or in the lab.© Pesticide Action Network (PAN) GermanyNernstweg 32, 22765 Hamburg, GermanyPhone: +49 (0) 40 – 399 19 10-0Fax: + 49 (0) 40 – 390 75 20Email: info@pan-germany.orgInternet: www.pan-germany.orgwww.oisat.orgPrepared by: Dr. Jewel BissdorfEditor: Carina WeberLayout: Reginald BruhnHamburg, August 2005Apart from the photos, permission is granted to reproduce anyand all portions of this publication, provided the publisher, title,and editor are acknowledged.

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionGeneral recommendationsThroughout this field guide you will find suggestions for lessening the pests’ populationbefore they have control over your tomato field. To make a plan for you to grow a healthycrop, the following tips are the steps you ought to take:1. Learn to identify the pests and other causal agents and the natural enemies2. Select the proper tomato variety that is well adapted to your local conditions3. Always select good and diseased-free seeds and transplant only pest-free seedlings.If possible, treat seeds to kill seed borne pathogens and insect pests4. Have a healthy soil, and always keep in mind that over-fertilizing isn’t necessarilybetter5. Practice crop rotation by planting on the next cropping season- crops of differentfamily group6. If possible practice intercropping to improve the field’s diversity and to encouragenatural enemies7. Follow the recommended planting distances and practice staking8. Prepare the soil thoroughly by appropriate tillage9. Always practice proper field sanitation by removing and pruning infested plant parts,keeping the area free of weeds and other plant residues, and cleaning regularly allfarm tools and implements10. Monitor your plants regularly11. When in doubt, always ask for assistance from your local agriculturistsWhen controlling pests using the plant extracts and other homemade solutions, thefollowing are the standard procedures for their preparation and application;1. Select plants/plant parts that are pests-free.2. When storing the plants/plant parts for future usage, make sure that they are properlydried and are stored in an airy container (never use plastic container), away fromdirect sunlight and moisture. Make sure that they are free from molds before usingthem.3. Use utensils for the extract preparation that are not used for your food preparationand for drinking and cooking water containers. Clean properly all the utensils everytime after using them.4. Do not have a direct contact with the crude extract while in the process of thepreparation and during the application.5. Make sure that you place the plant extract out of reach of children and house petswhile leaving it overnight.6. Always test the plant extract formulation on a few infested plants first before goinginto large scale spraying.7. Wear protective clothing while applying the extract.8. Wash your hands after handling the plant extract. Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 9

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionInsects/MitesAntsDamageAnts take the sown seeds back to their colony,feed on germinating seeds and on young seedlings.They tend insect pests like aphids, scales,whiteflies, mealybugs, and other honeydewproducing insects. These actions result in missinghills, thus loss of plant stand, uneven growthdistribution in the field, and an increased incidenceof diseases caused by the abovementioned insects.DescriptionEggs are delicate, soft, white, and are laid inclusters of 75-125 eggs.The larva is grub-liked, legless, very soft, andwhitish in color. It inflicts no damage as it dependson the worker ant (older sibling) for care and food.The pupa is whitish and develops inside the ant'snest. It has visible legs and in some cases, wings.The pupal stage is the transitional stage betweenthe larva and the adult which emerges during thefinal molt.Control measuresCultural practicesIncrease the seeding/seedling rate. Thispractice turns out cheaper than with the use ofinsecticide.Control mealybug, aphid, whitefly, and otherinsects that excrete honeydew. The ants are likelyto be found in plants infested by these insectsbecause they protect them for their food.Other solutionsAnt oil sprayMix 2 tbsp dish washing soap, 2 tsp vegetableoil, 2 tbsp salt, and few drops of vinegar into 4 litersof water.Soap sprayAn adult ant varies in color, from blackish toreddish-brown depending on its species. It hasrobust mandibles with strong teeth that could inflictpainful bites. It has elbowed- antennae, a thin waist,and if it is winged, the hind wings are smaller thanthe front wings and have few veins.Ants are also beneficial insects because theyprey on termites, eggs, pupa, and caterpillars ofother insect pests. Nevertheless, ants should not beintroduced into vegetable gardens for insect pestcontrol.Soap sprayMethod of preparationMix 2½ tbsp of liquidsoap to a gallon ofwater.Stir well.Another method is tomix 1 tbsp of dishwashingdetergent with1 cup of cooking oil, tomake a stock solution.For a gallon of spray,add 5-8 tbsp of stocksolution to a gallon ofwater.Pests controlledAntsLeafhoppersMealybugsPsyllidsScalesSpider mitesThripsWhiteflies andPlant diseases 10 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionAphidsDamageBoth the nymphs and the adults pierce the planttissues to feed on plant sap. The infected leavesbecome severely distorted when the saliva of aphidsare injected into them. Heavily infested ones willturn yellow and eventually wilt because of excessivesap removal. The aphids’ feeding on the plantcauses crinkling and cupping of leaves, defoliation,and stunted growth.Aphids produce large amounts of a sugaryliquid waste called honeydew. A fungus, calledsooty mold, grows on honeydew deposits thataccumulate on leaves and branches, turning leavesand branches black. The appearance of a sootymold on plants is an indication of an aphidinfestation.DescriptionThe eggs are very tiny, shiny black, and arefound in the crevices of bud, stems, and barks of theplant.The nymphs look like the young adults, maturewithin 7-10 days, and are then ready to reproduce.The adults are small, 3-4 mm long, soft-bodiedinsects with two projections on the rear end and twolong antennae. Their body color varies from yellow,green, brown, to purple. Females can give birth tolive nymphs as well as can lay eggs. However, theprimary means of reproduction for most aphidspecies is asexual, with eggs hatching inside theirbodies, and then giving birth to living young. Wingedadults, black in color, are produced only when it isnecessary for the colony to migrate, or there iseither overcrowding in colonies, or unfavorableclimatic conditions.Control measuresCultural practices1. Control and kill ants. Cultivate and floodthe field. This will destroy ant colonies andexpose eggs and larvae to predators andsunlight. Ants use the aphids to gainaccess to nutrients from the plants.2. Avoid using heavy doses of highly solublenitrogen fertilizers. Aphids love tender,juicy leaves. Instead apply fertilizer into 3phases: during seedling, vegetative, andreproductive stages of plant growth.Physical controlYellow basin trapHalf-fill yellow pan or basin with soapy water.Place the pan close to the plant but exposedenough so that aphids will see it.Yellow sticky board traps (refer to p. 19)Plant extractsGinger rhizome extractGrind 50 g of ginger and make into paste. Mixwith 3 liters of water. Strain. Add 12 ml of soap. Mixwell. Ten (10) kg of ginger in needed for 1 ha.This spray also controls plant hoppers andthrips.Custard apple leaf extractBoil 500 g of leaves in 2 liters of water until theremaining liquid is about ½ liter. Strain. Dilute filtratewith 10 -15 liters of water. This spray material alsocontrols other caterpillars.Neem leaf extract (refer to p. 13)Neem seed extract (refer to p. 13)Other solutionsAmmonia sprayMix 1 part ammonia with 7 parts water. This sprayalso controls flea beetles, scales, thrips, andwhiteflies.Flour spray (refer to p. 21)Soap spray (refer to p. 10) Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 11

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionCutwormDamageCutworms feed on seedlings. The seedlings areoften cut off at ground level. The larvae can befound in the soil (up to a depth of about 5 cm) nearthe plant. They always curl-up when disturbed.Cutworms feed only at night. Generally, they are notfound on plants or on the soil surface during theday. The newly hatched larvae feed from the basetowards the tip of the leaf. At this stage, they firstfeed on the epidermis and may discolor the entireleaf surface. Young caterpillars eat the soft leavesof the plant. The full grown caterpillars are capableof eating the entire plant.DescriptionThe eggs are tiny pearl white, round, and havea ridged surface.The newly hatched larvae are greenish andabout 1 mm long. The full-grown larva has acylindrical body, brown or brownish-black with atinge of orange. The thoracic segments have one totwo dark spots near the base of the legs. Theabdominal segments generally have two lightbrownish lateral lines on each side, one above andone below the spiracles. Above the top lines arebroken lines composed of velvet semi-crescentpatches that vary in color among cutworms.The pupa is black or brown in color andmeasures about 22.5 mm long and 9.2 mm wide.The adult has dark brown forewings withdistinctive black spots and white and yellow wavystripes. The hind wings are whitish with grayishmargins. The total developmental period from egg toadult is about 35-40 days.Control measuresCultural practicesInterplant tomato with onion, garlic, peppermint,coriander, or garlic every 10-20 rows to repelcutworms and attract natural enemies. Sunflowersand cosmos can also be planted as a trap crop in oraround fields.Physical controlProtective collarsProtective collars made of plastic or paper cups,plastic drink bottles with ripped-out bottom, sturdycardboard, and milk cartons. Place the collar aroundthe young plant and push into the soil to prevent thecutworm from attacking the stem.Sticky substancesMolasses, saw dusts, or crushed eggshellsplaced around the base of each plant as traps.When cutworm emerges to feed, it will come incontact with the trap, get stuck, harden, and die.Plant extractsFinger euphorbia plant extractCut a branch and collect the oozing sap. Add 1liter of water to every 10 drops of the sap. Anothermethod is to cut a mature branch and pound it finelyto make it into a paste. Add this to 10 liters of water.Leave it for sometime then strain.Basil plant extractPound or grind of 50 g of basil leaves. Soak itovernight in 2-3 liters of water. Add 8 - 12 ml ofsoap. Stir well.Other methodBacillus thuringiensis (BT)/bran baitMoisten bran with a diluted solution of BT.Sprinkle the moist bran on the planting plots'surfaces 2 weeks before planting. Buy BT at yourlocal agricultural suppliers. 12 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionFlea beetlesDamageFlea beetles feed on seedlings. They usuallyfeed on the undersides of leaves leaving numeroussmall round or irregularly shaped holes, althoughnot generally all the way through the leaf. Becausethe beetle is small and active, it usually does notfeed much in one spot.The larvae are root feeders. They trim the roothairs and make circular pits in taproots. The adultsfeed on the leaves and stems of emergingseedlings. They chew small holes or pits, usuallyless than 3 mm in diameter giving the leaves acharacteristic 'shot hole' appearance.DescriptionThe eggs are tiny white when freshly laid andgradually become yellowish-gray in color.The larva is white with a brown head and threepairs of brown legs near its head.The pupa is white, shaped roughly like adultand pupates in the soil. It is found in the soil nearthe base of the plant on which it has beenpreviously feeding.The adult is small, hard, elongated, ovalshaped,with enlarged black hind legs and slightlyhairy wing covers. It is about 2 mm in size. It isbronze, dark-metallic bronze or black in color. It hasenlarged hind legs. They all jump vigorously likefleas when disturbed, hence the name.Control measuresCultural practicesRotate tomato with wheat or sunflowers or withother observed non-host crops.Physical controlRow coversKeep flea beetles away by putting row cover onseed boxes and/or seed beds immediately aftersowing.White or yellow sticky trapsMulchingPlace 2-3 inches of cut grasses or 2-4 inches ofbark mulch and wood chips or 3-4 inches ofcompost as your mulching materials to interfere thelarvae’s root feeding activities.Plant extractsNeem oil extractNeem seed extractAdd 30 grams of powdered kernel in 1 liter ofwater. Let it stand for 6 hours but not more than 16hours. Add soap and stir. Constantly shake thecontainer or stir the extract while in the process ofapplication.Neem oil extractMethod of preparationAdd 30 ml of neem oilinto 1 liter of soapy water.Constantly shakethe container or stir theextract while in the processof application toprevent oil from separating.Pests controlledFlea beetlesGall midgeLeafhoppersNeem leaf extractMethod of preparationPound gently 1-2 kg ofneem leaves. Place in apot. Add 2-4 liters ofwater. Cover the mouthof the pot securely withthe cloth and leave it assuch for 3 days. Strainto get clear extract.Dilute 1 liter of neemleaf extract with 9 litersof water. Add 100 ml ofsoap. Stir well.Pests controlledAphidsColorado potato beetlesGrasshoppersGrubsJapanese beetlesLeafhoppersLocustsPlant hoppersScalesSnailsThripsWeevilsWhiteflies Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 13

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionHornwormDamageThe larvae eat the leaves, initially attacking theupper portion of plants and thereby consumingfoliage, blossoms, and green fruits. They usuallyconsume the entire leaf and are capable of highlevels of defoliation. The highest foliageconsumption occurs during the final stage becauseof its large size. They blend in with the foliage andare not easy detected.DescriptionThe eggs are spherical to oval in shape andmeasure about 1.50 mm in diameter. The colorvaries from light green to white. Eggs are depositedboth on the lower and the upper surfaces of foliage.The larva is cylindrical and bears five pairs ofprolegs in addition to the three pairs of thoracic legs.It has a thick pointed structure or horn locateddorsally on the terminal abdominal segment. Thehorn is dark-green with black sides. It has a V-seriesof white striping along the sides of its body.The pupa is large and elongate-oval, butpointed at the posterior end. It measures 45-60 mmin length. The pupa bears a pronounced maxillaryloop, a structure in the upper jaw which encases themouthparts.Adults are large moths with stout, narrow wings.A moth has a wingspan of about 1 cm. Theforewings are much longer than the hind wingswhich are dull-grayish or brown in color. The sidesof the abdomen are usually marked five spots. Thehind wings bear alternating light and dark bands.Adults are known as sphinx and hummingbirdmoths.Control measuresCultural practicesPlant dill as trap crop and basil and marigold asrepellents.Physical methods1. Handpick the larvae and feed them tochicken or kill them by drowning in soapywater. They are easy to pick due to theirlarge size but you must be very observantbecause they easily blend with the color ofthe plant’s leaves.2. Use light traps (kerosene lamps orpetromax) to attract adults. Place thekerosene lamps near the shallow discs ofwater to drown the moths. 14 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionLeafhoppersDamageBoth the nymphs and the adults’ leafhoppersfeed on the plant sap. They then suck out the liquidcontents leaving behind the dead and empty cellswhich are small, white spots. Heavy feeding resultsto ‘hopperburn’ which is caused by the toxic effectsof the insects’ saliva. It also causes mosaic virusdisease as the pests are carriers of the virus.DescriptionThe eggs are laid inside the soft plant tissue onthe underside of the leaves. They are elongate orcurve, whitish to greenish, and about 0.9 mm long.Eggs hatch in about 10 days.The nymphs look similar to the adults but arevery small, pale yellow-green, and wingless. Theyundergo five nymphal stages. Their cast skinsusually remain on the lower surface of the leaf.Nymphs have the ability to walk sideways, forwardor backward at rapid paces.Adults are small, elongate, wedge-shapedinsects about 3-4 mm long. They hop fast, flyquickly, and can run in all directions when disturbed,hence the name leafhopper. Many leafhoppers lookalike and their colors vary; from green, gray, tan,brown, banded, which often lead to misidentificationof the different species.Control measuresPhysical controlRow coverUse row covers to prevent the seedlings fromthe early attack of the pestPlant extractsGarlic oil extractNeem oil extract (refer to p. 13)Garlic oil extractMethod of preparationChop finely 100 g ofgarlic. Soak thechopped garlic inmineral oil for a day.Add ½ liter and 10 ml ofsoap. Dilute filtrate with10 liters of water.Constantly shake thecontainer or stir theextract while in theprocess of theapplication to prevent oilfrom separating.Pests controlledLeafhoppersImported cabbage wormSquash bugsWhiteflies Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 15

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionLeafminersDamageThe larvae make long, slender, winding, whitetunnels in leaves. Severely mined leaves may turnyellow, disfigured, and drop. Severely minedseedlings are stunted and eventual death occurs.DescriptionThe eggs are laid under the surface of leafepidermis, are ovate, creamy-white in color, andtiny- about 0.10-0.15 mm in diameter. The eggshatch after 2-5 days.The larva is legless, whitish to yellow green witha darker head. It has a mouth hook structure that isretractable into the body. A newly hatched larvatunnels through the mid-leaf tissues leaving itscharacteristic wavy lines that are visible on top ofthe leaf. It undergoes 3 larval stages that last for 4-7days. When the larva is ready to pupate, it cuts ahole where it stays and feeds and usually drops tothe soil to pupate.The pupa varies in color, from yellowish-brownto almost black, and distinctly segmented. It is ovalshaped,becoming narrow at the end. The pupalstage lasts for 10-12 days.Adult is a small fly, about 2.5 mm long. It isgrayish to black with yellow markings. Female fliesare slightly larger than males.Control measuresCultural practicesConservation of the natural enemies is animportant aspect of leafminer management.Maintain flowering grasses around field margins toprovide habitat and food for natural enemies.Physical methodsKitchen funnelInverted kitchen funnel capped with a plasticvial to monitor adults' emergence from theseedbeds.Plastic traysPlace the trays under the plants to monitor andcatch pupating larvae as they leave the plants topupate in the soil.Yellow plastic gallon containersMount containers upside down on sticks coatedwith transparent automobile grease or used motoroil. These should be placed in and around the fieldat about 10 cm above the foliage. Clean and re-oilwhen traps are covered with flies.Yellow plastic drinking cupsCoat cups with adhesive (used motor oil) andstapled on stakes above plant canopies to trap flies.Yellow plastictrapping sheetsA 2 m long x 75cm wide yellow plasticsheet coated withmotor oil, both endsattached to bamboo orwooden poles andcarried by 2 personsthrough the field tomass capture adultflies.Plant extractsGinger, garlic, andchilli extractNeem powderedseed extract (refer top. 17)Ginger, garlic,and chilli extractMethod of preparationSoak 50 g of peeledgarlic overnight in 10 mlmineral oil.Combine garlic, 25 g ofgreen chilies, and 25 gof ginger.Add 50 ml of water tothe mixture. Grind them.Add 3 liters of water.Pests controlledAphidsArmywormCotton bollwormCaterpillarsCorn earwormFruit borersLeafminersShoot borersThripsTomato fruitwormWhiteflies 16 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionPsyllidsDamageNymphs and adults suck plant juices causingretarded growth of the internodes, upward cuppingor rolling of leaves, and thickening of leaves. Leafmargins and other plant parts can become yellow,reddish or purplish. Older leaves and heavily injuredplants may die. Psyllid-yellows and Purple-top arethe common symptoms as results of toxic salivainjected by the insects.Tomatoes that areattacked during thevegetative stage may bearno fruits. A later attack cancause the production of anabnormal number of fruitsthat will never attain thedesired fruit sizes.DescriptionEggs are very small, ovate-shaped, and yellowto orange in color. Egg is found singly on very finestalks usually along leaf margins. Eggs are notvisible to naked eyes.Nymphs are flattened and somewhat scale-likewith a fringe of short spines around the edge. Newlyhatched nymphs are yellowish and turn pale-brownto green as they mature. They undergo fournymphal stages and are usually found on lowerleaves and on lower leaf surfaces.Adults are striped with alternating dark and lightbands. Their common name (Jumping plant lice) isderived from their ability to jump backwards whendisturbed. A mature female can lay over 500 eggs.Their lifecycle is 15-30 days.Control measuresCultural practicesSelect tomato varieties that have extra hairyleaves for they are less attractive to psyllids.Physical methodsYellow sticky board traps (refer to p. 19)Plant extractsNeem oil extractAdd 15 ml of neem oil into 1 liter of soapywater. Constantly shake the container or stir theextract while in the process of application to preventoil from separating.Neem powderedseed extractMethod of preparationAdd 50 grams ofpowdered kernel in 1liter of water.Let it stand for 6 hoursbut not more than 16hours.Add soap and stir.Constantly shake thecontainer or stir theextract while on theprocess of application.Pests controlledAphidsAmerican bollwormsCotton leaf rollersDiamondback mothsGrasshoppersLeafhoppersLeafminersRed locustsMexican bean beetlesWhiteflies Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 17

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionSpider mitesDamageGenerally, mites feed on the undersides ofleaves. They use their sucking mouthparts toremove plant saps. The upper leaf surface has aspeckled or mottled appearance while theunderneath appears tan or yellow and has a crustytexture. Infested leaves may turn yellow, dry up, anddrop in a few weeks. Mites produce large amount ofwebbing. Heavy infestation will result in a finecobwebby appearance on the leaves. Plants diewhen infestation is severe.DescriptionThe eggs are tiny, spherical, pale-white, andare laid on the undersides of leaves often under thewebbings. Eggs hatch in 4 or 5 days.Nymph looks similar to the adult but is only thesize of an egg. It has only 6 legs. It molts 3 timesbefore becoming an adult.The adult is also very tiny, maybe yellowish,greenish, pinkish, or reddish depending on thespecies. It looks like a tiny moving dot. It has anoval body with 8 legs and with 2 red eyespots nearthe head of the body. The male is smaller than thefemale with a more pointed abdomen. A femaleusually has a large, dark blotch on each side withnumerous bristles covering her legs and body.Spider mite is not an insect.Control measuresCultural practices1. Provide plants with adequate water. Waterstressedplants are prone to damage bymites.2. Avoid the use of broad spectruminsecticide for this may cause a mites'outbreak. This practice kills the naturalenemies of mites and stimulates mites'reproduction.Physical control1. Hosing with a strong jet of water knocks offmites and destroys their webs. Be sure toinclude the underneath of the leaves.2. Apply water to pathways and other dustyareas at regular intervals.Plant extractsCoriander seed extractPound or crush 200 grams of coriander seeds.Boil in 1 liter of water for 10 minutes. Cool andstrain. Dilute extract with 2 liters of water. Thisextract also prevents fungal diseases.Other solutionsHorticultural oilSpray 2% solution against mites. To make a 2%solution, pour 1/3 cup oil into a 1 gallon container,and then fill with water to make a 1 gallon solution.For a 3% solution, start with ½ cup of oil. Applysuccessive sprays at least 6 weeks apart. You canapply 1% oil solution by mixing 2.5 tbsp of oil in 1gallon of water. Horticultural oil is concentrated andmust be mixed with water.Other methodBasil leaf extract(refer to p. 25)Milk sprayMilk sprayMethod of preparationMix ½ liter of milk to 4.5liters of water (Milk andwater ratio is 1 part milkto 9 parts water). Sprayat weekly interval as apreventive controlmeasure.Pests controlledSpider mitesMildewsMosaic virusLeaf blightsFungal diseases 18 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionThripsDamageThrips have rasping-sucking mouthparts andfeed by rasping the surface of the rapidly growingtissues of the leaves and sucking up the releasedplant fluid. Thrips cause tiny scars on leaves andfruit, called stippling, which can cause stuntedgrowth. Damaged leaves may become papery anddistorted. Infested terminals lose their color, rolled,and drop leaves prematurely.DescriptionThe egg is very tiny and is impossible to see. Asingle egg is 0.25 mm long and 0.1 mm wide. It iswhite when freshly laid and turns pale yellow towardmaturation.The nymph is elongated, elliptical, slender, andis pale yellow in color. It is very small from 0.5-1.2mm in size. Its eyes have darker coloration and areeasy to see. Immature thrips do not have wings.The pupa appears as an intermediate formbetween the nymph and the adult. It has short wingControl measuresCultural practices1. Tomato should not be planted after onions.Volunteer onion plants should be removedas they attract thrips. However, they can beused as trap crops.2. Keep plants well-watered. Lack of waterincreases the susceptibility of plants tothrips damage.Physical controlBright blue or royal blue sticky board trapsPlant extractsGarlic bulb sprayFinely chop 85 g of garlic. Soak chopped garlicin 50 ml of mineral oil for 1 day. Add 10 ml of soapto the soaked garlic. Dilute with water to make a literof spray material. Stir well. This spray also controlstomato fruitworm and bacterial and fungal diseases.buds that are not functional. At this stage, they donot do any damage to the plant.The adult has a slender small body, yellowish todark brown in color, and is cigar-shaped. It is 1-2mm long with a well-pronounced 5-8 segmentedantennae. It can exist in two forms, winged orwingless. The winged form has two pairs ofelongated narrow wings which are fringed with longhairs. Female thrips can reproduce both sexuallyand asexually.Sticky board trapTo use, place 1-4 stickycards per 300 sq m fieldarea. Replace traps atleast once a week. Tomake your own stickytrap, spread petroleumjelly or used motor oil onpainted plywood ofdesired color, 6 cm x 15cm in size or up. Placetraps near the plants butfaraway enough toprevent the leaves fromsticking to the board.Traps when hung shouldbe positioned 61 cmzone above the plants.Pestsmonitored/controlledBlue sticky cardsThripsWhite sticky cardsFlea beetles, tarnishedplant bugsYellow sticky cardsAphids, cabbage rootmaggots, carrot rustflies, cabbage whitebutterflies, gnats,whiteflies Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 19

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionTomato fruitwormDamageThe larval feeding damage during thevegetative growth is usually on the tips of the leavesin the developing bud. The leaves become distorted.However, it prefers to feed on the green fruit. Itenters through its bored hole at the fruit’s pedicel.Its feeding damage is a watery cavity that containsfrass (waste matters), causing the fruit to decay orto ripe prematurely.DescriptionThe eggs are pinhead-size and yellow-green incolor. These are found singly laid near the midribusually underneath the leaf. Hatching occurs withinabout 2-5 days.The larvae vary in color from bright green, pink,brown, to black, with lighter undersides. Alternatinglight and dark bands run lengthwise along theirbodies, the heads are yellow and the legs arealmost black. Mature larvae vary in length about 3-5cm. They drop to the ground to burrow into the soilto pupate. The larval stage lasts from 12-24 days.Pupae are yellowish green and turn brown asthey mature. Pupation takes place under the soil.Pupal period is 12-24 days.An adult male is yellow-brown while a female isorange-brown in color. It has a wingspread size ofabout 3.8cm. Each female may deposit 200-2,000eggs in her entire lifetime. Total development periodfrom egg to adult is 34-45 days.Control measuresCultural practices1. Do not plant other solanaceous crops afterharvesting tomato. Never use tomato asrotation crop for corn, sorghum, cotton, andother solanaceous crops and vice versa.2. Avoid planting tomato near corn or cottonor other solanaceous crops to preventheavy pest infestations.Plant extractsGinger, garlic, and chilli extractSoak 50 g of peeled garlic overnight in 10 mlkerosene. Combine garlic, 25 g of green chilies, and25 g of ginger. Add 50 ml of water to the mixture.Grind them.Add 3 liters of water.Physical methodsPheromone trapsPlace pheromone traps at a distance of 3meters. If use to monitor the pest, place 2-3 traps ina hectare field area. Buy the pheromone thatattracts the pests you want to control. Read thelabel and follow the instructions properly.To make your own traps, make 10-12 holes intoan old plastic bottle or 3 holes on each side of aused 1 liter ice cream container to allow moths toenter. Place a wire to suspend the bait. Half-fill thecontainer with soapy water. Hang the pheromonecapsule using a string or wire. Attach the trap to astake or hang it on branch of a tree.HandpickingHandpick damaged fruits and collect those thatfall down. Destroy the damaged fruits by cutting intosmall pieces or place them in sealed sacks and dryunder the sun. Putting them immediately in compostpit or burying them will enable the matured larvae topupate into the soil. 20 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionWhitefliesDamageBoth the larvae and adults pierce and suck thesap of the leaves. This causes the weakening andearly wilting of the plant resulting in reduced plantgrowth. Their feeding may also cause yellowing,drying, premature dropping of leaves that result inplant death.Whiteflies produce honeydews that serve as thesubstrates for the growth of black sooty molds onleaves and fruit. The mold reduces photosynthesiscausing the poor plant growth of the plant. They arethe most important carriers of plant viruses thatcause diseases of fiber crops, vegetables, fruittrees, and ornamentals.DescriptionThe eggs are tiny, oval-shaped, about 0.25 mmin diameter, and stand vertically on the leaf surface.Newly laid eggs are white then turn brownish. Theyare deposited on the underside of leaves,sometimes in a circle or oval-shaped patterns.The larvae are transparent, ovate, and about0.3-0.7 mm in size and they move around on theplants looking for a feeding site upon hatching.The pupae are dirty-white and surrounded bywax and honeydews. During this stage, the red eyesof the emerging adults are visible.The adults are about 1mm long with two pairs ofwhite wings and light yellow bodies. Their bodiesare covered with waxy powdery materials. They arefound feeding on top of the plants. A female canproduce as many as 200 eggs in her lifetime andmating is not necessary. It takes about 40 days todevelop from egg to adult.Control measuresCultural practices1. Do not plant tomato near crops that havewhitefly infestation. This would lead to earlyinfestation of your crop and could ruin thewhole field crop.2. Plant Nicotania as a trap crop. Whitefliesare attracted to Nicotiana, a floweringtobacco plant variety.Plant extractsMadre de cacao & neem extractShred 1 kg of Madre de cacao leaves and 1 kgof neem leaves. Soak leaves in 5 liters of water for 3days. Strain. Add water to make up 20 liters offiltrate. Spraying interval is 4-5 days.This spray also controls aphids, armyworm,termites, and white grubs.Neem oil extractAdd 15 ml of neem oil into 1 liter of soapywater. Constantly shake the container or stir theextract while in the process of application to preventoil from separating.Other methodsAmmonia spray(refer to p. 11)Flour spraySoap spray(refer to p. 10)Flour sprayMethod of preparationAdd 2-4 tbsp of wheat orpotato or any bakingflour into 4 cups of warmwater. Add 1 tsp of soapas sticker. Stir the filtrateprior to application.Pests controlledAphidsSpider mitesThripsWhiteflies Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 21

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionWirewormDamageWireworms destroy the germinating seeds andtiny seedlings by cutting off underground rootsresulting in missing stands. They attack the stems ofnewly set plant by boring into the stems near thesoil surface. Some plants may wilt and die within afew days or may have stunted growth. Often, thewireworm is found near the damaged or missingseed or plant.DescriptionWireworms are the larvae of different species ofClick beetles. Larvae are slender and hard and feelsomewhat like wires. Their bodies are segmentedand shiny and are usually cylindrical, but flat on thelower sides. There are three pairs of legs closetogether near the head and no prolegs. Some of themost common species are white, yellowish-brown toreddish-brown, although other species may vary incolor.Control measuresCultural practices3. Where damage has been severe in theprevious cropping seasons, avoid plantingor fallow the area. Click beetles, the adultwireworms, return to the same fields to layeggs.4. If field is irrigated, flood it for at least amonth, during sunny weather, to eliminatewireworms.5. Grow Flax (Linum species) as a cover cropto kill wireworms. It is also good forcontrolling root knot nematodes. Whitemustard and Buckwheat plants are alsofound to reduce the wireworm population.Physical controlCorn/wheat seed mixture baitSoak mixture in water for 24 hours to facilitategermination. Place ½ cup (of a 1:1 corn/wheat seedmixture) in a hole that is 12 cm wide and 30 cmdeep. Cover with soil. Cover the topsoil with plasticto warm the surface and to speed up germination.Cover the edges with soil to prevent wind fromblowing away the plastic. Remove the plastic, thesoil cover, and the bait. Destroy larvae trapped inthe baits. This method is also used to monitor whitegrub population.Potato/carrot baitCut potatoes or carrots into chunks. Removethe potato 'eyes' to prevent from further growing.Make the pieces big enough and put in sticks. Bury"staked potatoes/carrots" at a depth of 3-6 cm in theground. The stick serves as the handle to easily pullthe baits out. Bury randomly in the field. Leave baitsin the soil for 2-3 days. Wireworm will feed on thebaits. Dispose the baits and the wireworm properly.Plant extractRed cedar leaf extract for seed treatmentPound 1 kg of red cedar leaves. Soak thepounded leaves in equal amount of water overnight.Strain to get a clear filtrate. Treated seeds shouldbe sown immediately. 22 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionNematodesRoot knot nematodesHostA wide variety of agricultural crops and weedsSymptomsInfected plants have swollen, impaired roots.Nematode's feeding stimulates the production ofgalls (root knots). Galls are found on the root systemboth on the primary and secondary roots. Theirsizes vary from .02 to 20 cm in diameter.The gall is characterized by smaller swellingsand more uniformly distributed infection on thelateral feeding roots. Inside the gall are shiny whitebodies of the female nematodes (about the size of apinhead). At the root surface, shiny white to yellowegg masses are found. A closer look with amagnifier may show the adults, but mostly they arenot seen with the naked eye.Severe infestation results in stunted growth,yellowing of leaves, wilting, and poor yield becausethe galls disturb the roots ability to absorb water andnutrients. They also serve as openings forpathogens, such as fungi and bacteria, which causeplant diseases.Prevention and control1. Rotate tomato with broccoli, cauliflower,sorghum, rape, and mustard seed2. Plowing under African marigold (T. minuta)3. Basil leaf extract4. Fermented marigold extract (refer to p. 29)5. Neem powdered seed extract(refer to p. 17)Pound gently 3-5 kg of de-shelled neem seeds.Add 10 liters of water. Cover the mouth of the potsecurely (with the cloth) and leave it as such for 3days. Strain to get clear extract. Dilute 1 liter of thisextract with 9 liters of water. Add 100 ml of soap.Stir well. This spray material also controls most ofthe insects/mites pests of tomato.Basil leaf extractMethod of preparationGrind leaves 50 g ofbasil leavesSoak overnight in 2-3liters of waterStrainAdd 8-12 ml soapStir wellPests controlledCaterpillarsFruit fliesRed spider mitesRed scalesSpotted leaf beetlesFungal diseasesNematodes Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 25

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionDiseasesAlternaria leaf spotSymptomsAlternaria stem canker (lesion) appears on stems,leaves, and fruit. An infested stem near the soil linehas dark-brown to black cankers with concentricrings. When the lesions enlarge, they girdle thestem and eventually kill the plant. Fruits that areharvestedfrominfested plants have brown or black necrotic sunken(submerged) lesions.Prevention and control1. Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)2. Onion bulb extract3. Compost tea spray4. Milk spray (refer to p. 18)AnthracnoseSymptomsInfected ripe tomato fruit has small, watersoaked,sunken, circular spots that may increase in size upto 1.2 cm in diameter. As it ages, the center of anolder spot becomes blackish and emits gelatinouspink spore masses. The anthracnose lesions easilyattract other rotting organisms to completely rot theinfected fruit. Infection may also occur on unripefruits, stems, leaves, and roots. Infected unripe fruitsdo notshowsymptoms until ripening. Infected roots, called black dotroot rot, only become evident when the fruits beginto ripen. The root lesions become brown and aredotted with fruiting bodies. The outer layer of theinfected roots is completely rotten.Prevention and control1. Baking soda (refer to p. 30)2. Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)3. Compost tea spray4. Onion bulb extractOnion bulbextractMethod of preparationFinely chop 50 g bulbonion.Add to 1 liter of rainwater. Strain.Diseases controlledAlternariaAnthracnoseFusarium wiltFungal leaf blightCompost teasprayMethod of preparationPut a gallon (4 liters) ofwell-matured compostinto a 5 gallon (20 liters)container.Add water until thecontainer is full.Stir well.Place in warm place for3 days to ferment.Strain.Diseases controlledFungal diseases 26 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionBacterial leaf blightSymptomsInfected tomato leaf has dark watersoaked circularspots which are about 3 mm in sizes but maybecome larger when the temperature is right. Thespots become angular and turn brown-black.Eventually, the centre of the spots may dry and leafmay drop prematurely. Infected young fruit hassmall black spots. As the bacteria further develop,the spots turn brown, slightly sunken, scabby, andsometimes surrounded by rings. Severe infestationgives the plant the appearance of blight.Prevention1. Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)2. Copper spray (refer to p. 29)3. Garlic bulb extract (refer to p. 29)4. Lemongrass extract5. Mint extract (refer to p. 27)Bacterial wiltSymptomsThe initial symptom is a wilting of the terminalleaves, which after 2-3 days becomes permanentwhen the whole plant wilts due to the activedevelopment of the disease. Then the whole plantswilt and die suddenly. In the case of a slowdevelopment of the disease, the plant stunts andproduces large numbers of adventitious roots on thestem.Bacterial wilt diagnosis in the field can be doneeasily. Cut a piece of the stem 2-3 cm long from thebase. Suspend the cut stem in clear water in a glasscontainer. Hold the stem with an improvised tong tomaintain it in a vertical position. Within a fewminutes, the smoke-like milky threads are dischargedfrom the cut stem.Prevention1. Rotate tomato with rice, corn, beans,cabbage, and sugarcane that are found tobe resistant to bacterial wilt.2. Wash or expose farm tools to heat beforeusing in another field since the bacteriacan be transmitted through them.3. Mint extractLemongrassextractMethod of preparationSoak 50 g of groundlemongrass in 2 liters ofwater for a few hoursStrainDiseases controlledLate blightBacterial diseasesMint extractMethod of preparationGrind 250 g of mintleavesMake into a pasteAdd 2 liters of waterStir well and ready foruse or strain it to have aclear extractDiseases controlledBacterial leaf spots andother bacterial diseases Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 27

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionDowny mildewSymptomsDowny mildew infection begins as angular yellowspots on the upper leaf surface. Then they becomebrilliant-yellow. Eventually, the internal parts ofthese spots become brown with yellow margins. Theunderside of this infected leaf has fine, grayishfungal growth. Infected young shoots, fruits, andseeds have white coating of fungal spores.Prevention and control1. Aloe and vitex extract (refer to p. 29)2. Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)3. Copper spray (refer to p. 29)4. Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)5. Garlic bulb extract (refer to p. 29)6. Milk spray (refer to p. 18)Early blightSymptomsEarly blight produces a wide range of symptoms atall growth stages of both potato and tomato whichinclude damping-off, collar rot, stem cankers, leafblight, and fruit/tuber rot.Seedlings grown from infested seeds may damp offsoon after emergence because large lesionsdevelop at the ground line on stems of transplantsor seedlings. Collar rot occurs when the young stembecomes girdled with dark lesions at the soil level.The infected leaf has circular lesions of about 1.2cm (1/2 inch) in diameter. Dark, concentric circles(circles with a common center) are found withinthese lesions. Infection usually begins on the lower,older leaves and progresses up the plant. Infectedleaves eventually wilt, die, and fall off. Early blightlesions show a generally dry "bulls-eye" angularpattern that do not usually spread very far and rarelyaffect petiole tissue, as the progress of the fungus isstopped by the veins of the leaf.An infected stem has small, dark, slightly sunkenareas that enlarge to form circular or elongatedspots with lightercoloredcenters.Concentricmarkings, similarto those onleaves, often develop on stem lesions.Infestation during the flowering stage of tomatocauses the blossoms to drop. The fruit stems arespotted with lesions that lead to loss of the youngfruits.An infested tomato fruit has dark, leathery sunkenspots, usually at the point of the stem attachment.These spots may enlarge to involve the entire upperportion of the fruit, often showing concentricmarkings like those on leaves. Affected areas maybe covered with velvety black masses of spores.Fruits can also be infected during the green or ripestage through growth cracks and other wounds.Infected fruits often drop before reaching maturity.Prevention and control1. Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)2. Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)3. Fermented marigold extract (refer to p. 29) 28 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionFusarium wiltSymptomsInfestation often occurs on mature plants afterflowering and at the beginning of fruit set. The initialsymptom is the yellowing on the lower leaves and aslight wilting on the infected shoots. Yellowingbegins to appear on one side of a leaf and then allleaflets become yellow on the other half of the leaf.As the disease progresses one side of the plantwilts. This process spreads to the other side, as theinfection worsens. An infected plant often diesbefore maturing.PreventionThere is no known effective method to controlFusarium wilt. The following are the preventivemeasures to cushion the impact of the disease.Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)Onion bulb extract (refer to p. 26)Copper spray(Bordeaux mix)Method of preparationMix 3 ½ tbsp of coppersulphate, 10 tbsp ofhydrated lime and 1gallon of water (4 litersof water) in a plasticbucketStir using wooden stickFermentedmarigold extractMethod of preparationFill-in container with ½ -¾ of flowering plantsLeave to stand for 5-10days.Stir occasionallyStrainDilute filtrate with waterat a ratio of 1:2Diseases controlledTomato blightsRice blastCoffee berry diseaseGarlic bulb sprayMethod of preparationGrind 2 garlic bulbsAdd to 4 cups of waterand stir in few drops ofsoap.Dilute 1 part of thisfiltrate with 9 parts ofwater.Diseases controlledBlack spotsBlightsFruit rotsMildewsAloe and vitexextractMethod of preparationSoak 5 kg of vitexleaves in sufficientamount of water andthen bring to boil for 30minutesStrainAdd 2 liters of aloe verajuiceStir in 50 ml of soapAdd 50 liters of waterPests controlledBacterial and fungaldiseasesArmywormHairy leaf-caterpillarRice leaf rollerRice stem borerSemi-looperPests controlledFlea beetlesAnthracnoseBacterial blightBacterial wiltBlack spotDowny mildewLate blightPowdery mildewRustand many other diseasecausing pathogensCautionsUse only plasticcontainersShake or stir to preventextract from cloggingSpray only on dry andsunny day, preferablyearly morning Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 29

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionLate blightSymptomsNewly infected leaves have dark-green watersoakedsmall lesions (spots), and as the lesions grow, theyappear as brown spots, with each spot surroundedby a yellow green margin. A closer look at the leafmargin will show where the fungus is most activeand how it spreads on the leaf tissues. There is ahalo (ring) of white spore producing structures thatis found in the margin of the advancing lesion on theunderside of the leaf. The parts of the veins passingthrough these lesions turn brownish. As the infectionspreads, more brown spots appear causing thewhole plants to blacken and die.The infected stem has also brown to black irregularspots that destroy the emergence of new shoots atvarious growing points.Infested young fruit has brown bumps with lesionsthat are large, irregular, and greenish-brownpatches with a greasy rough appearance. Infectedfruits never reach maturity.Severely infected tomato plant has a distinctive odoras a result of the rapid breakdown of the leaftissues.Prevention and control1. Aloe and Vitex extract (refer to p. 29)2. Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)3. Baking soda4. Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)5. Fermented Marigold extract (refer to p. 29)Baking sodaMethod 1Mix 1 tbsp of bakingsoda and 1 tbsp ofdormant oil or vegetableoilAdd 4 liters of waterStir wellAdd ½ tbsp of dishwashing liquid soapStir it againMethod 2Dissolve 1 tbsp ofbaking soda in 4 cups ofwarm waterAdd 1 tsp of liquid soapStir wellMethod 3Mix 1 tbsp of bakingsoda and 2 ½ tbsp ofvegetable oilAdd 4 liters of waterStir wellDiseasescontrolledPowdery mildew, blackspot, and other fungaldiseases 30 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionLeaf curl virusSymptomsInfected plant has stunted young leaves and shoots.It grows very slowly, becomes bushy, and dwarfed.The leaf margin rolls either inward or upward and israther stiff with yellowish margin. Its leaves arethicker than normal, with leathery texture. Theyoung leaves have yellowish color, cupped, thick,and rubbery.Prevention1. Control whiteflies as they are the carriersof the disease2. Do not plant tomato near areas whereother solanaceous crops and cotton areplanted and known to be infested bywhiteflies.3. Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)Powdery mildewSymptomsPowdery mildew is characterized by a dusty-white togray coating and talcum powder-liked growth commonlyinfecting plant's leaves. It begins as circular,powdery-white spots that turn yellow-brown andfinally black. In most cases, the fungal growth canbe partially removed by rubbing the leaves.Powdery mildew is commonly found on the upperside of the leaf. It also infects the underneathsurface of the leaf, young stem, bud, flower, andyoung fruit. The infected leaf becomes distorted,turns yellow with small patches of green, and fallsoff prematurely. Infected buds fail to open. Otherinjuries include stunting and distortion of leaves,buds, growing tips, and fruits. Infected seedlings willeventually die.Prevention and control1. Baking soda (refer to p. 30)2. Basil leaf extract (refer to p. 25)3. Compost tea spray (refer to p. 26)4. Copper Spray (Bordeau Mix) (refer to p. 29)5. Ginger powder extract6. Milk spray (refer to p. 18)7. Papaya leafextractGinger powderextractMethod of preparationAdd 20 g of gingerpowder to 1 liter of waterMix thoroughlyDiseases controlledPowdery mildewRoot rotFungal leaf blightPapaya leafextractMethod of preparationSoak 50 g of finelyshredded leaves in 1liter of water. Let it standfor 1 night.Squeeze the extract andstrain. add 2-3 liters and10 ml soap as adhesive.Diseases controlledLeafy caterpillarsCoffee rustLeaf rustMosaic virusPowdery mildew Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 31

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionTomato mosaic virusSymptomsThe common symptom of an infected plant isalternating spots of yellowish and light or dark green(mottle) leaves. The mottled areas often appearthicker and somewhat elevated giving the leaves ablister-like appearance. Other symptoms includecurling and yellowing of the leaves, stunted growth,and malformed fruits.Prevention1. Control aphids and other sucking insectsas they carry the virus.2. Milk spray (refer to p. 18)For seed treatmentsSweetflagrhizomeMethod of preparationPound or grind driedsweetflag rhizome. Take10 g sweetflag rhizomepowder and add 60 mlof water.Soak seeds for 30minutesSow treated seedsimmediatelyVinegar solutionMix 1 tbsp of vinegarand 4 cups of waterPlace the seeds on asmall cotton bagDip the bag into thevinegar and watersolutionDry dipped seeds on oldnewspapers beforesowing and make surethat seeds arecompletely dry beforestoring 32 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionNatural enemiesBraconidsHostsAnts, aphids, armyworms, beetle's larvae,bollworms, cabbageworms, caterpillars, codlingmoths, corn borers, cutworms, imported tentcaterpillars, leafhoppers, leafminers, maggots,midges, plant bugs, scales, tomato hornworms,weevils, and many more.DescriptionEggs and larvae of Bracons are found inside thehosts' bodies. The larvae are tiny, cream-coloredgrubs that feed in or on other insects. Larvae moltfive times and undergo 5 instars.Pupae of some species live and pupate within thehost until they mature; others pupate in silkencocoons on the outside of the body of the host,while others spin silken cocoons away from thehost.Adult wasps are tiny, about 2.5 mm in size, slenderblack or brown with threadlike waists. Femalewasps lay eggs into the eggs of hosts' pests butprefer caterpillars' bodies.In cases where aphids are the host pests, aphidsare not killed instantly. Aphids continue to feed onplants tissues until the Braconid larvae inside theirbodies completely consume them. The fully-grownBraconid larvae cement the dead aphids to the leafsurface making aphids' shells black and mummified.About a week later, the adult Bracon wasps cutround holes in the mummies and emerge. Theempty mummies remain on the leaf. The presenceof mummies in a colony of aphids is a sign thatBracons are present.ConservationAdult Bracons feed on nectar, honeydew, or pollenbefore laying eggs. Dill, parsley, yarrow, zinnia,clover, alfalfa, parsley, cosmos, sunflower, andmarigold are flowering crops that attract the nativebraconid populations and provide good habitats forthem. Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 33

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionDamsel bugsHostsAphids, armyworms, asparagus beetle, Coloradopotato beetle eggs and nymphs, corn earworm, cornborer, imported cabbageworm, leafhoppers, mites,moth eggs, sawfly larvae, and tarnished plant bugnymphs. Although they can survive for about twoweeks without food, they will eat each other if noother prey is available.DescriptionEggs are deposited in soft plant tissues where theyare so difficult to find.Nymphs resemble adults and develop through 5nymphal stages in about 50 days.Adults are tiny, about 2-4 mm long, with slenderbodies and are yellowish or gray or reddish-brown incolor. They have piercing-sucking mouthparts, a 4-segmented beak, elongated heads, and 4 longsegmented antennae. They are fast runners withlong slender back legs and enlarged forelegs forgrasping prey. They are commonly found in mostagricultural crops, especially legumes, throughoutthe year. Adults begin laying eggs soon afteremergence.ConservationThey prefer to live in soybeans, grassy fields, andalfalfa. You can collect damsel bugs in alfalfa fieldsand release them around your garden.EncarsiaHostsVarious whitefly speciesDescriptionEggs are found inside the body of the host larva.The larvae develop within the whitefly larvaepassing through four larval stages. The host pupaturns black when Encarsia pupates inside thewhitefly. Adult wasps emerge from the parasitizedpupae by chewing a hole in the top of the scale.Adults are very tiny wasps, about 1 mm in size.These parasitic wasps can look actively andeffectively for whiteflies. They can cover distancesof 10-30 m looking for hosts. Adult females attackyoung whitefly larvae by stinging and laying eggsinside them. An adult female wasp can lay 60-100eggs. The life cycle is completed within 2-4 weeksdepending on the climatic conditions. Adults can livefor 30 days but are active for about 10 days.Adult wasps feed on honeydew and the body fluidsof whitefly larvae. They also feed directly on thescales. However, honeydew restricts their movementsso that it is difficult for them to have a widerfeeding coverage. With the exception of the adult,all stages of Encarsia occur inside the whitefly host. 34 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionConservationConserving natural enemies is probably the mostimportant practice farmers could do. Practicingmultiple cropping (including flowering crops)provides pollen, honeydew, and nectar for adultwasps. The practice can increase the diversity ofhabitats that provide shelter and other food sourcesto the natural enemies.Some Encarsia species are native to cropproduction environments. When introduced, theyhave the tendency to adapt to the local environments.Weekly field monitoring or a visual inspection ofplants is important to notice the presence of pestsand beneficial insects in order to consider when tomake pest management decisions.Ground beetleHostsSlugs, snails, cutworms, cabbage root maggots,grubs and insect pupae, and small caterpillarsDescriptionEggs are normally laid singly in the soil.Larva is elongated and tapered toward the end,worm-like in appearance and have a large headdirected forward.Pupa is brownish black, small and found in the soil.Adult ground beetles or Carabids are about 2-6cmlong, dark shiny brown to metallic black, blue,green, purple, or multi-colored. They vary inshapes,- from elongated to heavy-bodied, - taperedhead end with threadlike antennae, and have aringed wing cover. Their heads are usually smallerthan their thorax. Both adults and larvae havestrong pincher-like mandibles. They have prominentlong legs, which make them fast moving insects.Most species are nocturnal and they hide during theday in soilcrevices, underrocksand stones,decayinglogs, leaflitter, orcomposting materials. When disturbed or whenother vertebrates prey upon them, they emit an odoror gas, as a type of defense mechanism, preventingthem from being eaten by other predators. Groundbeetles live on or below the ground, hence thename. Development from the egg to the adult stagetakes about a year, although adults may live 2 to 3years or longer.Conservation1. Practice mulching in some sections of yourfield to provide a habitat for the groundbeetles.2. Provide permanent beds and perennialplantings to protect population.3. Plant white clover and/or amaranth asground covers. Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 35

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionHoverflyHostsAphids, thrips, psyllids, scale insects, small caterpillars,and larvae of HeliotesDescriptionEggs are tiny, about 1mm in size, ovate-shaped,and glistening white. These are found laid singlyand close to the developing aphid colony in theleaves, shoots, or stems of the plants. They hatchwithin 2-3 days.The larvae, known as Syrphids, are legless slug likemaggots, about 1-13mm in length depending ontheir larval stages. They usually have a mottledgray, beige, or light green color. They lift theirpointed heads to look for preys. Once preys arelocated, their mouthparts suck out the contents ofthe preys. Larvae are frequently found feeding onaphids in the sheltered and curled portion of leaves.They blend well with their habitat and therefore theymust be looked for closely to locate them.Pupae are teardrops shaped and are found in thesoil surface or in the plant's foliage.Adult hoverflies are true flies with only two wingsinstead of four which most insects have. Adults arelarge and beautiful insects about 13 mm long. Theyhave a dark head, a dark thorax, and a bandedyellow and black abdomen. They closely resemblebees or wasps rather than flies. Their habit ofhovering like humming birds gave them the nameshoverflies or flower flies. They feed on pollen,nectar, and honeydew. They are good pollinators.ConservationHoverflies are attracted to all flowering plants buteven more so to small-flowered herbs like wildmustard, coriander, dill, lupines, sunflower, andfennel. It is advisable to have multiple crops asadults basically feed on pollen and nectar and it isadvisable to allow flowering weeds such as wildcarrot and yarrow to grow between crop plants.Hoverflies' larvae are most noticeable in the latterhalf of the growing season when aphids areestablished. 36 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionLacewingHostsAphids, leafminer, mealybugs, thrips, whitefly,armyworms, bollworms, cabbage worm, codlingmoths, corn borer, cutworm, DBM, fruitworm,leafhopper nymphs and eggs, potato beetle, scaleinsects, spider mites, and caterpillars of most pestmoths. If given the chance, they can also prey onadult pests.DescriptionEggs are found on slender stalks or on theunderside of leaves. Each egg is attached to the topof a hair-like filament. Eggs are pale green in color.Larvae are known as aphid lions. Newly hatched,they are grayish-brown in color. Upon emerging,larvae immediately look for food. They grow toabout 1 cm in length. They attack their prey bytaking them with their large sucking jaws andinjecting paralyzing poison, and then sucking out thebody fluids of the pest. A larva can eat 200 or morepests or pest eggs a week. An older larva canconsume 30-50 aphids per day. It can consumemore than 400 aphids during its development. Thelarvae resemble alligators with pincers like jaw.However, they become cannibalistic if no other preyis available. They feed for 3 to 4 weeks and moltthree times before pupation. They cover their bodieswith prey debris.Pupae are cocoons with silken threads. These arefound in cracks and crevices. The pupal stage lastsfor approximately 5 days.Adults are green to yellowish-green with four,delicate transparent wings that have many veinsand cross veins. Adults are about 18 mm long, withlong hair-like antennae and red-gold eyes. Eachadult female may deposit more than 100 eggs.Many species of adult lacewings do not prey onpests. They feed on nectar, pollen, and honeydew.An adult will live for about four to six weeksdepending on the climatic conditions.ConservationFlowering plants such as dill, cosmos, sunflower,carrots, and dandelions are good source of pollenand nectar for adults. Provide source of waterduring dry season. Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 37

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionLadybird beetlesHostsAphids, mealybugs, scale insects, spider mites,whitefliesDescriptionEggs are yellow to orange in color, football-shaped,and are laid in circular clusters of 10 -50 eggs onthe underside of leaves or near the aphid colony.Newly hatched larvae are gray or black and lessthan 4 mm long. They emerge as dark alligator-likeflightless creatures with orange spots. Adult larvaecan be gray, black, or blue with bright yellow ororange markings on the body. The larvae areelongate and slightly oblong in shape. They undergofour instars before pupating.The pupae are usually brightly patterned and can befound attached to the leaves and stems of plantswhere larvae have fed and developed.Adults are oval to hemispherical and stronglyconvex with short legs and antennae. Most speciesare brightly colored. Body length ranges from 0.8-16mm. Their colors tell other predators that they aretasteless and toxic. When disturbed, some of thememit a strong smelling yellow liquid as a protectionagainst other predators. Their colors vary from red,orange, steel blue, yellow-brown, or yellow elytra,frequently spotted or striped with black. They feedon pollen, nectar, water, and honeydew but aphidsor other prey are necessary for egg production.They are the best-known predators of aphids andare capable of eating up to 50-60 per day and about5000 aphids in their lifetime.ConservationLady bird beetles are found in most agricultural andgarden habitats. Their presence indicates thatnatural biological control is occurring. It is importantto maintain habitats planted with several floweringcrops. These give the ladybird beetles varied foodsources. When food is not available, they tend toeat each other. Their beneficial predatory behaviorand activities are continuous when there is noindiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides. 38 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionRove beetlesHostsBoth adults and larvae are predators of rootmaggots' eggs and larvae, mites, worms, nematodes,and other small insects. Adults tend to becannibalistic, eating their own eggs and attackingother adults when food supply is low.DescriptionEggs are tiny, about 0.5 mm long and 0.4 mm wide,pear-shaped, pale green in color, and are coveredwith a gelatin-like material. These are laid by femaleadults in the soil among the roots of the root-maggotinfested plants. The eggs hatch 5-10 days later.The first instar larvae are pale brown, about 1.5 mmlong, slender, segmented, and tapered toward theanterior. They have large heads. The parasiticsecond and third instar larvae are white, haverudimentary legs, and are found within the hostpuparium. Before pupating, a larva will activelysearch for a host (pupa of maggot) in thesurrounding soil. It will pupate in the pupa of themaggot by entering into its cocoon and feeding itscontents, and then pupate itself inside for about 3-4weeks before emerging as an adult. It is possiblethat two or more larvae enter into one maggot pupabut only one will survive and mature.Adult rove beetles are brown, reddish-brown, orblack or have gray markings on the wings andabdomen, with slender elongate bodies. Their wingcovers are shorter than the abdomen where mostpart of the abdomen is exposed. Both adults andlarvae have well-developed 'jaws' cross in front ofthe head. They live mostly in decaying organicmatter but are also found in moist agricultural soilsor in habitats where large numbers of fly larvae live.When disturbed, they run very fast, with theirabdomen lifted upward, like that of scorpions. Adultsare good fliers as well.ConservationProvide ground covers or mulches within andaround fields for rove beetles love to stay in moistdecaying organic matter; provide hiding sites andalternative habitats and plant flowering borders,hedges, and other perennial habitats as a source offood and shelter; and provide protection by notspraying broad spectrum pesticides. Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 39

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionSpiderHostsMoths and caterpillarsDescriptionSome spiders' eggs are laid in a cluster in silkensacs, while some species lay their egg massescovered with silks within folded leaves. Some ofthese sacs are attached to the mother spiders ormothers stay nearby to guard their egg sacs. Eggsusually hatch into spiderlings within three weeks.The spiderlings may remain attached to the motherfor several days on some species, but for somespecies they are left on their own.Spiders are not insects. They have 8 legs whileinsects have 6. They do not have wings whereasinsects do. They have two body sections; a unitedhead and thorax and abdomen, while insects havethree; head, thorax, and abdomen.A female can produce 200-400 eggs but only 60-80spiderlings can hatch from these. Females cansurvive 2-3 months. In some species, females dieafter laying eggs.All spiders are poisonous to insects but only a fewspecies are poisonous to humans, like the Blackwidow and the Brown recluse.Conservation and managementMulching along some sections in dikes of ricepaddies, in field corners, or a portion of the fieldscan increase the number of spiders. They can hidein the layer of mulch that serves as their alternatehabitat. They can also prey on other small insectsinside the mulch.Remember, that the more food the spiders can eat,the faster their population build-up will become.Cover crops are also important to provide overwinteringsites of spiders’ sacs.A spider population depends on the availability offood, the habitat, and the environmental conditions.Avoid use of pesticides as much as possible, forbroad-spectrum insecticides can easily kill them. 40 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionTachinid flyHostsAphids, armyworm, beetles, bollworm, bugs,cabbage looper, cotton stainer, cutworm, grasshoppers,hornworm, leafhoppers, mole crickets,moths, sawflies, scale insects, stem borers, stickinsects.DescriptionEggs are ovate-shaped and white in color. They arefound in the skin of the host insect or in leaves nearthe host and are hatched when the host ingeststhem.The larvae or maggots are worm-like and lackappendages like all other fly larvae. They aregreenish-white in color. They have three larvalinstars and then leave the hosts to pupate in thesoil. Before pupation, some mature maggotsproduce hard cocoons. The larval stage takes about4 days to 2 weeks depending on the climaticconditions. The newly hatched larvae enter into itshost and feed on the content before pupating intothe soil. Some tachinid species are hosts' specific,for example for a certain species; it is parasitic onlyon leaf rolling caterpillars, or only on sugarcanestem borer.Pupae are oblong, yellowish and turn dark-reddishas they mature.Adults measure between 3 and 10 mm and havevery stout bristles at the tips of their abdomens.They look very similar to the common housefly butare larger with stocky and soft bodies. They vary inappearance from gray black to brightly colored, orsometimes looking like bees. Adult Tachinid flieshave only 1 pair of wings. They feed on honeydewsand flower pollen. Different species have variedmodified sucking type mouthparts: the cuttingsponging, the piercing-sucking, and lappingsponging.Adult flies are found in almost all crophabitats, either resting on foliage or feeding onnectars and pollen. Additionally for females, theysearch for hosts to lay their eggs. The female adultlays her eggs near or into the larvae, or on anotherinsect. She can lay as many as 1000-2000 eggs inher lifetime. Adults can live from 3 days to 2 monthsdepending on the species.ConservationProviding sources of food like dills, parsley, cloverand other herbs are the most efficient ways toconserve Trachinid flies in the agriculturalecosystems. Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 41

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionTrichogrammaHostsTrichogramma species parasitize eggs of over 200species of moth and caterpillars. Among these are;the rice and corn stem borer, cabbageworm, tomatohornworm, Heliotis and Helicoverpa species, codlingmoth, cutworm, armyworm, webworm, cabbagelooper, fruit worms, and sugarcane borer.DescriptionTrichogramma adults are extremely small. Thefemale adult lays her eggs on other moths' eggs.First, she examines the eggs by antennal drumming,then drills into the eggs with her ovipositor,and lays one or more eggs inside the moth's eggs.She usually stays on or near the host eggs until allor most of them are parasitized. When theparasitized moth's eggs turn black, the larvaeparasites develop within the host eggs. The larvaeats the contents of the moth's eggs. Adults emergeabout 5-10 days later depending on thetemperature. Adults can live up to 14 days afteremergence. Female adults can lay up to 300 eggs.Conservation and managementTrichogramma species differ in their searchingbehavior, host preferences, response toenvironmental conditions, and suitability in biologicalcontrol uses. The timing of Trichogramma releasesin the field is important. Non-parasitism could bedue to the use of less suitable Trichogramma strainsto the host pests, environmental conditions, anduntimely release of parasitoids. It is best to releaseof parasitoids at the beginning of a pest infestation(when moths are first seen in the field), followed byregular releases until a natural breeding populationof Trichogramma is established.An example of this approach is the corn borercontrol. The first release should be during the firstappearance of moths and corn borers' eggs in thecornfields. Weekly releases thereafter are to ensurethe Trichogramma population build-up andparasitism occurrence. The build-up of theparasitoids depends on the presence of the pest oralternative hosts and food for adults. It is importantto regulary monitor pest population, egg parasitism(parasitized eggs are black in color), and the larvalinfestation. Trichogramma are released as pupae inparasitized host eggs. The pupae can be pasted oncards or put in various containers. To be successfulin the field, food, host eggs and shelter must beavailable.Modify cropping practices by practicing crop rotationand by planting cultivars which are favorable toTrichogramma population build-up such as wildcarrots, dill, golden rod, leguminous plants, andflowering vegetables. Adults feed only on nectar,pollen, and honeydew. Many of these species arefound naturally occurring in agricultural and gardenhabitats. Many adult parasitoids and predatorsbenefit from sources of nectar and the protectionprovided by refuges such as hedgerows, covercrops, and weedy borders. Avoid indiscriminate useof hazardous pesticides to ensure their presence inagricultural fields. 42 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionPhoto creditspage01 Tomato plant. PixelQuelle.de10 Ants. Takumasa Kondo11 Aphids. University of Florida. http://mrec.ifas.ufl.edu/lso/Aphids.htm12 Cutworm. Clemson University.http://entweb.clemson.edu/cuentres/eiis/factshot/pages/Cutworm.htm13 Flea beetles. Texas A&M University14 Hornworm. Texas A&M University, http://vegipm.tamu.edu/chewing4/tomatohornworm.html15 Leafhopper. Photo courtesy of Ric Bessin, University of Kentucky16 Leafminers. Koppert Biological Systems.http://www.koppertonline.com/showitem.asp?vis=home&item=pest&id=2917 Psyllids. OMAF. http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/crops/facts/potato_psyllid.htm18 Spider mite. Texas A&M University. http://insects.tamu.edu/fieldguide/cimg371.html19 Thrips. Canola Council of Canada.http://www.canada-council.org/slides/pests/insects/html#20 Tomato fruitworm. Courtesy of INRA,http://www.inra.fr/Internet/Produits/HYPPZ/IMAGES/7031871.jpg21 Whiteflies. Photo courtesy of Clemsom University - Department of Entomology22 Wireworm. Texas A&M University.23 Slug. Photo courtesy of Florida University24 Common garden snail. Photo courtesy of Florida University26 Alternaria leaf spot. Texas A&M University.http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/tomatoproblemsolver/ripefruit/8a.html26 Anthracnose. Janna Beckerman28 Early blight. University of Minnesotahttp://www.extension.umn.edu/projects/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/p256earlyblight-pot-tom.html30 Late blight. Beth Jarvis, University of Minnesota.31 Leaf curl virus. DEFRA. http://www.defra.gov.uk/planth/pestnote/yellow.htm33 Braconid. IRRI & Queensland University. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.34 Damsel bug. University of Georgia. http://www.cpes.peachnet.edu/lewis/1nabid.jpg35 Ground beetle. IRRI & Queensland University. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.36 Hoverfly. Canola Council of Canada.http://www.canola-council.org/slides/pests/insects/insects.html37 Lacewing. Photo courtesy of Clemsom University- Department of Entomology38 Ladybird beetles. Kok, L.; Kok, V.http://www.ento.vt.edu/~kok/Biological_Control/Main_body.htm39 Rove beetles. Jim Kalisch & Barry Pawson.40 Spider. IRRI & Queensland University. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.41 Tachinid fly. IRRI & Queensland University. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.42 Trichogramma. Cornell University.http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/parasitoids/trichogramma_ostriniae.html Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 43

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionAlphabetical listof the mentioned control methodsExtract, spray or physical method page .Aloe & vitex extract 29Basil leaf extract 25Baking soda 30Compost tea spray 26Copper spray 29Fermented marigold extract 29Flour spray 21Garlic bulb extract 29Garlic oil extract 15Ginger, garlic & chilli extract 16Ginger powder extract 31Lemongrass extract 27Mint extract 27Milk spray 18Neem leaf extract 13Neem oil extract 13Neem powdered seed extract 17Onion bulb extract 26Papaya leaf extract 31Soap spray 10Stickyboard trap 19Sweetflag rhizome (seed treatment) 32 44 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionReferencesThe information and the photos in this field guide are taken from the OISAT PANGermany website www.oisat.org.Barker, G., Editor. (2002): Molluscs as crop pests. CABI Publishing. CAB International, Wallingford,UK.Brooklyn Botanic Garden. (2000): Natural disease control: A common-sense approach to plant firstaid. Handbook # 164. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Inc. 1000 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, NY.Brooklyn Botanic Garden. (1999): Natural insect control: The ecological gardener's guide to foilingpests. Handbook # 139. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Inc. Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, NY.Bureau of Plant Industry. (1994): Trichogramma. Manual for farmers’ training. Department ofAgriculture. Manila, Philippines.CABI. (2004): Crop Protection Compendium, 2004 Edition. CAB International Publishing. Wallingford,UK.CABI. (2000): Crop protection compendium. 2nd edition, CABI Publishing. Wallingford, UK.Cremlyn, R. (1978): Botanical insecticides in pesticides preparation and mode of action. John Wileyand Sons, NY. pp. 39-49Ellis, B.; Bradley, F. (1996): The organic gardener's handbook of natural insect and disease control.Rodale Press. Emmaus, Pennsylvania.Gilberg, L. editor. (1993): Garden pests and diseases. Sunset books. Sunset Publishing Corporation,California.Hasse, V. (1987): Cotton. No 1-2. Philippine-German Cotton Project, Department of Agriculture.Manila, PhilippinesHDRA. (2000): Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostela. Pest Control No. TPC3, June 2000 . TropicalAdvisory Service. Henry Doubleday Research Association, UK.HDRA. (2000): Mexican marigold, Tagetes minuta. Natural Pesticides No. TNP 2. (June 2000). HenryDoubleday Research Association, UK.ICIPE. (2003): Development of environmentally friendly management methods for red spider mites insmallholder tomato production systems... 2000 - 2003 ICIPE Scientific Report. CD Rom.International Center for Insect Physiology and Entomology, Nairobi, Kenya.IRRI & Queensland University. (2001): Rice IPM. An interactive information and identification systemfor integrated pest management in rice. University of Queensland and IRRI.Jayashankar, M.; Subramanian, K.; Arumugasamy, S.; Saraswathy, H.; Vijayalakshmi, K. (2002): Soilconservation in organic farming. CIKS. Chennai, India.Malinoski, M. et al. (2000): Spider mites. Integrated Pest Management in Home Gardens. University ofCalifornia Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Pest Notes Publication 7405. p. 2Mathews, G.; Tunstall, J., eds. (1994): Insect pests of cotton. CABI International, UK.Martineau, J. (1994): MSDS for Azatin-EC biological insecticide. AgriDyne Technologies, Inc.Mochida, O. (1973): Two important pests, Spodoptera litura and Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) onvarious crops: morphological discrimination of the adult, pupal and larval stages. Appl.Entomol. Zool. pp. 16-24 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany 45

Field Guide to Non-chemical Pest Management in Tomato ProductionMorton, J. (1987): Custard apple. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.National Research Council. (1992): Neem: A tree for solving global problems. National AcademyPress. Washington, DC.Olkowski, W.; Daar, S.; Olkowski, H. (1995): The gardener’s guide to common-sense pest control. TheTaunton Press. USA.Olkowski, W.; Daar, S.; Olkowski, H. (1991): Common sense - pest control. The Taunton Press. USA.Parker, B.; Talekar, N.; Skinner, M. (2000): Field guide: Insect pests of selected vegetables in tropicaland subtropical Asia. AVRDC Publication.Ploetz, R.; et. al. Editors. (1998): Compendium of tropical fruit diseases. APS Press, The AmericanPhytopathological Society. Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA.Prakash, A.; Rao, J. (1997): Botanical pesticides in agriculture. CRC Press. USA.Reissig, W.; Heinrichs, E.; Litsinger, J.; Moody, K.; Fiedler, L.; Mew, T.; Barrion, A. (1986): Illustratedguide to integrated pest management in rice in tropical Asia. IRRI. Los Banos, Laguna,Philippines.Rossner, J.; Zebitz, C. (1986): Effect of soil treatment with neem products on earthworms(Lumbricidae). A paper presented at the Proceedings of the 3rd International NeemConference, Nairobi, 1986.Scholaen, S. (1997): Manejo integral de plagas en hortalizas. GTZ Eschborn.Singh, R.; Singh, S. (2000): Neem for pest management: How to grow and use. Division ofEntomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute. New Delhi, India.Sridhar, S.; Arumugasamy, S.; Saraswathy, H.; Vijayalakshmi, K. (2002): Organic vegetablegardening. Center for Indian Knowledge Systems. Chennai.Sridhar, S.; Vijayalakshmi, K. (2002): Neem: A user’s manual. CIKS, Chennai.Stoll, G. (2000): Natural protection in the tropics. Margraf Verlag. Weikersheim.Thomas, C. (2002): Bug vs. bug - crop scouting. Integrated Pest Management Program. PennsylvaniaDepartment of Agriculture. Harrisburg, PA.Thurston, D. (1998): Tropical plant diseases. Second Edition. APS Press. The AmericanPhytopathological Society. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA.Tran, L.; Hassan, SA. (1986): Preliminary results on the utilization of Trichogramma evanescens tocontrol the Asian corn borer Ostrinia furnacalis in the Philippines. J. Appl. Ent.Traunfeld, J.; Malinoski, M. (2000): IPM Series: Tomatoes. Maryland Cooperative Extension,University of Maryland. Home and Garden Mimeo # HG56. p. 9Vijayalakshmi, K.; Subhashini, B.; Koul, S. (1999): Plants in Pest Control: Garlic and onion. Centre forIndian Knowledge Systems, Chennai, India.Vijayalakshmi, K.; Subshashini, B.; Koul, S. (1998): Plants in pest control: Custard apple, vitex, sweetflag, and poison nut. CIKS. Chennai, India.Wagner, Georg. (2004): Vegetables’ pests. Personal Communication. Schopperplatz 14, 4082Aschach / Donau. 46 Pesticide Action Network (PAN) Germany

For more informationon non-chemical pest management see:www.oisat.orgPesticide Action Network (PAN) GermanyNernstweg 32 • 22765 Hamburg • GermanyPhone: +49 (0)40 - 399 19 10-0 • Email: info@pan-germany.orgInternet: www.pan-germany.org • www.oisat.org