Acute Multidimensional Poverty: A New Index for Developing ... - OPHI

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Acute Multidimensional Poverty: A New Index for Developing CountriesAlkire & SantosMortalityIn terms of the mortality indicator, in DHS and WHS there is a general question on mortality (nonagespecific), as well as a birth history that collects information on the age at death, allowing theconstruction of the age-specific indicators. In MICS, ENSANUT, and ENNyS there is only ageneral question on mortality (non-age specific). There are three exceptions to this in MICS:Somalia, Yemen, and Iraq also contain birth histories, which would allow the construction of theage-specific mortality indicator. To guarantee comparability across surveys, we use a non-age specificindicator of mortality. A household (and therefore all its members) is considered deprived if therehas been a child death, no matter the age. 41Years of educationDHS contains information on the years of education for each household member. In MICS we hadto build it from two questions: highest educational level achieved and highest grade completed inthat level, considering the duration of each educational level in each country. 42 We are aware thatthere is measurement error in this variable. However, we think this does not have a significantimpact on the MPI indicator, as this only requires determining whether each household member hasfive years of education or not, regardless of how many exact years he/she has completed.In WHS, there is information on the number of years of education completed by the respondent.For other household members there is only information on the accomplished level. We considerthat at least someone in the household has completed five years of education if: (a) any householdmember has completed secondary school or more, or (b) the respondent has completed five years ofeducation or more, or (c) the maximum level of education of the household is incomplete orcomplete primary and the median number of years of education of all respondents with thateducational level is five or more.In ENSANUT, the variable was constructed as it was in MICS. Finally, in ENNyS there is onlyinformation on the educational attainment of the household head and the respondent (who is eithera woman 10-49 or a child who is measured), so the household is considered non-deprived ineducation if either the household head or the respondent have completed five years of education.Child School AttendanceIn DHS, the school attendance question draws on one of two questions: 1) whether the child iscurrently attending school or 2) whether he or she attended school in the previous year. Whichquestion was implemented varies by country. To construct the indicator of child school attendance,we have adjusted the age to each question. 43 In MICS, ENSANUT, and ENNyS the variable refersto whether the child is currently attending school. In WHS – quite unfortunately – there is nothe MGRS reference population. We have computed the MPI using both reference populations and have records of thedifference. This is discussed in the section on Results.41 For a robustness check, we computed an alternative measure using the under-5-years-of-age mortality indicator forthose countries in which this is available. We comment on this in Section 4.7.42 The duration of each level in each country was taken from United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics database, Table 1. “Education systems”http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=163). Given that UNESCO determines theduration according to the International Standard Classification of Education, this information was contrasted with eachdataset and country-specific information and adjusted whenever necessary.43 For example, if the schooling age is 6-14 years old and the question refers to the previous year, this applies to children7-15; if it refers to current year then it applies to age 6-14. Information on the age at which children start school in eachcountry was taken from UNESCO, Institute for Statistics database.www.ophi.org.uk July 2010 24
Acute Multidimensional Poverty: A New Index for Developing CountriesAlkire & Santosinformation on whether the child is attending school or not. So we have not been able toincorporate that indicator in the 19 countries for which we use that survey and therefore the years ofeducation indicator receives full-weight.Living StandardAll the living standard variables were recoded homogeneously across surveys. However, a fewdifferences are worth noting. For the drinking water indicator, we also consider the time to the watersource. The information of time-to-water is available in most DHS countries and in all MICS andWHS countries, 44 but it is not available in ENNyS (Argentina) and ENSANUT (Mexico). However,distance to a water source is not a serious problem in these two countries (except possibly for someremote rural areas).For the sanitation indicator, we consider the household deprived if, despite having access toimproved sanitation, the toilet is shared. In most DHS countries, all MICS countries, and all WHScountries, we have information on whether the household shares the sanitation facility. InENSANUT, the question is applicable only for those who have latrines (who are considereddeprived anyway as there was no specification on whether these where improved or not). InENNyS, the information on whether the sanitation is shared or not is not available, but presumablythis is not a major concern in this country. In Colombia, the information on shared sanitationseemed inaccurate, so despite being available we decided not to incorporate it in the indicator.Information on electricity was available in most of the countries across all surveys; however, in thecases in which this was not available, we have checked whether the country had a coverage of 95percent or higher and if so, we have assumed that no one is deprived in electricity. This has been thecase for Albania, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Mauritius, Russia, Slovenia,Slovakia, Brazil, China, Ecuador, the United Arab Emirates, and Uruguay. 45The assets indicator considers small assets as TVs, radios, telephones (landline or mobile),refrigerators, motorcycles, and big assets as cars or trucks. We require the household to have a car orany two of the other assets to be considered non-deprived. In most DHS and MICS countries, aswell as in ENSANUT, we can count all of them. In WHS countries, we cannot track radios andmotorbikes. In ENNyS, only refrigerators and telephones are counted, but given that we know thatmost people do have a radio and TV (even in the slums), we have required the household to haveonly one of these (refrigerator or telephone) to be considered non-deprived.Overall, 63 of the 104 countries have all the ten indicators. Thirty countries lack one indicator: areWHS countries which lack child school attendance only; four countries lack mortality, eightcountries lack nutritional information, and five lack one living standard. Eight countries lack twoindicators: four of them are WHS countries that lack child school attendance and mortality; one is aWHS country that lacks child school attendance and electricity; and three are DHS countries that44 The DHS countries for which we do not have any information on the variable time-to-water are Cambodia, Coted’Ivoire, Guyana, Jordan, Moldova, and Morocco.45 The information on electricity coverage was taken from the section “Electrification rate in 2008” in the World EnergyOutlook 2009. Countries in which information on electricity was not available and no assumption was made (becauseinformation indicated that there was less than 95 percent coverage) are: Honduras (DHS), Suriname, Myanmar (MICS)and South Africa (WHS).www.ophi.org.uk July 2010 25
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