Code and ciphers: Julius Caesar, the Enigma and the internet

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viii contents Thekeydistributionproblem 166 TheDiffie–Hellmankeyexchangesystem 166 StrengthoftheDiffie–Hellmansystem 168 13 Enciphermentandtheinternet 170 Generalisationofsimplesubstitution 170 Factorisationoflargeintegers 171 Thestandardmethodoffactorisation 172 Fermat’s‘LittleTheorem’ 174 TheFermat–EulerTheorem(asneededintheRSAsystem) 175 EnciphermentanddeciphermentkeysintheRSAsystem 175 TheenciphermentanddeciphermentprocessesintheRSAsystem 178 Howdoesthekey-ownerreplytocorrespondents? 182 TheDataEncryptionStandard(DES) 183 SecurityoftheDES 184 Chaining 186 ImplementationoftheDES 186 UsingbothRSAandDES 186 Asalutarynote 187 BeyondtheDES 187 Authenticationandsignatureverification 188 Ellipticcurvecryptography 189 Appendix 190 Solutionstoproblems 218 References 230 Name index 235 Subject index 237
Preface Virtually anyone who can read will have come across codes or ciphers in some form. Even an occasional attempt at solving crosswords, for example, will ensure that the reader is acquainted with anagrams, which are a form of cipher known as transpositions. Enciphered messages also appear in children’s comics, the personal columns of newspapers and in stories by numerous authors from at least as far back as Conan Doyle and Edgar Allan Poe. Nowadays large numbers of people have personal computers and use the internet and know that they have to provide a password that is enciphered and checked whenever they send or receive e-mail. In business and commerce, particularly where funds are being transferred electronically, authentication of the contents of messages and validation of the identities of those involved are crucial and encipherment provides the best way of ensuring this and preventing fraud. It is not surprising then that the subject of codes and ciphers is now much more relevant to everyday life than hitherto. In addition, public interest has been aroused in ‘codebreaking’, as it is popularly known, by such books and TV programmes as those that have been produced following the declassification of some of the wartime work at Bletchley, particularly on the Enigma machine. Cipher systems range in sophistication from very elementary to very advanced. The former require no knowledge of mathematics whereas the latter are often based upon ideas and techniques which only graduates in mathematics, computer science or some closely related discipline are likely to have met. Perhaps as a consequence of this, most books on the subject of codes and ciphers have tended either to avoid mathematics entirely or to assume familiarity with the full panoply of mathematical ideas, techniques, symbols and jargon. [ix]
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Page 5 and 6: R. F. Churchhouse Codes and ciphers
Page 7 and 8: Contents Preface ix 1 Introduction
Page 9: Cryptanalysisofalinearrecurrence 10
Page 13 and 14: 1 Introduction Some aspects of secu
Page 15 and 16: Not a very sophisticated method, pa
Page 17 and 18: change. As an example, anticipating
Page 19 and 20: Another form of encryption is the u
Page 21 and 22: and so is valid. On the other hand
Page 23 and 24: When the modulus is 10 only the num
Page 25 and 26: 2 From Julius Caesar to simple subs
Page 27 and 28: Table 2.3 Shift Message 12 OUI 12 Y
Page 29 and 30: worry about but, on the other hand,
Page 31 and 32: then it is probably THE and the unk
Page 33 and 34: From Julius Caesar to simple substi
Page 37 and 38: Table 2.6 From Julius Caesar to sim
Page 41 and 42: and the key which provides the enci
Page 43 and 44: Further examination reveals that th
Page 45 and 46: ALTHOUGH I AM AN OLD MAN NIGHT IS G
Page 47 and 48: Polyalphabetic systems 35 messages
Page 49 and 50: Before leaving Vigenère try the fo
Page 51 and 52: Polyalphabetic systems 39 blocks of
Page 53 and 54: eginning at the top, but it is then
Page 55 and 56: first row above, for example, we fi
Page 57 and 58: Table 4.4 Key 3 1 5 2 4 1 2 3 4 5 6
Page 59 and 60: giving B G L D I N A F K E J O C H
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then the cipher text is HORUX SXSEO
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The plaintext digraphs are now sepa
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ox increases. By enumerating the po
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Example 5.1 HAPPY BIRTHDAY encipher
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Encryption The ‘plaintext’ is A
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plaintext digraphs according to som
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Cryptanalytic aspects of Playfair P
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OURXSITUATI ONXISXDESPE RATEXSENDXS
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the alphabet are represented by up
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From a cryptographic point of view
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3 7 0 7 7 4 1 5 6 1 7 8 5 3 8 1 9 0
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If we generate the same sequence (m
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Stencil ciphers The example above i
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Book ciphers A spy must avoid arous
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Table 7.2 Encipher table for a book
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Letter frequencies in book ciphers
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If then we try subtracting THE from
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where row F (the row of the cipher
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Ciphers for spies 85 that were nece
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mistake can occur if the sender lea
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inks and ciphers were provided by h
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Example 7.6 Encipher the message AG
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Ciphers for spies 93 simply a ‘ra
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going into the mathematical criteri
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numbers, 0 to 31 inclusive, into bi
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Linear recurrences The sequences lo
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Having converted the characters of
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What about sequences of higher orde
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combining the keys of two or more l
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Example 8.3 (1) Use the mid-square
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Problem 8.3 Starting with U 0 �1
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The Enigma cipher machine 111 syste
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The Enigma cipher machine 113 Plate
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The Enigma cipher machine 115 Plate
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Figure 9.2. wheel. For example, if
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wheel and then through the three wh
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first day of usage and so the asses
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The Enigma cipher machine 123 The m
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show how, in a typical encipherment
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interested reader can find it in [9
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great deal of data and many pages o
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It should be realised, of course, t
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10 The Hagelin cipher machine Histo
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ut there was no cryptographic advan
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of each cipher period, to which sid
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value can be expected to occur two
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Since some cages are obviously very
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2, there are 26! possible simple su
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The Hagelin cipher machine 145 Exam
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values are repeating at the appropr
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Overlapping will obviously affect t
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Table 10.6 The Hagelin cipher machi
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11 Beyond the Enigma The SZ42: a pr
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Description of the SZ42 machine The
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P1 41 43 Z1 (4) the five bits from
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which is approximately 1.6�10 19
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12 Public key cryptography Historic
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part of the story of what has been
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Public key cryptography 165 graphic
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(4) Now (k x ) y �(k y ) x �m x
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Public key cryptography 169 Despite
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If the cryptographer were prepared
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number of tests increased by a fact
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In this case the remainder is 4, no
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key, d, we use the Euclidean Algori
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the decipher key, d, is used instea
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and and, since Table 13.1 n N�2 n
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The Data Encryption Standard (DES)
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the message were known to relate to
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whereas in block cipher systems, su
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(1) X precedes M with information w
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ways, since choosing to pair, say,
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For example; if someone claims that
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depth, mentioned in Chapter 3. If w
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M9 Combining two biased streams of
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and so 2�4�6�12 �(4095)�4
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Verification Let the recurrence be
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the lettersatsetting2ofthewheel,and
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M16 Probability of a ‘depth’ in
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(2) In how many ways can N be repre
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Chapter 13 M21 (Rate of increase of
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Multiply each of these by M: M, 2M,
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If x 3 �0 divide x 2 by x 3 to gi
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then k�[ log 2 n], where [z] deno
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Mathematical aspects 217 problem un
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RHAPSODY and SYMPHONY agree in posi
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4.2 (Number of possible transpositi
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Table S.5 R H A P S O D Y B C E F G
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Chapter 8 8.1 (Recurrences of order
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columns in each case, are full of c
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Chapter 11 11.1 (Pin-setting errors
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[2.4] Moroney, M.J.: Facts from Fig
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[10.3] Almost any elementary book o
Page 247 and 248:
Name index Adelman, L. 171, 234 And
Page 249 and 250:
Subject index Abwehr Enigma 124, 13
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active pin 136 cage:‘good’ 141;
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Code and ciphers: Julius Caesar, the Enigma and the internet

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