Building Instructional Leadership - National Association of ...

September 2007underscore the difficulty school leaders face in fulfillingthis demand:• Nearly 40% of public school principals—34,700individuals—headed schools that did not meet alldistrict and state performance standards• Half of those principals were required to write ormodify a school- or program-improvement planSeptember 2007• A third were placed on an evaluation cycle that requiredimprovementSeptember 2007• In the most severe cases, 5.6% of the schools wereSeptemberforced to replace2007the principal or undergo reconstitutionor takeover.In this climate, it is essential to define instructionalleadership and explore the leadership practices that makea difference in being an effective school leader.Defining Instructional LeadershipA research analysis by Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, andWahlstrom (2004) confirmed that “leadership is secondonly to classroom instruction among all school-relatedfactors that contribute to what students learn at school”(p. 3). Moreover, principals’ effects on student performancetend to be largest “where and when they are neededmost… Indeed, there are virtually no documentedinstances of troubled schools being turned around withoutintervention by a powerful leader” (p. 3).What Works: Advice From the FieldRecommendations culled from interviews with teachers at aPortland, OR, middle school about what leadership practicesthey would like to see in principals:• Be visible and available to teachers. Merely saying “I havean open door policy” is not enough; you need to have a“drop-in policy” where you invite people to visit.• Ask teachers what you should look for during classroomvisits so as to provide meaningful feedback.• Set the standard for continuous learning by assigningbook readings and having discussion groups that are connectedwith specific expectations and goals.• Ensure that teachers have flexibility in using their planningtime most productively. Sometimes planning timesare structured and dictated by the principal or the topic ofdiscussion is not directly related to teachers’ needs.• Provide more opportunities for staff to meet with facultyin other schools, to promote a coordinated effort districtwideand help them learn from one another.There are many forms of leadership, including September sitebased,collaborative, visionary, and distributive. How-2007ever, two models—instructional and transformational—September 2007have attracted the most attention. In simple terms,instructional leadership focuses on school September goals, climate, 2007and teaching; transformational leadership is broader andincludes school redesign and capacity building.The effective schools movement of the late 1970s andearly ’80s is credited with giving birth to the concept ofinstructional leadership. Principals of poor, urban schoolswere characterized as heroic leaders who tried to amelioratethe social and economic challenges that stood in theway of educational success. Over time, “the term ‘instructionalleadership’ has gradually become less the designationof a sharply defined set of leadership practices andmore a slogan chiding administrators to focus their effortson the ‘core technology’ of their schools and districts—teaching and learning” (Leithwood, 2005, p. 8).Hallinger (2003) detailed the characteristics of instructionalleadership in an analysis of studies conductedfrom 1980–2000. He described three main categories ofpractice:1. Define the school’s mission—oversee the developmentof specific school goals and ensure they are communicatedclearly to all members of the school community.2. Manage the instructional program—supervise andevaluate instruction, coordinate curriculum, andmonitor student progress.3. Promote a positive school learning climate—theheart of the model. Provide incentives for teachersand learning, promote professional development, andprotect instructional time.Transformational leadership—along with other formssuch as shared or distributed leadership—emerged becauseof “a broader dissatisfaction with the instructionalleadership model, which many believed focused too muchon the principal as the center of expertise, power, andauthority” (Hallinger, 2003, p. 330).Like instructional leadership, transformational leadershipincludes three broad categories of practice that werearticulated by Leithwood (2005):1. Set direction—formulate goals and develop a sharedschool vision.

September 2007September 20072. September Develop 2007 people—act as a role model, demonstrate professionalpractices, and offer individualized support to others.3. September Redesign 2007 the organization—forge a collaborativeschool culture and strong community partnerships tocreate a more effective structure.Cotton (2003) described elements of both instructionaland transformational leadership that distinguish principalsof successful schools. She emphasized that thosecharacteristics do not exist in isolation from one anotherand that “effectiveness is much more than a collection ofbehaviors” (p. 7). When it comes to the principal’s role infacilitating instruction, common behaviors include:• Continually pursuing high levels of student learning• Establishing a norm of continuous improvement• Facilitating discussion of instructional issues• Observing classrooms frequently and providing feedbackto teachers• Respecting teacher autonomy• Protecting instructional time• Supporting teachers’ risk taking• Providing staff development opportunities and activities• Supplying other resources, such as time and materials• Monitoring student progress and reporting findings• Using student achievement data to improve programs• Recognizing student and teacher achievement• Modeling appropriate and desired behavior (p. 26)Cotton also summarized research on the behaviorsthat leaders of high-performing schools have in common.She quoted Bartell’s observation that outstanding principals“do what they can and must do in order to support,facilitate, encourage, motivate, recognize, and rewardgood teaching,” and don’t use “such verbs as control,manage, direct, command, and regulate” (cited in Cotton,2003, p. 44). Similarly, researchers Bista & Glasman;Firestone & Wilson; and Gaziel (cited in Cotton, 2003)found a negative correlation between strict administrativecontrol and student achievement.The behaviors outlined in Cotton’s work are similar tothe qualities of effective principal leadership described byWaters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003). Their meta-analysisof 5,000 studies (including 70 rigorous studies) showeda statistically significant relationship between leadershipand student achievement. In addition to analyzing the generalimpact of leadership, the study identified 21 essentialleadership responsibilities and 66 associated practices thatspecifically correlate with student achievement and makeup a “balanced leadership framework.”An underlying concept of this framework is that it is notenough for principals to know what to do, but they mustknow why, how, and when to do it. Effective principals needto balance pushing for change with retaining the structuresthat have worked. Theyshould know “when, how, “Leadership isand why to create learning second onlyenvironments that supportto classroompeople, connect them withinstructionone another, and provide theamong all schoolrelatedfactorsknowledge, skills, and resourcesthey need to succeed”that contribute(Waters et al., p. 2).to what studentslearn at school.”Practices That Make aDifferenceGiven the findings on the characteristics of effective leaders,what does leadership look like in practice? In a studyof schools implementing the America’s Choice reformmodel, Supovitz and Poglinco (2001) suggested ways thatsuccessful principals arrange their priorities to becomeinstructional leaders. Their recommendations—drawnfrom elementary and middle school principal interviews,site visits, and survey data—include:1. Participate frequently—and meaningfully—in classrooms.Eighty-eight percent of principals in this studywho were identified as strong instructional leadersvisited classrooms on a daily or almost daily basis.The remaining 12% visited classrooms at least once ortwice a week. During class visits, effective principals“focused more on talking with students and examiningstudents’ work than they did on teachers’ behavior”(p. 13). On the basis of that information, theywere able to assess student performance and identifyspecific areas in which they could assist teachers.2. Allocate regular blocks of time for instructional, managerial,and political matters. Several of the successfulprincipals noted that they only schedule meetings anddo paperwork early in the morning or after school

September 2007September 2007adjourns. This sends a message to parents and teachersthat student learning is the priority. It also ensures thatadministrative details aren’t allowed to eat away timethat principals need to devote to instructional matters.3. Develop content knowledge and facilitate teacherSeptemberdevelopment2007of content-area knowledge. Althoughmany principals in the study expressed a need toSeptember 2007expand their own content-area knowledge, particularlyat the secondary level, “they recognized that theySeptember 2007were not the primary trainers of their teachers, andtherefore, while they needed the expertise to discernquality instruction, they were primarily brokers andfacilitators of professional development September experiences 2007 oftheir staff” (p. 16).4. Redefine the principal-teacher relationship September to provide 2007more support for teachers. Depending on the individualprincipal’s style, this support can take the formof counselor, resource provider, or source of encouragement.The researchers described the relationshipas “symbiotic,” stating that “instructional leadershipbinds principals more closely to teachers and to theeveryday activities of classrooms” (p. 18).Arcella Hall, principal of Grandview (WA) HighSchool, has reaped benefits from incorporating some ofA Leader of Instructional LeadersWhen it comes to talking about leadership, Jill Martin pulls nopunches. The National High School Principal of the Year toldNewsweek magazine (May 28, 2007) that “it no longer worksto be the dictator or the sage on the stage.” She continues,“You have to be a leader of instructional leaders.”Martin asserts that the professional learning communitiesmovement has dramatically changed the principal’s role fromautocratic or highly directive to more collaborative. Anotherchange she has witnessed in her 38 years as an educator—including15 as a principal—is that principals must now beexperts in data analysis and teach others how to use data toimprove learning.Of course, finding time to collaborate, learn together, andreview data presents an enormous challenge for today’s schoolleaders. In a phone interview (June 6, 2007), Martin describedhow she has attacked the problem at Thomas B. Doherty HighSchool in Colorado Springs, CO:• Banking time—Martin lengthened the school day Tuesdaysthrough Fridays and banked an equal amount of time for a50-minute late start on Mondays. The weekly teacher timeis set aside for collaborative teaming. She explains that mostmaster teachers’ contracts provide for this option if all staffmembers agree to the change.• Structuring meetings—Martin says the key to using teacherteam time effectively is to be absolutely clear about thepurpose. “[It’s] not to write lesson plans or grade papers. Youreally need a leadership team to talk about what you want toaccomplish each week. This means that you look at your dataand collaboratively share strengths and weaknesses. Time isused for curriculum alignment and the creation of commonassessments so everyone is teaching similarly and progressingsimilarly.”• Providing incentives—Martin believes that when you askteachers to use their lunch period or time after school forprofessional development, you must offer incentives. “As wedon’t have money to give them, we allow people who haveaccumulated a number of hours of professional developmenton their own time to take a day off on a designated staff developmentday near the end of the school year. They have toshow they have completed all these hours [of training] relatedto our school goals.” Teachers also receive graduate credit,which enables them to move up the salary scale.• Establishing a common mission and vision—At Martin’sschool, staff agreed on “collaborative commitments aboutwhat we believe about kids and their learning and how thattranslates into our behavior as professionals.” Martin admitsthat developing this list of common beliefs and behaviors wasa difficult process that took more than a year. “What you’retrying to do is develop a real value system that everyoneadheres to and that you can call each other on,” she says.Because the focus is on data-driven learning, it becomes lesspersonal and problematic to hold each other accountable.Finally, Martin believes that being a leader of instructionalleaders shields her staff members from negativity. “If we wantto motivate people to improve, all of the punitive, negativedialogue doesn’t [do it]. We need to address it, respond to it,and turn it into a positive—not beat people up.”

September 2007September 2007these September practices. 2007Grandviewserves a population that is76% Hispanic, with two-thirds of students receiving freeand reduced-price lunch. The rural Yakima Valley schoolhas seen 10th-grade reading proficiency scores soar 41%from 1999–2006 while writing increased 55% in thesame period.A contributing factor in those gains, says Hall, is classroomvisits where she looks for specific strategies outlinedin the school improvement plan. For example, all teachersare expected to use “entry tasks,” which help studentsfocus on learning and maximize learning time. Duringher walk-throughs, Hall records how often she sees teachersuse entry tasks. Later, she summarizes her findings in aletter to all teachers.Hall believes that the hallmark of an instructionalleader is finding effective strategies and supporting teachersin studying and implementing them. After learninghow other schools use writing prompts from the stateachievement test as a “dress rehearsal,” she invited herEnglish department to research the practice. When thegroup decided to implement schoolwide writing prompts,Hall allocated resources to train two staff members in givingand scoring writing tests; those teachers then trainedthe other department members.Melissa Sandven, principal of Hosford Middle Schoolin Portland, OR, facilitated a culture of learning amongher staff by providing research-based books and time forteachers to meet in discussion groups. This strategy workedwell in introducing the staff to differentiated instruction.Sandven also provides a substitute to cover classes when ateacher wants to observe a colleague’s classroom.For Sandven, part of being an instructional leader isto help teachers develop “high cognitive demand” in theirclassrooms. She does this by observing classrooms, providingcontinuous feedback, and encouraging teachers to beflexible enough to build on classroom discussions thatengage students—even if it means delaying or cutting shortother lessons. Under Sandven’s leadership, the percentageof Hosford Middle School students meeting and exceedingthe state benchmark for mathematics jumped from 64% to91% in just one school year; in reading, the percentage rosefrom 68% to 82%. The school, which is made up of 40%minority students with 45% of students receiving free andreduced-price lunch, also gained recognition for makingadequate yearly progress in all subgroups in 2006.Creating Instructional LeadersEducators can take heart that high-performing principalslike Hall and Sandven “are not just born, but can bemade,” noted Darling-Hammond (cited in Olson, 2007,p. 1) as she discussed the recent study she coauthored.That study—based on interviews, observations, policycase studies, and surveys—yielded common elements that“confirm much prior research on productive design features”of leadership development programs (Darling-Hammond,et al., 2007, p. 5). These include targeted recruitmentof expert teachers with leadership potential; coherentcurriculum aligned with professional standards; a blend oftheory and practice that emphasizes reflection; and well-designedinternships and support through a cohort structure.The programs also emphasize instructional leadership andstrategies such as field- and problem-based learning, actionresearch, journal writing, and peer-reviewed portfolios.Principals who graduated from these exemplaryprograms participated in a wider range of embeddedprofessional development activities than did a comparisongroup of 661 randomly selected principals. They visitedother schools and observed their peers; participated inprincipals’ conferences and networks; and engaged indistrict-supported walk-throughs of classrooms to lookat instructional practices and learn how to evaluate andimprove them.The authors conclude that “although the challengesare substantial … it is possible to create systematic leadershipopportunities for school leaders that help themdevelop the complex skills needed to lead and transformcontemporary schools” (p. 23).Supporting principals in gaining these skills is crucial toretaining them in the schools where they are needed most.References❑❑Cotton, K. (2003). Principals and student achievement: Whatthe research says. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervisionand Curriculum Development.❑❑Darling-Hammond, L., LaPointe, M., Meyerson, D., &Orr, M. (2007). Preparing school leaders for a changing world:

September 2007September 2007September 2007Executive summary. Stanford, CA: Stanford University,Standford Educational Leadership Institute.❑❑Hallinger, P. (2003). Leading educational change: Reflectionson theSeptember 2007practice of instructional and transformationalleadership. Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3), 329–351.September 2007❑❑Leithwood, K. (2005). Educational leadership (Rev. ed.).Philadelphia: Temple University Center for Research in HumanDevelopment and Education, Laboratory for StudentSeptember 2007Success. Retrieved May 19, 2007, from www.temple.edu/lss/pdf/ReviewofTheResearchLeithwood.pdf❑❑Leithwood, K., Louis, K. S., Anderson, S., & Wahlstrom,NASSPBarry StarkPresidentLarry D. BradleyPresident-ElectGerald N. TirozziExecutive DirectorLenor G. HerseyDeputy ExecutiveDirectorRobert N. FarraceDirector of PublicationsJan UmphreyAssociate Director ofPublicationsSharon TeitelbaumEditorLauren Hillman TaylorProofreaderJeanne LeonardDirector of Marketingand SalesTanya Seneff BurkeAssociate Directorof Graphic ServicesDavid FernandesProduction ManagerJesse ChengGraphic DesignerPrincipal’s Research Review is a publication of the National Association ofSecondary School Principals, 1904 Association Dr., Reston, VA 22091-1537.Telephone 703-860-0200. Fax 703-476-5432. Web site www.principals.org.NASSP dues include the annual subscription rate of $50; individual subscriptionsare not available. NASSP members can download this issue at www.principals.org/prr. Copyright 2007 NASSP.K. (2004). How leadership influences student September learning: Executivesummary. New York: Wallace Foundation. Retrieved2007May 21, 2007, from www.wallacefoundation.org/WF/KnowledgeCenter/KnowledgeTopics/EducationLeadership/Documents/HowLeadershipInfluencesStudentLearningES.htm❑❑Lockwood, A. T. (2005).Principal leadership for accountability:Optimizing the use of Title II resources [Topicalsummary]. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional EducationalLaboratory. Retrieved May 19, 2007, from www.nwrel.org/planning/reports/accountability/index.html❑❑National Center for Education Statistics. (2006).Schoolsand staffing survey, 2003–04, Public school principal data file.Washington, DC: Author. [Custom tabulations provided toNorthwest Regional Educational Laboratory by NCES staffin December 2006.]❑❑Olson, L. (2007, May 2). Study sheds light on qualities ofbest training for principals. Education Week, 26(35), 1, 16.❑❑Supovitz, J. A., & Poglinco, S. M. (2001).Instructional leadershipin a standards-based reform. Philadelphia: Universityof Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy Research in Education.(ERIC Document Retrieval No. ED463574)❑❑Waters, J. T., Marzano, R. J., & McNulty, B. A. (2003).Balanced leadership: What 30 years of research tells us aboutthe effect of leadership on student achievement. Aurora, CO:Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning.1904 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1537Non-Profit Org.U.S. PostagePAIDNASSPPrincipal’s Research ReviewSeptember 2007Building InstructionalLeadership