Leviticus 1 - In Depth Bible Commentaries

LEVITICUSINTRODUCTIONThe first verse of Leviticus emphasizes that the contents of Leviticus–with its variousregulations concerning sacrifices to be made in Israel’s worship in its moveable sanctuary, plus itspowerful ethical teachings that relate to every area of life in its so-called “holiness code”–weregiven to Moses by God at Mount Siynay--also the concluding verse (27:34) affirms the samething. In more than 50 places it is said that YHWH spoke to Moses.thth19 and 20 century biblical “critical” scholars, however, attributed practically the wholebook to priestly legislation written during or after the exile--see, for example, the initial footnote onLeviticus in the New Jerusalem Bible, which states that "The entire sacrificial ritual, Leviticus1-7, is attached to the period in the desert and placed under the authority of Moses. In fact,however, apart from ancient regulations, it contains a number of later dispositions and attained itsdefinitive form only after the return from the exile. In its present form, Leviticus 1-7 representsthe sacrificial code of the second temple (i.e., after the destruction of the temple of Solomon, andthen its much smaller rebuilding after the return from Babylonia). Very little is known about thesacrificial ritual of the Israelites during the nomadic period, the ancient texts giving informationonly about the Passover sacrifice, see Exodus 12..." (P.135)We wonder, in the light of this comment, “Was there no sacrificial code to govern practicesin the temple of Solomon,” or in the earlier moveable sanctuary in the wilderness wanderings ofIsrael?” It seems strange, not to say ridiculous, to conclude that there was no sacrificial code forrituals of sacrifice from the time of Solomon until the Babylonian Captivity, and it is just as strangeto imagine that in Israel’s earliest worship there were no priestly regulations. But at the sametime, it also seems quite obvious that there has been massive expansion of the original CovenantCode in this material in Leviticus, for example its legislating the owning of life-time foreign slavesby priests, and priestly judicial-decisions that reflect conditions in the land long after Israel’swandering in the wilderness. Our conclusion from the study of Exodus is that Israel’s leaders--judges / kings / priests throughout the centuries evpi. th/j Mwu?se,wj kaqe,draj evka,qisan oi`grammatei/j kai. oi` Farisai/oi, “upon the (authoritative) seat of Moses the religious experts andthe Separatists (of the first century) sat,” (the language of Jesus in Matthew 23:2), following in thefootsteps of the judges and kings that likewise took Moses’s place of leadership throughout thecenturies, and that their decisions, especially those of the priests here in Leviticus, were allattributed to Moses and to YHWH, and this is reflected in all of this material, in such statementsas these in Leviticus 1:1 and 27:34. It is in this light that statements in later Jewish documentsand in the New Testament should be understood, which refer to materials in Leviticus as havingbeen given by “Moses.”We have come to believe through our study of the Hebrew text of the Massoretes incomparison with the Samaritan Pentateuch (which dates from the fifth century B.C.), that theSamaritans were correcting a Hebrew text that is very closely aligned with the much later MassoreticHebrew text, demonstrating that as early as the fifth century B.C. there was already a longstandingTorah which was being criticized and corrected by the Samaritan scholars.Baruch A. Levine, in The JPS Torah Commentary Leviticus (The Jewish PublicationSociety, Philadelphia, 1989) holds that “The most prudent view on the history of Leviticus would1

approximate that of the late E. A. Speiser: that priestly law and literature took form over a protractedperiod of time; and that it would be inaccurate to assign all of their contents to a singleperiod of ancient history. This approach helps to explain the presence of some relatively earlymaterial in Leviticus, while at the same time allowing for the inclusion of exilic and post-exiliccreativity. It also correlates well with the observable strata within Leviticus and within P (i.e., the“Priestly Document”) as a whole...“There are indications that Leviticus may include post-exilic material. Certain of its termsof reference are known from extra-biblical documents of the late sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E.,after the end of the Babylonian exile. Some of the legislation of Leviticus regarding the jurisdictionof the priesthood fits in well with the pre-exilic situation--for example, chapter 27, whichspeaks of priestly accountability for temple administration, a set of functions compatible with theJudean monarchy. Chapter 25, however, speaks of indebtedness, indenture, and land transactions;it is unrealistic to suppose that under the Judean kings the priesthood would have hadjurisdiction over such matters. From the Books of Samuel and Kings, it would appear that royalofficials and local elders dealt with such transactions. In the post-exilic period, however, Jerusalemand Judea were governed by a priesthood, a ‘hierocracy,’ centered in the temple of Jerusalem,whose heads represented the Jewish community to the Persian authorities. The theory ofland tenure set forth in chapter 25 also differs appreciably from that typical of the pre-exilicperiod.“There is a certain logic in supposing that, at a time when the second temple was beingrebuilt, priestly writers would be engaged in recording their interpretation of the historic events thathad contributed to the Judean restoration. One hears echoes of exilic prophecy in Leviticus, insuch themes as redemption (hL'ÞauG>, ge)ullah; see Leviticus 25:24, 26, 29, 29, 31, 32, 48, 51and 52, as well as Jeremiah 32:7, 8; Ezekiel 11:15; Ruth 4:6 and 7) a major emphasis in thewritings of the exilic author, or authors, of Isaiah 40-66.” (Pp. xxix-xxx)But this viewpoint, sophisticated as it may sound, is itself without much solid objectiveevidence, and has definite problems. First, it goes against the repeated claim of the Book ofLeviticus itself to be Mosaic. Second, it goes against the traditional Jewish view, and runscounter to other Old Testament and New Testament witnesses, such as may be found expressedin Romans 10:5, where Paul claims that Moses wrote the law given in Leviticus 18.The student of the New Testament documents knows well the human limitations of its authors,and acknowledges that Paul may have been mistaken in this view--but it cannot be denied thatthis was the commonly held view of the early Christians. Third, many items in Leviticus are nowseen to be best explained in terms of a second-millennium B.C. date, which is also the most likelytime for Moses, and for the initial sacrificial worship of the Israelites. Thus it can be held thatthere is no truly convincing reason not to take at face value the many references to Moses and hiswork, along with Aharon and the Levites, in the earliest worship of Israel.But at the same time, we have to agree with Gispen's observation that "The author ofLeviticus is not named in the book. Yahweh does indeed speak repeatedly to Moses andAharon, or to Aharon; but no command is given to make a written record of what he says." (P.897) And while the contents of Leviticus are said to have originated at Mount Sinai, as Israelcompleted the building of its moveable sanctuary, and began on its way to the promised land,"...That does not settle the question of the authorship of Leviticus. Moses is not named as the2

author of any single part of the book, as he is named with regard to certain sections of Exodus(see Exodus 17:14; 24:4; 34:27). It may be that a later writer set in order the Mosaic material ofwhich Leviticus consists. It may equally well be that Moses himself set it in order in the formwhich has been handed down to us..."The question of authorship is bound up with the whole problem of the composition of thePentateuch (the first five books of the Jewish Bible). Leviticus is commonly assigned to P (thePriestly Code)." (P.897) There are German authors who have thought that perhaps Ezekiel wasthe final author of Leviticus, and it must be admitted that there is a close relationship betweenLeviticus and Ezekiel--which should only be expected, since Ezekiel was a priest, deeply concernedwith the preservation and continuation of Israel's levitical regulations and worship inBabylonian exile and its post-exilic future.But in terms of the Hebrew canon of scripture, it is very important for the entirety of Israel'scultic laws and practices to be grounded in the great self-revelation of YHWH to Israel at MountSinai--and this Leviticus does very effectively, attributing all of Israel's sacrificial offerings andpractices directly to Moses.Childs states that "The canonical effect of structuring the book in such a way as to connectall the material of Leviticus directly to the revelation at Sinai is of crucial importance in understandinghow the book was shaped in its role as authoritative scripture for Israel. All the laws ofLeviticus which stemmed originally from very different periods, and which reflected strikinglydifferent sociological contexts, were subordinated to the one overarching theological construct,namely, the Divine will made known to Moses at Sinai for every subsequent generation...In Leviticusone historical moment in Israel's life has become the norm by means of which all subsequenthistory of the nation is measured (see the use of “today” in Deuteronomy). If a law functionsauthoritatively for Israel, it must be from Sinai, and if it is from Sinai, it must be authoritative..."(Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, pp. 185-86)Walter Brueggemann, in his Theology of the Old Testament, discusses the matter ofYHWH’s “holiness,” or “set-apartness,” and states that it “refers to the radical otherness of Yahweh,Who may not be easily approached, Who may not be confused with anyone of anythingelse, and Who lives alone in a prohibitive zone where Israel can enter only guardedly, intentionally,and at great risk...“Thus much of the priestly instruction in the Old Testament is guidance in the propermaintenance of a sphere of holiness, for such proper maintenance is a technique that makesYahweh’s presence more probable and available. Conversely, failure to honor that special spheremay lead to the withdrawal of the Holy God, Who will not stay in a profaned place. Clearly thewithdrawal of the Holy One is an ominous possibility to Israel, for the life of Israel depends on thatpresence.“In such a way, we may understand much of the instruction in the Book of Leviticus,which may strike us as punctilious, but which in fact attempts to make Yahweh’s holy, life-generating,life-guaranteeing presence available and certain in Israel. This aspect of Israel’s relation toYahweh is cultically elemental, if not primitive. It would, however, be a mistake to dismiss thisinterpretation of life with the Holy God as silly, as is our propensity in Enlightenment modernity. Itmay help us to appreciate the sense of the meticulousness that this instruction aimed to produce,3

if we consider the modern preoccupation and fascination with the cult of health, with its endlessregimens and disciplines; or, perhaps more elaborately, if we ponder our seem-ingly endlessfascination with the emerging world of computers, which in the ‘information age’ appear to holdthe key to all security, effectiveness, and happiness. (The analogy may be carried furthernegatively by noting that computers are liable to be infected by ‘viruses.’ The threat of defilementin the holiness traditions of Israel is not unlike the threat of such infection in a computer)...“The holiness of Yahweh is understood, in texts like Leviticus 11 [and we add, chapters18-21], as the careful management of the mystery of access, which in turn opens the mystery oflife. At the center of this preoccupation is Yahweh, Who is in Israel the undoubted Source of life,but Who cannot be lightly or directly or easily apprehended, except with the utmost care not tooffend or violate. While this preoccupation is concentrated in texts usually disregarded in moderninterpretation [how true! Typical modern biblical theology omits much of Leviticus from seriousconsideration!], the same issues of pollution and impurity are evident in prophetic utterances (see,for example, Isaiah 6:3-5 and Jeremiah 3:1-3)...“As Yahweh is the Holy One of Sinai (Psalm 68:17) and subsequently the Holy One ofJerusalem, the Holy One also commands. The premise of the command of Sinai is that Yahwehis holy, committed to practices of purity and justice. And Israel, who is contingently holy, is toimitate Yahweh and so become holy likewise. Thus, ‘You shall be holy, for I am holy’ (Leviticus11:44-45; 19:2; 20:2, 26; 21:8). The demands that follow this formula, moreover, include allmanner of concerns, not limited to the cultic [see the broad areas of ethical concern in chapters18-21!)...“The holiness of Yahweh continues to concern primarily the demands that go along withYahweh’s special uncompromising character. If Israel will be with Yahweh, Israel must be likeYahweh; that is, with Yahweh on Yahweh’s Own demanding terms...Thus ethical, economic, andsexual disorders in the community ‘profane’...Yahweh’s holy name (Amos 2:7), an affront thatYahweh takes with utmost seriousness.” (Pp. 288-90)If YHWH our God is “holy” (‘set-apart,’ ‘uniquely special’), then, Leviticus urges withcompelling demand, so must we, YHWH’s people Israel, be “holy,” “set-apart,” “uniquely special”in our life-style and relationships. And if this is the case, Israel and the Christian movement musttake the “holiness code” of Leviticus with deep seriousness–instead of disregarding it!TITLELeviticus receives its name in English from the title given in the Septuagint (the Greektranslation of the Hebrew Bible or "Old Testament," oftentimes symbolized by LXX), LEUIT-IKON, which means "relating to the Levites," and may imply BIBLION LEUITIKON, or "LeviticalBook." Its Hebrew title,ar"Þq.YIw:, wayyiqra), is the first word in the Hebrew text of the book andmeans "And he (i.e., YHWH) called." In the Jewish Mishnah Leviticus is called torath kohaniym("Teaching of Priests") and sepher kohaniym ("Book of Priests"), as well as sepher haqqorbaniym("Book of the Offerings"). Although Leviticus does not deal only with the specialduties of the Levites, it is so named because it concerns mainly the service of worship at theMoveable sanctuary, which was conducted by the priests who were the sons of Aharon, assistedby many from the rest of the tribe of Levi. Exodus gave the directions for building the Moveable4

sanctuary, and now Leviticus gives the laws and regulations for worship there, including instructionson ceremonial cleanness, moral laws, holy days, the sabbath year and the year of jubilee.These laws were given according to the text, at least for the most part, during the year that Israelcamped at Mount Sinai, when YHWH directed Moses in organizing Israel's worship, governmentand military forces. The Book of Numbers continues the history with preparations for moving onfrom Sinai to Canaan.LEVITICUS BY CHAPTERSChapters One through SevenThese seven chapters describe the five main offerings to be presented by the Jewishworshipers in the moveable sanctuary; their content, purpose, and manner of offering, along withadditional regulations. Exodus has given instructions for building the moveable sanctuary; nowLeviticus gives the laws and regulations for worship in it--including laws for ceremonial cleanness,moral laws, set-apart days, festivals, and special years in Israel's life as the people ofYHWH, the set-apart people of God.Remember: Israel has come out of a very primitive society, filled with all kinds of superstitiousmagical rituals of worship, involving sexual relations with both humans and animals, includingthe drinking of blood and the magical manipulation of blood (and evidently, similar use ofleaven and fat in order to manufacture "potions" to influence the Gods). Israel must be taught, invery practical ways, the distinction between "clean and unclean," and must learn to discipline herlife--both ritually and morally–not that anything YHWH has created is “unclean” in itself, but itsusage in sexually oriented magical religion has made it “unclean” for Israel. Her worship mayincorporate some of the practices of her religious neighbors and her past; but it must be madevery distinct in terms of sexual and moral purity, and avoidance of magic, especially with respectto the manipulation of blood in sacrificial worship. The moveable sanctuary's worship is to be aschool for Israel, teaching her to give her very best in the worship of YHWH, and training her tokeep herself ethically pure. The fact is, unless we can somehow place ourselves back in thatstancient culture, which seems terribly strange (and nauseating.) to us in the 21 century, we cannever appreciate nor understand the relevance of such materials, until we are able to do so. It isthe opinion of this author that the most needed studies for understanding Leviticus are thoseconcerning the worship of the Mother Goddess in Canaan, prior to the arrival of the Israelites–with its sacred prostitution, wholesale infant sacrifice, and all of these other practices which are soforeign and strange to us in our modern world (except in such places as Haiti, with its Voodoo,and Cuba with its Santeria, and the related African religions found mainly in Nigeria).5

Principal Types of Sacrifice–Leviticus 1:1-7:38Heading for the Sacrificial Laws, and for the Entire Book of LeviticusLeviticus 1:1-2, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes1:1 `rmo)ale d[eÞAm lh,aoïme wyl'êae ‘hw"hy> rBeÛd:y>w: hv,_mo-la, ar"ßq.YIw: And He called1 2 3 4to Moses, and YHWH spoke to him, from (the) tent of meeting, saying: 1:2 -la, rBeúD:hm'ªheB.h;-!mi hw"+hyl; (!B'Þr>q' ~K,²mi byrIïq.y:-yKi( ~d"ªa' ~h,êlea) T'är>m;a'w> ‘laer"f.yI ynEÜB.1For other places in Exodus-Leviticus where this phrase occurs, “And He called toMoses,” or a similar phrase, seeExodus 3:4 (God called to Moses out of the bush);Exodus 19:3 (YHWH called to Moses out of the mountain);Exodus 19:20 (YHWH called Moses to the top of the mountain);Exodus 24:16 (YHWH called to Moses out of the cloud);Leviticus 1:1 (here; YHWH called to Moses and He spoke to him from the tent of meeting).Kaiser, in The New Interpreter’s Bible, 1, p. 1008, states that “This is only the thirdtime that the Lord ‘called’ to Moses; the first was at the burning bush...and the second was onMount Sinai...Leviticus is part of the ongoing historical narrative...(and) stands at the centernot only of the Pentateuch but also of Israel’s story of the move to nationhood.”2The Syriac translation places the name YHWH after the opening phrase, “And Hecalled,” reading “And YHWH called,” and then reading here “and He spoke...”3That is, YHWH spoke to Moses. For the exact phrase, “And YHWH spoke to Moses,”see the following 91 passages in the Pentateuch: Exodus 6:10, 13, 29; 13:1; 14:1; 16:11;25:1; 30:11, 17, 22; 31:1; 32:7; 33:1; 40:1; Leviticus 4:1; 5:14, 20; 6:1, 12, 17; 7:22, 28;8:1; 11:1; 12:1; 13:1; 14:1, 33; 15:1; 16:1; 17:1; 18:1; 19:1; 20:1; 21:16; 22:1, 17, 26; 23:1,9, 23, 26, 33; 24:1, 13; 25:1; 27:1; Numbers 1:1, 48; 2:1; 3:5, 11, 14, 44; 4:1, 17, 21; 5:1, 5,11; 6:1, 22; 8:1, 5, 23; 9:1, 9; 10:1; 13:1; 14:26; 15:1, 17; 16:20, 23; 17:1, 9, 16; 18:25;19:1; 20:7; 25:10, 16; 26:52; 28:1; 31:1; 33:50; 34:1, 16; 35:1, 9 and Deuteronomy 32:48.4Kaiser comments that “The opening verse of Leviticus 1:1 begins where Exodus40:34-35 left off...As the cloud of glory fills the recently completed tabernacle and prevents allaccess to its interior, the Lord calls to Moses, who now stands outside the tabernacle, from themidst of the Shekinah glory (‘the Divine presence’) residing over the ark of the covenant...Thevoice of God which had boomed out from Sinai, now calls out from the tent of meeting.” (P.1007) Levine notes that Rashbam held this same view. (P. 4)6

5`~k,(n>B;r>q'-ta, WbyrIßq.T; !aCoêh;-!miW ‘rq'B'h; -!mi Speak to Israel’s children; and you shall6 7 8 9say to them, If a human from among you who will bring near an offering for the YHWH, from5Levine notes that “Such nomenclature [Israel’s children] expresses kinship and reflectsthe notion that nations, like families, are descendants of common ancestors and share acommon genealogy. The Israelite people was thought to have descended from the patriarchIsrael [or Jacob] and his twelve sons.” (P. 4)6Levine comments that “The conditional particle, yK, kiy, ‘if,’ or ‘when,’ is the sign of thecasuistic formulation, so characteristic of biblical and ancient Near Eastern law codes. Thissyntax projects a hypothetical situation; a particular law [or judicial decision] applies only ‘if’ or‘when’ a certain situation arises.” (Pp. 4-5)The particle occurs some 146 some times in Leviticus, at: 1:2; 2:1, 4, 11; 4:2; 5:1, 3,4, 5, 11, 15, 17, 21, 23; 7:21, 25. 34; 8:33, 35; 9:4; 10:7, 12, 13, 13, 14, 17; 11:4, 5, 6, 7, 37,38, 39, 42, 44, 45, 45; 12:2; 13:2, 9, 11, 16, 18 24, 28, 29, 31, 38, 40, 42, 47, 51, 52; 14:13,34, 48; 15:2, 8, 13, 16, 19, 25, 25; 16:2, 30; 17:11, 11, 14, 14; 18:10, 13, 24, 27, 29; 19:2, 5,8, 20, 20, 23, 33, 34; 20:3, 7, 9, 19, 23, 26, 27; 21:2, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15, 18, 23, 23; 22:6,7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 20, 21, 25, 27, 29; 23:10, 28, 29, 43; 24:9, 15, 17, 19, 22; 25:2, 12,14, 16, 17, 20, 23, 23, 23, 25, 26, 29, 33, 34, 35, 39, 42, 47, 55; 26:2, 44; 27:2 and 14.We have seen this conditional particle being used numerous times in the CovenantCode in Exodus 20:18-24:18, where in distinction from the “apodictic,” expressly statedcommands, such as the Ten Commandments, a judicial decision is given that only applies toa specific situation, “if” or “when” certain conditions occur. We think that this is a good indicationthat in Leviticus, priestly judicial decisions are being given, which have been made bypriestly leaders across the centuries, who “sit in the seat of Moses / Aharon,” and who to thevery best of their ability give the decisions that they believe YHWH has led them to give–butwhich does not mean that their decisions are always right, or of equal value or importance; infact, some of the priestly decisions are influenced by wrong motivations–for example, inchapter 25, where the ownership of life-time slaves by priests is approved / justified.7Levine comments that “The syntax of the Hebrew is unusual: ‘When a person presentsfrom among you.’ Here the term for person is ~d"ªa', )adham, whereas elsewhere it may bevyai, )iysh, “man,” or vp,n

10 11the animal(s), from the herd and from the flock, they shall bring near their offerings.7(...continued)certainly means the whole person, including his inner being, emotions, etc.8Levine notes that the noun !B'Þr>q', qorban, “is a generic term for anything presented toGod when one approaches (br;q', qarabh) His sanctuary. A qorban could consist of artifacts[‘an object produced or shaped by human workmanship’] and vessels, votive objects [thingsgiven in fulfillment of a vow], or sacrificial victims, as the case is here. Archaeologicalexcavations at various sites, including Jerusalem and its environs, have turned up objectsinscribed with the word qorban, indicating that they were used to prepare of present offerings.”(P. 5) We translate !B'Þr>q', qorban, by “near-gift,” that is, a gift that is brought near.9The Latin Vulgate interpolates the phrase id est, “that is,” at this point in the text.10We understand the first word of the three, hm'ªheB.h;, habbehemah, to be a generalterm meaning “the animal(s),” and the next two words, rq'B'h;, habbaqar, and !aCoêh;,hatsts)on, to be referring to “the herd” (of larger animals) and “the flock” (of smaller animals,such as goats and sheep. The threefold description is meant to include all animals used inIsrael’s sacrificial system besides birds. Levine notes that “Wild animals (hY"x;, chayyah, inthe plural, tAYx;, chayyoth, ‘beasts’) are unsuitable for sacrifice, as they are not of thecategory of hm'ªheB.h;, habbehemah.” (P. 5)11The Samaritan Pentateuch along with the Greek and Syriac translations read “yournear-gifts” instead of our text’s “your near-gift.”Tanakh translates by “When any of you presents an offering of cattle to the Lord, heshall choose his offering from the herd or from the flock.” The phrase “he shall choose” is aninterpolation into the text.Levine notes that “Chapters 1-3 outline the three principal types of sacrifices that wereoffered regularly by individual Israelites and their families, by kings and other leaders, andoften by the entire community...Chapter 1 deals with the sacrifice called hl'Û[o, (olah, whichwas burned to ashes on the altar of burnt offerings. No part of it was eaten, either by priestsor donors.” (P. 3)8

Decisions Concerning the hl'Û[o, Offering Up 12Leviticus 1:3-17, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes1:3 d[eAm lh,aoÜ xt;P,÷-la, WNb,_yrIq.y: ~ymiÞT' rk'îz" rq'êB'h;-!mi ‘AnB'r>q' hl'Û[o-~ai12It is a perversion of biblical teaching to understand animal offerings as being a meansto gain or merit salvation for the people of God. Their deliverance from Egyptian slavery was afree gift of YHWH--see Exodus 19--and the dynamic theology that Israel had learned in suchexperiences as that in Exodus 32-34--the story of Israel’s rebellion against YHWH, andworship of a golden young bull--teaches emphatically that Israel cannot save herself by herobedience to YHWH’s commands, but is totally dependent upon merciful forgiveness andcompassionate grace. That realization makes any such interpretation of animal sacrificecompletely nonsensical (even though it is a constant danger to so interpret human sacrifice).But while not a means for gaining salvation, the offerings had deep symbolic meaningfor the delivered slaves--as expressions of gratitude, as symbols of the dedication of their livesto YHWH, and as constant reminders of their own short-comings, and their need to call forYHWH’s gracious forgiveness, conditioned on repentance. It was also an opportunity for theIsraelites to learn to give their very best in the service of YHWH, as they learned to live byYHWH's regulations, over against an undisciplined, disordered manner of life.Where the Israelites offered up their best animals, the followers of Jesus are taught to"offer up" their whole lives to God. See Romans 12:1.The commonly used noun for sacrifice is hl'[o, or hl'wo[ which is oftentimes translatedby “whole burnt offering”–but we hold that this is mistaken, since there is nothing abouteither “whole” (this is the meaning of lyliK', “entire,” “whole,” but not the meaning of hl'wo[!)or “burnt” inherent in the noun–it simply means literally “going-up,” or as Levine holds,“ascent” (The Torah Commentary, Leviticus, p. 5). We think that the translation “wholeburnt offering” is rooted in the Greek translation o`lokau,twma, “holocaust” (some 203 times inthe Septuagint) and o`lokau,twsij with the same meaning (some 87 times in the Septuagint);but both translations are reading this meaning into the text, not genuinely finding it there.In so holding, we go against the definitions given by Brown-Driver-Briggs (“wholeburnt-offering”) and that of D. Kellermann in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentXI, pp. 96-113 (“The distinctive character of the hl'wo[ is that the entire animal is consumedby fire; nothing is left for either the person offering the sacrifice or the priest,” p. 99).We ask, Where in the Hebrew Bible is this stated? Is it not a common assumption, butone totally without lexicographical foundation? We insist that in Deuteronomy 12 it is clearlystated that the tlwo[ are to be eaten by the worshipers, including the Levites and the poor ofthe community. See the translation of this passage in our footnote on Leviticus 19:6.9

14(...continued)conformity with its actual meaning, and that the text itself should be allowed to determine themeaning of the noun, not the Greek translation with its o`lokau,twma, “whole / completeburning.” The Hebrew noun occurs some 288 times in the Hebrew Bible, at:Genesis 8:20,Noah, upon emerging from the barge / ark, builds an altar of slaughterings forsacrifice (x;BeÞz>mi) to the YHWH, tl{ß[o l[;Y:ïw:, “and he brought up / caused to ascendofferings-up” of clean animals and birds, evidently in thankfulness for deliverance fromthe flood; YHWH smells the pleasing smell and determines in His heart to never againsend such a destruction on the earth. Nothing is said concerning eating the sacrifices,or their being wholly consumed in the fire of the altar.Genesis 22:2,3, 6, 7, 8, 13, God tells Abraham to take his son Isaac,‘~v' WhleÛ[]h;w>hl'ê[ol., “and bring him up / cause him to ascend there for an offering-up.” Abrahamobeys, taking with him hl'ê[o yceä[], “woods of an offering-up,” i.e., wood to burn his sonwith; he takes along a knife and fire to complete the offering-up, but no sheep or goatwhich Isaac knows is necessary for an offering-up. Abraham assures Isaac that Godwill provide the sheep or goat. Abraham builds an altar of sacrifice, arranges the woodupon it, then binds Isaac and places him upon the wood on the altar, obviously with theintent of slaughtering Isaac with his knife, and burning his body as an offering-up. ButYHWH’s messenger / angel orders him not to slaughter his son, for now God knowsthat Abraham trembles in awe before Him (in perfect obedience to this impossibly difficultcommand). Abraham sees a ram caught in a bush by its horns which he takes, andbrings it up / causes it to ascend hl'ê[ol., le(olah, “for an offering-up,” in the place ofIsaac. Abraham has not withheld his son from YHWH, and so YHWH promises himinnumerable descendants who will overcome their enemies, and be the means ofblessing for all the earth. The offering-up here is a test of faith, a means of showingGod / YHWH that nothing he has / owns will be withheld from YHWH.Exodus 10:25, Moses demands that Pharaoh supply the departing Israelites with ~yxiäb'ztAl+[ow> , slaughtered (animals for) sacrifices and offerings-up, which they will “make”for the YHWH their God in their wilderness-pilgrimage. Obviously, “offerings-up” are anintegral part of Israel’s worship, but nothing is said concerning their purpose.Exodus 18:12, Yithro, Moses’s father-in-law takes ~yhi_l{ale( ~yxiÞb'z>W hl'î[o, an offering-upand slaughtered sacrifices for God, and all of Israel’s leaders eat a meal with himbefore God; certainly implying that the animals of the offering-up and the slaughteredsacrifices were eaten, but this is not made explicit.Exodus 20:24, Israel is instructed to build an earthen altar wherever they go, wyl'ª[' T'äx.b;z"w>^ym,êl'v.-ta,w> ‘^y“t,l{[o-ta, “and you shall slaughter for sacrifice upon it yourofferings-up and your well-being offerings.” The offering-ups and well-being offerings(continued...)11

14(...continued)are obviously animals that are to be sacrificed at the moveable earthen altars of sacrifice.Exodus 24:5, the youths of Israel ~yrI)P' hw"ßhyl; ~ymi²l'v. ~yxiób'z> WxúB.z>YIw:) tl{+[o Wlß[]Y:¥“brought up / caused to ascend offerings-up; and they slaughtered sacrifices of wellbeingofferings to the YHWH, young bulls.” The blood of the animals was sprinkled onthose participating in the covenant, and then the leaders of Israel saw God withoutbeing harmed, and shared in a covenant meal–almost certainly including the meat fromthe sacrificial animals–but this again is not made explicit.Exodus 29:18, x:yrEå hw"+hyl;( aWhß hl'î[o hx'Beêz>Mih; ‘lyI“a;h'-lK'-ta, T'Ûr>j;q.hiw>àWh) hw"ßhyl; hV,îai x:AxêynI, “And you shall send up in smoke all the ram, towardsthe altar of slaughtered sacrifices–it is an offering up for the YHWH, a pleasantodor–it (is) an offering made by fire for the YHWH.” Here, the offering-up wascompletely consumed by fire, and the Greek translation o`lokau,twma is justified.Exodus 29:25, speaking of a large group of breads gathered in a basket, “And you shall takethem from their hand(s) and you shall send them up in smoke toward the altar, uponthe offering-up, for a pleasing odor before YHWH, it (is) a fire-offering for the YHWH.Again, this offering-up is apparently completely consumed by the fire, and the text issilent concerning any eating of the breads or the offering-up.Exodus 29:42, describing ‘a continual offering-up throughout Israel’s generations, (at the)door of (the) tent of meeting. Here the Greek translates by qusi,an, “sacrifice,”“offering.” Nothing is said concerning the offering-up being consumed either by thefire or by those making the offering-up.Exodus 30:9, forbidding making an offering-up on the altar of sweet-smelling smoke.Exodus 30:28, the altar of offering-up and all of its utensils are to be anointed; 40:10, same;Exodus 31:9, those who are to build the altar of offering-up; 35:16; 38:1 (similar).Exodus 32:6, the discontented Israelites present offerings-up to the golden young bull,followed by a meal and sexual orgies; almost certainly meaning the eating of theofferings-up, but this is not made explicit.Exodus 40:6, location of the altar of offerings-up, in front of entrance to set-apart place ofmoveable sanctuary; 40:29a, similar.Exodus 40:29b, Moses brings up or causes to ascend the offering-up.Leviticus 1:3, here; if one’s near-offering is an offering-up from the herd, it must be a malewithout blemish.Leviticus 1:4, person making the offering-up is to lay his hand on its head.Leviticus 1:6, the offering-up is to be skinned and cut into pieces. We ask, why do this if themeat is not intended to be eaten?Leviticus 1:9b, x:AxßynI-x:yrE) hVeîai hl'²[o hx'Beêz>Mih; ‘lKoh;-ta, !heÛKoh; ryji’q.hiw>`hw")hyl;(, “and the priest shall cause the whole (sacrifice) to smoke towards the altar ofsacrifice, an offering-upLeviticus 1:10,Leviticus 1:13,(continued...)12

14(...continued)Leviticus 1:14,Leviticus 1:17,Leviticus 3:5,Leviticus 4:7,Leviticus 4:10,Leviticus 4:18,Leviticus 4:24,Leviticus 4:25,Leviticus 4:25,Leviticus 4:29,Leviticus 4:30,Leviticus 4:33,Leviticus 4:34,Leviticus 5:7,Leviticus 5:10,Leviticus 6:2,Leviticus 6:2,Leviticus 6:3,Leviticus 6:5,Leviticus 6:18,Leviticus 7:2,Leviticus 7:8,Leviticus 7:8,Leviticus 7:37,Leviticus 8:18,Leviticus 8:21,Leviticus 8:28,Leviticus 9:2,Leviticus 9:3,Leviticus 9:7,Leviticus 9:12,Leviticus 9:13,Leviticus 9:14,Leviticus 9:16,Leviticus 9:17,Leviticus 9:22,Leviticus 9:24,Leviticus 10:19,Leviticus 12:6,Leviticus 12:8,Leviticus 14:13,Leviticus 14:19,Leviticus 14:20,(continued...)13

14(...continued)Leviticus 14:22,Leviticus 14:31,Leviticus 15:15,Leviticus 15:30,Leviticus 16:3,Leviticus 16:5,Leviticus 16:24,Leviticus 16:24,Leviticus 17:8,Leviticus 22:18,Leviticus 23:12,Leviticus 23:18,Leviticus 23:37,Numbers 6:11,Numbers 6:14,Numbers 6:16,Numbers 7:15,Numbers 7:21,Numbers 7:27,Numbers 7:33,Numbers 7:39,Numbers 7:45,Numbers 7:51,Numbers 7:57,Numbers 7:63,Numbers 7:69,Numbers 7:75,Numbers 7:81,Numbers 7:87,Numbers 8:12,Numbers 10:10,Numbers 15:3,Numbers 15:5,Numbers 15:8,Numbers 15:24,Numbers 23:3,Numbers 23:6,Numbers 23:15,Numbers 23:17,Numbers 28:3,Numbers 28:6,Numbers 28:10,Numbers 28:10,(continued...)14

14(...continued)Numbers 28:11,Numbers 28:13,Numbers 28:14,Numbers 28:15,Numbers 28:19,Numbers 28:23,Numbers 28:23,Numbers 28:24,Numbers 28:27,Numbers 28:31,Numbers 29:2,Numbers 29:6,Numbers 29:6,Numbers 29:8,Numbers 29:11,Numbers 29:13,Numbers 29:16,Numbers 29:19,Numbers 29:22,Numbers 29:25,Numbers 29:28,Numbers 29:31,Numbers 29:34,Numbers 29:36,Numbers 29:38,Numbers 29:39,Deuteronomy 12:6,Deuteronomy 12:11,Deuteronomy 12:13,Deuteronomy 12:14,Deuteronomy 12:27,Deuteronomy 27:6,Joshua 8:31,Joshua 22:23,Joshua 22:26,Joshua 22:27,Joshua 22:28,Joshua 22:29,Judges 6:26,Judges 11:31,Judges 13:16,Judges 13:23,Judges 20:26,(continued...)15

14(...continued)Judges 21:4,1 Samuel 6:14,1 Samuel 6:15,1 Samuel 7:9,1 Samuel 7:10,1 Samuel 10:8,1 Samuel 13:9,1 Samuel 13:9,1 Samuel 13:10,1 Samuel 13:12,1 Samuel 15:22,2 Samuel 6:17,2 Samuel 6:18,2 Samuel 24:22,2 Samuel 24:24,2 Samuel 24:25,1 Kings 3:4,1 Kings 3:15,1 Kings 8:64,1 Kings 8:64,1 Kings 9:25,1 Kings 10:5,1 Kings 18:34,1 Kings 18:38,2 Kings 3:27,2 Kings 5:17,2 Kings 10:24,2 Kings 10:25,2 Kings 16:13,2 Kings 16:15,2 Kings 16:15,2 Kings 16:15,2 Kings 16:15,Isaiah 1:11,Isaiah 40:16,Isaiah 43:23,Isaiah 56:7,Jeremiah 6:20,Jeremiah 7:21,Jeremiah 7:22,Jeremiah 14:12,Jeremiah 17:26,Jeremiah 19:5,(continued...)16

14(...continued)Jeremiah 33:18,Ezekiel 40:26,Ezekiel 40:26,Ezekiel 40:38,Ezekiel 40:39,Ezekiel 40:42,Ezekiel 40:42,Ezekiel 43:18,Ezekiel 43:24,Ezekiel 43:27,Ezekiel 44:11,Ezekiel 45:15,Ezekiel 45:17,Ezekiel 45:17,Ezekiel 45:23,Ezekiel 45:25,Ezekiel 46:2,Ezekiel 46:4,Ezekiel 46:12,Ezekiel 46:12,Ezekiel 46:13,Ezekiel 46:15,Hosea 6:6,Amos 5:22,Micah 6:6,Psalms 20:4,Psalms 40:7,Psalms 50:8,Psalms 51:18,Psalms 51:21,Psalms 66:13,Psalms 66:15,Job 1:5,Job 42:8,Ezra 3:2,Ezra 3:3,Ezra 3:3,Ezra 3:4,Ezra 3:5,Ezra 3:6,Ezra 8:35,Ezra 8:35,Nehemiah 10:34,(continued...)17

14(...continued)1 Chronicles 6:34,1 Chronicles 16:1,1 Chronicles 16:2,1 Chronicles 16:40,1 Chronicles 16:40,1 Chronicles 21:23,1 Chronicles 21:24,1 Chronicles 21:26,1 Chronicles 21:26,1 Chronicles 21:29,1 Chronicles 22:1,1 Chronicles 23:31,1 Chronicles 29:21,2 Chronicles 1:6,2 Chronicles 2:3,2 Chronicles 4:6,2 Chronicles 7:1,2 Chronicles 7:7,2 Chronicles 7:7,2 Chronicles 8:12,2 Chronicles 13:11,2 Chronicles 23:18,2 Chronicles 24:14,2 Chronicles 29:7,2 Chronicles 29:18,2 Chronicles 29:24,2 Chronicles 29:27,2 Chronicles 29:27,2 Chronicles 29:28,2 Chronicles 29:31,2 Chronicles 29:32,2 Chronicles 29:32,2 Chronicles 29:34,2 Chronicles 29:35,2 Chronicles 29:35,2 Chronicles 30:15,2 Chronicles 31:2,2 Chronicles 31:3,2 Chronicles 31:3,2 Chronicles 31:3,2 Chronicles 35:12,2 Chronicles 35:14,2 Chronicles 35:16.(continued...)18

male, a completely healthy one, he shall bring it; near to (the) tent of meeting’s door he shall bring15it, for its being pleasing before YHWH. 1:4 rPeîk;l. Alß hc'îr>nIw> hl'_[oh' varoå l[;Þ Adêy"16%m;äs'w> `wyl'([' And he shall lay his hand upon the offering-up’s head; and it shall be acceptablefor him, to cover over on his behalf. 1:5 ynE’B. WbyrIq.hiw>ûhw"+hy> ynEåp.li rq"ßB'h; !B,î-ta, jx;²v'w>‘lh,aoï xt;P,Þ-rv,a) bybiês' ‘x:“Bez>Mih;-l[; ~D"Üh;-ta, Wq’r>z"w> ~D"êh;-ta ~ynIh)Ko)h;* !roÜh)a;17 18`d[e(Am And he shall slaughter the son of the cattle before YHWH; and Aharon’s sons, the14(...continued)Levine goes on to state that “The (olah was a signal to God that His worshipers desiredto bring their needs to His attention; its purpose was to secure an initial response from Him.[But nothing is said in the text about desiring to bring needs to YHWH’s attention, nor is anythingsaid about securing a response from Him! We can imagine many other things that the(olah might signal–such as the worshiper’s love and desire to communicate with YHWH, andthe desire to please YHWH, but the text is silent.] God is perceived as breathing the aromaticsmoke of the (olah and responding favorably to the overtures of His devotees [But while thesmoke is intended to be a pleasing smell to YHWH, nothing is said as to YHWH’s response].”(P. 5) Levine goes on to say that “This sacrificial method is known as ‘attraction,’ the offeringof an inviting gift to God.” (P. 6) But again, there is no mention of such a thing in the text.What we should observe here is that the text simply does not give much informationabout the purpose of the sacrifices, or the emotions of those making the offerings. It is atemptation to read such things into the text!15The name YHWH is omitted by Sperber’s Targum.16Where our text reads “the offering up’s (head),” the Syriac translation reads “the nearoffering’s(head).”17Where our text reads the singular, “he (shall slaughter,” the Greek translation readsthe plural, “they (shall slaughter).”18The name Aharon is omitted by Sperber’s Targum.19

19priests, shall bring near the blood; and they shall toss the blood upon the altar, (all) around,which (is at the) door of (the) tent of meeting. 1:6 Ht'Þao xT;înIw> hl'_[oh'-ta, jyviÞp.hiw>20 21`h'yx,(t'n>li And he shall strip off the offering-up, and he shall cut it in pieces for its pieces. 1:7`vae(h'-l[; ~yciÞ[e Wkïr>['w> x;Be_z>Mih;-l[; vaeÞ !he²Koh; !roôh)a; ynE’B. Wnt.n"w>û And the sons of22Aharon the priest shall place fire upon the altar; and they shall arrange (pieces of) wood uponthe fire. 1:8 rdyI wy['Þr"k.W ABïr>qiw>`hw")hyl;( x;AxßynI-x:yrE) hVeîai hl'²[ hx'Beêz>Mih; ‘lKoh; and its inner (parts), and its legs, heshall wash with the waters; and the priest shall cause the whole (offering-up) to smoke toward thealtar, an offering-up (by) fire, a pleasing smell to the YHWH.19The phrase “the blood” is omitted by Sperber’s Targum.20Where our text reads the singular “he,” the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Greektranslation both read the plural, “they,” both here and in the next verb.21See the preceding footnote.22Where our text reads “sons of Aharon the priest,” the Syriac translation reads “thepriests, sons of Aharon.” The Latin Vulgate omits “the priest.”23A few other Hebrew manuscripts, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Greek and Syriactranslations, and some manuscripts of Sperber’s Targum interpolate the conjunction “and” atthis point in the text.24Sperber’s Targum omits the phrase “upon the fire which.” This omission was probablycaused by the eye of the translator skipping from the preceding “which” to the next occurrence.20

1:10 ~ymiÞT' rk'îz" hl'_[ol. ~yZIß[ih'-!mi Aaï ~ybi²f'K.h;-!mi AnõB'r>q' !aCo’h;-!mi-~aiw>25 26`Wnb,(yrIq.y: And if his near-gift is from the flock, from the lambs or from the female-goats, for an27 28offering-up, a male, completely healthy, he shall bring it near. 1:11 %r,yMih;-l[; Am±D"-ta, ~ynIôh)Koh; ro’h)a; •ynEB. Wq‡r>z"w> hw"+hy> ynEåp.li hn"poàc' x;Be²z>Mih29And he shall slaughter it upon the noth side of the altar of sacrifice, before YHWH; and Aharon’ssons, the priests, shall scatter its blood upon the altar of sacrifice, all around (it). 1:12 xT;ÛnIw>-l[; rv,äa) ‘~yci[eh'(-l[; ~t'êao ‘!heKoh; %r:Ü['w> Ar+d>Pi-ta,w> Avßaro-ta,w> wyx'êt'n>li Atao30`x;Be(z>Mih;-l[; rv,Þa) vaeêh' And he shall cut it in pieces, by its pieces–and its head, and its fat,31and the priest shall arrange them upon the wood which (is) upon the fire, which (is) upon the25The Samaritan Pentateuch interpolates the word hl[ at this point in the text, whichmay be read as either the noun “an offering-up,” or the verb “he offered up.”26The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Greek translation interpolate the phrase “to / forthe YHWH” at this point in the text, and the same thing occurs at verse 14.27The phrase “for an offering-up” is omitted by the Samaritan Pentateuch.28 The Greek translation interpolates the phrase kai. evpiqh,sei th.n cei/ra evpi. th.nkefalh.n auvtou/, “and he shall place the hand upon the head of it.” See the SamaritanPentateuch.29The Greek translation reads the plural “they” instead of our text’s singular “he.”30The Samaritan Pentateuch and the Greek translation both read the plural “they”instead of our text’s singular “he.”31Where our text reads “the priest shall arrange,” the Samaritan Pentateuch reads “heshall arrange, the priest.” Both the Greek and the Latin Vulgate translations read the plural“they” instead of our text’s “he.”21

altar of sacrifice. 1:13 ryjiäq.hiw> ‘lKoh;-ta, !heÛKoh; byrI’q.hiw> ~yIM"+B; #x;är>yI ~yI[:ßr"K.h;w>brÀn*B'r>q'-ta, hn"ßAYh; And if his near-gift (is) from the bird(s) for the YHWH; and he shall bring33near some of the turtle-doves, or some of the dove’s offspring (as) his offering. 1:15Amêd"‘hc'äm.nIw> hx'Be_z>Mih; ryjiÞq.hiw> Avêaro-ta, ql;m'W x:Beêz>Mih;-la, ‘!heKoh; AbÜyrIq.hiw>`x;Be(z>Mih; ryqIï l[;Þ And the priest shall bring it near to the altar of sacrifice; and he shall pinchoff its head; and he shall send up smoke towards the altar of sacrifice; and its blood shall be34 35drained out upon the altar of sacrifice’s wall. 1:16 %yli’v.hiw> Ht'_c'nOB. Atßa'r>mu-ta, rysiîhew>`!v,D")h; ~Aqßm.-la, hm'd>qeê ‘x:“Bez>Mih; lc,aeÛ Ht'øao And he shall remove its alimentary canal32The Greek translation and the Samaritan Pentateuch both read the plural “they”instead of our text’s singular “he.”33The Syriac translation interpolates the phrase “to the YHWH” at this point in the text.34Where our Hebrew text reads hc'äm.nIw., wenimtsah, “and it shall be drained out,” theSamaritan Pentateuch spells the verb ac'äm.nIw., wenimtsa), “and it shall be found.” The Greektranslation reads kai. straggiei/, “and he shall squeeze out. The Latin Vulgate readsdecurrere faciet, “cause to run through.” Compare Leviticus 5:9.35Where our Hebrew text reads l[;Þ, (al, “upon,” the Samaritan Pentateuch reads la,,)el, “into,” or “towards.” The Greek translation reads pro.j, “towards.”22

36 37 38with its plumage; and he shall throw it beside the altar of sacrifice, eastward, into (the) placeof the fat-ashes. 1:17‘!heKoh; AtÜao ryji’q.hiw> èlyDIb.y: al{å éwyp'n"k.bi Atåao [S;’viw>`hw")hyl; x:xoßynI x:yrEï hVe²ai aWhª hl'ä[o vae_h'-l[; rv,äa) ~yciÞ[eh'-l[; hx'Beêz>Mih; And he39shall tear it apart by its wings; the priest shall not divide it; and he shall make smoke arise (from)36Where our Hebrew text reads Ht'_c'nOB., benotsathah, “in its (feminine) plumage,” theSamaritan Pentateuch, the Syriac translation, Sperber’s Targum and the Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan all read wot'_c'nOB., benotsatho, “in his (masculine) plumage, making the suffixagreeable with the suffix of the preceding noun, a correction of the Massoretic text.37Where our Hebrew text reads %yli’v.hiw>, wehishliyk, “and he shall throw,” Sperber’sTargum reads ryji’q.hiw>, wehiqtiyr, “and he shall cause to smoke.”38Where our Hebrew text reads Ht'øao, )othah, “it” with the feminine singular suffix, theSamaritan Pentateuch, the Syriac translation, Sperber’s Targum and the Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan all read wot'øao, )otho, “it” with the masculine singular suffix. Compare footnote 29.39Where our Hebrew text reads simply al{å, lo), “not,” several Hebrew manuscripts, theSamaritan Pentateuch, the Greek and Syriac translations, a manuscript of Sperber’s Targum,the Pseudo-Jonathan Targum, and the Latin Vulgate all interpolate the conjunction “and,”reading al{w.å, welo), “and not.”23(continued...)

it, towards the altar of sacrifice, upon the pieces of wood which are upon the fire. It is an offeringup,a fire-offering, a pleasing smell for the YHWH.39(...continued)24

2. Decisions Concerning the ‘hx'n>mi Grain Offering 40Leviticus 2:1-16Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes2:1 ‘h'yl,’[' qc;Ûy"w> An=B'r>q' hyMih; ta, !heøKoh; ryji’q.hiw> Ht'_n"bol.-lK' l[;Þ Hn"ëm.V;miW ‘HT'l.S'mi Acªm.qu al{åm.`hw")hyl; x:xoßynI x:yrEï hVe²ai And he shall bring it to Aharon’s sons, the priests; and he shallgrasp from there his full grasp from its fine flour and from its oil, upon all its white incense; and thepriest shall cause smoke to arise, its memorial-offering, towards the altar of sacrifice, a fireoffering,a pleasing smell for the YHWH. 2:3 wyn"+b'l.W !roßh)a;l. hx'ên>Mih;-!mi ‘tr`hw")hy> yVeîaime ~yviÞd"q") vd`!m,V'(B; ~yxiîvum. tACßm; yqEïyqir>W And if you shall bring near a near-offering, a gift-offering ofsomething baked in an oven–fine flour, cakes of bread, unleavened bread-cakes, mixed with theoil, and thing round-cakes of unleavened bread, anointed with the oil. 2:5 -l[; hx'în>mi-~aiw>`hy

àwhi( hx'Þn>mi !m,v'_ h'yl,Þ[' T'îq.c;y"w> ~yTiêPi ‘Ht'ao crumbling it (into) fragments; and you shallpour oil upon it–it is a gift-offering. 2:7 `hf,(['Te !m,V,ÞB; tl,soï ^nm; tx;în>mi-~aiw>And if your near-offering (is) a gift-offering (on) a sauce-pan–fine flour with the oil it shall be made.2:8 !heêKoh;-la, ‘Hb'yrIq.hiw> hw"+hyl; hL,aeÞme hf,²['yE rv,óa) hx'ªn>Mih;-ta, t'äabehew>`x;Be(z>Mih;-la, Hv'ÞyGIhiw> And you shall bring the gift-offering which is made from these things tothe YHWH; and he shall bring it near to the priest; and he shall bring it close to the sacrificial-altar.2:9 x:xoßynI x:yrEï hVe²ai hx'Be_z>Mih; ryjiÞq.hiw> Ht'êr"K"åz>a;-ta ,‘hx'n>Mih;-!mi !heÛKoh; ~yrI’hew>`hw")hyl; And the priest shall raise up from the gift-offering its memorial-offering, and he shallcause smoke to go up towards the altar of sacrifice, a fire-offering, a pleasing smell for theYHWH. 2:10 `hw")hy> yVeîaime ~yviÞd"q'* vdq'-lK' l[;î ^t,_x'n>mi l[;Þme ^yh,êl{a/ tyrIåB. xl;m,… tyBiªv.t; al{åw> xl'm.Ti`xl;m,( And every near-offering, your gift-offering, with the salt you will salt; and you shall notcause to cease (the) salt of your God’s covenant, from upon your gift-offering; upon your everynear-offering you shall cause salt to come near.26

2:14 lm,êr>K; fr,G !m,v,ê ‘h'yl,’[' T'Ût;n"w>àwhi( hx'Þn>mi hn"+bol. And you (singular) shall place upon it oil; and you shall put upon it whiteincense;it is a gift-offering. 2:16 l[;Þ Hn"ëm.V;miW ‘Hf'r>GImi Ht'ªr"K'z>a;-ta, !heøKoh; ryji’q.hiw>`hw")hyl; hV,Þai Ht'_n"bol.-lK' And the priest shall cause its memorial-offering to smoke from itscrushed fruit and from its oil upon all its white-incense–a fire-offering for the YHWH.27

3. Decisions Concerning the ~ymiÞl'v. xb;z ynEïp.li WNb,ÞyrIq.y: ~ymiîT' And if his near-offering (is) a well-beings sacrifice, if it is fromthe cattle, if male or female, he shall bring it near completely healthy, before YHWH. 3:2 %m;Ûs'w>-ta, ~ynIôh)Koh; !ro’h)a; •ynEB. Wq‡r>z"w> d[e_Am lh,aoå xt;P,Þ Aj§x'v.W AnëB'r>q' varoå-l[; ‘Ady"`bybi(s' x;BeÞz>Mih;-l[; ~D"±h; And he shall lay his hand upon his near-offering’s head, and heshall slaughter it (at the) tent of meeting’s door; and Aharon’s sons the priests shall scatter theblood upon the altar of sacrifice, (all) around. 3:3 hw"+hyl; hV,Þai ~ymiêl'V.h; xb;Z`br`hN"r tAyàl'K.h;-l[; dbeêK'h;-l[; ‘tr ~yli_s'K.h;-l[; rv,Þa) !h,êle[) rv,äa)and the two kidneys, and the fat which upon them, which are over the loins; and that which isremaining over the liver over the loins, he shall remove it. 3:5 !roh)a;-ynE)b. AtÜao Wryji’q.hiw>`hw")hyl;( x:xoßynI x:yrEï hVe²ai vae_h'-l[; rv,äa) ~yciÞ[eh'-l[; rv,îa) hl'ê[oh'ä-l[; hx'Beêz>Mih;And Aharon’s sons shall cause it to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice, upon the offering-upwhich (is) upon the pieces of wood which (are) upon the fire, a fire-offering, a pleasing smell tothe YHWH.3:6 ~ymiÞT' hb'êqen> Aaå ‘rk'z" hw"+hyl; ~ymiÞl'v. xb;z`Wnb,(yrIq.y: And if his near-sacrifice (is) from the sheep, for a well-beings sacrifice to the YHWH,28

(it must be) a male or a female, completely healthy he shall bring it near. 3:7 -aWh) bf,K,î-~ai`hw")hy> ynEïp.li Atßao byrIïq.hiw> An=B'r>q'-ta, byrIßq.m; If he is bringing near a lamb (for) hisnear-offering, and he shall bring it near before YHWH. 3:8 varoå-l[; ‘Ady"-ta, %m;Ûs'w>x;BeÞz>Mih;-l[; Am±D"-ta, !roôh)a; ynE’B. Wqr>z"w>û d[e_Am lh,aoå ynEßp.li Atêao jx;äv'w> AnëB'r>q'`bybi(s' And he shall lay his hand upon his near-offering’s head; and he shall slaughter it before(the) tent of meeting; and Aharon’s sons shall scatter its blood upon the altar of sacrifice, (all)around. 3:9 tM;î[ul. hm'êymit. hy"ål.a;h' ‘ABl.x, èhw"hyl; hV,äai é~ymil'V.h; xb;Z-l[; rv,Þa) bl,xeêh;-lK' ‘taew> br hN"r hc,Þ['h,`brq' z[eÞ ~aiîw> And if his near-offering (is) a femalegoat; and he shall bring it near before YHWH. 3:13 Atêao jx;äv'w> Avêaro-l[; ‘Ady"-ta, %m;Ûs'w>`bybi(s' x;BeÞz>Mih;-l[; Am±D"-ta, !roôh)a; ynE’B. Wqr>z"w>û d[e_Am lh,aoå ynEßp.li And he shall layhis hand upon its head; and he shall slaughter it before (the) tent of meeting; and Aharon’s sons29

shall scatter its blood upon the altar of sacrifice, (all) around. 3:14 AnëB'r>q' ‘WN“M,mi byrIÜq.hiw>`brMih; !heÞKoh; ~r"ïyjiq.hiw> And thepriest shall cause them to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice, food, a fire-offering for a soothingsmell–all fat for the YHWH.3:17 al{ï ~D"ß-lk'w> bl,xeî-lK' ~k,_ytebov.Am) lkoßB. ~k,êyteroådol. ‘~l'A[ tQ:Üxu`Wlke(ato (It is) a long-lasting statute for your generations, in all your dwelling-places: all fat andall blood, you people shall not eat!30

Decisions Concerning taJ'(x;, Sacrifice for Inadvertent Missing-of-the-MarkLeviticus 4:1-35Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes4:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 4:2 rBeúD:al{å rv,Þa) hw"ëhy> twOæc.mi ‘lKomi ‘hg"g"v.bi aj'Ûx/t,-yKi( vp,n hn"yf,_['te Speak to Israel’s children, saying, A person that misses-themarkaccidentally, from all YHWH’s commandments, (doing) that which is not done, and he didfrom one of these:4:3 aj'øx' rv,’a) •AtaJ'x; l[;ä byrI‡q.hiw> ~['_h' tm;äv.a;l. aj'Þx/y< x:yvi²M'h; !heóKoh; ~aiä`taJ'(x;l. hw"ßhyl; ~ymi²T' rq"ïB'-!B, rP;ä If the priest, the anointed one, shall miss-the-mark(resulting in) guilt of the people–and he shall bring near upon his missing-of-the-mark offeringwhich he missed-the-mark, a young bull, offspring of cattle, completely healthy, for the YHWH, fora missing-of-the-mark offering. 4:4 hw"+hy> ynEåp.li d[eÞAm lh,aoï xt;P,²-la, rP'ªh;-ta, aybiähew>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li rP'Þh;-ta, jx;îv'w> rP'êh; varoå-l[; ‘Ady"-ta, %m;Ûs'w> And he shall bring theyoung bull to (the) tent of meeting’s door, before YHWH; and he shall lay his hand upon theyoung bull’s head; and he shall slaughter the young bull, before YHWH. 4:5 !heîKoh; xq:±l'w>`d[e(Am lh,aoï-la, Atßao aybiîhew> rP'_h; ~D:åmi x:yviÞM'h; And the priest, the anointed one,shall take some blood of the young bull; and he shall bring it to (the) tent of meeting. 4:6 lb;ój'w>tk,roïP' ynEßP.-ta, hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘~ymi['P. [b;v,Û ~D"øh;-!mi hZ"’hiw> ~D"+B; A[ßB'c.a,-ta, !he²Koh;`vd

lh,aoåB. rv,Þa) hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘~yMiS;h; trmi tAnr>q;û-l[; ~D"øh;-!mi !he’Koh; •!t;n"w>lh,aoï xt;P,Þ-rv,a) hl'ê[oh' xB;äz>mi ‘dAsy>-la, ‘%Pov.yI rP'ªh; ~D:å-lK' Ÿtaeäw> d[e_Am`d[e(Am And the priest shall place some of the blood upon (the) horns of (the) altar of sweetsmellingspices, before YHWH–which (is) in (the) tent of meeting; and all the young bull’s bloodhe will pour into (the) base of the altar of sacrifice of the offering-up, which (is at the) door of (the)tent of meeting. 4:8 hS,äk;m.h;( ‘bl,“xeh;-ta, WNM,_mi ~yrIåy" taJ'Þx;h;( rP;î bl,xe²-lK'-ta,w>`br`hN"r tAyàl'K.h;-l[; dbeêK'h;-l[; ‘tr ~yli_s'K.h;-l[; rv,Þa) and the twokidneys, and the fat which (is) over them, which (is) over the loins; and that which remains overthe liver above the kidneys, he will remove it, 4:10 ~ymi_l'V.h; xb;zmi l[;Þ !heêKoh; ‘~r"yjiq.hiw> just as it is raised up from (the) ox well-beingssacrifice; and the priest shall cause them to smoke, upon the offering-up altar of sacrifice. 4:11Àv)r>piW ABßr>qiw> wy['_r"K.-l[;w> Avßaro-l[; Arêf'B.-lK'-ta,w> ‘rP'h; rA[Ü-ta,w> And theyoung bull’s skin, and all its flesh, upon its head and upon its legs, and its loins and its wastematter. 4:12 %p,v,ä-la, ‘rAhj' ~AqÜm'-la, hn`@rE)F'yI !v,D !v,D

`Wmve(a'w> hn"yf,Þ['te-al rv,îa){ twOõc.mi-lK'mi And if all Israel’s congregation goes astray, and(the) matter is hidden from the assembly’s eyes; and they do one of all (the) commandmentswhich should not be done, and they are guilty; 4:14 h'yl,_[' Waßj.x' rv,îa) taJ'êx;h;( ‘h['d>An*w>`d[e(Am lh,aoï ynEßp.li Atêao Waybiähew> taJ'êx;l. ‘rq'B'-!B, rP;Û lh'øQ'h; WbyrI’q.hiw> and theassembly, they shall bring near a young bull, offspring of cattle, for a missing-of-the-mark offering;and they shall bring it before (the) tent of meeting. 4:15 ~h,²ydEy>-ta, hd"ô[eh' ynE’q.zI Wkm.s'w>û`hw")hy> ynEïp.li rP'Þh;-ta, jx;îv'w> hw"+hy> ynEåp.li rP'Þh; varoï-l[; And the congregation’sofficials shall lay their hands upon the young bull’s head before YHWH; and he shall slaughter theyoung bull before YHWH. 4:16 `d[e(Am lh,aoß-la rP'_h; ~D:åmi x:yviÞM'h; !heîKoh; aybi²hew>And the priest, the anointed one, shall bring some blood of the young bull into (the) tent ofmeeting. 4:17 taeÞ hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘~ymi['P. [b;v,Û hZ"ùhiw> ~D"+h;-!mi A[ßB'c.a, !he²Koh; lb;ój'w>`tk,ro)P'h; ynEïP. And the priest shall dip his finger (in) some of the blood; and he shall sprinkle (it)seven times before YHWH, the front of the shutting-off curtain. 4:18 -l[; Ÿ!TeäyI ~D"úh;-!miW-la‘%Pov.yI ~D"ªh;-lK' taeäw> d[e_Am lh,aoåB. rv,Þa) hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘rv,a) x:Beªz>Mih; tnOær>q;`d[e(Am lh,aoï xt;P,Þ-rv,a) hl'ê[oh' xB;äz>mi ‘dAsy>, And some of the blood he shall place uponthe horns of the altar which is before YHWH, which is in (the) tent of meeting; and all of the bloodhe shall pour into the base of the altar of sacrifice of offering-up, which (is located at the) door of(the) tent of meeting.4:19 `hx'Be(z>Mih; ryjiÞq.hiw> WNM,_mi ~yrIåy" ABßl.x,-lK' taeîw> And all the fat he shallraise up from it, and he shall cause (it) to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice. 4:20 hf'ä['w>xl;îs.nIw> !heÞKoh; ~h,²le[) rP,ókiw> AL+-hf,[)y: !KeÞ taJ'êx;h;( rp;äl. ‘hf'[' rv,Ûa)K; rP'êl;33

`~h,(l' And he shall do to the young bull just as he did to the missing-of-the-mark young bulloffering; in this way he shall to to it; and the priest shall cover over for them, and it will be forgivenfor them. 4:21 taeÞ @r:êf' rv,äa)K; Atêao @r:åf'w> hn A[êB'c.a,B. ‘taJ'x;h;( ~D:Ümi !heøKoh; xq;’l'w>`hl'([oh' xB;îz>mi dAsßy>-la, %Poêv.yI AmåD"-ta,w> hl'_[oh' And the priest shall take some of theblood of the missing-of-the-mark offering with his finger, and he shall place (it) upon (the) horns ofthe altar of sacrifice of the offering-up; and he shall pour its blood into the altar of sacrifice of theoffering-up’s base. 4:26 ~ymi_l'V.h; xb;zÀl) xl;îs.nIw> AtßaJ'x;me !he²Koh; wyl'ó[' rP,’kiw> And all its fat he shall cause to smoke towardsthe altar of sacrifice, like (the) fatof the sacrifice of well-beings; and the priest shall cover overfrom his missing-of-the-mark; and it will be forgiven to him.34

4:27 twOõc.Mimi tx;’a; Ht'f{[)B;û #r or his missingof-the-markwas made known to him which he missed-the-mark; and he shall bring his nearoffering,a hairy female of goats, completely healthy, a female, on behalf of his missing-of-themarkoffering, which he missed-the-mark. 4:29 ‘jx;v'w> taJ'_x;h;( varoå l[;Þ Adêy"-ta, ‘%m;s'w>`hl'([oh' ~Aqßm.Bi taJ'êx;h;ä-ta, And he shall lay his hand upon the head of the missing-of-themarkoffering, and he shall slaughter the missing-of-the-mark offering in (the) place of theoffering-up. 4:30 hl'_[oh' xB;äz>mi tnOàr>q;-l[; !t;§n"w> A[êB'c.a,B. ‘Hm'D"mi !heÛKoh; xq;’l'w>`x;Be(z>Mih; dAsßy>-la, %Poêv.yI Hm'äD"-lK'-ta,w> And the priest shall take some of her blood withhis finger, and he shall place (it) upon the horns of the offering-up altar of sacrifice; and all herblood he shall pour out into the altar of sacrifice’s base. 4:31 rv,’a)K; rysiªy" HB'äl.x,-lK'-ta,w>hw"+hyl; x:xoßynI x:yrEïl. hx'Beêz>Mih; ‘!heKoh; ryjiÛq.hiw> è~ymil'V.h; xb;z !heÞKoh; wyl'²[' rP,îkiw> And all her fat he shall remove just as fat was removed fromupon the well-beings’ sacrifice; and the priest shall cause (it) to smoke towards the altar ofsacrifice, for a pleasing smell for the YHWH; and the priest shall cover over on its behalf; and itwill be forgiven to him. 4:32 `hN"a,(ybiy> hm'Þymit. hb'îqen> taJ'_x;l. AnàB'r>q' aybiîy" fb,K,²-~aiw>And if he shall bring a lamb (as) his near-offering for a missing-of-the-mark sacrifice; he shallbring it–a completely healthy female. 4:33 jx;Ûv'w> taJ'_x;h;( varoå l[;Þ Adêy"-ta, ‘%m;s'w>35

`hl'([oh'-ta, jx;Þv.yI rv,îa) ~Aq§m.Bi taJ'êx;l Ht'ao And he shall lay his hand upon thehead of the missing-of-the-mark sacrifice, in a place where he slaughters the offering-up sacrifice.4:34 -ta,w> hl'_[oh' xB;äz>mi tnOàr>q;-l[; !t;§n"w> A[êB'c.a,B. ‘taJ'x;h;( ~D:Ümi !heøKoh; xq;’l'w>`x;Be(z>Mih; dAsßy>-la, %Poêv.yI Hm'äD"-lK' And the priest shall take some of the missing-of-themark’ssacrifice on his finger, and he shall place (it) upon the offering-up sacrifice’s altar ofsacrifice; and all her blood he shall pour out into the altar of sacrifice’s base. 4:35 -lK'-ta,w>‘~t'ao !heÛKoh; ryji’q.hiw> è~ymil'V.h; xb;Z yVeäai l[;Þ hx'Beêz>Mih;And all its fat he shall remove, just as (the) fat of the lamb was removed from (the) sacrifice of thewell-beings offering; and the priest shall cause them to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice, uponfire-offerings of YHWH; and the priest shall cover over on his behalf, upon his missing-of-themarkoffering which he missed-the-mark. And it will be forgiven to him.36

Inadvertent Missing-of-the-Mark by OmissionExodus 5:1-13Hebrew Text with English Translation and FootnotesExodus 5:1-6:6 gives a description of “missing-of-the-mark offerings”-those committed"unintentionally"–by priests, the whole community, leaders, and members of the community, alongwith a detailed description of lesser gifts to be made by poorer people. The text continues tospeak of sins committed hg"g"v.bi, bishgagah, “in inadvertence,” or “accidentally,” implying adifference between them and those committed hm'ªr" dy"åB., beyadh ramah, “with a high hand,”that is, “deliberately, intentionally.”In both the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament, the words aj'x', chata) inHebrew, and the nouns and verbs related to a`marti,a, hamartia in Greek all have the basicmeaning of “missing-the-mark,” that is, living in such a way as to “miss” the Divine intention forhuman life, to “miss” the intended course in life, a much broader matter than our narrow defiitionsof “sin.”This distinction between “inadvertent” missings-of-the-mark and intentional, “high-handed”missings-of-the-mark is most important for our understanding of Leviticus and its sacrificialsystem. As Leviticus states, “Substitution [i.e., the animal’s blood substituting for the humanmaking the offering) was allowed only in cases of inadvertence. Where the offense against Godhad been intentional [hm'ªr" dy"åB., beyadh ramah, ‘with a high hand’) ritual expiation did notapply.” (P. 115)This leaves the student of Leviticus with a probing question: “How then could Israel avoida constant string of executions, that would rapidly destroy the population of Israel, if everyintentional violation of the torah mentioned in their law as deserving of capital punishment wascarried out?” And, “How then was King David forgiven after his adultery, lying, and murder?” Theanswer to this question points to the inability of animal sacrifices to deal with the missings-of-themarkdeserving capital punishment, and points to a Divine grace and forgiveness that is muchdeeper and greater than the system of Leviticusitical sacrifices. King David was forgiven–by thegracious mercy of YHWH, to whom he went in heart-felt penitence (compare the dynamictheological statement of Psalm 51, with its admission of the inability of animal sacrifices to dealwith such a situation). Indeed, this same truth applied to the Nation of Israel as a whole, as istaught so emphatically in Exodus 32-34, where the point is made that the only way that thegolden-calf building and worshiping, apostate Israel can walk out into the future, is on the basis ofYHWH’s nature as merciful and gracious, slow to anger, abounding in steadfast love andfaithfulness, keeping steadfast love for the thousandth generation, forgiving iniquity and transgressionand missing-of-the-mark...” The legalistic acceptance of the law-code in Leviticus thuspoints away from itself to that personal relationship with a forgiving God, to whom the guiltyindividual can come in penitence, and thereby receive forgiveness.5:1 -~ai [d"+y" Aaå ha'Þr" Aaï d[eê aWhåw> hl'êa' lAqå ‘h['m.v'(w> aj'ªx/t,-yKi( vp,n37

Àn*wO[) af'în"w> dyGIßy: aAlï And a person who misses-the-mark–and he heard a voice, a curse–and he (is) a witness, or he saw or he knew–if he does not declare (it)--and he will bear his guilt.5:2 Aa… ha'ªmej. hY"÷x; tl;’b.nIb. •Aa èamej' rb'äD"-lk'B. é[G:Ti rv,äa) vp,n WNM,êmi ~l;ä[.n ame_j' #r hL,ae_me tx;äa;l. ~v;Þa.y taJ'_x;l. ~yZIß[i tr:ïy[if.-Aa) hB'²f.Ki !aCoïh;-!mi and heshall bring his guilt-offering to the YHWH, beside his missing-of-the-mark offering which hemissed-the-mark–a female from the flock, a lamb or a female of the goats for a missing-of-themarkoffering; and the priest shall cover over on his behalf from his missing-of-the-mark offering.5:7 ynEïv.-Aa) ~yrI±to yTeîv. aj'ªx' rv,äa) Amøv'a)-ta aybi’hew> èhf, yDEå éAdy" [yGIåt; al{’-~aiw>`hl'([ol. dx'îa,w> taJ'Þx;l. dx'îa, hw"+hyl;( hn"ßAy-ynE)b. and if his hand does not touch sufficient38

(funds) for a sheep–and he shall bring (as) his guilt-offering which he has missed-the-mark twodoves or two turtle-doves for the YHWH, one for a missing-of-the-mark offering, and one for anoffering-up. 5:8 hn"+AvarI taJ'Þx;l; rv,îa)-ta, byrI±q.hiw> !heêKoh;-la, ‘~t'ao aybiÛhew>`lyDI)b.y: al{ïw> APßr>[' lWMïmi Av±aro-ta, ql;óm'W And he shall bring them to the priest; and heshall bring near that which is for the missing-of-the-mark offering first; and he shall pinch off itshead from the front of its neck; and he shall not divide (it). 5:9 l[; ‘taJ'x;h; ~D:Ümi hZ"ùhiw>àWh) taJ'Þx; x;Be_z>Mih; dAsåy>-la, hceÞM'yI ~D"êB; ra'äv.NIh;w> x:Beêz>Mih; ryqIå- And he shallsprinkle some of the blood of the missing-of-the-mark offering upon the side of the altar ofsacrifice; and that which is remaining (of) the blood, he shall drain out into the altar of sacrifice’sbase–it is a missing-of-the-mark offering. 5:10 rP,’kiw> jP'_v.MiK; hl'Þ[o hf,î[)y: ynI±Veh;-ta,w>Àl) xl;îs.nIw> aj'Þx'-rv,a) AtïaJ'x;me !he²Koh; wyl'ó[' And the second (dove) he shall make anoffering-up, according to the legal decision; and the priest shall cover over on his behalf from hismissing-of-the-mark, which he missed-the-mark; and it will be forgiven to him. 5:11 •al{-~aiw>aj'ªx' rv,äa) An÷B'r>q'-ta, aybi’hew> èhn"Ay-ynEb. ynEåv.li éAa ~yrIªto yTeäv.li Adøy" gyFi’t;yKiî hn"ëbol. ‘h'yl,’[' !TeÛyI-al{w> !m,v,ª h'yl,÷[' ~yfi’y"-al{ taJ'_x;l. tl,soß hp'²aeh' trIôyfi[)àyhi( taJ'Þx; And if his hand does not reach sufficient for two doves, or for two turtledoves–andhe shall bring his near-offering which he missed-the-mark, a tenth of the ephah of fineflour for a missing-of-the-mark offering; he shall not put on it oil, and he shal not place upon itwhite incense; because it is a missing-of-the-mark offering. 5:12 #m;äq'w> è!heKoh;-la, éHa'ybih/w

grasp, a memorial-offering; and he shall cause it to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice upon afire-offering of YHWH–it is a missing-of-the-mark offering. 5:13 -l[; !heøKoh; wyl'’[' •rP,kiw>`hx'(n>MiK; !heÞKol; ht'îy>h'w> Al+ xl;äs.nIw> hL,aeÞme tx;îa;me( aj'²x'-rv,a) AtôaJ'x; And the priestshall cover over for him, for his missing-of-the-mark offering, which he missed-the-mark from oneof these; and it will be forgiven to him; and it will belong to the priest like a gift-offering.Decision Concerning the ~v'a', Guilt-Offeringfor Inadvertent Missings-of-the-Mark in YHWH’s Set-Apart ThingsLeviticus 5:14-16, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes5:14 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 5:15•hw"÷hyl;( Am’v'a]-ta, aybihew> hw"+hy> yveÞd>Q'mi hg"ëg"v.Bi ha'j.x'(w> l[;m;ê l[oåm.ti-yKi( vp,n

5:17 al{å rv,Þa] hw"ëhy> twOæc.mi-lK'mi tx;a; ht'ªf.['(w> aj'êx/t,( yKiä ‘vp,nÀn*wO[] af'în"w> ~veÞa'w> [d:ïy"-al{)w> ‘hn"yf,_['te And if a person who misses-the-mark, and doesone of all YHWH’s commandments which are not done, and he did not know (it), and he shall beguilty, and shall bear his iniquity. 5:18 !aCo±h;-!mi ~ymióT' lyIa:å aybihew>ûal{) aWhïw> gg"±v'-rv,a] Atôg"g>vi l[;ä !heøKoh; wyl'’[' •rP,kiw> !he_Koh;-la, ~v'Þa'l. ^ïK.r>[,B.Àl) xl;îs.nIw> [d:ßy"- And he shall bring a completely healthy ram from the flock, according to itsestimate(d price) for a guilt-offering to the priest; and the priest shall cover over on his behalf forhis inadvertence which he inadvertently did, and he did not know; and it will be forgiven to him.5:19 `hw")hyl; ~v;Þa' ~voïa' aWh+ ~v'Þa' It (is) a guilt-offering; he is certainly guilty againstYHWH!Decision Concerning the ~v'a'h'', Guilt-Offeringfor Intentional False Oaths and Dishonest TheftsLeviticus 5:20-26 (6:1-7, English), Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes5:20 (6:1, English) `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses,saying: 5:21 (6:2, English). Atøymi[]B; vxe’kiw> hw"+hyB; l[;m;Þ hl'î[]m'W aj'êx/t, yKiä vp,n-rv,a] lKo±mi tx;ªa;-l[; rq,v'_-l[; [B;äv.nIw vx,kiîw> hd"±bea] ac'óm'-Aa)`hN"he(b' ajoïx]l; ~d"ßa'h' or he found something lost, and he deceived concerning it; and / or heswore a falsehood concerning one of the things a human being will do to miss-the-mark by them;5:23 (6:4, English) -ta, AaÜ lz"©G" rv,äa] hl'÷zEG>h;-ta, byvi’hew> è~vea'w> aj'äx/y

v,îa] hd"ßbea]h'-ta, Aaï AT+ai dq:ßp.h' rv,îa] !AdêQ'Pih;-ta, Aa… qv'ê[' rv,äa] ‘qv,[o’h'àc'(m' and it shall be when he misses-the-mark and is guilty; and he will return the thing robbedwhich he stole, or the thing extorted which he extorted, or the deposit which was deposited withhim, or the lost thing which he found; 5:24 (6:5, English) éwyl'[' [b;äV'yI-rv,a] lKoúmi Aaû~AyðB. Wnn[,B. !aCo±h;-!mi ~ymióT' lyIa:å hw"+hyl; aybiÞy" Amïv'a]-ta,w>`!he(Koh;-la, ~v'Þa'l. And its guilt-offering he shall bring to the YHWH–a fully healthy ram fromthe flock, with your estimate(d value) for a guilt-offering to the priest. 5:26 (6:7, English) rP,’kiw>`Hb'( hm'îv.a;l. hf,Þ[]y:-rv,(a] lKoïmi tx;²a;-l[; Al+ xl;äs.nIw> hw"ßhy> ynEïp.li !he²Koh; wyl'ó['And the priest shall cover over for him before YHWH; and it shall be forgiven to him for (the) onething from everything which he shall do (causing) guilt by it.Additional Decisions Concerning the hl'_[o, Offering-Up SacrificeLeviticus 6:1-6, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes6:1 (6:8, English) `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses,saying: 6:2 (6:9, English) awhiä hl'_[oh' tr:ßAT tazOð rmoêale wyn"åB'-ta,w> ‘!roh)a;-ta,( wc;ÛÀB) •dq;WTï x;BeÞz>Mih; vaeîw> rq,Boêh;-d[; ‘hl'y>L;’h;-lK' x;BeÛz>Mih;-l[; hd"’q.Am l[; hl'³[oh'Command Aharon and his sons, saying, This (is the) law / teaching of the offering-up: it is theoffering-up upon (the) hearth, upon the altar of sacrifice, every night until the morning; and (the)fire of the altar of sacrifice will be kindled on it. 6:3 (6:10, English) db;ª ADåmi !heøKoh; vb;’l'w>42

hl'Þ[oh'-ta, vae²h' lk;îaTo rv,’a) !v,D èArf'B.-l[; vB;äl.yI édb;-ysen>k.mi(W`x;Be(z>Mih; lc,aeÞ Am§f'w> x;Be_z>Mih;-l[; And the priest shall wear his white linen garment; andwhite linen trousers he shall wear upon his flesh; and he shall raise up the fat ashes which the fireshall devour–the offering-up upon the altar of sacrifice; and he shall place it next to the altar ofsacrifice. 6:4 (6:11, English) -ta, ayciÛAhw> ~yrI+xea) ~ydIåg"B. vb;Þl'w> wyd"êg"B.-ta, ‘jv;p'W`rAh)j' ~Aqßm'-la hnMih;-l[; vae’h'w>`~ymi(l'V.h; ybeîl.x, h'yl,Þ[' ryjiîq.hiw> hl'ê[oh'( ‘h'yl,’[' %r:Ü['w>; rq,Bo+B; rq,BoåB ~yciÞ[e Andthe fire upon the altar of sacrifice shall be kindled with it; it shall not be put out; and the priest shallburn upon it pieces of wood, morning by morning. 6:6 (6:13, English) l[; dq:ïWT dymi²T' vaeª`hb,(k.ti al x;BeÞz>Mih;- A continuous fire shall be kindled upon the altar of sacrifice; it shall notbe put out.The Grain Offering, hx'_n>MihLeviticus 6:7-11Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes6:7 (6:14, English) hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘!roh)a;-ynE)B. Ht'Ûao brE’q.h; hx'_n>Mih; tr:ßAT tazOðw>`x;Be(z>Mih ynEßP.-la, And this (is the) teaching / law (concerning) the grain-offering: bring it near,sons of Aharon, before YHWH, to (a place) before the altar of sacrifice. 6:8 (6:15, English)-l[; rv,Þa) hn"ëboL.h;-lK' ‘taew> Hn"ëm.V;miW ‘hx'n>Mih; tl,SoÜmi Acªm.quB. WNM,ømi ~yrI’hew>`hw")hyl; Ht'Þr"K'z>a; x:xo±ynI x:yrEô x:Beªz>Mih; ryjiäq.hiw> hx'_n>Mih; And he shall raise up from it inhis fist some of the fine flour of the gift-offering, and from its oil, and all its white incense which is43

upon the gift-offering; and he shall cause (it to) smoke towards the altar of sacrifice–a pleasingsmell, its memorial to the YHWH. 6:9 (6:16, English) wyn"+b'W !roåh)a; Wlßk.ayO hN"M,êmi trMih, of the High PriestLeviticus 6:12-16, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes6:12 (6:19, English) `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses,saying: 6:13 (6:20, English) ‘~AyB. hw"©hyl;( WbyrIåq.y:-rv,a) wyn"÷b'W !ro’h)a; •!B;r>q' hzmi tl,so± hp'îaeh' trI’yfi[) Atêao xv;äM'hi`brmi ‘ynEypiTu hN"amu hf,Þ['Te It shall be44

made upon a pan with the oil having been mixed; he shall bring it, broken into pieces?, a giftoffering(of) pieces you (singular) shall bring, a pleasing smell for the YHWH. 6:15 (6:22,English) lyliîK' hw"ßhyl; ~l'Ä[-qx' Ht'_ao hf,ä[)y: wyn"ßB'mi wyT'²x.T; x:yvióM'h; !he’Koh;w>`rj'(q.T' And the priest, the anointed one beneath him, from his sons, shall make it–a long-lastingstatute for the YHWH, (the) entirety shall be sent up in smoke. 6:16 (6:23, English) tx;în>mi-lk'w>`lke(a'te al{ï hy

its blood, upon the garment which he sprinkles, shall wash in a set-apart place. 6:21 (6:28,English) @J;Þvuw> qr:ïmoW hl'V'êBu ‘tv,xo’n> yliÛk.Bi-~aiw> rbe_V'yI ABß-lV;buT. rv,îa) fr

The Guilt-Offering, ~v'_a'h'Leviticus 7:1-10. Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes7:1 àWh) ~yviÞd"q'* vd ~v'_a'h'-ta, Wjßx)v.yI hl'ê[oh'ä-ta, ‘Wjx)v.yI rv,Ûa) ~Aqªm.Bi in (the) placewhere they slaughter the offering-up, they shall slaughter the guilt-offering; and its blood he willscatter upon the altar of sacrifice, (all) around. 7:3 hy"ël.a;h'( tae… WNM,_mi byrIåq.y: Abßl.x-lKtaeîw.`br`hN"r tyOàl'K.h;-l[; dbeêK'h;-l[; ‘tr ~yli_s'K.h;-l[; rv,Þa) and (the) twokidneys, and the fat which (is) upon them, which (is) upon the loinsm and the appendage uponthe liver, above the loins, he shall remove it. 7:5 hV,Þai hx'Beêz>Mih; ‘!heKoh; ~t'Ûao ryji’q.hiw>àWh) ~v'Þa' hw"+hyl; And the priest shall cause them to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice, afire-offering to the YHWH–it (is) a guilt-offering. 7:6 ~AqÜm'B. WNl,_k.ayO ~ynIßh)KoB; rk'îz"-lK'àWh) ~yviÞd"q") vd

`hy And everygift-offering boiled in the oil and dry, shall belong to all Aharon’s sons, each man like his brother.48

4. The Well-Beings Sacrifices, ~ymi_l'V.h; xb;zq' ~AyðB. wym'êl'v. td:åAT xb;z

And that which is left over from (the) flesh of the sacrifucem in the third day it shall be burned withthe fire. èhc,r"yE al{å éyviyliV.h; ~AYæB; wym'øl'v. xb;zHn"ïwO[) WNM,Þmi tl,k,îaoh' vp,N hy ameêj' #q,v,ä-lk'B Aa… ha'ªmej. hm'äheb.Bi ŸAaå ‘~d"a' ta;Ûm.juB. ameªj'-lk'B. [G:åti`h'yM,([;me awhiÞh; vp,N rAvï bl,xeø-lK' rmo+ale laeÞr"f.yI ynEïB.-la, rBe²D: Speak toIsrael’s children, saying: All fat of cattle, and sheep, and goat, you shall not eat. 7:24 bl,xeÛw>50

`Whlu(k.ato al{ï lkoßa'w> hk'_al'm.-lk'l. hf,Þ['yE hp'êrEj. bl,xeäw> ‘hl'ben> And fat of a carcass,and fat of (an animal’s) torn flesh, you (singular) will use for all (types of) business; and you shallsurely not eat it! 7:25 hV,Þai hN"M @A[ßl' ~k,_ytebov.Am lkoßB. Wlêk.ato al{å ‘~D"-lk'w>And all blood you people shall not eat, in all your dwelling-places–(blood) belonging to bird(s) andto animal(s). 7:27 `h'yM,([;me( awhiÞh; vp,N

7:28 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 7:29An°B'r>q'-ta, aybióy" hw"ëhyl; ‘wym'l'v. xb;z ‘hzMih; bl,xeÞh;-ta, !he²Koh; ryjióq.hiw> And thepriest shall cause the fat’s smoke to rise towards the altar of sacrifice; and the breast will belongto Aharon and to his sons. 7:32 yxeÞb.ZImi !he_Kol; hm'ÞWrt. WnðT.Ti !ymiêY"h; qAvå ‘taew>`~k,(ymel.v; And the right leg they shall give (as an) offering to the priest, from the sacrifices ofwell-beings. 7:33 hy ~ymi²l'V.h; ~D:ô-ta, byrIúq.M;h;`hn")m'l. !ymiÞY"h; qAvï The one bringing near blood of the well-beings sacrifice, and the fat fromAharon’s sons, to him shall belong the right leg portion. 7:34 Ÿtaeäw> hp'øWnT.h; hzE’x)-ta, •yKi!ro’h)a;l. ~t'aoû !Teäa,w" ~h,_ymel.v; yxeÞb.ZImi laeêr"f.yI-ynE)B. taeäme ‘yTix.“q;l' hm'ªWrT.h; qAv`lae(r"f.yI ynEïB. taeÞme ~l'êA[-qx'l. ‘wyn"b'l.W !heÛKoh; Because (the) breast, the one waved, andthe leg, the offering, I took from Israel’s children, from (the) sacrifices of well-beings. And I gavethem to Aharon the priest and to his sons, for a long-lasting statute, from Israel’s children.7:35. ~t'êao byrIåq.hi ‘~AyB. hw"+hy> yVeÞaime wyn"ëB' tx;äv.miW ‘!roh)a; tx;Ûv.mi tazOæ`hw")hyl; !heÞk;l This (is) the anointed portion of Aharon, and (the) anointed portion of his sons,52

from YHWH’s fire-offerings. On (the) day of bringing them near, to serve as priest for the YHWH-- 7:36 tQ:ïxu lae_r"f.yI ynEåB. taeÞme ~t'êao Axåv.m' ‘~AyB. ~h,ªl' tteäl' hw"÷hy> •hW"’ci rv,a)`~t'(rodol. ~l'ÞA[ which YHWH commanded to give to them, on the day of his anointing them,from Israel’s children–a long-lasting statute for their generations.7:37 xb;z ~v'_a'l'w> taJ'Þx;l;(w> hx'ên>Mil; ‘hl'[ol'( hr"ªATh; tazOæ`~ymi(l'V.h; This (is) the law / teaching for the offering-up, for the grain-sacrifice, and for themissing-of-the-mark sacrifice, and for the guilt-offering, and for installations, and for (the) sacrificeof the well-beings, 7:38 ynEåB.-ta, AtøWOc; ~Ay’B. yn"+ysi rh;äB. hv,Þmo-ta, hw"±hy> hW"ôci rv,’a)`yn")ysi rB;îd>miB. hw"ßhyl; ~h,²ynEB.r>q'-ta, byrIôq.h;l. laeªr"f.yI which YHWH commandedMoses on Mount Siynay, in (the) day of His commanding Israel’s children to bring near their nearofferingsfor the YHWH, in Mount Siynay.53

ORDINATION OF THE PRIESTS AND FIRST SACRIFICESAT THE TENT OF MEETINGLeviticus 8:1-10:20Ordination of Aharon as High Priest and His Sons as PriestsLeviticus 8:1-36, Hebrew Test with Translation and FootnotesThe ordination of Aharon and his sons, with washing, anointing, and placing of blood onear, thumb, and big toe. Priests are "under Divine orders," and must be very careful to obeyregulations, on pain of death.8:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 8:2 xq:ÜtaJ'ªx;h;* rP;ä Ÿtaeäw> hx'_v.Mih; !m,v,ä taeÞw> ~ydIêg"B.h; ‘taew> ATêai wyn"åB'-ta,w> ‘!roh)a;-ta,(`tAC)M;h; ls;î taeÞw> ~yliêyaeh'( ynEåv. ‘taew> Take Aharon and his sons with him, and thegarments and the anointing oil, and a young bull, the missing-of-the-mark offering, and the tworams, and a basket of the unleavened breads; 8:3 xt;P,Þ-la, lhe_q.h; hd"ß[eh'-lK' taeîw>`d[e(Am lh,aoï and assemble all the congregation to (the) door (of the) tent of meeting. 8:4`d[e(Am lh,aoï xt;P,Þ-la, hd"ê[eh'( ‘lheQ'Tiw: At+ao hw"ßhy> hW"ïci rv,²a)K;* hv,êmo f[;Y:åw: AndMoses did just as YHWH commanded him; and he assembled the congregation to (the) door (ofthe) tent of meeting.8:5 `tAf)[)l; hw"ßhy> hW"ïci-rv,a) rb'êD"h; hz

ÀB) Alß dPoïa.Y hW"ïci rv,²a)K; tA[+B'g>mi ~h,Þl' vboïx)Y:w: jnEëb.a; ‘~t'ao rGOÝx.Y:w: ‘tnOT\KuAnd Moses drew near Aharon’s sons, and he dressed them (in) long-under-shirts, and he girdedthem (with) long-cloth-belt(s); and bound for them head-bands, just as YHWH commandedMoses.8:14 rP;î varoß-l[; ~h,êydEy>-ta, ‘wyn"b'W !roÜh)a; %mo’s.YIw: taJ'_x;h;( rP;ä taeÞ vGEŸ:w:55

`taJ'(x;h;* And he brought near (the) young bull of the missing-the-mark offering; and Aharonand his sons laid their hands upon (the) head of (the) young bull, the missing-of-the-mark offering.8:15 A[êB'c.a,B. ‘bybis' x;BeÛz>Mih; tAn’r>q;-l[; !TeYIw:û ‘~D"h;-ta, hv,Ûmo xQ;’YIw: jx'ªv.YIw:‘`wyl'([' rPeîk;l. WhveÞD>q;y>w:) x:Beêz>Mih; dAsåy>-la, qc;y" ~D"ªh;-ta,w> x;Be_z>Mih;-ta, aJeÞx;y>w:And he slaughtered (it); and Moses took the blood and he placed (it) upon the altar of sacrifice’shorns, (all) around with his finger; and he purified (from misssing-of-the-mark) the altar ofsacrifice; and he poured out the blood into the altar-of-sacrifice’s base; and he set it apart, tocover over upon it. 8:16 dbeêK'h; tr tyOàl'K.h; yTeîv.-ta,w> And he took all the fat which(was) upon the inward part(s), and (the) appendage of the liver, and (the) two kidneys, and theirfat; and Moses caused them to smoke towards the altar of sacrifice. 8:17 -ta,w> rP'Ûh;-ta,w>-ta, hw"ßhy> hW"ïci rv,²a)K; hnPi-ta,w> Aråf'B.-ta,w> ‘Ar[o`hv,(mo And the young bull and its hide and its flesh and its wastel-matter he burned with the fireoutside the camp, just as YHWH commanded Moses.8:18 varoï-l[; ~h,ÞydEy>-ta, wyn"±b'W !roôh)a; Wkúm.s.YIw:) hl'_[oh' lyaeä taeÞ brE§q.Y:w:`lyIa'(h' And he brought hear the offering-up ram; and Aharaon and his sons laid their handsupon (the) head of the ram. 8:19 `bybi(s' x;BeÞz>Mih;-l[; ~D"±h;-ta, hv,ómo qro’z>YIw: jx'_v.YIw:And he slaughtered; and Moses sprinkled the blood upon the altar-of sacrifice, all around. 8:20`rd brMih; lyIa;øh'-lK'-ta,56

`hv,(mo-ta hw"ßhy> And the inward part(s) and the two legs he washed with the waters; andMoses caused the whole ram to smoke towards the altar-of-sacrifice–it (was) an offering-up, for apleasing smell, a fire-offering to the YHWH, just as YHWH commanded Moses. ,8:22 -ta, wyn"±b'W !roôh)a; Wkúm.s.YIw:) ~yai_LuMih; lyaeÞ ynIëVeh; lyIa:åh'-ta, ‘brEq.Y:w:`lyIa'(h' varoï-l[; ~h,ÞydEy> And he brought near the second ram, (the) ram of appointing; andAharon and his sons laid their hands upon the ram’s head. 8:23 AmêD"mi ‘hv,mo xQ:ÜYIw: Ÿjx'|v.YIw:Alßg>r: !h,Boï-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘Ady" !h,BoÜ-l[;w> tynI+m'y>h; !roßh)a;-!zh; ‘~n"z>a' %WnÝT.-l[; ‘~D"h;-!mi hv,Ûmo !Te’YIw: !roªh)a; ynEåB.-ta, brEúq.Y:w:`bybi(s' x;BeÞz>Mih;*-l[; ~D"±h;-ta, hv,ómo qro’z>YIw: tynI+m'y>h; ~l'Þg>r: !h,Boï-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘~d"y"And he brought near Aharon’s sons, and Moses placed some of the blood upon (the) lobe of theirright ear, and upon their right thumbs; and upon their right foot’s big toe; and Moses sprinkled theblood upon the altar of sacrifice, (all) around. 8:25 ta,w> bl,xeäh;-ta, xQ;úYIw:tyOàl'K.h; yTeîv.-ta,w> dbeêK'h; tr ynEåp.li Ÿrv

upon the right leg; 8:27 ~t'²ao @n hW"ïci rv,²a)K; hn"ëm'l. ‘hy"h' hv,Ûmol. ~yaiªLuMih; lyaeäme hw"+hy> ynEåp.li hp'ÞWnt.`hv,(mo- And Moses took the breast and waved it, a wave-offering before YHWH, from (the) ramof appointment; it belonged to Moses for a portion, just as YHWH commanded Moses.8:30 ‘!roh)a;-l[;( zY:Üw: èx:Bez>Mih;-l[; rv,äa) é~D"h;-!miW hx'ªv.Mih; !m,V,ämi hv,ømo xQ;’YIw:wyn"±B'-ta,w> wyd"êg"B.-ta, ‘!roh)a;-ta,( vDEÜq;y>w: AT+ai wyn"ßb' ydEïg>Bi-l[;w> wyn"±B'-l[;w> wyd"êg"B.-l[;ÀT)ai wyn"ßb' ydEïg>Bi-ta,w> And Moses took some of the anointing oil, and some of the bloodwhich was upon the altar of sacrifice, and he sprinkled (it) upon Aharon and upon his garments,and upon his sons and upon his sons’ garments with him; and he set-apart Aharon, his garmentsand his sons and his sons’ garments with him.8:31 èd[eAm lh,aoå xt;P,ä érf'B'h;-ta, WlåV.B; wyn"©B'-la,w> !roåh)a;-la, hv,ømo rm,aYo’w:!roïh)a; rmoêale ‘ytiyWE’ci rv,Ûa)K; ~yai_LuMih; ls;äB. rv,Þa) ~x,L,êh;-ta,’w> Atêao Wlåk.aTo ‘~v'w>`Whlu(k.ayO wyn"ßb'W And Moses said to Aharon and to his sons, boil the flesh (at the) door (of the)tent of meeting; and there, you people shall eat it, and the bread which (is) in the basket ofappointment, just as I commanded, saying, Aharon and his sons shall eat it. 8:32 rt'îANh;w>58

`Wpro)f.Ti vaeÞB' ~x,L'_b;W rf'ÞB'B; And that which is left over in the flesh and in the bread, in thefire you people shall burn. 8:33 ~Ayæ d[;… ~ymiêy" t[;äb.vi ‘Wac.te( al{Ü d[eøAm lh,ao’ •xt;P,miW`~k,(d>y ~ymiêy" t[;äb.vi yKi… ~k,_yaeLumi ymeÞy> tal{êm. And from (the) door of (the)tent of meeting you people shall not go forth (for) seven days, until (the) day of appointment, daysof appointment; because (for) seven days he will appoint your hands, 8:34 hf'Þ[' rv,îa)K;`~k,(yle[) rPeîk;l. tf{ß[)l; hw"±hy> hW"ôci hZl;’w" ~m'ÛAy`ytiyWE)cu And you people shall remain (at the) door of (the) tent of meeting day and night, (for)seven days; and you shall observe YHWH’s charge, and you will not die; because in this way Ihave been commanded. 8:36 hw"ßhy> hW"ïci-rv,a) ~yrIêb'D>h;-lK' tae… wyn"+b'W !roßh)a; f[;Y:ïw:`hv,(mo-dy:B. And Aharon and his sons did all the word which YHWH commanded by Moses’shand.59

The First Sacrifices at the Tent of MeetingThe priests begin their ministry--YHWH's glorious radiance appears to them, and all Israelworships with joy.Leviticus 9:1-24, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes9:1 `lae(r"f.yI ynEßq.zIl.W wyn"+b'l.W !roßh)a;l. hv,êmo ar"åq' ynIëymiV.h; ~AYæB; ‘yhiy>w: And ithappened on the eighth day, Moses called to Aharon and to his sons and to Israel’s officials.9:2 ~mi_ymiT. hl'Þ[ol. lyIa:ïw> taJ'²x;l. rq"ôB'-!B, lg`hl'([ol. ~miÞymiT. hn"±v'-ynEB. fb,k,ów" lg taJ'êx;l.. And to Israel’s children you will speak,saying: You people take a female goat for a missing-of-the-mark offering; and a calf and a lamb--(both of them) one year old, completely healthy--for an offering-up, 9:4 ~ymiªl'v.li lyIa;øw" rAv’w>`~k,(ylea) ha'îr>nI hw"ßhy> ~AYëh; yKiä !m,V'_b; hl'äWlB. hx'Þn>miW hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘x:Bo’z>li and anox and a ram for offerings of well-beings, to sacrifice before YHWH; and a gift-offering mixed withthe oil. Because today YHWH appeared to you people!9:5 hd"ê[eh'ä-lK' ‘Wbr>q.YIw:) d[e_Am lh,aoå ynEßP.-la, hv,êmo hW"åci rv,äa) tae… Wxªq.YIw:`hw")hy> ynEïp.li Wdßm.[;Y:)w: And they took that which Moses commanded to (the) front of the tent ofmeeting; and all the congregation drew near, and they stood before YHWH. 9:6 hv,êmo rm,aYOæw:`hw")hy> dAbïK. ~k,Þylea) ar"ïyEw> Wf+[)T; hw"ßhy> hW"ïci-rv,a) rb'²D"h; hz

9:7 -ta,w> ‘^t.aJ'(x;-ta, hfeù[)w: ‘x:“Bez>Mih;-la, br:Üq. !roªh)a;-la,( hv,ømo rm,aYo’w:rv,Þa)K; ~d"ê[)B;* rPeäk;w> ‘~['h' !B;Ûr>q'-ta, hfeù[)w: ~['_h' d[;äb.W ^ßd>[;B;( rPeîk;w> ^t,êl'[oå`hw")hy> hW"ïci And Moses said to Aharaon, Draw near to the altar of sacrifice; and make yourmissing-of-the-mark offering, and your offering-up; and cover over for yourself and on behalf ofthe people; and make the near-offering of the people; and cover over for them, just as YHWHcommanded.9:8 Àl)-rv,a) taJ'Þx;h; lgMih;-la, !roßh)a; br:ïq.YIw: AndAharon drew near to the altar of sacrifice; and he slaughtered the calf of the missing-of-the-markoffering which was his. 9:9 ~D"êB; ‘A[B'c.a, lBoÜj.YIw: èwyl'ae é~D"h;-ta, !roåh)a; ynE’B. WbrIq.Y:w:û`x;Be(z>Mih; dAsßy>-la qc;êy" ~D"åh;-ta,w> x;Be_z>Mih; tAnær>q;-l[; !TeÞYIw: And Aharon’s sonsbrought near the blood to him; and he dipped his finger in the blood; and he placed (it) upon (the)horns of the altar of sacrifice; and he poured out the blood into the base of the altar of sacrifice;.,9:10 ryjiÞq.hi taJ'êx;h;ä-!mi ‘dbeK'h;-!mi trMih; and the fat and the kidneys and the appendagefrom the liver from the missing-of-the-mark sacrifice he caused to smoke towards the altar ofsacrifice, just as YHWH commanded Moses. 9:11 vaeêB' @r:åf' rA[+h'-ta,w> rf'ÞB'h;-ta,w>`hnz>YIw: ~D"êh;-ta, ‘wyl'ae !roÜh)a; ynE’B. Wacim.Y:w:û hl'_[oh'-ta, jx;Þv.YIw:`bybi(s' x;BeÞz>Mih; And he slaughtered the offering-up; Aharon’s sons caused the blood to befound by him; and they sprinkled (it) upon the altar of sacrifice, (all) around. 9:13 hl'ª[oh'-ta,w>61

`x;Be(z>Mih;-l[; rjeÞq.Y:w: varo+h'-ta,w> h'yx,Þt'n>li wyl'²ae Waycióm.hi And they caused theoffering-up to be found by him, by its parts, and the head; and he caused (their) smoke to arisetowards the altar of sacrifice. 9:14 hl'Þ[oh'-l[; rjeîq.Y:w: ~yI["+r"K.h;-ta,w> brMih;-ta, ébrEq.Y:w:`rq,Bo)h; tl;î[o db;ÞL.mi x;Be_z>Mih;-l[; rjeÞq.Y:w: And he drew near the gift-offering; and he filledhis hand from it; and he caused smoke (from) it to arise towards the altar of sacrifice, in additionto the morning offering-up.9:18 ynE’B. Wacim.Y:w:û ~['_l' rv,äa) ~ymiÞl'V.h; xb;zMih;-l[; WhqEïr>z>YIw: wyl'êae ‘~D"h;-ta, !roÜh)a; And he slaughtered the ox and theram (as a) sacrifice of the well-beings, which (was) for the people; and the sons of Aharon causedthe blood to be found by him; and they sprinkled it upon the altar of sacrifice, (all) around. 9:19`dbe(K'h; trAnd the (different) fats from the ox and from the ram, the fat-tail and that which covers (it), andthe appendage of the liver; 9:20 ~ybiÞl'x)h; rjeîq.Y:w: tAz=x'h,-l[; ~ybiÞl'x)h;-ta, WmyfiîY"w:`hx'Be(z>Mih; and they placed the (different) fats upon the breasts; and he caused the (different)62

fats to raise smoke towards the altar of sacrifice. 9:21 !ymiêY"h; qAvå ‘taew> tAz©x'h, taeäw>`hv,(mo hW"ïci rv,Þa)K; hw"+hy> ynEåp.li hp'ÞWnT. !ro±h)a; @ynIôhe And the breasts and right leg(s)Aharon waved, a wave-offering before YHWH, just as Moses commanded.9:22 taJ'²x;h;( tf{ô[)me drb'y>w:) ~['Þh'-la, Îwyd"±y"Ð ¿Ady"À-ta, !roôh)a; aF'’YIw:`~ymi(l'V.h;w> hl'Þ[oh'w> And Aharon lifted his hand / hands to the people; and he blessed them;and he went down from making the missing-of-the-mark offering and the offering-up and the wellbeingssacrifices.9:23 ar"ïYEw: ~['_h'-ta, Wkßr}b'y>w:) Waêc.YEåw: d[eêAm lh,aoå-la, ‘!roh)a;w> hv,Ûmo abo’Y"w:`~['(h'-lK'-la, hw"ßhy>-dAbk. And Moses came and Aharon to (the) tent of meeting; and theywent forth, and they blessed the people; and the glorious radiance of YHWH appeared to all thepeople. 9:24 -ta,w> hl'Þ[oh'-ta, x:Beêz>Mih;-l[; ‘lk;aTo’w: hw"ëhy> ynEåp.Limi ‘vae aceTeÛw:`~h,(ynEP.-l[; WlßP.YIw:) WNroêY"w: ‘~['h'-lK' ar.Y:Üw: ~ybi_l'x)h; And fire went forth from beforeYHWH; and it devoured upon the altar of sacrifice–the offering-up, and the (different) fats; and allthe people saw; and they cried aloud, and they fell upon their faces.63

C. The Death of Two Priests and Related Priestly DecisionsThe death of Nadabh and Abiyhu–teaching Israel that no one is excepted from obedience.The priests exist to do YHWH's will--not vice-versa. The role of the priests is to teach the peopleYHWH's decrees. But there is also a role for reason and decision by human leaders.Leviticus 10:1-20, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes10:1 WmyfiîY"w: vaeê !heb' WnÝT.YIw: AtªT'x.m; vyaiä aWhøybia)w: bd"’n" !roh)a;û-ynE)b. Wxåq.YIw:`~t'(ao hW"ßci al{¢ rv,óa) hr"êz" vaeä ‘hw"hy> ynEÜp.li WbrIøq.Y:w: tr ynEïp.Limi vae² aceTeîw:`hw")hy> ynEïp.li And fire went forth from before YHWH; and it devoured them; and they died beforeYHWH. 10:3 yb;äroq.Bi ‘rmoale Ÿhw"Ühy> rB,’DI-rv,a) •aWh !roªh)a;-la,( hv,ømo rm,aYo’w:`!ro)h)a; ~DoßYIw: dbe_K'a, ~['Þh'-lk' ynEïP.-l[;w> vdEêQ'a, And Moses said to Aharon, It (is) thatwhich YHWH spoke, saying, among those drawing near to Me, I will be set-apart; and before allthe people’s faces, I will be given glorious radiance; and Aharon was silent.10:4 rm,aYOæw: !ro+h)a; dDoå laeÞyZI[u ynEïB. !p'êc'l.a, la,äw> ‘laev'ymi(-la hv,ªmo ar"åq.YIw:`hnq.YIw:)`hv,(mo rB,îDI rv,Þa)K; hn

-lK' ‘~k,yxea)w: @co+q.yI hd"ß[eh'-lK' l[;îw> Wtmuêt al{åw>‘ Wmro’p.ti-al{) ~k,ÛydEg>biW ŸW[r"åp.Ti`hw")hy> @r:ïf' rv,Þa) hp'êrEF.h;-ta, ‘WKb.yI laeêr"f.yI tyBeä' And Moses said to Aharon and toElazar and to Iythamar, his sons, Your heads, you shall not unbind; and your garments, you shallnot tear, and you shall not die; and over all the congregation He will be angry; and your brothers,all Israel’s household, shall bemoan the burning which YHWH burned, 10:7 lh,ao’ •xt;P,miW`hv,(mo rb;îd>Ki Wfß[)Y:w:) ~k,_yle[) hw"ßhy> tx;îv.mi !m,v,²-yKi WtmuêT'-!P, ‘Wac.te( al{Ü d[eøAmAnd from (the) door of (the) tent of meeting you people shall not go forth so that you will not die;because YHWH’s oil of anointing is upon you. And they did according to Moses’s word.10:8 `rmo)ale !roßh)a;-la,( hw"ëhy> rBeäd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Aharon, saying: 10:9Wtmu_t' al{åw> d[eÞAm lh,aoï-la, ~k,²a)boB. %T'ªai ^yn !roªh)a;-la,( hv,ømo rBe’d:y>w:vdMih; lc,aeä tACßm; h'Wlïk.aiw> hw"ëhy> yVeäaime ‘tr

unleavened breads, next to the altar of sacrifice; because it (is) a set-apart of set-apart things.10:13 -yKi hw"+hy> yVeÞaime awhiê ‘^yn ^Üq.x' yKiä vdoêq' ~Aqåm'B. ‘Ht'ao ~T,Ûl.k;a)w:`ytiyWE)cu !keÞ And you people shall eat it in a set-apart place, because it (is) your statute and yoursons’ statute, from YHWH’s fire-offerings; because in this way I was commanded. 10:14 •taew>^yt,ÞnOb.W ^yn

10:18 vd ynEïy[eB. bj;ÞyYIh; ~AYëh; ‘taJ'x; yTil.k;Ûa'w> hL,ae_K' ytiÞao hn"ar

LAWS ON RITUAL PURITYLeviticus 11:1-15:33Priestly Decisions Concerning Clean and Unclean AnimalsClean and unclean animals. Question: how can anything that God has created "verygood" (see Genesis 1:1-2:3, a document commonly acknowledged as “priestly”), be "unclean"?Proposed answer: the animals declared "unclean" have been used in Canaanite fertility worship,in sexual rituals and as magical potions to force the hand of God. YHWH's people must avoid theeating of animals used in this way.Question: Why did Jesus refuse to follow the Jewish regulations concerning Kosherfoods? See Mark 7:1-23. How, then, is Jesus the "fulfillment" of this legislation? What is themeaning of Peter's vision in Acts 10 with reference to Leviticus 11?Leviticus 11:1-47Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes11:1 `~h,(lea) rmoïale !roßh)a;-la,(w> hv,îmo-la, hw"±hy> rBeód:y>w: And YHWH spoke toMoses and to Aharon, saying to them: 11:2 tazOÝ rmo+ale laeÞr"f.yI ynEïB.-la, Wr±B.D:`#rP; ts,r

and the (long-eared) rabbit; because it brings up (its) cud, and does not divide its hoof–it isunclean for you people; 11:7 hs'êr>P; ‘[s;“v, [s;îvow> aWhª hs'ør>P; syrI’p.m;-yKi( ryzIx)h;û-ta,w>`~k,(l' aWhß ameîj' rG"+yI-al{) hr"åGE aWhßw> and the pig; because it divides (its) hoof, and splitsits hoof’s cleft; and it does not bring up (its) cud–it is unclean for you people; 11:8 al{å ‘~r"f'B.mi`~k,(l' ~heÞ ~yaiîmej. W[G"+ti al{å ~t'Þl'b.nIb.W Wlkeêato from their flesh you shall not eat; andyou shall not touch their carcass; they are unclean for you people.11:9 tf,q,øf.q;w> ryPi’n:s. •Al-rv,a) lKoå ~yIM"+B; rv,äa) lKoßmi Wlêk.aTo) ‘hzb;W ~yMi²Y:B; ~yIM;ªB; These you shall eat: from all that are in the waters,all that have fin(s) and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the wadis–you shall eat them.11:10 ~yIM;êh; #r Wlkeêato al{å ‘~r"f'B.mi ~k,_l' Wyæh.yI And they shall be a detestablething for you people; you shall not eat (them), and their carcass you shall detest. 11:12 lKoå`~k,(l' aWhß #q,v,î ~yIM"+B; tf,q ryPiîn:s. Al±-!yae( rv,îa) Everything that does not havefin(s) and scales in the waters, it is a detestable thing for you people.11:13 -ta,w> rv,N`hY")nIz>['h' taeÞw> sr`Hn")ymil. hY"ßa;h'-ta,w> ha'êD"h;’ and the kite and the falcon, by their type; 11:15 brEß[o-lK' taeî69

Àn*ymil. and every raven, by its type; 11:16 @x;V'_h;-ta,w> sm'Þx.T;h;-ta,w> hn"ë[)Y:h;( tB;ä ‘taew>`WhnE)ymil. #Neßh;-ta,w> and the female ostrich; and the male ostrich; and the sea gull, and thehawk by its type; 11:17 `@Wv)n>Y:h;-ta,w> %l'ÞV'h;-ta,w> sAKïh;-ta,w> and the owl, and thecormorant, and the great owl (?); 11:18 `~x'(r"h'-ta,w> ta'ÞQ'h;-ta,w> tm,v,în>Tih;-ta,w> and theibis, and the pelican, and the carrion vulture; 11:19 -ta,w> Hn"+ymil. hp'Þn"a)h' hd"êysix)h; ‘taew>`@Le(j;[)h'-ta,w> tp;ÞykiWDh; and the stork, the anaph by its type, and the dukhiypath, and thebat.11:20 `~k,(l' aWhß #q,v,î [B;_r>a;-l[; %leÞhoh; @A[êh' #rr:l. l[;M;ämi ‘~yI“[;r"k. ÎAlÜÐ However, these you shall eat fromall swarming thing(s) that walk upon four (legs): those that (do not / do) have two legs above itsfeet; to leap with them upon the earth. 11:22 hB,är>a;h'(-ta WlkeêaTo ‘~h,me hL,aeÛ-ta,`WhnE)ymil. bg"ßx'h,-ta,w> WhnEëymil. lGOær>x;h;-ta,w> WhnE+ymil ~['Þl.S'h;-ta,w> Anëymil., From theseyou shall eat: the locust, by its type(s); and the winged locust by its type(s); and the chargol by itstype(s); and the grasshopper, by its type(s). 11:23 [B;är>a; Alß-rv,a) @A[êh' #r

`br t[;s;ªvo hN"n hs'ør>P; ts,ra;-l[; tk,l,ähoh; hY"x;h;(`br wyd"ßg"B. sBeîk;y> ~t'êl'b.nI-ta, ‘afeNOh;w>`~k,(l' And the one who carries their carcass shall wash his garments; and (is) unclean until theevening–they are unclean.11:29 bC'îh;w> rB'Þk.[;h'w> dl,xoïh; #r

qf'ê Aaå ‘rA[-Aa dg bràWh) rAhßj' [;rE+Z"yI rv,äa) [:WrßzE And if some of their carcass should fall upon seed beingsown, which is to be sown, it shall be clean. 11:38 ~t'Þl'b.NImi lp;în"w> [r:z`~k,(l' aWhß ameîj' wyl'_[' And if water is placed upon seed, and some of their carcass shouldfall upon it, it is unclean for you people.11:39 Ht'Þl'b.nIB. [;gEïNOh; hl'_k.a'l. ~k,Þl' ayhiî-rv,a) hm'êheB.h;-!mi ‘tWmy" ykiÛw>72

`br wyd"ßg"B. sBeîk;y> Ht'êl'b.nI-ta, ‘afeNOh;w> br And everyone ofthe swarming things, the swarming things upon the earth–it is a detestable thing; it shall not beeaten. 11:42 ~yIl;êg>r: hBeär>m;-lK' d[;… [B;ªr>a;-l[; %leäAh Ÿlkoåw> !AxøG"-l[; %le’Ah •lKo`~he( #q,v,î-yKi ~Wlßk.ato al{ï #r

11:46 lk'l.W ~yIM"+B; tf,m,Þroh' hY"ëx;h;( vp,n @A[êh'w> ‘hm'heB.h; tr:ÜAT tazOæ`#r

Priestly Decisions Concerning a Woman Who Has Given BirthPurification after child-birth. Why? Again, it may be that following childbirth, women'sblood was used in Canaanite fertility worship as a form of magic.Leviticus 12:1-8Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes12:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 12:2~ymiêy" t[;äb.vi‘‘ha'm.j'(w> rk'_z" hd"ßl.y"w> [:yrIêz>t; yKiä hV'ai rmoêale ‘laer"f.yI ynEÜB.-la, rBeúD:àm'(j.Ti Ht'ÞwOD> tD:ïnI yme²yKi Speak to Israel’s children, saying: A woman who produces seedand gives birth to a male–and she is unclean (for) seven days, like (the) days of menstruationsickness, she shall be unclean. 12:3 Àt)l'r>[' rf;îB. lAMßyI ynI+ymiV.h; ~AYàb;W And on theeighth day, he shall cut around his foreskin’s flesh. 12:4 bveÞTe ~ymiêy" tv,l{åv.W ‘~Ay ~yviîl{v.Wymeîy> tal{ßm.-d[; aboêt' al{å ‘vD"q.Mih;-la,w> [G"©ti-al{) vdBi`Hr")h\j' And thirty day(s) and three days she shall remain in (her) bloods-cleansing; she shallnot touch any set-apart thing; and she shall not enter the set-apart place, until the fulfilling of herdays of cleansing.12:5 ‘~Ay ~yViîviw> Ht'_D"nIK. ~yI[:ßbuv. ha'îm.j'w> dleête hb'äqen>-~aiw>`hr")h\j' ymeîD>-l[; bveÞTe ~ymiêy" tv,veäw> And if she shall give birth to a female–and she isunclean for two weeks, like her menstruation; sixty day(s) and six days she shall remain on behalfof her bloods-cleansing.12:6 hl'ê[ol. ‘Atn"v.-!B, fb,K,Û aybiúT' ètb;l. Aaå é!bel. Hr"ªh\j' ymeäy> Ÿtal{åm.biW`!he(Koh;-la, d[eÞAm-lh,ao) xt;P,î-la, taJ'_x;l. rtoß-Aa hn"ïAy-!b,W And when her days ofcleansing are fulfilled, for a son or for a daughter, she shall bring a one-year old lamb for anoffering-up, and a male dove or turtle-dove for a missing-of-the-mark offering, to (the) door of75

(the) tent of meeting, to the priest. 12:7 hr"ßh)j'w> h'yl,ê[' rP,äkiw> ‘hw"hy> ynEÜp.li AbúyrIq.hiw>`hb'(qeN>l; Aaï rk'ÞZ"l; td hl'Þ[ol. dx'îa hn"ëAy ynEåB. ‘ynEv. AaÜ ~yrIªto-yTe(v. hx'äq.l'w> hf, yDEå éHd"y" ac'äm.ti`hr"hE)j'w> !heÞKoh; h'yl,²[' rP,îkiw>, taJ'_x;l. And if her hand does not find sufficient (funds for) asheep–and she shall take two doves or two turtle-doves, one for an offering-up, and one for amissing-of-the-mark offering; and the priest shall cover over for her, and she shall be clean.76

Instructions on Grievous Growths, on Human Skin, and in HousesRegulations about infectious skin diseases--in which the priest plays the role of medicaldoctor or sanitary engineer, especially with reference to the regulations about mildew in buildings.Cleansing from infectious skin diseases, in which a ritual related to Canaanite practices isadapted in Israel--clearly not as a means to effect magical cleansing (which an earlier Canaaniteritual was considered as being able to effect), but simply to proclaim in acted symbolism (easilyunderstood in that environment) the cleansing already effected and determined as havingoccurred by the examining priest.Leviticus 13:1-14:57, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes13:1 `rmo)ale !roßh)a;-la,(w> hv,îmo-la, hw"ëhy> rBeäd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses andto Aharon, saying: 13:2 trt[;r:ßc' [g:n rf'B'h;ûÀt)ao aMeîjiw> !heÞKoh; Wha'îr"w> aWh+ And the priest shall see / examine the mark in the flesh’sskin, and hair in the mark–it turned white; and the mark’s appearance, deep(er than) the skin ofhis flesh–it is a mark of severe skin disease; and the priest shall see it, and shall (declare) itunclean. 13:4 rA[êh'-!mi h'a,är>m;-!yae ‘qmo['w> Arªf'B. rA[åB. awhiø hn"’b'l. •tr`~ymi(y" t[;îb.vi [g:N !b'_l' %p;äh'-al{ hr"ß['f.W And if in the whitespot it (is) white in the skin of his flesh and deep–its appearance is not from the skin; and its hairdid not turn white; and the priest shall isolate the (the human with) the mark (for) seven days.13:5 [g:N`tynI)ve ~ymiÞy" t[;îb.vi !he²Koh; ArôyGIs.hiw> rA[+B' And the priest shall see him on the seventh77

day; and look–it stood (still) in its appearance; the mark did not spread in the skin; and the priestshall isolate him (for) seven days a second time. 13:6 éy[iybiV.h; ~AYæB; Atøao !he’Koh; •ha'r"w>ayhiê tx;P;äs.mi ‘!heKoh; ArÜh)jiw> rA[+B' [g:N [g:N wyd"ßg"B. sB,îkiw> And the priest shall see him on the seventh day a second time; andlook–the mark grew dim, and the mark did not spread in the skin; and the priest shall (declare)him clean–it (is) a rash; and he shall wash his garments, and be clean. 13:7 hf{’P'-~aiw>-la, tynIßve ha'îr>nIw> At+r"h\j'l. !heÞKoh;-la, At±aor"he yrEôx)a; rA[êB' ‘tx;“P;s.Mih; hf,Ûp.ti`!he(Koh; And if the rash truly spread in the skin after the priest’s having seen him, to cleanse it;and he will be seen a second time by the priest; 13:8 ht'îf.P' hNE±hiw> !heêKoh; ‘ha'r"w>àwhi( t[;r:ïc' !heÞKoh; AaïM.jiw> rA[+B' tx;P;Þs.Mih; and the priest shall see, and look–the rashspread in the skin; and the priest shall declare him unclean–it is severe skin disease.13:9 `!he(Koh;-la, ab'ÞWhw> ~d"+a'B. hy Avßarome And if the severe skin disease is truly78

eaking out in the skin; and the severe skin disease is going to cover the entire skin, (with) themark from his head and as far as his feet, in every inspection of the priest’s eyes; 13:13 ha'är"w>!b'Þl' %p;îh' AL±Ku [g:N"+h;-ta, rh;Þjiw> Arêf'B.-lK'-ta, ‘t[;“r:C'h; ht'ÛS.ki hNE’hiw> !heªKoh;àWh) rAhïj' And the priest shall see, and look–the severe skin disease covered all his flesh;and he shall declare the mark clean–all of it turned white–he is clean. 13:14 tAaïr"he ~Ay’b.Wàm'(j.yI yx;Þ rf'îB' AB± And on the day it is seen on him, raw flesh, he shall be unclean. 13:15àWh) t[;r:ïc' aWhß ameîj' yx;²h; rf'îB'h; Aa+M.jiw> yx;Þh; rf'îB'h;-ta, !he²Koh; ha'ór"w> Andthe priest shall see the raw flesh; and he shall declare him unclean; the raw flesh, it is unclean; itis severe skin disease; 13:16 -la, ab'ÞW !b'_l'l. %P;äh.n yx;Þh; rf'îB'h; bWv±y" ykiî Aaå`!he(Koh or if the raw flesh shall return, and it changed to white; and he shall come to the priest;13:17 rAhïj' [g:N !b'_l'l. [g:N !heêKoh; ‘Wh“a'r"w>àWh And the priest shall see, and look–the mark changed to white; and the priest shall declarethe mark clean–it is clean.13:18 àP'(r>nIw> !yxi_v. Arß[ob.-Ab) hynIw> tm,D"+m.d:a) hn"åb'l. trm; hNEÜhiw> !heªKoh; ha'är"w>`hx'r")P' !yxiîV.B; awhiÞ t[;r:ïc'-[g:n

of severe skin disease in the eruption; it has spread. 13:21 -!yae( hNEÜhiw> !heªKoh; hN"ayI Ÿ~aiäw>t[;îb.vi !heÞKoh; ArïyGIs.hiw> hh'_ke ayhiäw> rA[ßh'-!mi hN"n) vae_-tw:k.mi Arß[ob. hyàwhi( t[;r:ßc' [g:n hx'r"+P' /And the priest shall see it, and look–(its) hairhas changed white in the bright spot; and its appearance (is) deep(er) than the skin; it is severeskin disease in the burn-scar; it has spread; and the priest shall declare it unclean; it is a mark ofsevere skin disease. 13:26 !b'êl' r['äfe ‘tr !heªKoh; hN"ayI Ÿ~aiäw>(`~ymi(y" t[;îb.vi !heÞKoh; ArïyGIs.hiw> hh'_ke awhiäw> rA[ßh'-!mi hN"n

declare him unclean–it is a mark of severe skin disease. 13:28 dmo’[)t; •h'yT,x.T;-~aiw>-yKi( !heêKoh; ‘Arh)ji(w> awhi_ hw"ßk.Mih; taeîf. hh'êke awhiäw> ‘rA[b' ht'Ûf.p'-al{ trm; hNEÜhiw> [g:NyI-yki(w>AB+ !yaeä rxoßv' r['îfew> rA[êh'-!mi qmoå[' ‘Wh“aer>m;-!yae hNEÜhiw> qt,Nqt,Nm;W bho+c' r['äfe Abß hy"h"ï-al{w> qt,N èy[iybiV.h; ~AYæB;`rA[)h'-!mi qmoß[' !yaeî And if the priest shall see the mark on the seventh day, and look–thescab has not spread, there was not in it a yellow hair; and the scab’s appearance was notdeep(er) than the skin. 13:33 -ta, !heóKoh; ryGI’s.hiw> x;Le_g:y> al{å qt,N xL'êG:t.hi’w>`tynI)ve ~ymiÞy" t[;îb.vi qt,N

the priest shall isolate the (person with) the scab (for) seven days, a second time. 13:34 •ha'r"w>‘WNnm;W rA[êB' qt,Nû y[iªybiV.h; ~AYæB; qt,N And if thescab has truly spread in the skin, after he was declared clean; 13:36 hNE±hiw> !heêKoh; ‘Wh“a'r"w>àWh) ameîj' bhoßC'h; r['îFel; !he²Koh; rQEôb;y>-al{) rA[+B' qt,N qt,N

clean. 13:42 awhiê ‘tx;“r:Po t[;r:Üc' ~D"+m.d:a) !b'äl' [g:n`rf'(B' rA[ï t[;r:ßc' haeîr>m;K. AT+x.B;g:b. And the priest will see it, and look–swelling of themark, white-reddish, in his bald head or in his bald forehead, like (the) appearance of severe skindisease (in the) skin / flesh. 13:44 !heÞKoh; WNa,²M.j;y> aMeój; aWh+ ameäj' aWhß [:Wrïc'-vyaiÀ[)g>nI AvïaroB. He is a man (struck with) severe skin disease; he is unclean; unclean the priestshall declare him unclean, in (the) mark of his head,13:45 l[;w> [:Wrêp' hy ‘~ymirUp. WyÝh.yI wyd"úg"B. [g:N

`!he(Koh;-ta, ha'Þr>h'w> aWh+ t[;r:ßc' [g:n [g:N"+h; ABß-rv,a) taeî WsêB.ki’w> And the priest shallcommand, and they shall wash whatever has the mark in it; and he shall isolate it (for) sevendays, a second time. 13:55 %p;’h'-al{) hNEhiw>û [g:Nf.Ti vaeÞB' aWhê ameäj' hf'êp'-al{) [g:N ‘Any[e-ta [g:N

ÀT)x.B;g:b. Aaï And the priest shall see after the mark has been washed, and look–the mark hasnot changed in his eyes; and the mark has not spread; it (is) unclean; in the fire you shall burn it; it(is) devouring in bald head or in bald forehead. 13:56 hh'äKe ‘hNEhiw> è!heKoh; ha'är" é~aiw>!mi Aaï ytiÞV.h;-!mi Aaï rA[êh'-!mi Aaå ‘dgf.Ti vaeäB' And if he shall see the garment again, or the warp, orthe woof, or any leather item, it is breaking out, in the fire you shall burn it, whatever has themark. 13:58 rs'îw> sBeêk;T. rv,äa) ‘rA[h' yliÛK.-lk'-Aa) br tynIßve sB;îkuw> [g:N"+h; ~h,Þme And the garment, or the warp, or the woof, or any article ofthe leather which you shall wash, and the mark was turned aside from them; and it shall bewashed a second time, and it will be clean.13:59 Aaå ‘ytiV.h; AaÜ ~yTiªv.Pih; Aaå Ÿrm,C,äh; dg At+r"h\j' ~AyàB. [r"êcoM.h; tr:åAT ‘hy85

`[:Wr)C'h;-!mi t[;r:ßC'h;- And the priest shall go forth to the outside of the camp; and the priestshall see, and look–the mark of the severe skin disease was healed from the severe skin disease.14:4 ynIïv.W zr tAr+hoj. tAYàx; ~yrIïP\ci-yTe(v. rhe²J;Mil; xq:ôl'w> !heêKoh; ‘hW"ciw>`bzO*aew> t[;l;ÞAt And the priest shall command; and he will take for the one purifying himself twolive, clean birds; and cedar wood and scarlet cloth and hyssop (twigs). 14:5 !heêKoh; ‘hW"ciw>`~yYI)x; ~yIm:ï-l[; fr bzO=aeh'-ta,w> t[;l;ÞATh; ynIïv.-ta,w> zr ~t'øAa The live bird heshall take; and the cedar wood and scarlet cloth and the hyssop (twigs), and he shall dip themand the live bird in the blood of the sacrificed bird over the fresh water. 14:7 l[;ó hZ"©hiw>ynEïP.-l[; hY"ßx;h;( rPoïCih;-ta, xL;²viw> Arêh)jiäw> ~ymi_['P. [b;v,ä t[;r:ßC'h;-!mi rhe²J;Mih;`hd ‘~yI“M;B; #x;Ûr"w> Arª['f.-lK'-ta, xL;ägIw> wyd"øg"B.-ta, rhe’J;Mih; •sB,kiw>`~ymi(y" t[;îb.vi Alßh\a'l. #Wxïmi bv;²y"w> hn Anq'z.86

`rhe(j'w> ~yIM:ßB; And it will happen on the seventh day–he shall shave all his hair–his head andhis beard and his eyebrows; and all his hair he shall shave,and he shall wash his garments; andhe shall wash his flesh with the water, and he shall be clean.14:10 Ht'Þn"v.-tB; tx;²a; hf'îb.k;w> ~ymiêymiT. ‘~yfib'k.-ynE)v. xQ:ÜyI ynI©ymiV.h; ~AYæb;W`!m,v'( dx'Þa, gl{ïw> !m,V,êb; hl'äWlB. ‘hx'n>mi tl,soÜ ~ynI©rof.[, hv'äl{v.W hm'_ymiT. And on theeighth day, he will take two fully healthy lambs; and one ewe-lamb, in its first year, fully healthy;and three tenths of fine flour (for a) gift-offering, mixed with the oil, and one liquid measure / log ofoil. 14:11 xt;P,Þ hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ~t'_aow> rheÞJ;Mih; vyaiîh' tae² rheªj;m.h;( !heäKoh; dymiú[/h,w>`d[e(Am lh,aoï And the priest, the one declaring clean, shall sation the man purifying himself andthem (his offerings) before YHWH (at the) door of (the) tent of meeting.14:12 !m,V'_h; gl{å-ta,w> ~v'Þa'l. At±ao byrIïq.hiw> dx'ªa,h' fb,K,äh;-ta, !heøKoh; xq;’l'w>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li hp'ÞWnT. ~t'²ao @ynIïhew> And the priest shall take the one lamb; and he shall bringit near for a guilt-offering; and (the) liquid measure of the oil; and he shall wave them, a waveoffering,before YHWH. 14:13 taJ'²x;h;(-ta, jx;óv.yI rv,’a) ~Aqm.Biû fb,K,ªh;-ta, jx;äv'w>àWh) ~yviÞd"q'* vdh; ‘Ady" !h,BoÜ-l[;w> tynI+m'y>h; rheÞJ;Mih; !z !m,V'_h; gL{åmi !heÞKoh; xq:ïl'w>87

`tyli(am'F.h; !heÞKoh; @K;î And the priest shall take some of the liquid measure of the oil, and heshall pour (it) upon the left palm of the priest. 14:16 tynIëm'y>h; A[åB'c.a,-ta, ‘!heKoh; lb;Ûj'w>~ymiÞ['P. [b;v,î A[±B'c.a,B. !m,V,óh;-!mi hZ"’hiw> tyli_am'F.h; APßK;-l[; rv,îa) !m,V,§h;-!mi`hw")hy> ynEïp.li And the priest shall dip his right finger (in) some of the oil which (is) upon his leftpalm, and he shall sprinkle some of the soil with his finger, seven times before YHWH. 14:17-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘rheJ;Mih; !zr: !h,Boï-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘Ady" !h,BoÜ And from the remainderof the oil which (is) upon his palm, the priest shall place some upon the right ear-lobe of the onepurifying himself, and upon his right hand thumb, and upon his right foot’s toe, upon (the) blood ofthe guilt-offering. 14:18 rhe_J;Mih; varoå-l[; !TeÞyI !heêKoh; @K;ä-l[; ‘rv,a) ‘!m,“V,B; rt'ªANh;w>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li !heÞKoh; wyl'²[' rP,îkiw> And the remainder in the oil which (is) upon the priest’spalm, he shall place upon (the) head of the one purifying himself; and the priest shall cover overon his behalf before YHWH.14:19 jx;îv.yI rx;Þa;w> At+a'm.Jumi rheÞJ;Mih;-l[; rP,§kiw> taJ'êx;h;ä-ta, ‘!heKoh; hf'Û['w>`hl'([oh'-ta, And the priest shall make the missing-of-the-mark offering; and he shall cover overfor the one purifying himself from his uncleanness; and afterwards, he shall slaughter the offeringup.14:20 !heÞKoh; wyl'²[' rP,îkiw> hx'Be_z>Mih; hx'Þn>Mih;-ta,w> hl'î[oh'-ta, !he²Koh; hl'ó[/h,w>`rhe(j'w> And the priest shall offer up the offering-up, and the gift-offering towards the altar ofsacrifice; and the priest shall cover over for him, and he shall be clean.14:21 è hp'ÞWnt.li ~v'²a' dx'îa, fb,K,ä xq;l'w>û tg

and his hand does not hold (enough for the offering); and he shall take one lamb, a guilt-offeringfor a wave-offering, to cover over for him; and one tenth part of fine flour, mixed with the oil, for agift-offering; and a liquid measure / log of oil. 14:22 rv,îa) hn"ëAy ynEåB. ‘ynEv. AaÜ ~yrIªto yTeäv.W`hl'([o dx'Þa,h'w> taJ'êx; ‘dx'a, hy"Üh'w> Ad+y" gyFiÞT; and two doves, or two turtle-doves whichhis hand can afford; and one shall be the missing-of-the-mark offering, and the one an offeringup.14:23 -lh,ao) xt;P,î-la, !he_Koh;-la, Atßr"h\j'l. ynI±ymiV.h; ~AYõB; ~t'øao aybi’hew>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li d[eÞAm And he shall bring them on the seventh day for his cleansing, to the priest,to the tent of meeting door, before YHWH. 14:24 gl{å-ta,w> ~v'Þa'h' fb,K,î-ta, !he²Koh; xq:ôl'w>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li hp'ÞWnT. !he²Koh; ~t'óao @ynI’hew> !m,V'_h; And the priest shall take the lamb of theguilt offering, and the liquid measure of the oil; and the priest shall wave them, a wave-offeringbefore YHWH. 14:25 -l[; !t;²n"w> ~v'êa'h'( ~D:åmi ‘!heKoh; xq:Ül'w> è~v'a'h'( fb,K,ä-ta, éjx;v'w>`tynI)m'y>h; Alßg>r: !h,Boï-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘Ady" !h,BoÜ-l[;w> tynI+m'y>h; rheÞJ;Mih;-!z ynEïp.li ~ymiÞ['P. [b;v,î And the priest shall sprinkle with his right finger some of the oilwhich (is) upon his left palm, seven times before YHWH. 14:28 Ÿ!m,V,äh;-!mi !heøKoh; !t;’n"w>!h,Boï-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘Ady" !h,BoÜ-l[;w> tynIëm'y>h; ‘rheJ;Mih; !z

`~v'(a'h' ~D:ï ~Aqßm.-l[; tynI+m'y>h; Alßg>r: And the priest shall place some of the oil which (is)upon his palm upon the right ear-lobe of the one purifying himself, and upon his right thumb, andupon his right foot’s big toe, over (the) place of (the) blood of the guilt-offering. 14:29 rt'ªANh;w>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li wyl'Þ[' rPeîk;l. rhe_J;Mih; varoå-l[; !TeÞyI !heêKoh; @K;ä-l[; ‘rv,a) ‘!m,“V,h;-!miAnd that which is left over from the oil which (is) upon the priest’s palm, he shall place upon theone purifying himself’s head, to cover over for him before YHWH. 14:30 dx'a,h'(-ta, hf'Û['w>Àd)y" gyFiÞT; rv,îa)me hn"+AYh; ynEåB.-!mi Aaß ~yrIêToh;-!mi And he shall make the one from thedoves, or from the turtle-doves, from whatever his hand will reach / afford. 14:31 -rv,a) taeäl[;î !he²Koh; rP,ókiw> hx'_n>Mih;-l[; hl'Þ[o dx'îa,h'-ta,w> taJ'²x; dx'îa,h'-ta, Adªy" gyFiùT;`hw")hy> ynEïp.li rheÞJ;Mih; That which his hand will reach / afford, the one, the missing-of-the-markoffering, and the one an offering-up for the gift-offering; and the priest shall cover over for the onepurifying himself before YHWH.14:32 Àt)r"h\j'B. Adßy" gyFiît;-al{) rv,²a) t[;r"+c' [g:n hv,îmo-la, hw"ëhy> rBeäd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Mosesand to Aharon, saying: 14:34 hZ"+xua)l; ~k,Þl' !teînO ynI±a) rv,îa) ![;n:ëK. #r

priest, saying Like a mark was seen by me on the house. 14:36 -ta, WNæpiW !heøKoh; hW"’ciw>rx;a;îw> tyIB"+B; rv,äa)-lK' am'Þj.yI al{ïw> [g:Nli ‘!heKoh; aboÜy" ~ràme(j' ~Aqßm'-la, ry[iêl' #Wxåmi-la ‘!h,t.a, WkyliÛv.hiw> [g:N"+h; !heÞB' rv,îa) And the priestshall command; and they shall tear out the stones which (have) the mark in them; and they shallthrow them to the outside (of) the city, into an unclean place. 14:41 tyIB:ßmi [;ciîq.y: tyIB:±h;-ta,w>àme(j' ~Aqßm'-la, ry[iêl' #Wxåmi-la, Wcêq.hi rv,äa) ‘rp'['h,(-ta, Wkªp.v'w> bybi_s' And heshall scrape the house on the inside, (all) around; and they shall throw the plaster which theyscraped outside the city, into an unclean place. 14:42 WaybiÞhew> tArêxea) ~ynIåb'a) ‘Wxq.l'w>`tyIB'(h;-ta, xj'îw> xQ:ßyI rxe²a; rp'î['w> ~ynI+b'a)h' tx;T;ä-la, And they shall take other stones,91

and they shall bring (them) in place of the stones; and other plaster he shall take and plaster thehouse.14:43 tAcïq.hi yrE±x)a;w> ~ynI+b'a)h'-ta, #Leäxi rx;Þa; tyIB;êB; xr:åp'W ‘[g:N ‘wyn"b'a)-àme(j' And he shall pull down the house, its stones, and its wood-beams, and all the house’splaster; and he shall bring it to the outside of the city, to an unclean place.14:46 `br !heªKoh; aboøy" aBo’-~aiw>`[g:N")h; aP'Þr>nI yKiî tyIB;êh;-ta, ‘!heKoh; rh;Ûjiw> tyIB"+h;-ta, And if the priest shall indeedcome, and shall see, and look–the mark has not spread in the house after plastering the house;and the priest shall declare the house clean; because the mark was healed. 14:49 xq:±l'w>`bzO*aew> t[;l;ÞAt ynIïv.W zr ~yrI+P\ci yTeäv. tyIB:ßh;-ta, aJeîx;l. And he shall take topurify the house, two birds; and cedar wood, and two scarlets and hyssop. 14:50 -ta, jx;Þv'w>92

`~yYI)x; ~yIm:ï-l[; fr èhY"x;h;* rPoåCih; étaew> t[;l;ªATh;`~ymi(['P. [b;v,î tyIB:ßh;-la, hZ"ïhiw> And he shall take the cedar wood, and the hyssop, and thetwo scarlets, and the live bird; and he shall dip them in (the) blood of the bird that has beenslaughtered, and in the fresh water; and he shall sprinkle the house seven times. 14:52 aJeäxiw>ynIïv.biW bzOàaeb'W zr t[;r:ßC'h; [g:n dg

Priestly Decisions Concerning Uncleanness from Bodily Emissionsfrom Sexual OrgansBodily discharges causing uncleanness--for men, and for women. Perhaps theseregulations too are closely related to practices in Canaanite fertility rituals.Leviticus 15:1-33, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes15:1 `rmo)ale !roßh)a;-la,(w> hv,îmo-la, hw"ëhy> rBeäd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses,and to Aharon, saying: 15:2 yKiÛ vyaiª vyaiä ~h,_lea) ~T,Þr>m;a)w: laeêr"f.yI ynEåB.-la, ‘WrB.D:àWh) ameîj' AbßAz Arêf'B.mi bz"å ‘hy ~yIM:ßB; #x;îr"w> And a man who touches his sleeping place shall wash hisgarments, and he shall rinse in the waters; and he shall be unclean until the evening. 15:6-d[; ameîj'w> ~yIM:ßB; #x;îr"w> wyd"±g"B. sBeók;y> bZ"+h; wyl'Þ[' bveîyE- rv,a) yliêK.h;-l[;( ‘bveYOh;w>`br ~yIM:ßB; #x;îr"w> wyd"±g"B. sBeók;y> bZ"+h; rf;äb.Bi [;gEßNOh;w> And94

the one touching the flowing one’s flesh shall wash his garments; and he shall rinse in the waters;and he shall be unclean until the evening.15:8 `br wyd"±g"B. sB,ókiw> rAh+J'B; bZ"ßh; qro±y"-yki(w>And if the flowing one shall spit on the clean person–and he shall wash his garments; and he shallrinse in the waters; and he shall be unclean until the evening.15:9 àm'(j.yI bZ"ßh; wyl'²[' bK;îr>yI rv,’a) bK'ªr>M,h;-lk'w> And every saddle upon whichthe flowing one shall ride shall be unclean; 15:10 wyT'êx.t; hy br wyd"±g"B. sB,ókiw> ~yIM"+B; @j;äv'-al{ wyd"ßy"w> bZ"ëh; ‘AB-[G:yI rv,Ûa) lko’w>`br ~yYIßx; ~yIm:ïB. Ar±f'B. #x;ór"w> And if the flowing-one is clean from his flow; and he shallcount for him seven days for his cleansing; and he shall wash his garments; and he shall rinse hisflesh in fresh water; and he shall be clean. 15:14 Aaï ~yrIêto yTeäv. ‘Al-xQ:)yI) ynI©ymiV.h; ~AYæb;W`!he(Koh;-la ~n"ßt'n>W d[eêAm lh,aoå ‘xt;“P,-la, hw"©hy> ynEåp.li Ÿab'äW hn"+Ay ynEåB. ynEßv. And onthe eighth day he shall take for himself two doves or two turtle-doves, and he shall come before95

YHWH, to (the) door of (the) tent of meeting; and he shall give them to the priest. 15:15 hf'Û['w>Àb)AZmi hw"ßhy> ynEïp.li !he²Koh; wyl'ó[' rP,’kiw> hl'_[o dx'Þa,h'w> taJ'êx; dx'äa, !heêKoh; ‘~t'aoAnd the priest shall make them–one a missing-of-the-mark offering, and the one an offering-up;and he shall cover over on behalf of his flowing before YHWH.15:16 ameîj'w> Arßf'B.-lK'-ta, ~yIM:±B; #x;îr"w> [r;z"+-tb;k.vi WNM,Þmi aceîte-yKi( vyai§w>`br ~yIM:ßB; sB;îkuw> [r;z"+-tb;k.vi wyl'Þ[' And every garment and everythingleather which (the) semen may be upon–and it shall be washed in the waters; and it will beunclean until the evening. 15:18 Wcåx)r"w> [r;z"+-tb;k.vi Ht'Þao vyai² bK;îv.yI rv,’a) hV'§aiw>`br`br ~yIM:ßB; #x;îr"w> wyd"±g"B. sBeók;y> Hb'_K'v.miB. [;gEßNOh;-lk'w>`br

in the waters; and he shall be unclean until the evening. 15:22 -rv,a) yliÞK.-lk'B. [:gEëNOh;-lk'w>`br wyd"±g"B. sBeók;y> wyl'_[' bveäTe And everyone who touchesany article upon which she may sit shall wash his garments; and he shall rinse in the waters; andhe shall be unclean until the evening. 15:23 rv,a) yli²K.h;-l[;( Aaô aWhª bK'øv.Mih;-l[;( ~ai’w>`bràm'(j.yI wyl'Þ[' bK;îv.yI-rv,a) bK'²v.Mih;-lk'w> And if a man indeed slept with her, and herimpurity was upon her; and he shall be unclean (for) seven days; and everything which he shallsleep upon shall be unclean.15:25 bWzàt'-yki( Aaï Ht'êD"nI-t[, ‘al{B. ~yBiªr: ~ymiäy" Hm'øD" bAz’ •bWzy"-yKi( hV'‡aiw>àwhi( ha'îmej. hy ~yIM:ßB; #x;îr"w> And everyone touches them shall be unclean; and he shallwash his garments, and he shall rinse in the waters; and he shall be unclean until the evening.15:28 `rh'(j.Ti rx;îa;w> ~ymiÞy" t[;îb.vi HL'² hr"p.s'îw> Hb'_AZmi hr"ßh)j'-~ai(w> And if she97

was clean from her flowing–and she shall count for herself seven days; and afterwards, she shallbe clean. 15:29 ha'Ûybihew> hn"+Ay ynEåB. ynEßv. Aaï ~yrIêto yTeäv. ‘Hl'-xQ:)Ti( ynI©ymiV.h; ~AYæb;W`d[e(Am lh,aoï xt;P,Þ-la, !heêKoh;-la, ‘~t'Aa And on the eighth day, she shall take for herselftwo doves or two turtle-doves, and she shall bring them to the priest, to (the) door of (the) tent ofmeeting. 15:30 h'yl,Û[' rP,’kiw> hl'_[o dx'Þa,h'-ta,w> taJ'êx; dx'äa,h'-ta, ‘!heKoh; hf'Û['w>`Ht'(a'm.ju bAZàmi hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘!heKoh; And the priest shall make the one a missing-of-themarkoffering; and the (other) one, an offering-up; and the priest shall cover over on her behalf,before YHWH, from (the) flowing of her uncleanness.15:31 ~a'îM.j;B. ~t'êa'm.juB. ‘Wt“muy" al{Üw> ~t'_a'm.Jumi laeÞr"f.yI-ynEB.-ta, ~T,îr>Z:hiw>`~k'(AtB. rv,îa) ynIßK'v.mi-ta, And you (plural) shall cause Israel’s children to be dedicated /guarded from their uncleanness; and they shall not die in their uncleanness, in their makingunclean My dwelling place with is in their midst.15:32 `Hb'(-ha'm.j'l. [r;z`ha'(mej.-~[I bK;Þv.yI and the menstruating woman in her impurity; and the flowing-one with hisflow–for the male and for the female, and for any man who shall sleep with an unclean woman.98

Priestly Decisions Concerning the Yearly Day of Covering OverThe Day of Atonement or "Covering," on which the reality of total Divine forgiveness wassymbolized and claimed for all of Israel. The high-priest's careful once-yearly entry into the mostset-apart place. The "scape-goat," that carries away all of Israel's missings-of-the-mark.Question: what is the meaning of "Azazel"?Leviticus 16:1-34, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes16:1 ynEp.l i~t'îb'r>q'B. !ro+h)a; ynEåB. ynEßv. tAmê yrEåx)a; hv,êmo-la, ‘hw"hy> rBeÛd:y>w:`Wtmu(Y"w: hw"ßhy>- And YHWH spoke to Moses after Aharon’s two sons’ dying when they drew nearbefore YHWH; and they died. 16:2 è^yxia' !roåh)a;-la, érBeD: hv,ªmo-la, hw"÷hy> rm,aYo’w:!roa'h'-l[; rv,Ûa) tr ‘And YHWH said to Moses, Speak toAharon your brother; and he shall not come at all time(s) into the set-apart place, within theshutting-off curtain, before the covering which is over the chest (of the covenant); and he will notdie; because in a cloud I will appear above the covering.16:3 `hl'([ol. lyIa:ïw> taJ'Þx;l. rq"±B'-!B, rp;óB. vd ~heê A linen robe of set-apartness he shall wear; andshort linen pants upon his flesh; and with a long linen belt he shall be girded; and with a linenturban he shall be wrapped; these (are) garments of set-apartness; and he shall rinse his flesh inthe waters, and he shall put them on. 16:5 yrEïy[if.-ynE)v. xQ:±yI laeêr"f.yI ynEåB. ‘td:[) taeªmeW`hl'([ol. dx'Þa lyIa:ïw> taJ'_x;l. ~yZIß[i And from Israel’s children’s congregation he shall taketwo male-goats of (the) female-goats for a missing-of-the-mark offering; and one ram for an99

offering-up.16:6 Àt)yBe d[;îb.W Adß[)B; rP,îkiw> Al+-rv,a) taJ'Þx;h; rP;î-ta, !ro±h)a; byrIôq.hiw>And Aharon shall bring near the young bull of the missing-of-the-mark offering which belongs tohim; and he shall cover over on his (own) behalf, and on behalf of his household. 16:7 xq:ßl'w>`d[e(Am lh,aoï xt;P,Þ hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘~t'ao dymiÛ[/h,w> ~rI+y[iF.h; ynEåv.-ta, And he shall take(the) two male goats, and he shall cause them to stand before YHWH, (at the) door of (the) tent ofmeeting. 16:8 lr"ïAgw> hw"ëhyl; ‘dx'a, lr"ÜAG tAl+r"AG ~rIßy[iF.h; ynEïv.-l[; !ro±h)a; !t;ón"w>`lzE)az"[)l; dx'Þa, And Aharon shall place lots upon (the) two male goats, one lot for the YHWH,and one lot for the azazel. 16:9 lr"ßAGh; wyl'²[' hl'î[' rv,’a) ry[iêF'h;-ta, ‘!roh)a; byrIÜq.hiw>`taJ'(x; Whf'Þ['w> hw"+hyl; And Aharon shall draw near the male goat which the lot came uponhim, for the YHWH; and he shall make him a missing-of-the-mark offering. 16:10 ry[iªF'h;w>At±ao xL;îv;l. wyl'_[' rPeäk;l. hw"ßhy> ynEïp.li yx;²-dm;[\y") lzEëaz"[)l; •‘lr"AGh; wyl'Û[' hl'’[' rv,a)`hr"B")d>Mih; lzEßaz"[)l; And the male goat which the lot came upon him for the azazel; it willstand alive before YHWH, to cover over upon it; to send it forth to the azazel, to the wilderness.16:11 At+yBe d[;äb.W Adß[)B;( rP,îkiw> Alê-rv,a) ‘taJ'x;h;( rP;Û-ta, !roøh)a; byrI’q.hiw>Àl)-rv,a) taJ'Þx;h;* rP;î-ta, jx;²v'w> And the male goat which the lot came upon him for theazazel; it will stand alive before YHWH, to cover over upon it; to send it forth to the azazel, to thewilderness. 16:12 hw"ëhy> ynEåp.Limi ‘x:“Bez>Mih; l[;Ûme vaeú-ylex)G:) hT'x.M;h;û-al{)m. xq:ål'w>`tk,ro)P'l; tyBeîmi aybiÞhew> hQ"+D: ~yMiÞs; tr100

-l[; rv,îa) tr rP'êh; ~D:åmi ‘xq;l'w>À[)B'c.a,B. ~D"ßh;-!mi ~ymi²['P.-[b;v,( hZ And he shall cover over onbehalf of the set-apart place, from the uncleannesses of Israel’s children, and from theirtransgressions, for all their missings-of-the-mark; and in this way he shall do to (the) tent ofmeeting, the one dwelling with them in (the) midst of their uncleanness. 16:17 -al{ ~d"úa'-lk'w>d[; vd d[eªAm lh,aoåB. Ÿhy

16:18 ‘rP'h; ~D:Ümi xq;úl'w> wyl'_[' rP,äkiw> hw"ßhy>-ynE)p.li rv,îa) x;Be²z>Mih;-la, ac'ªy"w>`bybi(s' x;BeÞz>Mih; tAnðr>q;-l[; !t;²n"w> ry[iêF'h; ~D:åmiW And he shall go forth to the altar ofsacrifice which is before YHWH; and he shall cover over for it; and he shall take some of theblood of the young bull, and some of the blood of the male goat; and he shall place (it) upon thealtar’s horns, (all) around. 16:19 Aråh)jiw> ~ymi_['P. [b;v,ä A[ßB'c.a,B. ~D"±h;-!mi wyl'ó[' hZ"’hiw>`lae(r"f.yI ynEïB. taoßm.Jumi AvêD>qiw> And he shall sprinkle upon it some of the blood with hisfinger, seven times; and it shall cleanse it, and he shall set it apart from (the) uncleannesses ofIsrael’s children.16:20 byrIßq.hiw> x;Be_z>Mih;-ta,w> d[eÞAm lh,aoï-ta,w> vd‘tnOwO[)-lK'-ta, wyl'ª[' hD"åw:t.hiw> èyx;h; éry[iF'h; varoå l[;’ Îwyd"ªy"Ð ¿Ady"À yTeäv.-ta, !roøh)a;xL;²viw> ry[iêF'h; varoå-l[; ‘~t'ao !t;Ûn"w> ~t'_aJox;-lk'l. ~h,Þy[ev.Pi-lK'-ta,w> laeêr"f.yI ynEåB.`hr"B")d>Mih; yTiÞ[i vyaiî-dy:B. And Aharon shall his two hand / hands upon the live male goat’shead; and he shall shall confess over it all (the) children of Israel’s iniquities, and all theirtransgressions, for all their missings-of-the-mark; and he shall place them upon the make goat’shead; and he shall send (it) forth by (the) hand of a man (standing) ready, into the wilderness.16:22 ry[iÞF'h;-ta, xL;îviw> hr"+zEG> #r

off the linen garments in which he dressed when he entered into the set-apart place; and he shallleave them there. 16:24 wyd"+g"B.-ta, vb;Þl'w> vAdêq' ~Aqåm'B. ‘~yI“M;b; ArÜf'B.-ta, #x;’r"w>`~['(h' d[;îb.W Adß[)B; rP,îkiw> ~['êh' tl;ä[o-ta,w> ‘Atl'[o)-ta, hf'Û['w> ac'ªy"w> And he shallrinse his flesh in the waters, in a set-apart place; and he shall put on his garments; and he shallgo forth, and he shall make his offering-up and the people’s offering-up; and he shall cover overon his own behalf and on behalf of the people. 16:25 ryjiîq.y: taJ'Þx;h;( bl,xeî tae²w>`hx'Be(z>Mih; And the fat of the missing-of-the-mark offering he shall cause to smoke towards thealtar of sacrifice.16:26 ~yIM"+B; Arßf'B.-ta, #x;îr"w> wyd"êg"B. sBeäk;y> lzEëaz"[)l;( ‘ry[iF'h;-ta, x;LeÛv;m.h;(w>`hn taJ'øx;h;* rP;’ •taew>~r"ßf'B.-ta,w> ~t'îro[o-ta, vaeêb' Wpår>f'w> hn

the temporary resident residing in you midst. 16:30 ~k,Þyle[) rPeîk;y> hZ rv,Ûa)w: !heÞk;l.`vd vd`rPe(k;y> lh'ÞQ'h; ~[;î-lK'-l[;w> ~ynI±h)Koh; l[;ów> rPe_k;y> x;BeÞz>Mih;-ta,w> d[e²Am And he shallcover over the set-apart place, and the tent of meeting; and the altar of sacrifice he shall coverover, and over the priests, and he shall cover over all (the) people of the assembly.16:34 ‘-lK'mi laer"f.yI ynEÜB.-l[; rPeúk;l. ~l'ªA[ tQ:åxul. ~k,øl' taZO’-ht'y>h'(w>`hv,(mo-ta, hw"ßhy> hW"ïci rv,²a)K; f[;Y:¨w: hn"+V'B; tx;Þa; ~t'êaJox; And this will be for youpeople for a long-lasting stutute, to cover ovr for Israel’s children from all their missings-of-themark,once in th eyer. And he did just as YHWH commanded to Moses.104

Priestly Decisions Concerning Sacrificing Domestic Animalsand Concerning BloodSlaughtering of animals only at the moveable sanctuary is commanded, and eating ofblood is forbidden--all in order to avoid Canaanite fertility practices involving bestiality and magicaluse of blood in worship. It is difficult to imagine how this legislation could be intended for the laterSolomonic and post-exilic temples, when Jews living far from the temple could be expected tobring their animals for slaughter all the way to Jerusalem–but such an ordinance well fits the timeof Israel’s wandering in the wilderness.Question: Why do the Jehovah's Witnesses object to blood transfusions? Are they correctin the light of this passage? Is the saving of life through the giving of blood the same as thetaking of life in order to use blood magically?Leviticus 17:1-16, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes17:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 17:2rv,a) rb'êD"h; hz laeêr"f.yI ynEåB.-lK' la,w> wyn"©B'-la,w> !roøh)a;-la,( rBe’D:`rmo)ale hw"ßhy> hW"ïci- Speak to Aharon and to his sons, and to all Israel’s children; and youshall say to the, This is the thing which YHWH commanded, saying: 17:3 tyBeämi ‘vyai vyaiî#Wxßmi jx;êv.yI rv,äa) Aa… hn !K;äv.mi ynEßp.li hw"ëhyl;( ‘!B'r>q' byrIÜq.h;l.ÀM)[; br

hw"ßhyl;( ~ymi²l'v. yxeób.zI Wxøb.z"’w> !he_Koh;-la, d[eÞAm lh,aoï xt;P,²-la, hw"©hyl;( ~auäybih/w al{å ‘d[eAm lh,aoÜ xt;P,ø-la,w>`wyM'([;me aWhßh; vyaiîh' tr:±k.nIw> hw"+hyl; and will not bring it to (the) door of (the) tent ofmeeting, to make (the sacrifice) to the YHWH–and that man will be cut off from his peoples.17:10 ~D"+-lK' lk;ÞayO rv,îa) ~k'êAtB. rG"åh; ‘rGEh;-!miW laeªr"f.yI tyBeämi vyaiø vyai’w>`HM'([; br

`rPe(k;y> vp,N“m;a' !KeÛ-l[;`~D") lk;ayOð-al{ ~k,Þk.AtB. rG"ïh; rGE±h;w> ~D"+ lk;at For this reason I said to Israel’schildren, every person from (among) you shall not eat blood; and the temporary resident whoresides in your midst, shall not eat blood.17:13 hY"±x; dyceî dWcøy" rv,’a) ~k'êAtB. rG"åh; ‘rGEh;-!miW laeªr"f.yI ynEåB.mi vyaiø vyai’w>`rp'(['B, WhS'Þkiw AmêD"-ta, ‘%p;v'w> lke_a'yE rv,äa) @A[ß-Aa And any man from Israel’schildren, and from the temporary resident who resides temporarily in their midst, who will hunt wildanimals or bird(s), which will be eaten; and he shall pour out its blood; and he shall cover it withdirt. 17:14 rf'ÞB'-lK' ~D:ï laeêr"f.yI ynEåb.li ‘rm;aow") èaWh éAvp.n:b. AmåD" rf'ªB'-lK' vp,n And every person that shall eat a carcass and fleshtorn by animals, among native(s) and among temporary resident(s); and he shall was hisgarments, and shall rinse in the waters; and he shall be unclean until the evening; and he shall beclean. 17:16 Àn*wO[) af'Þn"w> #x'_r>yI al{å Arßf'b.W sBeêk;y> al{å ‘~aiw> And if he will not wash;and his flesh he will not rinse; and he shall bear his iniquity.107

Priestly Judicial Decisions Concerning Sexual Purity for Families and IndividualsIn the Midst of Impure Surrounding Cultures 41Leviticus 18:1-30, IntroductionPriestly teaching and judicial decisions are given concerning interpersonal relationshipsand a standard of morality reflecting YHWH God's own purity--to distinguish His people from the41Baruch Levine entitles chapter 18 “Definition of the Family.” But no word for “family”is found in this chapter, and even though many of its regulations mention various “familymembers,” there are other subjects introduced which have to do with Israel’s distinctivenessover against its surrounding cultures, and also with religious practices that are forbidden inIsrael.Martin Noth entitled this chapter “Precepts Dealing with Sexual Relations” (p. 132), justas Gordon Wenham entitles it “Basic Principles of Sexual Behavior” (p. 248); and it is quitetrue that most of the legislation here is concerned with just this matter–but again, there is morethan that alone.Levine states that “Chapter 18 is the most systematic and complete collection of lawswithin the Torah dealing with the subject of incest and other forbidden sexual unions. It outlinesin detail which unions among relatives within the ancient Israelite clan are forbidden ongrounds of incest, adultery, and so on; and in so doing, it indirectly defines the limits of theimmediate family. By want of contrast, marriages within the extended clan, called mishpachah in Heb-rew, were actually encouraged.” (P. 117) We agree with Noth and withLevitine, but insist that in reality there is no real “definition of the family” given here–only theboundaries of sexual relationships; and all of this is placed within the context of Yahweh’sdesire for Israel’s distinctiveness from the Egyptians and the Canaanites, both sexually, and insome deeply important religious matters.We agree with Noth in his overall statement concerning this chapter that “The basis ofthe whole would then seem to have been a tribal code strictly forbidding all promiscuity withinthis circle. To this code Israel held fast, even in settled conditions, in opposition to thedespised adherents of the ‘Canaanitish’ city culture and all its connections with the fertilitycults...It is a question of respecting all the marriage bonds existing within the large familyunit...The virginity of the unmarried woman living under the protection of the large family circlewas to be respected... Sexual intercourse between near blood-relatives is something unnaturaland forbidden by God...” (P. 135)The author of these notes worked for a number of years with the Contact TelephoneMinistry in Fayetteville, North Carolina, spending many nights on the phone, talking withfamilies experiencing brokenness and seeking help. He was shocked to hear of the sexualpractices of that troubled community, with fathers having had sexual relations with their wifeand daughters at the same time, and now wondering why an angry wife was charging themwith incest. He listened to young G.I.’s telling sordid stories of all sorts of prostitution, adultery,broken marriages, and arrests for homosexual activities at truck stops on the Interstate Highwayand in public parks. At that same time, while studying Leviticus, he realized how deeplyour broken society needs such regulations as these.108

immorality of the Egyptians and the Canaanites, with their worship of human sexuality, in whichmany sexual relations unacceptable to YHWH were practiced. Such sexual relations are forbiddenfor Israel. YHWH is Israel's God--and those who keep His laws will live by them–they willgive them guidance for their lives, and will impart life to them!Leviticus 18:1-30, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes4218:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 18:2`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa] ~h,_lea]) T'Þr>m;a'w> laeêr"f.yI ynEåB.-la, ‘rBeD: Speak to Israel’s children;43 44and you shall say to them, I YHWH, your God! 18:3 rv,îa) ~yIr:±c.mi-#r ynIßa]), “I, YHWH, your God!” (almost always translatedby “I (am) YHWH, your God!”) occurs some 22 times in Leviticus, and only some 21 timeselsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. See Leviticus 11:44, 45; 18:2, 4, 30; 19:2, 3, 4, 10, 25, 31,34, 36; 20:24; 23:22, 43; 24:22; 25:17, 38; 25:55; 26:1, 13 and 44. It is a form of “selfaddress”to Israel, which if it occurred only on a first occasion, would be like a Divine handreaching down to Israel, introducing itself to the people. But it occurs so often that it must beunderstood to be a constant reminder to Israel that the nation is responsible to YHWH, herSavior and Judge, for her behavior. The shorter phrase hw"ïhy> ynIßa], “I YHWH,” or “I (am)YHWH” occurs some 42 times in chapters 18-26, 16 times in chapter 19 alone. All of thislegislation stands under this Divine mark, or claim. If Israel wants to be the people of YHWH,they must listen to, and obey, this teaching. YHWH is the Lord of ethical behavior–andspecifically of His people’s sexual behavior. Here, in our opinion, YHWH appears in the characterof a loving Father or Mother (as in Proverbs), warning His or Her children of the dangersof improper sexual relationships.44Verses 3-5 and verses 24-30 form a “frame-work” for the second-person singularregulations given in verses 6-23, in which Israel is spoken to as a “corporate personality, “you”(singular)–all of which combine to warn Israel against following the cultural practices of hersurrounding neighbors in Egypt and in Canaan, which are explicltly mentioned in these chapters,but, as Deborah Lein observes, warns against some of the practices of Israel’s own(continued...)109

‘hM'“v'-~k,ît.a, aybi’me •ynIa) rv,äa) ![;n:³K.-#r

`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~h,_B' tk,l,äl' Wrßm.v.Ti yt;îQoxu-ta,w> Wf±[)T; yj;óP'v.mi My judicial-48 49decisions you shall do; and My statutes you shall keep, to walk by them. I, YHWH your God!47(...continued)them, and leading in their destruction. But it is the view of Leviticus 18:24-28 and 20:22-24that the nations living in Canaan were being “vomited out” by the land, because of theintolerable offenses of those peoples, which involved sexual immoralities of all sorts, andincluded the murder of innocent children, which over centuries had caused YHWH to determinethe necessity of their being drive from the land–the same punishment which Israelherself would experience if she followed in their practices.YHWH wants His people to be different from their surrounding cultures–whether that ofEgypt-land, from which they have been delivered in the exodus, or that of the people of Canaan-land,who are being driven out before them. The primary difference or distinction is thatIsrael is to live by YHWH’s directions in all of its life, not letting its own ideas / convictions orthose of others determine they way of life, but only YHWH’s will.Levine comments that the statement “You shall not copy the practices of the land ofEgypt...or of the land of Canaan,” is “puzzling in a code dealing primarily with incest, sincethere is no explicit evidence that incest was widespread in Canaan or Egypt.” (P. 118)We think that this is a misleading comment. The regulations being given have to dowith far more than just incest, although this is the primary emphasis in chapter 18. At theclose of this chapter sexual relations with animals (“bestiality”) are forbidden, and then,especially in chapter 19, the continuing regulations have to do with honoring parents,forbidding idolatry, property rights, honest speech, forbidding of swearing falsely along withfraud and robbery; they have to do with the prompt payment of wages, with care for the deafand blind, and with love of neighbor, including non-Jews, etc. In all of these ways, the peopleof YHWH are to live lives that are distinct from their cultural surroundings.They are thus regulations designed to mark the people of Israel off from their neighbors,the Egyptians and the Canaanites, in many different ways–but especially in terms of theirsexual mores, and the ways in which the fertility religions became sexually involved in far morethan just incest. Indeed, this very legislation is explicit evidence of the practices of the Egyptiansand the Canaanites. The sacrifice of innocent children to the Molech [“Queen of Heaven”?We hold that the noun melakah, queen, has been deliberately changed to Molech,which sounds like “Bosheth,” Shame, or Filth], along with the use of blood (especially menstrualblood) as a powerful form of magic, and the attempt to foretell the future and communicatewith the dead are likewise forbidden in this chapter and chapter 20–which things havelittle to do with incest.48The verb %l;h', “to walk,” is commonly used, as Levine notes, as a metaphor, of lifeas a journey, or in terms of a path on which one walks. The Divinely given regulations direct(continued...)111

18:5 ynIßa] ~h,_B' yx;äw" ~d"ßa'h' ~t'²ao hf,î[]y: rv,’a] yj;êP'v.mi-ta,w> ‘yt;Qoxu-ta, ~T,Ûr>m;v.W`hw")hy> And you shall keep My statutes, and My judicial-decisions–which, the human being who50will do them–and he will live by them! I, YHWH!48(...continued)Israel in the right path and represent the “way” in which she should “walk.” See:Genesis 18:19, Abraham will teach his descendants to keep “the way of YHWH”;Judges 2:22, YHWH will use the nations remaining in the land to test Israel whether or notthey will walk in the way of YHWH;1 Kings 3:14, in a dream, YHWH promises Solomon long life if he walks in YHWH’s way andobeys His statutes and commands; 9:4 (similar);1 Kings 16:26, Omri walked in all the ways of Jeroboam;Proverbs 2:20, Wisdom will enable the walking in the ways of good men, and in the paths ofthe rightly-related.The noun “halakoth” plays an important role in Jewish theology, with the meaning “rulesfor walking.” In Christian theology, Jesus Christ as “the way” plays an important role. God’s“way” did not begin with Jesus, but Jesus certainly is the fulfillment and embodiment of that“way.” Jesus too calls for rejection of sexual immorality on the part of His followers, but Hisway of life, like the “holiness code” of Leviticus, is much broader than simply a rejection ofsexual immorality–it involves all of life.49YHWH stands behind His regulations, and violations of them are a violation of Hiscovenant. See this same exact phrase, “I--YHWH your God,” at Exodus 6:7; 16:12; Leviticus11:44; 18:2, 4, 30; 19:2, 3, 4, 10, 25, 31, 34, 36; 20:7, 24; 23:22, 43; 24:22; 25:17, 38,55; 26:1, 13; Numbers 10:10; 15:41; Deuteronomy 29:5; Judges 6:10; Ezekiel 20:5, 7, 19,20 and Joel 4:17.50The phrase ~h,_B' yx;äw" ~d"ßa'h' ~t'²ao hf,î[]y: rv,’a], literally, “which he will practicethem the human, and he will live in (or ‘by’) them,” is translated by Tanakh as “by pursuit ofwhich man shall live.” The question is whether or not the statement is promising “life” to theobserver of the Torah, or is simply saying that the human should live by (or ‘in’) the Torah.The statement in Hebrew is in fact somewhat ambiguous.Wenham translates, “enjoy life through them” (p. 248), and then comments that “For theOld Testament writers life means primarily physical life. But it is clear that in this and similarpassages more than mere existence is being promised. What is envisaged is a happy life inwhich a man [humanity!] enjoys God’s bounty of health, children, friends, and prosperity.Keeping the law is the path to Divine blessing, to a happy and fulfilled life in the present(Leviticus 26:3-13; Deuteronomy 28:1-14 [the two great statements concerning YHWH’sgifts / blessings to those who keep His covenant]).” (P. 253)(continued...)112

5118:6 `hw")hy> ynIßa) hw"+r>[, tALåg:l. Wbßr>q.ti al{ï Arêf'B. raeäv.-lK'-la, ‘vyai vyaiî50(...continued)Levine comments that “The simple sense of the clause...’he shall live by them,’ is thatone should live his life in accordance with God’s laws and commandments and that he shouldobey them all his life or while he is alive. This clause has, however, stimulated other interpretations...Syntaxallows us to understand this clause as one of result: ‘that man shall perform,so that (as a result) he may acquire life by them.’ Performance of God’s laws and commandmentsholds forth the reward of life, whereas their violation threatens man with death...“This interpretation is the basis for the traditional understanding of our verse by later[Jewish] commentaries, which state that observance of the commandments is rewarded by lifein the world to come. We also find a nuanced rabbinic interpretation that stresses the sanctityof life itself...’That one may live by them, not that one should die because of them.’ In situationsdirectly threatening human life, one should set aside the commandments in order to preservehuman life. This principle is known as pikkuach nefesh, ‘the sparing or rescue of humanlife.’” (P.119)This is obviously reading a great deal into the biblical text, and this latter interpretationgoes directly against the Maccabean tradition of being willing to die for the sake of YHWH’sTorah. It was in line with this that the Maccabean fighters in the earliest revolution refused tofight on the day of rest–and quickly suffered defeat as a result–causing them to abandon thatcourse of action. However, it is obvious that the text means the Torah is not given to hurt, ordiminish Israel’s life–it is intended to give them life.What do you think? If the biblical statutes are given to promote life, and obeying one ofthem will lead to your death, should you observe it? Compare Ezekiel 20:25, which depictsYHWH as saying Wyàx.yI) al{ï ~yjiêP'v.mi’W ~ybi_Aj al{å ~yQIßxu ~h,êl' yTit;än" ‘ynIa]-~g:w>`~h,(B', “And also I gave to them [the rebellious children of Israel] statutes, not good ones, andjudicial decisions–they will not live by them.” Does this not mean that some of the statutes /judicial decisions given by YHWH through His appointed judges / priests / prophets / kingswere not good, and Israel would not be given life through them? Does this not mean that thepeople of YHWH must examine YHWH’s statutes and judicial decisions, determining whetheror not they are truly “good,” and whether or not they will promote life rather than death? Whatabout the approximately 27 commands for capital punishment in the Torah? Is it a “good” lawto put to death a rebellious son, or a wife who cannot prove she was a virgin on the day of hermarriage? If the Torah is intended to “give life,” should we not reject such statutes and judicialdecisions as “not good,” as promoting death rather than life?51Levine states that verse 6 “...Contains terms of reference that are essential for a properunderstanding of the legislation of chapter 18 as a whole...The terms most in need ofinterpretation are: raev.., ‘flesh,’ and hw"+r>[,, ‘nakedness.’113(continued...)

51(...continued)“The simple meaning of raeäv. is ‘meat, food,’ as we learn from Exodus 21:10, wherethis word refers to the food a man must provide for a slave girl in his charge...Much in the waythat rf'B', ‘meat,’ approximates the sense of blood relative, so raeäv. is used to characterizeconsanguineal (‘sharing the same blood’) relatives within the family...The composite termArêf'B. raeäv.ä, literally, ‘the flesh of his flesh,’ is a redundancy, used for emphasis.” (P. 119)See the article on rf'B' by N. P. Bratsiotis in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentII, pp. 317-32, which states that the “main meanings are ‘flesh’ and ‘body.’” (P. 317)With the meaning “flesh,” it is synonymous with raeäv., in distinction from “bone” and “skin.” Itis used not only of human “flesh,” but also of animal “flesh.” Bratsiotis holds that rf'B' isused “euphemistically for ‘pubic region,’ ‘genitals’...’penis’...’vagina’...etc.” (P. 319)We are reminded here of the language of Adam in Genesis 2:23, where he exclaimsconcerning Eve whom YHWH God has taken from his body and built to become Adam’s mate/ wife, OæyrI+f'B.mi rf'Þb'W ym;êc'[]me( ~c,[,… ~[;P;ªh; taz, “This once / now at length–bone frommy bones, and flesh from my flesh!”, that is, her physical body belongs to Adam, just asAdam’s physical body belongs to her.Compare Paul’s statement in 1 Corinthians 7:4, h` gunh. tou/ ivdi,ou sw,matoj ouvkevxousia,zei avlla. o` avnh,r( o`moi,wj de. kai. o` avnh.r tou/ ivdi,ou sw,matoj ouvk evxousia,zei avlla.h` gunh,, “The woman / wife does not have authority over her own body, but rather the man /husband; but then in the same way also the man / husband does not have authority over hisown body, but rather the woman / wife.” In the God-built relationship between husband andwife, there is flesh / nakedness that is to be uncovered without shame (compare Genesis2:24, “clinging together” to become dx'(a, rf'îb'l. “to one flesh,” with no shame attached tothat relationship, Genesis 2:25).Levine states that “The noun hw"+r>[,, ‘nakedness,’ is a euphemism for sexuality that isrelated to the verb hr''[', ‘to uncover’...To ‘uncover nakedness’ means ‘to have sexual intercourse.’”(P.119)See the article on hr''[' by H. Niehr in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentXI, pp. 343-54. Niehr states that “In the Holiness Code hw"+r>[, appears in Leviticus 18 and20; in all its occurrences (except Leviticus 20:17a), it is the object of hl'G" [‘uncover’]. Of the29 occurrences of hl'G" [‘uncover nakedness’], 20 are formulated as prohibitions. In Exodus(continued...)114

52 53 54No man shall draw near to any physical body of his flesh, to uncover nakedness (sexually)! I,51(...continued)20:26, its earliest occurrence, hw"+r>[, hl'G" means ‘uncover the nakedness’; in Leviticus 18and 20, it refers to ‘sexual activity of whatever kind.’ [quoting Elliger’s commentary on Leviticus].Leviticus 18:6-18 is a decalogue [list of ten ‘words’ or ‘commandments’] constructedwith the prohibitive, hLe_g:t. al{å hw"+r>[, [‘you (singular) shall not uncover nakedness...’] withthe addition of a... personal pronoun or a substantive, forbidding all kinds of sexual intercoursewith blood relatives. The use of the expression must be considered a euphemism...“The basic constituent of the series is hLe_g:t. al{å tw:ïr>[, [‘nakedness you shall notuncover’] plus the designation of a female relative...The purpose is to prevent chaotic sexualrelations from causing the shared life of the extended family to degenerate...Aspects of Leviticus18:7-17 are incorporated and in part modified in Leviticus 20:11, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21.The reason for the incorporation of these prohibitions may be deduced from the difference:Leviti-cus 18 states prohibitions, Leviticus 20 lays down punishments. A further difference isthat Leviticus 20 deals with a narrower circle of relatives than Leviticus 18, no longerencompassing four generations of the extended family.” (Pp. 347-48)52The phrase is vyai vyaiî, literally, “a man, a man...” which Brown-Driver-Briggsthinks means “anyone.” The Greek translation has a;nqrwpoj a;nqrwpoj, “a person, aperson.”For occurrences of this phrase in the Hebrew Bible see:Exodus 36:4, vyaiî-vyai( vd

52(...continued)Leviticus 20:2b, rv,’a] laeªr"f.yIB. rG"åh; ŸrGEåh;-!miW laeør"f.yI ynE’B.mi •vyai vyaiä, literally, “aman, a man from Israel’s children and from the temporary resident temporarily residingin Israel who...”; King James, “whosoever he be,” Tanakh, “Anyone”; New RevisedStandard and New International, “Any.”Leviticus 20:9a, rv,’a] vyaiª vyaiä-yKi(, literally “Because a man, a man who...”; King James,“For everyone...“; Tanakh “If anyone...”; New Revised Standard, “All who...”; NewInternational, “If anyone...”;Leviticus 22:4a, !roªh]a; [r;Z

52(...continued)Numbers 9:10b, ameäj'-hyKi tAfß[]l;, literally, “to do according to (the) will aman and a man”; King James, “they should do according to every man’s pleasure”;Tanakh, “to comply with each man’s wishes”; New Revised Standard, “to do as eachone desired”; New International, “to serve each man what he wished.”53The phrase Arêf'B. raeäv.-lK'-la,, is literally “to all flesh of his flesh.” The twowords, raeäv. and rf'B', are synonyms; see footnote 51. This phrase is translated by theGreek as: pro.j pa,nta oivkei/a sarko.j auvtou/, literally “towards every household (or ‘domestic’)flesh of his”; New Revised Standard translates by “(approach) anyone near of kin...” Wethink the meaning is that while a wife is “flesh from her husband’s flesh” (Genesis 2:23, seefootnote 51), this is not the case of any other female in the family unit, and he must not treatthem as such.Brown-Driver-Briggs suggests the meaning of raeäv. to be “flesh (= blood-) relation.”The noun rf'B' is also used in this same sense, for people who are “kin,” who have a “bloodrelationship.” Wenham translates “any of his close relatives.” (P. 248)54The phrase hw"+r>[, tALåg:l., literally “to uncover nakedness,” is a Hebrew euphemismfor “to engage in sexual intercourse.” For its occurrences in the Hebrew Bible, see:Exodus 20:26, You shall not go up on steps upon My altar, so that your nakedness will not beuncovered upon it!, probably meaning that your nakedness not be seen by surroundingworshipers; but sexual implications are nearby in Canaanite religion, in which “sacredprostitution” was commonly practiced as part of the ritual of religion;Leviticus 18:6, here; uncovering a family member’s nakedness for sexual intercourse;Leviticus 18:7, the nakedness of father and mother not to be uncovered–forbidding sexualintercourse with one’s mother; perhaps implying homosexual intercourse with one ’ sfather; but this is not clear;Leviticus 18:8, forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s step-mother;Leviticus 18:9, forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s sister;Leviticus 18:10, forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s granddaughter;(continued...)117

YHWH!18:7 `Ht'(w"r>[, hL,Þg:t. al{ï awhiê ^åM.ai hLe_g:t. al{å ^ßM.ai tw:ïr>[,w> ^ybi²a' tw:ïr>[,55 56 57Nakedness of your father, and nakedness of your mother, you shall not uncover; she is your54(...continued)Leviticus 18:11, forbidding sexual intercourse with a step-sister or full sister;Leviticus 18:12,forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s aunt on the father’s side;Leviticus 18:13, forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s aunt on the mother’s side;Leviticus 18:14, forbidding sexual intercourse with an uncle’s wife, possibly forbiddinghomosexual intercourse with one’s uncle;Leviticus 18:15, forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s daughter-in-law;Leviticus 18:16, forbidding sexual intercourse with one’s sister-in-law;Leviticus 18:17, forbidding sexual intercourse with a woman and her daughter, leading toconfusion;Leviticus 18:18, forbidding taking of one’s wife’s sister as a rival wife during the wife’s life-time;Leviticus 18:19, forbidding sexual intercourse with a woman during her menstrual period;20:18, similar;Isaiah 47:3, symbolical–the daughter of Babylon is summoned to get ready to be raped;Ezekiel 16:36, 37, Jerusalem, the wanton prostitute, has had sexual intercourse with herlovers;Ezekiel 23:10, the Assyrians uncovered Samaria’s nakedness–having sexual intercourse with her;Ezekiel 23:18, Jerusalem uncovered her nakedness–had sexual intercourse–with the Babylonians;Ezekiel 23:29, Jerusalem’s nakedness was uncovered in her prostitutions.55What does this mean? Is it forbidding homosexual relationship with one’s father? Itcertainly seems possible that this is what is meant. Or does the phrase “nakedness of yourfather” mean “your mother”? This too is possible, but not as apparent as the first possibility.King James, “The nakedness of thy father, or the nakedness of thy mother, shalt thou notuncover”;Tanakh, “Your father's nakedness, that is, the nakedness of your mother, you shall notuncover,” translating the conjunction “and” by “that is”;New Revised Standard, “You shall not uncover the nakedness of your father, which is thenakedness of your mother,” translating the conjunction “and” by “which is”;New International, “Do not dishonor your father by having sexual relations with your mother.”56Levine comments that “In this case, ^ybi²a' tw:ïr>[, means ‘the nakedness reservedfor your father, belonging to your father.’” (P. 120) This is true if we interpret Leviticus fromthe standpoint of Genesis 2:23-25 (see footnote 51), but it is certainly not obvious from theHebrew of this text. It most certainly teaches that one’s parents are not to be approachedsexually; their intimate relationship is to be respected by their children. Children are prohibited(continued...)118

mother; you shall not uncover her nakedness (sexually)! 5818:8 àwhi( ^ybiÞa' tw:ïr>[, hLe_g:t. al{å ^ybiÞa'-tv,ae( tw:ïr>[, Nakedness of yourfather’s wife you shall not uncover; she is your father’s nakedness (sexually)! 5918:9 #Wx td

(sexually)! 6018:10 `hN"he( ^ßt.w"r>[, yKiî !t'_w"r>[, hL,Þg:t. al{ï ^êT.Bi-tb;( Aaå ‘^n>Bi-tB; tw:Ür>[,Nakedness of your son’s daughter, or your daughter’s daughter, you shall not uncover theirnakedness–because they are your nakedness. 6160Here again, the broken condition of human society (through divorce, polygamy, deathand remarriage) creates situations in which there are half-brothers and half-sisters within thefamily unit, such as we see in the story of Abram’s marriage to Saray, his half-sister, and againin the story of King David’s family, with its sordid story of Amnon and Tamar (2 Samuel 13), inwhich Amnon fell in love (?--see 13:15) with Tamar his half-sister, and finally raped her, resultingin her desolation, and the anger of his half-brother Absalom whose rage against Amnonresulted in Absalom’s murdering him. In this story, Tamar tells Amnon that if he asked David,he would permit his marriage to his half-sister (in violation of this statute in Leviticus 18:9,thwhich may indicate that this statute comes from a later date than the 10 century B.C.)It is obvious how young people, brothers and sisters in the same family unit, sharemuch intimacy–an intimacy that sometimes can lead to sexual “play” and sexual involvementwith one another. Such involvements must be guarded against by wise parents; young peoplemust realize that such sexual involvement leads to harmful consequences, and must beguarded against if successful marriages and healthy long-term relationships are to be developed.Neither Amnon, nor especially Tamar, were “happy campers” as a result of their premaritalsexual encounter.This is an area where modern psychology can throw much light on this biblical commandment,as it helps those who have been traumatized in youth by sibling sexual involvement/ “harmless play” to identify and understand the many factors involved in such relationships,and their consequences. We wonder if such sexual encounters of young man andwomen with their parents or with their siblings may be at least partially responsible for theirinability in adulthood to form healthy relationships with those of the opposite sex.61This commandment is directed at grandfathers–who must not take advantage of theirgranddaughters sexually. Far too many families have known the deep hurt that has come totheir daughters as a result of their having been sexually molested by a grandfather.The statement as we have translated it seems strange, but is exactly what the textsays: hN"he( ^ßt.w"r>[, yKiî, “because they [the granddaughters] are your nakedness”, which istranslated in Greek by: o[ti sh. avschmosu,nh evsti,n, “because it is your indecency / nakedness”(this is the Greek word used for “nakedness” throughout this chapter). King James has“for theirs is thine own nakedness,” and both Tanakh and New Revised Standard are similar,while New International disregards the Hebrew text and has “that would dishonor you” (whichis neither translation nor paraphrase, but simply editorial change). The same thing is true ofThe New Jerusalem Bible’s ”for their sexual privacy is your own,” but what does this confus-(continued...)120

18:11 hL,Þg:t. al{ï awhi_ ^ßt.Axa) ^ybiêa' td

65 66mother’s sister, you shall not uncover; because she is flesh of your mother!18:14 àwhi( ^ßt.d")Do br"êq.ti al{å ‘ATv.ai-la, hLe_g:t. al{å ^ybiÞa'-yxi(a] tw:ïr>[,67Nakedness of your father’s brother, you shall not uncover; your shall not draw near to hiswife–she is your aunt!18:15 `Ht'(w"r>[, hL,Þg:t. al{ï awhiê ‘^n>Bi tv,aeÛ hLe_g:t. al{å ^ßt.L'(K; tw:ïr>[, Nakednessof your daughter-in-law you shall not uncover; she is your son’s wife; you shall not uncoverher nakedness!18:16 àwhi( ^yxiÞa' tw:ïr>[, hLe_g:t. al{å ^yxiÞa'-tv,ae( tw:ïr>[, Nakedness of your68brother’s wife you shall not uncover; she is your brother’s nakedness!65That is, your “aunt” (on your mother’s side of the family).66Here the meaning is obviously that the aunt is a close relative, a “near kinsperson”–since she is your mother’s sister.67Levine claims that this phrase, “the nakedness of your father’s brother,” means “thesexual access to his wife.” (P. 121) In line with this understanding, Tanakh translates by “Donot approach the nakedness of your father’s brother: do not approach his wife; she is youraunt.” Immediately following the words “your father’s brother,” Noth adds in the phrase “thatis...” (New Revised Standard has followed his translation).But this is certainly not clear in the Hebrew text, which may be understood to be aprohibition of homosexual intercourse with one’s uncle, as well as sexual intercourse with theuncle’s wife (or your aunt). Or alternatively, the first clause may be seen as being explainedby the second clause.Again we observe that sexual experiences early in life are most often associated withclose relatives, such as cousins, or sometimes even with uncles or aunts, especially if they areclose to the same age–and that these relationships oftentimes have a serious effect on futurerelationships of those involved.Those who dismiss this biblical teaching as outmoded ancient cultural legislation, needto reconsider the importance of these relationships and their influence on character formation,still in our modern world.68Here, it is clear that “the nakedness of your brother’s wife” is being described as“belonging to your brother,” and in this light it may be that Tanakh’s translation is correct in thecases referred to in previous footnotes.(continued...)122

18:17 ‘xQ;ti al{Ü HT'ªBi-tB;-ta,w> Hn"ùB.-tB;-ta,( hLe_g:t. al{å HT'ÞbiW hV'²ai tw:ïr>[,àwhi( hM'îzI hN"hEß hr"ïa]v; Ht'êw"r>[, tALåg:l. Nakedness of a woman and her daughter youshall not uncover! (The) daughter of her son, and daughter of her daughter, you shall not take (as69 70wife) to uncover her nakedness; they are her flesh; it is confusion!68(...continued)Deuteronomy 25:5-10 provides an exception to this prohibition, in the event of thedeath of the brother before any children are born to his relationship with his wife. If that shouldhappen, the dead man’s brother is under obligation to have sexual relationship with his brother’swidow, enabling the brother’s “name” to continue through the birth of a male child.Levine notes that “Verse 16 completes the primary list of incestuous [meaning, havingsexual relations with those closely related] relatives. Verses 17-18 deal with two cases wheremarriage into the family engenders additional prohibitions, on the principle that certain of theraev. (‘flesh’) relatives of a man’s wife are also forbidden.” (P. 121)69Noth changes from “her” to “your,” as does the Greek translation.70Or, “wickedness.” The noun is hM'îzI, which means literally “plan,” or “device,” or “wick-edness.” See S. Stengrimsson,’s article in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament IVpp. 87-90, where he shows how from the root verb ~m;z" , “to consider,” “to purpose,” “todevise,” have come the nouns, ~m'z", hM'zIm., hM'zI, and hM'zI. He states that “The use of theverb... reveals a rather uniform picture. Semantically it is neither negative nor positive; thenature of the action is determined by the object or other words that are added...The subject ofthe verb can be either Yahweh (6 times) or human beings (7 times). Depending on the context,Yahweh can plan either good or ill; human planning usually has negative overtones(Proverbs 31:16 is an exception).” (P. 88)Heb EngThe noun ~m'z" is found only in Psalm 140:9 / 8 , where the psalmist prays thatYHWH will frustrate the desires and plans of the wicked.The noun, hM'zIm., occurs 19 times, 5 in Psalms, 8 in Proverbs, 2 in Job, and 4 inJeremiah. Three of these passages speak of YHWH’s purpose or plan which no human canthwart, and which will come to pass without fail. All of the other passages have to do withhuman plans, which are largely negative. Steingrimsson states that “The negative meaning inthese examples is not inherent in the word itself, but derives from the context. The word canlikewise take on distinctly positive overtones when it is used in Wisdom Literature as one of123(continued...)

70(...continued)the main synonyms for ‘wisdom.’” (P. 89) See Proverbs 1:4; 2:10-11; 3:21; 5:2 and 8:12(where personified Wisdom herself claims to have such plans Herself).Stengrimsson divides the noun hM'zI, into two different meanings, the first of which issimply “plan,” which he finds in 6 passages, with a positive or neutral sense only in Job 17:11,where Job states that his plans are “broken off.”The second meaning is ‘wickedness,” or “lewdness,” and he finds this meaning in 22passages. He states that “There are 3 occurrences of hM'zI in Leviticus, all of which refer tosexual offenses (lewdness)...Leviticus 18...contains several laws prohibiting certain sexualoffenses. These prohibitions are set in a framework of 2 passages (verses 1-5 and 24-30) inwhich the forbidden sexual practices are branded as Egyptian and Canaanite...The prohibitionsare impressed upon the people on the grounds that the prohibited sexual practices defilethe land; this is the reason the earlier inhabitants were driven out...“The Book of Ezekiel exhibits a special predeliction for [this noun]. Of its 22 occurrences,13 are found in this book, exclusively in discourses concerning Israel, Judah, andJerusalem.” (P. 90) He notes that “when we read [in 22:9] ‘Men commit lewdness in yourmidst,’ there is every reason to recall the cases defined as hM'zI in Leviticus 18-20.” (Ibid.)We hold that usage of this noun in the Hebrew Bible shows that the noun is almostalways connected with literal sexual immorality, or with Israel’s metaphorical sexual immoralityin its entering into relationship with idolatrous Gods. The Greek translation is ,“impiety.”For occurrences of the noun hM'îzI, see:Leviticus 18:17, here; sexual intercourse with (uncovering the nakedness of) a woman andher daughter or granddaughter;Leviticus 19:29, giving a daughter to become a sacred prostitute;Leviticus 20:14, 14, sexual intercourse with (uncovering the nakedness of) a woman and hermother, punishable by death;Judges 20:6, rape and murder of a concubine;Jeremiah 13:27, %teêWnz> tM;äzI, “wickedness of your (sacred) prostitution”;Ezekiel 16:43, %yIt'(bo[)AT-lK' l[;Þ hM'êZIh;, “the wickedness upon / over all your abominablethings,” obviously referring to the prostitute Judah’s sexual excesses; 58, same;Ezekiel 22:9, 11, this passage is closely related to the regulations of Leviticus 18-19, especially19:16; 18:7, 9, 15;Ezekiel 23:21, sexual immorality in youth;Ezekiel 23:27, sexual immorality and sacred prostitution brought from Egypt-land; 29, again,(continued...)124

18:18 `h'yY

71(...continued)ences of the verb rrc in the Hebrew Bible, see:Heb EngGenesis 32:8 / 7 , Jacob was greatly afraid, Al+ rc,YEåw;, literally “and it cramped / boundhim,” or “and it vexed him.” English translations commonly have “he was distressed,” or“in his anxiety” (Tanakh); we think a better translation is “it distressed him,” or “it madehim anxious”;Exodus 12:34, kneading-bowls troïrUc., “bound up” or “wrapped” in robes on the people’sshoulders;Leviticus 18:18, here; King James, “to vex her”; Tanakh, New Revised Standard and NewInternational, “as a rival”; but this is the only passage in the Hebrew Bible where thismeaning is found. We see no reason for giving the verb a special meaning here, andthink King James has the better translation;Numbers 10:9, Israel’s enemy in war is described as ~k,êt.a, rrEåCoh; ‘rC;h;, “the adversary /foe, the one binding / vexing / showing hostility to you people; English translations have“oppresses you,” or “attacks you”;Numbers 25:17-18, “harass / vex / assail / bind the Midianites, for they harassed / vexed /assailed / bound you!”;Numbers 33:55, if the Israelites do not dispossess the people dwelling in the promised land,they will be barbs in their eyes and thorns in their side, ~k,êt.a, Wrår}c'w>, “and they willbe hostile / vex / harass / bind you people”;Deuteronomy 28:52, the phrase ^øl. rc;’hew., “and it causes distress / makes narrow for you,”the hiphil form of the verb;Judges 2:15b, the phrase, dao)m. ~h,Þl' rc,YEïw:, “and it caused exceeding distress for them”;10:9, similar; 1 Samuel 30:6; 2 Samuel 13:2; Isaiah 25:4, all similar;1 Samuel 25:29, Abigail tells David that when enemies seek his life, ynI÷doa] vp,n

71(...continued)Jeremiah 49:22, the hearts of the warriors of Edom will be like the heart of a woman hr")cem.,hiphil feminine singular participle, “suffering distress,” “being vexed,” probably meaningwhile suffering labor-pains in giving birth;Hosea 4:19, a wind has wrapped / bound Ephraim up in its wings;Amos 5:12, the northern Israelites are qyDIc; yrEÜr>co, vexing / harassing (the) rightly-related;Zephaniah 1:17, YHWH threatens, ~d"ªa'l' ytiroåceh]w;, “and I will cause it to be narrow / bringdistress for the human / humanity”;Psalm 7:5, 7, “my enemy / one harassing / vexing me” and “my enemies, those harassing /vexing me”;8:3, similar, both singular and plural;10:5; 23:5; 31:12; 42:11; 74:4, 23;143:12, all similar;Psalm 129:1-2, ynIWrår"c. tB;r:â (twice), “great(ly) they harassed / vexed me”;Job 18:7, his footsteps are cramped / shortened; Proverbs 4:12, “when you walk, your footstepwill not be cramped / shortened”;Job 20:22, “it will be distressing / vexing to him”;Job 26:8, God is One “binding up waters in his clouds”;Proverbs 26:8, “one who binds a stone in a sling”;Proverbs 30:4, question: “who has wrapped up waters in a garment”?Esther 3:10; 8:1; 9:10, 24, Haman was one ~ydI)WhY>h; rrEïco, “harassing / vexing the Jews”;2 Chronicles 6:28, if enemies besiege / harass / vex the land;2 Chronicles 28:20, Tiglath-Pileser harassed / vexed Ahaz;2 Chronicles 28:22, Alê rceäh' ‘t[eb., hiphil infinitive, “in a time (of his) afflicting / causingharassment to him”; 33:12, similar, of Manasseh being afflicted / caused vexation inBabylon.We find nothing concerning “rival wives” in all these passages.The Greek translation of Leviticus 18:18 is gunai/ka evpi. avdelfh/| auvth/j ouv lh,myh|avnti,zhlon avpokalu,yai th.n avschmosu,nhn auvth/j evpV auvth/| e;ti zw,shj auvth/j, “You shall nottake a woman upon / in addition to her sister, an adversary / jealous one [Brenton has ‘as a rival’],to uncover her shame upon / in addition to her [Brenton has ‘in opposition to her’], while she is stillliving.”Keil and Delitzsch state that the two infinitives mean “‘to pack together, to uncover theirnakedness,’ i.e., to pack both together into one marriage bond, and so place the sisters in carnalunion through their common husband, and disturb their sisterly relation...” (P. 416)It is sometimes claimed by modern polygamous Mormon families that “sister-wives” areperfectly at ease with one another, and that there is no jealousy involved in their sharing the samehusband. There is no doubt that the Bible describes a number of polygamous marriages–suchas those of Abraham, Jacob, David, and Solomon. But the biblical stories depict the great vexa-(continued...)127

to uncover her nakedness in addition to her in her life-time. 7218:19 `Ht'(w"r>[, tALßg:l. br:êq.ti al{å Ht'_a'm.ju tD:ånIB. hV'Þai-la,w> And you shall not73 74draw near to a woman in her menstrual uncleanness, to uncover her nakedness!71(...continued)tion / jealousy involved in those “plural” marriages of Abraham and Jacob, just as is implied in thistext. The biblical depiction of YHWH God’s intention for the human family is described in Genesis2:21-25 (compare 1:26-27), and it is a picture of monogamy, not polygamy, not the malehaving a “harem” of wives.72This regulation allows a man to marry the sister of his wife, but only after his wife hasdied. If marriage to two sisters would produce vexation / rivalry (as we see in the biblical storyconcerning Jacob and his sister-wives, Leah and Rachel, along with their female servants, inGenesis 29-30), would not marriage to two unrelated women produce even more of thesame?What do you think? Deborah Lein observes that “Leviticus 18:18 does not condonepolygamy. It does not address it. Sexual relations with family members is all this verse isabout. Chapter 18 is not about marriage, but about sex[ual relations within the family, and infact the chapter does not address sexual relationships / boundaries outside the family].”We basically agree, and are thankful for this observation. But we also insist that whilethe chapter is primarily about sexual boundaries within the family, it also addresses evenbroader boundaries, forbidding sexual relations with a neighbor’s wife (“adultery,” verse 20),homosexual relationships (verse 22), and sexual relationships with animals (“bestiality,” verse23)–all of which is intended, as Levine states, to avoid the descent of the family into chaos andconfusion.73For this phrase, br:êq.ti al{å, “you shall not draw near / approach,” see:Genesis 20:4, Upon being warned by God, Abimelech did not draw near to Sarah, Abraham’swife / sister;Leviticus 18:6, hw"+r>[, tALåg:l. Wbßr>q.ti al{ï, “you people shall not draw near to uncovernakedness of / have sexual intercourse with” any near relative / family member;Leviticus 18:14, you (singular) shall not draw near to your uncle’s wife for sexual intercourse;Leviticus 18:19, here, you (singular) shall not draw near to a woman during her menstrualperiod of uncleanness for sexual intercourse;Leviticus 21:17-18, Levitical priests with physical blemishes / deformities shall not draw nearto offer sacrifices;Leviticus 22:20, 22, 24, 25, animal offerings with blemishes shall not be brought near insacrifice to YHWH;(continued...)128

18:20 `Hb'(-ha'm.j'l. [r;z"+l. ^ßT.b.k'v. !Teîti-al{ ^êt.ymi([) ‘tv,ae“-la,w> And to your73(...continued)Leviticus 27:11, the priestly evaluation concerning unclean animals not to be brought near insacrifice;Numbers 9:13, the person is condemned who has inexcusably failed to bring near his offeringat Passover;HebEngNumbers 17:5 / 16:40 , a man who is a stranger / foreigner shall not draw near to offerincense to YHWH;Numbers 18:3-4, the Levites, not descendants of Aaron, shall not draw near to the altar andits vessels; ~k,(ylea] br:ïq.yI-al{ rz"ßw>, “and a stranger / foreigner shall not draw nearto you people!”;Numbers 18:22, the children of Israel shall not draw near to the tent of meeting, on pain ofdeath;Deuteronomy 2:37, Moses says that Israel did not draw near to the land of the Ammonites(!);Isaiah 54:14, terror shall not draw near to the future Israel;Ezekiel 18:6, the “rightly-related” man did not draw near to a woman during her menstrualperiod–closely related to this passage in Leviticus 18:19;Zephaniah 3:2, the rebellious city of Jerusalem does not draw near to its God;Psalm 91:10, no plague will draw near to the tent of one who has made YHWH his or herdwelling-place.74The prohibition means, no sexual intercourse during a woman’s menstrual period (theGreek translation is evn cwrismw/| avkaqarsi,aj auvth/j, “in her separation / division of uncleanness.”And we wonder–do those who use Leviticus 18-20 to condemn homosexual relationships,just as ardently condemn modern couples who engage in sexual intercourse during thewoman’s monthly period? And if not, why not?Levine notes that “This prohibition, which initiates the section on sexual activity otherthan incest, is distinctive in that it governs a man’s sexual relations with his own wife.” (P. 123)The use of blood in fertility religions was prominent, and believed to be the source of“powerful magic,” especially the use of menstrual blood, which could be used in ways designedto influence the Gods on behalf of those so using it, for example, by rubbing the woman’smenstrual blood into incisions in the male’s flesh, thereby imparting magical power to him. Wesuspect that there may be a background to this prohibition in fertility-worship, where somesupposed “magical” power was believed to accompany sexual intercourse during a woman’smenstruation.129

75 76fellow-man’s wife you shall not give your lying down / sleeping for an offspring, to (become)75The noun tymi[' means “fellow,” or “associate,” or “relation.” We think that it is usedhere as a synonym for “neighbor,” and not for “kinsman” as the New Revised Standardtranslates it. King James, Tanakh and New International all have “neighbor.”See the article by H. J. Zobel in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament XI, pp.192-96, who notes that in the Greek translation of Leviticus, tymi[' is translated by o`plhsi,on, “the one nearby,” “the close one.” Outside of Leviticus the noun occurs only inZechariah 13:7, where the Greek translates by a;ndra poli,thn mou, “a man, my citizen.”Zobel shows how closely related words to tymi[' include [;re, “friend,” “companion,”“fellow” (also translated by the Greek as plhsi,on); xa', “brother,” and ^M,ê[; ynEåB., “children ofyour people.” He states that “These related terms call our attention to what the whole grouphas in common: an tymi[' is a member of the people of Israel with whom one has a specialrelationship like that between two brothers, shaped by a common faith in Yahweh. Elliger’sdefinition–an tymi[' is ‘a member of the national community whose Lord is Yahweh’–catchesthe essence. The best translation, therefore, is not ‘kinsman’ but ‘member of the nationalcommunity, fellow citizen.” (Pp. 193-94)He adds that “The word tymi[' is closely associated with the Holiness Code (Leviticus17-26)...All the passages [where it occurs] deal with proper conduct toward a fellow citizen.When buying or selling, do not exert undue pressure (Leviticus 25:14, 15, 17). Do not stealfrom, deceive, or lie to a fellow citizen (19:11), render an unjust judgment against him (19:15),hate him (19:17), do him bodily harm (24:19), or have sexual relations with his wife (18:20).Judge him with justice (19:15) and reprove him (19:17)...Every admonition to act so as tobenefit society and promote the well-being of a fellow citizen is based on respect for the ‘I’Who is Yahweh...One’s fellow citizen is an equal member of God’s community and thereforehas a claim to help and protection, even against secret hostile thoughts and feelings.” (P.194)76The phrase is strange: [r;z"+l. ^ßT.b.k'v. !Teîti-al, literally “you shall not give yourlying-down / sleeping for seed / sowing / semen / descendant(s).” Levine notes that “Theliteral Hebrew formula for impregnation is ‘to place your layer of semen.’” (P. 122) But wedoubt that the noun tb,kñov. means “layer.” Rather, it means “lying,” or “sleeping.”English translations vary:King James, “Moreover thou shalt not lie carnally with thy neighbor's wife”;Tanakh, “Do not have carnal relations with your neighbor's wife”;(continued...)130

76(...continued)New Revised Standard and New International, “You shall not / Do not have sexual relationswith your kinsman's wife.”These translations apparently omit the phrase in Hebrew, [r;z"+l., “for sowing / seed /semen / descendant(s),” which we translate by “for an offspring.” Deborah Lein suggests “fororgasm,” or “for sperm.” We think the phrase is an attempt to differentiate between literally“sleeping / lying down together,” for the purpose of warmth (as in Ecclesiastes 4:11) and theeuphemistic use of “lying down / sleeping for seed / offspring” for “having sexual intercourse.”Brown-Driver-Briggs holds that the noun tb,kñov. means “copulation,” which is simplyanother word for sexual intercourse, but we think the noun more likely means “sleeping,” “lyingdown,” used as a euphemism for sexual intercourse.For this matter of “sleep” as a euphemism for sexual intercourse, we note the followingfacts. The root bkv occurs as a verb some 203 times in the Hebrew Bible, and a number ofthese occurrences are euphemisms for sexual intercourse. Oftentimes this is clear, but insome of the passages it may be so intended, but not clearly so:Genesis 19:32, 33, 33, 34, 34, 35, 35; 26:10; 30:15,16; 34:2 (euphemism for rape), 7;Heb Eng35:22; 39:7, 10, 12, 14; Exodus 22:15 / 16 ; Leviticus 15:24, 33; 18:22 and 20:13 (bothwith the phrase hV'ai ybeK.v.mi, “lying downs / sleepings of a woman,” describing homosexualintercourse); 19:20; 20:11, 12, 18, 20; Numbers 5:13, 19 (the phrase bK;v.yI bkov', “he willcertainly lie down / sleep / have sexual intercourse); Deuteronomy 22:22, 22, 23, 25, 25, 28,29; 27:20, 21, 22, 23; Joshua 2:1 (?); 5:27 (? See Babylonian Talmud, Yebamoth 103a,pp. 710-11 in The Soncino Talmud); 1 Samuel 2:22; 2 Samuel 11:4, 11, 12:11, 24; 13:11,14; 1 Kings 1:2 (? perhaps only for bodily warmth); Jeremiah 3:2; Ezekiel 23:8; Micah 7:5(?); Zechariah 14:2 (?); Ruth 3:4 (?), 7 (?), 8 (?) and 14 (?).The phrase [r;z

76(...continued)Leviticus 19:20, [r:z[r:z

unclean by her! 7776(...continued)beast...”; Tanakh, “Do not have carnal relations with any beast...”Leviticus 20:15, hm'Þheb.Bi AT±b.k'v. !TeóyI rv,’a] vyaiªw>, “And a man who will give hissleeping / lying down with a beast...”Numbers 5:20, -ta ‘%B' vyaiî !Te’YIw: tame_j.nI ykiäw> %veÞyai tx;T;î tyji²f' yKiî T.a;ªw>`%ve(yai ydEß[]l.B;mi( Atêb.k’v.,, literally, “And you (feminine singular) if you turned aside(from being) under your husband(‘s authority); and if you became unclean, and a mangave with you his sleeping / lying down, other than your husband.”Based on our understanding of the root “sleep / lying down” as a euphemism for sex-ualintercourse, we understand this passage, Leviticus 18:20, to be referring to a family that isunsuccessful in bearing children (due to the husband’s low sperm-count), and comes to aneighboring family, with a request for the male to be the “donor” of seed to the neighbor’s wife,enabling her to conceive and have a child, i.e., by means of a “surrogate father.” Such a practiceis forbidden by this regulation.Levine states, “The literal Hebrew formula for impregnation is ‘to place your layer ofsemen’...The offspring of an adulterous union was undoubtedly illegitimate. Apart from theimmorality of adultery, children born out of such unions were stigmatized. The prohibition ofadultery is basic to biblical law and religion. It is included in the [Ten Commandments] inExodus 20:14 and Deuteronomy 5:18, where it is associated with the commandment not tocovet one’s neighbor’s wife. The prophets of Israel were likewise very vocal in its condemnation.The act of adultery also became the basis for a widely used prophetic metaphor expressingthe poignancy of Israel’s faithlessness. According to that metaphor, it is Israel, the bride,who is wayward.” (P. 122)However we see nothing in this regulation mentioning “adultery,” or saying anythingabout the legitimacy or illegitimacy of any offspring of such a prohibited sexual union. TheHebrew word for “adultery”–@aunI / ~ypiaunI the commandment is @a"+(n>Ti al{æß--is not found inthis verse. We think the regulation contained in this verse prohibits Israelite men from beingused for breeding purposes by their infertile neighbors. Or, if the New Revised Standard’stranslation is correct, with their “kinsman’s wife...”, it would mean the prohibition of such actionwithin the family, in the event of infertility on the part of a male member of that family.What do you think? What does this have to do with modern “surrogate” parenting?What about “in vitro” fertilization?77Or, “uncleanness is in her.” It is the biblical teaching that sexual relations within thecovenant of marriage, respecting the limitations placed upon human sexuality by the Divinecommand, are “clean”; but that sexual relationships entered into outside the covenant of marriage,and outside the Divinely given limitations (such as are named in this chapter), bring with(continued...)133

18:21 ynIïa) ^yh,Þl{a/ ~veî-ta, lLe²x;t. al{ôw> %l,Mo+l; rybiä[)h;l. !TeÞti-al{ ^ï[)r>Z:mi(W78`hw")hy> And you shall not give some / any of your offspring to cause to cross over to the Molech!77(...continued)them moral “uncleanness,” or “defilement,” “impurity.”Of course, those who disregard such biblical prohibitions and limitations acknowledgeno such thing as sexual “uncleanness,” much like the adulteress as depicted in Proverbs 30:20, “...She eats, and wipes her mouth, and says, ‘I have done no wrong.’”People who are concerned for moral purity will listen to such biblical regulations withhumility and concern. If it be held that these regulations are no more than part of an ancient,outdated culture, it must be considered that the regulations–claimed to have come fromYHWH–go against not only the cultures of Egypt and Canaan, but also against the culturalinheritance of the Jewish people themselves–as shown by the fact that many of these regulationswere broken / not observed by such important Jewish religious figures as Abraham,Jacob, Reuben, Judah, David and his family, etc. See footnote 44.What do you think? Do you think it is wise for modern Christians to disregard theancient Israelites law-codes, and the biblical teachings in such passages as this (Leviticus18-20), in the so-called “holiness code”? Do you think that believers in YHWH / Jesus Christcan do as they please in their sexual relationships, disregarding these ancient “boundaries”that the Bible attributes to YHWH, given through His chosen and called judges / priests /prophets?The author of this commentary recognizes that there are numerous regulations / statutesin the biblical law-codes / teachings concerning morality that are in fact inapplicable, outdated,and in our estimation “not good”–especially some of the regulations concerning capitalpunishment. But at the same time, there are regulations / teachings contained in these ancientdocuments that are, we believe, still of critical importance for ethics / morality in our modernworld, and this is especially true for the setting of boundaries for the expression of ourhuman sexuality. The home and family in modern America is rapidly disintegrating, and thereis no greater need than for us to find a basis for stability in marriage and the family–exactlywhat these statutes / teachings in Leviticus 18-20 are giving. Again, what do you think?78The phrase %l,Mo+l; rybiä[)h;l., literally “to cause to pass over to the Molech,” callsfor interpretation.Brown-Driver-Briggs states that here it means “to devote children to a heathen God.”(P. 718). The Greek translation has dw,seij latreu,ein a;rconti, “you will give to serve aruler.” See the following passages where the verb rb[ in the hiphil (“cause to pass over”)occurs:134(continued...)

78(...continued)Genesis 8:1b,`~yIM'(h; WKvoßY"w: #r

78(...continued)where hundreds of urns have been found containing charred bones of young children...Earlierevidence of Canaanite child sacrifice is found in Egyptian reliefs of thethirteenth century B.C.E. tht show besieged Canaanite cities. As the Egyptians attack,the people of the city are engaged in a religious ceremony, praying toward heaven anddropping bodies of dead children, who had apparently been sacrificed, over the walls...Under identical circumstances King Mesha of Moab, in the ninth century B.C.E., stoodatop the walls of his embattled city and offered his son as a burnt offering in the hope ofpreventing defeat.” (P. 464) See L. E. Steger and S. R. Wolff, “Child Sacrifice at Carthage,”Biblical Archaeological Review 10/2 (January-February, 1984. For Mesha,see 2 Kings 3:26-27.Joshua 4:3, Joshua orders that twelve stones be taken up out of the Jordan, and caused topass / cross over, to be set up on the west bank; 4:8, the Israelites did so;Joshua 7:7, upon their defeat at Ai, Joshua laments and asks YHWH why He has caused theIsraelites to pass / cross over the Jordan, if they are now to be destroyed;1 Samuel 2:24, Eli tells his sons that the report he has heard being caused to pass / crossover is not good. King James, “it is no good report that I hear: ye make the LORD'Speople to transgress.” Tanakh, “It is no favorable report I hear the people of the LORDspreading about.”1 Samuel 16:8-10, Jesse causes his seven sons to cross / pass over before Samuel.2 Samuel 2:8, Abner took Ish-bosheth, and caused him to cross / pass over to Mahanaim (inGilead, on the east side of the Jordan).2 Samuel 3:10, Abner vows aSeäKi-ta, ~yqiúh'l.W lWa+v' tyBeämi hk'Þl'm.M;h; rybiî[]h;(l.`[b;v'( raeîB.-d[;w> !D"ßmi hd"êWhy>-l[;w> ‘laer"f.yI-l[; dwI©d", “to cause the kingdom topass / cross over from Saul’s house, to cause David’s throne to stand over Israek, andover Judah, from Dan and as far as Beersheba.”2 Samuel 12:13b, Nathan the prophet tells David, upon his confession of having sinned, -~G:`tWm)t' al{ï ^ßt.aJ'x; rybiî[/h, hw"±hy>, “Also YHWH caused your missing-of-the-mark/ sin to pass / cross over; you will not die.”2 Samuel 12:31, a difficult text that describes how David treated conquered people, causingthem to cross / pass over, perhaps into working in the brick-making industry.2 Samuel 19:41-42, all the people of Judah and half the people of Israel caused David to pass/ cross over the Jordan on his way back to Jerusalem following his victory over Absalom;2 Samuel 24:10, after having numbered the people, David prays, ‘an"-rb,[]h;( hw"ëhy> hT'ä[;w>^êD>b.[; !wOæ[]-ta,, “and now, YHWH, please cause Your servant’s iniquity to pass /cross over!” 1 Chronicles 21:8, same.1 Kings 15:12, It is said of King Asa, #r

78(...continued)2 Kings 16:3, It is also said of King Asa, ‘AnB.-ta, ~g:Üw> lae_r"f.yI ykeäl.m; %r ynEïy[eB. [r:±h' tAfï[]l; WrªK.m;t.YI)w: Wvxe_n:y>w:,, “and they causedtheir sons and their daughters to cross / pass over in the fire; and they divined divinations(sought to determine the future by ritual magic), and they observed signs (such asthe movement of serpents, to determine the future), and they sold themselves to dowhat is evil in YHWH’s eyes, to provoke His anger.” This passage is closely related toLeviticus 18:21 and to Deuteronomy 18:10.2 Kings 21:6, among the many evil deeds of Manasseh, !nEåA[w> vaeêB' ‘AnB.-ta, rybiÛ[/h,w>`sy[i(k.h;l. hw"ßhy> ynEïy[eB. [r:±h' tAfï[]l; hB'ªr>hi ~ynI+[oD>yIw> bAaß hf'['îw> vxeênIw>“And he caused his son to pass / cross over in the fire; and foretelling events, anddetermining the future (by such things as observing the movement of serpents), and hemade numerous necromancer(s) (people who communicate with the dead) and familiarspirits (communication with supposed friendly spirits of the dead), to do that which isevil in YHWH’s eyes, to provoke (Him).” Again, this passage is closely related toLeviticus 18:21, 2 Kings 17:17, and Deuteronomy 18:10. 2 Chronicles 33:6 issimilar.2 Kings 23:10, in his reformation based on finding the “book of the torah,” it is said that KingJosiah, among other actions, ygEåB.Ð ¿~NO=hi-ynEb. ygEåB.À rv,Þa] tp,Toêh;-ta, aMeäjiw>`%l,Mo)l; vaeÞB' AT±Bi-ta,w> AnõB.-ta, vyaiø rybi’[]h;l. yTiªl.bil. Î~NO=hi-!b,, “and hedefiled the tophet (probably meaning a cemetery for sacrificed children) which is in (the)valley of Hinnom’s son / sons, so that a man would not cause his son and his daughterto cross / pass over in the fire to the Molech.” Again, this passage is closely related toLeviticus 18:21; 2 Kings 17:17; 21:6 and Deuteronomy 18:10.Jeremiah 15:14a, T'[.d"+y" #rb;[]h;(w., “And I will cause your enemy tocross / pass over in a land you did not know,” a passage that is given varying translations,the first word of which is commonly changed to “And I will cause to serve.”Jeremiah 32:35, among the abominations charged against Judah and Jerusalem is: •Wnb.YIw:-ta,w> ~h,äynEB.-ta, rybi[]h;l.û ~NO©hi-!b, aygEåB. Ÿrv

78(...continued)places of / for the Baal, which (are) in (the) valley of Hinnom’s son, to cause their sonsand their daughters to pass / cross over to the Molech–which I did not command them,and it did not come up upon My heart--this abomination–so that I caused Judah tomiss-the-mark / sin.” Again this passage is very similar to Leviticus 18:21; 2 Kings17:17; 21:6; 23:10 and Deuteronomy 18:10.See Jeremiah 7:31, @ro±f.li ~NOëhi-!b, aygEåB. ‘rv,a] tp,Toªh; tAmåB' Wnùb'W`yBi(li-l[; ht'Þl.[' al{ïw> ytiyWIëci al{å ‘rv,a] vae_B' ~h,ÞytenOB.-ta,w> ~h,îynEB.-ta,,“And they built high-places, the tophet which (is) in Ben Hinnom’s valley, to burn theirsons and their daughters in the fire– which I did not command, and it did not come upupon My heart.”Also, Jeremiah 19:5, vaeÞB' ~h,²ynEB.-ta, @roôf.li l[;B;ªh; tAmåB'-ta, Wnùb'W`yBi(li-l[; ht'Þl.[' al{ïw> yTir>B;êdI al{åw> ‘ytiyWI’ci-al rv,Ûa] l[;B'_l; tAlå[o{), “Andthey built high places of / for the Baal, to burn their sons in the fire, offerings-up to theBaal–which I did not command, and I did not say (to do); and it did not come up uponMy heart.”Jeremiah 46:17, Pharaoh of Egypt is given the name d[e(AMh; rybiÞ[/h, !Aaêv', “‘Roar, ItCaused the Appointed Meeting / Time to Cross / Pass Over.”Ezekiel 14:15, if YHWH should cause wild beast(s) to cross / pass over through the land;Ezekiel 16:20-21, the prostitute city, Jerusalem, among other things, %yIn:ÜB'-ta, yxiúq.Tiw:¿%tenUz>T;miÀ j[;Þm.h; lAk+a/l, ~h,Þl' ~yxiîB'z>Tiw: yliê T.d>l:åy" rv,äa] ‘%yI“t;AnB.-ta,w>`~h,(l' ~t'ÞAa rybiî[]h;B. ~ynIëT.Tiw:) yn"+B'-ta, yjiÞx]v.Tiw:) `Î%yIt'(Wnz>T;miÐ, And youtook your sons and your daughters which you bore for Me, and you slaughtered themfor sacrifice, to eat, the least of your prostitutions! And you slaughtered My sons, andyou gave them in causing them to cross / pass over to them.”Ezekiel 20:25-26, Wyàx.yI) al{ï ~yjiêP'v.mi’W ~ybi_Aj al{å ~yQIßxu ~h,êl' yTit;än" ‘ynIa]-~g:w>~Meêvia] ![;m;äl. ~x;r"+ rj,P,ä-lK' rybiÞ[]h;B. ~t'êAnT.m;B. ‘~t'Aa aMeÛj;a]w" `~h,(B'`hw")hy> ynIïa] rv,Þa] W[êd.yE) rv,äa] ‘![;“m;l., “And also I, I gave to them statutes, notgood ones, and judicial decisions / judgments–they will not live by them! And I madethem unclean / defiled them by / in their gifts, in their causing to cross / pass over everyopener (of the) womb, in order to that I might ravage / appall them, in order that they willknow that I (am) YHWH.”Ezekiel 20:31a, -lk'l. ~yai’Ûm.j.nI •~T,a; vaeøB' ~k,’ynEB. •rybi[]h;B.( ~k,‡ytenO*T.m; taeäf.biW~AYëh;-d[; ‘~k,yleWL)Gi, “and in lifting up your gifts, in causing your sons / children topass over by / in the fire, you people are polluting all your idols until today.”Ezekiel 20:37, `tyrI)B.h; trb;[]h;w>“And I will cause you people to cross / pass over beneath the rod; and I will bring you(continued...)138

78(...continued)into the covenant’s bond.”Ezekiel 23:37, rv,äa] ‘!h,ynEB.-ta, ~g:Üw> Wpae_nI !h,ÞyleWL)GI-ta,w> !h,êydEyBi( ‘~d"w> WpaeªnI yKiä`hl'(k.a'l. ~h,Þl' Wrybiî[/h, yliê-Wdl.y"), “Because they were sexually immoral / adulterous,and blood (was) on their hands, and they were sexually immoral / adulterouswith their idols; and also, their sons whom they bore for Me, they caused to pass / crossover for them (their idols), to eat.”Ezekiel 37:2, YHWH caused Ezekiel to cross / pass over and around the valley full of bones;46:21; 47:3-4, similar use of the verb;Ezekiel 48:14, tyviäarE ÎrybiÞ[]y:Ð ¿rWb[]y:À al{ïw> rme²y" al{ïw> WNM,ªmi WråK.m.yI-al{w>`hw")hyl; vd`tAc)l'x]m; ^ßt.ao vBeîl.h;w> ^nv"+ tAaår>me yn:y[eâ rbeä[]h;, “Cause my eyes to cross / pass over fromseeing emptiness / vanity...”Psalm 119:39a, yTir>gO=y" rv,äa] ytiP'r>x,â rbeä[]h;, “Cause my reproach which I dread to cross/ pass over...”Job 7:21a, ynIïwOò[]-ta, rybiç[]t;w> éy[iv.pi aF'äti-al{ Ÿhm,ÛW, Job asks, “and why will You nottake up / forgive my transgression, and cause to pass / cross over my iniquity?”Ecclesiastes 11:10b, ^r

78(...continued)pass / cross over Haman the Agagite’s evil and his plans which he planned concerningthe Jews.”Daniel 11:20, fgEßAn rybiî[]m;, “one causing to pass / cross over, one pressuring.”2 Chronicles 15:8, King Asa, upon hearing the words of Azariah the prophet, qZ:©x;t.hidk;Þl' rv,îa] ~yrIê['h,ä-!miW !miêy"n>biW ‘hd"Why> #r

And you shall not defile your God’s name! I, YHWH! 7978(...continued)This biblical material seemed rather strange and bizarre until the archaeological discoveriesof large cemeteries filled with clay jars containing the corpses of children and animalshaving been sacrificed, for example, at Carthage in North Africa, to the Mother Goddess. Itwas this ancient “holocaust” of innocent children, combined with the turning of young girls intoprostitutes that led to the Divine decision to “vomit nations out” from the land of Canaan /Israel. See our comments above on Deuteronomy 18:10.Wenham states that “The charred bones of children found in a temple near Amman[Jordan], destroyed at about the time of the conquest (late bronze age), show that the pre-Israelite inhabitants of the land practiced child sacrifice.” (P. 252)79For the people of Israel to imply that genuine worship could involve the murder of innocentchildren was to defile the name of their God, YHWH. YHWH is the sworn Enemy ofsuch religion–He detests any such sacrifice. It is YHWH’s authority that stands behind thisregulation.For this phrase ^yh,Þl{a/ ~veî-ta, lLe²x;t., “you will defile your God’s name,” see:Leviticus 18:21 (here, by offering children to Molech);Leviticus 19:12 (by swearing by God’s name YHWH falsely);Leviticus 20:3, yKiÛ AM+[; brq' ~veî-ta, lLeÞx;l.W yviêD"q.mi-ta, ‘aMej; ![;m;ªl. %l,Moêl; !t;än" ‘A[r>Z:mi, “AndI, I will give / place My face on / against that man; and I will cut him off from his people’smidst–because he gave one / some of his offspring to the Molech, so as to defile /pollute My set-apart place, and to defile His set-apart name.” Compare 18:21.Leviticus 21:6a, the descendants of Aaron WlêL.x;y> al{åw> ~h,êyhel{åale ‘Wyh.yI ~yviÛdoq.~h,_yhel{a/ ~veÞ, “Set-apart men you shall be to / for your God; and you (plural) shall notdefile your God’s name...”Leviticus 22:2, Aaron’s descendants ta, WlßL.x;y> al{ïw> laeêr"f.yI-ynE)b. yveäd>Q'mi ‘Wrz>N")yIyvi_d>q' ~veä-, “shall be dedicated (to abstain) from set-apart things of Israel’s children;and they shall not defile My set-apart name!” 22:32, similar.Amos 2:7, YHWH states that His name is defiled by the Northern Israelites’ selling rightlyrelatedpeople for silver, the needy for a pair of sandals; by their trampling upon thepoor, pushing afflicted people out of the way, and by their family sexual immorality, i.e.,social and personal immorality.Jeremiah 34:16, the people of Jerusalem defiled YHWH’s name when they returned theirfreed slaves to slavery.Ezekiel 13:19, YHWH’s name has been defiled among His people by those who, for handfulsof barley and pieces of bread (i.e., corrupt judges) put innocent people to death, and(continued...)141

18.22 àwhi( hb'Þ[eAT hV'_ai ybeäK.v.mi bK;Þv.ti al{ï rk'êz"-ta,’w> And you (singular)80 81shall not lie down / sleep with a male, lyings down / sleepings of a woman –it is an79(...continued)keeps alive persons who should be put to death.Ezekiel 20:39, YHWH tells the idol-worshipers to go ahead and worship, but to quit defilingHis name with their gifts, as they refuse to listen to Him.Ezekiel 36:20, 21, 22, 23, YHWH God’s name defiled by Israel’s disobedience that has led toher being driven out of the land, and going into captivity.Malachi 1:12 , the Israelites defile YHWH’s name by calling His table polluted, and “a weariness.”Psalm 74:7, evidently in the Babylonian invasion of Judah and Jerusalem, -!K;v.mi( WlïL.xi`^m,(v., “they defiled Your name’s dwelling-place.”76.80For the use of “sleep / lie down” as a euphemism for sexual intercourse, see footnote81The phrase is hV'_ai ybeäK.v.mi bK;Þv.ti al{ï rk'êz"-ta,’w>, literally “and with a male,you (singular) shall not lie down / sleep, lyings-down / sleepings of a woman.”King James, “Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination.”Tanakh, “Do not lie with a male as one lies with a woman; it is an abhorrence.”New Revised Standard, “You shall not lie with a male as with a woman.”New International, “Do not lie with a man as one lies with a woman; that is detestable.”The New Jerusalem Bible, “You will not have intercourse with a man as you would with awoman.”Living Bible, “Homosexuality is absolutely forbidden.”Greek: kai. meta. a;rsenoj ouv koimhqh,sh| koi,thn gunaiko,j bde,lugma ga,r evstin, “And witha male your shall not sleep–a marriage-bed / sexual intercourse of a woman, for it isdisgusting.”footnote 76.For the use of the noun bK;v.mi, “couch,” “bed,” with sexual implications elsewhere, seeLeviticus 20:13 very similar to 18:22--hV'êai ybeäK.v.mi ‘rk'z"-ta, bK;Ûv.yI rv,’a) vyaiªw>Wfß[' hb'î[eAT, “and a man who lies down / sleeps with a male, lyings down /sleepingsof a woman, an abomination they did”;(continued...)142

81(...continued)Numbers 31:17, 18, 35 (the phrase is rk'Þz" bK;îv.mi,“lying down of a male (for sexual intercourse)”;Judges 21:11, 12 (same phrase as in Numbers 31);Ezekiel 23:17 (the phrase is ~ydIêDo bK;äv.mi, literally “lying down of loves.”Of course, males are physically able to engage in sexual intercourse with males, orfemales are able to engage in sexual intercourse with females. See Paul’s statements in:Romans 1:26-27, where Paul states that because human beings exchanged the truth of Godfor a lie, Dia. tou/to pare,dwken auvtou.j o` qeo.j eivj pa,qh avtimi,aj( ai[ te ga.r qh,leiaiauvtw/n meth,llaxan th.n fusikh.n crh/sin eivj th.n para. fu,sin( o`moi,wj te kai. oià;rsenej avfe,ntej th.n fusikh.n crh/sin th/j qhlei,aj evxekau,qhsan evn th/| ovre,xeiauvtw/n eivj avllh,louj( a;rsenej evn a;rsesin th.n avschmosu,nhn katergazo,menoi kai.th.n avntimisqi,an h]n e;dei th/j pla,nhj auvtw/n evn eàutoi/j avpolamba,nontej,“For this reason the God handed them over to dishonorable / shameful passion /desire–for both the females / women of theirs exchanged the natural / physical usage /function for that which is against / contrary to nature. In like manner also the males,leaving the natural / physical usage / function of the female, burned / were inflamed intheir longing / desire for one another, males with males practicing the disgraceful /shameful deed, and receiving in themselves the consequence / recompense which wasnecessary for their error / going astray.”1 Corinthians 6:9-11, "H ouvk oi;date o[ti a;dikoi qeou/ basilei,an ouv klhronomh,sousinÈ mh.plana/sqe\ ou;te po,rnoi ou;te eivdwlola,trai ou;te moicoi. ou;te malakoi. ou;te avrsenokoi/taiou;te kle,ptai ou;te pleone,ktai( ouv me,qusoi( ouv loi,doroi( ouvc a[rpagejbasilei,an qeou/ klhronomh,sousinÅ kai. tau/ta, tinej h=te\ avlla. avpelou,sasqe( avlla.h`gia,sqhte( avlla. evdikaiw,qhte evn tw/| ovno,mati tou/ kuri,ou VIhsou/ Cristou/ kai. evntw/| pneu,mati tou/ qeou/ h`mw/nÅ“Or do you people not know that unjust / wrongly-related people will not inheritGod’s kingdom? Don’t go astray / lead astray. Neither male prostitutes / sexuallyimmoral men, nor idolaters, nor those who are sexually unfaithful to spouses, nor soft /effeminate men, nor homosexuals / ‘male-bedders,’ nor thieves, not greedy people, nordrunkards, no / not abusive people, not rapacious people / robbers, will inherit God’skingdom! And these, some (of you people) were. But you washed yourselves, but youwere set-apart, but you were made rightly-related, in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ,and in the Spirit of the God of ours!Human beings are not only able to engage in homosexual relationships; they are alsoable to engage in sexual intercourse with animals (see the next verse, Leviticus 18:23, or withclose relatives, fathers or mothers, brothers or sisters, aunts or uncles, or grandfathers, etc.,as described in 18:6-18). But to do so, while acceptable in the cultures surrounding Israel, is(continued...)143

82abomination!81(...continued)simply and emphatically not acceptable with YHWH God and His regulations given to enableto “be holy / set-apart as He is holy / set-apart.”The biblical description of the Divinely ordained sexual relationship is that betweenmale and female–see Genesis 1:26-28 and 2:18-25, both of which passages were referred toby Jesus as depicting the Divinely intended relationship in marriage–see Mark 10:2-12; Matthew19:3-12 and Luke 16:18. We may not like this; we may reject it as out-dated superstition;we may claim that those who continue to teach such biblical material are “politically incorrect”;but none of these objections can change the biblical teaching, which is all that we areseeking to deal with in this study. Perhaps our personal experience, or our study of humansexuality persuades us that the biblical teaching is out-dated and wrong–but that does notchange what this passage or the passages from Romans and 1 Corinthians state so clearlyand emphatically.Deborah Lein has taken exception to this, stating that this study has not dealt thoroughlywith various modes of reaching orgasm, and that is correct–the biblical materials do notdo so, and our study is an attempt to determine what the Bible itself teaches, without attemptingto go into all the various nuances of modern (and ancient) sexual practices. Deborah alsocriticizes the study by saying that it contains “no wrestling, no inquiry,” but “reaches the endbefore we even started discussion.” However, it was not, and is not, the intention of the authorof this study of Leviticus 18-20 to do anything other than understand the biblical text. Theauthor assumes that those studying this material are likewise equally concerned to know andunderstand what the biblical text is teaching. For some, the biblical teaching is enough toconvince them concerning their conclusions with regard to “alternative life-styles.” For others,it will not be convincing, and they will draw their conclusions on the basis of modern psychologyor sexology, without treating the biblical teaching as determinative.It is our conviction that those who come to the biblical teaching in humility, acknowledgingour weakness and great need of guidance, will realize how important it is for our covenantrelationship with God to “clean up our sexual act,” and adapt our practices accordingly, refusingto let modern culture be determinative for us.Those who seek guidance from the biblical teaching, will be warned against the inherentdangers of homosexuality, and will be hesitant to enter into any homosexual relationship–choosing a lifetime of chastity if that is necessary.What do you think?82The hb'î[eAT means “an abomination,” “something abominable.” This noun occurssome 118 times in the Hebrew Bible. See:Genesis 43:32, ~D"êb;l. ‘ATai ~yliÛk.aoh' ~yrIúc.Mil;w> ~D"+b;l. ~h,äl'w> ADßb;l. Al± WmyfiîY"w:(continued...)144

82(...continued)awhiÞ hb'î[eAt-yKi ~x,l,ê ‘~yrIb.[ih'(-ta, lkoÜa/l, ~yrIªc.Mih; !Wl÷k.Wy al{’ •yKi`~yIr")c.mil., “And they they served him (Joseph) by himself, and for them by themselves;and for the Egyptians, the one eating with him by themselves; because theEgyptians will not be able to eat bread / food with the Hebrews, because it is anabomination for Egyptians.”Genesis 46:34, Joseph tells his brothers to tell Pharaoh, ‘^y“dnI ~yIr:êc.mi`Wnlu(q.s.yI al{ïw>, “It is not right to do so–because we will slaughter for sacrifice toYHWH our God an abomination (to) Egyptians–look, we will slaughter for sacrifice anabomination (to) Egyptians, before their eyes–and will they not stone us?”These first three passages are all “cultural” abominations, describing things thatthe Egyptians considered “abominable,” but which Jews considered sacred.Leviticus 18:22, here, àwhi( hb'Þ[eAT hV'_ai ybeäK.v.mi bK;Þv.ti al{ï rk'êz"-ta,’w>, “And with amale you (singular) shall not lie down / sleep (euphemism for sexual intercourse, seefootnote 78)–lyings down / sleepings of a woman–it (is) an abomination.” Nothing issaid here concerning the cultural practices of Egyptians, Canaanites, or Jews–it issimply forbidden for a man to have sex with another man as with a woman.Leviticus 18:26, lKoïmi Wfê[]t; al{åw> yj;êP'v.mi-ta,w> ‘yt;Qoxu-ta, ~T,ªa; ~T,är>m;v.W`~k,(k.AtB. rG"ïh; rGEßh;w> xr"êz>a,h'( hL,ae_h' tboß[eATh;, “And you people shall keep /observe My statutes and My commandments; and you shall not do any of theseabominations–the native born (Israelite), and the temporary resident, the one residingtemporarily in your midst.” There is a “clash of cultures”–the people of YHWH must liveby His torah / teaching, and not allow their lives / decisions to be determined by thesurrounding cultures–whether of the Egyptians or the Canaanites, or even of their forefathers!18:27-30, all who practice these abominations will be vomited out of the land!Leviticus 20:13, homosexuality again described as abominable, with the judicial-decision ofcapital punishment: `~B'( ~h,îymeD> Wtm'ÞWy tAmï ~h,_ynEv. Wfß[' hb'î[eAT, “(the) twoof them did an abomination; they shall surely be put to death; their blood is on them.”What do you think? If you hold that the biblical prohibition of homosexuality isstill important and to be respected by modern believers, what about this sentence ofcapital punishment? Do you think it is equally important, and to followed by modernlegislators? For our part, we think the biblical placing of boundaries on the expressions(continued...)145

82(...continued)of human sexuality is a very good and needed teaching, designed for the protection ofthe home and family; but the decision for capital punishment of offenders is “not good”(an example of what Ezekiel 20:25 means), and such judicial-decisions made byIsraelite law-givers are the kind of decisions that Ezekiel 20:25 means when it says “hewill not live by them.”See also:Deuteronomy 7:25-26, the gold and silver of the idols is an abomination to YHWH your God.Deuteronomy 12:31, rv,äa] hw"÷hy> tb;’[]AT-lK' •yKi ^yh,_l{a/ hw"ßhyl; !keê hf,ä[]t;-al{vaeÞb' Wpïr>f.yI ~h,êytenOæB.-ta,w> ‘~h,ynEB.-ta, ~g:Ü yKiä ~h,êyhel{åale ‘Wf[' anE©f'`~h,(yhel{ale(, “You people shall not do like this to / for the YHWH your God (i.e., worshipYHWH like the surrounding nations worship their Gods), because every abominationof YHWH which He hates, they do to / for their Gods; because also / even theirsons and their daughters they burn in the fire for / to their Gods!”Heb EngDeuteronomy 13:15 / 14 , a city in Israel that has proposed worshiping other Gods is anabomination. 17:4, similar.Deuteronomy 14:3, Israel is forbidden from eating any animal that is an abomination; they arenamed in verses 7-8, 10, 12-19 and 21. And we ask, if pork and cat-fish are describedas “abominations” in this text, shall modern Christians consider them as such? Howshould we understand these prohibitions in the light of Genesis 1:1-2:3, which declareseverything that God has created is “very good”? Did God create “abominations”? Andhow can we understand the New Testament’s depiction of Jesus as declaring all foods“clean” in Mark 7, and the story of Peter’s vision in Acts 10?And we ask further, If this prohibition is not to be considered applicable orrelevant to Christians, why should we consider the prohibition of homosexuality as applicableor relevant? It seems obvious to us that the matter of abominable foods isrejected in the biblical texts, both Hebrew Bible and Greek New Testament, while thematter of homosexuality if uniformly forbidden not only by the Hebrew Bible but by theGreek New Testament as well. What do you think?Deuteronomy 17:1, slaughtering for sacrifice a blemished ox or sheep is an abomination.Deuteronomy 18:9, when Israel enters the promised land, they are not to learn to do / practicethe abominations of those nations formerly living there. 18:12, anyone who doesany of those abominations becomes an abomination himself! 20:18, if they practicethese abominations, they will miss-the-mark / sin against YHWH their God.Deuteronomy 22:5, hV'_ai tl;äm.fi rb,G hV'êai-l[; ‘rb,g

82(...continued)Heb EngDeuteronomy 23:18-19 / 17-18 , hy lae_rf.yI tAnæB.mi hv'ÞdEq. hy ynEåp.li awhiÞ hb'î[eAt-yKi( ha'M'êJ;hu rv,äa] ‘yrEx]a; hV'ªail. Alå tAyõh.li`hl'(x]n: ^ßl. !teînO ^yh,êl{a/ hw"åhy> ‘rv,a] #r, “her firsthusband who sent her away shall not be able to return, to take her to belong to him fora wife after that she was defiled; because it is an abomination before YHWH; and youshall not cause the land to miss-the-mark / sin, which YHWH your God is giving to you(singular) (as an) inheritance.”Deuteronomy 25:16, concerning people who use dishonest weights and measures, it is said`lw tb;ä[]AT hk'øSem;W ls,p,’ •hf,[]y: rv,äa] vyai‡h' rWråa'rt,S'_B; ~f'äw> vr"ßx' ydEïy> hfe²[]m;, “Cursed (is) the man who will make an idol and ametal image–an abomination (to) YHWH–product of an engraver’s hands; and he willset (it up) in the secret(-place)...”Deuteronomy 32:16, it is said of Jeshurun / Northern Israel, tboß[eAtB. ~yrI+z"B. WhauÞnIq.y:`Whsu(y[ik.y:, “they made Him (YHWH) jealous with foreign (God)s; with abominationsthey provoked Him.”see:These are all the occurrences in the Torah, or “Five Books of Moses.” Beyond these1 Kings 14:24, male temple prostitution, and all the abominations of the nations YHWH haddriven out from the land.2 Kings 16:3, it is said of King Manasseh, ~yIëAGh; ‘tAb[]to)K vaeêB' rybiä[/h, ‘AnB.-ta,., hecaused his son to pass / cross over in the fire, according to abominations of thenations.” 21:2, similar; 21:11, he was worse than the Amorites before him.(continued...)147

82(...continued)Isaiah 1:13, worship without social justice; here, incense in particular.Isaiah 41:24, those who choose to worship idols.Isaiah 44:19, a hand-made idol. Jeremiah 16:18; Ezekiel 6:9, 11; 7:3, 4, 8, 9, 20; 14:6;43:8, similar;Jeremiah 2:7, the Land of Israel has been transformed by its Israelite inhabitants into anabomination in YHWH’s eyes.Jeremiah 6:15, greedy for unjust gain and false dealings, the Israelites Wf+[' hb'Þ[eAt havemade an abomination. 8:12, same.Jeremiah 7:10, the actions of the Israelites, specifically stealing, murder, sexual immorality,false swearing, offerings to Baal, and going after other Gods than YHWH are all lumpedtogether as “abominable things.”Jeremiah 32:35, offering of children in the Valley of Hinnom to Molech; same as Leviticus18:21, 20:2-5.Jeremiah 44:4, serving other Gods than YHWH.Jeremiah 44:22, making offerings to YHWH but not obeying His voice.Ezekiel 5:9, 11, Judah has been following the regulations of the nations around them, ratherthan YHWH’s regulations.Ezekiel 8:6, 6, 9, 13, 15, 17, worshiping all kinds of creeping things and loathsome animals;women weeping for Tammuz (the dying and rising Babylonian God, who was believedto have been followed by the Mother Goddess Ishtar into the world of the dead, toattempt to achieve his release, thereby enabling fertility in the spring.Ezekiel 9:4, general statement concerning Judah’s abominations. 11:18, 21; 12:16, similar.Ezekiel 16:2, 22, 36, 43, 47, 50, 51, 51, 58, a general term for Judah’s idolatry and sexualprostitution against her husband YHWH, worse than the abominations of Samaria andSodom, her sister-prostitutes.Ezekiel 18:12, 13, 24, a general term included alongside violence, murder, eating upon themountains (in idolatrous worship), defiling a neighbor’s wife; oppression of the poor andneedy, robbery, not restoring a pledge, dishonesty with regards to interest gained; 20:4;22:2, 11, general term included alongside murder, idolatry, treating parents with contempt,extorting from aliens living in the land, wronging orphans and widows, despisingset-apart things, violating the day of rest, slandering others in order to murder them,sexual immorality (based on violation of the distinctions made in Leviticus 18), takingbribes to murder, dishonesty in accrual of interest, making gain from neighbor by extortion;23:36, sexual immorality, idolatry; 33:26, 29, idolatry, murder, dependence uponthe sword, defiling of neighbor’s wife; 36:31, general term.Ezekiel 44:6, 7, 13, Israel’s admitting foreigners, uncircumcised in heart and flesh, into thetemple.Malachi 2:11, idolatry, “marrying the daughter of a foreign God.”Psalm 88:9, the Psalmist complains that YHWH has made him an abomination to his companions.Proverbs 3:32, violent people in YHWH’s sight.Proverbs 6:16, 16, seven things that are abominations to YHWH: haughty eyes, lying tongue,hands that shed innocent blood, a heart that devises wicked plans, feet that run to do(continued...)148

82(...continued)evil, a lying witness, one who sows discord in a family.Proverbs 8:7, wickedness, [v;r

82(...continued)People who cry out against the homosexual as “an abomination to the Lord” should thinkcarefully concerning their own life, and whether or not they too may be described as such–forexample, if they speak untruths, or if they are dishonest in business transactions, or if they joinin public worship while not honestly seeking for social justice; or if they are guilty of oppressionof the poor, the dishonoring of parents, being haughty, telling lies, oppressing aliens / emigrants,or the poor and needy, specifically widows and orphans, or dishonoring the one day inseven as a day of rest, or sowing discord in families.The fact is, there are very few people in society today who are not guilty in one or moreof these areas, and especially when we consider the teaching of Jesus, “be perfect as God isperfect” (Matthew 5:48). Instead of being quick to condemn others–as the Pharisees in Hisday so often did, we need to reach out to others, especially to those in trouble, to help eachother to live up to the high biblical standards of life that is pleasing to YHWH / Jesus Christ.We do not need to stand in proud condemnation over others that we have arbitrarily selectedout from these many examples, to hurl accusations and condemnations against them–which iswhat so often happens in gender-based sex crimes.The biblical story of Abraham, depicts him during the conflagration of Sodom andGomorrah, as being engaged in earnest prayer to and negotiations with YHWH for thedeliverance of those cities (Genesis 18:22-33), and depicts him as having earlier risked hisown welfare in order to engage in military action to defend those very people (Genesis 14:1-16). If we ask, Did Abraham ever confront the people of Sodom and Gomorrah about theiractions that were leading to Divine destruction, our answer must be that there is no indicationin the Bible that he did. 2 Peter 2:6-7 states that “righteous Lot” was “tormented” (kataponou,menon)by their behavior, but says nothing concerning his “witnessing” or “preaching” tothem.When we are surrounded by unbelievers and people who choose to disregard YHWH’s/ Jesus Christ’s teaching concerning morality, rather than preaching to them concerning theirwickedness, we should be constantly in prayer on their behalf, and be willing to defend themwhen they are in trouble–as Abraham did. What about Jesus? Was He a fiery preacher ofcondemnation to the prostitutes, tax-collectors and sinners? He welcomed them into Hispresence, ate with them, and taught them when they were willing to listen to Him. But whetherthey did or not, He went to the cross on their behalf, dying for them and for welcoming theminto His fellowship. His sharpest words of condemnation were not for them, but for the religiousleaders of Israel, who proudly stood in condemnation of them (see Matthew 23).The biblical teaching is that those who love and honor the Creator must seek in everyway possible to “think His thoughts after Him”–i.e., to love what He loves, and in humble penitenceto turn away from those things or ways of life that are abominable to Him. When weseek to do this, we will quit our proud condemnation of others, and will instead reach out tothem in loving compassion–just as Abraham did, and as Jesus did to all people in His society,especially to those considered “untouchables.”150(continued...)

18.23 ynEôp.li dmoú[)t;-al{) hV'ªaiw> Hb'_-ha'm.j'l. ^ßT.b.k'v. !Teîti-al{ hm'²heB.-lk'b.WàWh) lb,T,î H['Þb.rIl. hm'²heb. And with every / any animal, you shall not give your lying down /83 84 85sleeping, for uncleanness (is) in it. And a woman shall not stand before an animal, for lying82(...continued)For an excellent picture of Jesus’ attitude towards a woman condemned by the scribes /religious experts and Pharisees as guilty of sexual immorality (one of the Hebrew Bible’s“abominations”) is found in John 8:3-11. The Jewish leaders wanted Jesus to condemn thewoman, but Jesus refused to do so, and told the woman that he didn’t condemn her, but urgedher to go and miss-the-mark / sin no more.What do you think? What is your attitude towards homosexuals?83Again, see footnote 78 for this matter of “sleeping / lying down” as a euphemism forsexual intercourse.84That is, even though it is physically possible for human beings to have sexual intercoursewith animals, or “beasts” (the Greek has tetra,poun, “four-footed one,” it is contrary tothe will of YHWH, and the person desiring to be pleasing to YHWH must never become sexuallyinvolved with animals (“bestiality” or “zoophilia”). See also:Heb EngExodus 22:18 / 19 , `tm'(Wy tAmï hm'ÞheB.-~[i bkeîvo-lK', “Everyone / anyone sleeping/ lying down with an animal shall certainly be put to death!”Leviticus 20:15, 16, hm'ÞheB.h;-ta,w tm'_Wy tAmå hm'Þheb.Bi AT±b.k'v. !TeóyI rv,’a] vyaiªw>-ta, T'îg>r:h'w> Ht'êao h['äb.rIl. ‘hm'heB.-lK'-la, br:Üq.Ti rv,’a] hV'ªaiw> `Wgro)h]T;>`~B'( ~h,îymeD> Wtm'ÞWy tAmï hm'_heB.h;-ta,w> hV'Þaih', “And any one who will give hislying down / sleeping with an animal, shall surely be put to death; and the animal, youpeople shall kill. And a woman who will draw near to any animal for lying down (a differentword, h['äb.rIl.) with it–and you (singular) shall kill the woman and the animal,they shall surely be put to death; their blood is on them!”Deuteronomy 27:21a, hm'_heB.-lK'-~[i bkeÞvo rWr§a', “Cursed (is) one sleeping / lyingdown with any animal!”We are reminded of the story of Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which this powerfulrival to, and later close friend of Gilgamesh, originally lives and consorts with the animals,until he lives with a human prostitute for seven days and nights, thereby becoming fully human.(continued...)151

84(...continued)The use of animals in sexual ways was a prominent feature of the worship of the nationssurrounding Israel, in which the Mother Goddess is routinely pictured as riding on theback of, or surrounded by, animals.Wenham comments that “Bestiality (verse 23) is also known from Egyptian, Canaanite,and Hittite sources. There was a cult in the eastern delta that involved the cohabitation ofwomen and goats. Indeed Ramses II, possibly the pharaoh of the exodus, claimed to be theoffspring of the God Ptah, who took the form of a goat. Ugaritic texts speak of Gods copulatingwith animals. The Hittite laws (about 1500 B.C.) legislate against certain forms of bestialitywhile permitting others.” (P. 252) See the following from “The Hittite Laws,” in James B.Pritchard’s Ancient Near Eastern Texts, pp. 188-97:If a man does evil with a head of cattle, it is a capital crime and he shall bekilled. They bring him to the King’s court. Whether the King orders him killed, orwhether the King spares his life, he must not appeal to the King. (# 187)If anyone does evil with a pig, (or) a dog, he shall die. They will bring them tothe gate of the palace and the King may order them killed, the King may spare theirlives; but he must not appeal to the King... (# 199)If a man does evil with a horse or a mule, there shall be no punishment. Hemust not appeal to the King nor shall he become a case for the priest. If anyonesleeps with a foreign (woman) and (also) with her mother or (her) si(ster), there willbe no punishment. (# 200)Keil and Delitzsch comment that “Lying with animals was connected in Egypt with theworship of the goat; at Mendes especially, where the women lay down before he-goats (Herodotus,2, 46; Strabo, Geographica 17, p. 802). Claudius Aelianus (De Natura Animalum,vii.19) relates an account of the crime being also committed with a dog in Rome; and accordingto [Charles-Nicolas-Sigisbert Sonnini de Manoncourt (1751-1812) a French naturalist whowrote 127 volumes of the Histoire naturelle. In his writing concerning reptiles, 11, p. 330,states that “in modern Egypt men are said to lie even with female crocodiles.” (P. 418) Onthe Internet, see Wikepedia’s article on zoophilia (“love of animals”).85Levine notes that “This is the only instance in chapter 18 where a commandment isaddressed to the woman. Elsewhere in the laws the second person masculine singular formof address is consistently employed [we think that here, the address is to Israel, the Nation,not to an individual woman]. Here, the statement speaks, as well, of what a woman may notdo. In ancient Israel women would have had little access to men on their own initiative, butwould have had the opportunity to engage in bestiality with animals if they chose to [we ask,would that not be even more true of men?].” (P. 123)152(continued...)

86 87down / sleeping / sexual intercourse –it is confusion.85(...continued)The Keil and Delitzsch commentary holds that “All these laws are intended for the manalone, and addressed expressly to him...” (P. 414), which obviously overlooks this verse 18b,and which does not consider the fact that women as well as men were part of “Israel.”For the constant imagery of animals in connection with the Mother Goddesses in theAncient Near East see James B. Pritchard’s The Ancient Near East in Pictures, pp. 160-91.86Whereas in verse 22 the euphemism is hV'_ai ybeäK.v.mi bK;Þv.ti al{ï, “you shall notlie down / sleep, lyings down / lyings down / sleepings of a woman,” here the euphemism isworded slightly differently: ^ßT.b.k'v. !Teîti-al{, “you shall not give your lying down / sleeping.”87Here, the noun is lb,T,î, from ll;B', “mingle,” “mix,” “confuse,” and which means “con-fusion” or perhaps “obscurity.” Brown-Driver-Briggs states that it means “confusion, violationof nature, or the Divine order.” (P. 117b).Levine comments that “The sense is that sexual activity between man (we would say‘human’) and beast is a forbidden ‘mixture’ of the species.” (P. 123)For the two occurrences of this noun in the Hebrew Bible, see:Leviticus 18:23 (here), al{) hV'ªaiw> Hb'_-ha'm.j'l. ^ßT.b.k'v. !Teîti-al{ hm'²heB.-lk'b.WàWh) lb,T,î H['Þb.rIl. hm'²heb. ynEôp.li dmoú[]t;-, “And with any beast / animal youshall not give your lying down / sleep to become unclean by it; and a woman shall notstand before a beast / animal for lying it down (a different word, [b;r', ‘lie stretchedout,’ another euphemism for sexual intercourse)–it is confusion.”The Greek translation is: kai. pro.j pa/n tetra,poun ouv dw,seij th.n koi,thn soueivj spermatismo.n evkmianqh/nai pro.j auvto, kai. gunh. ouv sth,setai pro.j pa/ntetra,poun bibasqh/nai musero.n ga,r evstin, “And to / towards any / every four-footed(animal) you shall not give the marriage-bed / sexual intercourse of yours for insemination,to be defiled to / towards it; and a woman / wife shall you stand to / towards anyfour-footed (animal) to be mounted–it is defilement / detestable.”Leviticus 20:12, Wfß[' lb,T,î ~h,_ynEv. Wtßm.Wy tAmï AtêL'K;-ta, ‘bK;v.yI rv,Ûa] vyaiªw>`~B'( ~h,îymeD>, “And a man who will lie down / sleep with his daughter-in-law–they shallcertainly be put to death, (the) two of them. They did confusion. Their blood is onthem.”153(continued...)

18.24 ynIïa)-rv,a) ~yIëAGh; Waåm.j.nI ‘hL,“ae-lk'b. yKiÛ hL,ae_-lk'B. WaßM.J;Ti(-la;`~k,(ynEP.mi x;LeÞv;m. You people shall not defile yourselves in all these (ways); because in all88these (ways) the nations are defiled which I am sending out from before you. 18.25 am'äj.Tiw:87(...continued)The Greek translation is: kai. eva,n tij koimhqh/| meta. nu,mfhj auvtou/ qana,tw|qanatou,sqwsan avmfo,teroi hvsebh,kasin ga,r e;nocoi, eivsin, “And if anyone should liedown / sleep with his daughter-in-law, they shall certainly be put to death, both (ofthem); for they have acted impiously / irreverently; they are guilty.”88Verses 24-28 tell why YHWH punished the Canaanites–it was because of their murderof innocent children, and their making sacred prostitutes of their sons and daughters--andYHWH warns Israel that they will suffer the same consequences if they adapt the sexualpractices of the Canaanites.Human beings have to make decisions about their personal lives and relationships,especially their human sexuality, and their sexual relationships. We can keep our lives (andour families) “pure” and “undefiled,” “clean”; or we can make ourselves “impure,” and we canfill our minds and our bodies with immorality and filth–in no relationship more so than in oursexual thoughts and practices. We can make choices that lead to sexually transmitted disases,even to the dreaded HIV Aids, as so many homosexuals have learned to their dismay.We are not helpless victims of our immoral surrounding culture, nor of our genetic heritage;we are deeply influenced by them, but we are also responsible for what we do with them.We may live in a culture that says “anything goes sexually,” as the country-western songadvises, “If it feels good, do it!” It may be objected that this is a “straw man,” but for thisauthor, long experience in ministry among the military and broken families plus training in anational prison confirms it. How often the author of this study has heard the husband or wifewho has broken their family by adultery claim “but I was in love, I couldn’t help it.”But, we insist, even if our culture claims this, and even if we feel that “being in love”justifies it, that does not mean that we have to live that way. We may have a genetic predispositionto addiction, or to cancer, or to having sex with children (“pedophilia”)–but that does notmean that we should not do everything in our power to fight against and overcome that geneticinheritance. We may feel that we are “in love”–but that does not mean we cannot say “No!” toimmoral sexual relationships.We are reminded of the warnings given by “Lady Wisdom” to young people in Proverbs,especially in chapters 1-9. See especially 2:16-19; 5:3-23; 6:23-35; 7:1-27; 9:13-18,with their graphic warnings of the end result of sexual immorality. The modern person caughtup in sexual immorality, resulting in a broken family, or in sexually transmitted diseases, orwho is in prison for sexual abuse of children, can well wish that earlier in life these passages(continued...)154

89`h'yb,(v.yO-ta, #r

90 91 92I visited her wrong upon her; and the earth vomited out its inhabitants. 18.26 ~T,är>m;v.W90That YHWH God “visits” to punish national immorality is a common motif in the HebrewBible, beginning with the story of the flood in Genesis 6-9, and continuing with the storyof the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis 18-19. Deborah Lein compares, in theNew Testament, Matthew 25:31-46. For this phrase, h'yl,_[' Hn"ßwO[ dqoïp.a,w"), “and I visitedher iniquity (or ‘guilt’) upon her,” see such passages as the following:Exodus 20:5, I, I (am) YHWH your God, a jealous God, visiting iniquity of fathers uponsons...”) 34:7, same. Numbers 14:18; Deuteronomy 5:9, both the same.Leviticus 18:25, here; YHWH visits iniquity upon the land.2 Samuel 3:8, `~AY*h; hV'Þaih' !wOð[] yl;²[' dqoïp.Tiw;, Abner charges Ishbaal, “and you visitedupon me iniquity of the woman today!”, with reference to his having sex with Saul’sconcubine).Isaiah 13:11, YHWH will visit evil upon the inhabited earth and upon wicked people--in anoracle concerning Babylon.Isaiah 26:21, YHWH comes out from His place to visit iniquity upon earth’s inhabitant(s), andthe earth will uncover its blood, and will no longer cover up its murders.Jeremiah 25:12, after seventy years, YHWH will visit Babylon, its land and its King, for theiriniquity.Jeremiah 36:31, Jeremiah predicts that the iniquity of Jehoiakim and his sons and their servantswill be visited.Amos 2:2, YHWH has known Israel in a special way from all the earth’s clans; therefore Hewill visit upon it all their iniquities.Psalm 89:33, King David’s sons who sit upon the throne will be visited for their iniquity.Lamentations 4:22, the punishment of “daughter Zion’s” iniquity is completed; YHWH will visit“daughter Edom’s” iniquity and missings-of-the-mark upon her.The visitation of punishment upon lands and cities is one of the major themes of theBook of Revelation.91For use of the verb ayqi, “vomit up, spew out” in the Hebrew Bible, see:Leviticus 18:25, here; the land is personified as “vomiting out”), 28, 28 and 20:22, same;Jeremiah 25:27, the nations are told to drink from the cup of YHWH’s wrath, get drunk, andvomit.Heb EngJonah 2:11 / 10 , the large fish vomits Jonah out upon dry land.Job 20:15, wicked people swallow riches and then vomit them up again.Proverbs 23:8, the one who eats the bread of the stingy will vomit it up.The Greek translation here in Leviticus 18:25 reads prosw,cqisen, “was enraged at,”dropping the vomiting metaphor.(continued...)156

91(...continued)Levine comments that “Those who violate the code of family life commit an outrage thatdefiles the land–which, in turn, will spew them out. This is, of course, one way of explainingthe exile of a people from its land, a threat intrinsic to chapter 18. It is as though the land,personified, is angered by its defilement at man’s hand.” (P. 123)We think that this teaching enables us to form a biblical “philosophy of history” whichsees the great “Lord of History” causing the rise and fall of nations on the basis of moral behavior.What do you think? What is your “philosophy of history”? And if you ask, “Why dothwicked nations prevail,” consider the history of the 20 century as to whether in the long runthe wicked nations of Hitler’s Third Reich, or Stalin’s Soviet Communism, or Hirohito’s Japanprevailed.92It is to be observed that in this statement, the standpoint is that of a later time thanthat of Moses; the nations inhabiting the promised land have been or were “vomited out.”Older commentators like J. G. Murphy, holding that Moses wrote every word in the Pentateuch,described such statements as instances of the “prophetic perfect”–but this is unnecessary,since there are many statements and regulations in the Five Books of Moses thatreflect a later time than that of Moses–compare especially Deuteronomy 34:10-12, with itsdescription of Moses’ death, the rise of Joshua to take his place, and the comment that such aprophet as Moses had not arisen since.One of the most difficult questions raised in modern study of the Bible has to do withthe matter of YHWH God’s leading the Israelite Nation into the Land of Canaan, and callingthem to drive out the former inhabitants with armed might (to “exterminate” them)--but it is tobe kept in mind that the first incident in that “Holy War” is the story of how a prostitute by thename of Rahab was spared from destruction, and she and her family became an integral partof Israel, because of their changing allegiance to the God of Israel.The question is, How can this be right? How can YHWH God, the author of the TenCommandments, with its “you shall not kill,” lead His chosen people into a war of exterminationagainst the nations inhabiting Palestine before the coming of Israel?The answer given by biblical theology is clear: YHWH had waited for generations, until“the iniquity of the Amorites” (this name standing for all the pre-Israelite nations) was “full” or“complete” (see Genesis 15:13; so also, Levine, p. 124). What was the nature of that “iniquity”?It was the wholesale murder of children, in fact, an ancient “holocaust,” as their bodieswere being offered up to Deity as human sacrifices; it was the sexual immorality of their fertilityreligions, in which both young girls and boys were used as sacred prostitutes; it was the destructionof the home, with its God-ordained security for, and purity of, sexual relationships, thatwas the cause for this coming of judgment, at the close of 400 years, as YHWH God acted inhistory to judge the immorality of the pre-Israelite nations.157(continued...)

GEßh;w> xr"êz>a,h'( hL,ae_h' tboß[eATh; lKoïmi Wfê[)t; al{åw> yj;êP'v.mi-ta,w> ‘yt;Qoxu-ta, ~T,ªa;93`~k,(k.AtB. rG"ïh; And you people shall keep My statutes and My judicial decisions; and you94 95people shall not do any of these abominations –the native, and the temporary resident, the one92(...continued)And, no sooner did Israel possess their land, than the Divine warning came to Israelthherself, as it does in this 18 chapter of Leviticus, that if the Israelites follow those samepractices, they too will be “vomited out” of the land in the same manner–which indeed happened,when Israel went into Assyrian captivity in 722-21 B.C., and when Judah went intoBabylonian captivity in 587-86 B.C. YHWH God is no “Respecter of persons”–and Leviticus18 teaches that if Israel is guilty of the same crimes as the Canaanites, they too will suffer theDivine judgment of being “vomited out,” a warning that was fulfilled in the Assyrian invasion ofNorthern Israel in 722 / 21 B.C., and then again in the Babylonian invasion of Judah, thesouthern kingdom, in 587 / 86 B.C.93Compare Leviticus 18:4-5 for very similar language, providing a sort of “frame-work”for the teaching of this chapter.94For “these abominations,” see footnote 82.95The noun xr"êz>a,h'(, “the native-born,” occurs in the Hebrew Bible at:Exodus 12:19, anyone who eats what is leavened will be cut off from the congregation ofIsrael, whether native-born or temporary resident in the land.Exodus 12:48, the temporary resident who wishes to observe Passover is to be circumcised,and then will be treated as a native-born. Numbers 9:14, similar.Exodus 12:49, there will be on torah for the native-born and the temporary resident, the onedwelling temporarily in “your midst.” Leviticus 24:22; Numbers 9:14, similar.Leviticus 16:29, on the day of coverings / atonement, no work is to be done, either by thenative-born or by the temporary resident who is residing temporarily “in your midst.”Leviticus 17:15, anyone who eats carrion flesh, whether native-born or temporary resident,shall wash his clothes and bathe, and be unclean until evening comes.Leviticus 18:26, here; both the native-born and the temporary resident are to keep YHWH’sstatutes and judicial decisions.Leviticus 19:34, the Israelites must treat the temporary resident like the native-born; they are(continued...)158

96staying in your midst. 18.27 rv,äa) #r ynEïp.li hy

97`#r

100for your defiling it, just as it vomited out the nation which (was) before you. 18.29 -lK' yKi…`~M'([; brk.nIw> hL,ae_h' tAbß[eATh; lKoïmi hf,ê[)y:) rv,äa101Because every one who does any one of all these abominable things, the persons, the ones so102doing, will be cut off from among their people.100Compare verse 25.101The Hebrew phrase is tAvïp'N>h;, “the innermost beings / lives / persons.” Thiscertainly includes females along with males, Israelites and non-Israelites.102What does this phrase mean, “and the persons, the ones doing (this), will be cut offThe Greek translationhere is , “they will be utterly destroyed.” Does it mean capital punishment,or simply being “excommunicated,” no longer to be considered an Israelite? See:from among their people,”~M'([; brk.nIw>?Genesis 17:14, if any of Abraham’s descendants refuses circumcision, vp,N

18.30 Wfå[)n: rv,äa) ‘tbo[eAT)h; tAQÜxume tAfø[) yTi’l.bil. yTiªr>m;v.mi-ta, ~T,är>m;v.W`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~h,_B' WaßM.J;ti( al{ïw> ~k,êynEp.li And you shall keep my charge, so asnot to do any regulations of the abominable things which they did before you; and you will not bedefiled by them. I--YHWH your God! 103102(...continued)Leviticus 20:17, 18, a punishment inflicted in the “eyes of all their people” for violation ofsexual boundaries, similar to chapter 18; note the use of ds,x,ä with the meaning“shame,” “disgrace.”Numbers 9:13, a ritual matter of wrong timing for the Passover sacrifice; certainly not, wethink, to be considered a capital crime.Numbers 15:30, “high-handed” violations are under consideration in contrast to the earlierviolations done “inadvertently”--it most probably means capital punishment.See Levine’s “Excursus 1" on pp. 241-42, and see G.F. Hasel’s article on the verbtr;K', karath in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament VII, pp. 339-52, especially pp.347-49. It certainly means that these things are very serious crimes in the Divine eyes.The Mishnah Tractate Sanhedrin, shows how the sentence of capital punishment wascarried out in Israel. However, the biblical examples of Adam and Eve (Genesis 3), Cain(Genesis 4); Israel and the golden calf, (Exodus 32-34) warn against legalistic harshnesswithout consideration of Divine clemency.Sarna, in his JPS Torah Commentary on Genesis notes that "There are thirty-sixinstances of this formula [of 'cutting-off'] in the Torah, all of them listed in Mishnah Keritot1:1...ln Leviticus 20:1-6 the active first person is used with God as the subject of the verb: ‘Iwill set My face against that man and will cut him off from his people.' This reasonably leadsto the assumption that [cutting-off] is not a punishment enforced in the courts, but a penaltyleft to Divine execution. Such is the understanding of the term in Rabbinic literature, where itmeans specifically premature death...Certainly the general idea is that one who deliberatelyexcludes himself from the religious community cannot be a beneficiary of the covenantalblessings and thereby dooms himself and his line to extinction." (P. 126)Wenham similarly comments that “Though [this penalty] has been supposed to involveexcommunication from the community, to be ‘cut off’ seems more likely to be Divine punishmentresulting in the offender’s untimely death. ‘The threat of being cut off by the hand ofGod, in His Own time, hovers over the offender constantly and inescapably; he is not unlikethe patient who is told by his doctors that his disease is incurable and that he might die anyday.’” (Quoting H. H. Cohn, 2, p. 25)103See footnote 9. As the author has emphasized throughout this chapter, the entirety(continued...)162

103(...continued)of this legislation has YHWH’s “signature.” Those who want to be in covenant fellowship withYHWH must respect this legislation.163

Leviticus 19:1-37–IntroductionPriestly Decisions and Exhortations to Set-Apart LivingDynamic ethical and social laws are given to govern the lives of people who belong toYHWH God--so that they can be truly a "set-apart," special people, just as their God YHWH is"set-apart." They are not to attempt to be like the nations that surround them. Rather, they are tobe different–living by YHWH’s teachings / laws!This will involve: honor to parents; no idolatry; no magical use of sacrifices; concern for thepoor; honesty with regards to the right to property; in speech, no deception and no false swearing.It demands no fraud or robbery; no withholding of wages; no taking advantage of deaf or blind. Itcalls for honest judicial decisions, without partiality or favoritism. It demands no slander; no endangeringof others; no hatred, but instead frank and open rebuke. It demands no revenge orbearing of grudges–but instead, calls for love for neighbor as for self. It demands no magical useof animals, seeds, or cloth. It forbids pre-marital sex. It imparts rules concerning fruit trees andmeat with blood in it. It demands no magical foretelling of the future or cutting of either hair orbody in ritual ways; no tattoos, and no prostitution. It demands observance of seventh-day-rests;rever-ence for YHWH's sanctuary; no mediums or spiritualists; respect for the elderly and forYHWH; love for temporary residents; honest weights in business–all because YHWH is our God!What a powerful ethical code of laws for YHWH God's set-apart people!Leviticus 19:1-37, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes10419:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 19:2ynIßa) vAdêq yKiä Wy=h.Ti ~yviädoq. ~h,Þlea) T'îr>m;a'w> lae²r"f.yI-ynEB. td:ô[)-lK'-la, rBeúD:105`~k,(yhel{a/' hw"ïhy> Speak to all (the) community of Israel’s people. And you shall say to them,104Again we have an introductory statement, attributing the legislation of YHWH toMoses. But again, we must remember that Moses was surrounded by associate judges, andthen his role was taken over by Joshua, Deborah, Samuel, David, Israel’s priests and rulers,all of whom “sat in Moses’ chair” (as Jesus stated concerning the Pharisees in Matthew 23:1,a kind of authority which He promises to the leaders of His Own followers–see Matthew 16:19) and gave statutes and laws under Divine guidance–all of which were then attributed to“Moses.” The Torah didn’t come “all at once,” but rather was gradually given, piece by piece,as situations arose, and decisions were demanded, and as YHWH gave guidance throughthose leaders. That is why YHWH can say through Jeremiah 7:22 that when He broughtIsrael out from Egypt, He didn’t speak to them concerning offerings-up and sacrifices (whichare so prominent in Leviticus). See footnote 109 for this passage in Hebrew with translation.105Literally, “Israel’s children” (compare 18:2). The phrase is not intended to describe allof Israel as “minors” in age--rather, it is the ancient way of describing the common “family-relationship”in which every Jew was involved, as the “descendants of Israel (or, Jacob).”(continued...)164

“Set-apart people, you shall be. For set-apart (am) I, YHWH your God!” 106105(...continued)The noun translated “community” is hd'[e from the verb d[;y", “to appoint,” from whichhas come the commonly used noun d[eAm, “appointed time” or “appointed place of meeting.”It would seem, then, that this noun hd'[e means a “company assembled together by appointment,”or “a company that acts concertedly.” This noun is translated in the Greek bysunagwgh,, “synagogue,” which simply means “a gathering.”For this exact phrase lae²r"f.yI-ynEB. td:ó[]-lK', literally “whole congregation (or ‘community’)of sons of Israel,” see Exodus 16:1, 2, 9, 10; 17:1; 35:1, 4, 20; Leviticus 19:2(here); Numbers 1:2; 8:9, 20; 13:26; 14;7; 15:25, 26; 17:6; 25:6; 26:2; 27:20; Joshua 18:1and 22:12. Other usages include “all Israel’s congregation,” “whole assembly of Israel’s congregation,”“whole assembly of (the) congregation of Israel’s sons,” “congregation of Israel,” “thecongregation,” “all the congregation,” “congregation of Israel’s sons,” simply “congregation,”“congregation of YHWH,” and “all YHWH’s congregation.”Most of these phrases are found in the Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Joshua. InDeuteronomy the word does not occur except in the sense “testimonies,” which is also theusage in the Psalms (especially 119).We will see throughout chapter 19 how the words of YHWH spoken through Moses toIsrael’s people are addressed oftentimes to the individual, or to the larger group (a “pluralyou”)--but no distinction is made between the groups. The entire community is spoken to asone individual, and the commandments given to the group certainly apply to each individual.106Some twenty times in chapters 18 and 19 this or a similar Self-introductory statementby YHWH is given. Here, it is “Set-apart people, you shall be. For Set-apart (am) I,YHWH your God!”This is the fundamental theme of all life that is lived in relationship with YHWH, the Godof Israel: what YHWH is, His people should seek to become; what YHWH likes, they tooshould like, and do; what YHWH hates, they too should hate; YHWH’s actions are exemplaryfor human actions. YHWH God is set-apart, special, different; so are his people to be setapart,special, different. Their manner of life is to be determined by YHWH alone, not byearthly cultures in which they happen to live, not by human philosophies, opinions, or desires.Martin Noth points out that the phrase “Set-apart people you shall be” can be understoodsimply as a future, or as an imperative--which is correct. We are reminded of Paulineethics in the New Testament which teach believers to “become what you are”–see, forexample, Romans 6, where Paul teaches believers to fulfill the meaning of their baptism: “youhave died with Christ, now put to death...”165(continued...)

106(...continued)We agree with the comment in NIVSB on Leviticus 11:44 that “Holiness is the keytheme of Leviticus, ringing like a refrain in various forms throughout the book (e.g., 11:45;19:2; 20:7, 26; 21:8, 15; 22:9, 16, 32) The word ‘holy’ [our ‘set-apart’] appears more often inLeviticus than in any other book of the Bible. Israel was to be totally consecrated to God.Her holiness was to be expressed in every aspect of her life, to the extent that all of life had acertain ceremonial quality. Because of Who God is and what He has done...His people mustdedicate themselves fully to Him (compare Matthew 5:48, and see Romans 12:1).” (P.160)Or, we can state it this way: “You are the set-apart people of YHWH–now live like set-apartpeople!”Levine states that “To have a close relationship to God, the people must emulate God.As one of the sages put it: ‘It is comparable to the court of a king. What is the court’s duty?To imitate the king.’ In theological terminology this doctrine is known as imitatio dei, ‘the imitationof God.’” (P.125) Deborah Lein adds that “It is only as people get to know God that theyknow what to emulate.”Think of what a powerful source of guidance this basic truth is. If YHWH is Creator, wetoo ought to be creative, using all our powers to create what is good and useful for humanityand for all God’s creatures. If YHWH hates oppression, and comes in vengeance upon theevil-doers, so we too should hate the very thought of oppression and maltreatment of others,doing all in our power to create a society in which oppression is eradicated, and oppressedpeople are given freedom. If YHWH God is true, faithful, loving and compassionate, givingfreedom to His creatures, there can be no doubt that those who seek to be pleasing to Him,imitating Him in their lives, will be devoted to truth, as faithful people, who fill up their lives withlove and compassion, and who grant freedom to others. On and on we can go--but the basicprinciple is the same. What YHWH God is, and does, is the standard for our very being, andfor our actions in life. What a magnificent, powerful, unshakeable standard of life! CompareLeviticus 11:44-45, 20:26 and Exodus 19:6.Deborah Lein asks, “Should we judge others as God judges?” We answer, Yes–butwhereas God does not have to worry about His Own failures, we do; and we must rememberthe biblical understanding of the judge–it is one who defends his people against evil oppressors,and comes to their help / deliverance / salvation. We agree with Deborah that “holinessshould not be confused with puritanism, and also in her rejection of some churches that majorin condemnation of sinners. But still, believers should do all in their power to instill the saving,delivering judgment of God into their lives and societies, while avoiding the judgmental, condemningattitude that is a perversion of true judgment.Wenham states that holiness leads to order, over against confusion. It is expressed inmoral integrity...”’Holiness is thus not so much an abstract or a mystic idea, as a regulativeprinciple in the everyday lives of men and women...Holiness is thus attained not by flight fromthe world, nor by monk-like renunciation of human relationships of family or station, but by thespirit in which we fulfill the obligations of life in its simplest and commonest details: in this way–by doing justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God--is everyday life transfigur-(continued...)166

19:3 `~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa) Wrmo+v.Ti yt;ÞtoB.v;-ta,w> War"êyTi ‘wybia'w> AMÜai vyaiä107 108Each person, his mother and his father, you people shall respect. And you people shall106(...continued)ed.’” (P. 265; Wenham is quoting Rabbi J. H. Hertz)Deborah Lein objects to Rabbi Hertz’s use of the noun “obligations,” stating that it is“distasteful.” But the noun obligation simply means “a requirement to take some course ofaction, whether legal or moral,” and both the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testamentare filled with just such obligations / requirements. The believer is not free to “do as he or shepleases,” but is under covenant-oath to fulfill Divine teachings, such as the Ten Commandmentsof Exodus 20 / Deuteronomy 5, or the teaching of Jesus in Matthew 5-7, or therequirements of Paul in Romans 12. Whether we like the word or not, life is filled with oblilgations/ requirements! Holiness is a general obligation / requirement, and the numerous injunctionsthat follow in chapter 19 are likewise obligations / requirements. What do you think?Deborah Lein asks concerning Leviticus 19 as a whole, “Were these [teachings] differentfrom surrounding cultures?” A genuine answer to that question involves the study ofnear-eastern cultures, and especially, the careful reading of comparable legal-codes, whichcan be found in James B. Pritchard’s Ancient Near Eastern Texts, especially in the Laws ofUr-Nammu, the Sumerian Laws, the Lipit-Ishtar Lawcode, the Laws of Eshnunna, theCode of Hammurabi, the Middle Assyrian Laws, the Hittite Laws, and the Neo-BabylonianLaws, on pp. 159-98. The present author has attempted to study all of these law-codes, andhas used them for comparative purposes in his study of the Book of Exodus. His conclusionis that Yes indeed, Leviticus 18-20 and the Ten Commandments and the Covenant Codeare greatly different from those law-codes. He has been challenged by one of his students, aformer lawyer, who claims that the Code of Hammurabi is closely similar to these biblicaltexts. And so, his challenge is, read those law-codes for yourself. See what you think!For the use of vAdêq', “set-apart,” in conjunction with the Divine being, see the followingpassages: Leviticus 11:44, 45; 19:2 (here); 20:7, 26; 21:8; Joshua 24:19; 1 Samuel2:2; 2 Kings 19:22; Isaiah 5:16, 19, 24; 6:3, 3, 3; 10:17, 20; 12:6; 17:7; 29:19; 30:11, 12,15; 31:1; 37:23; 41:14, 16, 20; 43:3, 14; 45:11; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7; 54:5; 55:5; 57:15; 60:9,14; Jeremiah 50:29; 51:5; Ezekiel 39;7; Hosea 11:9, 12 (12:1 in Hebrew); Habakkuk 1:12;3:3; Psalm 22:4; 71:22; 78:41; 89:19 (18 in English); Psalm 99:3, 5, 9.For the use of the plural in conjunction with the people of Israel, ~yviädoq., “set apartones,” see Exodus 19:6; Leviticus 11:45; 19:2 (here); 20:7, 26; 21:6; Numbers 15:40; 16:3;Deuteronomy 7:6; 14:2, 21; 26:19; 28:9; Isaiah 4:3 and 43:15.107The phrase is‘wybia'w> AMÜai vyaiä, literally, “a man, his mother and his father.” Com-pare Leviticus 15:2; 17:3, 8, 10, 13; 18:6; 20:2, 9; 22:4, 18 and 24:15, where the phrase(continued...)167

107(...continued)occurs, “a man, a man,” which means “whoever.” Here the singular “a man,” means something similar, i.e., “anyone.” But notice how the commandment that follows is in the plural,“they shall respect.”108If / since YHWH God has created humanity male and female, and has joined them inmarriage, commanding them to bear and rear children in the Divine likeness, then there canbe no doubt of the great value which YHWH has placed upon the home, and upon the importantrole that mothers and fathers are to play in the lives of their children. Deep, lasting respectfor parents--mothers as well as fathers--is written into the very nature of genuine ethical livingin YHWH God’s created universe. Compare Exodus 20:12 and Deuteronomy 5:16. In theGreek New Testament, see Matthew 15:4; 19:18; Mark 7:10; 10:19; Luke 18:20; Ephesians6:2 and Colossians 3.see:The role of father and mother is important throughout the Hebrew Bible. Elsewhere,Genesis 2:24, a man shall leave his father and his mother, and cling to his wife.Genesis 28:7, Esau heard that Jacob obeyed his father and his mother, and went to Paddan-Aram, to take a wife.Exodus 20:12, Honor your father and your mother, in order to live long in the promised land!Exodus 21:15, 17, tAmï AMßaiw> wybi²a' lLeîq;m.W...`tm'(Wy tAmï AMßaiw> wybi²a' hKeîm;W`tm'(Wy, “And one striking his father and his mother shall certainly be put to death...Andone cursing his father and his mother shall certainly be put to death.” Sarna in hisJewish Publication Society Exodus commentary labels verses 15 and 17 “Abuse ofParents,” combining them together as one law, whereas in the text they are separatedand treated as two laws. He comments that, “Although separated by the lawof the kidnaper, these two verses belong together and, in fact, are so placed in theSeptuagint. Verse 15 concerns violent assault on a parent by a son or daughter;verse 17 deals with verbal abuse...According to Rabbinic exegesis, only the actualinfliction of physical injury by an adult son or daughter entails the death penalty.” (P.122)Leviticus 18:9, no sexual relationship with father or mother’s daughter. Deuteronomy 27:22,same.Leviticus 20:9, anyone who curses father or mother shall certainly be put to death.Leviticus 21:11, the high priest shall not make himself unclean by touching a dead body,even that of his father or mother. Numbers 6:7, similar, for the Nazirite. Ezekiel44:25, similar, for the priests.Deuteronomy 5:16, honor your father and mother, that your days may be prolonged.Deuteronomy 21:13, captured enemy woman must be given a full month to mourn her fatherand mother.Deuteronomy 21:18-21, the stubborn rebellious son refuses to obey the voice of father or(continued...)168

108(...continued)mother; both father and mother discipline the son. The two of them are responsible tobring the son to the city’s officials, testifying against him, so as to be put to death.Deuteronomy 22:15, father and mother bring evidence of their daughter’s virginity when shemarried.Deuteronomy 27:16, cursed is anyone who dishonors father or mother.Deuteronomy 33:9, Levi said of his father and mother, I did not see them / regard them, or hisbrothers or children, but put loyalty to YHWH first.Joshua 2:13, 18; 6:23, Rahab saves the life of her father and mother, brothers and sisters.Judges 14:2-6, 9, 16, Samson’s relationship to his father and mother.Ruth 2:11, Boaz relates how Ruth has left father and mother and her native land.1 Samuel 22:3, David asks the King of Moab to let his father and mother stay with him.Heb Eng2 Samuel 19:38 / 37 , Barzillai requests David to be able to return to his own city and dienear the grave of his father and mother.1 Kings 19:20, Elisha asks Elijah to permit him to return to kiss his father and mother beforefollowing him.2 Kings 3:2, 13, Jehoram put away the pillar of Baal which his father Ahab had made, notbeing as evil as his father and mother.Esther 2:7, Esther’s father and mother had died, so her uncle Mordecai adopted her.Micah 7:6, yveîn>a; vyaiÞ ybeîy>ao Ht'_mox]B; hL'ÞK; HM'êaib. hm'äq' tB;… ba'ê lBeän:m. ‘!be-yKi(Àt)ybe, “Because a son esteems a father lightly; a daughter arises against her mother;a daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law–a man’s enemies are men / people of hishousehold!”Psalm 27:10, `ynIpe(s.a;y:) hw"åhyw:) ynIWb+z"[] yMiäaiw> ybiäa'-yKi, “Because / If my father and mymother forsook me–and YHWH will gather me!”Psalm 109:14, in a psalm of imprecation, the psalmist prays, -la, wyt'boa]â !wOæ[] ŸrkEÜZ"yI`xM'(Ti-la; AMªai÷ taJ;îx;w> hw"+hy>, “May his fathers’ iniquity be remembered to YHWH,and his mothers missing-of-the-mark / sin not be blotted out!”Job 31:18, Job claims, as proof of his right-relationship, ba'_k. ynIl:ådEG> yr:W[N>miâ yKiä`hN"x,(n>a; yMiäai !j,B,ÞmiW, “Because from my youth he grew up to me like a father; andfrom my mother’s womb, I guided her.”Proverbs 1:8; 6:20, son–hear, keep a father’s commandment.Proverbs 4:3, `yMi(ai ynEïp.li dyxiªy"w>÷ %r:ï ybi_a'l. ytiyyIåh' !beâ-yKi, “Becuse I was a son to myfather; tender, and an only one before my mother.”Proverbs 10:1, a wise son makes a father rejoice; a foolish son is his mother’s grief.Proverbs 15:20, first line, same as 10:1; second line, ÀM)ai hz

109 110observe My days of rest; I--YHWH, your God!108(...continued)Proverbs 19:26, `ryPi(x.m;W vybiîme !Be÷ª ~ae_ x:yrIåb.y: ba'â-dD wybiäa' lLeq;m.â, “One whocurses his father and his mother–his lamp in (the) pupil (of his eye) will be extinguished–darkness!”Proverbs 23:22, `^M,(ai hn"ïq.z"-yKi( zWbªT'÷-la;w> ^dl;Ay* lgE©t'w>÷ ^M,_aiw> ^ybiîa'-xm;f.yI), “your father and your mother willbe glad; and let her who gave you birth rejoice!”Proverbs 28:24, `tyxi(v.m; vyaiäl. aWh÷ª rbeîx' [v;P'_-!yae( rmeîaow> AMªaiw> wybiÛa'« ŸlzEÜAG,“One who robs his father and his mother, and says, There is no transgression, he is acompanion to a man who destroys!”Proverbs 30:11, `%rE)b'y> al{å AMªai÷-ta,w> lLe_q;y> wybiäa' rADâ, “(There is) a generation (that)curses its father; and its mother it will not bless!”Proverbs 30:17, lx;n:+-yber>[o h'WrïQ.yI ~aeî-th;ñQ]yli( zWbát'w> éba'l. g[;äl.Ti( Ÿ!yI[:Ü`rv,n")-ynEb. h'Wlïk.ayOw>), “An eye (that) will mock at a father, and will do despite toobedience of a mother, ravens of a wadi will pick it out, and a vulture’s chicks will eat it!”Isaiah 8:4, before Isaiah’s son knows how to cry My father and My mother, the Assyrians willinvade Damascus and Samaria.Jeremiah 16:7, the mourner will not be comforted who has lost his father and his mother.Lamentations 5:3, `tAn*m'l.a;K. WnyteÞMoai ba'ê Î!yaeäw>Ð ¿!yaeÀ ‘WnyyI’h' ~ymiÛAty>, “We becameorphans, and there is no father; our mothers (are) like widows!”Ezekiel 16:3b YHWH says to Jerusalem, the prostitute city, tyTi(xi %Meîaiw> yrIßmoa/h' %ybiîa',“Your father, the Amorite; and your mother, Hittite!”Ezekiel 22:7a, in the bloody city of Jerusalem, WLq:åhe ‘~aew" ba'Û, “father and mother theytreated with contempt.”Zechariah 13:3, father and mother of the false prophet will pronounce his death sentence.Ancient Rabbis wondered at the way in which the mother is mentioned prior to the fatherin this Divine commandment [Leviticus 19:3], whereas they would have liked to have thefather mentioned first. However this may be resolved, it is the case, as Wenham states, “Asfar as the child is concerned...parents are in the place of God: through them [they] can learnwhat God is like and what He requires. It is therefore fitting that in [its] younger years a childshould honor and fear [our ‘respect’]...parents, as in later years [the child] will fear [ /reverence] God.” (P.265)170

109If YHWH God “rested” on the seventh day, following His six days of creative work,then it only follows that His human creatures should follow His example, and enjoy rest, atleast one day in seven. See Genesis 1:1-2:3, especially 2:1-3, for the biblical development ofthis theme of “rest following labor.”Martin Noth holds that the presence of this commandment in Leviticus 19 betrays theexilic or postexilic origin of the law-code, probably in the time of Ezekiel (p. 140). But we disagree--holdingthat the commandment for observance of a seventh day of rest is to be foundthroughout the biblical materials from both early to later times, and that the mention of the necessityfor observance of a day of rest does not necessarily point to any one period in Israel’shistory.For mentions of the day of rest in the Hebrew Bible, other than these passages, seeExodus 16:23, 25, 26, 29; 20:8, 10, 11; 31:13, 14, 15, 16; 35:2, 3; Leviticus 16:31; 23:3, 11,15, 16; 23:32, 38; 24:8; 25:2, 4; 25:6, 8; 26:2, 34, 35, 43; Numbers 28: 9, 10; Deuteronomy5:12, 14, 15; Kings 4:23; 11:5, 7, 9; 16:18; Isaiah 1:13; 56:2, 4, 6; 58: 13; 66:23; Jeremiah17:21, 22, 24, 27; Ezekiel 20:12, 13, 16, 20, 21, 4; 22:8, 26; 23:38; 44: 24; 45:17; 46:1, 3, 4,12; Hosea 2:13; Amos 8:5; Lamentations 2:6; Nehemiah 9:14; 10:32, 34; 13:15, 16, 18,19, 21, 22; 1 Chronicles 9:32; 23:31; 2 Chronicles 2:3; 8:13; 23:4, 8; 31: 3 and 36:21.While it has been the custom of many Old Testament scholars, following the lead ofJulius Wellhausen (1844-1918), to date all of the levitical, “priestly” legislation to exilic or postexilictimes, it is obvious that this does not, even if true, diminish the possibility that its legislationcontains many elements of much older origin. We hold that the mentions of observanceof the day of rest in such early biblical materials as Amos, Hosea and Isaiah demonstrate itsmuch earlier origin than the time of the exile or later. We hold that the role of the priests inIsrael played a very important role in Israel’s history, from its earliest time until the exile andbeyond–and that high priests throughout the centuries constantly gave regulations to governIsrael’s worship and sacrifices in the name of Moses / YHWH–regulations that now form theBook of Leviticus.What do you think? Do you hold that all of the priestly levitical legislation came at onetime? And if so, how do you explain Jeremiah 7:22, where YHWH states that:ÎyaiîyciAhÐ ¿ayciAhÀ ~Ay°B. ~ytiêyWIci al{åw> ‘~k,yteAb)a]-ta, yTir>B:ÜdI-al{) yKiû`xb;z")w" hl'ÞA[ yrEïb.DI-l[; ~yIr"+c.mi #r

19:4 hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~k,_l' Wfß[)t; al{ï hk'êSem; ‘yhel{awE) ~yliêylia/h'ä-la, ‘Wnp.Ti-la;111`~k,(yhel{a/ You people shall not turn away to the Nothings / worthless-Gods; and you shall109(...continued)New Revised Standard, “For in the day that I brought your ancestors out of the land of Egypt,I did not speak to them or command them concerning burnt offerings and sacrifices.”New International, “For when I brought your forefathers out of Egypt and spoke to them, I didnot just give them commands about burnt offerings and sacrifices,” deliberately addingthe word “just” which is not in the original text nor in the Greek translation.TNJB, “For when I brought your ancestors out of Egypt, I said nothing to them, gave them noorders, about burnt offerings or sacrifices.”We think that the levitical legislation was produced by Aaron and his successors, thelater high priests who “sat in Moses’ seat / chair” (see Matthew 23:1) giving legislation to governthe worship of the early moveable sanctuary while in the wilderness, and when it was stationedat Shiloh, and then especially when the temple in Jerusalem became the center ofIsrael’s worship. The priestly legislation was given from the time of Moses throughout Israel’shistory, as various situations and developments arose, and as needs changed. It didn’t allcome at the time of Moses / Aaron, and it certainly didn’t all come during the exilic or postexilicperiods.What do you think? As Deborah Lein states, this whole subject calls out for furtherresearch! We agree.110Here in verse 3 the refrain “I--YHWH (your God),” commonly translated by “I amYHWH (your God)” is heard again--see at the close of verse 2, then again at the close ofverses 4, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, and 37, in all which the importance ofYHWH as the foundation and authorization for the biblical teaching concerning Israel’s lifestyleis re-emphasized.This constant repetition throughout the Torah underlines this basic fact. If Israel wantsto be the set-apart people of this unique God, YHWH, here is the pathway upon which thenation and its people must walk, and here is the unique Divine-human relationship in whichthey are privileged to live.What do you think? Do you suppose that modern people can be followers of God /disciples of Jesus Christ without walking in the Divine pathway instead of their own think-sos?111The Hebrew word for “the Nothings / worthless-Gods” is ~yliêylia/h'ä, which lookslike, and sounds strikingly similar to, the normal word for “ the God,” ~yhiêl{a/h'ä, a pluralHebrew noun that takes singular verbs when used for YHWH, the God of Israel, and takesplural verbs when used for the Gods of the nations surrounding Israel.172(continued...)

111(...continued)Here, instead of “the God,” the Hebrew means “the Nothings,” “the worthless Gods,”“the idols.” The Hebrew Bible makes it very explicit that there are many so-called “Gods” thatare worshiped by different people in earth’s varying cultures. But it affirms in language like thispassage, that those “Gods” are in reality “Nothings.” In the New Testament, for a similarstatement, see 1 Corinthians 8:5-6.For the use of this noun ~yliêylia/ä “Nothings,” in the Hebrew Bible, see:Leviticus 19:4, here, its first occurrence in the Hebrew Bible, where it is followed by thephrase hk'êSem; ‘yhel{a, “Gods of melted metal,” probably intended as a definition ofthe ~yliêylia/ä. It is translated by the Greek as eivdw,loij, “idols.”Leviticus 26:1, where the related synonyms ls,p,Û, pesel, hb'Cem;, matstsebah and !b,a,tyKiªf.m;, eben maskith, “carved stone” are all mentioned, and forbidden. Here,~yliêylia/ä is translated by the Greek as ceiropoi,hta, “things made by hand.”Isaiah 2:8, Isaiah claims that the land of Jacob is filled with ~yliêylia/ä, translated by the Greekas bdelugma,twn, “detestable things.”Isaiah 2:18, Isaiah states that the ~yliêylia/ä will all pass away; Greek has ta. ceiropoi,hta,“the things made by hand.”Isaiah 2:20, on the day of YHWH, the human will throw away the APês.k; yleäylia/, “Nothings ofhis silver,” the Ab+h'z> yleäylia/, “Nothing of his gold.” Greek has bdelu,gmata, “detestablethings.” Isaiah 31:7, similar.Isaiah 10:10-11, the Assyrian King claims that his hand has reached lyli_a/h' tkoßl.m.m;l., “tokingdoms of the Nothing.” And he asks, Shall I not do to Jerusalem as I have done toSamaria h'yl,_ylia/l,w>, “and to her Nothings.” Greek: changes the text for the firstoccurrence, then has toi/j ceiropoih,toij, “to the hand-mades” for the second.Isaiah 19:1, when YHWH comes riding on a cloud, ‘~yI“r:c.mi yleÛylia/ W[ún"w>, “and the Nothingsof Egypt will tremble.” Greek: ta. ceiropoi,hta, “the hand-mades.”Isaiah 19:3, the Egyptians will inquire of four related sources of knowledge: ‘~yliylia/h'(-la,`~ynI)[oD>YIh;-la,w> tAbßaoh'-la,w> ~yJiêaih'ä-la,w>, “to the Nothings, and to the mutterers/ whisperers / ventriloquists, and to the communicators with the dead, and to those whoare intimate with spirits / familiar spirits.” Greek: tou.j qeou.j auvtw/n, “the Gods oftheirs.”Ezekiel 30:13, YHWH proclaims @NOëmi ‘~yliylia/ yTiÛB;v.hiw> ~yli÷WLgI yTi’d>b;a]h;w>,, “and I willdestroy idols, and I will cause to cease Nothings from Memphis!” Greek: megista/naj,(continued...)173

112 113not make metal Gods for yourselves. I--YHWH, your God!111(...continued)“great men,” “magnates.”Habakkuk 2:18, xj;úb' yKiä rq,V'_ hr)`~k,(L.Ku lliäa/ yaeÞp.ro rq,v'_-ylep.jo) ~T,îa;, “And indeed you people (are) smearers offalsehood; healers of nothing, all of you!” Greek: kakw/n, “evil ones, bad ones.”112The phrase is hk'êSem; ‘yhel{awE, literally, “and Gods of metal-pouring,” or simply “andGods of melted metal.” It means Divinities that have been made by human hands, using preciousmetals to cover them, or out of which to shape them. To make such objects for humandevotion would be a violation of the first two of the Ten Commandments, and would causethose who so worship to substitute them for the transcendent, hidden, mysterious God Who isfar too great (as well as far too small–He is present in the sub-atomic world!) to be pictured inhuman fashion. Compare Leviticus 26:1 where some four different descriptions are given forthe hand-made Gods. We take it that when only one of the descriptions is used, it is meant toinclude all the others.For occurrences of the noun hk'êSem; elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible see:Exodus 34:17, `%L'(-hf,[]t; al{ï hk'ÞSem; yheîl{a/, God’s of melted metal you (singular) shallnot make for yourself.” Greek: cwneutou.j, “poured,” “cast.”(continued...)174

112(...continued)Numbers 33:52, -lK' taeÞ ~T,êd>B;ai’w> ~k,êynEP.mi ‘#r WdBeêa;T. ‘~t'koSe(m; ymeÛl.c;-lK' tae’w> ~t'_YOKif.m;,“And you people shall dispossess all inhabitants of the land from before you, and youshall destroy all their show-pieces, and all their images of melted metal you shalldestroy, and all their high places you shall exterminate!”Deuteronomy 9:12, 16, what Israel made at the base of Mount Sinai to worship–the lg

112(...continued)The phrases are followed by the statement that xc;nliw> yNIëmi al{åw> ‘hc'[e tAfÜ[]l; hw"ëhy>-~aun> ‘~yrIr>As) ~ynIÜB' yAhå`taJ'(x;-l[; taJ'Þx; tApïs. ![;m;²l. yxi_Wr al{åw> hk'ÞSem;, literally, “Woe, rebellingchildren–it is a saying of YHWH–to make advice / counsel, and not from Me; and topour out a melted metal (covering? weaving?), and not (by) My Spirit! In order to addmissing-of-the-mark / sin upon missing-of-the-mark / sin!”Isaiah 30:22, ^b,_h'z> tk;äSem; tD:ßpua]-ta,w> ^P,ês.k; yleäysiP. ‘yWPci-ta, ~t,ªaMejiw>Àl) rm;aToï aceÞ hw"ëd" AmåK. ‘~rEz>Ti, “And you (plural) will defile (the) metal-plating of(your) images / idols (made) of your silver, and your upper jacket (with) melted metal(weaving?) of your gold. You will scatter them like menstrual (blood). Go forth! / Getout!–you will say to it.”Isaiah 42:17, ~T,îa; hk'ÞSem;l. ~yrIïm.aoh' ls,P'_B; ~yxiÞj.Boh; tv,boê WvboåyE ‘rAxa' WgsoÜn"`Wnyhe(l{a/, “They were turned back, backwards; they will be totally ashamed, the onestrusting in the idol / image, the ones saying to melted metal, You (are) our Gods!”Hosea 13:2, ‘~n"Wbt.Ki ~P'Ûs.K;mi hk'’Sem; •~h,l' Wfå[.Y:w: ajoªx]l; WpsiäAy ŸhT'ä[;w>~yliÞg"[] ~d"êa' yxeäb.zO ~yrIêm.ao ~heä ‘~h,l' hL{+Ku ~yviÞr"x' hfeî[]m; ~yBiêc;[]`!Wq)V'yI “And now, they will continue to miss-the-mark; and they will make for themselvesa melted metal (image) out of their silver. All of it, according to their understanding,idols– product of engravers. They will kiss young bulls!”Nahum 1:14b, YHWH tells Nineveh, hk'²Sem;W ls,P,ó tyrI’k.a; ^yh,øl{a/ tyBe’mi, “from yourGod’s house / temple I will cut off idol and melted metal (image)!”Habakkuk 2:18, see footnote 111.Psalm 106:19, `hk'(Sem;l. Ww©x]T;v.YIw:÷ brE+xoB. lg

19:5 `Whxu(B'z>Ti ~k,Þn>cor>lI) hw"+hyl; ~ymiÞl'v. xb;zti ykiów> And when you114 115slaughter a sacrifice of peace- (or “well-being-”) offerings to the YHWH, you shall sacrifice it112(...continued)silver, the actual method of working these materials was probably hammering or plating...Thushk'²Sem; might refer to a beaten (hammered) piece (in silver or gold) or to precious metal plating...Suchwooden or metal statues or objects overlaid with precious metal are probably theprimary reference...“Throughout the ancient Near East the most varied sorts of representations of Deitiesare attested (statuary, reliefs, paintings, and glyptics [carvings on precious stones]). In thecase of precious metals, full casting was limited to smaller figurines both because of technicalconsiderations and because of the value of the materials.“Greater significance was early acquired by the various methods of goldsmithing, whichapplied thin layers of precious metal onto parts made of wood, bronze, or even silver. Aconcretely formed core could be ‘overlaid’ with hammered sheets of precious metal attachedby nails and rivets (plating).” (Pp. 432, 34)113For this prohibition of idolatry, see:Exodus 20:3-6, prohibition of making any likeness of anything in the universe for worship.Deuteronomy 4:16-18; 5:7-10, similar.Exodus 20:23, prohibition of Gods of silver or gold.Exodus 34:17, prohibition of making Gods of melted metal.Leviticus 26:1, prohibition of “Nothings,” idols / images, stone-pillars, and carved stones toworship.Deuteronomy 27:15, a curse upon idol-makers.Isaiah 2:8, the land of Judah is filled with idols and their worship.Isaiah 2:18-20, all of the idols will be destroyed from Judah.Isaiah 44:9-10, those who shape idols are nothing, and the idols are good for nothing.Jeremiah 10:2-5, idols cannot move, speak, walk, do evil or good.114For the root-word xb;z", “to slaughter (an animal) for sacrifice,” and its correspondingnoun xb;zò,, “sacrifice,” “animal that has been slaughtered,” see the article by B. Lang inTheological Dictionary of the Old Testament IV, pp. 8-29. He suggests that a model of thesacrificial procedure in early Israel may be constructed out of the story of Elkanah and Hannahin 1 Samuel 1-2, which concludes with a joyful family meal.177(continued...)

114(...continued)With regards to the meal that goes along with the sacrifice, Lang states that “The culticcelebration takes place hw"ïhy> ynEp.li [‘before YHWH]: the worshipers sacrifice (xb;z", 1 Samuel11:15), eat (Deuteronomy 12:7), and rejoice (Deuteronomy 12:12) ‘before Yahweh,’ i.e.,within the temple precincts and in the presence of the Deity. ‘Eating in the presence of Yahweh’means being Yahweh’s guest...God is the...’host’...The xb;z" effects Yahweh’s presencein a special way. Yahweh gives benefits to the worshipers...The atmosphere of joy so emphasizedin the Deuteronomic tradition is both the rejoicing of a banquet and also rejoicing overthe presence of Yahweh, which frees [the worshipers] of their cares.” (Pp. 25, 27)For the author of these notes, this is quite a different picture from the depiction ofIsraelite sacrifices as filled with guilt and anxiety, doom and gloom, oftentimes imagined in thereading of Leviticus, as if the Day of Coverings / Atonement was a 365 days a year affair.What do you think? Do you picture the Jerusalem temple with its slaughterings for sacrificemore like an animal mortuary or crematorium, and a confessional of human sinfulness, filledwith mourning and sadness and guilt, or more like a huge religious kitchen, where the richmeat was cooked (not burned up) and breads baked, and fruits eaten with great joy andfellowship and acceptance, where rich wine and liquors were drunk by both the laity and thepriesthood, by the wealthy and the poor--especially widows, orphans and temporary residents?115The phrase is ~ymiÞl'v. xb;z

116for your favorable acceptance. 19:6 yviêyliV.h; ~Ayæ-d[; ‘rt'ANh;w> tr"+x\M'mi(W lkeÞa'yE117~k,²x)b.zI ~AyõB `@rE)F'yI vaeÞB' On (the) day of your slaughtering for sacrifice, it shall be115(...continued)Seidl also states that “The most striking construction, especially outside the [priestly]corpus, is the linking of shelamim with hl'wo[ / tlwo[ as a double object of the sacrificialverbs.” (P. 112)Here again, just as we have seen in the preceding footnote, these sacrifices are preliminaryto a meal in which the participants share–a great source of rejoicing and care for thepoor, as we will see in the succeeding footnotes.116In our opinion, it is a distortion of the worship described in the Hebrew Bible to thinkof it as solely, or even predominantly, as concerned with sin and forgiveness. Undoubtedly,there was such an element involved--but in the Levitical system of worship, forgiveness usuallyhad to do with minor, accidental, “inadvertent” missings-of-the-mark, in contrast to sins done“with a high hand,” for which there was no sacrifice. Truly “major,” “high-handed” sins had nosacrifice, and could only be dealt with in a personal relationship with YHWH of confession andhumble prayer, as the example of King David (2 Samuel 11-12) demonstrates.See our introduction to chapter 5 of Leviticus, with its distinction between sins committedhg"g"v.bi, “in inadvertence,” or “accidentally,” and those committed hm'ªr" dy"åB., “with ahigh hand,” that is, “deliberately, intentionally.” The worship described in Leviticus is alsocentered in “peace,” and in “well-being”--just as the name for the sacrifices being describedhere indicates. They are ~ymiÞl'v.–”greetings,” “welcomings,” affirmations of “peace” betweenYHWH and His worshipers, and between the worshipers themselves.These sacrifices are not made in an attempt to “persuade YHWH to be “at peace” withthe worshipers. No--they are, in our estimation, recognitions of the “peace” that already existsbetween YHWH and His people whom He invites into His worship. They are gestures of thedesire to come into the Divine presence in worship, offering the kind of gifts that will honor andpraise YHWH, and that will greet and thank YHWH, especially expressing the deep gratitudeof the worshiper for the “peace” that exists between YHWH and His worshipers. When suchan offering was made, the worshiper was assured that YHWH was pleased, and was ready forprayer and fellowship in His sanctuary.117The noun here is ~k,²x]b.zI, a singular noun with a plural suffix, literally “you people’sslaughtering for sacrifice.”179

118 119eaten, and on the next day; and that which is left over until the third day, shall be burned with118The niphal verb lkeÞa'yE commands that the sacrificed animal “shall be eaten.” Thereis no idea of YHWH’s being fed, or eating the sacrifice–it is for the human participants in theritual. It seems rather strange to hear this language of worship--something like an invitation toa big barbecue or church dinner, to which not only the participants themselves, but also theLevites and the poorest people in society were invited.What do you think?119Worshipers in Israel knew–or should have known--that YHWH doesn’t need to be“fed”--as was assumed in many of the religions surrounding Israel. See the criticisms of thosewho had such ideas in Psalm 50:7-15:50:7 ŸyMi’[; h['Ûm.vilaer"f.yIâ hr"Beªd:a]w:%B'_ hd"y[iäa'w>`ykinO*a' ^yh,äl{a/ ~yhiÞl{a/Hear, My peopleand I will speak, Israel;and I will testify against you--God, your God (am) I!50:8 ^x,_ykiAa ^yx,b'z>â-l[; al{å`dymi(t' yDIåg>nNot concerning your slaughterings for sacrifice will I reprove you--and your offerings-up before Me constantly.50:9 rp'_ ^åt.yBemi xQ:åa,-al{`~ydI)WT[; ^yt,ªaol.k.Mimi÷I will not take a young bull from your house--from your enclosures / folds male-goats!50:10 r[;y"+-Aty>x;-lk' yliî-yKi`@l,a'(-yrEr>h;B. tAmªheB.÷Because every live animal of (the) forest belongs to Me!(the) animals on a thousand hills!50:11 ~yrI+h' @A[å-lK' yTi[.d:y"â`ydI)M'[ yd:ªf'÷ zyzIïw>180(continued...)

119(...continued)I knew every bird of (the) hills,and moving creatures of (the) field (are) with Me!50:12 %l'_ rm;aoå-al{ b[;r>a,â-~ai`Ha'(l{m.W lbeªte÷ yliî-yKiIf I will be hungry, I will not tell youbecause (the) world and its fullness belongs to Me!50:13 yliî-yKi ~yrI+yBia; rf;äB. lk;Aah;â(`hT,(v.a, ~ydIåWT[; ~d:ßw>Will I eat (the) flesh of mighty ones (animals) because (they) belong to Me?And will I drink (the) blood of male-goats?50:14 hd"+AT ~yhiäl{le xb;äz>`^yr

119(...continued)Heb40:8 ytiab'_-hNEhi yTir>m;a'â za'ä`yl'([' bWtïK' rp,seª÷-tL;gIm.BiEng40:7 Then I said, Look–I came,in (the) scroll-book it is written concerning me!Here, the psalmist tells YHWH that he knows the slaughterings for sacrifice made in thetemple-worship did not “delight” YHWH. Instead, what delighted YHWH was the psalmist’s“ears”–which YHWH had “cut out,” made for him. What YHWH was asking for was not offering-upand sin-offering, but the “ear” of the worshiper himself / herself, hearing the call ofYHWH in the “scroll-book”--the Bible, long before its “canonization”–calling for ears and heartto listen to and love YHWH!Already, according to passages in Deuteronomy, the altar of sacrifice had become inmany ways a huge “cook-stove and dining-hall” at the heart of Israel’s worship, a sort of grandtemple-kitchen, in which the devout worshipers ate nutritious foods and drank rich intoxicatingbeverages, together with the priests and their families, and to which society’s widows, orphans,landless emigrants and poor people, slaves and free, young and old, were invited, andwho shared thankfully in the good gifts that YHWH gives His people. And, we hold, these giftsincluded those animals “offered up,” i.e., the twlwo[. See the following passages:Deuteronomy 12:11-27:12:11 ~v'ê ‘Amv. !KeÛv;l. ‘AB ~k,îyhel{a/ hw"’hy> •rx;b.yI-rv,a] ~AqªM'h; hy"åh'w>~k,ªyxeb.zIw> ~k,äytel{A[ ~k,_t.a, hW Al± !yaeî yKiä ~k,êyrE[]v;*B., And you shall rejoice before YHWH yourGod, you people and your sons and your daughters, and your male-slaves and your femaleslaves,and the Levite who is within your gates–because he does not have a portion (of land)or an inheritance with you.182(continued...)

119(...continued)12:13 `ha,(r>Ti rv,îa] ~Aqßm'-lk'B. ^yt,_l{[o hl,Þ[]T;-!P,( ^êl. rm,V'ähi Take carefor yourself, so as not to offer up your offerings-up [^yt,_l{[] in every place which you shallsee. 12:14 hl,ä[]T; ~v'Þ ^yj,êb'v. dx;äa;B. ‘hw"hy> rx;Ûb.yI-rv,a] ~AqúM'B;-~ai yKiä`&'W ^yt,_l{[o Instead, in the place which YHWH shallchoose in one of your tribes, there you shall offer up your offerings-up [^yt,_l{[], and thereyou shall do everything which I am commanding you (singular).12:15 ^yh,²l{a/ hw"ôhy> tK;’r>biK. rf'ªb' T'äl.k;a'w> ŸxB;äz>Ti ^øv.p.n: tW:’a;-lk'B. •qr:`lY")a;k'w> ybiÞC.K; WNl,êk.ayO ‘rAhJ'h;w> ameÛJ'h; ^yr rf;Û[.m;`^d rx;øb.yI rv,’a] ‘~AqM'B; Wnl,ªk.aTo ^yh,øl{a/ hw"’hy> •ynEp.li-~ai yKi‡ èT'ªx.m;f'w> ^yrb.[;w>‘^“T,biW ^Ün>biW hT'’a AB ^yh,l{a/`^d ‘ynEp.li; Instead, before YHWH your God you shall eatthem, in the place which YHWH your God shall choose, you and your son and your daughterand your male-slave and your female-slave, and the Levite who is within your gates; and youshall rejoice before YHWH your God in every sending-forth of your hand. 12:19 ^êl. rm,V'ähi`^t,(m'd>a; -l[; ^ym,Þy"-lK' ywI+Leh; -ta, bzOà[]T;-!P,( Guard yourself so that you will notforsake the Levite, all your days upon your ground!12:20 ‘T'r>m;a'w> è%l'-rB,DI rv,äa]K; é^l.Wb)G>-ta,( ^yh,îl{a/ hw"’hy> •byxir>y:-yKi(`rf'(B' lk;îaTo ^ßv.p.n: tW:ïa;-lk'B. rf'_B' lkoåa/l, ^ßv.p.n: hW

119(...continued)of your innermost-being, you shall eat flesh. 12:21 hw"åhy. rv,’a] ~AqªM'h; ^øM.mi qx;’r>yI-yKi(‘hw"hy> !t;Ûn" rv,’a] ^ªn>aCo)miW ^år>q'B.mi T'úx.b;z"w> è~v' Amåv. ~Wfål' érx;øb.yI ^yh,l{a/`^v,(p.n: tW:ïa; lkoßB. ^yr ‘ameJ'h; WNl,_k.aTo !KeÞ lY"ëa;h'ä-ta,w> ‘ybiC.h-ta,( lkeÛa'yE rv,’a]K;`WNl,(k.ayO However, just as the gazelle and the deer is eaten, in this way you shall eat it, theone who is unclean and the one who is clean, together they shall eat it. 12:23 qz:©x] qr:å`rf'(B'h;-~[i vp,N vp,N"+h; aWhå ~D"ßh; yKiî ~D"êh; lkoåa] ‘yTil.bil. Only,be strong so as not to eat the blood–because the blood–it is the innermost-being / life, andyou shall not eat the innermost-being / life with the flesh. 12:24 #r ynEïy[eB. rv'ÞY"h; You (singular) shall not eat it, so that it may be well for you and foryour children after you–because you shall do that which is right in YHWH’s eyes.12:26 rv,a] ~AqßM'h;-la, t'ab'êW aF'äTi ^yr

119(...continued)society who were called to share in such nutritious meals. Instead of translating the noun by“burnt offering,” it should, we think, be translated “offering-up.”What do you think? Does this not depict all of Israel’s offerings–including their tithes–as being the means for a festival banquet of rejoicing together with sons and daughters,female and male slaves, Levites and their families, and specifically orphans, widows andforeigners?Do you think that in the midst of a large population of needy people–with orphans andwidows, the poor, and landless immigrants–that thousands and thousands of animals weresimply “burned up,” without seeking to feed the hungry with that rich source of protein? Wethink that such a conclusion is absurd, and contrary to the nature of YHWH and the biblicalconcern for the poor.In addition to Deuteronomy 12, see Deuteronomy 14:22-29:14:22 `hn")v' hn"ïv' hd-ta, ha'²r>yIl. And you shall eat before YHWH your God inthe place which He will choose, to cause His name to dwell there, a tenth of your grain, yournew wine and your new oil, and firstlings of your cattle and your flock, so that you may learn toreverence YHWH your God all the days.14:24 ^M.mi qx;Ûr>yI-yKi( èAtaef. élk;Wt al{å yKiä %r‘`^yh,(l{a/ hw"ïhy> ^ßk.rÀB) ^yh,Þl{a/ hw"ïhy> rx;²b.yI rv,îa] ~AqêM'h;-la, ‘T'k.l;h'(w> ^êd.y"åB. ‘@s,“K,h; T'Ûr>c;w> andyou shall give / exchange (your tithe) for the silver / money; and you shall hold tight the silver /money in your hand; and you shall go / travel to the place which YHWH your God shallchoose. 14:26 ‘!yIY:’b;W !aCoªb;W rq"åB'B; ^øv.p.n: hW ^v,_p.n: ^ßl.a'v.Ti( rv,îa] lko±b.W rk'êVeb;W`^t,(ybeW hT'îa; And you shall give / exchange the silver / money for everything which your(continued...)185

fire. 19:7 `hc,(r"yE al{ï aWhß lWGðPi yvi_yliV.h; ~AYæB; lkeÞa'yE lkoïa'he ~ai²w> And if it is in fact120 121eaten on the third day, it is a foul thing –it will not be favorably accepted. 19:8 ‘wyl'k.ao)w>119(...continued)innermost-being shall desire, for the cattle, and for the sheep / goats, and for the wine and forthe strong drink, whatever your innermost-being shall ask you; and you shall eat there beforeYHWH your God; and you shall rejoice, you and your household, 14:27 -rv,a] ywIïLeh;w>`%M'([i hl'Þx]n:w> ql,xeî Al± !yaeî yKiä WNb,_z>[;t;* al{å ^yr ^yr

`h'yM,([;me awhiÞh; vp,N

shall be cut off from its people. 123122(...continued)sense, resides in the notion of carrying or bearing, be it punishment, shame, or some-thingsimilar...“In the Old Testament this notion has been expanded to include the principle of forgiveness,and forgiveness is itself associated with the idea of lifting away or taking away guilt,sin, and punishment. Since the expression for forgiveness is frequently understood as ‘tobear,’ ‘carry away,’ ‘settle,’ etc.” (Pp. 24-25)“The expression !A[' af'n" in the sense of ‘to forgive’ is synonymous with the verbs--xl;s', ‘to forgive,’ and rP,Ki [piel], ‘to atone.’” (Pp. 27-28)123What does this mean, “he shall be cut off from his people”? See footnote 102.Surely it cannot mean “capital punishment” here. It most probably means that the personinvolved would be excluded from fellowship until his cleansing occurred.see:For occurrences of this sentence of cutting off from one’s people in the Hebrew Bible,Genesis 17:14, any uncircumcised male.Exodus 12:15, 19, anyone who eats leaven during the seven days of Passover.Exodus 31:14, anyone who does work on the day of rest.Leviticus 7:20, 21, person who eats slaughtering for sacrifice while unclean.Leviticus 7:25, 27, anyone who eats blood.Leviticus 18:29, anyone who does any of the abominations mentioned in this chapter.Leviticus 19:8,here; anyone who eats the meat of a shalom-offering on the third day.Leviticus 22:3, a priest who approaches set-apart things while in a state of impurity.Numbers 9:13, one who could, but failed to observe the Passover.Numbers 15:30-31, anyone who misses-the-mark / sins “with a high hand.”Numbers 19:13, 20, anyone who is unclean from touching a dead person, and enter themoveable sanctuary / tabernacle.G. F. Hasel explains that the niphal form of the verb in the phrase vp,N

123(...continued)presence through exclusion. The one so cut off is then left to God as the ultimate agent offinal punishment.” (Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament VII, p. 348)It is of significance to compare this with the sentence of exclusion on Cain in Genesis4; Cain has committed brother-murder, and a sentence of what would later be described as“cutting-off” is passed by YHWH against him. But YHWH continues to be with Cain, protectinghim from being murdered himself; and in the continuation of the story, Cain becomes thebuilder of a city named after his son, and his descendants become the originators of significantcultural achievements. We also remember how the sentence of death was given byYHWH God on the first male and female in the garden of delight–that on the day of theireating of the forbidden fruit, they would surely die (Genesis 3).But in fact, they did not die physically on that day, and although Christian theologiansdescribe what happened to them as alienation from God (that is, spiritual death), the fact isthat YHWH God continued to care for them, and provide for them, and communicate withthem and their descendants. These two stories are examples of how the Bible points to aDivine grace that is greater than the letter of the law, and warns us against taking such sentencesof “cutting-off” in a rigid, inescapable way, that offers no hope for the offender.Indeed, for Biblical Theology, all humanity, including the Nation of Israel, stands underthe sentence of “cutting-off” because of our disobedience and sinfulness–see especially thestory of Israel’s building of the golden calf in Exodus 32-34. But Israel was not subjected tothe threatened “cutting-off”–instead, Israel was able to continue on its way to the promisedland with YHWH in her midst as her Guide and Provider, simply because of YHWH’s nature ofcompassion, mercy, and forgiveness. 2 Samuel 11-12 depictd King David as guilty of adultery,deception, and judicial murder–“high-handed offenses” which called for “cutting off,” andfor which there was no priestly sacrifice. Nevertheless, David was forgiven by YHWH upon hisconfession of guilt, and the sentence of cutting off was not administered.We must remember such facts whenever we seek to understand and interpret suchsentences of “cutting-off.” They are meant seriously, and warn those who respect them, of thedangers that accompany such actions as are warned against. But they are not meant to denythe possibility of Divine clemency, or cleansing through repentance and confession, andseeking a new life of obedience.Leviticus holds that it is good and helpful for the people of YHWH to come together inrituals of sacrifice and in the eating of healthy food together with their religious leaders, andwith YHWH God as the “Unseen Guest,” Whose gifts are eaten with thanksgiving, and sharedwith the neediest people of the community. But should those religious practices becomesomething else--the superstitious use of sacrificed meat as a magical means for communicatingwith the Deity, or the eating of decaying flesh that will cause human sickness (or, perhapswith the intention of communicating with the dead), then such worship is worse than useless.Instead of contributing to our unity with the people of God, it will rather contribute to our being“cut off” from that fellowship.189(continued...)

19:9. jq,l,îw> rco+q.li ^ßd>f' ta;îP. hL,²k;t. al{ô ~k,êc.r>a; ryciäq.-ta, ‘~k,r>c.qub.W*`jQE)l;t. al{ï ^ßr>yci(q. And when you people harvest the harvest of your land, you (individual)124 125shall not finish harvesting your field’s corner. And (the) gleaning / left-over produce of your123(...continued)All worship is not the same. It makes a great deal of difference how we worship, andwhat our intentions are in worship. Worship that is defiled and perverted, is a harmful thingthat does great damage to the people of God. “Anything goes” is not the language of biblicalworship.124This commandment has given rise to the development of the Mishnah Tractate Peah(this is the Hebrew word used in the construct state, ^ßd>f' ta;îP., “corner of your field,” inLeviticus 19:9 and 23:22. Literally, it means “corner,” or “border,” but came to mean “gleanings,”because of these two passages in Leviticus, where it found three times. Elsewhere it isfound some 83 times, all of which have to do with the “edge” of a man’s beard, or of a table, orof a territory.As the Mishnah Tractate notes, the Torah gives no guidance as to the exact measurementsof the “corner” or “edge” of the field that is to be left, just as it gives no exact measurementsfor the amount of first-fruits to be offered in worship to YHWH, or the “festal offering,” ordeeds of loving-kindness, or the study of Torah.But in the legislation that follows in this tractate, it is held that the peah cannot be lessthan one sixtieth of the field, and that such matters as the size of the field, the number of poorpeople, and the size of the harvest should be taken into consideration. Compare Leviticus23:22; Deuteronomy 24:19-22 and especially Ruth, chapter two. This is the type of legislationthat easily becomes the subject of legalistic exegesis, as is seen in the Mishnah; we donot find such legalistic treatment given to legislation concerning much more profound subjectssuch as love for neighbor, or love for the temporary resident living among us, etc.And, we wonder why there is not a Mishnah tractate entitled “Ahabah” (“Love”), or“Selichah” (“Abundant Forgiveness”)? It is much easier to get legalistic about “the corner of afield” than it is about “Love your neighbor as yourself,” or Psalm 103's description of YHWH’slove for His people. We think that Jesus, in His parable of the good Samaritan, was rejectingthe attempt of Pharisaic Judaism to limit “love for neighbor.”The Mishnah or Mishna ("repetition", from the verb shanah, or "to study and review",also "secondary" is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions called the"Oral Torah." It is also the first major work of Rabbinic Judaism. It was redacted about 220C.E. by Judah haNasi (“the Prince”) when, according to the Talmud, the persecution of the(continued...)190

harvest you (individual) shall not gather up. 19:10 al ^ßm.r>K; jr`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~t'êao bzOæ[)T; ‘rGEl;w> ynIÜ['l,( jQE+l;t. And your vineyard you (singular)shall not glean / go over a second time. And that which has been broken off (in) your vineyard,126you (singular) shall not gather up. For poor people, and for the temporary resident(s), you124(...continued)Jews and the passage of time raised the possibility that the details of the oral traditions datingfrom Pharisaic times (536 B.C.E.–70 C.E.) would be forgotten. It is thus named for being boththe one written authority (codex) secondary (only) to the Tanakh as a basis for the passing ofjudgment, a source and a tool for creating laws, and the first of many books to complementthe Bible in a certain aspect. The Mishnah is also called Shas (an acronym for ShishaSedarim --the "six orders"), in reference to its six main divisions. Rabbinic commentaries onthe Mishnah over the next three centuries were redacted as the Gemara, which, coupled withthe Mishnah, comprise the Talmud. (This paragraph was adapted from Wikipedia 8/11/11.)125The noun jq,lñ, is defined by Brown-Driver-Briggs as “gleaning, i.e., what is or maybe gleaned.”126The poel imperfect verb lleêA[t. means literally “You (singular) shall not treat,” whichis understood by its usage and context to mean “go over a second time,” “glean,” “collectleftover crops after initial harvesting is completed.” See the article by H.-J. Fabry in TheologicalDictionary of the Old Testament XI, pp. 139-47.Fabry notes that six occurrences of this verb “belong to the technical terminology ofviticulture...Both the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26) and the summary of the whole law byMoses before his death (Deuteronomy 1-30) include an ordinance forbidding all Israelitelandowners from gathering the gleanings of their vineyards (Leviticus 19:10; Deuteornomy24:21); they must refrain from seeking out and collecting the grapes that during the harvestwere overlooked or fell to the ground or were rejected because they were unripe or toosmall...[They] are based on the stipulation that the food left behind is meant for ‘the poor andthe alien [our ‘temporary resident’] (Leviticus 19) or ‘the alien, the orphan, and the widow’(Deuteronomy 24)...Obeying the gleanings ordinance is...not simply an aspect of charitytoward the poor in Israel, but also and above all a profession of faith in Yahweh (Deuteronomy26:12-19; Leviticus 19:33-34, 37).” (Pp. 139-40)King James, “And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape ofthy vineyard...”Tanakh, “You shall not pick your vineyard bare, or gather the fallen fruit of your vineyard...”New Revised Standard, similar.191(continued...)

127(singular) shall leave them. I--YHWH your God!19:11 Àt)ymi[)B; vyaiî WrßQ.v;t.-al{)w> Wvïx)k;t.-al{w> WbnO=g>Ti al{ß You people shall128not steal, and you shall not be deceptive, and you shall not deal falsely, one against his126(...continued)New International, “Do not go over your vineyard a second time or pick up the grapes thathave fallen...”127YHWH is in fact the great Giver of fertility to his people--not Baal, not Asherah, notany of the Canaanite or Egyptian “fertility Gods.” But when YHWH God gives abundant harveststo His people, He wants them to graciously share His bounty with the poor, and withthose who own no fields, and can enjoy no harvest of their own. The owners of the fields mustbe careful not to harvest the entirety of their fields--but are commanded to intentionally leavesignificant portions on the edges of the fields, and in the corners, for the poor and temporaryresidents to come and harvest for themselves. They are not to carefully pick every cluster ofgrapes that grows on their vines, or attempt to pick up every fallen grape or sheaf of grainwhile doing the work of harvesting. Instead, they must leave a significant portion for those lessfortunate. Martin Noth holds (and we think correctly so) that “This social reason has replacedthe primitive motive, certainly pre-Israelitic, of leaving these remains for the fertility-Spirits ofthe soil as their share in the crop.” (P.141)The reason for this kind of teaching is simply the fact that YHWH is this kind of God–Heloves the poor people, and the temporary residents. And His people, as they enjoy His graciousabundance, must remember that fact of YHWH’s nature, and so govern their practices inharvesting. Thus another practice of the Canaanite fertility religion is taken up and adapted bythe worship of YHWH, transforming a magical superstition into an act of loving social concern.Biblical legalists, who want every passage in the Bible to be taken “literally,” are apt tomiss the meaning of this legislation. Most of us who read the Bible today no longer harvestwheat or barley, or gather clusters of grapes from our vineyards--but there are still ways inwhich we can plan to intentionally share YHWH’s bountiful gifts with the poor and the immigrantsin our midst.What do you think? Is this truly the law of YHWH our God? Should we as His childrentake responsibility for the poor and the immigrants among us? Or is this something which weshould leave to the Federal Government to take care of out of our income taxes? Or is it amatter of “both / and,” rather than a matter of “either / or”?128This is a quotation of the “8th commandment” in the Ten Commandments (Exodus20:15; Deuteronomy 5:19). It is an instance of the Hebrew Bible quoting itself!192

fellow. 12919:12 `hw")hy> ynIïa) ^yh,Þl{a/ ~veî-ta, T'²l.L;xiw> rq,V'_l; ymiÞv.bi W[ïb.V'ti-al{)w> Andyou people shall not swear by my name for that which is deceptive--and (if you do) you (individ-130ual) will defile your God’s name. I--YHWH!19:13 -d[; ^ßT.ai ryki²f' tL;î[uP. !yliùt'-al{) lzO=g>ti al{åw> ^ß[)rE)-ta, qvoï[)t;-al{)131 132`rq,Bo, You (individual) shall not oppress your neighbor. And you shall not take by force.129Here again we emphasize, if YHWH God is creative and hard-working, giving goodgifts to others, never robbing or stealing from them, there can be no question as to how we,His people, ought to conduct our lives in our dealings with our fellow human beings. Insteadof stealing from others, we will do all in our power to help them to be successful, and to haveall of the necessities of life, including the right to own and dispose of their personal possessions.If YHWH God is absolutely true and faithful, we His people cannot expect to be likeHim while engaging in falsehood, or unfaithfulness of any kind. What a powerful ethical teachingthis is, one with a foundation that nothing in human history can shake.130In the Hebrew Bible we read of YHWH’s “swearing by Himself” concerning the futurewhich He will bring to pass for His people, or for His enemies. What YHWH swears to do, iscertain to come to pass, unless those promised or threatened change their ways.If we, His people, want to be like YHWH, then when we speak His name and promise inHis name to do something, we are duty bound to keep that promise. In modern terms, we areto be “promise keepers.” When we swear in court to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothingbut the truth, that is exactly what the people of YHWH, the God of Israel, and the Father ofJesus of Nazareth, must do. Better by far not to swear at all, than to swear and not fulfill ouroath. It is obvious how this piece of legislation is closely related to the Ten Commandments–see Exodus 20:16, Deuteronomy 20:20 and Exodus 20:7 along with Deuteronomy 20:11.131Compare verse 33, where the verb WnàAt, from the verb hn"y", “oppress,” “maltreat,”isused (translated by the Greek as qli,yete, “press,” “oppress”); here the verb is the morecommon qvoï[]t;, from the verb qv;[', “oppress,” “wrong,” “extort” (translated by the Greek asavdikh,seij, “do wrong,” “harm”) See:Heb EngLeviticus 5:21 / 6:2 , Atøymi[]B; vxe’kiw> hw"+hyB; l[;m;Þ hl'î[]m'W aj'êx/t, yKiä vp,n

133The wage of a hired person shall not remain overnight with you (individual) until morning.19:14 ynIïa) ^yh,Þl{a/Me t'arEïy"w> lvo+k.mi !TeÞti al{ï rWEë[i ynEåp.liw> vrEêxe lLeäq;t.-al{131(...continued)neighbor in a deposit, or in a pledge (literally, ‘a placing of hand,’ i.e. ‘hand-shake’), orin robbery, or he oppressed his fellow / neighbor.”Deuteronomy 28:29-33, among the curses that will come upon a disobedient Israel are thatthey will be oppressed, with no one to deliver them.Proverbs 14:31, `!Ay*b.a, !nEïxo AdªB.k;m.W÷ Whfe_[o @rEåxe lD"â-qve([oå, “One opressing a poor /weak person (is) a reproach (to) his Maker; and one honoring Him shows favor / mercy(to a) needy / poor person.Ecclesiastes 4:1, tx;T;ä ~yfiÞ[]n: rv,îa] ~yqiêvu[]h'ä-lK'-ta, ‘ha,r>a,w" ynI©a] yTi(b.v;äw>x:Koê ‘~h,yqev.[o) dY:ÜmiW ~xeên:m. ‘~h,l' !yaeÛw> ~yqiªvu[]h' t[;äm.DI ŸhNEåhiw> vm,V'_h;`~xe(n:m. ~h,Þl' !yaeîw>, “And I, I returned and I saw all the oppressions which are donebeneath the sun; and look–(the) tear(s) of those being oppressed, and there is no onecomforting them, and from their oppressors’ hand–strength–and there is no one forthem, comforting!”132The two Hebrew verbs used here in the second person singular are qv;[', and lz:G".They are closely related in meaning--qv;[' means “oppress,” “wrong,” “extort.” lz:G" means“tear away,” “seize,” or “rob.” They both have to do with taking from others against their will,forcing them to give or do what they do not want to give or do, forcibly taking what is theirrightful property against their will, or forcing them to do something they do not really want todo. YHWH our God is kind and generous, giving to the weak and the needy, bountifullysupplying every need of His human creatures.If this is the way YHWH is, then we His people must be very careful to never be guilty ofoppressing others, or seizing what belongs to them and not to us. The right of every person tothe ownership of personal property, and the right to protection of that property, is underlinedby this kind of ethical teaching.133The teaching of this verse is found in greater detail elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible.See: Leviticus 25:35-43; Deuteronomy 15:7-18; 24:14-15, and Malachi 3:5. In the NewTestament, see Jacob (“James”) 5:1-6.When the people of YHWH hire people to work for them, they must not delay in payingtheir wage. For example, if the workers are hungry, or cold, they must not be allowed to gothrough a cold night without food or shelter, which their paid wages would enable them toafford.194

134`hw")hy> You (individual) shall not curse a deaf person. And before a blind person you shall not135 136 137place a stumbling-block. And you shall fear / tremble in awe before your God! I--YHWH!134The adjective vrEêxe, “deaf,” is found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible at:Exodus 4:11b, YHWH asks excuse-making Moses, ~Wfåy"-ymi( Aa… è~d"a'l'( éhP, ~f'ä ymiä`hw")hy> ykiÞnOa' al{ïh] rWE+[i Aaå x;QEßpi Aaï vrEêxe Aaå ~Leêai, “Who put in place amouth for the human? Or who will place / make mute / speechless or deaf or seeing orblind? Is it not I, YHWH?”Isaiah 29:18, in the good time coming, rp,se_-yrEb.DI ~yviÞr>xeh; aWh±h;-~AYb; W[ôm.v'w>`hn"ya,(r>Ti ~yrIßw>[i ynEïy[e %v,xoêmeW lp,aoåmeW, “And they will hear on that day, the deafwill, words of a scroll / book; and out from gloom and out from darkness, eyes of blindpeople will see!” Isaiah 35:5, similar: ynEïz>a'w> ~yrI+w>[i ynEåy[e hn"x.q:ßP'Ti za'î`hn"x.t;(P'Ti ~yviÞr>xe, “Then they will be opened ( xq;P')–eyes of blind people; andears of deaf people will be opened (xt;P')!”Isaiah 42:18-19,-~ai yKiä ‘rWE[i ymiÛ `tAa)r>li WjyBiîh; ~yrIßw>[ih;w> W[m'_v. ~yviÞr>xeh;`hw")hy> db,[,îK. rWEß[iw> ~L'êvum.Ki ‘rWE[i ymiÛ xl'_v.a, ykiäa'l.m;K. vrEßxew> yDIêb.[;,“The deaf people, listen! And the blind people, look to see! Who (is) blind except Myservant, and blind like My messenger I will send? Who (is) blind like one in a covenantof peace, and blind like YHWH’s servant?”Isaiah 43:8, Àml'( ~yIn:ïz>a'w> ~yviÞr>xew> vyE+ ~yIn:åy[ew> rWEß[i-~[; ayciîAh, “Bring forth a blindpeople, and there are eyes; and deaf people, and ears are theirs!”Psalm 38:14, in this lament of an individual, the psalmist states, [m'_v.a, al{å vrExek.â ynIåa]w:`wyPi(-xT;p.yI al{å ~Leªaik.W÷, “And I, like a deaf person will not hear; and like a dumb /speechless person, (who) will not open his mouth!”Heb EngPsalm 58:5b / 4b , Àn*z>a' ~jeîa.y: vrEªxe÷ !t,p,î-AmK., “...like a deaf venomous serpent willstop up his ear.”135Levine states that “This admonition seems especially appropriate for offenses thatcannot be detected and that, therefore, are readily concealed. The deaf cannot hear what isbeing said about them, and the blind cannot see who causes them to stumble. But God seesand hears on their behalf and will punish their tormentors...“Later Jewish tradition interpreted the prohibition of placing a stumbling block before theblind as embodying a general norm of behavior. One should not tempt another person by195(continued...)

135(...continued)preying on his weakness, his ‘blindness,’ so to speak, or mislead one who cannot properly‘perceive’ the facts of a situation.’” (P.128)It is a common practice in almost every human culture--that when others suffer fromdeprivation of some sense--such as hearing, or sight–there are those who find pleasure intaking advantage of that impairment. It seems unbelievable that people can be so downrightmean--as to curse a deaf person, or place a stumbling-block in the pathway of a blind person.But such is, unfortunately, sometimes “human nature.” The people of YHWH, however,knowing how much YHWH loves just such people, will not be guilty of any such practice--butquite to the contrary, will take pains to communicate openly and honestly with those who arehearing impaired, and to guide the blind into the pathways of safety.Compare Deuteronomy 27:18, with its curse on anyone who misleads a blind man onthe road; and think of the compassion that Jesus demonstrated to the blind and the deaf in Hisministry.Wenham comments that “Whereas verses 11-12 forbid crooked dealings betweenequals, or at least between those capable of taking one another to law if they have a grievance,these verses (13-14) deal with exploitation of the weak who would not be able to seeksuch redress. Sharp practice against them is called oppression and robbery...” (P. 267)136The Hebrew phrase ^yh,Þl{a/Me t'arEïy"w>, “and you shall fear / tremble in awe from /before your God” is translated by the Greek as kai. fobhqh,sh| ku,rion to.n qeo,n sou, “andyou shall be afraid / become frightened (at) Lord the God of yours.”(continued...)196

136(...continued)It is instructive to observe how the Hebrew Bible teaches / commands “to fearGod”–see: Genesis 28:17 (Jacob is afraid because God has appeared to him at Bethel);Exodus 1:17, 21 (the Hebrew mid-wives feared God rather than Pharaoh); Exodus 3:6(Moses is afraid to look at God); Exodus 9:30 (Pharaoh and his officials still do not fearYHWH); Exodus 20:20 (fear of YHWH will keep the people from missing-the-mark / sinning);Leviticus 19:14, 32; 25:17, 36, 43 (you [singular] shall fear from your God); Deuteronomy6:2; 6:24; 10:12; 14:23; 17:19; 28:58; 31:12, 13 (Moses is teaching the people to fear YHWHtheir God and keep His commandments); 25:18 (Amalek’s failure was lack of fear of God);Joshua teaches the same thing (Joshua 4:24; 24:14); 1 Samuel 4:7 (the Philistines are afraidbecause of Israel’s God); Nehemiah 6:16 (the opponents surrounding the returnees are afraidwhen they see what God has done in their midst);At the same time teaches / commands “to not be afraid because of God.” Fear of Godis a fear that drives out all other fears–see: Genesis 21:17 (Hagar is told to not be afraid,because God has heard her prayer); 43:23 (Joseph tells his brothers to not be afraid becauseGod has acted on their behalf); Deuteronomy 3:22; 7:18; 20:1; 31:6 (don’t be afraidbecause YHWH your God is fighting for you); Judges 6:10 (don’t be afraid of other Gods); 2Kings 17:35-38 (Israel doesn’t have to be afraid of other Gods); Isaiah 35:4 (the faint-hearteddo not need to be afraid, for their God is coming to save them); 40:9 (a voice proclaims, Don’tbe afraid...Behold your God!); 41:10 (don’t be afraid, because I YHWH am with you!); Daniel10:12 (Daniel does not need to be afraid, because God has heard his prayer); 1 Chronicles28:20 (David tells Solomon to not be afraid, because God is with him); 2 Chronicles 20:15(Jahaziel tells all Judah to not be afraid of the vast horde coming against them, because thewar is not theirs, but God’s).In a very impressive way, Biblical Theology gets rid of human fear--in the words of theNew Testament, it “casts out fear.”See 1 John 4:18-19, fo,boj ouvk e;stin evn th/| avga,ph| avllV h` telei,a avga,ph e;xwba,llei to.n fo,bon( o[ti o` fo,boj ko,lasin e;cei( o` de. fobou,menoj ouv tetelei,wtai evn th/|avga,ph|Å h`mei/j avgapw/men( o[ti auvto.j prw/toj hvga,phsen h`ma/jÅ“There is no fear in the love–but rather the complete / perfect love casts out the fear;because the fear has punishment, but then the one fearing has not been made complete /perfect in the love. We love, because He first loved us.”And so, Biblical Theology teaches the believer to have a healthy respect / fear / reverencefor YHWH God--for in His hands are our lives and our deaths, as well as our only hopefor the future. Such fear or “trembling awe” is, for Biblical Theology, the very beginning andfountain-head of all true wisdom. This is one of the central teachings of the “Wisdom Literature”of Israel. But as God-fearers grow in their relationship with YHWH / Jesus Christ, thefear or trembling awe is overcome–“cast out”–as believers become more and more assured ofGod’s love, and grow in their own love for God–a love that dedicates all of life in obedience toYHWH / Jesus Christ.(continued...)197

136(...continued)See the important article by H. F. Fuhs on ary in Theological Dictionary of the OldTestament VI, pp. 290-315, from which the following statements are taken:“The verb ary appears in parallel not only with other verbs meaning ‘fear, but also withsuch expressions as bha, ‘love’ (Deuteronomy 10:12); qbd, ‘cleave to’ (DeuteronomyHeb Eng Heb Eng10:20; 13:5 / 4 ); db[, ‘serve’ (Deuteronomy 6:13; 10:12, 20; 13:5 / 4 ; Joshua24:14; 1 Samuel 12:14); rmv, ‘keep (commandments)’ (Deuteronomy 5:29; 6:2; 8:6; 13:5Heb Eng/ 4 ; 17:19; 31:12);’...’walk in His ways’ (Deuteronomy 8:6; 10:12)...’follow’ (Deuteron-Heb Eng Heb Engomy 13:5 / 4 )...’hearken to His voice’ (Deuteronomy 13:5 / 4 ; 1 Samuel 12:14)...’dothe commandments’ (Deuteronomy 6:24).” (P. 296)“‘Fear of God’ is without question a central concept of Old Testament religion, as ofother religions in the ancient Near East; it may be ‘the earliest term for religion in biblicalHebrew, and indeed in Semitic languages in general.’ [R. H. Pfeiffer] The notion that fear ofGod is the ultimate source of religion was expressed by Democritus [460-370 B.C.], followedby Epicurus [341-270 B.C.]; a fully developed exposition of this theory is found in Lucretius[99-55 B.C.], and it was given pregnant expression by Statius [45-96 A.D.] [All, late-comers interms of the Hebrew Bible!]: ...’At the beginning of the world, fear created the Gods.’ Whenhumans encounter the divine, commonly referred to since [Rudolf] Otto [1866/9-1937 A.D.] asthe ‘numinous,’ one effect is fear. Fear of the numinous embraces an inner polarity: terror,retreat, and flight on the one hand; attraction, trust, and love on the other...Fear of God becomessynonymous with reverence, worship, and obedience to God’s command.” (Pp. 297-98)“The polarity of tremendum and fascinans inherent in the numinous holiness of Godexplains why people react to the experience of God’s presence with both fear and flight on theone hand and acceptance, trust, and joy on the other. This is clear in several passages whereHeb Eng Heb Engfear and joy, though polar opposites, stand in parallel (Psalm 40:4 / 3 ; 52:8 / 6 ;Heb Eng64:10 / 9 ; 96:11-13)...Numinous fear thus becomes the starting point of a semantic developmentthat reduces the element of literal fear to a ‘moral fear of God’ and through affirmationand confession of Yahweh approaches the ‘cultic concept’ (fear = worship).” (P. 303)“The Holiness Code contains 5 occurrences of the formula ‘You shall fear your God; Iam Yahweh’ (Leviticus 19:14, 32; 25:17, 36, 43). It lends weight to requirements of mercy orsocial justice; they cease to be merely general ethical norms but enshrine instead the declaredwill of the covenant God and thus demand obedience.” (P. 313)Deborah Lein suggests that if fear of God is the beginning of wisdom, love is thecompletion of it, and compares Galatians 3:23-29 (in terms of a child being raised by a slave(the law), over against children of God in Christ through faith, no longer needing a slave tolook after them).(continued...)198

19.15 qda; ~yhi²l{a/ yaeór>yI lyIx;ø-yven>a;, “men of strength /wealth, fearers of God, men of true faithfulness, haters of bribery.” Their job would be to makejudicial decisions concerning the disagreements and problems that would arise from day today, with the more difficult problems being passed upwards to higher officials, and the mostdifficult cases being passed to Moses himself. And so it was, from the earliest recordedbiblical history of Israel, such courts existed and were active in making the judicial decisionsthat were made in the “fear of God,” and codified as “the law given by YHWH through Moses.”Such “courts of law” are not claimed to be unique to Israel–rather, as Genesis 18shows, Israel adapted such a system from her neighbors, the Midianites. And the fact is thatancient Near Eastern documents reveal that similar systems of “justice” existed in Israel’sother neighbors, who had long before Israel existed as a nation, produced law-codes similar tothose of Israel. The Lipit-Ishtar Lawcode of the Sumerians and Akkadians arose in the periodfrom 2,000 to 1,500 B.C. and attributed its decisions to the Gods Enlil and Utu, as enabling“true justice.” About the same time, between the downfall of the third dynasty of Ur and theempire of Hammurabi the Laws of Eshnunna to the east of Baghdad came into existence.Hammurabi, the sixth of eleven kings of the Old Babylonian (Amorite) dynasty, ruled from1728 to 1686, and published the famous Code of Hammurabi which he claimed to havereceived from the God of justice, the sun-God Shamash, and which were preserved on adiorite (an extremely hard, dark-colored rock) stela and on clay tablets. Later law-codesinclude the Middle Assyrian Laws (from the time of Tiglath-pileser I in the twelfth century B.C.),the Hittite Laws and the Neo-Babylonian Laws. See James B. Pritchard, Ancient NearEastern Texts, pp. 159-98.For Israel’s courts with their justices, the Divine imperative is, lw

139shall not lift up a poor person’s face (i.e., to show favoritism), And you (singular) shall not138(...continued)anything else to influence those decisions. The assumption of this imperative is that thepeople of Israel will have disagreements as to what constitutes “justice,” and “right-relationships,”and the judges will have to wrestle with these matters, always looking for the differencebetween “right” and “wrong,” constantly seeking to speak for YHWH in their decisions.Plato’s Republic, with its discussion of justice, was a late-comer in comparison to theTorah of Israel, and its insistence on justice!139Or, “show favoritism to.” This phrase, ld"ê-ynEp. aF'äti-al{, literally “you (singular)shall not lift up faces / appearance of a poor person,” involves an idiom in Hebrew, af'n"~ynIP', which probably was originally used in terms of a person fallen before another in humility,or confessing wrong-doing, and having his “faces” (countenance) lifted by the one beforewhom he has fallen. It would mean “granting the request,” or “being gracious to.”D.N. Freedman and B.E. Willoughby in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentX, pp. 37-38, state that “The expression ~ynIP' af'n", ‘to lift up one’s face, countenance,’ canbe meant literally (2 Kings 9:32). Lifting up one’s face is a sign of well-being and of goodconscience (2 Samuel 2:22; Job 11:15; compare especially Genesis 4:7 and the contrastingconstruction ~ynIP' lp;n", [‘it fell, faces’] verses 5, 6). When God lifts up His face, He bestowsHeb Enggrace and blessing (Numbers 6:26; compare Psalm 4:7 / 6 ). ‘Lifting up another person’sface’ implies a show of grace and favor. This reflects the ruler’s show of favor toward a petitioner;compare Yahweh’s reaction to Abraham’s request concerning Sodom (Genesis 19:21), David’s gracious acceptance of Abigail (1 Samuel 25:35), and God’s considerationHeb Engtoward Job (Job 42:8-9; compare further Genesis 32:21 / 20 ; Deuteronomy 28:50; 2Kings 3:14; Lamentations 4:16; Malachi 1:8-9).“In substantive form this expression occurs as ~ynIëp' afuän>, ‘he with his head lifted up,’as a reference to prominent personalities (2 Kings 5:1; compare Job 22:8; Isaiah 3:3; 9:14Heb Eng/ 15 ). Since the meaning of the expression has something to do with a demonstration ofspecial preference or a show of favor, it is positive-negative-ambivalent. The negative componentpredominates in juridical contexts, where ~ynIP' af'n" is identical with partiality and isassociated with bribery and the perversion of justice (compare Proverbs 6:35). AlthoughYahweh intervenes for His Own, He is characterized as One ‘Who is not partial’ (aF'äyI-al{ ‘dx;vo) xQ:ßyI al{ïw> ~ynIëp', [‘He will not lift up face(s), and He will not take a bribe’], Deuteronomy10:17). In the same way, partiality toward the poor is also forbidden (compare Leviticus19:15; compare Psalm 82:2; also Job 13:8, 10; 34:19; Proverbs 18:5).”200(continued...)

140honor a great person’s face (i.e., make exceptions for such people). In right relationship you141(singular) shall judge your fellow human being.139(...continued)The regulation means that while the judges and Israel’s courts are called to care forpoor people (ld"ê, “low,” “weak,” “poor,” “thin”) they are not to show partiality or favoritism tothem in their judicial decisions. Everyone is to be treated alike, regardless of their status inlife. The opposite trend, that of favoring the wealthy, is dealt with in the following regulation.It was this Hebrew phrase that led to the development of the new Greek vocabularyfound in the New Testament, , “receptions of faces” (in various combinations)which refers to all the ways in which people “show partiality” for or against others. In theGreek New Testament, see Acts 10:34; Romans 2:11; Ephesians 6:9; Colossians 3:25and Jacob (“James”) 2:1, 9.140That is, they are not to “make exceptions for such people,” because of their wealth orposition--acting as if the law of YHWH did not apply to them, somehow, because of who theyare, or because of the so-called “great wealth” that they possess. This is a most difficultimperative to follow; and as can be easily seen, far too often the justice dispensed by courts iscontrolled by those with wealth, especially large corporations with the money required forhiring expensive defense attorneys. Compare the preceding footnote and the next footnote.141YHWH desires for His people to establish honest courts of law, where true testimonyis given, and where judgments are made on the basis of truth and right-relationships, not ondistinctions of class or status in society. While His people are expected to express genuineloving care to the poor and the unfortunate, when it comes to testifying in court, or giving legaldecisions such as “guilty” or “not guilty,” there YHWH’s people are expected to simply go bythe evidence, and not let the class or social position of those on trial effect or alter that judgment.YHWH’s people are expected to take part in the judicial process, and by their honestyand truthfulness, to insure that justice is “blind,” and that only truth will prevail in every judicialprocedure. There can be no more important element for the establishment of justice in anynation.The imperative phrase ^t,(ymi[] jPoïv.Ti qd

19.16 ^yM,ê[;B. ‘lykir" %lEÜte-al{ You (singular) shall not walk / go around (as a)142slanderer among your people.141(...continued)While the New Testament documents urge the followers of God to not be judgmentalor condemning in their attitudes towards others, including their enemies (see Matthew 5 andRomans 12), they encourage the people of God to play their rightful role in the judicial process(see Romans 13:1-7). Luke, the author of the Book of Acts, goes to great length todemonstrate his mentor Paul’s dependence upon, and participation in the Roman legal systemfor his defense against his fellow Jews who sought his death. See Acts 21-28.What do you think? Do you believe that there can be genuine peace in our modernsocieties if Christians refuse to participate in the legal process, and take their place in honestlywitnessing / serving on juries / following careers in the law-profession? If, as this author (whohas written extensive commentaries on both Luke and Acts) believes, those two books werewritten as a combined “legal brief,” to be used at Paul’s trial in Rome, explaining the truenature of Christianity and Paul’s ministry as no enemies of the Roman empire, is that not apowerful witness to the role Christians should play in the legal process?142The noun translated “slanderer” is ‘lykir", which means “slanderer,” “tale-bearer,”“informer.” For occurrences elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible see:Jeremiah 6:28a, lykiÞr" ykeîl.ho ~yrIêr>As) yrEås' ‘~L'Ku, “All of them are certainly turningaside, going about / walking slanderer(s) / tale-bearer(s) / informer(s)...”Jeremiah 9:3, ‘xa'-lk' yKiÛ Wxj'_b.Ti-la; xa'Þ-lK'-l[;w> WrmeêV'hi ‘Wh“[erEme vyaiÛ`%l{)h]y: lykiîr" [;rEß-lk'w> bqoê[.y: bAqå[', literally “Each one, from his neighbor, guardthemselves; and upon every brother, you people shall not trust / be confident; becauseevery brother certainly grabs a heel / deceives; and every neighbor (as a) slanderer /tale-bearer / informer walks / goes about.”Ezekiel 22:9, %b'ê Wlk.a'ä ‘~yrIh'h,(-la,w> ~D"+-%p'v. ![;m;äl. %b'Þ Wyh'î lyki²r" yveîn>a;`%ke(Atb. Wfï[' hM'ÞzI, literally, “There were in you men of slanderer(s) / tale-bearer(s) /informer(s), in order to pour out blood; and to / in the mountains they ate among / inyou; they did / practiced wickedness / plan / device in you midst!”Proverbs 11:13, `rb'(d" hS,îk;m. x:Wrª÷-!m;a/n dAS+-hL,g:m. lykir"â %lEåAh, literally, “Onewalking / going about (as a) slanderer / tale-bearer / informer uncovers counsel; and areliable / faithful / trusty person of spirit covers up a word / matter.”Proverbs 20:19, `br")['t.ti al{å wyt'ªp'f.÷ ht,îpol.W lyki_r" %lEåAh dASâ-hl,AG*, literally,“One uncovering counsel walks / goes about (as a) slanderer / tale-bearer / informer;and to one opening his lips, you shall not exchange pledges / have fellowship.(continued...)202

`hw")hy> ynIßa) ^[,_rE ~D:å-l[; dmoß[)t; al{ï You (singular) shall not stand (still, or silent?)143over the blood of your neighbor. I--YHWH!142(...continued)Levine holds that the noun actually means “merchant,” i.e., one who has knowledge ofsecret dealings and gossip. (P.129)The phrase combines this noun with the verb %l;h', “to go about,” “to walk.” Thatmeans, while the people of YHWH are to speak the truth whenever testifying in court, andmake their decisions based on true facts--they are never to take matters into their own hands,making decisions in their own hearts, and going about in society undermining the reputation ofothers, speaking words of slander that hurt and cut others down.In the New Testament, see especially Jacob (“James”) the third chapter.Wenham comments that “To our way of thinking it is hard to see a connection betweenverses 15 and 16. For the most part, justice in our society is administered by professionallawyers, but if one went to court in ancient Israel one’s judges would be the elders of the village.In the intimate atmosphere of a local trial it would be particularly easy for neighbors tolet their feuds and personal animosities distort the proceedings.” (P.268)But are we any better than that in our modern courts, with their TV cameras and newsreportersspreading every rumor, such as is witnessed in the trials of celebrities where the trialtakes place as much in the news media as in the courtroom? What about the ability of peopletoday to spread rumors and slander on the internet, with its “twitter” and social media?Deborah Lein points out that this involves spreading information–whether true or not–that hurts others–not only lies and mis-truths.143The Hebrew sentence cries out for interpretation. What does it mean to say that “youmust not stand over the blood of your neighbor”? Does the commandment mean “stand still,”doing nothing, when the neighbor has been hurt, and is bleeding? Does it mean to not “standsilent,” in the presence of our neighbor’s death, or suffering? Deborah Lein aptly suggests theexamples of Cain in regard to his brother’s murder (Genesis 4:1-16), and the brothers ofJoseph (Genesis 37).Gordon Wenham translates “Do not stand up against your neighbor on a capitalcharge.” (P. 262) But is this what the command means? Levine holds that the properinterpretation is “Do not profit by the blood of your fellow.” (P. 129) We think the first twosuggestions are better than Wenham’s suggestion or Levine’s.It is a common teaching in the Hebrew Bible that blood that has been shed cries out toYHWH God for vengeance (compare Genesis 4:10). YHWH will heed the cry of all suchblood; and it is His demand that His people exercise that same kind of care for their neighbors.(continued...)203

19.17 ^b,_b'l.Bi ^yxiÞa'-ta, an"ïf.ti-al{) You (singular) shall not hate your brother in144your heart.143(...continued)We can only begin to estimate what a great change would be caused if the people ofYHWH God consistently refused to keep silent, or stand idle, when neighbor’s blood is spilled.We wonder--what would have happened in Hitler’s Germany if the people of God--both Jewishand Christian (Catholic and Protestant) had refused to silence their voices with regards to theoppression of the victims of Hitler’s madness? Deborah Lein notes that “The question askedby Cain in Genesis 4:9 is answered (in Leviticus 19:16) ‘Yes! We are our brother’s (andneighbor’s) keeper!’”144For Biblical Theology, it is a commonplace that YHWH God is interested in humanhearts. He wants very much for His people to love Him with all their heart. Not only is the humanheart important in Divine-human relationships, it is equally important in human interpersonalrelationships. Especially within the human family is this true. YHWH commands that werid our hearts of all hatred for our brother. And, we add, deep within Biblical Theology is theteaching that there is not one human being--regardless of race, or nationality, or creed, or skincolor, or sex--who is not our “brother.” This is taught in the first eleven chapters of Genesis--where “Adam,” “humanity,” male and female bears the Divine image, and where the “seventynations” of Genesis 10 are all the descendants of Adam.Compare in the New Testament 1 John 2:9, 11; 3:15 and 4:20 (“he who does not lovehis brother whom he has seen cannot love God whom he has not seen.”)It is easy enough to command--but very difficult to obey. Critics of Biblical Theologyhave often criticized the biblical commandment to “love” by stating that it is impossible tocommand such a thing. Evidently YHWH / Jesus Christ disagree with that criticism, believingthat we human beings can somehow control our own hearts, saying “yes” to love, and “no” tohatred. Both the Hebrew Bible and the teaching of Jesus Christ hold that we are not thehelpless victims of inherited prejudices or class hatreds. But the fact learned from long experiencein the Southern “Bible Belt” of America is that it is very difficult to overcome those prejudices/ hatreds, oftentimes impossible without deep-seated religious conversion.Is this possible? Or is the commandment of YHWH a hopeless piece of a religiousutopian dream? Jesus of Nazareth lived by this commandment, and taught it with renewedpower to His followers--see, for example, the “Sermon on the Mount” as described in Matthew5-7. For Jesus, it resulted in His going to a wooden post on Golgotha--what will it mean forus? Do we dare to risk it?204

145àj.xe( wyl'Þ[' aF'îti-al{w> ^t,êymi[)-ta, ‘x:y“kiAT x;keÛAh You must strongly confront145The Hebrew phrase ‘x:y“kiAT x;keÛAh, is “confronting, you must confront,” or “reproving,you must reprove,” or “You must certainly reprove!” The biblical commandment knowsnothing of silently enduring the evils perpetrated by others, acting as if they hadn’t happened,refusing to speak up in our own defense, or in the defense of others. If it is objected that theNew Testament depicts Jesus going to Golgotha “silent like a lamb,” it must not be overlookedthat He had powerfully spoken out against the Jewish leaders in Jerusalem during thelast few days before His trial (see Mark 11-13).This biblical imperative of Leviticus 19:17 calls upon the people of Israel to do asYHWH does--speakng out against all evil. Jesus Christ sets the example for His followers inMark 11-13. Too many of us are afraid to confront the evil-doer, fearful lest if we condemnevil actions, we will subject ourselves to hatred and ridicule--and therefore we just go on ploddingthrough the slime of evil, refusing to take a stand against it. There are far too manyexamples of the brave people of God denouncing evil for exactly what it is, crying out againstevil even at the cost of their lives, for us to even suppose that being silent in the face of wrongdoingcan be a proper life-style.See the article on this verb by G. Mayer in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentVI, pp. 64-71, who holds that the basic meaning of this verb xk;y" is “set right,” or “showwhat is right.” (P. 65) Brown-Driver-Briggs gives the definition as “decide,” “adjudge,”“prove.” Mayer states with regards to Leviticus 19:17 that it has to do with what takes placein law-suits: “The action denoted by xk;y" is verbal...taking the form of argument and counterargument[see Job 13:22]. The plaintiff charges the defendant with offenses against the lawand morality: he has forgotten the torah of God (Hosea 4:6), which has a special interest inprotecting the interests of one’s neighbor.” (Pp. 67-8)Jesus of Nazareth, according to Luke 17:3-4, taught that his followers should “Takeheed to themselves. If your brother misses-the-mark against you, confront () him;and if he turns around, forgive him. And if seven times in a day he misses-the-mark againstyou, and seven times he turns around to you saying, ‘I turn around,’ forgive him.”Yes, Jesus teaches us to give unlimited forgiveness--but only after confronting, andreproving, and having caused our brother to turn around. Only then. Too many of the followersof Jesus want a “cheap grace”--in which there is no confrontation, and no reproving,resulting in no turning around, and no genuine forgiveness. How do you understand all ofthis?In the Hebrew Bible, there are some 59 passages where this verb occurs. It sometimesmeans “decide,” or “judge”; but it also has the meanings “convince,” “convict”; “reprove,”“chide”; and “correct,” “rebuke.”Passages where it is used of humans who “reprove” others, are:205(continued...)

145(...continued)Genesis 21:25, Abraham reproved the Philistine Abimelech concerning a well of water.Leviticus 19:17(here), don’t hate your brother in your heart, but do reprove him!Hosea 4:4, Hosea, perhaps mimicking his opponents, says “Let no one reprove!”Amos 5:10, `Wb[e(t'y> ~ymiÞT' rbeîdow> x:yki_Am r[;V;Þb; Waïn>f', “They hate one reproving in thegate (where court was held), and one who speaks complete / sound things they abhor.”Isaiah 29:21b, `qyDI)c; WhToßb; WJïY:w: !Wv+qoy> r[;V;ÞB; x:ykiîAMl;, “for the one reproving in thegate / court they lay a snare; and they thrust into the chaos a rightly-related person.”Jeremiah 2:19a, %xuêkiAT ‘%yI“t;Abvu(m.W %teª['r" %rEåS.y:T., “Your evil will chastise / disciplineyou; your apostasies will reprove you.”Ezekiel 3:26, vyaiäl. ~h,Þl' hy T'm.l;êa/n ^K,êxi-la, qyBiäd>a; ‘^n>Av)l.W`hM'he( yrIßm. tyBeî yKi² x:yki_Am, “And your tongue I will cause to cleave / stick to yourgums, and you will be silent; and you will not be a reprover-man for them; because theyare a rebellious house.”Job 6:25-26, Job responds to Elliphaz’s speech, saying among other things, Wcïr>m.NI-hm;x:Wrªl.W÷ Wbvo+x.T; ~yLiämi xk;äAhl.h; `~K,(mi x;keäAh x:ykiÞAY-hm;W rv,yO=-yrEm.ai`va'(nO yrEïm.ai, “How sickening / grievous, (your) words of uprightness! And what iscertainly reproved from / by you people? Do you people intend to reprove (my) words,and (throw) to (the) wind (the) words of a desparing person?” This text is very difficultto translate, but is clearly stating that Job’s friends are attempt to reprove him.Job 40:2b, YHWH calls Job a H:Alåa/ x:ykiÞAm, “reprover of Eloah / God.” And that is exactlywhat the Book of Job depicts Job as being.Proverbs 9:7, Àm)Wm [v'är"l. x:ykiÞAmW !Al+q' Alå x;(qEål{ #leª Ÿrse’yOÝ, “One correcting ascorner is one receiving for himself disgrace; and a reprover of the wicked, (is onereceiving) a blemish.Proverbs 9:8, `&'b,(h'a/y ~k'ªx'l.÷ xk;îAh &'a,_n"f.yI-!P, #leâ xk;ATå-la;, “Do not reprove ascorner, or else he will hate you; reprove a wise person, and he will love you.”Proverbs 15:12, `%le(yE al{å ~ymiªk'x]÷-la, Al+ x;(keäAh #leâ-bh;a/y< al{å, “A scorner will notlove one reproving him; he will not go to wise people.”Proverbs 19:25, `t[;D") !ybiîy" !Abªn"l. x:ykiîAhw> ~rI+[.y: ytip,äW hK,T;â #leä, “You shall strike ascorner, and a simple / open-minded person will be made shrewd / crafty; and reprovea person of understanding–he will understand knowledge!”Proverbs 24:25, in contrast to those who say the wicked are in the right, and are cursed bypeople (verse 24), `bAj)-tK;r>bi aAbïT' ~h,ªyle[]w:÷) ~['_n>yI ~yxiîykiAMl;w>, “and to theones reproving (the wicked), it will be delightful / pleasant; a good blessing will come!”206(continued...)

your fellow-citizen, and you will not bear / overlook / forgive missing-of-the-mark because of146him.145(...continued)Proverbs 25:12, `t[;m'(vo !z

146(...continued)ourselves? See footnote 122, and the article on the verb af'n" in Theological Dictionary ofthe Old Testament X, pp. 24-40, by Freedman, Willoughby, Fabry and Ringgren, whichbegins by stating:“The root af'n", ‘to lift high, carry, take,’ is a common Semitic root referring to the physicalmovement of raising, lifting up, and carrying, along with every conceivable association.This wide semantic scope is attested throughout Semitic literature. In addition to the verbalroot, we also find substantives, which form idiomatic expressions in specific contexts. Themain emphasis, both in the physical and in the emotional and spiritual sense, resides in thenotion of carrying or bearing, be it punishment, shame, or something similar. In the OldTestament this notion has been expanded to include the principle of forgiveness, and forgivenessis itself associated with the idea of lifting away or taking away guilt, sin, and punishment.Since the expression for forgiveness is frequently semantically the same as ‘bearing theburden of punishment,’ forgiveness is frequently understood as ‘to bear, carry away, settle,etc.” (Pp. 24-25)The phrase here in Leviticus 19:17 is aj.xe af'n", which is ambiguous in Hebrew, butwhich is synonymous with the phrase !A[' af'n", with the various possible meanings “bearsin / guilt,” or “forgive sin / guilt.” Freedman and Willoughby show how these phrases refer tothree different situations:(1) the bearing of one’s own guilt / sin in connection with confession and an understandingof the punishment that it brings. They understand Leviticus 19:17 in this light: “Oneis not to hate one’s brother lest one bring sin upon oneself.” Compare Micah 7:9.Heb(2) the bearing of the consequences of the guilt / sin of others–Numbers 30:16 /Eng15 ; 14:33, as the children bear the consequences of the guilt / sin of their fathers–a viewthat is challenged and rejected by Ezekiel 18, especially verse 20.(3) the bearing of the guilt / sin of another person for the purpose of forgiveness–Genesis50:17. The bearing of the guilt / sin belongs both to those committing the wrong, and tothe person who forgives it.With reference to this third situation, in Ezekiel 4:4-8 Ezekiel is told that he must “bearIsrael’s guilt for many days,” even though he himself is innocent. This is also seen in theLevitical sin-offering of a goat which makes atonement for those making the offering–seeLeviticus 9:15-24, but especially see the ritual for the day of covering / atonement in chapter16. “Since the priest confesses the sins of the people over the head of the goat, the scapegoatbecomes the ‘bearer’ of those sins in the literal sense as well; it lifts them up and carriesthem into the desert.” (P. 34)Further, when YHWH / God forgives guilt / sin, He is said to “bear” them, as the great(continued...)208

146(...continued)“Forgiver / Bearer of sins.” See Exodus 34:7; Numbers 14:18; Micah 7:18. “God’s bearingof such injustice is always an act of forgiveness. This does not mean that He acts as if notransgression had occurred; rather, He refrains from requital. The result is that though Goddoes not suspend the consequences for the sinner, neither does He prolong them. He forgivesand does not reject...God frees the sinner from the burden of his guilt, He lifts it up, suspendsit...This is understood literally when Micah 7:19 speaks of God casting all the sins ofhuman beings into the depths of the sea (compare the scapegoat analogy.” (P. 36)“The expression !A[' af'n" also occurs in the complex literary songs of the SufferingServant. Isaiah 52:14 and 53:1-3 portray the Servant as a sick and disfigured person...Theastounding disclosure...is that he does not suffer for his own sins but rather effects representativeatonement...The Servant suffers as a result of our wickedness (compare verse 3), hebears its burden, carries it away, and heals us from it (compare verse 5).” (P. 36)Wenham comments on Leviticus 19:17-18 that “It is much better to avoid taking yourbrother to court at all. These verses give some alternative remedies. First do not hate yourbrother in your heart (verse 17; compare Matthew 5:21ff.; 1 John 2:9; 3:15). If you have realreason to be annoyed with him, discuss the matter with him, rebuke him, as Abraham did withAbimelech (Genesis 21:25). The value of having things out with people rather than broodingon them is mentioned more than once in the Bible.” (P.268) See footnote 145, and:Proverbs 27:5, `tr

19.18 `hw")hy> ynIßa) Âm+ K' ^ß[)rEl. T'îb.h;a'(w> ^M,ê[; ynEåB.-ta, ‘rJoti-al{)w> ~QoÜti-al{)147 148You (singular) must not take vengeance, and you must not nurse (anger against) your146(...continued)to stand (this sounds very much like a court-case, where testimony is given and tested).But then if he should not listen to them, speak to the assembly (Jesus envisions Hisfollowers meeting in assemblies, and resolving disputed issues, much like the HebrewBible’s city-gate / court procedures). But then if he should not listen to the assembly,let him be to you just like the foreigner / gentile and the tax-collector (but note howJesus Himself reached out to foreigners / gentiles and tax-collectors with love andacceptance!).“Truly I say to you people, whatever you may bind upon the earth will be havingbeen bound in heaven (that is, they are acting on heaven’s behalf, just like the judgesand priests and prophets in Israel, speaking for God!).“Again [truly] I say to you people, that if two of you should be of one mind / cometo agreement upon the earth, concerning any matter concerning which they shallrequest / ask, it will be done for them by the Father of Mine, the One in (the) heavens.For wherever two or three are, gathered together in the name of Mine, there I am intheir midst.“Then the Peter, having come, said to Him, Lord, how often shall the brother ofmine miss-the-mark / sin, and I should forgive him? Seven times? The Jesus says tohim, I do not say to you until seven times, but rather until seventy seven times!”This passage raises all sorts of questions for the interpreter. But there can be nodoubt that according to Matthew, Jesus urged His followers to follow this practicetaught in Levticus 19:17 concerning “reproving a brother,” and the granting of close tounlim-ited forgiveness. Matthew depicts Jesus as having strong confidence in theassemblies that would meet in His name, and small groups that would gather and prayin His name.Galatians 6:1, VAdelfoi,( eva.n kai. prolhmfqh/| a;nqrwpoj e;n tini paraptw,mati( u`mei/j oi`pneumatikoi. katarti,zete to.n toiou/ton evn pneu,mati prau

147(...continued)We may sum up much biblical teaching by saying that while YHWH takes vengeance inHis Own time and way, He forbids the taking of vengeance by His people, unless He specificallyorders them to do so (as in Exodus 21:20, where YHWH commands the taking ofvengeance on a master who strikes a slave, male or female, causing death). The imperativeof Leviticus 19:18 is very closely related to the teaching of Jesus in Matthew 5-7.Here the overall basis for ethics finds an exception--what YHWH does in taking vengeance,His people must not do--until YHWH Himself calls them to execute vengeance. Hispeople are forbidden from taking vengeance into their own hands. We are not the Judge–weare not God!See E. Lipinski’s article on the root ~q;n" in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentX, pp. 1-9. Lipinski divides the Hebrew Bible’s teaching concerning revenge into twosections, the first, “The Obligation to Take Vengeance” (pp. 3-6), and “Prohibition of Revenge”(pp. 6-9).On the first side, there are passages in the Hebrew Bible such as Exodus 21:18-20,and Lipinski states that “This obligation is supported by the entirety of Old Testamentlegislation: compare the Covenant Code (Exodus 21:12), the Holiness Code (Leviticus24:17), and the Deuteronomic collections of laws (Deuteronomy 19:11-12).” (P. 3)But on the second side is this passage in Leviticus 19:18, where “the prohibition ofrevenge is emphatically inculcated.” (P. 6) Lipinski points out how “The Qumran Essenes goeven further in their interpretation of Leviticus 19:18. According to CD / Damascus Document9:2-5 God alone is to take vengeance on His enemies...One of the most essential obligationsof the members of this ‘new covenant’ consists in not bearing rancor from one day tothe next’ (CD 7:2-3). God will severely punish those who ‘have taken revenge and bornemalice’ (CD 8:5-6).” (P. 8) Here we find great similarity to the teaching of Jesus and of Paul inthe New Testament.For use of Leviticus 19:18 in the New Testament, see Matthew 5:43; 19:19; 22:39;Mark 12:31, 33; Luke 10:27; Romans 12:19 (see verses 17-21); 13:9; Galatians 5:14 andJacob (“James”) 2:8.What do you make of this? Are Jesus and Paul taking Leviticus 19:18 in opposition tothe much more dominant demand for taking revenge in the Hebrew Bible?148Here the Hebrew verb is rJoti from the root rj;n", natar, which means “keep,” or“maintain,” especially in terms of keeping or maintaining anger.See the following passages for the use of this verb elsewhere:211(continued...)

149 150 151 152people. And you must love your neighbor as yourself. I (am) YHWH!148(...continued)Jeremiah 3:5, the prostitute Judah, sensing YHWH’s displeasure and punishment, asks,xc;nyIh] , “Will He keep / maintain (His displeasure) to /for long-lasting time? Will He guard / keep (His anger) forever?”Jeremiah 3:12, YHWH’s answer to Judah’s question is dysiÛx'-yKi( ~k,_B' yn:ßP' lyPiîa;-aAl)`~l'(A[l. rAJßa, al{ï hw"ëhy>-~aun> ‘ynIa], “I will not cause My face to fall against youpeople, because I (am) kind (love steadfastly)–it is a saying of YHWH–I will not keep /maintain (My displeasure) to long-lasting time!”Nahum 1:2, Nahum’s oracle concerning Nineveh begins with YHWH’s Self-description: laeäaWhß rjeîAnw> wyr"êc'l. ‘hw"hy> ~qEÜnO hm'_xe l[;b;äW hw"ßhy> ~qEïnO hw"ëhy> ‘~qenOw> aANÝq;`wyb'(y>aol., “YHWH (is) a jealous God, and One Who avenges; YHWH avenges andOwner / Lord of rage; YHWH takes vengeance to / on His adversaries, and He keeps /maintains (His anger) to / against His enemies!”Psalm 103:9, `rAJ)yI ~l'äA[l. al{ßw> byrI+y" xc;nj")n" al{ï yLiÞv, “My mothers sons were angry with me; they placed / made mekeeper of the vineyards; my vineyard which belongs to me I did not keep / maintain.”Song of Solomon 8:11-12, “keepers” of Solomon’s vineyards.Daniel 7:28b, in Aramaic, `trE)j.nI yBiîliB. at'ÞL.miW, “and the matter / word I kept / maintainedin my heart.”H. Madl, in an article on this root in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament IX,pp. 402-06, states that “Leviticus 19:17-18 [is] a unit framed by the contrasting terms...’hate,’and ...’love,’ in parallel. The admonition addresses intimate personal relations rather than theforensic [legal] realm...The verb ‘hate’ is made concrete in specific repeated acts by the paralleluse of...’not take vengeance,’ and...’not bear a grudge’ (verse 18). One must not confronta brother, sister, or neighbor with hatred smoldering in one’s breast, but with clear, firmreproof. Hatred incurs guilt to the point of death; therefore a rejoinder must always be made inlove, which must also be rooted in the heart.” (P. 405)“Keeping” anger in one’s heart, or, as we have translated the verb here, “nursing”anger, is a very dangerous procedure to follow, and leads to all sorts of mental and socialproblems. The attitude of “I will never forget how you have wronged me” leads to a life ofsullenness, in activity and depression, and can sometimes result in extreme acts of violence.In modern times, think of the two young men at Columbine High School in Colorado Springs,Colorado, who nursed their anger at the football “jocks,” and let that anger spill out intomassive murder of innocent fellow students.212

149YHWH, the God of Israel, is interested in the “heart condition” of His people. Hewarns them against hating, against seeking vengeance, and even against “nursing” anger intheir hearts against those who have hurt them. Those who seek to caricature the religion ofthe Jewish Bible as being completely external and legalistic, over against their superior “loving”and “heart-felt” religion, have overlooked such teachings as found here. YHWH wants areligion that not only transforms the outward acts of his people, but one that also transformsthe human heart, deep within. Nothing less will do. Compare Psalm 51 and a host of otherpassages in the Hebrew Bible. In the New Testament, see Ephesians 4:31-32.150The second person singular qal verb, T'îb.h;a'(w>, “and you shall love,” is in contrast tothe two preceding negative commands–“you must not take vengeance,” and “you must notnurse anger.” Taking vengeance and hating are outlawed and forbidden; in their place, love iscommanded.For an excellent introduction to the Hebrew Bible’s teaching concerning “love,” see thearticle bha, ahabh, by Gerhard Wallis in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament I,pp. 99-118, from which the following statements are taken:“In the Old Testament, the verb form of bha occurs 140 times in the qal, 36 times asa qal active participle usually with the meaning ‘friend,’ once as a niphal participle, and 16times as a piel participle in the sense of ‘paramour.’ As far as substantival forms are concerned,ahabah occurs 50 times, ahabh twice, and ohabh twice.” (P. 102)“The scope of the concept to love / love in the Old Testament idiom is very broad. Itextends from the affection of members of the opposite sex for one another...or even conjugalintercourse itself...to the intimate bonds between father and (favorite) son...or between motherand her favorite child...or between daughter-in-law and mother-in-law...to friendly relationshipbetween men, like Jonathan and David...teacher and disciple...servant and master...even tothe intimate relationship between a people and their military leader...Both love for one’s fellowmen as a kind, friendly, helpful attitude toward one’s countrymen (Leviticus 19:18) and thepouring out of one’s heart to the stranger (19:34; Deuteronomy 10:18, 19) are to be understoodin the latter sense...“But finally, the root ahabh is also used for the relationship between Yahweh and Israelor His Godly ones...and thus indicates total love which demands all of one’s energies...But allthis is based on Yahweh’s love for Israel, which motivates him to punish and to save them.”(P. 104) See the following passages:Genesis 22:2, qx'êc.yI-ta, ‘T'b.“h;a'-rv,a] ^Üd>yxi(y>-ta, ^’n>Bi-ta, an"û-xq; rm,aYo³w:rv,Þa] ~yrIêh'h,( dx;äa; l[; hl'ê[ol. ‘~v' WhleÛ[]h;w> hY"+rIMoh; #r

150(...continued)`^yl,(ae rm;îao…, “And (YHWH) said, Take now your son, your only one, whom youloved, Isaac, and go yourself to Moriah-land, and offer him up there, for an offering-upupon one of the mountains which I will tell you”–what an excruciatingly difficult commandto follow!Leviticus 19:18, here, Âm+K' ^ß[]rEl. T'îb.h;a'(w>, “and you shall love your neighbor likeyourself!”, 34, ÂmêK' ‘Al T'îb.h;a'w> , “and you shall love him (the temporary resident)like yourself!” In an unexpected way, the commandment to love your neighbor likeyourself is expanded radically, to include the person who is only temporarily residing inyour community, perhaps of a different nationality / religion / race. It is a love thatbreaks over the normal boundaries!Deuteronomy 6:5, lk'b.W ^ßv.p.n:-lk'b.W ^ïb.b'l.-lk'B. ^yh,_l{a/ hw"åhy> taeÞ T'êb.h;a'äw>`^d taeÞ T'êb.h;a'äw>`~ymi(Y"h;-lK' wyt'ÞwOc.miW wyj'²P'v.miW, “And you shall love YHWH your God, and yourshall keep / observe His charge, and His statutes, and His legal-decisions, and Hiscommandments, all the days.” A defining mark of biblical love is that it is obedient tothe One loved!Judges 14:16, ynIT'êb.h;a] al{åw> ‘ynI“t;anEf.-qr: ‘rm,aTo’w: wyl'ª[' !Avøm.vi tv,ae’ •&.b.Tew:ybióa'l. hNE’hi Hl'ª rm,aYOæw: hT'd.G:+hi al{å yliÞw> yMiê[; ynEåb.li ‘T'd>“x; hd"ïyxih;*`dyGI)a; %l'îw> yTid.G:ßhi al{ï yMi²ail.W, “And Samson’s wife wept over him, and she said,You only hated me, and you did not love me! You made the riddle to the sons of mypeople; and to me you did not declare it(s secret). And he said to her, Look, I did notdeclare it to my father and to my mother, and to you I will declare (it).” See verse 17.“Love” can be manipulative!Isaiah 57:8, yliª[]T;w:) tyLiäGI yTiúaime yKiä %nE+Ark.zI T.m.f;Þ hz"ëWzM.h;w> ‘tl,“D`tyzI)x' dy"ï ~b'ÞK'v.mi T.b.h;îa' ~h,ême %l'ä-tr"k.Tiw: ‘%beK'v.mi T.b.x;Ûr>hi, “Andbehind the door and the mezuzah / door-post, you placed your memorial, becauseyou uncovered (your nakedness) and you went up, you enlarged you bed, and you cutfor yourself (a covenant) with / from them; you loved their bed; you looked at (their)(continued...)214

150(...continued)penis.” We are taking the noun dy"ï, literally “hand,” as a euphemism for “sexual organ.”Love for YHWH can be changed to love for the sexual immoralities of Baalism!Ezekiel 16:37; Hosea 9:1, similar.Amos 4:5, ynEåB. ‘~T,b.h;a] !keÛ yKiä W[ymi_v.h; tAbßd"n> Waïr>qiw> hd"êAT ‘#mex'me( rJeÛq;w>`hwI)hy> yn"ïdoa] ~auÞn> laeêr"f.yI, “And make a sweet-smelling offeromg from that which isleavened, and proclaim vows–cause (them) to be heard–because you love this way (ofworshiping), Israel’s children–it is a saying of my Lord YHWH!” The people of God canfall in love with their public worship, instead of loving and serving YHWH!Heb Eng Heb EngZechariah 8:17; Psalm 4:3 / 2 ; 52:5-6 / 3-4 , people can love falsehood; but PsalmHeb Eng45:8 / 7 , they can also love right-relationship and hate wickedness. People choosewhat they will love. Proverbs 1:22, they can choose to love simplicity / ignorancerather than wisdom.Malachi 1:2, YHWH loved Israel, just as He loved Jacob and hated Esau. Divine love can beselective.Ecclesiastes 9:9, `~Al)v' t[eîw> hm'Þx'l.mi t[eî anOëf.li t[eäw> ‘bhoa/l,( t[eÛ, “(There is) atime to love, and a time to hate; a time of war, and a time of peace.” Time and circumstancedetermine the proper time for love and hate, etc. The big question for wisdomis, what time is it? .It is obvious from these passages how easily human love can be misdirected to unworthyobjects, rather than being directed towards YHWH God, and towards those whom He intendsfor His people to love. The commandment assumes that human beings are responsiblefor directing their love towards proper objects. And it also assumes that we are able to choosewhat to love–we are not the helpless victims of inner urges or forces!Do you agree that we can choose what to love or not love? Or do you hold that we areall in the situation of inner-conflict that Paul describes in Romans 7? Can YHWH / JesusChrist deliver us from that situation? That is, can a higher love drive out lesser loves, and“clean up our act”? Paul thinks it can. What do you think?151For the noun ^ß[]rE, “your neighbor / friend / companion / fellow,” see the article by D.Kellermann in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament XIII, pp. 522-32, where hestates that “Of the 187 occurrences of [;re [in the Hebrew Bible], 33 are in Proverbs, 22 inDeuteronomy, 21 in Jeremiah, 20 in Exodus, 14 in Job, 8 in Zechariah, 8 in Psalms, and 7each in Genesis and Samuel. The word does not appear in Ezra, Nehemiah, Daniel, Joel,Amos, Obadian, Nahum, Zephaniah, or Haggai [it occurs 4 times in Leviticus at 19:13, 16,18 (here) and 20:10]...The range of meanihgs extends from ‘companion,’ ‘comrade,’ ‘friend,’‘beloved,’ to ‘neighbor’ and ‘another.’” (P. 525)This noun occurs with four other synonyms in Leviticus 19:(continued...)215

151(...continued)^t,êymi[], “your fellow-citizen / associate / relation,” verses 11 and 17. See the articleby H. J. Zobel in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament XI, pp. 192-96, who observesthat this noun only occurs 12 times in the Hebrew Bible. 11 of which are in Leviticus [5:21,21; 18:20; 19:11, 15, 17; 24:19; 25:14, 14; 25:15, 17, and the only other occurrence is inZechariah 13:7. Definitions that have been given for this noun vary: “relationship”; “kinship”;“a relative or kinsman.”Zobel himself states that “an tymi[' is a member of the people of Israel with whom onehas a special relationship like that between two brothers, shaped by a common faith inYahweh. Elliger’s definition–an tymi[' is ‘a member of the national community whose Lord isYahweh’–catches the essence. The best translation, therefore, is not ‘kinsman’ but ‘memberof the national community, fellow citizen.” (P. 194)^yxiÞa', “your brother” verse 17. See the article by Helmer Ringgren in TheologicalDictionary of the Old Testament I, pp. 188-93. Ringgren states that the root xa “is acommon Semitic root; it signifies first of all a peron’s own blood brother, but it also has thebroader meaning of kinsman, fellow countryman, companion, etc.” (P. 188)“The strong family solidarity of the Israelites also includes the relationship betweenbrothers and sisters. He who has neither a brother nor a [;re, ‘friend,’ is defenseless (2Samuel 13:3, 6; compare Ecclesiastes 4:8). The story of Cain is typical (Genesis 4)...“With the extension of the idea of brotherhood to all fellow tribesmen and fellow countrymencame also the increased demand for solidarity. In the Holiness Code and Deuteronomythere are numerous references to duties toward a brother. Since all Israelites are brothers,one whould help everyone who becomes poor (Leviticus 25:35-36). Deuteronomyespecially emphasizes this duty (15:7, 9, 11-12).” (P. 192)^M,ê[; ynEåb., “children / sons of your people” verse 18;^M,ê[;, “your people,” verses 8 and 16. See the article by E. Lipinski in TheologicalDictionary of the Old Testament XI, pp. 163-77, for this noun ~[; which occurs 1,950 timesin the Hebrew Bible, and which “is part of the basic vocabulary of the West Semitic languages(except for Ethiopic).” (Pp. 164-65) It is used basically for people who are descendants of acommon ancestor, and can refer to a “clan,” or to the people as a whole. “The semantic(continued...)216

151(...continued)content of the word ~[; developed primarily in an urban milieu, taking on a variety of collectivenuances in which the notion of kinship among members of a clan or with the tribal ‘totem’ [astipulated ancestor of a group of people] was lost. This connotation vanished from commonusage at the time when ~[; came to be used in synonymous parallelism with ywg, ‘nation,’‘people,’ ‘gentile’...and ~aol., ‘people’...without any detectable special nuance. Instead, theterm ~[; frequently suggests the notion of totality, of the people as a whole...It is used inconnection with political, civil, and religious institutions: levy of troops, popular assembly,populace, congregation of the faithful, and religious community.” (P. 174)Deborah Lein asks, Why the use of these different words / synonyms? Our response isthat apparently this legislation / teaching is attempting to make the application as broad aspossible within Israel. None of these definitions, as understood by the ancient Jews, reachedoutside the boundaries of Israel, except for the later “love the temporary resident or nonresidentalien” in 19:33-34, but even that, if speaking “foreigners,” is speaking of those livinginside the territory of Israel; and in fact it may only mean fellow-Jews from other areas ofIsrael.Biblical ethical teaching is, of course, deeply interested in the proper relationship betweenthe people of YHWH and their God, seeking to eliminate anything that might stand in theway of a proper relationship between YHWH and His people. Many of the laws given in thischapter have just this Divine-human relationship in mind, warning the people of YHWH againstbecoming involved in or compromised by the religious views of their surrounding fertility religons.But biblical ethical teaching is likewise deeply interested in the proper relationship betweenthe people of YHWH and their fellow human beings. Many of the laws given in this 19 thchapter are directed to exactly this goal. The Holiness Code is not a “class oriented document”that is concerned only with males, or only with the wealthy and powerful. Leviticus 19includes mothers and fathers; it is concerned for adolescent marriages, and the problems ofyoung women and their sexual relationships. This chapter shows deep concern for the poor,for hired workers, and for deaf and blind people. It includes within its concerns both the lowestin society, and the great as well, and specifically names the “temporary residents,” probablynon-Jews who were only staying for a while in Israel, but who, if “foreigners,” must be treatedin the same way as a native-born, and be loved just as neighbors are to be loved. The chaptermentions specifically the elderly--those with white hair, demanding that the elderly beshown respect.However, it is certainly possible for its statements to be interpreted in a narrow way, asapplying only to the clan, or to the religious community, or exclusively to the Jewish nation as awhole, leaving any thought of non-Israelites out. This is the way “love your neighbor as yourself”was interpreted by many Jewish leaders in the time of Jesus. And it was in opposition tothis view, calling for a much broader understanding of “neighbor,” that Jesus gave the “parable(continued...)217

19.19 [r:åz>ti-al{ ^ßd>f' ‘~yIa;êl.Ki [:yBiär>t;-al{ ^T.m.h,B. èWrmov.Ti éyt;Qoxu-ta,(153`^yl,([' hl,Þ[]y: al{ï znEëj.[;v;* ‘~yI“a;l.Ki dg

Your (singular) cattle must not breed with different kinds of cattle. Your field, you must not plantwith different kinds of seed. And a robe made from different kinds of cloth shall not be worn byyou. 154153(...continued)statement in verse 37 at the very close of Leviticus 19.When the question is asked, “What are YHWH’s statutes,” the biblical answer is thatHis primary laws are the Ten Commandments, and then the judicial decisions handed downfrom Moses, Aaron, Joshua, the prophets and kings and priests of Israel, who spoke in thename of YHWH, and whose statutes were attributed as a whole to Moses. Primarily, they arecontained in the Covenant Code (Exodus, the three chapters following the Ten Commandments),the restatement of those statutes / commandments in Deuteronomy, and the HolinessCode here in Leviticus. There are statutes aplenty, and some of those statutes revealtheir human origin, as “less than good”–see Ezekiel 20:25. Nevertheless, the person desirousof following YHWH’s statutes, will find Divine guidance and direction for ethical living inthese sources.154Wenham comments that “This section proceeds from the sublime to the ridiculous.At least this is how the transition from love of neighbor (verse 18) to prohibitions on mixedbreeding (verse 19; compare Deuteronomy 22:9-11) strikes the modern reader.” (P. 269)Wenham is exactly right--many a modern reader of Leviticus has been “turned off” atjust this point (or other similar points), thinking that in spite of the powerful ethical teaching thathas been given in the earlier part of the chapter, this subsequent teaching ruins the entirecode, and simply cannot be accepted by our modern world as an adequate ethical guide.As may be seen from the Jewish Mishnah, this threefold prohibition of “mixing” hasbeen developed into the manifold legalistic rules and regulations found in the Mishnah TractateKilayim, while to our dismay, there is no tractate on love for neighbor.We moderns ask, What’s wrong with the ‘inter-breeding’ of cattle, especially whenmodern animal husbandry has demonstrated the great improvement in the production of bothmeat and milk that result from such inter-breeding, and that has resulted in much superiorstrains of cattle? Why should such a ‘silly’ commandment be given to the people of YHWH?Again, we ask, What’s wrong with planting different kinds of crops in a field? Modernagriculture has long known the great danger that comes from planting only one kind of crop,year after year, without variance--resulting in the depletion of the soil, and much reduced cropproductivity. Is the biblical ethical teaching in fact opposed to improved methods of farmingsuch as this?And, we ask, Doesn’t all of this show how “silly” and “irrelevant” at least some of thebiblical ethical teachings are in fact?(continued...)219

154(...continued)Again we ask, What can be wrong with wearing a suit of clothes in which two differentkinds of materials have been combined (i.e., wool and cotton, or nylon)? Is not this kind ofbiblical teaching the product of a non-scientific, backward people who are afraid of scientificprogress?” What do you think? How will you answer these questions?These questions, we think, are another example of why we must read the biblicalliterature in terms of its historical context.What if the fertility religions in both Egypt and in Canaan, which the Holiness Code iswarning against, were devoted to “sympathetic magical practices,” such as involved not onlysacred prostitution in the temple, and the murder of infant children at the tophet of Baal, butwhich also involved the use of “magical, multi-layered cloths,” believed to enable those wearingthem to have magical power with the Deities (resulting from the uniting of different kinds ofmaterial in one garment)?What if those fertility religions attempted to create powerful “monsters” through interbreeding,including human beings having sexual intercourse with animals? What if their ritualsinvolved the use of fields planted with different crops as magical “potions” calling forth theblessings of Baal, or demons of the fields?In Pritchard’s Ancient Near-Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, pp. 325-61, there are numerous examples of ancient texts which show the constant use of magicalincantations and rituals involving:animal sacrifices, blood, fat, yeast, honey, clover, onions, fish, portable shrines, cedar,constant repetition of such words as “Lord!...Lord!” and “My Lady!...My Lady!”, pastes made ofhoney, cream, dates, flour, libations formed from beer, wine, and milk, ritual washings, breakingof pots, musical instruments and singing, poems of appeasement, lamentations, use ofsubstitutes to bear curses, sending away of animals bearing curses, the reading of omens,aromatic barley-seed and flour, oil and water, fringed garments upon which sacrificeswere offered, tin bracelets, hand-raising gestures, all sorts of beers and wines, lumps of doughmade in the form of human organs, rituals for Divine marriages accompanied by specialmeals, blessings and curses, knives made in manifold colors, soda-plants reduced to ashes,twisted cords, tiny boats with silver and gold “oaths,” trails made out of poured oil and honey,loaves of bread and small cheeses, clay, mud, wine-dregs, pieces of bitumen, pillars pushedover, burn-ing of threads, spitting , twining together of blue, red, yellow, black, and white woolsto make crowns for rams,use of mutton tallow, pine cones, kneaded dough, arrows, pieces of fur, scraped animalskins, bow-strings, mice, use of liver, heart, and womb of animals, fir-trees, bronze-cups filledwith animal blood, copper pegs, figs, grapes, pitchers of wine, cords made of red and whitewool along with mirrors, use of bows and arrows in incantation designed to remove homosexuality,nights filled with dreams, fat, wax, trays, black and white sheep, olive oil, small pigs,holes dug in ground, with casting in of black seeds and blue wool, raisins, mutton-fat, stone(continued...)220

19.20 vyaiêl. tp,rûal{ï-yKi Wtßm.Wy al hy

156(...continued)shall not be put to death, because she was not free.”Tanakh, “If a man has carnal relations with a woman who is a slave and has been designatedfor another man, but has not been redeemed or given her freedom, there shall be anindemnity; they shall not, however, be put to death, since she has not been freed.”New Revised Standard, “If a man has sexual relations with a woman who is a slave,designated for another man but not ransomed or given her freedom, an inquiry shall beheld. They shall not be put to death, since she has not been freed;”New International, “If a man sleeps with a woman who is a slave girl promised to anotherman but who has not been ransomed or given her freedom, there must be due punishment.Yet they are not to be put to death, because she had not been freed.”New Jerusalem, “If someone has intercourse with a woman who is the concubine slave of aman from whom she has not been redeemed and she has not been given her freedom,he will be liable for a fine, but they will not incur death, since she was not a freewoman.”Our translation: “And any one who will lie down / sleep / have sexual intercourse with awoman –a lying down / sleeping / sexual intercourse that reaches orgasm--and she is afemale-slave, (already) purchased by a(nother) man; and she has not had her ransomprice paid, or her freedom has not been given to her--there will be a trial / inquiry; theyshall not die, because she had not been set free.”The English translations here have left out the specific statement concerning the case,that it is a [r:z

157shall bring his guilt-offering to YHWH, to the door (of the) tent of meeting--a ram, a guilt-156(...continued)one has relinquished his claim.’ In our verse, the term tr

offering. 19.22 rv,äa] AtßaJ'x;-l[; hw"ëhy> ynEåp.li ‘~v'a'h'( lyaeÛB. !heøKoh; wyl'’[' •rP,kiw>158àj'(x' rv,îa] AtßaJ'x;me Alê xl;äs.nIw> aj'_x' And the priest will cover over (his guilt) for him,by (the) ram, the guilt offering, before YHWH, on account of his missing-of-the-mark / sin which159he has missed-the-mark / sinned. And it will be forgiven him, the missing-of-the-mark / sihn bywhich he has missed-the-mark / sinned. 160157(...continued)offering seems to have been confined to offences against God or man that could be estimatedand so covered by compensation. The ordinary trespass-offering was a ram, together withrestitution and a penalty of a fifth of its value.”The noun occurs some 27 times in Leviticus, at 5:6, 7, 15, 15, 16, 18, 19, 25, 25; 6:10;7:1, 2, 5, 7, 37; 14:12, 13, 14, 17, 21, 24, 25, 25, 28; 19:21, 21 and 22.158The verb used here, •rP,kiw>, “and he will cover over / atone for,” is the same root thatis used for the once yearly “day of covering / atonement” described in Leviticus 16.159The phrase Alê xl;äs.nIw>, “and it will be forgiven to him.” See the article by J. Haus-mann in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament X, pp. 258-65. He notes that “In theOld Testament the root xls occurs with the meaning “forgiveness of sin” (often in connectionwith [vp...and ajx 46 times as a verb, 33 of those in the qal and 13 in the niphal [ashere], once as the verbal adjective xL's; (Psalm 86:5) and 3 times as the substantivehx'ylis. (Nehemiah 9:17; Psalm 130:4; Daniel 9:9). Almost all these occurrences can bedated to the exilic-postexilic period. It is striking that there is no evidence of secular use.Rather, the one who grants [forgiveness] is consistently Yahweh, and [forgiveness] is not usedin reference to forgiveness among human beings.” (P. 259)160The death penalty was pronounced against consenting adults who were engaged insexual intercourse outside of marriage, to be inflicted if there were no honest confession ofguilt and repentance, such as that of King David, in which there is nothing said concerning anyguilt-offering / sacrifice offered.But this case is different, in that at least on the part of the woman involved, it was not amatter of “adultery,” but a case of her not being free to choose the sexual relationship–somethingvery close to rape, but not so described in the text. In this situation, there is no lying orattempt at “cover-up,” and no murder of the woman’s husband, as there was in the case ofKing David,. Here it is simply the act of a free man taking sexual advantage of an indentured(continued...)224

19.23 -ta Atßl'r>[' ~T,îl.r:[]w: lk'êa]m; #[eä-lK' ‘~T,[.j;n>W #r

162foreskin / first crop, its fruit; for three years it will be for your ones having foreskins / uncircum-cised ones163--it shall not be eaten. 19.24 `hw")hyl; ~yliÞWLhi vdPi-lK' hyh' ‘hn"V'b;W And in the fourth year all its fruit will be set-apart, praises for YHWH.162Literally, “And you people shall circumcise its foreskin.” The next words immediatelyshow that the “circumcision” is not meant literally, but the “foreskin” referred to is the fruit ofthe tree. Biblical literalists, insisting on exact, non-symbolical interpretation of the Bible mustyield to symbolical understanding in such statements as this.163The Hebrew ~yliÞrE[], is “ones having foreskins,” “uncircumcised ones.” Again thelanguage shows how the experience of circumcision of male children is being used as a metaphorfor the way Israelites should engage in horticulture, with reference to all sorts of fruittrees.This three years “having foreskins” / “uncircumcised ones” of the fruit, and its not beingused for consumption, is an acknowledgment of the Divine claim upon all of life, as is theoffering up of the fourth year’s harvest to YHWH instead of using it for personal profit. Thecircumcision of the infant male’s penis is likewise a sign in the flesh that the child belongs toYHWH.164The phrase~yliÞWLhi vd

19.25 hw"ïhy> ynIßa] At+a'WbT. ~k,Þl' @ysiîAhl. Ayër>Pi)-ta, ‘Wlk.aTo tviªymix]h; hn"åV'b;W`~k,(yhela/ And in the fifth year, you people shall eat its fruit, so as to add for yourselves its165 166produce. I--YHWH, your (plural) God!164(...continued)Mexico? Would you include or exclude their tribal religious traditions, such as ritual raindances, or their beautiful sand-paintings that express the harmony in nature, and areconsidered a means of healing? How much would you be willing to include? How muchwould you demand be rejected? What about the former non-Christian festivals that have beentransformed into Christian festivals at Christmas and Easter?Deborah Lein asks, “So is it just up to us to arbitrarily decide?” We hold that believersshould bring their best thought to these matters, and be willing to gladly accept and adaptthose traditions which can be of value in their faith-journey, but to reject traditions that detractfrom or deny their faith, such as the use of magic. What do you think?165The people of YHWH are to put YHWH first in everything--including the harvesting oftheir fruit-trees--thereby acknowledging His Ownership, and allowing all they possess to enterinto the joyful worship of YHWH.Wenham notes that “...Little fruit is borne (by the fruit-tree) in the early years, and thislaw specifies that it is the fourth year’s crop that counts as the first-fruits and must be dedicatedto God.” (P. 271)Code of Hammurabi # 60 states, “If, when a seignior / mister gave a field to a gardenerto set out an orchard, the gardener...shall develop the orchard for four years; in the fifth yearthe owner of the orchard and the gardener shall divide equally, with the owner of the orchardreceiving his preferential share.” (James B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts, p. 169;Hammurabi’s code should be dated about 1760 B.C., centuries before Israel’s Torah)We think this means that the legislation / torah given here in Leviticus concerning thefirst four years of a fruit-tree’s life is clearly an adaptation of a horticultural practice long knownbefore the coming of Israel to the promised land. But where the Code of Hammurabi wasonly concerned for the owner of the orchard and its gardener, Leviticus takes that same practiceand relates it to Israel’s God, YHWH, very similarly to what the Christians across thecenturies have done with Christmas and Easter celebrations.166In the Hebrew text of Leviticus the phrase ~k,(yhel{a/, “you people’s God” is found at11:44; 18:2, 4, 30; 19:2, 3, 4, 10, 25, 31, 34, 36; 20:7, 24; 23:22, 28, 40, 43; 24:22; 25:17,38, 55; 26:1, 13, 44 used with YHWH “your (plural) God.”227(continued...)

16719.26 `WnnE)A[t. al{ïw> Wvßx]n:t. al{ï ~D"+h;-l[; Wlßk.ato al{ï You people shall not168eat (meat) with (literally, “upon”) its blood. You people shall not foretell the future by observing166(...continued)The phrase ^yh,êl{a/ “your (singular) God,” is found at 2:13; 18:21; 19:12, 14, 32;21:8; 25:17, 36 and 43. The God all Israel is also the God of the individual Israelite.167Wenham entitles verses 26-28 “Pagan Customs to be Avoided.” He notes that “Thesurrounding nations made abundant use of magic in attempts to predict the future.” (P. 272)He asks the reader to compare:Isaiah 2:6, ~yTi_v.liP.K; ~ynIßn>[o)w> ~d

169 170omens; and you people shall not incubate oracles.168(...continued)The phrase, ~D"+h;-l[; Wlßk.ato al{ï, is very ambiguous, literally “You shall not eatupon the blood,” and has led to varying interpretations. Does the phrase envision peoplestanding in a pool of blood, drawn or pouring forth from the animal being eaten in a “cannibalistic”manner?Jewish exegesis insists that what is meant is the eating of animal flesh from which theblood has not been fully drained--but that is not at all obvious from the Hebrew. The very factthat this first half of the verse is followed by the second half, with its commandment rejectingthe use of omens and the incubation of oracles makes it very certain that this use of blood isinvolved in the fertility practices.The same thing is still true today in satanic worship, vampire cults and in voodoo, in allof which blood is believed to impart magical power, sometimes being ingested.169The piel verb Wvßx]n:t., from the root vx;n" means the “practice of divination,” or“observance of signs.” It is closely related to the Hebrew word for “snake” or “serpent,” andmay have reference to the use of serpents in their movements for the foretelling of the future.In Genesis 44:5, 5, 15, 15 the statement is made that Joseph “practiced divination” bymeans of his cup, the one that he had placed in the mouth of Benjamin’s sack of grain.What do you make of this undeniable fact? Was Joseph being unfaithful to YHWH?Was he practicing Egyptian religion? Deborah Lein asks, “Was Joseph ever told not topractice it? Did his heart motive and attribution of source make it right? Can God use such apractice anyway?” Do we have need to justify Joseph’s actions, as if he could do no wrong?Elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, see:Genesis 30:27, Laban tells Jacob that he has learned by divination [yTiv.x;§nI] that YHWH hasblessed him because of Jacob.Deuteronomy 18:10-11 (see verses 9-22), when the Israelites come into the promised land,they are not to learn and practice the abominations of the nations they are dispossessing,naming a long list of their occult practices: ATßbiW-An*B. rybiî[]m; ^êb. aceäM'yI-al{)‘bAa laeîvow> rb,x'_ rbeÞxow> `@Ve(k;m.W vxeÞn:m.W !nEïA[m. ~ymiês'q. ~seäqo vae_B'`~yti(Meh;-la, vrEßdow> ynIë[oD>yIw., “There shall not be found among you (singular) onecausing his son and his daughter to cross over / pass through in the fire, one whopractices divinations or tells fortunes or interprets omens, or a sorcerer or a charmer or(continued...)229

169(...continued)a medium or a necromancer or one who inquires of the dead.” (Adapted from EnglishStandard Version); 2 Kings 17:17; 21:6; 2 Chronicles 33:6, all similar.1 Kings 20:33, The Syrian Ben Hadad’s servants Wv’x]n:y>,” were divining, watching for a sign.For this matter of “magical practices” in Israel, see the article by G. Andre on the root@vKñ in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament VII, pp. 360-66. Andre states that “Inthe Old Testament, the root @vKñ, ‘practice magic,’ usually appears with other terms denotingvarious forms of magic and divination. The precise meaning of these terms is unknown;etymological [having to do with the study of the history of words, their origins, and how theirform and meaning have changed over time] evidence helps in some cases, but only as arough approximation.” (P. 361)Andre discusses magic in Egypt, stating that there, “magic” “properly denotes a supernaturalpower that enables the Gods to perform miracles. The purpose of charms and spellsis to activate this power. Magical texts therefore invoke the Gods, and charms are based onDivine myths. Images of Horus standing triumphant on a crocodile serve as protection againstdisease: the accompanying spell expresses the prayer, for example, that someone stung by ascorpion or bitten by a snake be healed as Horus was healed by the magical words of theGods.” (P. 362)In Mesopotamis, “Akkadian texts distinghish witchcraft (kispu), which is proscribed as acapital offense, and magic, which is recognized officially by kings and priests. The latter isused to resist the former.“A sorcerer or witch...may be responsible for the evil that befalls a person...Exorcismtakes place at night. After recitation of a long litany, the afflicted person turns to the Godsthrough the exorcist, praying that they will lift...the curses.” (P. 363)“The Old Testament usually uses the various terms for magic, divination, and the likein combinations of two or more words. The most detailed list appears in Deuteronomy 18:10-11: ‘There shall not be found among you anyone who causes his son and his daughter to gothrough fire...anyone who practices divination, a soothsayer, or an augur...or a sorcerer...or acharmer...or a medium, or one who inquires...of a shade, or a wizard...or a necromancer.’”[Contrast Andre’s translation with ours above, adapted from English Standard Version.]The “augur” was a priest and official in the classical world, especially in ancient Romeand central Italy. His main role was to interpret the will of the Gods by studying the flight ofbirds: whether they were flying in groups / alone, what noises they were making as they flew,the direction of their flight and what kind of birds they were. This was known as “taking theauspices [‘getting omens from watching birds’]." The ceremony and function of the augur wascentral to any major undertaking in Roman society–public or private--including matters of war,commerce, and religion. (Taken from Wikipedia 10 / 24 /11)230(continued...)

169(...continued)Andre uses the word “shade,” in the sense that it has in Shakespeare, the ‘soul’ after itsseparation from the body–so called because the ancients supposed it to be perceptible to thesight, though not to the touch; a “spirit,” or “ghost.” (Webster’s New International Dictionarynd2 edition)See also the article on the root ~sq by L. Ruppert in Theological Dictionary of theOld Testament XIII, pp. 72-8, who describes the practices of divination in Egypt, Babyloniaand Assyria:“In Egypt, the use of oracles, which was rooted in popular religion, was not incorporatedinto the official religion until relatively late; the earliest evidence dates from the New Kingdom[about 1550 to 1069 B.C., from before the time of Moses until close to the time of David].Oracles served to illuminate the past as well as to help reach decisions in the face of politicalproblems such as rebellion (Thutmose IV). Oracles could also impart promises to the king.The bull Gods Apis and Mnevis served as oracular agents, ‘messengers’...of Ptah or Re.Messenger servants of the Deity..., priests of the highest rank, were authorized to expound theGod’s oracular pronouncements. The God (or the God’s image) could reply to a question witha favorable sign (a nod?); a verbal answer was also possible. In Egypt dreams above all werethought to provide Divine guidance; but since dreams only intimated the future, they requiredinterpretation. If a dream book could not provide the interpretation, the dreamer had to seekthe help of a professional dream interpreter, most likely to be found among the officials associatedwith the ‘house of life.’ which was responsible for keeping all religious and magical documents.A king’s dream was considered the revelation of the God appearing in the dream;such a dream oracle could also be evoked by incubation. Israel was familiar with Egyptiandivination (Genesis 41:8; Isaiah 19:3 [[;Le_b;a] Atßc'[]w: ABêr>qiB. ‘~yI“r:c.mi-x:Wr) hq"Üb.n"w>`~ynI)[oD>YIh;-la,w> tAbßaoh'-la,w> ~yJiêaih'ä-la,w> ‘~yliylia/h'(-la, WvÜr>d"w>, ‘And Egypt’sspirit will be emptied out in its midst; and its counsel I will swallow; and they will inquire of theNothings, and of the mutterers / whisperers / ventriloquists, and of the communicators with thedead, and of the familiar spirits’]...“Divination played an even greater role in Babylonia and Assyria, after the example ofSumer. ‘It was for the sake of the expected omen that sacrifice was offered, symbolic actswere performed, and incantations were recited.’ (Quoting M. Jastrow) The baru priests wereresponsible for divination (baratu). Besides the primary forms of divination, hepatoscopy[observation of livers] and examination of the heavens, we may mention (among many others)observation of storms and other meteorological phenomena as well as the movement of animals,divination by oil, and birth omens. The office of baru was under the protection of theGods, especially Shamash.” (Pp. 75-6)Yes, ancient Israel was surrounded by nations and cultures in which magic and superstitionplayed a dominant role. There is no reason to doubt this.231

170The poel verb WnnE)A[t., from the root verb !n:[', is very closely related to the verb discussedin the preceding footnote. It means “practice soothsaying,” i.e., foretelling the future bymagical means. In the Hebrew Bible elsewhere, see:Deuteronomy 18:10, 14, see the preceding footnote.2 Kings 21:6, It is said of King Manasseh, hf'['îw> vxeênIw> !nEåA[w> vaeêB' ‘AnB.-ta, rybiÛ[/h,w>`sy[i(k.h;l. hw"ßhy> ynEïy[eB. [r:±h' tAfï[]l; hB'ªr>hi ~ynI+[oD>yIw> bAaß, “And he wouldcause his son to cross over / pass through the fire, and tell fortunes / soothsay, anddivine (by observing signs), and he would make a necromancer (communicator with thedead) and deal with familiar spirits; he multiplied (ways) to do the evil in YHWH’s eyes,to provoke (Him).”Isaiah 2:6, see footnote 167.Isaiah 57:3, Isaiah calls some of the people of Judah hn"+n>[o ynEåB., “sons of a fortune-teller /soothsayer.”Jeremiah 27:9, ~k,êytemoål{x ‘la,w> ~k,ªymes.qo)-la,w> ~k,øyaeybin>-la, W[’m.v.Ti-la; ~T,a;w>ûal{ï rmoêale ‘~k,ylea] ~yrIÜm.ao ~heú-rv,a] ~k,_ypeV'K;-la,w> ~k,ÞynEn>[o)-la,w>]`lb,(B' %l,m,î-ta, Wdßb.[;t;, “And you people should not listen to your spokespersons /prophets, and to your practicers of divination, and to your dreamers, and to yourobservers of signs, and to sorcerers, who are speaking to you saying, you will not serveBabylon’s King!”Micah 5:11, YHWH will cut off sorcerers and fortune-tellers from the land.2 Chronicles 33:6, see footnote 169.It is obvious that what is being referred to here is the magical means employed by theCanaanite fertility religions in order to obtain Divine counsel and guidance, in the absence ofIsrael’s Torah and Nebiiym (as well as the priestly urim and thummim), which served asIsrael’s means for obtaining the oracles (torah, judicial decisions, laws) of YHWH.Levine holds that the word may be closely related to, or derived from, the Hebrew wordfor cloud, !n"['. He notes that “We possess extensive information on the ominous role ofclouds in ancient Near Eastern divination. The forms of clouds, their times of appearance,their movements and positions, and the heavenly bodies they obscure were all factors in interpretingomens.” (P.133)We think that while this is possible (just as the verb Wvßx]n:t. may be related to themovement of serpents), but it is in fact speculative, and unproven.232

19.27 `^n

19.28 ynIßa] ~k,_B' WnàT.ti al{ï [q;ê[]q;* tb,toåk.W ~k,êr>f;b.Bi ‘WnT.ti al{Ü vp,n

175And you people shall not make tattoos for yourselves. I--YHWH!174(...continued)possessed man who constantly cut / lacerated himself with stones. But we think that is a caseof extreme mental illness, and not a matter of the kind of sympathetic magic / religious ritualwhich we think lies behind this torah / legislation in Leviticus 19:28.175The phrase translated “tattoo” is [q;ê[]q;* tb,toåk., literally “a writing of some kind, butthe second word occurs only here in the Hebrew Bible, and its meaning is uncertain. Suggestionsinclude “incision,” “imprint,” and “tattoo.” It seems most probable that what is intendedis some type of writing or engraving on the worshiper’s body, intended like the vp,nq' ÎWxÜr>q.yIÐ ¿hx'r>q.yIÀ-al{)`tj,r")f' Wjßr>f.yI al{ï ~r"êf'b.bi’W WxLe_g:y> al{å ~n"ßq'z> ta;îp.W ~v'êaroB., “They shallnot make a bald place on their head; and a corner of their beard they shall not cut off /shave; and on their flesh / body they shall not inscribe an inscription.” Levine holds thatthese were Israelite practices in mourning the death of loved ones, which are forbiddenfor priests. We think it much more likely that just as here in Leviticus 19, it is a matterof forbidding the practice of sympathetic magical rites of the fertility religions–butperhaps it was a matter of both / and, rather than either / or. See the next verse:Deuteronomy 14:1, Wmyfiót'-al{)w> Wdªd>GO*t.ti al{å ~k,_yhel{a/ hw"ßhyl;( ~T,êa; ~ynIåB'`tme(l' ~k,ÞynEy[e !yBeî hx'²r>q', “You people are children to the YHWH your God–youshall not cut / gash yourselves, and you shall not place a bald-spot between your eyesfor the dead.” Tigay explains that “These practices were probably understood differentlyin different cultures. Some scholars think that they were believed to have aneffect on the ghost of the dead person, either as offerings of blood and hair to strengthenthe ghost in the nether world or to assuage the ghost’s jealousy of the living byshowing it how grief-stricken they are. These rites could also be acts of self-punishmentexpressing feelings of guilt.” (JPS Torah Commentary, Deuteronomy, p. 136)Job 1:20, upon being informed of the death of his children, -ta, [r:åq.YIw: ‘bAYai ~q'Y"Üw:`WxT'(v.YIw: hc'r>a:ß lPoïYIw: Av+aro-ta, zg"Y"ßw: Alê[im., “And Job arose, and he tore hisrobe, and he shaved his head; and he fell to the earth and worshiped.”Isaiah 22:12, dPeês.mil.W ‘ykib.li aWh+h; ~AYæB; tAaßb'c. hwI±hy> yn"ôdoa] ar"ªq.YIw:`qf'( rgOðx]l;w> hx'Þr>q'l.W, “And my Lord YHWH of Armies called on that day for weepingand for wailing and for baldness, and for wearing sack-cloth / mourning clothes.”That is, YHWH is calling for the people to mourn by making themselves bald, etc., thevery thing that is forbidden for priests in Leviticus 21:5. How do you explain this? Is it(continued...)235

19.29 #r

178 179the land will not be prostituted, and the land be filled with confusion.177(...continued)set the example for them of sexual faithfulness to their mother? When their daughters (andsons) get involved in sexual immorality, who do they have to blame other than themselves?178The Hebrew Bible teaches that continuing possession of a land is directly dependenton the morality of those possessing it. If the inhabitants practice immorality long enough, theland will “vomit them out,” as happened to the Canaanites, and as is threatened against theIsraelites. See specifically Leviticus 18:25, 28; 20:22. This is the biblical reason for thecaptivity of Northern Israel by the Assyrians, and the captivity of Judah by the Babylonians.179This last word, which we have translated by “confusion,” is hM'(zI. It can mean “plan,”or “purpose’; but most usually it means “evil device,” or “wickedness,” especially in terms ofsexual immorality. See Leviticus 18:17 with its footnote for occurrences of this noun in theHebrew Bible. See footnote 87 for the noun lb,T,î, which also means “confusion.”The chief usage of hM'(zI is found in Ezekiel, especially in chapters 16, 22, 23 and 24,where it is used in description of the idolatrous condition of Judah in terms of prostitution, especiallywith regards to the spiritual unfaithfulness of the people of Judah against their true Husbandand Father, YHWH. It seems obvious that what Ezekiel is describing in metaphoricalterms is exactly what this commandment warns against. See our many references to Ezekielthroughout these footnotes.The fact is that there is nothing so confusing in human life and family-history as thatcaused by sexual immorality, and especially prostitution. Such sexual activity quickly destroysthe home, and any lasting, permanent relationships. This is true in a literal, physical sense;but it is just as true, if not more so, in a spiritual sense. That is why the “sacred prostitution” ofthe Canaanite fertility religions had such a devastating impact on human society and thehome, and why it is so fiercely outlawed and fought against to the finish in Biblical Theology.But we must never forget the biblical stories of Tamar (Genesis 38) and Rahab (Joshua2, 6), both of whom are described as “prostitutes,” and both of whom nonetheless becameintegral parts of the lineage of King David and Jesus Christ!Again we ask, what do you think? Can a young woman today, especially one from apoverty family, with desperate need for additional income for her family, engage in prostitutionwithout violating the biblical teaching? She is not becoming a “sacred prostitute” such as iswarned against throughout the Hebrew Bible, and especially here in Leviticus (and Hosea).But is she justified in what she is doing? Is the biblical teaching concerning sexual moralitylimited to fighting against sacred prostitution? Our answer is, No–all prostitution is foughtagainst, whether sacred or secular in nature!(continued...)237

19.30 `hw")hy> ynIßa] War"+yTi yviÞD"q.miW Wrmoêv.Ti yt;ätoB.v;-ta, You people shall keep180my days of rest, and tremble in awe from / at my sanctuary. I--YHWH!19.31 ynIßa] ~h,_b' ha'äm.j'l. Wvßq.b;T.-la; ~ynIë[oD>YIh;-la,w> ‘tboaoh'-la, WnÝp.Ti-la;181`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> You people shall not turn aside to those who communicate with the dead,182 183dead, and to those who have familiar spirits. You people shall not seek for (remedies for?)179(...continued)Our answer is No. The biblical teaching is against sacred prostitution; but it is alsoagainst simple prostitution, selling one’s body for money, both male and female. It is not aquestion of “either / or,” but rather a matter of “both / and”!180The text seems to say that the antidote to the confusion of wrong relationships lies inIsrael’s pausing to rest and worship, one day in seven, and by Israel’s learning to tremble inawe before YHWH in His set-apart place. This means the place selected by YHWH for Hisworship. Such a site for worship is to be treated with great respect, even awe, as the worshipersenter to communicate with YHWH, and to receive His torah / teaching / guidance.Life that is strongly rooted in the knowledge and worship of YHWH God is life that findsa steady sense of meaning and purpose in the midst of all the world’s confusion.Louis Goldberg comments that “If the Lord’s house and worship were to be abandoned,the nation would fall into evil; and this is still true. The real strength of a nation is developedwhen believers worship regularly in the Lord’s house. If spiritual devotion is neglected, thenation can only go downhill.” (P.104) What do you think?181We ask, Turn aside from what or whom? The biblical answer is, Turn aside fromYHWH and from His “way.” Instead of seeking to receive Divine communication from YHWH,those addressed are to avoid seeking another source of Divine knowledge and direction, i.e.,through attempts to communicate with dead people.182The word ‘tboaoh', the plural form of bAa, which originally probalby meant “skinbottle,”but has taken on the meaning of a necromancer, a person who pretends to be able tocommunicate with the dead.Wikipedia gives the following information concerning necromancy: “Necromancy is aclaimed form of magic in which the practitioner seeks to summon the spirit of a deceasedperson, either as an apparition or ghost, or to raise them bodily, for the purpose of divination.In Renaissance magic, necromancy (or nigromancy, negromancy, by popular association with(continued...)238

182(...continued)negro "black" was classified as one of the seven "forbidden arts." The word necromancyderives from the Greek íåêñüò (nekros), "dead body", and ìáíôåßá (manteía), "prophecy,divination." (10 / 26 / 11)For occurrences of the noun elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible see:Leviticus 20:6, the judicial decision of “cutting off” for those who practice what Leviticus19:31 is forbidding; 20:27, the penalty is made more specific: it is death!Deuteronomy 18:11, see footnote 169.1 Samuel 28:3, 7, 7, 8, 9, Saul, after the death of Samuel, had put all of the necromancersand those claiming to have contact with “familiar spirits” out of the land. But when thePhilistines gathered against him, and he sought communication from YHWH throughdreams, and through urim (the priestly oracle stones), and through the spokespersons /prophets–but to no avail. In desperation, Saul told his servants to find for him tv,aeäbAaê-tl;[]B;, “a woman, mistress of a necromancer,” to whom he would go and seekDivine guidance through her. Saul, in disguise, went to the woman, and asked her%yIl'(ae rm;Þao-rv,a] taeî yliê yli[]h;äw> bAaêB' ‘yli an"ïÎ-ymis\q'*, “divine now / pleasefor me by the necromancer, and bring up for me whomever I shall say to you!” Thestory continues, telling how the woman tells Saul, -!mi ~yliî[o ytiyaiÞr" ~yhiîl{a/`#r

182(...continued)texts referred to in footnote 154 we find many examples of using such pits in ritual magic.Harry Hoffner has written extensively concerning this word: “From the fifteenth to theend of the thirteenth centuries B.C. examples of this sort appear in the Hittite ritual. In thisritual, sacrificial pits...were dug...in the ground at a place which had been determined by interrogatingthe Gods. In this pit, oblations (loaves, cheese, butter, honey mixed with milk, oil,honey, wine, beer, and sacrificial blood), expensive gifts of silver (models of the human ear,breast ornaments, a miniature ladder) and often even the sacrificial animal was lowered,(where) someone below in the pit slaughtered it. Two of the objects lowered into the pit symbolizedthe twofold intention of the entire procedure. The silver model of an ear indicated thewish of the offerer to ‘hear’ and to learn from the inhabitant of the underworld. The silverladder or staircase expressed the desire that the spirit might ascend to the world above...“Of particular interest is the personification of the pit as the Deity DA-a-bi, Who is theobject of a particular exorcism ritual. He is the God of the underworld, and presides there overa court of justice in which the scales...are used. DA-a-bi belongs to the same class of underworldDeities as the chthonic spirit tarpish. It is very probable that tarpish represents thesame ancient migratory word as Hebrew ~ypir'T.. Thus, both bAa and ~ypir'T. are to beidentified as mantic properties of the underworld, in which it was thought that the source oftrue knowledge was to be found...“The Old Testament uses this expression in three different senses: (1) the pit whichhas been dug out, by means of which the spirits of the dead are called up (1 Samuel 28:7-8);(2) the spirit or spirits of the dead which are troubled (Isaiah 29:4); and (3) the necromancerwho calls forth the spirits to get information (Leviticus 19:31; 20:6, 27; Deuteronomy 18:11;1 Samuel 28:3, 9; 2 Kings 21:6 (=2 Chronicles 33:6); 23:24; Isaiah 8:19...)“The spirit ascends...from the ground and undoubtedly comes forth from a preparedopening. Although the language of Isaiah 29:4 is perhaps somewhat figurative, still in thescornful words found there we can get some impression of the way in which the spirits werecalled: ‘Then deep from the earth you shall speak, from low in the dust your words shallcome; your voice shall come from the ground like the voice of a ghost, and your speech shallwhisper out of the dust.’ The prophets of Yahweh describe the audible manifestations of thebAa as ‘whispering’ or ‘chirping’ (@ce(p.c;m.), an expression which denotes the cry of certainbirds (Isaiah 10:14) or the rustling of the leaves of the willow tree...The different verbs connectedwith bAa indicate only that here was the source of secret information: a person ‘turned to’...‘sought’...‘used’...the necromancer, who asked advice of...the spirit or spirits who came upout of the pit, or ‘Divined by’ (b ~sq, 1 Samuel 28:8) them.“1 Samuel 28 is the most fruitful and probably also the oldest witness in the Old Test-(continued...)240

182(...continued)ament for the understanding of bAa. In this passage we learn that the crisis which gave riseto the consultation of the necromancer was a serious military threat (verses 4-5). Naturally,the approved ways of seeking advice (...’prophets’; ‘urim’;...’dreams’) were exhausted first, butYahweh did not answer...When this happened, out of desperation Saul commanded his officersto seek out for him a woman who had access to an bAa. Saul went to her at night partlyto conceal his identity, and partly because necromancers of this sort preferred to do their workat night. He made a twofold request: (1) ‘Divine (~sq) for me by a spirit (bAa),’ and (2)‘Bring up for me...whomever I shall name to you’ (verse 8). After the woman had obtained apromise of protection from her client (verse 10), the name of the dead person who should bebrought up was given to her (verse 11).“This passage gives no information as to the procedure the woman used to entice thespirit of Samuel to come forth. When it appeared, she alone had a visionary experience (verses12-13), because Saul had to ask her: ‘What do you see?’ This visionary experience gavethe woman greater potential for comprehension, for suddenly she knew the true identity of herdisguised client (verse 12). She described that which appeared to her in the vision as ‘spirits(...~yhil{a/, ‘Gods’) coming up out of the (opening in the) earth’ (verse 13), and as ‘an oldman...who is wrapped in a robe...(verse 14). The account of Saul’s nocturnal visit to thebAa-tl;[]B; is told in artistic literary style. But still there can be no doubt that this documentaccurately reflects the practice of necromancy in ancient Israel.” (Harry Hoffner, TheologicalDictionary of the Old Testament I, pp. 130-34)All of this, of course, is very strange to our modern, “western” eyes and ears. But inorder to interpret this document (Leviticus 19) in a truly genuine way, we must think our wayinto that ancient world-view, so saturated with magic and the rituals of fertility religion, as is stilltrue in many parts of the world, for example in Nigeria, Haiti, Thailand and elsewhere.183The noun used here is ~ynIë[oD>YIh;, which is commonly translated by “familiar spirits,”with the implication that they are “knowing,” or “wise,” acquainted with the secrets of theunseen world of the dead. King James, “familiar spirits”; Tanakh, “ghosts”; New RevisedStandard, and New International “mediums.”See the preceding footnote; and for occurrences elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible see:Leviticus 20:6, similar to 19:31;Leviticus 20:27, a man or a woman who has among them a necromancer or a familiar spiritshall be put to death;Deuteronomy 18:11, see footnote 169;1 Samuel 28:3, 9, see the preceding footnote; Saul had removed all of them from the land;(continued...)241

184uncleanness with them. I--YHWH your God!19.32 `hw")hy> ynIïa] ^yh,Þl{a/Me t'arEïy"w> !qE+z" ynEåP. T'Þr>d:h'w> ~WqêT' ‘hb'yfe ynEÜP.mi Youpeople shall stand up in the presence of a white-haired / aged person, and you (individual) shall183(...continued)2 Kings 21:6; 2 Chronicles 33:6, King Manasseh consulted familiar spirits;2 Kings 23:24, King Josiah put them out of the land;Isaiah 8:19, Isaiah warns against consulting the familiar spirits;We take it that the ynI[oD.yI (singular), “familiar spirit,” is one form of the bAa. Butwhereas bAa has a much broader meaning, including the pit, the spirits inhabiting theunderworld, and the necromancer, the ynI[oD.yI is much more explicit--being a name for a spiritthat inhabits the underworld and that can be called up, but nothing more.184This last sentence is puzzling, and we can only conjecture as to its meaning. Englishtranslations vary slightly:King James, Tanakh and New Revised Standard “ to be defiled by them”;New International, “for you will be defiled by them.”New Jerusalem, “they will defile you.”Levine comments that “Recourse to such magical practices, typical of idolatrousreligions, renders one figuratively unclean.” (P. 134)It seems strange to think that anyone would be “seeking for uncleanness” by resortingto the bAa or to the ynI[oD.yI. If the statement were made by a spokesperson for YHWH, wecould understand it in an ironical sense--the one who seeks out a necromancer or familiarspirit is in fact seeking for uncleanness. But here, in a commandment, irony seems to be outof place.We venture the suggestion that we should understand the words as meaning “seek forremedies for uncleanness.” But this is very conjectural, and uncertain.What do you think?242

185 186honor an elderly person’s presence. And you shall tremble in awe before your God. I--185The phrase here, as pointed by the Masoretes, is !qE+z" ynEåP., literally “faces of an old /elderly man.” When spelled with an a instead of an e vowel, the noun means “beard.”186This regulation is integral to Biblical Theological ethics. It involves respect for theelderly, along with respect for YHWH God. It is the very opposite of self-centered pride, thatforgets an older generation in pursuit of its own purposes and ambitions, pretending that itowes nothing to its predecessors, or to its Creator, YHWH God.Genuine ethics are rooted in a much more humble attitude, that respects the elderly,listening for wisdom and advice from those who have gone before them, and that trembles inawe before the immeasurable wisdom of the Divine Creator.Compare Isaiah 3:5, !qeêZ"B; ‘r[;N:’h; Wbªh]r>yI, “the youth will act arrogantly against theelderly,” where insolence to the elderly is the mark of a depraved society, awaiting the destructionof the day of YHWH.We agree with Goldberg in his comment that “Perhaps we have had such an emphasison the cult of youth [recently] that we have forgotten the premium that God places on theelderly in the social structure. It is wrong to retire people when they are in their prime or toneglect those from whom society can still benefit.” (P.105)What do you think?Bible, see:For the usage of the noun ‘hb'yfe, “white head,” “old age,” elsewhere in the HebrewGenesis 15:15, YHWH promises Abram, `hb'(Aj hb'îyfeB. rbeÞQ'Ti, “You will be buried in agood old age.”Genesis 25:8, `wyM'([;-la, @s,a'ÞYEw: [;be_f'w> !qEåz" hb'ÞAj hb'îyfeB. ~h'²r"b.a; tm'Y"ôw: [w:’g>YIw:,“And Abraham expired, and he died, in a good old age; an old man and satisfied; andhe was gathered to his peoples.” Judges 8:32, similar, of Gideon.Genesis 42:38; 44:29, 31, Jacob tells his sons that if anything bad should happen to Benjamin,they would bring down `hl'Aa)v. !Agày"B. yti²b'yfe, “my white hair / old age in grief /sorrow to (the) grave / underworld.”1 Kings 2:6, 9, David, on his death-bed, tells Solomon to not let Joab’s white hair / old age godown to sheol / the grace / underworld in peace.Isaiah 46:4, YHWH tells the house of Jacob, ynIåa] hb'ÞyXe-d[;w> aWhê ynIåa] ‘hn"q.zI-d[;w>`jLe(m;a]w: lBoßs.a, ynIïa]w: aF'êa, ynIåa]w: ‘ytiy“fi[' ynIÜa] lBo+s.a,, “And until an old man, Iam He; and until white hair / old age, I will carry (you); I, I did, and I, I will lift up; and I, I(continued...)243

YHWH!19.33 Àt)ao WnàAt al{ï ~k,_c.r>a;B. rGEß ^±T.ai rWgõy"-yki(w> And when a temporary187resident lives temporarily with you (singular), in your (plural) land, you people shall not oppress186(...continued)will carry (you) and I will deliver (you).”Hosea 7:9, Hosea says of Ephraim, ‘hb'yfe-~G: [d"+y" al{å aWhßw> AxêKo ‘~yrIz" WlÜk.a'`[d")y" al{ï aWhßw> ABê hq'r.z"å, “Foreigners devoured his strength, and he, he did notknow (it); also white hair was sprinkled on him, and he, he did not know (it).”Psalm 71:18, ^å[]Arz> dyGIåa;-d[; ynIbEïz>[;ñT;-la;( ~yhiçl{a/ éhb'yfew> Ÿhn"’q.zI-d[; ~g:Üw>`^t,(r"WbG> aAbªy"÷-lk'l. rAd+l., Literally, “And even until old age and white hair, Godwill not forsake me, until I declare Your arm to a generation, to all your strength willcome.” English Standard has “your power to all those to come.”Heb EngPsalm 92:15 / 14 , the rightly-related `Wy*h.yI ~yNIån:[]r:)w> ~ynIßveD> hb'_yfeB. !WbåWny> dA[â,“will still bear fruit in old age / white hair–they will be fat / juicy and luxuriant!”Proverbs 16:31, àce(M'Ti hq'ªd"c. %r

188him. 19.34 -yKi( ÂmêK' ‘Al T'îb.h;a'w> ~k,ªT.ai rG"åh; ŸrGEåh; ~k,øl' hy ynIßa] ~yIr"+c.mi #r hn"ïm'l.a;-lK', “And a temporary resident, you (singular) shall notoppress, and you shall not pressure him. Because you people were temporary residentsin Egypt-land. Every widow and orphan you shall not humble!” See context.Heb EngDeuteronomy 23:16-17 / 15-16 , ^yl,Þae lceîN"yI-rv,a] wyn"+doa]-la, db,[,Þ ryGIïs.t;-al{^yrqiB. bveäyE ^úM.[ `wyn")doa] ~[iîme`WNn rm;äa' ŸhKoå~AqïM'B; WkßP.v.Ti-la; yqiên" ~d"åw> Wsmoêx.T;-la; ‘WnTo-la; hn"Üm'l.a;w> ~At’y" •rgEw>`hZ

189he shall be to you people--the temporary resident, the one living temporarily with you people.190And you (singular) shall love him like yourself. For you people were temporary residents in191Egypt Land. I--YHWH your God!189What a powerful torah / teaching / piece of legislation this is! The temporary resident,the non-Jew, living within Israel’s borders, is to be treated like a native, like a full-citizen.The noun xr"åz>a, comes from the verb xr;z" which means “to rise,” or “to come forth.” Thenoun means “a native,” i.e., “one arising from the soil.” See footnote 96 for the occurrences ofthis noun.The children of YHWH are not to treat temporary residents (“immigrants”) in any othermanner than as fellow-citizens, as brothers and sisters. What do you make of this with referenceto the problem of immigrants in South Florida, especially in Miami? Or, what about alongthe United States border with Mexico, in California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas? Who doyou think “undocumented workers” are? Are they your brothers and sisters? Are their childrenas precious to you as your own children? Do you think this biblical torah / legislation has anythingto say to this modern problem?190If the people of YHWH are to love their “neighbors” as themselves (19:18), they arealso to love the temporary residents / sojourners / immigrants like themselves. Many studentsof this passage have emphasized that the assumption is that we will naturally love ourselves,and it does seem that this is implied in this biblical command. But that is not by any meansthe central thrust of this command. Rather, it is that just as we naturally love ourselves, wemust train our hearts to reach out to all our fellow human beings--to show that same kind oflove to them, especially to those who are temporary residents, non-citizens of our community.Here is the heart of biblical ethics: we love because YHWH loves us. Out of His great love,we find self-love, and also unselfish love for others.We wonder why there is no tractate in the Jewish Mishnah dealing with all the ramificationsof this command out of the Torah! And we think that the life and ministry of Jesus Christis a great elucidation of, and commentary on this torah!Do you agree?191This phrase, “For you were temporary residents / sojourners in Egypt-land” appearsfour times in Jewish legislation, urging Israel to remember the lessons learned from their past,especially the harsh treatment they were given in Egypt, from which YHWH had graciouslyredeemed them, thereby implanting in Israel’s historical memory His love for the oppressed,and His desire for their redemption. See Exodus 22:20; 23:9; 19:34 (here) and Deuteronomy10:19.In Christian ethics, this same kind of powerful motivation is rooted in what God hasdone for us in the death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus our Lord. Always remember whatGod has done for us through Jesus, and let that determine our manner of life!246

19:35 `hr")WfM.b;W lq"ßv.MiB; hD"§MiB; jP'_v.MiB; lw tb;²[]At yKió`lw[;À tyBiÞv.l;w> !Ay=b.a, ~ypiÞa]Voh; tazO¨-W[m.vi, Listen tothis: You who trample upon (the) poor person, and who put an end to the oppressedpeople of the land, tB'ÞV;h;w> rb,V,ê hr"yBiäv.n:w> ‘vdmi ynEïz>amo tWEß[;l.W lq,v,ê lyDIäg>h;l.W ‘hp'yae !yjiÛq.h;l. rB"+-hx'T.p.nIw>,saying: When will the New Moon (festival) be over, and we will be able to sell seed?And the Rest-Day (be over), and we will open up (the) grain(-bags), making themeasure (of quantity) small, and making the price great, and twisting (the truth with)deceitful scales, rB:ß lP;îm;W ~yIl"+[]n: rWbå[]B; !Ayàb.a,w> ~yLiêD: ‘@s,K,’B; tAnÝq.li(continued...)247

194Egypt-land.19:37 `hw")hy> ynIßa] ~t'_ao ~t,Þyfi[]w: yj;êP'v.mi-lK'-ta,w> ‘yt;Qoxu-lK'-ta, ~T,Ûr>m;v.W195And you people shall keep all my statutes and all my judicial decisions, and you shall do them.193(...continued)`ryBi(v.n:, to acquire poor people with money, and a poor person for a pair of sandals,and selling the refuse of (the) grain?Micah 6:10-12, hK,Þz>a,h; `hm'(W[z> !Azàr" tp;îyaew> [v;r sm'êx' Waål.m' ‘h'y“r hm'älev. !b,a,Þw> hw"+hy> tb;ä[]AT hm'r>miâ ynEåz>amo, “Scales of deceit–an abomination (to) YHWH; and a full / accurate stone-weight–His favor / will!”Proverbs 16:11, `syki(-ynEb.a;-lK' Whfeª[]m; hw"+hyl;( jP'v.miâ ynEåz>amoW Ÿsl,P,Û, “A balanceand scales of justice belong to the YHWH; His deed / work–all stone-weights of a toolkit.”Proverbs 20:10, `~h,(ynEv.-~G: hw"©hy>÷ tb;î[]AT hp'_yaew> hp'äyae !b,a,w"â !b,a,ä, “A stoneweight, and a stone-weight; a grain-measure and a grain-measure–an abomination (to)YHWH, even (the) two of them!” The implication is that the business-man has twoseparate sets of stone-weights and grain-measures, designed to cheat people.Proverbs 20:23, `bAj)-al{ hm'är>mi ynEßz>amoW !b,a'_w" !b,a,ä hw"hy>â tb;ä[]AT, “An abomination(to) YHWH a stone-weight and a stone-weight; and deceitful scales (are) not good!”No, you cannot be right with YHWH, the God of the Bible, and have scales that areintentionally out of balance.194Instead of the short affirmation, “I–YHWH,” which occurs in verses 18:5, 6, 21;19:12, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30, 32, 37; 20:26 and the slightly longer affirmation, “I–YHWH yourGod,” which occurs in verses 18:2, 4, 30; 19:2, 3, 4, 10, 25, 31, 34; 20:7, here in 19:36 alonger affirmation is made, “I--YHWH your God, Who brought you forth from Egypt-land.”20:24 has another longer affirmation, “ I–YHWH your God, Who–I separated you people fromthe peoples (before you).” These phrases are like a “branding iron” placed on cattle, identifyingtheir owner. YHWH imprints / brands His name on His torah / teaching / legislation!195The only proper “right relationship” between Israel and YHWH is one of obedience to(continued...)248

I--YHWH! 196195(...continued)the great God and Father of Israel, who loves all His children, and wants them to imitate Hischaracter. His teachings (laws) are not meant to burden Israel, or to harm Israel in any way--but rather, to guide them in the way of life, and to give them a future. What marvelous teachingand guidance His Torah is! What a privilege for the people of YHWH to be able to walk inHis way, and thereby to be able to avoid the ways of death. It is out of just this conviction thatthe 119th Psalm is written, “rejoicing in the Torah”--not in terms of a legalistic code throughwhich self-salvation can be earned, but in terms of a Divine light shining upon the humanpathway, enabling the lost sheep to find its way home–see Psalm 119:176.We agree with Goldberg in his observation that “The law made Israel distinct from allthe other peoples on earth, and to the glory of God many from among the nations were attractedto righteousness and entered Israel’s ranks in Old Testament times. There have beentimes since then in the history of the church when many have come to the Lord because thechurch has lived faithfully by His Word...” (Pp. 105-06)We may think especially of the many “God-awed” Greeks (so-called “God-fearers”) whowere attracted to the synagogues of the Jewish dispersion in the first century. It is still true inour modern world. Many honest seekers are looking for a solid basis for ethics and morality,and looking for a community that can engender life on such a basis. The Israel of God mustfulfill its responsibility for providing that basis. Honest study of YHWH’s Torah, and obedienceto it, can supply this imperative need in our modern world. Especially for Christian believers,as they see Israel’s Torah fulfilled and embodied in Jesus Christ, getting rid of the “not good”statutes, and those which lead to death rather than to life, can that ancient Torah giveguidance in the midst of our confused world.Do you agree? Why? Why not?196Again and again we have heard this refrain in Leviticus 18 and 19, and will continueto hear it in chapter 20 (see footnote 194). The underlying motif in the Holiness Code (andindeed in all of Israel’s legislation) is the same: it is the imprint of YHWH and His character onIsrael’s life. What YHWH is, and what YHWH likes and dislikes, and what YHWH has doneand does, is the basis for Israel’s ethical teaching. The amazingly complex Torah of Israel isthereby united in this one basic, underlying theological truth: “I–YHWH”!Wenham comments on this chapter that it “covers such a variety of topics that themodern reader finds difficulty in seeing any rhyme or reason it its organization.” (P. 263)However, it seems to us that this is in fact the way life is, and the way in which we areactually confronted with reality–it is much like a kaleidoscope, presenting us with constantlychanging situations and necessities for ethical decisions, demanding responses to problemsand complications that we have not foreseen.Still, behind all of this diversity and confusion lies the reality of YHWH our God–the(continued...)249

Priestly Decisions Concerning the Penalties for Sacrificing Children to Molech,for Sorcery, and for Sexual OffensesLeviticus 20:1-27, Hebrew Text with Translation and FootnotesPriestly judicial decisions are given in this chapter which call for capital punishment: deathfor those who sacrifice children to the Canaanite God Molech, and for those who practice magic,curse parents, or violate sexual standards. Israel must be different from the immoral nations whoare being driven out by YHWH.19720:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 20.2rv,’a. laeªr"f.yIB rG"åh; ŸrGEåh;-!miW laeør"f.yI ynE’B.mi •vyai vyaiä èrm;aTo élaer"f.yI ynEåB.-la,w>`!b,a'(b' WhmuîG>r>yI #r

201 202one living temporarily in Israel, who shall give from his offspring to the Molech, shall certainly199(...continued)•vyai vyaiä, here as in 18:6 repeated twice, is literally “A man, a man...” It is obviously maleorientedlanguage, and we do not think that modern translations should attempt to avoid thisby translating as in the New Revised Standard Version, “Any of the people...”The repetition of these two words, side by side, without the article, is found in theHebrew Bible at Exodus 36:4; Leviticus 15:2, 17:3, 8, 10, 13; 18:6; 20:2 (here), 9; 22:4,18; 24:15; Numbers 1:4; 4:19, 49; 5:12; 9:10; Ezekiel 14:4 and 7. It is, we think, certainly a“priestly” phrase.200This phrase, élaer"f.yI ynEåB., “children of Israel,” or “Israel’s children,” occurs some659 times in the Hebrew Bible, with 54 occurrences in Leviticus.201This phrase, laeªr"f.yIB. rG"åh; ŸrGEåh;, “the temporary resident / sojourner, the oneresiding in Israel,” or “the temporary resident, the one residing in Israel,” is unique for thispassage, Leviticus 20:2, not being found elsewhere. The closest phrase to it is found inEzekiel 14:7, which has “and from the temporary resident that resides in Israel.” We find thephrase “the temporary resident, the one residing in your midst (or ‘with you,’ or sometimeswithout any such closing statement of location)” at Exodus 12:49; Leviticus 16:29; 17:8, 10,12, 13; 18:26; 19:34; Numbers 15:15, 16, 26, 29; 19:10; Joshua 20:9 and Ezekiel 47:22.202See the earlier statement in Leviticus 18:21, %l,Mo+l; rybiä[]h;l. !TeÞti-alo, “you(individual) shall not give to cause to pass over to the Molech”; here the phrase is !TeóyI rv,’a%l,Moßl; A[±r>Z:mi, “who shall give from his offspring to the Molech,” not the exact same phrase,but carrying the same meaning. This is the only place in the Hebrew Bible where this phrase“to give to the Molech” occurs.But why “Molech” instead of Melek, or Melekah (“King,” or “Queen”)? We think the Jewishwriters / copyists have changed the original name by placing the vowels for “bosheth,”“shame,” “nastiness” on the consonants.See the articles by H.-J. Fabry on %l,m, in Theological Dictionary of the Old TestamentVIII, pp. 346-75, and by H. -P. Mueller on %l,moñ, pp. 375-88, with their contrasting viewsas to the meaning of the name. Fabry holds that %l,moñ is “cacophonously pointed” (p. 368),meaning having been spelled to give it a harsh, unpleasant sound.Mueller, however, who has done extensive research into the name, holds that it is a(continued...)251

e put to death. 203202(...continued)sacrificial term, referring to a human sacrifice, specifically in the Phoenician-Punic sphere, inwhich a child is “returned to the Deity as a symbolic gift...made in catastrophic situations asattested by Philo Byblius” (p. 383). Thus he thinks that %l,moñ means “child sacrifice” and isnot the designation of a royal Deity.What do you think? Where do you think the name “Molech” came from?203This phrase, tm'_Wy tAmå, “dying, shall be put to death,” or “shall certainly be put todeath,” occurs in the Hebrew Bible both as a legal “sentence” calling for capital punishment,and as a “threat” of the extreme danger involved in certain behaviors. See:Genesis 2:17; 3:4 (a universal threat of certain death spoken to Adam, the first human being(and including his wife in the later story). We may conclude from this opening story ofhumanity that the entire human race is under the “sentence of death,” although thestory depicts YHWH God as not enforcing the sentence immediately. It is a threat, butone that is not followed through on the day of their disobedience to the Divine command.If it is taken to mean “spiritual death,” the biblical story goes on to depict YHWHGod as continuing to care for, and communicate with the human beings);Genesis 20:7 (if King Abimelech does not return Sarah to Abraham, he and all his will certainlydie);Genesis 26:11 (King Abimelech announces this threat of punishment on anyone who touchesIsaac or his wife);Exodus 19:12 (the Divine threat to anyone, human or beast, that touches Mount Sinai);Exodus 21:12 (the penalty for intentional murder);Exodus 21:15 (the penalty for striking father or mother);Exodus 21:16 (the penalty for kidnaping and selling a human);Exodus 21:17 (the penalty for cursing father or mother);Exodus 22:18 (the penalty for sexual intercourse with an animal);Exodus 31:14 (the penalty for profaning the day of rest);Exodus 31:15 (the penalty for working on the day of rest);Leviticus 20:2 (here; the penalty for giving / sacrificing children to Molech);Leviticus 20:9 (the penalty for cursing father and mother);Leviticus 20:12 (the penalty for sexual intercourse with daughter-in-law);Leviticus 20:13 (the penalty for male homosexuality);Leviticus 20:15 (the penalty for sexual intercourse with an animal);Leviticus 20:16 (the penalty for a woman who has sexual intercourse with an animal);Leviticus 20:27 (the penalty for associating with “communicators with the dead” and “thoseintimate with the unseen world”);Leviticus 24:16 (the penalty for “piercing” or “cursing” the sacred name YHWH),Leviticus 24:17 (the penalty for murder);Leviticus 27:29 (human beings “devoted to destruction” must be put to death).(continued...)252

203(...continued)Numbers 15:35 (the penalty pronounced by YHWH against man found gathering sticks on therest-day);Numbers 26:35 (the penalty pronounced by YHWH against the entirety of Israel except forCaleb and Joshua, that they must die in the wilderness);Numbers 35:16, 17, 18, 21, 31 (the penalty for murder, to be inflicted by blood-avenger).See also Judges 13:22; 21:5; 1 Samuel 14:39, 44; 22:16 (King Saul’s rash vows); 2Samuel 12:14 (Nathan’s pronouncement of the penalty on David’s child for David’s adulteryand subsequent murder of Uriah); 14:14; 1 Kings 2:37, 42; 3:26; 2 Kings 1:4, 6, 16 (Elijah’spronouncement against Ahaziah); 2 Kings 7:4; 8:10; 14:6 (quoting Deuteronomy 24:16).Also see Jeremiah 26:8, 19; 38:15; Ezekiel 18:13; 33:8; Zechariah 11:9 and Ruth 1:17. .An important passage for consideration of this matter is found in Ezekiel 3:16-21 (theexact phrase occurs in verse 18): “At the end of seven days, the word of YHWH came to me:Mortal (~d"§a'-!B,, literally ‘son of a human’), I have made you a sentinel for the house ofIsrael; whenever you hear a word from my mouth, you shall give them warning from me. If Isay to the wicked, You shall surely die (tWmêT' tAmå), and you give them no warning, or speakto warn the wicked from their wicked way, in order to save their life, those wicked persons shalldie for their iniquity; but their blood I will require at your hand. But if you warn the wicked, andthey do not turn from their wickedness, or from their wicked way, they shall die for their iniquity;but you will have saved your life. Again, if the rightly-related turn from their right-relationshipand commit iniquity, and I lay a stumbling-block before them, they shall die; becauseyou have not warned them, they shall die for their sin, and their rightly-related deeds that theyhave done shall not be remembered; but their blood I will require at your hand. If, however,you warn the rightly-related not to miss-the-mark / sin, and they do no miss-the-mark / sin,they shall surely live, because they took warning; and you will have saved your life.”This passage shows that the phrase “dying you shall die” is meant as a warning, andthat if those who hear that warning turn away from doing what is being warned against, theywill not die, but will be spared.The story of King David and his “turning-around” following his affair with Bathsheba andmurder of her husband is a good example of how this works. David and Bathsheba are notput to death as they deserved, but rather are forgiven–however, the sentence of capitalpunishment is visited upon their child, and then the consequences of their actions are seen inthe bitter results in David’s family history.We should understand this throughout the biblical warnings concerning acts that arecontrary to the Divine will.See also Ezekiel 33:10-20, which teaches the same thing, with its central statementconcerning YHWH, “As I live, says YHWH God, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked,but that the wicked turn back from your evil ways; for why will you die, O house of Israel?”(continued...)253

203(...continued)(Verse 11) See also a similar teaching found in Exodus 32:14; Jeremiah 18:7-8; 26:3, 13and Jonah 3:10.And we ask: if Jesus Christ is the embodiment and fulfillment of the entire Torah, howis it that He never commands or enforces capital punishment (see the story of Jesus and thewoman accused of adultery in John 7:53-8:11)? Also, we ask, what does YHWH mean inEzekiel 20:25, when He states:`~h,(B' Wyàx.yI) al{ï ~yjiêP'v.mi’W ~ybi_Aj al{å ~yQIßxu ~h,êl' yTit;än" ‘ynIa]-~g:w>, “Andalso I, I gave to them statutes, not good ones; and commandments–they will not live by them!”How do you understand this? How do you explain YHWH’s giving Israel “not goodstatutes”? And how do you understand that last phrase, “commandments--they will not live bythem”? Deborah Lein, along with many others, asks, Who gets to decide the difference betweengood laws and bad laws? Our answer is that we do. Those who love YHWH / JesusChrist (see, for example Matthew 16:18-19; 18:18; John 20:22-23; 1 Corinthians 6:2, theresponsibility for “binding and loosing,” for forgiving and retaining sins, for “judging the world”);are given wisdom to make decisions with regard to the “goodness” or “badness” of legaldecisions and statutes, whether in Israel’s Torah or in any other law-code, and as to whetherthey should be “bound” or “loosed.” We are not mindless robots, called to fulfill every lawhanded down to us, regardless of its fairness or justness. We are instead called to take responsibilityfor truth and equity and justice in our families and in our communities, to see that “notgood statutes” and legal decisions by which “a man will not live” are not followed, but ratherare rejected and replaced by truly just statutes.We think that statutes and legal decisions were constantly being given by those who“sat in the seat of Moses” (Matthew 23:1), by Israel’s leaders–such as Aaron, Joshua, Deborah,Samuel, David, and later high priests and kings–all of whom were supposed to seekYHWH’s guidance, and give Divine pronouncements–but too many of whom let prejudice andnationalism and hatred influence their decisions, rather than letting YHWH speak throughthem. Certainly this host of laws demanding capital punishment are “laws by which people willnot live”–indeed! They do not impart life, but death.What do you think? Deborah Lein notes that Some of the capital punishment lawshave previous merit, for example in Genesis 9:5-7 (where God commands capital punishmentfor murder). We think that the act of sacrificing a child as a religious act deserves capital punishment,along with kidnaping of a human being.But capital punishment for picking up sticks on the rest-day? Or for striking / cursingparents? Or for homosexuality? Or for going to a fortune-teller? Or stoning a wife to death ifshe cannot prove she was a virgin when she was married (Deuteronomy 22:13-21)? Orputting a son to death for eating and drinking too much? Are such statutes “good”? We thinknot.254(continued...)

204 205The land’s people shall stone him with the stone(s). 20.3 vyaiäB' ‘yn:P'-ta, !TeÛa, ynIùa)w:yviêD"q.mi-ta, ‘aMej; ![;m;ªl. %l,Moêl; !t;än" ‘A(r>Z:mi yKiÛ AM[+(; brq' ~veî-ta, lLeÞx;l.W And I, I will set my face against that man, and I will cut him off203(...continued)No, such legal-decisions, even if attributed to YHWH, have little or no merit, and shouldnot be enforced. They are “not good statutes.”204The phrase #r

207 208from his people’s midst –because he gave from his offspring to the Molech, so as to defile my206(...continued)Leviticus 17:10, lk;ÞayO rv,îa] ~k'êAtB. rG"åh; ‘rGEh;-!miW laeªr"f.yI tyBeämi vyaiø vyai’w>br ~h,_yrEx]a; tAnàz>li ~ynIë[oD>YIh;-la,w> ‘tboaoh'(-la, hnÀM)[; br`hw")hy> ynIïa]-yKi( ~T,Þ[.d:ywI) yMi_[; %Atåmi, “And I will set My face against that man /person; and I will cause him to be placed for a sign and for proverbs / parables; and Iwill cut him off from My people’s midst; and you will know that I, YHWH!”Ezekiel 15:7 -yKi( ‘~T,[.d:ywI) ~le_k.aTo) vaeÞh'w> Wac'êy" vaeäh'me ~h,êB' ‘yn:P'-ta, yTiÛt;n"w>`~h,(B' yn:ßP'-ta, ymiîWfB. hw"ëhy> ynIåa], “And I will set My face against them. They willgo forth from the fire, and the fire will devour them; and they will know that I YHWH–when I place My face against them.” Again, note the use of synonyms.The phrase implies that YHWH will relentlessly pursue the violator of His command,and that the Divine punishment will not be avoided.207For this phrase, AM+[; br

207(...continued)of his (her, its) people, elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, see:Exodus 31:14, tm'êWy tAmå ‘h'yl,’l.x;(m. ~k,_l' awhiÞ vd !K;äv.mi ynEßp.liÀM)[; br ~D"+-lK'`HM'([;, “And anyone from Israel’s house(hold) and from the temporary resident, the oneresiding temporarily in your midst, who shall eat any blood–and I will set My faceagainst the innermost-being / person, the one eating the blood; and I will cut it off fromits people’s midst!”Leviticus 18:29, tAvïp'N>h; Wt±r>k.nIw> hL,ae_h' tAbß[eATh; lKoïmi hf,ê[]y: rv,äa]-lK' yKi…`~M'([; br

209 210set-apart place, and to profane my set-apart name. 20:4 ~[’(;’ •Wm[ß)yli(.y: ~leä(.[.h; ~ai‡w>207(...continued)Numbers 15:30, hw"ßhy>-ta, rGEëh;-!miW ‘xr"z>a,h'(-!mi hm'ªr" dy"åB. Ÿhf,ä[]T;-rv,(a] vp,N`HM'([; brq' ~veî-ta, lLeÞx;l. “to defile my set-apart name,” seeelsewhere Leviticus 18:21 and 19:12; 21:6 (priests forbidden to use fertility symbols in theirappearance, which would be to defile YHWH’s name); 22:2, 32; Jeremiah 34:16 (returningfreed slaves to captivity defiles YHWH’s name); Ezekiel 36:20 (Israel’s having to go intocaptivity in Babylon defiles YHWH’s name); 39:7; Amos 2:7 (father and son being sexuallyimmoral defiles YHWH’s set-apart name); Psalm 74:7 (they defiled the sanctuary, whereYHWH’s name dwells).(continued...)258

Àt)ao tymiîh' yTiÞl.bil. %l,Mo+l; A(ßr>Z:mi ATïtiB. aWhêh; vyaiäh'-!mi ‘~h,ynEy(e(-ta, #r Atøao yTi’r:k.hiw> AT+x.P;v.mib.W aWhßh; vyaiîB'213`~M'([(; br

214 215 216will cut him (off) --and all those prostituting after him, to practice prostitution after the213(...continued)awhiêh; vp,NMiB; ~y[iÛro Wy’h.yI ~k,ynEb.Wû`rB'(d>MiB; ~k,ÞyrEg>Pi ~Toï-d[; ~k,_yteWnz>, “and your sons / children will be shepherdsin the wilderness(continued...)260

215(...continued)Numbers 15:39, blue tassels on the corners of a garment will be for you people ètciycil.Wrtuøt'-al{)w> ~t'_ao ~t,Þyfi[]w: hw"ëhy> twOæc.mi-lK'-ta, ‘~T,r>k;z>W Atªao ~t,äyair>W`~h,(yrEx]a; ~ynIßzO ~T,îa;-rv,a] ~k,êynEy[e( yrEåx]a;w> ‘~k,b.b;l. yrEÜx]a;,, “for a tassel /lock; and you people will see it, and you will remember all YHWH’s commandments,and you will do them; and you will not seek after your heart’s (desire), and after youreyes’ (desire), which you people are prostituting after them.”Numbers 25:1, `ba'(Am tAnðB.-la, tAnàz>li ~['êh' lx,Y"åw: ~yJi_ViB; laeÞr"f.yI bv,YEïw:, literally,“And Israel lived in the Shittim; and the people began to prostitute to Moab’sdaughters.”Deuteronomy 31:16, ~['’h' •~q'w> ^yt,_boa]-~[i bkeÞvo ^ïN>hi hv,êmo-la, ‘hw"hy> rm,aYOÝw:ABêr>qiB. ‘hM'“v'-ab' aWhÜ rv,’a] #r hZ~h,_l' Wwàx]T;v.YI)w:, “and also, to their judges they did not listen; because they prostitutedafter other Gods, and they bowed before / worshiped them.”Judges 8:27a, -lk'( Wnõz>YIw: hr"êp.['B. ‘Ary[ib. AtÜAa gCe’Y:w dApªael. !A[ød>gI At’Aa •f[;Y:w:~v'_ wyr"ßx]a; lae²r"f.yI, “and Gideon made it (the great amount of gold) into an ephod /upper jacket, and he placed it in his city, in Ophrah; and all Israel prostituted after itthere.”Judges 8:33, ~yli_['B.h; yrEåx]a; Wnàz>YIw: laeêr"f.yI ynEåB. ‘WbWv’Y"w: !A[êd>GI tmeä ‘rv,a]K;( yhiªy>w:`~yhi(l{ale tyrIßB. l[;B;î ~h,²l' WmyfióY"w:, “And it happened, after Gideon died, andIsrael’s children turned back, and the prostituted after the Baals; and they set up forthemselves a Baal-covenant for God.”1 Chronicles 5:25a, #rYIw: ~h,_yteAba] yheÞl{aBe Wlê[]m.YI)w:,“And they (the northern Israelites) acted faithlessly against their fathers’ God; and theyprostituted after the land’s peoples’ God / Gods.”2 Chronicles 21:11, 13, in Judah, Jehoram caused the people to prostitute just as Ahab did inNorthern Israel.Psalm 73:27, YHWH annihilated everyone prostituting from Him.Psalm 106:39, at the close of a long list of Israel’s failures, comes the charge Waïm.j.YIw:(continued...)261

Molech–from the midst of their people. 21720:6 yTiÛt;n"w> ‘~h,_yrEx)a; tAnàz>li ~ynIë(oD>YIh;-la,w> tboaoh'(-la, hn

218 219communicators with the dead, and to the ones intimate with the unseen world, to practice220 221 222prostitution after them; and I will set my face against that person, and I will cut him off fromhis people’s midst. 22320:7 `~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ßhy> ynIïa) yKi² ~yvi_doq. ~t,ÞyyIh.wI ~T,êv.DIq;t.hi’w> And you shall set224yourselves apart, and you shall be set-apart people. Because I (am) YHWH your God! 20:8`~k,(v.DIq;m. hw"ßhy> ynIïa) ~t'_ao ~t,Þyfi())[]w: yt;êQoxu-ta, ‘~T,r>m;v.W And you shall keep myregulations and you shall do them; I YHWH am setting you apart. 22520:9 AM±aiw> wybióa' tm'_Wy tAmå AMßai-ta,w> wybi²a'-ta, lLeóq;y> rv,’a) vyaiª vyaiä-yKi(218See Leviticus 19:31, with its footnote 169.219See Leviticus 19:31, with its footnote 170.220Here again the infinitive tAnàz>li, “to prostitute,” is used. See footnote 216.221When YHWH’s people quit listening to His voice, and seek to hear the Divine messagein some other way–i.e., through the use of communicators with the dead, or through thosewho deal with “familiar spirits,” i.e., psychics, those with abnormal psychic perception–they becomeguilty of “spiritual prostitution”–they are having spiritual intercourse with some Divinebeing other than YHWH–and YHWH absolutely forbids that.222Compare the similar statements in verses 3 and 5. Here the phrase is-ta, yTiÛt;n"w>awhiêh; vp,N

226 227 228ÀB) wym'îD" lLeÞqi Because any man who will curse his father and his mother, he shall226Here again is the phrase vyaiª vyaiä, “any man,” or “every man,” or “anyone.” In theHebrew Bible, see this usage in regulations at Leviticus 17:3, 8, 10, 13; 18:6; 20:2, 9; 22:4,18; 24:15; Numbers 5:12; 9:10; Ezekiel 14:4 and 7. Here is another place where thelanguage of Ezekiel is closely similar to that of Leviticus.227 rdThe piel imperfect 3 person masculine singular verb lLeóq;y>, means “make contemptible,”or “curse,” or “treat with contempt” (that is, treat with lack of respect). For the usage ofthis verb in the Hebrew Bible, see:Genesis 8:21 (YHWH has cursed the ground on account of the human);Genesis 12:3 (those who curse Abram will be cursed);Exodus 21:17 (the one cursing his father and his mother shall surely die);Exodus 22:17 (you shall not curse God / Gods / judges?);Leviticus 19:14 (you shall not curse a deaf person);Leviticus 20:9, 9 (here; anyone who curses his father and his mother shall surely die; almostidentical to Exodus 21:17);Leviticus 24:11, 14, 15, 23 (young man “pierces” name of YHWH, and curses his God,suffering capital punishment by stoning);Joshua 24:9 (Balak intended that Balaam should curse Israel);Judges 9:27 (Shechemites curse Abimelech the Judge);1 Samuel 3:13 (Eli’s sons cursed God);1 Samuel 17:43 (Goliath the Philistine curses David by his Gods);2 Samuel 16:7, 9, 10, 10, 11, 13 (Shimei curses David as he leaves Jerusalem, throwingstones at him); 19:22 (same); 1 Kings 2:8 (same);2 Kings 2:24 (Elisha curses small boys who make fun of his bald-head);Isaiah 8:21 (famishing people curse their king);Jeremiah 15:10 (Jeremiah has been cursed for nothing);Heb EngPsalm 62:5 / 4 (people bless with their mouths, but inwardly they curse;Psalm 109:28 (enemies curse, but YHWH blesses);Job 3:1 (Job curses the day of his birth);Proverbs 20:20 (the one cursing father and mother will see his lamp go out in the darkness);Proverbs 30:10 (the slandered servant will curse the one slandering him),Proverbs 30:11 (there is a generation that curses its father and does not bless its mother);Ecclesiastes 7:22 (in your heart you know that you have cursed others);Ecclesiastes 10:20 (do not curse the king in your thoughts, or the rich in your bedroom);Nehemiah 13:2 (the Ammonites and Moabites hired Balaam to curse Israel) andNehemiah 13:25 (Nehemiah cursed the Jews who had intermarried with the people fromAmmon and Moab, and who spoke the language of Ashdod).228For passages elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible mentioning “father and mother” insignificant ways see: Genesis 2:24; Exodus 20:12; 21:15, 17; Leviticus 18:7; 20:17; 21:11;(continued...)264

229 230surely be put to death. His father and his mother he cursed; his blood is on him.20:10 -tAm) Wh[e_rE tv,aeä-ta, @a;Þn>yI rv,îa) vyaiê tv,aeä-ta, ‘@a;n>yI rv,Ûa) vyaiªw>231`tp,a'(NOh;w> @aeÞNOh; tm;îWy 20.10 And a man who will be sexually immoral with a woman–a232 233man who will be sexually immoral with his neighbor’s wife–he shall surely be put to death, the228(...continued)Numbers 6:7; Deuteronomy 5:16 (same as Exodus 20:12); 21:13, 18, 19; 22:15; 27:16(similar to Leviticus 20:9), 22; 33:9; Joshua 2:13, 18; 6:23; Judges 9:1; 14:2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9,16; 1 Samuel 22:3; 2 Samuel 19:38; 1 Kings 19:20; 1 Kings 22:53; 2 Kings 3:2, 13; Isaiah8:4; Jeremiah 16:7; Ezekiel 16:3; 22:7; 44:25; Micah 7:6; Zechariah 13:3; Psalms 27:10;109:14; Job 17:14; 31:18; Proverbs 1:8; 6:20; 19:26; 20:20 (similar to Leviticus 20:9);23:25; 28:24; 30:11 (similar to Leviticus 20:9); 30:17; Ruth 2:11; Lamentations 5:3 andEsther 2:7.For the opposite order, “mother and father,” see Leviticus 19:3; 20:19; 21:2; Jeremiah16:3 and Ezekiel 16:45.229See footnote 203.230For this legal sentence, “his blood is on him,” elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, see:Leviticus 20:11, 12, 13, 16, 27; Joshua 2:19, 19; 2 Samuel 1:16; 1 Kings 2:5, 33, 37;Isaiah 59:3; Ezekiel 18:13; 22:13; 23:37, 45; 24:7; 33:4, 5 and Proverbs 28:17 (?).The phrase is idiomatic and means “he is responsible for his own death,” he bears theguilt of what he has done within himself. This is a terrible sentence; but it is to be rememberedthat Ezekiel 18:13 is followed by 18:21, 23 which states, “But if the wicked turn away from alltheir missings-of-the-mark that they have committed and keep all my regulations and do whatis lawful and right, they shall surely live; they shall not die...Have I any pleasure in the death ofthe wicked, says YHWH God, and not rather that they should turn from their ways and live?”231The verb used here is @a;Þn>yI, normally translated “he will commit adultery,” but whichmeans “he will have sexual intercourse with someone outside the covenant of marriage.”Compare the next verse.232See the preceding footnote. The identical verb is used here. The Hebrew sounds asif the law-giver is “stuttering,” repeating himself unnecessarily. It says literally, “And a manwho will have sexual intercourse with a woman, a man who will have sexual intercourse with awoman of his neighbor...” Does this mean sexual intercourse with any woman, especially thewoman of his neighbor?(continued...)265

234male being sexually immoral, and the female being sexually immoral.20:11 Wtïm.Wy-tAm) hL'_GI wybiÞa' tw:ïr>[,(, wybiêa' tv,aeä-ta, ‘bK;v.yI rv,Ûa) vyaiªw>235`~B'( ~h,îymeD> ~h,ÞynEv. And a man who will lie down (for sexual intercourse) with his father’s232(...continued)The author of these notes has met Jewish scholars who claim that the torah does notcondemn a male who has sexual intercourse with a woman if she is unmarried–that whilewomen have strict regulations placed on their sexual relationships, the same is not true formales. We think that this is wishful thinking on their part, and that this specific torah beliesthat claim.What do you think?233Is this law written specifically for King David? There can be no doubt that it describeswhat King David did, and teaches that he would, in terms of this regulation, be under the sentenceof death, which David only avoided by his humble penitence and confession to YHWH(not to any priest), but who then lived to see the death of the child born to him and Bathsheba.234This entire phrase, “the male being sexually immoral, and the female being sexuallyimmoral,” is a translation of the two Hebrew participles tp,a'(NOh;w> @aeÞNOh;.235The verb used here is bK;v.yI, literally “he will lie down,” is used as a euphemism forhaving sexual intercourse–see footnote 78. Compare the nouns hb'k'v., “act of lying,” usedin the phrase “a lying of seed,” i.e., sexual intercourse; tb,kñov., “sexual intercourse” (on thepart of a female); bK'v.mi, “place of lying,” “couch,” “act of lying,” also used as a euphemismfor sexual intercourse.For the phrase ~[I bk;v', “sleep with,” or “lie with,” used euphemistically for sexualintercourse, see: Genesis 19:32, 34, 35 (the story of Lot’s incestuous relationship with histwo daughters); Genesis 30:15, 16; 39:7, 10, 12, 14; Exodus 22:15, 18 (sexual intercoursewith an animal); Leviticus 15:33; Deuteronomy 22:22, 22, 23, 25, 25, 28, 29; 27:20, 21(sexual intercourse with an animal), 22, 23; 2 Samuel 11:4 (King David’s sexual intercoursewith Bathsheba; note the use of this same phrase of Uriah’s literal “sleeping” in verses 11,13); 12:11, 24 and 13:11.Note the many uses of “lie with fathers,” in terms of death and burial found in 1, 2Kings and 2 Chronicles.266(continued...)

wife, he uncovered his father’s nakedness; they shall surely be put to death, (the) two of them;236their blood is on them.20:12 ~h,îymeD> Wf[ß(' lb,T,î ~h,_ynEv. Wtßm.Wy tAmï AtêL'K;-ta, ‘bK;v.yI rv,Ûa) vyaiªw>237`~B'( And a man who will lie down (for sexual intercourse) with his daughter-in-law, they shall238 239surely be put to death, (the) two of them. They have made confusion; their blood is on them.20:13 tAmï ~h,_ynEv. Wf[ß(' hb'î[eAT hV'êai ybeäK.v.mi ‘rk'z"-ta, bK;Ûv.yI rv,’a) vyaiªw>235(...continued)For the synonymous phrase ta, bk;v', see: Genesis 19:33, 34 (incestuous relationshipbetween Lot and his daughters); 26:10; 34:2, 7 (perhaps implying rape); 35:22 (Reubensleeps with Bilhah, his father’s co-wife); Leviticus 15:18, 24; 19:20; 20:11 (here), 12, 13(homosexual act), 18, 20; Numbers 5:13, 19; 1 Samuel 2:22 and 2 Samuel 13:14.Note the many uses of “lie with the uncircumcised” in Ezekiel, with reference to thedeath of the mighty rulers of surrounding nations.236This is identical legislation to that given in Leviticus 18:7-8; only here, the death penaltyis pronounced against those engaging in this prohibited sexual relationship.237See footnote 235 for this terminology, ta, ‘bK;v.yI, “sleep with,” but perhaps with theimplication of forced sex or rape. The problem with this understanding here is that both themale and the female are held guilty for the act, and both stand under the sentence of death,and we assume that this is not a matter of rape, or forced sexual intercourse.238The phrase is Wfß[' lb,T,î, literally “confusion they made.” For this noun in the Heb-rew Bible, see Leviticus 18:23–the only other occurrence of this noun.Talk about confusion in a family! Just let a father-in-law begin making amorous advancestowards his daughter-in-law. Here we remember the story in Genesis 38, with its storyof the sexual relationship between Judah and his daughter-in-law Tamar, and Judah’s “double-standard”of sexual morality. Of course, that story has to do with a time long before thisregulation was given–but in terms of this later regulation, Judah, from whom the very name“Jew” came, was guilty of a capital crime.239See footnote 236.267

`~B'( ~h,îymeD> Wtm'ÞWy 20.13 And a man who will lie down (for sexual intercourse) with a male,lyings down (for sexual intercourse as with) a woman, (the) two of them have done an abominable240thing; they shall surely be put to death. Their blood is upon them.20:14 ‘Atao WpÜr>f.yI vaeúB' awhi_ hM'äzI HM'Þai-ta,w> hV'²ai-ta, xQ:ôyI rv,’a) vyaiªw>`~k,(k.AtB. hM'ÞzI hy !h,êt.a,w> And a man who will take (in marriage) a woman and241 242her mother, it is (sexual) wickedness; they shall burn him and them with fire; and there will240This is an almost verbatim repetition of Leviticus 18:22. The two verses may becompared as follows:18.22 àwhi( hb'Þ[eAT hV'_ai ybeäK.v.mi bK;Þv.ti al{ï rk'êz"-ta,’w>, “And with a male you(singular) shall not lie down–lyings down of a woman–it is abominable.”20:13 tAmï ~h,_ynEv. Wfß[' hb'î[eAT hV'êai ybeäK.v.mi ‘rk'z"-ta, bK;Ûv.yI rv,’a] vyaiªw>`~B'( ~h,îymeD> Wtm'ÞWy, “And a man who will lie down with a male–lyings down of awoman–the two of them have done an abominable thing. They shall surely be put todeath; their blood is on them.”The two regulations are essentially the same. The first is in the second person, addressedto the individual male, instructing him not to lie down (for sexual intercourse) with anotherrdmale, as if the male were a woman–it is an abominable thing. The second is worded in the 3person, and is what scholars call “casuistic” or “case-law.” That is, it mentions something thatcan happen, but which should not happen. What can happen is that a man will lie down with amale–lyings down of a woman (here the two regulations are identical). Then the second regulationstates that the two men involved in such a sexual relationship have both, the two ofthem, done an abominable thing. Whereas the first regulation does not mention the penaltyinvolved, the second regulation makes the penalty explicit–it is the penalty of certain death;they are both guilty--their blood is on them–see footnotes 205 and 220.241Compare Leviticus 18:17, with its footnote for discussion of the noun also usedhere, hM'äzI, “(sexual) wickedness.”242For the punishment of WpÜr>f.yI vaeúB', “in the fire they will burn,” elsewhere in theHebrew Bible, see:Exodus 12:10 (leftover meat from the Passover meal is to be burned);(continued...)268

243not be (sexual) wickedness in your midst.20:15 `Wgro)h)T; hm'ÞheB.h;-ta,w> tm'_Wy tAmå hm'Þheb.Bi AT±b.k'v. !TeóyI rv,’a) vyaiªw>And a man who will give his lying-down (for sexual intercourse) with an animal shall surely be put242(...continued)29:14, 34; 32:20; Leviticus 4:12; 6:23; 7:17, 19; 8:17, 32 9:11; Ezekiel 43:21 (all ofthese have to do with sacrificial elements that are to be burned in the fire);Exodus 13:52, 55, 57; 16:27 (garments, etc., with signs of infectious disease are to beburned in the fire);Exodus 19:6 (elements of sacrificial meal left over to third day to be burned in the fire);Exodus 21:9 (daughter of priest who becomes prostitute to be burned with the fire);Numbers 31:10 (burning of Midianite cities);Deuteronomy 7:5, 25 (Canaanite idols to be burned);Deuteronomy 9:21 (Moses burned the golden calf);Deuteronomy 12:3 (Canaanite idols to be burned),Deuteronomy 12:31 (Canaanites burned their children in fire to their Gods);Deuteronomy 13:17 (idolatrous city in Israel to be burned with fire);Joshua 6:24; 7:15, 25; 8:28; 11:6, 11, 13 (Jericho burned with fire, and others taken captiveby Joshua);Judges 9:52; 12:1; 14:15; 15:6; 18:27; 1 Samuel 30:1, 3, 14 (random acts of violence);2 Samuel 23:5-7 (Godless are like thorns that cannot be picked up in the hand, but must beburned in the fire);1 Kings 9:16; 13:2; 15:13; 16:18 (suicide by burning);2 Kings 17:31 (children burned in fire to their Gods);2 Kings 23:4, 6, 11, 15, 16, 20; 1 Chronicles 14:12 (burning of idolatrous objects of worshipin Jerusalem, etc.);2 Kings 25:9; Isaiah 1:7 (burning of Jerusalem by Nebuzaradan);Isaiah 44:16, 19; 47:14 (simile);Jeremiah 7:31; 19:5 (children burned in Valley of Hinnom); 21:10; 32:29; 34:2, 22; 37:8, 10;38:17, 18, 23; 39:8; 52:13; 2 Chronicles 36:19; Psalm 74:8;Psalm 80:16 (the Babylonians will / did burn Jerusalem and the houses in Jerusalem withaltars to Baal on their roofs);Psalm 43:12, 13 (Nebuchadnezzar will kindle a fire in the temples of Egypt);Psalm 51:32 (Babylon also to be burned);Ezekiel 5:4 (Ezekiel’s burning of his own hair as a symbol for the coming destruction of Jerusalem);Ezekiel 16:41; 23:47 (the threatened destruction of Judah by YHWH); Micah 1:7; Psalm46:10;Proverbs 6:27 (the man who takes fire into his garments will be burned.).243See footnote 241. The same noun, is repeated here, hM'äzi, “(sexual) wickedness.”269

244to death. You people shall kill the animal.20:16 hV'Þaih'-ta, T'îg>r:h'w> Ht'êao h[('äb.rIl. ‘hm'heB.-lK'-la, br:Üq.Ti rv,’a) hV'ªaiw>`~B'( ~h,îymeD> Wtm'ÞWy tAmï hm'_heB.h;-ta,w> And a woman who will draw near to any animal,for crouching (sexually) with it; and you (singular) shall kill the woman and the animal. They shall245surely be put to death. Their blood is upon them.244Is this a “good law”? How can it be good to kill an animal for something it did notchoose to do?245See Leviticus 18:23. Again, a comparison of the two passages is instructive:18.23 ynEôp.li dmoú[]t;-al{) hV'ªaiw> Hb'_-ha'm.j'l. ^ßT.b.k'v. !Teîti-al{ hm'²heB.-lk'b.WàWh) lb,T,î H['Þb.rIl. hm'²heb., “And with every (or ‘any’) animal you shall not giveyour lying down, for uncleanness (is) in it; and a woman shall not stand before ananimal for crouching (for sexual relationship); it is confusion.”20:15-16`Wgro)h]T; hm'ÞheB.h;-ta,w> tm'_Wy tAmåhm'Þheb.Bi AT±b.k'v. !TeóyI rv,’a] vyaiªw>hV'Þaih'-ta, T'îg>r:h'w> Ht'êao h['äb.rIl. ‘hm'heB.-lK'-la, br:Üq.Ti rv,’a] hV'ªaiw>`~B'( ~h,îymeD> Wtm'ÞWy tAmï hm'_heB.h;-ta,w>, “And a man who will give his lying-down(for sexual intercourse) with an animal shall be surely put to death; and you people shallkill the animal. And a woman who will draw near to any animal for crouching (for sexualintercourse) with it; and you (individual) shall kill the woman; and the animal shall surelybe put to death–their blood is on them.”There can be no doubt concerning this matter. YHWH absolutely forbids sexual intercoursebetween humans and animals, giving the strongest type of warning given in Hebrewlaw against such a practice. The regulation in 18:23 simply forbids sexual intercourse withanimals, claiming that it produces uncleanness and is confusion.The longer regulation in 20:15-16 is “case law,” and states that a man who “gives” hislying down (for sexual intercourse) with an animal shall be surely put to death, and the peopleshall kill the animal. In addition, the case of a woman who draws near to an animal (any animal)for crouching (for sexual intercourse) with it, is to be killed, as well as the animal–theyshall surely be put to death–their blood is on them.Here again, we think this is a prohibition of a practice common in the Near-Easternfertility religions, where sexual intercourse with animals was commonly practiced.270(continued...)

20:17 Ht'øw"r>[,(,-ta, ha'’r"w> AMaiû-tb; Aaå wybiäa'-tB; At‡xoa)-ta, xQ:åyI-rv,a) vyaiäw>)hL'ÞGI At±xoa) tw:ôr>(,[, ~M'_([; ynEåB. ynEßy(e[el. Wtêr>k.nI’w> aWhê ds,x,ä ‘Atw"r>[,(,-ta, ha,Ûr>ti-ayhi(w>àF'(yI AnðwO([] And a man who will take his sister–daughter of his father, or daughter of his mother;246and he will see her nakedness; and she will see his nakedness–it is a shame. And they shallbe cut off in the eyes of the children of their people. He uncovered his sister’s nakedness; he247shall bear his guilt.245(...continued)Deborah Lein asks, Is this a “good” law, or a “bad” law? Our answer is that the prohibitionis good, but the putting of people to death for violation of the prohibition is “not good”–itis too extreme, too violent. What do you think?246The noun is ds,x,, which normally has the very positive meaning “steadfast love,” butwhich here has the negative meaning of “shame,” or “reproach.” For another statement withthis negative meaning, see Proverbs 14:34; also see Proverbs 25:10 for the use of this rootas a verb in the piel meaning “to reproach,” or “to put to shame.”Levine states that the noun, “as used here, is unrelated to the noun ds,x,, ‘steadfastlove, kindness,’ found so frequently in the Bible. This is an instance of homonyms, two wordswritten alike and that sound alike, but that have no etymological connection.” (P. 138) Hethinks it is cognate with Aramaic chasda.247See Leviticus 18:9 with its footnote, and the reference to the story of Amnon andTamar in 2 Samuel 13. Again it is interesting to compare the two passages:18:9 al{ï #Wx+ tdtw:ôr>[, ~M'_[; ynEåB. ynEßy[el. Wtêr>k.nI’w> aWhê ds,x,ä ‘Atw"r>[,-ta, ha,Ûr>ti-ayhi(w>àF'(yI AnðwO[] hL'ÞGI At±xoa], “And a man who will take his sister–daughter of his father,or daughter of his mother; and he will see her nakedness; and she will see his nakedness–itis a shame. And they shall be cut off in the eyes of the children of their people.He uncovered his sister’s nakedness; he shall bear his guilt.”(continued...)271

20:18 Hr"åqom.-ta, ‘Ht'w"r>(,[,-ta, hL'ÛgIw> hw"©D" hV'øai-ta, bK;’v.yI-rv,a) vyaiw>û`~M'(([; br h'ym,_D" rAqåm.-ta, ht'ÞL.GI ayhi§w> hr"ê(/[/h,( And aman who will lie down (for sexual intercourse) with a woman in her menstrual period; and he willuncover her nakedness; he made naked her fountain; and she uncovered her blood’s spring; and248they shall be cut off, (the) two of them, from their people’s midst.247(...continued)The regulation as given in 18:9 is simply a statement addressed to the individual, warningagainst having sexual intercourse with a sister, even if only a half-sister, and even if shedidn’t have the same birth-place. Such a sexual relationship (using the idiom of “uncoveringnakedness”) is forbidden for the people of YHWH.In 20:17 the regulation is restated, this time in terms of “case-law,” and such an action,“seeing the nakedness of a sister” (evidently “seeing the nakedness” means the same thing as“uncovering the nakedness”), is evaluated as being “shameful” (again using the unusual ds,x,ä)as well as having its penalty announced–that of being “cut off” in a public manner (see footnote207 for discussion of the meaning of being “cut off”–where it is pointed out that sometimesthis probably means no more than “excommunication” from the community, but someimesmay mean capital punishment; see the next footnote). There is no escape from the resonsibilityattached to such an action, and this regulation, with its stated penalties, emphasizesthis fact.For this phrase, aF'(yI AnðwO[] see the following passages:Genesis 4:13,Leviticus 7:18,Leviticus 19:8,Leviticus 20:17,Leviticus 20:19,Numbers 5:31,Numbers 18:1,Isaiah 64:5,Ezekiel 18:20,Ezekiel 44:12,Hosea 4:8,248For the matters related to a woman’s menstrual period elsewhere in the HebrewBible, see:272(continued...)

20:19 hr"ß(/[/h, Ar±aev.-ta, yKió hLe_g:t. al{å ^ybiÞa' tAxïa)w: ^±M.ai tAxôa) tw:’r>(,[,w>`WaF'(yI ~n"woï[]wO() And your mother’s sister’s nakedness, and your father’s sister, you shall not249 250uncover; because he uncovered his (father’s) flesh; they shall bear their guilt.20:20 ~yrIïyrI()[] WaF'ÞyI ~a'îj.x, hL'_GI AdßDo tw:ïr>(,[, Atêd"Doå-ta, ‘bK;v.yI rv,Ûa) vyaiªw>251`Wtmu(y" And a man who will lie down (for sexual intercourse) with his aunt, he uncovered his248(...continued)Leviticus 12:2b, a woman who has given birth àm'(j.Ti Ht'ÞwOD. tD:ïnI yme²yKi ~ymiêy" t[;äb.vi,“seven days, like (the) days of a menstruant’s being ill, she shall be unclean.” 15:19,similar.Leviticus 15:24-30, any man who has sexual intercourse with a menstruating woman will beunclean for seven days; the bed she lies on, and whatever she sits on, will be unclean;after seven days, she must go to the priest with offerings, as if menstruation is a sin.Leviticus 18:19, no sexual intercourse during a woman’s menstruation.Heb EngIsaiah 64:5a / 6a , Wnyte_qod>ci-lK' ~yDIß[i dg

252uncle’s nakedness; their missing-of-the-mark they shall bear; they shall die childless.20:21 ~yrIïyrI()[] hL'ÞGI wyxi²a' tw:ïr>[,(, awhi_ hD"ånI wyxiÞa' tv,aeî-ta, xQ:±yI rv,îa) vyaiªw>253 254`Wy*h.yI And a man who will take his brother’s wife, it is impurity; he uncovered his brother’s255nakedness; childless they shall be.20:22 ayqIÜt'-al{w> ~t'_ao ~t,Þyfi()[]w: yj;êP'v.mi-lK'-ta,w> ‘yt;Qoxu-lK'-ta, ~T,Ûr>m;v.W`HB'( tb,v,îl' hM'v'Þ ~k,²t.a, aybiîme ynI÷a) rv,’a) #rsis.251(...continued)252The masculine plural adjective ~yrIïyrI() means “childless,” or “stripped,” or “naked.”The adjective occurs in the plural only here, in verses 20 and 21 in the Hebrew Bible. In thesingular, the adjective occurs at Genesis 15:2 (where Abram complains to YHWH that ischildless) and Jeremiah 22:30 where Jehoiachin is proclaimed as “childless,” but not literally.253Compare Leviticus 18:16, with its footnote 68. In the New Testament see Mark6:18 and Matthew 14:4 for John the Immerser’s statement to Herod Antipas that it wasunlawful for him to take his brother’s wife. Again we see no reason for this repetition here at20:21, other than for emphasis.254For the occurrences of this word hD"änI, “impurity,” see Leviticus 20:21 (here); Num-bers 19:9, 13, 20; 31:23 (all Numbers passages, “waters of impurity”); Ezra 9:11; Ezekiel16:33 (?) and 18:6.255Compare footnote 252.256This is a repetition of the phrase found at Leviticus 19:37. Compare similarstatements at 18:4-5, 26 and 19:19. Again it is obvious that this material is repetitious ofmaterial previously given in chapters 18-19–evidently for emphasis.257For this matter of the land “vomiting out” its inhabitants, see 18:25 and 18:28. Justas the land “vomited out” the previous inhabitants because of their immorality, so the only way(continued...)274

`~B'( #qUßa'w" Wfê('[' ‘hL,“ae-lK'-ta, yKiÛ ~k,_ynEP.mi x;LeÞv;m. And you shall not walk by the259 260regulations of the nation which I am sending away from before you; because all of these261(things) they practiced, and I abhorred them.20:24 tv,r

-!mi ~k,Þt.a, yTil.D:ïb.hi-rv,a] ~k,êyhel{)a/ hw"åhy> ‘ynIa] vb'_d>W bl'Þx' tb;îz" #r ynIåa] ‘Wnyle’p.nIw> WnM'_[i ^åT.k.l,B. aAlßh] ^M,ê[;w> ynIåa] ‘^yn

20:25 rho+J'l; ameÞJ'h; @A[(ïh'-!ybeW ha'êmeJ.l; ‘hr"hoJ.h; hm'ÛheB.h;-!yBe( ~T,úl.D:b.hiw>-rv,a) hm'êd"a)h'( fmoår>Ti rv,äa) ‘lkob.W @A(ª[b'W hm'äheB.B; ~k,øytevo)p.n:-ta, Wc’Q.v;t.-al{)w>àMe(j;l. ~k,Þl' yTil.D:ïb.hi And you shall separate between the clean animal(s) (in contrast) to265the unclean, and the unclean bird(s) (in contrast) to the clean; and you shall not make your lives264(...continued)`hm'(d"a]h' ynEïP.-l[; rv,Þa], “And by what shall it be known, then, that I found favor in Youreyes, I and Your people? Is it not by Your walking with us? And we were distinct / separated,I and Your people, from all the people(s) which (are) upon the earth’s / ground’s surface?”The evidence for YHWH’s favor is transformation of life!What do you think? What evidence is there that anyone has been in contact withYHWH / Jesus Christ other than transformed, purity, God-likeness of character?265In verse 24 YHWH says He has “separated” Israel from the nations; now Israel iscommanded to “separate” between the clean and the unclean. This matter of the necessity for“separation” is an important motif for Leviticus. See:10:10, Aaron and his sons are commanded !ybeîW lxo+h; !ybeäW vd

266detestable with the animal(s) and with the bird(s) and with all with which the ground swarms,267which I have separated for you as unclean.265(...continued)What do you think? If Jesus is the embodiment and fulfillment of the entire HebrewBible, how is it that He no longer follows or teaches His followers to follow these teachingsconcerning separation, and the necessity for eating only so-called “clean” animals and foods?Must we not conclude that Jesus not only embodies and fulfills the Hebrew Bible, but alsomakes distinctions between those toroth / teachings / laws that are applicable and of continuingrelevance, and those that are out-dated, and no longer applicable, between those that are“good” and “life-imparting,” and those that are “not good,” and that will not lead to life?266The phrase Wc’Q.v;t.-al{)w>, “and you shall not make detestable (your persons),” usesa verb found only in Leviticus:11:11, `WcQE)v;T. ~t'Þl'b.nI-ta,w> Wlkeêato al{å ‘~r"f'B.mi ~k,_l' Wyæh.yI #q,v,Þw> , “and they(the fish to be named) shall be a detestable thing for you people; from their flesh youshall not eat, and their carcass you shall detest!”11:13a, ~he_ #q,v,ä Wlßk.a'yE al{ï @A[êh'-!mi WcåQ.v;T. ‘hL,“ae-ta,w>, “and these you shalldetest; from (among) the bird(s) you shall not eat, they are a detestable thing.”11:43, ~h,êB' ‘WaM.J;ti( al{Üw> #rE+Voh; #rTi rv,äa] ‘lkob.W @A[ªb'W hm'äheB.B; ~k,øytevo)p.n:-ta, Wc’Q.v;t.-al{)w>àMe(j;l. ~k,Þl' yTil.D:ïb.hi-rv,a] hm'êd"a]h'(i, “and you shall not make your innermostbeings/ lives detestable by the animal and by the bird and by anything that creeps(upon) the ground, which I have divided / separated for you people to be unclean.”The language of 11:43 is closely related to the language of 20:25b.267This legislation raises the question in the Torah, If God created everything that thereis, and declared it all “very good” (so Genesis 1:1-2:3), including all the animals, birds, andcreatures “with which the ground swarms,” how can a large part of those animals, birds, andswarming creatures now be declared “unclean”? How will you answer that question?If you answer, They became unclean as a result of “the fall,” how is it that somebecame unclean and others did not?278(continued...)

20:26 ~yMi([;h'(-!mi ~k,²t.a, lDIïb.a;w" hw"+hy> ynIåa) vAdßq' yKiî ~yviêdoq. ‘yli ~t,yyIÜh.wI`yli( tAyðh.li 20.26 And you shall be set-apart people for me; because I, YHWH, am set-apart; 268269and I will separate you people from the (other) peoples, to belong to Me.20:27 !b,a,²B' Wtm'_Wy tAmå ynIß([oD>yI Aaï bAa± ~h,îb' hy ~t'Þao WmïG>r>yI And a man, or a woman that will be among them a communicator267(...continued)And further, how is it that Jesus is depicted in Mark 7 as “declaring all foods clean”?And why was Peter commanded to kill and eat just those very creatures declared “unclean” byLeviticus and Deuteronomy in Acts 10-11? Is all of this simply an inexplicable contradictionin Biblical Theology?We believe that the reason why certain animals, birds and swarming creatures aredeclared “unclean” by Leviticus and Deuteronomy is because they were being used in the“fertility religion” of the Canaanites–as sexual partners, or as sexual stimulants, or as parts ofmagical potions designed to force the hand of Baal / God. This is in line with the Bible’soverall view that the entirety of creation is “very good,” and that it is only the misuse or abuseof creation that makes it “unclean” or “evil.” What do you think? How do you explain thismatter?268Here again is another major theme of Leviticus, the “set-apartness of YHWH God,”and the necessity for “set-apartness” on the part of His people. For statements concerningIsrael’s being “set-apart people,” see Exodus 29:37; 30:10, 29, 36; 40:10; Leviticus 2:3, 10;6:10, 18, 22; 7:1, 6; 10:12, 17; 11:44, 45; 14:13; 19:2; 20:7, 26; 21:6; 24:9; 27:28; Numbers5:17; 15:40; 16:3; 18:9; Deuteronomy 14:2; Joshua 24:19; 1 Chronicles 23:13; 2 Chronicles31:6; Psalm 89:6, 8; Proverbs 9:10; 30:3; Ezekiel 36:38; 43:12; 45:3; 48:12; Daniel8:24; 9:24 and Zechariah 14:5.For the phrase hw"+hy> ynIåa) vAdßq' yKiî, “because set-apart (am) I, YHWH,” seeLeviticus 19:2; 20:26 (here) and 21:8. Compare Joshua 24:19; 2 Kings 19:22 and Psalm99:3. Here again the biblical teaching emphasizes that the people of God must be like theirGod. He is “set-apart”–and so you, His people, must likewise be “set-apart”!269Compare Exodus 33:16, quoted in footnote 264.279

270 271 272with the dead, or one intimate with the unseen world, they shall surely be put to death; with273 274the stone(s) they shall stone them. Their blood is upon them.270The noun used here is bAa±, which means “necromancer,” or “communicator with thedead.” See its occurrences at Leviticus 19:31; 20:6; 20:27 (here); Deuteronomy 18:11; 1Samuel 28:3, 7, 7, 8, 9; 2 Kings 21:6; 23:24; Isaiah 8:19; 19:3; 29:4; 1 Chronicles 10:13and 2 Chronicles 33:6. See especially footnote 182 on Leviticus 19:31 for Harry Hoffner’sdescription of the bAa±, )obh.271The noun used here is ynIß(oD>yI, which means “a familiar spirit,” as one knowing, wise,acquainted with the secrets of the unseen world. It can be understood as referring to theperson claiming to have such knowledge, or as referring to a “familiar spirit” known to thatperson. For occurrences in the Hebrew Bible see Leviticus 19:31; 20:6, 27 (here); Deuteronomy18:11; 1 Samuel 28:3, 9; 2 Kings 21:6; 23:24; Isaiah 8:19; 19:3 and 2 Chronicles33:6. See footnote 183.272See Leviticus 20:2 (with its lengthy footnote, listing occurrences of this phrase,tm'_Wy tAm, here in the plural), 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 27 (here); 24:16, 17; 27:29.Here again, in our view, we have a torah / teaching / law that is “not good.” Suchefforts at Divine communication through magical, superstitious means, is contrary to the Divinestwill–and we believe that this is true, still today, in the 21 century. But to put such persons todeath is, in our opinion, an example of what YHWH means in Ezekiel 20:25, when He statesthat He gave Israel statutes that were “not good,” and judicial decisions “by which they will notlive.” Jesus Christ, in His embodiment and fulfillment of Israel’s torah / teaching / law nevercalls for the death of such people, but rather reaches out to them as those who are “lostsheep,” in need of the great Shepherd of the flock’s finding and bringing home.What do you think?273For capital punishment by stoning, see Leviticus 20:2; 20:27 (here); 24:14, 16, 16,23; Numbers 14:10; 15:35, 36; Deuteronomy 21:21; Joshua 7:25; 1 Kings 12:18; Ezekiel16:40; 23:47; 2 Chronicles 10:18 and 24:21. See footnote 205.274For this phrase ~B'( ~h,îymeD>, “their blood is on them,” see Leviticus 20:9, 11, 12,13, 16 and 27 (here).280

Special Laws for the PriestsPriestly decisions are given for the priests' conduct, especially about separation fromceremonial uncleanness--both for themselves, and their families.Leviticus 21:1-24, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes21:1 ~h,êlea) T'är>m;a'w> !ro+h)a; ynEåB. ~ynIßh)Koh;-la, rmoïa/ hv,êmo-la, hw"hy> rm,aYOÝw:`wyM'([;B. aM'ÞJ;yI-al{) vp,nh'{) and for his sister, the virgin, the one near to him who does notbelong to a man–for her he shall be unclean. 21:4 ` AL)x;heÞl. wyM'([;B. l[(;B;ä aM'ÞJ;yI al{ï Heshall not be unclean (for a sister’s husband among his peoples, to defile himself.21:5 WxLe_g:y> al{å ~n"ßq'z> ta;îp.W ~v'êaroB. ‘hx'r>q' ÎWxÜr>q.yIÐ ¿hx'r>q.yIÀ-al{)`tj,r")f' Wjßr>f.yI al{ï ~r"êf'b.bi’W/ She / they shall not shave smooth a bald spot in their head;and their beard’s corner they shall not shave off; and in their flesh they shall not cut incisions.21:6 ~x,l,ó hw"÷hy> yVe’ai-ta, •yKi ~h,_yhel{a/ ~veÞ WlêL.x;y> al{åw> ~h,êyhel{åale ‘Wyh.yI ~yviÛdoq.`vd WxQ'êyI al{å ‘hl'l'x)w: hn"ÜzO hV'’ai`wyh'(l{ale aWhß vdoïq' A woman who is a prostitute and profaned they shall not take (inmarriage); and a woman divorced from his husband they shall not take (in marriage); because he281

(the priest) is set-apart for his God. 21:8 byrI+q.m; aWhå ^yh,Þl{a/ ~x,l,î-ta,-yKi( ATêv.D:qiw>`~k,(v.DIq;m. hw"ßhy> ynIïa) vAdêq' yKiä %L'ê-hy

Àv)D>q;m. hw"ßhy> ynIïa) yKi² wyM'_([;B. A[(ßr>z: lLeîx;y> And he shall not defile his descendant(s)among his peoples; because I, YHWH, the One setting you apart!21:16 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 21:17br:êq.yI al{å ~Wmê ‘Ab hyhw"+hy yVeäai-ta byrIßq.h;l. vG:ëyI al{å !heêKoh; !roåh)a; [(r:ZQ'mi wyh'êl{a/ food of his God from set-apart things ofthe set-apart things; and from the set-apart things he shall eat. 21:23 al{å tk,roøP'h;-la, %a‘hw"ßhy> ynIïa) yKi² yv;êD"q.mi-ta lLex;y> al{Üw> AB+ ~Wmå-yKi( vG:ßyI al{ï x;Be²z>Mih;-la,w> aboªy";ä`~v'(D>q;m., Surely, inside the shutting-off curtain he shall not come; and to the altar of sacrifice he283

shall not draw near; because (there) is a blemish in him; and he shall not defile My set-apartplace, because I, YHWH, One setting them apart.21:24 `lae(r"f.yI ynEßB.-lK'-la,(w> wyn"+B'-la,w> !roßh)a;-la,( hv,êmo rBeäd:y>w: And Mosesspoke to Aharon, and to his sons, and to all Israel’s children.284

Priestly Decisions Concerning the Priests' Eating of Sacred FoodLeviticus 22:1-16, Hebrew Text with English Translation22:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 22:2yvi_d>q' ~veä-ta, WlßL.x;y> al{ïw> laeêr"f.yI-ynE)b. yveäd>Q'mi‘Wrz>N")yIw> wyn"©B'-la,w> !roøh)a;-la,( rBe’D:`hw")hy> ynIïa) yliÞ ~yvi²DIq.m; ~heó rv,’a) Speak to Aharon and to his sons; and they shalldedicate themselves (away) from the set-apart things of Israel’s children; and they shall not defile(the) name of set-apart things, which they are causing to be set-apart for Me–I, YHWH! 22:3‘~yvid"Q\h;-la, ~k[],ª()r>z:-lK'mi br:åq.yI-rv,a) Ÿvyaiä-lK' ~k,øytero’dol. ~h,ªlea) rmoåa/yn:ßp'L.mi awhi²h; vp,N hw"ëhyl;( ‘laer"f.yI-ynE)b. WvyDIÜq.y: rv,’a)`hw")hy> ynIïa) Say to them, to your generations–every man who will draw near from all yourdescendants to the set-apart things which Israel’s children will set apart for the YHWH–and hisuncleanness (is) upon him; and that person shall be cut off from before Me!22:4 d[(;Þ lk;êayO al{å ‘~yvid"Q\B; bz"ë Aaå [‘(:Wr’c' aWhÜw> !roªh)a; [(r;Z

washed his flesh in the waters; 22:7 ~yviêd"Q\h;-!mi lk;äayO ‘rx;a;w> rhe_j'w> vm,V,Þh; ab'îWàWh) Amßx.l; yKiî and the sun shall set; and he shall be clean. And afterwards he shall eat fromthe set-apart things–because it is his food. 22:8 Hb'_-ha'm.j'l. lk;ÞayO al{ï hp'²rEj.W hl'óben>`hw")hy> ynIßa) A dead carcass and one torn (by animals) he shall not eat for uncleanness (is) in it.I, YHWH!22:9 ynIïa) Whlu_L.x;y> yKiä Abß WtmeîW aj.xeê ‘wyl['(' WaÜf.yI-al{)w> yTiªr>m;v.mi-ta, Wråm.v'w>`~v'(D>q;m. hw"ßhy> And they shall observe My charge; and they shall not bear over it missing-ofthe-mark,and they shall die by it, because they defiled it. I, YHWH, Who am setting them apart.22:10 `vd Andevery stranger shall not eat (what is) set apart. An immigrant of a priest (or) a hired worker shallnot eat (what is) set apart. 22:11 AB+ lk;ayOæ aWhß APês.K; !y:ån>qi ‘vp,n hg"+g"v.Bi vd286

`vd ynIïa) yKi² ~h,_yved>q' And they shall cause them to bear iniquity (and)guiltiness in their eating set-apart offerings; because I, YHWH, am causing them to be set-apart!287

Priestly Decisions Concerning Animals Acceptable for SacrificeLeviticus 22:17-33, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes22:17 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 22:18•vyai vyaiä ~h,_lea) T'Þr>m;a'w> laeêr"f.yI ynEåB.-lK' ‘la,w> wyn"©B'-la,w> !roøh)a;-la,( rBe’D:-lk'l.W ‘~h,yrEd>nI-lk'l. ‘AnB'r>q' byrIÜq.y: rv,’a) laeªr"f.yIB. rGEåh;-!miW laeør"f.yI tyBe’mi`hl'[((ol. hw"ßhyl; WbyrIïq.y:-rv,a) ~t'êAbd>n Speak to Aharon and to his sons, and to all Israel’schildren; and you shall say to them, Any man from Israel’s children and from the temporaryresident(s) in Israel who shall bring near his near-offering, for all their vows and for all their freewillofferings which they will bring near to the YHWH for an offering-up; 22:19 ~k,_n>cor>lI) `~yZI)[ib'(W~ybiÞf'K.B; rq'§B'B; rk'êz" ~ymiäT' for your being acceptable, (bring) fully healthy male(s) in thecattle, in the lambs, and in the goats. 22:20 WbyrI+q.t; al{å ~Wmß ABï-rv,a) lKo±`~k,(l' hy288

`hc,(r"yE al{ï rd,nEßl.W Atêao hf,ä()[]T; and a bull, and a sheep (that has) a long member, and onestunted in growth, (if you) make it a freewill offering, and for a vow, will not be acceptable; 22:24`Wf)()[]t; al{ï ~k,Þc.r>a;b.W* hw"+hyl;( WbyrIßq.t; al{ï tWrêk'w> qWtån"w> ‘tWtk'w> %W(Ü[m'W andemasculated, and with crushed (testicles); and with them cut off–you people shall not bring nearto the YHWH; and in you land you shall not do (these things to animals). 22:25 rk'ªnE-!B, dY:åmiW22:25 ~B'ê ~Wmå ‘~h,B' ~t'Ûx'v.m' yKiä hL,ae_-lK'mi ~k,Þyhel{a/ ~x,l,î-ta, WbyrI±q.t; al{ï`~k,(l' Wcßr"yE al{ï And from (the) hand of a foreigner’s descendant you shall not bring near yourGod’s food from all of these; because of their corruption in them; blemish (is) in them–they will notbe acceptable for you people.22:26 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 22:27‘ynIymiV.h; ~AYÝmiW AM+ai tx;T;ä ~ymiÞy" t[(;îb.vi hy"±h'w> dleêW"yI yKiä ‘z[(e-Aa bf,k,Û-Aa rAvå`hw")hyl; hV,Þai !B;îr>q'l. hc,§r"yE ha'l.h'êw" A bull or a lamb or a goat that shall be born; and itshall be (for) seven days beneath its mother; and from the eighth day and further it will beaccepted for a near-offering, a fire-offering for the YHWH. 22:28 -ta,w> Atåao hf,_-Aa rAvßw>`dx'(a, ~AyðB. Wjßx)v.ti al{ï AnëB. And a bull or a sheep–it and its offspring you shall notslaughter in one day.22:29 `WxB'(z>Ti ~k,Þn>cor>lI) hw"+hyl; hd"ßAT-xb;zti-yki(w> And if you sacrifice asacrifice of thanksgiving to the YHWH, for your acceptance you shall sacrifice (it). 22:30 ~AYÝB;`hw")hy> ynIßa) rq,Bo+-d([; WNM,Þmi WrytiîAt-al{) lkeêa'yE ‘aWhh; On that day it shall be eaten; youshall not leave any of it over until morning. I, YHWH!22:31 `hw")hy> ynIßa) ~t'_ao ~t,Þyf[]w: yt;êwOc.mi ‘~T,r>m;v.W And you shall observe My289

commandments, and you shall do them. I, YHWH!22:32 hw"ßhy> ynIïa) lae_r"f.yI ynEåB. %AtßB. yTiêv.D:q.nI’w> yviêd>q' ~veä-ta, ‘WlL.x;t. al{Üw>`~k,(v.DIq;m.22:33 `hw")hy> ynIßa) ~yhi_l{ale ~k,Þl' tAyðh.li ~yIr:êc.mi #r

Priestly Decisions Concerning the Yearly Calendar of FestivalsIsrael's festivals and sacred assemblies: the Seventh-day-Rest; the Passover andUnleavened Bread; Feast of First-fruits; Feast of Weeks; Feast of Trumpets; Day of Atonement /Covering; Feast of Tents / Booths.faith?Question: Do these Israelite festivals have genuine symbolic meaning for the ChristianLeviticus 23:1-44, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes23:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying:23:2 ~t'Þao Waïr>q.Ti-rv,a) hw"ëhy> ydEå[]Am ~h,êlea) T'är>m;a'w> ‘laer"f.yI ynEÜB.-la, rBeúD:`yd")[]Am ~heÞ hL,aeî vd

eads. 23:7 al{ï hd"ßbo[] tk,al,îm.-lK' ~k,_l' hy ‘laer"f.yI ynEÜB.-la, rBeúD:`!he(Koh;-la, ~k,Þr>yciq. tyviîarE rm,[o±,(o±-ta, ~t,îabeh)w: Hr"+yciq.-ta, ~T,Þr>c;q.W ~k,êl'Speak to Israel’s children; and you shall say to them, When you enter into the land which I amgiving to you, and you reap its harvest, and you shall bring (the) first bundle (of grain) of yourharvest to the priest. 23:11 tB'êV;h; ‘tr:x\M'mi( ~k,_n>cor>lI) hw"ßhy> ynEïp.li rm,[o±h'-ta, @ynIôhew>`!he(Koh; WNp,ÞynIy> And he shall wave the bundle (of grain) before YHWH, for your acceptance (withYHWH); from the day after the rest-day, the priest will wave it. 23:12 ~AyðB. ~t,§yfi[]w:`hw")hyl; hl'Þ(o[ol. At±n"v.-!B, ~ymióT' fb,K,ä rm,[o±h'-ta, ~k,Þp.ynI)h) And you shall make /sacrifice on the day of your waving the bundle (of grain) a completely healthy one-year old lambfor an offering up to the YHWH, 23:13 !m,V,²b; hl'îWlB. tl,soå ~ynI÷rof.[(, ynE’v. •Atx'n>miW`!yhi(h; t(iîybir> !yIy:ß hKoïs.nIw> x:xo+ynI x:yrEå hw"ßhyl; hV,îai and its (accompanying) gift-offering,two tenths of fine wheat mixed with oil–an offering made by fire to the YHWH, a pleasing smell;and its drink-offering of wine, a fourth of the liquid-measure; 23:14 lm,ør>k;w> yli’q'w> •~x,l,w>‘~l'A([ tQ:Üxu ~k,_yhel{a/ !B;Þr>q'-ta, ~k,êa)ybiäh) d[(;… hZ

`~k,(ytebo)v.mo lkoßB. ~k,êyteroådol. and you people shall not eat bread and roasted grain and fruituntil this same day, until your bring your God’s offering. (It is) a long-lasting statute for yourgenerations, in all your dwelling-places.23:15 hp'_WnT.h; rm[,(oß-ta, ~k,êa)ybiäh) ‘~AYmi tB'êV;h; tr:åx\M'mi ‘~k,l' ~T,Ûr>p;s.W`hn"yy

`!he(Kol; And the priest shall wave them beside (the) bread of the first-fruits, a wave-offeringbefore YHWH, beside (the) two lambs. They shall be set-apart for the YHWH, for the priest.23:21 tk,al,îm.-lK' ~k,êl' hya; ryciäq.-ta, ~k,úr>c.qub.W*`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~t'êao bzOæ()[]T; ‘rGEl;w> ynIÜ['l,(,( jQE+l;t. al{å ^ßr>yciq. And when youpeople gather (the) harvest of your land, you shall not complete(ly harvest) your field’s corner(s) /side(s); when you gather and collect your harvest, you shall not collect (what is left over); for (the)afflicted and for the temporary resident you shall leave them! I (am) YHWH your God.23:23 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 23:24!AtêB'v; ‘~k,l' hy

people, and you shall humble / afflict your persons, and you shall bring near a fire-offering for theYHWH. 23:28 ~AyÝ yKiä hZk.nIw> hZ

~k,øl' hyW xb;znI-lK' db;ÛL.miW beside rest-daysof YHWH, and beside your gifts, and beside all your vows, and beside all your free-will offerings,which you people will give for the YHWH. 23:39 y[(iªybiV.h; vd(;w> tboß('-#[(e And you shall takefor yourselves on the first day, fruit (from) tree(s), pans (full of) dates, and branches of leafytree(s), and wady-poplars; and you shall rejoice before YHWH your God (for) seven days. 23:41296

vdÀt)ao WGxoïT' y[(iÞybiV.h; And you shall go on pilgrimage for it, a pilgrimage-festival for the YHWH,seven days in the year–a long-lasting statute–because for your generations in the seventh month,you shall go on pilgrimage for it! 23:42 ‘xr"z>a,h'(-lK' ~ymi_y" t[(;äb.vi Wbßv.Te tKoïSuB;`tKo)SuB; Wbßv.yE laeêr"f.yIB. You people shall dwell in the booths (for) seven days; every one ofthe native-born in Israel shall dwell in the booths– 23:43 yKiä è~k,ytero)do W[(åd>yE é![(;m;l.hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~yIr"+c.mi #r

Priestly Decisions Concerning Oil for the Lampstandand Bread of Presence for the TableLeviticus 24:1-9, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes24:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying:24:2 rnEß tl[]{ï()h;l. rAa+M'l; tytiÞK' %z"± tyIz:ï !m,v,ä ^yl,÷ae Wx’q.yIw> laeªr"f.yI ynEåB.-ta, wc;ú`dymi(T' Command Israel’s children; and they shall take for you pure beaten olive oil for the lightbearerto lift up a continual lamp. 24:3 At’ao •%ro()[]y: dª[eAm lh,aoåB. tdUø(e[eh' tk,ro’p'l. •#Wxmi`~k,(ytero)dol. ~l'ÞA[( tQ:ïxu dymi_T' hw"ßhy> ynEïp.li rq,Bo±-d[(; br tl,soê T'äx.q;l'w>`tx'(a,h' hL'îx;h;( And you (singular) shall take fine flour, and you shall bake it–twelve cakes, twotenths (a measurement of flour) to the one cake. 24:6 vveä tAkßr"()[]m;( ~yIT:ïv. ~t'²Aa T'îm.f;w>`hw")hy> ynEïp.li rhoßJ'h; !x'îl.Vuh; l[(;² tk,r"+()[]M;h;( And you shall place them (in) two rows; six(to) the row, upon the table, the clean one, before YHWH. 24:7 hn"åbol. tk,ra;l. ‘~x,L,’l; ht'Ûy>h'w> hK'_z: And you shall place pure white sweetsmellinggum; and it shall be for food for a memorial, a fire-offering for the YHWH. 24:8 ~Ay’B.`~l'(A([ tyrIïB. laeÞr"f.yI-ynE)B. taeîme dymi_T' hw"ßhy> ynEïp.li WNk,²r>[;y:) tB'ªV;h; ~AyæB. tB'øV;h;298

On the day of rest, on the day of rest (i.e., regularly), he shall arrange it before YHWHcontinually–(it is) a long-lasting covenant (coming) from Israel’s children. 24:9 ht'y>h'(w>hw"ßhy> yVeîaime Al± aWhï ~yvi’d"q'* •vdf.YIh; vyaiÞw> tyliêaer>f.YIh; !B,… hnw: ‘~Veh;-ta, tyliÛaer>f.YIh;`!d")-hJem;l. yrIßb.DI And the son of the Israelite cursed the (Divine) name; and he spoke foullanguage; and they brought him to Moses; and his mother’s name (was) Shelomiyth, (the)daughter of Dibhriy, of (the) tribe of Dan. 24:12 yPiî-l[(; ~h,Þl' vroïp.li rm'_v.MiB; WhxuÞyNIY:w:`hw")hy> And they placed him in the place of confinement, to make distinct to them YHWH’sdecision / (waiting) upon YHWH’s mouth.24:13 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 24:14 -l[(; ~h,ÞydEy>-ta, ~y[i(i²m.Voh;-lk'( Wkôm.s'w> hn

`hd")(e[eh'-lK' Atßao Wmïg>r"w> ‘Av+aro Bring him forth, the one speaking foul language, to (a place)outside the camp; and all the ones who heard (the cursing) laid their hands upon his head; and allthe congregation will stone him. 24:15 yKi( vyai² vyaiî rmo+ale rBeäd:T. laeÞr"f.yI ynEïB.-la,w>Àa)j.x, af'în"w> wyh'Þl{a/ lLeîq;y>- And to Israel’s children you shall speak, saying, Any man whospeak foul language (concerning) his God–and he will bear his missing-of-the-mark. 24:16~veÞ-Abq.n"B. xr"êz>a,K'( ‘rGEK; hd"+(e[eh'-lK' Abß-WmG>r>yI ~Agðr" tm'êWy tAmå ‘hw"hy>-~ve bqEÜnOw>`tm'(Wy And one cursing YHWH’s name shall certainly die; all the congregation shall certainlystone him–like the temporary resident, like the native born, for his cursing (YHWH’s) name heshall die!24:17 `tm'(Wy tAmß ~d"+a' vp,n

`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ßhy> ynIïa) yKi² hyw:`hv,(mo-ta, hw"ßhy> hW"ïci rv,²a)K;* Wfê[' laeär"f.yI-ynE)b.W !b,a'_ Atßao WmïG>r>YIw: hn

`Ht'(a'WbT.-ta, T'Þp.s;a'w> ^m,_r>K; rmoåz>Ti ~ynIßv' vveîw> Six years you shall sow your field(s);and six years you shall prune your vineyard(s), and shall gather your produce. 25:4 hn"åV'b;Wal{ï ^ßm.r>k;w> [(r"êz>ti‘ al{å ‘^d>f") hw"+hyl; tB'Þv; #r(i[ia,w> rAcêq.ti al{å ‘^r>yci(q. x:ypiÛs. taeä`#rh'w>û`%M'[((i ~yrIßG"h; And (the) time of rest (for) the land will be for you people for food–for you(singular), and for your indentured bond-servant, and for your indentured female bond-servant,and for your hired worker, and for your stranger, the one temporarily residing with you; 25:7`lko)a/l, Ht'Þa'WbT.-lk' hya;B. rv,äa) hY"ßx;l;(w> ^êT.m.h,b.li’w> and for your cattle,and for the wild animal(s) in your land–all its produce will be for food.25:8 ‘ymey> ^ªl. Wyæh'w> ~ymi_('P. ([b;v,ä ~ynIßv' ([b;v,î ~ynIëv' ttoåB.v; ([b;v,… ^ªl. T'är>p;s'w>`hn")v' ~y(iÞB'r>a;w> ([v;Teî ~ynIëV'h; ttoåB.v; ([b;v,… And you (singular) shall count for yourselfseven years of rest-time, seven years, seven times; and they will be for you seven days, theseven years of rest-time, and forty-nine year. 25:9 vdb;()[]h;*w>275(...continued)cated animals and the wild animals.302

`~k,(c.r>a;-lk'B. rp'ÞAv Wrybiî()[]T; ~yrIêPuKih; ‘~AyB. vd ~t,îar"q.W hn"ëv' ‘~yVimix)h; tn:Üv. taeä ~T,ªv.D:qiw>`Wbvu(T' ATßx.P;v.mi-la, vyaiîw> AtêZ"xua)-la, vyai… ~T,ªb.v;w> ~k,êl' hyti al{å ~k,_l' It shall be ayear of ram’s horn, the fiftieth year for you people; you shall not plant, and you shall not gather itsgrowth from spilled kernels; and you shall not cut off its unpruned vines. 25:12 awhiê lbeäAy yKi…`Ht'(a'WbT.-ta, Wlßk.aTo hd

(of) years of produce, you shall purchase (it) for youself. 25:16 ‘hB,r>T; ~ynI©V'h; broå Ÿypiäl.`%l'( rkeÞmo aWhï taoêWbT. rP;äs.mi yKi… At+n"q.mi jy(iÞ[im.T; ~ynIëV'h; j[(oåm. ‘ypil.W Atên"q.miAccording to (the) great number of the years, you (singualr) shall increase its purchase-price; andaccording to (the) small number of the years, you shall reduce its purchase-price; because (it isthe) number of (years of) produce, he is selling (it) to you. 25:17 Atêymi()[]-ta, vyaiä ‘WnAt al{Üw>`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ßhoy> ynIïa) yKi² ^yh,_l{a/me( t'arEßy"w> And you people shall not oppress–a man hisfellow; and you shall tremble in awe from your God–because I, YHWH your God!25:18 ~T,îb.v;ywI) ~t'_ao ~t,äyfi()[]w: Wrßm.v.Ti yj;îP'v.mi-ta,w> yt;êQoxu-ta, ‘~t,yfi()[]w:`xj;b,(l' #rPi ‘#r And the land shallgive its fruit; and you people shall eat in abundance / to satisfaction; and you shall live securelyupon it! 25:20 .-ta, @soßa/n< al{ïw> [(r"êz>nI al{å !he… t[(i_ybiV.h; hn"åV'B; lk;ÞaNO-hm; Wrêm.atoykiäw> `Wnte(a'WbT And if you people shall say, What shall we eat in the seventh year? Look–(theland) we won’t plant; and we will not gather its produce! 25:21 hn"ßV'B; ~k,êl' ‘ytik'r>Bi-ta,ytiyWIÜciw>`~ynI)V'h; vl{ßv.li ha'êWbT.h;-ta ,‘tf'['w> tyVi_Vih; And I will command My blessing for youpeople in the sixth year, and it will make its produce for the three years. 25:22 tae… ~T,[,ª(.r:z>W‘aAB-d[(; t[(iªyviT.h; hn"åV'h; Ÿd[(:å !v'_y" ha'äWbT.h;-!mi ~T,Þl.k;a)w: tnIëymiV.h; hn"åV'h;304

`!v'(y" Wlßk.aTo Ht'êa'WbåT. And you shall plant (in) the eighth year; and you shall eat from the old276produce until the the ninth year; until its produce comes, you shall eat (the) old (produce).Priestly Decisions Concerning Land Tenure and Indentured BondageLeviticus 25:23-55, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes25:23~T,Þa; ~ybi²v'Atw> ~yrIôgE-yKi( #r ydEïK. ac'Þm'W Adêy" hg"yFiähiw lae_GO ALß-hy And a man whohas no kinsman / redeemer; and his hand shall reach out; and he shall find sufficient for hisredemption; 25:27 Al+-rk;m'( rv,äa) vyaiÞl' @de[ê(oh'ä-ta byvihew> ArêK'm.mi ynEåv.-ta, ‘bV;xiw>Àt)Z"xua)l; bv'Þw> he shall determine (the) years of his sale; and he shall return the remainder to276Here again, the earlier law of the Covenant Code (Exodus 23:10-11) is enlargedupon, and a problem involved in its observance is dealt with. The earlier law simply commandedthe cessation of agricultural work in the seventh year. But the question wouldautomatically be raised, where will the food come from in the seventh year? The answerwhich this later legislation gives is that YHWH will command His blessing, enabling the land inits sixth year to produce enough for three years, enabling the people to eat the “old” produceuntil the new crops would come in the ninth year.305

the man who bought it; and he shall return to his possession (of land). 25:28 ha'øc.m'*-al{) ~ai’w>lbeêYOB; ‘ac'y"w> lbe_AYh; tn:åv. d[;Þ Atêao hn èAl byviäh' éyDE Adªy"Àt)Z"xua)l; bv'Þw> And if his hand did not find sufficient, he shall return (it) to him; and its sale shallbe in the hand of the one buying it, until (the) year of the ram’s horn; and he shall go forth in theram’s horn (year), and he shall return to his possession (of land).25:29 tn:åv. ~Toß-d[; AtêL'auG> ‘ht'y>h'w> hm'êAx ry[(iä ‘bv;Am-tyBe rKoÜm.yI-yKi( vyaiªw>Àt)L'aug> hy And citiesof the Leviticusites, (with) houses (in) cities of their possession (of land)–long-lasting redemptionshall be for the Leviticusites. 25:33 AtßZ"xua) ry[(iîw> tyIB:±-rK;m.mi ac'óy"w> ~YIëwIl.h;-!mi la;g>yIrv,Ûa)w:306

`lae(r"f.yI ynEïB. %AtßB. ~t'êZ"xua) awhi… ~YI©wIl.h; yrE[å(' yTeúb' yKiä lbe_YOB;‘ And whoever shallredeem (land) from the Leviticusites; and its sale of a house shall go forth and city of its possessionin the ram’s horn (year); because houses (in the) cities of the Leviticusites–they are theirpossession in the midst of Israel’s children. 25:34 ~l'²A([ tZ:ïxua)-yKi( rke_M'yI al{å ~h,Þyre[('vr:ïg>mi hdE±f.W* `~h,(l' aWhß And an open field of their cities shall not be sold; because it (is) along-lasting possession for them.25:35 `%M'[((i yx;Þw" bv'²Atw> rGEô ABê T'q.z:åx/h,(w> %M'[_(i Adßy" hj'm'îW ^yxiêa' %Wmåy"-yki(w>And if your brother grows poor, and his hand shakes with you; and you shall take firm hold onhim–a temporary resident and stranger; and he shall live with you. 25:36 ATaime( xQ:ÜTi-la;`%M'[((i ^yxiÞa' yxeîw> ^yh,_l{a/me* t'arEßy"w> tyBiêr>t;w> %v,n %M'Þ(i[i ^yxi²a' %Wmïy"-yki(w> And ifyour brother grows poor with you, and he is sold to you; your shall not work him with a slave’swork. 25:40 `%M'([(i dboï[]()y: lbeÞYOh; tn:ïv.-d[(; %M'_([i hy

you. 25:41 wyt'Þboa) tZ:ïxua)-la,w> Atêx.P;v.mi-la bv'w> AM+([i wyn"åb'W aWhß %M'ê([ime( ‘ac'y"w>`bWv)y" And he shall go forth from you, he and his sons with him; and he shall return to his clan,and to his fathers’ possession (of land) he shall return. 25:42 ytiaceîAh-rv,a) ~heê yd:åb'([])-yKi(`db,['( trûi`hZ")xua)l;* ~k,Þl' Wyðh'w> ~k,_c.r>a;B. WdyliÞAh rv,îa) ~k,êM'([ And also from the strangers, theone living temporarily with you people–from them you shall buy (slaves), and from the clan(s)which are with you, who gave birth in your land; and they will belong to you people for a possession.25:46 ~h,äB' ~l'Þ[ol. hZ"ëxua) tv,ral{ wyxiêa'B. vyaiä ‘laer"f.yI-ynE)B. ~k,Ûyxea;’b.W Wdbo+[]()T;`%r

‘`rGE) tx;P;îv.mi rq,,[(eÞl. Aaï %M'ê[(i And if a temporary resident’s, and a stranger’s (who is) withyou attains (wealth); and your brother, (who is) with him (has become poor); and he is sold to atemporary resident, a stranger with you, or to an offshoot clan of a temporary resident; 25:48`WNl,(a'g>yI wyx'Þa,me dx'îa, AL+-hynIw> Adßy" hg"yFiîhi-Aa) WNl,_a'g>yI ATßx.P;v.Mimi Ar±f'B. raeóV.mi-Aa) WNl,êa'g>yI or his uncle, orhis uncle’s son shall redeem him; or (someone) from his near kin / flesh of his flesh, from his clan,shall redeem him; or (if) he attains (wealth), and he shall be redeemed. 25:50 o-~([i ‘bV;xiw>ymeîyKi ~ynIëv' rP;äs.miB. ‘ArK'm.mi @s,K,Û hy"ùh'w> lbe_YOh; tn:åv. d([; Alê Ark.M'ähi ‘tn:V.mi WhnEëqÀM)([i hy byviäy" ‘!h,ypil. ~ynI+V'B; tABßr: dA([ï-~ai If there arestill many in the years, according to their count he shall give back for his redemption, from (the)silver / money of his purchase price. 25:52 lbeÞYOh; tn:ïv.-d([; ~ynI±V'B; ra;óv.nI j([;m.-~aiw>Àt)L'auG>-ta, byviÞy" wyn"ëv' ypiäK. Al+-bV;xiw> And if (there are) few among the years remaininguntil (the) year of the ram’s horn; and it shall be counted for him according to (the) number of hisyears he shall return (for) his redemption: 25:53 al{) AM+([I hyÀM)(i wyn"ïb'W aWhß lbeêYOh; tn:åv.Bi And if he is not redeemed with these–and he will go forth in309

(the) year of the ram’s horn; he and his children with him. 25:55 ~ydIêb'()[] laer"f.yI-ynE)b. yliÛ-yKi(`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ïhy> ynIßa) ~yIr"+c.mi #r

Priestly Decisions Concerning Exclusive Worship of YHWHLeviticus 26:1-2Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes26:1 tyKiªf.m; !b,a,äw> ~k,êl' WmyqIåt'-al{) ‘hb'Cem;W ls,p,ÛW ~liªylia/ ~k,øl' Wf’()[]t;-al{)`~k,(yhel{a/ hw"ßhy> ynIïa) yKi² h'yl,,[_(' twOàx)T;v.hi(l. ~k,êc.r>a;B. ‘WnT.ti al{Ü You people shall notmake for yourselves worthless-Gods, and an image, and a standing pillar you shall not raise upfor yourselves; and a stone showpiece your shall not place in your land, to fall in worship before it;because I, YHWH your God! 26:2 `hw")hy> ynIßa) War"+yTi yviÞD"q.miW Wrmoêv.Ti yt;ätoB.v;-ta, Myrest-days you shall observe; and (before) My set-apart place you shall tremble in awe; I, YHWH!Priestly Promises for Obedience to the CovenantLeviticus 26:3-13, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes26:3 `~t'(ao ~t,Þyfi([])w: Wrêm.v.Ti yt;äwOc.mi-ta,w> Wkle_Te yt;ÞQoxuB.-~ai If you people shallwalk by My statutes, and shall observe My commandments, and do them, 26:4 ~k,Þymev.gI yTiît;n"w>Ày*r>Pi !TeîyI hd ‘#r ~T'_([iB. and I will give your rains in theirseason; and I will give the land its produce, and the tree(s) of the field will give their fruit; 26:5[(b;f{êl' ‘~k,m.x.l; ~T,Ûl.k;a)w: [(r;z"+-ta, gyFiäy: ryciÞb'W ryciêB'-ta, ‘vyI“D: ~k,îl' gyFi’hiw>`~k,(c.r>a;B. xj;b,Þl' ~T,îb.v;ywI) and for you threshing will overtake vintage; and vintage willovertake planting; and you will eat your bread with satisfaction; and you shall live securely in yourland. 26:6 -!mi ‘h(['r" hY"Üx; yTiúB;v.hiw> dyrI+x)m; !yaeäw> ~T,Þb.k;v.W #r

`br And you people will chase your enemies; and they shall fall beforeyou to the sword. 26:8 Wlôp.n"w> WpDo+r>yI hb'äb'r> ~K,Þmi ha'îmeW ha'ême ‘hV'mix) ~K,Ûmi ‘Wpd>r"w>`brti-al{)w> ~k,_k.AtB. ynIßK'v.mi yTiît;n"w>And I will place My dwelling-place in your midst; and My person will not loathe you people. 26:12`~[('(l. yliî-Wyh.Ti ~T,Þa;w> ~yhi_l{ale( ~k,Þl' ytiyyIïh'w> ~k,êk.AtåB. ‘yTik.L;h;t.hiw>And I will walk in your midst; and I will be for you people for a God; and you will be for Me for apeople. 26:13 tyOðh.mi( ~yIr:êc.mi #r

.-ta, ~k,Þr>p.h;l. yt;êwOc.mi-lK'-ta, ‘tAf()[] yTiÛl.bil. ~k,_v.p.n: l([;g>Ti yj;ÞP'v.mi-ta, ~aiîw>`yti(yrIB and if you reject My statutes; and if your innermost being loathes My commandments,so as not to do all My commandments, to break My covenant; 26:16 taZOæ-hf,(/[]a,* ynIùa)-@a;~yIn:ßy([e tALïk;m. tx;D:êQ;h;-ta,w> tp,x,äV;h;-ta hl'h'B,( ~k,Ûyl[]e() yTi’d>q;p.hiw> ~k,ªl'`~k,(ybey>ao WhluÞk'a)w: ~k,ê()r>z: ‘qyrIl' ~T,[,Û(.r:z>W vp,n"+ tboåydIm.W also I, I will do this to youpeople; and I will cause to visit upon you sudden terror, the wasting disease and the fever,consuming (your) eyes and causing (your) being to waste away; and you will plant your seed fornothing; and your enemies will eat it. 26:17 ynEåp.li ~T,Þp.G:nIw> ~k,êB' ‘yn:p' yTiÛt;n"w>`~k,(t.a, @dEïro-!yaew> ~T,Þs.n:w> ~k,êyaen>f{) ‘~k,b' WdÜr"w> ~k,_ybey>ao And I will place My faceagainst you people; and you will be struck (dead) before your enemies; and those who hate youwill chase after you; and you will run away–and there is no one chasing after you.26:18 -l([; [(b;v,Þ ~k,êt.a, hr"åS.y:l. ‘yTip.s;y"w> yli_ W(ß[m.v.ti al{ï hL,aeê-d[(;-~ai’w>`~k,(yteaJox; And if (having gone) as far as (experiencing) these things, you will not listen to Me;and I will continue to discipline you people, seven times for your missings-of-the-mark. 26:19`hv'(xuN>K; ~k,Þc.r>a;-ta,(w> lzB;K; ‘~k,ymev.-ta, yTiÛt;n"w> ~k,_Z[u>(u !AaåG>-ta, yTiÞr>b;v'w> And Iwill shatter your strength’s pride; and I will make your heavens like the iron, and your land like thebronze; 26:20 al{ï #r Hl'êWby>-ta, ‘~k,c.r>a; !TeÛti-al{)w> ~k,_x)Ko qyrIßl' ~t;îw>Ày*r>Pi !TeÞyI and your power will end in nothing; and your land will not give its produce; and theland’s tree(s) will not yield their fruit. 26:21 yli_ [(:(moåv.li Wbßato al{ïw> yrIq,ê ‘yMi(i[i WkÜl.Te(-~aiw>`~k,(yteaJox;K. [(b;v,Þ hK'êm; ‘~k,yle(][]) yTiÛp.s;y"w> And if you people walk with Me in opposition,and are not willing to listen to Me–and I will add upon you seven blow(s), like your missings-of-313

the-mark! 26:22 .-ta, ‘ht'y“rIk.hiw> ~k,êt.a, hl'äK.viw> ‘hd`~k,(yker>D: WMv;Þn"w> ~k,_t.a, hj'y(iÞm.hiw> ~k,êT.m.h,B And I will send forth against you people wildanimal(s) of the field; and they will make you childless; and they will cut off your carttle; and theywill make you people small; and they will ravage your roads. 26:23 Wrßs.W"ti al{ï hL,aeêB.-~ai’w>`yrIq yrIq`~k,(yteaJox;-l([; [(b;v,Þ ynIa'ê- And I also will walk with you people in opposition; and I will strikeyou, even I, seven (times) for your missings-of-the-mark! 26:25 ‘br-dy:B. ~T,ÞT;nIw> ~k,êk.AtåB. ‘rb,“d< yTix.L;Ûviw> ~k,_yrE('-la, ~T,Þp.s;a/n tyrIêB.-~q;n> tm,“q,nO`byE)Aa And I will bring upon you people a sword, taking vengeance, (the) covenant’s vengeance;and you will be l walk with you people in opposition; and I will strike you, even I, seven (times) foryour missings-of-the-mark! 26:26 ~yviÛn" rf[,,ä Wpa'w>û è~x,l,-hJem; é~k,l' yrIåb.viB.`W(B'(f.ti al{ïw> ~T,Þl.k;a)w: lq"+v.MiB; ~k,Þm.x.l; Wbyviîhew> dx'êa, rWNæt;B. ‘~k,m.x.l; When Ishatter for you people (your) staff of bread; and ten women shall bake their bread in one oven;and they will return your bread by the weight; and you shall eat, and will not be satisfied.26:27 `yrIq And if by this you will notlisten to Me, and you will walk with Me in opposition; 26:28 yrIq`~k,yteaJox;-l([; [(b;v,Þ ynIa'ê-@a; ‘~k,t.a, yTiÛr>S;yIw> and I will walk with you people in the rageof opposition; and I will chastise you, even I, seven (times) for your missings-of-the-mark! 26:29314

`Wlke(aTo ~k,ÞytenOB. rf;îb.W ~k,_ynEB. rf;äB. ~T,Þl.k;a)w: And you people will eat your sons’ flesh,and your daughters’ flesh you will eat! 26:30 -ta, ‘yTir:k.hiw> ~k,ªytemo)B'-ta, yTiúd>m;v.hiw>`~k,(t.a, yviÞp.n: hl'î()[]g"w> ~k,_yleWLGI yrEßg>Pi-l([; ~k,êyrEg>Pi-ta, ‘yTit;n")w> ~k,êynEM"åx; And I willexterminate your high places; and I will cut off your incense-altars; and I will place your deadbodies upon (the) dead bodies of your idols; and My Innermost Being will abhor you people!26:31 x:yrEßB. x:yrIêa' al{åw> ~k,_yveD>q.mi-ta, ytiÞAMvih)w: hB'êr>x' ‘~k,yrE('(['-ta, yTiÛt;n"w>`~k,(x)xo)ynI And I will give your cities (to be) a devastation; and I will ravage your set-apart places /sanctuaries; and I will not smell your tranquilizing smell! 26:32 #r`hB'(r>x' Wyðh.yI ~k,ÞyrE('w> hm'êm'v. ‘~k,c.r>a; ht'Ûy>h'w> br @D"ênI hl,,[ä(' lAq… ~t'ªao ‘@d:år"w> ~h,_ybey>ao tcoßr>a;B. ~b'êb'l.Bi %r

`@dE)ro !yaeîw> Wlßp.n"w> And the ones remaining among you people; and I will bring weakness intotheir heart, in (the) lands of their enemies; and a voice of a driven leaf; and they shall run, a flight(from the) sword; and they shall fall, and there is no one chasing. 26:37 wyxi²a'B.-vyai Wlôv.k'w>‘~k,l' hy !yIa"+ @dEårow> hm'êWqT. ‘~k,l' hy !yIa"+ @dEårow> br`WQM'(yI ~T'îai ~t'Þboa) tnOðwO()[]b; @a;²w> ~k,_ybey>ao tcoßr>a;B. ~n"ëwO([];b;* ‘WQ“M;yI ~k,ªB' And the onesremaining among you will waste away in their iniquity in their enemies’ lands; and even in theiniquities of their fathers, they will waste away with them!316

Priestly Promises to Those Who Repent of Their DisobedienceLeviticus 26:40-45, Hebrew Text with Translation and Footnotes26:40 @a;§w> ybi_-Wl()[]m'( rv,äa) ~l'Þ()[]m;B. ~t'êboa) !wOæ()[]-ta,w> ‘~n"wO()[]-ta, WDÜw:t.hiw>`yrIqao #r`rKo)z>a, #r qx'øc.yI yti’yrIB.-ta, •@a;w> And I willremember My covenant (with) Jacob, and also My covenant (with) Isaac, and also My covenantwith Abraham I will remember; and I will remember the land. 26:43 bzE’('['Te •#ryj;äP'v.miB. ![(;y:ëb.W ![(;y:å ~n"+wO()[]a, Wcår>yI ~heÞw> ~h,ême ‘hM'v;h.B' h'yt,ªtoB.v;-ta, #r ~h,øme`~v'(p.n: hl'î()[]G" yt;ÞQoxu-ta,w> Wsa'êm' And the land will be deserted from them; and it will makepleasing its times of rest by its being left desolate from them; and they will make their iniquitypleasing on account of, (yes) and on account of they refused My judicial-decisions, and Mystatutes their innermost being abhorred. 26:44 ~h,ªybey>ao) #r-al{)w> ~yTiÛs.a;m.-al{)And also, this–while they are in their enemies’ land, I will not refuse them, and I will reject them, tofinish them off, to break My covenant with them; because I, YHWH their God! 26:45 yTiîr>k;z"w>tyOðh.li ~yI©AGh; ynEåy[(el. ~yIr:øc.mi #r

them forth from Egypt-land, in (the) eyes of the nations, to be to them for a God–I, YHWH!27726:46 ynEåB. !ybeÞW AnÿBe hw"ëhy> !t;än" ‘rv,a) troATh;w> é~yjiP'v.Mih;w> ~yQIåxuh;( hL,aeû`hv,(mo-dy:B. yn:ßysi rh;îB. lae_r"f.yI These (are) the statutes, and the judicial-decisions, and theteachings / laws which YHWH gave between Himself and Israel’s children, on Mount Siynay, byMoses’s hand!277Quite noticeably, in verse 46 the first person statements of YHWH change to thethird person statement about YHWH.318

Priestly Decisions Concerning Tithes and OfferingsPriestly decisions are given governing redemption of what has been consecrated toYHWH, and laws governing the amounts to be given by the Israelites for the support of Israel’smoveable sanctuary..Leviticus 27:1-34, Hebrew Text with English Translation and Footnotes27:1 `rmo)aLe hv,îmo-la, hw"ßhy> rBeîd:y>w: And YHWH spoke to Moses, saying: 27:2tvoßp'n> ^ïK.r>(,[,B. rd,n ‘laer"f.yI ynEÜB.-la, rBeúD:`hw")hyl;( Speak to Israel’s children; and you shall say to them, A man who will make anextraordinary vow in your estimation, persons for the YHWH; 27:3 ‘^K.[,r>(, hy"Üh'w>@s,K,Þ lq,v,î ~yVi²mix) ^ªK.[,r>(, hy"åh'w> hn"+v' ~yViävi-!B, d([;Þw> hn"ëv' ~yrIåf.(,[, ‘!B,mi rk'êZ"h;`vd awhi_ hb'Þqen>-~aiw> and if it (is) a female, andyour estimation will be thirty sheqel(s); 27:5 hn"ëv' ~yrIåf.(,[,-!B, ‘d[(;w> ~ynI©v' vmeøx'-!B,mi ~ai’w>`~yli(q'v. tr and if from a son offive years, and up to a son of twenty year(s); and your estimate (for) the male will be twentysheqels; and for the female, ten sheqels; 27:6 hy"Üh'w> ~ynIëv' vmeäx'-!B, ‘d([;w> vd`@s,K'( ~yliÞq'v. tv,l{ïv. ^êK.[,r>(, hb'äqeN>l;w> @s,K'_ ~yliÞq'v. hV'îmix) rk'êZ"h; ‘^K.[,r>(, and iffrom a son of (one) month, and up to a son of five years; and your estimate (for) the male will befive sheqels of silver / money; and for the female, your estimate (will be) three sheqels of silver /money; 27:7 rf'Þ('[' hV'îmix) ^êK.[,r>(, hy"åh'w> rk'êz"-~ai ‘hl'(.“[.m;w" hn"Üv' ~yVi’vi-!B,mi _~aiw>û319

`~yli(q'v. hr"ïf'[] ,hb'ÞqeN>l;w> lq,v' and if from a son of sixty year(s) and upwards, if (it is) amale, and your estimate will be fifteen sheqel(s); and for the female, ten sheqels; 27:8 %m'î-~aiw>dy:å ‘gyFiT; rv,Ûa) yPiª-l([; !he_Koh; Atßao %yrIï([]h,w> !heêKoh; ynEåp.li ‘Adymi([/h,(w> ^K,ê[,r>(,me( ‘aWh`!he(Koh; Wnk,ÞyrI()[]y: rdEêNOh; and if he is (too) poor (to pay) your estimate; and he shall be causedto stand before the priest; and the priest shall make an estimate (for) him, according to whateverthe one making a vow’s hand (has), the priest shall make his estimate.27:9 WNM,²mi !TeîyI rv,’a) •lKo hw"+hyl;( !B'Þr>q' hN"M bAj+B. ([r:å-Aa [(r"ßB. bAjï At±ao rymiîy"-al{)w> WNp,ªylix)y: al{å`vd`!he(Koh; ynEïp.li hm'ÞheB.h;-ta, dymiî([/h,*w> hw"+hyl;( !B'Þr>q' hN"MyI laoßG"-~aiw>`^K,(r>(,-l([; Atßviymix) And if he will indeed redeem it; and he shall add a fifth upon yourestimate.27:14 bAjß !yBeî !heêKoh; ‘AkyrI([/h,w> hw"ëhyl;( ‘vd320

`~Wq)y" !Keî !heÞKoh; At±ao %yrIï()[]y: rv,’a)K; [(r"+ !ybeäW And a man who will set-apart his house, aset-apart (gift) for the YHWH; and the priest shall evaluate it, whether good or bad; just as thepriest shall evaluate it, so shall it stand. 27:15 @s;y"w>û At+yBe-ta, la;Þg>yI vyDIêq.M;h;-~ai’w>Àl) hy"h"ïw> wyl'Þ([' ^±K.r,>[,(,-@s,K,( tyvióymix) And if the one setting it apart will redeem his house;and he shall add a fifth of your estimate (in) silver / money upon it, and it will be his.27:16 A(+[r>z: ypiäl. ^ßK.[,r>(, hy"ïh'w> hw"ëhyl;( ‘vyai vyDIïq.y: AtªZ"xua) hdEåF.mi Ÿ~aiäw>`@s,K'( lq,v,î ~yViÞmix)B; ~yrIê([of. rm,xoå [r:z wyl'Þ([' ^±K.[,r>(,-@s,K,( tyviómix) @s;y"w>û At+ao vyDIßq.M;h; hd

the field; and if he sold the field to another man; it shall not be redeemed again. 27:21 hy"’h'w>Àt)Z"xua) hy(,[,h'( ts;äk.mi tae… !heªKoh; Alå-bV;xiw> ‘`hw")hyl; vd[,(,h'-ta, !t;Ûn"w> And the priest shall calculate for him theestimate’s worth until the ram’s horn (year); and he shall give your estimate on that day, a setapart(vow) to the YHWH. 27:24 AT+aime Whn"ßq' rv,îa)l; hd wyl'_[(' Atßvimix) @s;îy"w> ^K,êr>[,,b. hd"åp'W ‘ha'meJ.h; hm'ÛheB.B; ~ai’w>`^K,(r>(,[,B. And if (it is from) the unclean animal(s); and he shall ransom (it) for its estimate; andhe shall add a fifth of its (estimate) to it; and if it will not be redeemed; and it will be sold for itsestimate(d price).322

27:28 ‘hm'heb.W ~d"Üa'me Alª-rv,a)-lK'mi hw"÷hyl;( vyai’ •~rIx)y: rv,äa) ~r WNr He shall notinquire between good to bad; and he shall not exchange it; and if he indeed exchanges it–and itwill be, and its substitute, set-apart; it will not be redeemed.27:34 `yn")ysi rh;ÞB. lae_r"f.yI ynEåB.-la, hv,Þmo-ta, hw"±hy> hW"ôci rv,’a) twO©c.Mih; hL,aeäThese are the commandments which YHWH commanded Moses to Israel’s children on MountSiynay.323

THEMES OF THE BOOK OF LeviticusIt is obvious from this outline that much of Leviticus consists of priestly decisions givenacross the centuries concerning Israelite rituals of worship, as the priests “sat in the seat ofMoses,” enacting for Israel what they believed YHWH was guiding them to teach and practice. Itis the constant repetition in chapters 1-7 that tires the student, leading to what has sometimesbeen called "The Leviticusitical Syndrome," resulting in giving up reading the Bible at this point.But we must insist that Leviticus is much more interesting and rewarding to study than isoftentimes thought.While there is much attention to ritual in Leviticus, it is also important to see how itspriestly authors continue the historical narrative begun in Exodus, in the description of Israel'sexperiences at Mount Siynay on its way from Egypt to the promised land. We agree with Gispenthat "The historical setting must not be forgotten. As part of the complete Pentateuch ("FiveBooks"), the book occupies its own place in the Pentateuchal narrative." (The Illustrated BibleDictionary, 2, p. 896)We believe that Leviticus cannot be interpreted genuinely apart from a study of Canaanite"fertility religions," with their magical use of blood, their use of sexual intercourse in worshiprituals, both human and animal, both heterosexual and homosexual, and the resulting destructiveimpact on the home, including the murder of children as human sacrifices. Such legislation, wethink, fits much better into the earliest times of Israel's encounter with Canaanite religion, anddown even to the times immediately preceding the Babylonian Captivity, rather than in later, postexilictimes.The teaching of Leviticus is centered in the "holiness," or "set-apartness" that is demandedby YHWH from His people, and especially from those who lead in His worship. The word"holiness" or "set-apartness" rings out like a refrain throughout the book. The word "holy" or "setapart"(vAdq', qadosh) appears more often in Leviticus than in any other book of the Bible.Israel was to be totally set-apart to YHWH God. Her set-apartness was to be expressed inevery aspect of her life, to the extent that all of Israel's life would come to have a certain ceremonialquality. Because of Who YHWH God is, and what He has done, His people must dedicatethemselves fully to Him--the set-apartness or holiness of God must be reflected in His people, asthey revere YHWH God as the special, Set-Apart One Who dwells in "set-apartness” or “holiness."For the priestly decisions given in the Book of Leviticus, spiritual set-apartness orholiness is symbolized by physical perfection. Therefore the book demands perfect animals for itsmany sacrifices (chapters 1-7) and requires priests without deformity (chapters 8-10). Awoman's hemorrhaging after giving birth (chapter 12); sores, burns, or baldness (chapters 13-14); a man's bodily discharge (15:1-18); specific activities during a woman's monthly period(15:19-33)--all may be signs of blemish (a lack of perfection) and may symbolize spiritual defects,which break spiritual wholeness. The person with visible skin disease must be banished from thecamp, the place of YHWH's special presence, just as Adam and Eve were banished from thegarden of Eden. Such a person can return to the camp (and therefore to YHWH's presence)when pronounced whole again by the examining priests. Before reentering the camp, however,324

that person has to offer the prescribed, perfect sacrifices (according to some Christian interpreters,symbolizing the perfect, whole sacrifice of Christ, a view expressed in the NIV Study Bible.How do you understand all of this? What do you think Jesus meant when the person withsevere skin disease He had cleansed was told to go to the priests and offer the sacrifice Moseshad commanded, “as a witness to them”? See Luke 4:14.We have to agree with Gispen and many others, that in view of the character of itscontents throughout, we can call Leviticus as a whole “The Book of the Set-Apartness orHoliness of YHWH," whose fundamental requirement is "You shall be set-apart, for I YHWH amset-apart" (Leviticus 20:26).“After the covenant at Sinai, Israel was the earthly representation of YHWH's kingdom (theTheocracy), and, as her King, YHWH established His administration over all of Israel's life. Herreligious, communal and personal life was so regulated as to establish her as YHWH's set-apartpeople, and to instruct her in living a special "set-apart" life. Special attention was given toIsrael's religious ritual. The sacrifices were to be offered at an approved sanctuary, which wouldsymbolize both YHWH's exalted "holiness," and at the same time, His compassion, and in such away as to carefully distinguish between Israel's sacrificial system and that of the surroundingculture of the Canaanites, with their notoriously attractive ‘fertility religion.’ Israel's worship was tobe carefully controlled by the priests, who by constant oversight and instruction would preserveIsrael's sacrifices in purity, and carefully teach their meaning to the people. Each particularsacrifice was to have meaning for the people of Israel but would also have spiritual and symbolicimport.” (NIV Study Bible)"Some suppose that the Old Testament sacrifices were remains of old agricultural offerings--ahuman desire to offer part of one's possessions as a love gift to the deity. But the OldTestament sacrifices were specifically prescribed by YHWH and received their meaning from theDivine covenant relationship with Israel--whatever their superficial resemblances to pagan sacrifices.They indeed include the idea of a gift, but this is accompanied by such other values asdedication, communion, propitiation (appeasing God's judicial wrath against sin) and restitution.The various offerings have differing functions, the primary ones being atonement [our ‘coveringover’] and worship." (NIV Study Bible, p. 145) We disagree with the attitude of "either \ or" thatis apparent in this evaluation, and insist on a "both \ and" understanding, in which Canaanitereligious practices are taken over by Israel, and given new, much deeper meaning, in terms ofIsrael's experience of YHWH God's self-revelation.Leviticus plays a very important role in the entire Bible, a much larger role than iscommonly understood. For example, there is no similar part of the Jewish Bible that gives ussuch an insight into Israel's worship in the moveable sanctuary and temple. Indeed, we wouldknow very little concerning the ancient ritual of animal sacrifice if it were not for Leviticus. Apartfrom Leviticus we would know practically nothing concerning the seventh year rest and the yearof the ram’s horn--matters of such fundamental importance for Israel's eschatology--after all, thehope for heaven is in fact a great, eternal "Ram’s Horn Year."There can be no thorough-going understanding of Jewish traditions concerning Israel’sfood regulations (“kosher,” “kashrut”) apart from the legislation found in Leviticus 11 (andNumbers 13). The great importance of Yom Kippur, the Day of Covering-Over / Atonement, and325

its symbolism--that have been taken up as of fundamental importance for interpreting the sacrificeof Jesus in the New Testament, must not be forgotten.thHow thankful we are for the great 19 chapter of Leviticus, with its deeply importantethical legislation, including "You shall love your neighbor (and the non-Jewish temporaryresident) as yourself," which played such an important role in the teaching of Jesus.Perhaps of all the books in the Pentateuch, or Five Books of Moses, Leviticus hasreceived the least attention, and has suffered the most from lack of scholarly works. But todaythat lack is being remedied, with such works as Jacob Milgrom's massive two volume work in theAnchor Bible, published by Doubleday, and by such works as that of Baruch Leviticus in theJewish Publication Torah Commentary series, as well as that of John Hartley in the WordBiblical Commentary.326

THEOLOGY OF THE BOOK OF LeviticusBrevard Childs describes the theological implications of Leviticus as follows:1. "A witness is given that the institutions and rites which determine how Israel is properlyto worship God derive from Divine revelation. Israel's cult is not her own invention...The canonicalshape provides a critical theological judgment against any reading of the tradition which isolatesthe priestly elements of the tradition from the so-called prophetic, or plays the one againstthe other." (P.187)2. "Obedience to the law does not make Israel holy--only God can sanctify--but her disobediencecan surely jeopardize the relation between God and people. To interpret the laws ofLeviticus as a form of self-salvation which arose in contrast to the prophetic emphasis on Divinegrace is to misunderstand the canonical function of the book. In terms of Christian theology,Leviticus contains both gospel and law." (P.187)3. "There is no sign within the shape of Leviticus which would indicate any canonicalintentionality to interpret the material in a way which would abstract, symbolize, or rationalizeIsrael's cult. Yet significantly neither Judaism nor Christianity have continued to observe the cultin its Old Testament form in spite of both religious communities' claim to accept Leviticus asauthoritative scripture...For Judaism the destruction of the temple which brought to an end theworship of the second temple was understood as a punishment of God. The cultic imperatives ofsacrifice have been fulfilled in the study of Torah (cf. Leviticus Rabbah vii), but the hope of therestoration of the original cult continues to constitute the future hope of Judaism (cf. Ber. 29b;Shab. 24a; Musaf to New Year's Service, Ex. Rabbah xxxi, etc.). For Christianity the cult hasbeen reinterpreted christologically--particularly in Hebrews--and placed within the category of theold foreshadowing the new."What is of particular interest is that both Judaism and Christianity have used warrantsfrom the larger canon, of course in conjunction with the new tradition either of the synagoguefathers or the gospel, by which to justify a non-literal interpretation of the laws. But in both casesthe grounds for theological reinterpretation have not rested on the canonical shape of Leviticus."(Pp. 187-88)To Childs' theological observations, we add the following:4. The deeply existential question must be asked concerning the devout Israelite who has"blasphemed" the Divine name, or committed murder (compare Leviticus 24:10-23). Supposean Israelite who has been caught in the act of adultery, or has been found guilty by an Israelitecourt of raping a non-consenting young woman. What kind of hope could such a guilty person,desperately seeking Divine forgiveness, find in the teaching of Leviticus, especially if the day ofcovering-over has just gone by, and it would be eleven months until its return?Israel's Torah pronounces the sentence of capital punishment upon such a guilty person,and in fact offers no remedy. The sacrificial system that we see described in Leviticus 1-7 offersforgiveness for sins done hg"g"v.bi, bishgegah, "accidentally," or "inadvertently." But what aboutsuch sins as these that are done intentionally, purposely? Does Leviticus offer any amelioration,327

or any hope for forgiveness? Milgrom has claimed that any intentional sin could be reduced to an"inadvertent sin" through genuine repentance, thereby gaining the possibility of being able to gainforgiveness through one of these sacrificial rituals. But where is there any proof of such aprocedure or hope? See footnote 2.Our question is, what kind of "sins" or "missings-of-the-mark" is the sacrificial system asdepicted in Leviticus designed for? Is it designed for the forgiveness of sins done with a "highhand"? If not, how was King David forgiven? And if David was forgiven on the basis of greatanimal sacrifices, where is this mentioned in the biblical text? We also ask, is there not a strongcriticism of animal sacrifices and their ability to grant forgiveness implicit in the canon of theHebrew Bible itself? See Psalms 50 and 51. How do you deal with these difficult questions?What do you say to a committed Christian believer who has been found guilty of intentional rape,kidnaping, and murder? Can such a person be forgiven? What does Hebrews teach concerningthis?In what way is Jesus of Nazareth a "fulfillment" or "embodiment" of Leviticus? Does hefulfill or embody the ethical teaching of chapter 19? Does he offer the kind of full and totalforgiveness that is symbolized in Leviticus by the day of covering-over? When He is depicted ascleansing people with severe skin disease, what does this say concerning His relationship to thelevitical priests? What is the relationship of Jesus to the "rest" of weekly, yearly, and "ram’s horn"rests as described in Leviticus? How would you respond to the claim that biblical eschatology isrooted in the kind of teaching concerning "rest" that is found in Leviticus?And what about the teaching of Leviticus 25 that justifies the purchase and holding foreignslaves for a life-time by the priests? Is that not a blatant denial of Israel’s own experience ofYHWH freeing the “hebrew” slaves from Egyptian ownership? Should we believe that thisteaching / law came from YHWH? Or does it fall under the category of “not good” according toEzekiel 20:25?328

Leviticus 1 - In Depth Bible Commentaries

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