The History of Arabia, Crichton Vol2 - The Search For Mecca

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THE AMERICAN SCHOOL LIBRARY.The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge present to thecountry the commencement of their Library for schools, designed to embrace,when completed, a few hundred volumes, wriiten and compiledwith special reference to the wants of the youth of our country. It willinclude in the range of its subjects works in the various departments ofknowledge most interesting and useful to the great body of the people,including history, voyages and travels, biography, natural history, thephysical, intellectual, moral, and political sciences, agriculture, manufactures,arts, commerce, the belles lettres, and the history and philosophyof education.The increasing interest in the subject of school libraries in several ofthe States, and the repeated calls upon the Committee for their Library,have induced them to issue the present selection from existing publicationsto meet the immediate wants of our schools, while they go on, asfast as possible, to complete the plan announced in their pubUshed prospectus.They will regard, in the execution of it, the different ages,tastes, circumstances, and capacities of readers.The Committee present the following fifty volumes, chiefly standardworks of permanent interest and value, which have already received extensivelythe public approbation in this country and in Europe, as thecommencement of the series, to be extended from time to time, until itshall comprise a well-selected and comprehensive Library of UsefulKnowledge, worthy of a place in every schoolroom of our country.It will be the greatest care of the Committee, that the whole be pervadedand characterized by a spirit of Christian morality calculated torefine and elevate the moral character of our nation.HISTORY.VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.A View of Ancient and Modern An Historical Account of the Circumnavigationof the Globe. En-Egypt. By Rev. M. Russell, LL.D.gravings.Pale.stine, or the Holy Land. FromNarrativethe Earliest Period to the Presentof Discovery and Adventurein Africa.Time. By Rev. M. Russell, LL.D.From the EarliestHistory of Chivalry and the Crusades.By G. P. R. James. En-Ages to the Present Time. ByProfessor Jameson, and JamesWilson and Hugh Murray, Esqrs.gravings.LivesThe History of Arabia, Ancient andand Voyages of Early Navigators.Portraits.Modern. By Andrew Crichton.2 vols. Engravings, &c.The Chinese. A general DescriptionBIOGRAPHY.of (he Empire of China and its A Life of Washington. By J. K.Inhabitants. By John Francis Paulding, Esq. In 2 vols. WithDavis, F.R.S. With Engravings. Engravings.American History. By the Author The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte,of '-American Popular Lessons." By J. G. Lockhart, Esq. In 2 vols.With Engravings. 3 vols. With Portraits.American Revolution. By B. B. The Life and Actions of Ale.xanderThatcher, Esq.the Great. By the Rev. J. Williams.History of New-York. By WilliamWith a Map.Dunlap.Memoir of the Life of Peter theHistory of Virginia. By Uncle Great. By John Barrow, Es^rbilip.Portrait,

The Life of Oliver Cromwell. Bv Translated by Hunter. Withthe Rev. M. Russell, LL.D. 2 Notes, and a Life of Euler, by Sirvols. Portrait.David Brewster ; and AdditionalLives of Celebriited Travellers. By- Notes, by John Griscom, LL.D.James Augustus St. John. 3 vols. With a Glossary of ScientificMemoirs of Celebrated Female Sovereigns.By Mrs. Jameson. 2 vols.Terms, and Engravings.INTELLECTUAL SCIENCE.NATURAL HISTORY.Inquiries concerning the IntellectualA Popular Guide to the Observation Powers, and the Investigation ofof Nature ; or, Hints of InducementTruth. By John Abercrombie,to the Study of Natural Pro-ductions and Appearances, in theirM.D.,F.R.S. With Questions.Connexions and Relations. By BELLES LETTRES.Robert Mudie. Engravings. Lectures on General Literature,The Swiss Family Robinson ; or, Poetry, &c. By Jas. Montgomery.Adventures of a Father and Motherand Four Sons on a DesertIsland. 2 vols. With Engravings.MISCELLANEOUS.The American Forest ; or, Uncle Indian Traits ; being Sketches ofPhilip's Conversations with the the Manners, Customs, and CharacterChildren about the Trees of America.of the North American Na-With numerous Engravings. tives. By B. B. Thatcher, Esq.The Natural History of Insects. In 2 vols. With Engravings.2 vols. With Engravings. Perils of the Sea ;being AuthenticNatural History ; or, Tools and Narratives of Remarkable and AffectingTrades among Inferior Animals.By Uncle Philip.Disasters upon the Deep.With Engravings.PHYSICAL SCIENCE.The Principles of Physiology, appliedto the Preservation of Health,and to the Improvement of Physicaland Mental Education. ByAndrew Combe, M.D.Letters of Euier on Different Subjectsof Natural Philosophy. Ad-jdressed to a German Princess.!The Poor Rich Man and the RichPoor Man. By Miss C. M. Sedgwick.The Ornaments Discovered. ByMary Hughs.The Son of a Genius. By Mrs.Hofland.The Whale-fishery and the PolarSeas. By Uncle Philip.At a regular meeting of the Executive Committee, it was unanimouslyResolved, That the above-named fifty volumes be approved and adoptedas the commencement of" The American School Library," and that thesame be earnestly recommended to public patronage.In behalf of the Committee,Jamks Brown, Chairman, J. T. Gilchrist, Secretary.A. P. Halsky, John Torrky,Thomas Cock,Charles Butler.At a general meeting of the Society, held on the 10th of May, 1838, atthe Stuyvesant Institute, Broadway, his Excellency Governor MaRcy hithe chair, Anthony P. Halsky, Secretary, it was unanimouslyResoli^ed, That we recommend the immediate introduction of a suitableLibrary of Useful Knowledge in every schoolroom in our State ; and thatwe invite the attention of teachers, of school committees, and of everyfriend of education and of the universal diffusion of knowledge in this andin other States, to " The American School Library," now commenced bythis Society. A. P. Halsky, Secretary.GoRHAM D. Abbott, Sec^y A. S. D. U.K.

ARABIAVOL. II.MOCHA.HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW-YORK.

Harper's Slej-enlype Edition.THEHISTORYARABIAOFANCIENT AND MODERN.CONTAINING*A DESCRIPTION OF THK COUNTRY—AN ACCOUNT OY ITS INHABITANTS,ANTIQUITIES, POLITICAL CONDITION, AND EARLY COMMERCE—THKLIFE AND RELIGION OF MOHAMMED—THE CONQUESTS, ARTS, ANDLITERATURE OF THE SARACENS—THE CALIPHS OF DAMASCUS, BAGDAD,AFRICA, AND SPAIN—THE CIVIL GOVERNMENT AND RELIGIOUS CERE-MONIES OF THE MODERN ARABS—ORIGIN AND SUPPRESSION OF THEWAHABEES—THE INSTITUTIONS, CHARACTER, MANNERS, AND CUS-TOMS OF THE BEDOUINS—AND A COMPREHENSIVE VIEW OF ITS NATU-RAL HISTORY.BY ANDREW CRICHTON.WITH A MAP AND ENGRAVINGS.INTWO VOLUMES.VOL. II.NEW-YORK:PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS,NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET.18 3 7.

ENGRAVINGS m VOL. II.Vignette.—View of the South Quarter of Mocha.An Arab of Rankin the Costume of Yemen . . . . Page 127Mecca and the Grand Temple during the Pilgrimage . . . 185Convent of EI Bourg near Tor[ [ 251Abdallah ibn Saoud, Chief of the Wahabees .....'. 301A Young Female of the Coffee Mountains , . , . [ .313

CONTENTSOFTHE SECOND VOLUME,CHAPTER I.THE ABBASSIDES, OR CALIPHS OF BAGDAD,Accession of the Abbassides—Caliphs of that Dynasty—Almausor—Harounal Raschid—Almamoun— Motassem— CapriciousCraeltyof Motawakkel—Magnificence of the CaliphsWeakness and Corruption of their Government—Their MiUtaryOperations—Wars of Haroun al Raschid and his Successorswith the Romans—Victories of Nicephonis Phocasand John Zimisces over the Moslems—Causes of the Downfallof the Abbassides— Despotic Power of the Turkish Guards—Ravages and Cruelties of the Karmathians—Dismembermentof the Empire into independent Principalities—Persiausurped by petty DjTiasties—Conquests of Mahmoud ofGhizni in India—Irruptions of the Tartars—Togrul Beg appointedViceroy of the Mohammedan Dominions—Hookkulays Siege to Bagdad— Surrender and Pillage of that Capital—Death of Mostasem and Extinction of the Caliphate Page 9CHAPTER II.CALIPHS OF AFRICA, EGYPT, AND SPAIN.The Aglabites or Caliphs of Cairoan—Military Exploits of theWestern Arabs—Reduction of Crete—Conquest of SicilyInvasion of Italy—Pillage of Rome—Siege of Gaeta—NavalVictory of the Christians— Subjugation of Corsica and Sardiniaby the Saracens—Expulsion of the Aglabites—MoorishKingdom of Timbuctoo— Dynasty of the Fatimites in Egypt—Their Subversion by Saladm, Founder of the AyubitesDynasty of the Ommiades in Spain founded by Abdalrahman—Their Power and Magnificence—Extinction of the Caliph

4 CONTENTS.ate—Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand—Wealth and Populationof the Moorish Capitals—The Government, Arms, andMilitary Tactics of the Arabs—Revenue, Trade, and Marineof Spain under the Saracens—Reduction of Sicily by theNormans, and final Overthrow of the Mohammedan Power inEurope 39CHAPTER III.LITERATURE OP THE ARABS.The Arabs turn their Attention to Learning—Their rapid Progress—LiteraryArdour and Patronage of the CaHphs—Harounal Raschid— Almamoun—Vathek— College of Mostanser atBagdad—Academies and Libraries founded in Persia, Syria,Egypt, Africa, and Spain—Course of Study in the SaracenSchools — Grammar— Rhetoric — Poetry— Tales — ArabianNights' Entertainments— Story-tellers—History— Biography-Numismatics—Geography— Statistics—Metaphysics — Medicineand Medical Authors—Rhazes—Avicenna—PharmacyAnatomy and Surgery—Botany— Chymistry—Astrology—Astronomy—Optics— Mathematics—Trigonometry—AlgebraArithmetic—Architecture—The Fine Arts—Painting—Calligraphy—Music—Agriculture—Manufacturesin Steel, Porcelain,and Leather—Claims of the Arabs as the Restorersof Letters and the Importers of useful Arts and Inventionsinto Europe 60CHAPTER IV.CIVIL HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA.Extinction of the SaracenPower—Formation of new Kingdomsin the East—Victories and Dominions of Timur— Conquestsof the Turks and Portuguese in Arabia— Selim I. obtains theInvestiture of the Caliphate—Expulsion of the Turks by theIndependent Arab Chiefs—Dominions of the Imam of Sanaa—His Government, Revenues, and Military Force— Descriptionof Sanaa— Visits of European Travellers to that Capital—Principal Towns in Yemen—Beit el Fakih—Taas—Mocha—Aden—Government of Hadramaut—Of Oman— Descriptionof Muscat—Court, Revenues, and Commercial Enterprise ofthe Imam—Islands of Bahrein—Pearl Fisheries—Depredations of the Joassamee Pirates in the Persian Gulf— VariousExpeditions from India to suppress them—Reduction of Rasel Khyma and their principal Fortresses—Arab Settlers onthe Persian Frontier— Classification of the wandering BedouinTribes—Their migratory Habits and Military Strength—Government of their Sheiks—Their Laws and JudicialTrials— Reflections on their Political Institutions . . .108

CONTENTS. 5CHAPTER V.HEJAZ, OR HOLY LAND OF THE MOSLEM.Government of Hejaz— Succession and Power of the SheriffsReign of Ghaleb—Sheriff FamiHes at Mecca—Cities andTowns in Hejaz—Jidda—Yembo—Ta'if—Mecca—Descriptionof the Beituilah or Grand Temple—The Court and Colonnades—TheKaaba—The Black Stone—The Tob or Coveringof the Kaaba—The Zemzem Well— Servants and Revenuesof the Mosque—Inhabitants of IMecca—Their Character,Domestic Manners and Employments—Low State of Artsand Learning in Hejaz 168CHAPTER VLTHE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.The Pilgrim-caravans—Their different Routes—Description andNumber of Pilgrims—The Mahmal—The Ihram— Duties ofthe Pilgrims on arriving at Mecca—Walk to Safra and Omra—Journey to Arafat—Sermon of the Cadi—Curious Appearanceof the Scene—Stoning of the Devil—The Feast of Sacrifice—Returnof the Procession to Mecca—Visit to the Interiorof the Kaaba—Departure of the Caravans—AlteredAppearance of the City—Holy Places round Mecca—Pilgrimageto Medina—Description of the City—Its Inhabitants—Their Character and Occupation—The Mosque of theProphet—The famous Tomb of Mohammed—Ceremoniesrequired of the Hajjis— Servants and Revenues of the Mosque—Sacred Places near Medina—Return of the Pilgrims— Bedr—Suez—Convent of St. Catherine—Regulations and Hospitalityof the Monks—Places of Superstitious Resort aboutMount Sinai—The Cave of Elijah—The Rock of iMeribah—Gebel Mokkateb or the Written Mountain—The Conventnear Tor—Gebel Narkous or Mountain of the Bell . . . 205CHAPTER VII.HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.Origin of the Wahabees—Their Founder, Abdel Wahab— Account of their Doctrines—Success of Ibn Saoud and Abdelazeez in Nejed—Siege and Plunder of Kerbela— Submissionof Mecca and IMedina—Destruction of religious Monuments—Murder of Abdelazeez—Accession of Saoud—His Character—Govemnnent—Revenues—MilitaryTactics—Re'vival ofthe pilgrimage—Predatory Incursions of the Wahabees—Attemptsof the Turkish Government to suppress them—Expe-

CONTENTS,ditionfrom Egypt lands at Yembo—Defeat of Toussoun Beyat Jedeida—Recapture of Medina by the Turks—ThomasKeith, a Native of Edinburgh, made Governor of the City-Recovery of Mecca and Hejaz—Moharhmed Ali takes theCommand in Person—Arrest and Death of Ghaleb—Repulseof the Turks at Taraba—Capture of Gonfode—Death ofSaoud—Accession of Abdallah— Strength of the TurkishArmy— Defeat of the Wahabees at Bissel—Surrender of Tarabaand Beishe— Cruelties of Ali—His Return to Egypt-Campaign of Toussoun in Nejed—Treaty of Peace with Abdallah—Treacheryof Ali and Renewal of Hostilities—Expeditionunder Ibrahim Pasha—His success in Nejed^Siegeand Surrender of Deraiah—Death of Abdallah— Suppressionof the Wahabees and Destruction of their Capital—Reflections on the Character of their Government and Religion 254CHAPTER VIII.SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.National Character ot the Arabs—Their Family Pride—OrdersofNobility—Their Domestic Life—Their Tents—Furniture-Mode of Encamping—Dress—Personal Appearance—Acutenessof their Senses— Sagacity in tracing Footsteps—TheirArms—Food and Cookery—Manner of Eating—DiseasesWealth and Industry—Marriage — Divorce—Education oftheir Children—Funerals—Modes of Salutation—HospitalityWarfare—Robbery and Theft—The Blood-revenge—Amusements—Poetryand Music—Learning—Medicine— Superstitions—Language—Arts—Commerce—Proposed SteamRoutesby the Euphrates and the Red Sea—Population—ConcludingReflections 306CHAPTER IX.NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIAWant of Information on the Natural History of Arabia—ScientificDiscoveries of the Danish Travellers—Geologv—MountSinai—Hills of Hejaz and Yemen—Volcanic Rocks—HotSpring's Soil—Agriculture—Crops—Harvest—ComparativeFertility of different Districts—Mineralogy—No Gold orSilver Mines in Arabia—Precious Stones—Botany—Vegetables—Plants—Coloquintida—Tobacco—Hemp—TreesandShrubs— Fruit-trees — The Palm —Date-groves—Manna—Gum-arabic—Honey— Shrubs—The Nebek—TamariskBalsam of Mecca—The Gharkad—Henna—Acacia—IncenseTree—Coffee—Zoology—Wild Animals — Hyenas — Monkeys— Rock-goats—Hares—Jerboas, &c 349

ARABIA;ANCIENT AND MODERN.CHAPTER I.THE ABBASSIDES, OR CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.Accession of the Abbassides—Caliphs of that DjTiasty—Almansor—Haroun al Raschid—Almamoun—Motassem—CapriciousCruelty of Motawakkel—Magnificence of the CaUphsWeakness and Corruption of their Government—Their MilitaryOperations—Wars of Haroun al Raschid and his Successorswith the Romans—Victories of Nicephorus Phocasand John Zimisces over the Moslems—Causes of the Downfallof the Abbassides—Despotic Power of the Turkish Guards—Ravages and Cruelties of the Karmathians—Dismembermentof the Empire into independent PrincipaUties—Persiausurped by petty Dynasties—Conquests of Mahmoud ofGhizni in India—Irruptions of the Tartars—Togrul Beg appointedViceroy of the Mohammedan Dominions—Hoolakulays Siege to Bagdad— Surrender and Pillage of that Capital—Death of Mostasem and Extinction of the Caliphate.With the elevation of the house of Abbas thefamily of Mohammed ascended once more the pulpitand the throne of their ancestor ; and so long- as theSaracen power continued to exist, they ruled thegreater part of the Moslem world. The Arabs havemarked the several dynasties with different degreesof reverence and respect. The reigns of Abu Beker,Omar, Othman, and Ali are distinguished by the titleof the Perfect Caliphate, as that of then- successors

10 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.is called the Imperfect. The Ommiades are generallystyled Caliphs of Syria, their capital being Damascus;while the Abbassides are known in historyas the Caliphs of Bagdad, the city to which theytransferred their court. In the rise of the Mohammedanmonarchy, the empire, however menaced byrevolt, was still one and undivided ; but in its declineand fall this indivisibility ceased, and the Moslemsbeheld three independent sovereignties erected,towards the close of the eighth century, within differentparts of their dominions—one seated at Bagdad,another in Egypt and Africa, and a third inSpain.The house of Abbas, whose accession to thethrone was attended with circumstances of suchunparalleled cruelty as to procure for its first caliphthe epithet of Al Saffah, or the Sanguinary, ruledover the Eastern World with various degrees ofauthority for a period of five hundred years. Thefirst century beheld their power undiminishedthough the dismemberment of several provincesshowed that their government w^as inherently w^eak,and that the unwieldly fabric could not long maintainits stability. Like other great nations of antiquity,the policy of the Saracens seemed betteradapted for the acquisition of empire than for itspreservation ; and though, by a surprising efibrt ofarms, they had compelled the world to acknowledgethe might of the Commander of the Faithful, theycould not infuse into their system those principlesof wholesome and vigorous administration essentialto its perpetuity. The incessant workings of factionmade it necessary to invest the lieutenants ofprovinces with absolute command ; and these, asthe monarchy grew feeble and degenerate, wereenabled to make their governments hereditary, andto assume every thing except tlie name of kings.The seeds of dissolution were slowly matured byforeign wars and domestic revolts ; and the first

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 11twenty reigns are all that can be assigned as theprosperous era of the Abbassides. In Arabia theirauthority was nominally maintained by their vice--roys ; though the sheiks of the desert gradually resumedtheir ancient independence, and regarded thesuccessors of Mohammed merely as the chiefs oftheir religion. As their power commenced in blood,so it will be found in the sequel to have terminatedits career in the most dreadful scenes of cruelty andcarnage. The middle of the thirteenth centurybrought the tragic history of their fallen race to aclose, when the proud capital of Islam fell into thehands of the Tartars.DYNASTY OF THE ABBASSIDES,

12 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.Hashemiah, a city founded by his brother on theBite or in the vicinity of Anbar ; but an insurrectioncompelled him to resort to the erection of a newcapital—andin the 145th year of the Hejira thefoundation of Bagdad was laid. The aid of astrologywas called in to ascertain a propitious seasonfor commencement ; and in a short time rose theCity of Peace, a splendid metropolis, on the banksof the Tigris, which continued the seat of imperialluxury for nearly five centuries. The rural scenerywas beautiful ; the spacious river had a width of 250yards, and a depth, when the waters were at thehighest, of forty-six feet. The neighbourhood wasrich in gardens and villages ; and some idea of itsancient population may be formed, when we learnthat 800,000 men and 60,000 women could attend thefuneral of Hanbal, their popular saint. Yet all thismagnificence seemed but ill adapted to the temperof Almansor, whose extraordinary penury obtainedfor him the nickname of Abu Dawanek, or FatherHalfpenny. After his wars and buildings, he leftbehind him 600,000,000 drachms and 24,000,000dinars of gold (about 24,850,000/. sterling)—a treasurewhich the vices or the munificence of his childrenscattered in a few years. In a single pilgrimageto Mecca, Mahadi expended 6,000,000 dinars(2,775,000Z.), and distributed 150,000 dresses to thepoor.Haroun al Raschid (Aaron the Just), whose nameEastern romance has made so familiar to Europeanears, yielded to none of his predecessors in the fameand splendour of his reign. He was eminently liberaland humane ; and excelled as a warrior, a statesman,and a scholar. He conversed familiarly withall classes of his subjects ; and from these adventuressprang numerous anecdotes, which historiansaave been careful to preserve. To obviate the jeal-'jusies and collisions likely to arise from the nominationof a successor, he had proposed an equal division

circumstancesCALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 13of the empire among his sons—a scheme whichcreated the very evils it was intended to avert. Onetrait contrary to the general complexion of hischaracter was his unrelenting cruelty to the Barmecides,especially Yahia and his son Jaafar, who hadserved him long, and given the most distinguishedproofs of zeal and fidelity. To this illustrious family,well known to the Western World through thesame enchanting tales that have celebrated theirroyal master, Haroun had entrusted the entire administrationof his extensive dominions. But courtfavour is precarious : confirmed andexasperated the caliph's aversion, and death or imprisonmentextirpated the unhappy race of Barmec.The ingratitude of Haroun in this instance inflictedits own punishment ; for with their destruction hisaffairs fell into immediate and irretrievable confusion.The reign of Alamin was one continued sceneof insurrection, revolt, and fraternal discord. Histreasures were exhausted ; and to supply the deficiencyhe was obliged to commit to the cruciblehis gold and silver plate. The precious contentsof his warehouses were openly exposed to sale, thathe might have wherewithal to stimulate his soldiersto exert themselves in defence of the capital, thenbesieged by his brother Almamoun, who was proclaimedcaliph in Khorasan. A body of 5000 mercenarytroops had joined his standard; but, as hehad neither rich dresses nor pecuniary rewards tobestow, they were compelled to rest satisfied witha fumigation of their beards over pans of civet,which were supplied in great profusion by the caliph'sorders ; and from this species of luxury theinhabitants of Bagdad gave them in ridicule the appellationof the Civet corps. The head of this unfortunatemonarch, who was assassinated by a slave,exhibited on the walls of Bagdad, announced to hisbrother that he enjoyed an undivided throne.Vol. II.—B

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 15spiritual, devolved on his brother and successor, Motassem.The name of the Ocionary, by which he isdesignated in history, originated from the remarkablecoincidences, that he was the eighth caliph of hisfamily—the eighth in descent from Abbas—he gainedeight distinguislied victories eight sons of princeswere enrolled in his service—he possessed eightthousand male, and as many female, slaves—he hadeight sons and eight daughters—he was master ofeighty thousand horses—and left in his coffers eightminions of gold dinars, with eighteen millions ofdrachms of silver. His strength was so prodigiousthat he is said to have carried a burden of 1000pounds' weight ; and such was the muscular powerof his arm, that he could hold a sheep in each handuntil his attendants flayed them alive. Amongother luxuries he kept 130,000 piebald horses in hisstables at Samarra, and maintained 50,000 boys atcourt, to each of whom he furnished a satchel orlittle bag for provisions. He was the first caliphthat added to his name the title of Billah, or B^AUahyequivalent to the Dei Gratia of Christian sovereigns.Vathek was a liberal patron of learned men, andso charitable to the poor, that not a single beggar,through the whole course of his reign, was to bemet with in his dominions. His brother Motawakkeldisplayed all the caprice and cruelty of a tyrant.He evinced his displeasure against the Jews andChristians by compelling them to use wooden insteadof iron stirrups—to wear leathern girdles, tohave badges on their clothes, and to paint the figuresof devils or hogs and apes on their door, to distinguishthem from the IMussulmans. Among otherinstances of his folly and depravity, it is recordedthat one of the amusements in which he chose toindulge himself was to give a magnificent entertain^ment, and in the moment of convivial gayety to turna lion loose among the terrified guests. Sometimes

16 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.he would introduce a snake into the sleeve of an unfortunatecourtier, or cast leathern jars full of scorpionsinto a crowded assembly, or in the middle ofthe hall where he had prepared a banquet for hisfavourites, without suffering any one to rise fromthe table or change his place. Besides these mischievousdiversions, he exercised great severity onhis subjects, of whom not less than 80,000 perishedin the Armenian rebellion. Persons of distinction,who had the misfortune to incur his displeasure, heenclosed in an iron stove lined with pointed nails,which he caused to be heated in proportion to theenormity of the crime he intended to punish. Butthe tyrant met with his deserts, having fallen by thehands of his own slaves, who employed against hislife those scimitars which he had recently distributedamong them for the defence of his person andthrone. From the death of this prince the destinationof the crown was usually fixed by the fierceand mercenary chiefs of the Tartar slaves or guards,and in their power it continued for twelve successions,including a period of about eighty-four years.Yet with all this weakness a show of externalstrength and magnificence was maintained. OfMoktader's court and camp at Bagdad (A. D. 917)we find a curious picture in Abulfeda, little accordantwith the declining state of his authority. " Thecaliph's whole army," says he, " both horse andfoot, was under arms, which together made a bodyof 160,000 men. His state-officers, the favouriteslaves, stood near him in splendid apparel, theirbelts glittering with gold and gems. Near themwere 7000 eunuchs ; 4000 of them white, the remainderblack. The porters or doorkeepers werein number 700. Barges and boats with the mostsuperb decorations were seen floating upon the Tigris.Nor was the palace itself less splendid, inwhich were hung up 38,000 pieces of tapestry;12,500 of which were of silk, embroidered with gold.

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 17The carpets on the floor were 22,000. A hundredlions were brought out with a keeper to each.Among the other spectacles of rare and stupendousluxury, was a tree of gold and silver, spreading intoeighteen larger branches, on which, and on thelesser boughs, sat a variety of birds, made of thesame precious metals, as well as the leaves of thetree. The birds warbled their natural harmony,each in its own strains ; the whole being effectedby the spontaneous motions of machinery." Suchwas the marvellous luxury of the Abbassides, seatedamid the riches of the East. The ambassadors ofthe Greek Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus,on whose account such courtly grandeur was displayed,were led by the vizier, himself splendidlydressed, through all this magnificence, to the footof the caliph's throne.The arts by which this ingenious splendour wassupported seem then to have flourished in great perfection;and we are told that Hallaj, a famous jugglerand fanatic, who was executed at Bagdad (A . D.922), could astonish his numerous spectators bymaking winter fruits appear in summer, and summerfruits in winter ;and even bring showers of drachmsfrom the clouds, by merely stretching out his handsin the air. The viziers and other officers of stateimitated the extravagance of their master. Kimar,the emir of Mostadi, carried his ideas of magnificenceso far, that in his chamber of retirement, achain of gold was suspended from the roof to resthis hands on ; and in the same apartment stood agolden vase, charged with musk, amber, and themost expensive aromatics.But the nations of the East had learned to despisethese idle pageantries, and trample on the degradedsuccessors of the prophet. Of the first twentycaliphs of the house of Abbas, nine had been cut offby poison, hunger, or assassination. Kaher wasdethroned by the Tartar guards ; the searing instni-B2

18 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD..merit was passed across his eyes, and in thiswretched state he is said to have prolonged anexistence of sixteen years, during which he wasregularly seen every Friday, with other blind mendicants,at the gates of the principal mosque of hisown capital, soliciting the alms of the charitable.Of the succeeding monarchs, five, Mottaki, Mostakfi,Mostarched, Alrashed, and Mostasem, met the samefate. With a few exceptions, the power of theAbbassides, after Rhadi, was reduced to an emptypageant,—a mere gilded phantom. Sometimes theircondition was so degraded, that they were confinedlike prisoners in their palace, exposed to blows andinsults, and scarcely allowed the ordinary means ofsubsistence. So entirely was Rhadi the creature ofIbn Rayek, his Emir al Omra (commander of commanders),an officer first instituted by him, and superiorto the vizier, that he could not draw a singledinar from the treasury for his own use without thepermission of this absolute minister, who evenofficiated in the great mosque, and had his nameinserted in the public prayers.Usurpers had risen up in almost every province,and erected themselves into independent sovereigns.The dominions of the once mighty Emperors of theFaithful were nearly circumscribed within the wallsof Bagdad, which still contained an innumerablemultitude of inhabitants, vain of their past fortune,discontented with their present state, and oppressedby the demands of a needy government, whoseexchequer had heretofore been replenished bythe spoil and the tribute of nations. Irak, thegreater part of Persia, the provinces round the Caspianand beyond the Oxus, had recognised othermasters. Syria and Arabia no longer obeyed thecaliph ; while the rulers of Egypt and the West hadwithdrawn their allegiance from the humbled pontiffon the banks of the Tigris. Corruption andvenality pervaded every department of the state

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 19the office of cadi of Bagdad, first exposed to sale inthe reign of Almoti, was purchased for 200,000drachms (4583/. 6s. Sd.) ; and we learn from Abulfeda,that all the chief offices of government were disposedof in a similar manner. The administrationwas sometimes put into the hands of women belongingto the court ; and among the secretaries andcounsellors of Moktader was a damsel named Yamek,who was so thoroughly versed in the weightierpoints of legislation, that the judges in the determinationof criminal causes, as well as the doctors ofthe law in their most important decisions, were frequentlyobliged to have recourse to her for assistance.Religious differences gave rise to bitter andincessant animosities. In every profession whichallowed room for two persons, the one was generallya votary, and the other a persecutor, of thesect of Ali. The rigid disciples of the famous Hanbalcarried their phrensy so far as to invade the privilegesand the pleasures of domestic life. Enteringthe houses of the citizens, they spilled the winewherever they found it, beat the musicians, andbroke their instruments to pieces ; nor could theybe reduced to submission except by the publicationof a severe edict.This state of corruption and licentiousness wasoccasionally checked by a firm and determinedhand ; and some of the last of the Abbassidan princesacted with an energy that would have done creditto the brightest days of the caliphate. The policyof Alkayem and Moctadi led them to strengthentheir interests by powerful matrimonial alliances.The latter espoused the daughter of Malek Shah,who was received at Bagdad amid an illuminationof waxen torches, " which echpsed the stars, andset the firmament in a blaze." Of the luxury orexpenditure of their nuptial banquet, some estimatemay be formed from the assertion, that in the articleof sugar alone, 500 tons weight was consumed.

so CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.Such was the vigilant prudence of Mostader, thatduring the whole of his reign not a single insurrectionoccurred to disturb the tranquillity of his government.His son Mostarched has obtained a distinguishedname among the few latter sovereigns ofthe house of Abbas, who, in the decline of itspower, displayed some portion of zeal to revive theexpiring lustre of the caliphate. Mostanjed was aprince of considerable energy, and scrupled not tothrow some unfortunate ladies of the harem into theTigris, for intriguing against his successor.tinder Mostanser and Mostasem the taste for expensivemagnificence revived. Previous to one ofthe religious festivals, the former ordered his jewellerto prepare avast quantity of small golden balls,which he caused to be distributed among his domestics,and shot from pellet-bows over all parts of thecity. Mostasem, the last of his line, whose powerhad dwindled to a mere pre-eminence in dignity,affected a higher degree of pomp and ceremony thanthe most splendid of his predecessors. The greatestprinces were with difficulty allowed access to hispresence. In imitation of the Kaaba, the gate ofhis palace was furnished with a stone and apiece ofblack velvet, to which his subjects paid almost divinehonours ; and when the principal officers of statemade their court, they did homage to the proud pontiff,by rubbing their eyes and forehead on these venerableemblems, and kissing them with profoundhumility. When he went abroad he generally worea mask or a veil, to inspire his people with thegreater respect ; as he passed, the crowded streetswere too narrow to contain the multitudes thatflocked to behold him ; and the windows or balconieswere let at an extravagant price.The few conquests achieved by the Abbassideswere chiefly due to the talents of their earlierprinces ; and of these it will be necessary to give acursory sketch before recording the entire downfall

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 21of their house. During the sanguinary feuds thatfollowed, and confirmed their elevation to thethrone, the Greeks had stolen the opportunity ofavenging their wrongs and enlarging their limits.With an army of 100,000 men they had invadedSyria, and defeated a body of Arabs, of whom theykilled 2000, with five emirs or principal officers.But a severe retribution was exacted by Mahadi,who despatched a force of 95,000 Persians andArabs to the shores of the Bosphorus, under hissecond son the renowned Haroun al Raschid. Abody of the imperial troops was defeated, and severalof the provinces laid waste with fire and sword.A woman then occupied the Byzantine throne ; andthe encampment of the Saracens on the oppositeheights of Scutari informed Irene, in her palace atConstantinople, of the loss of her troops and thedevastation of her territories. The helpless sovereign,or her ministers, consented to sign an ignominiouspeace ; nor could the exchange of someroyal presents disguise the annual tribute of 70,000pieces of gold, which was imposed on the Romanempire.Fifteen years afterward (A. D. 796), when Harounhad ascended the throne, he renewed his incursionsinto the imperial dominions, and ravaged Lydiaand Lycaonia, whence he carried oflf an immensequantity of booty. Eight times were these predatoryinroads repeated ; and as often as the Greeksdeclined the regular payment, they were taught tofeel that a month of depredation was more costlythan a year of tribute. On the deposition and banishmentof the empress, her successor Nicephorusresolved to obliterate this badge of servitude anddisgrace, which, in his epistle to the caliph, heascribed to the weakness of a female reign. " Thequeen," said he, borrowing his allusion from thegame of chess, " considered you as a rook, and herselfa pawn. That pusillanimous woman submitted

ii22 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.to pay a tribute, the double of which she ought tohave exacted from the barbarians. Restore, therefore,the fruits of j'-our injustice, or abide the determinationof the sword." At these words, by wayof bravado, the ambassador made Haroun a presentof several excellent sabres. The caliph smiled atthe threat, and drawing his famous scimitar {Samsamah),a weapon of historic or fabulous renown, hecut them asunder one by one, like so many radishes,before the eyes of the astonished Greeks, withoutseeming to exert the strength of his arm or turningthe edge of his well-tempered blade. He then dictatedan epistle of tremendous brevity " : In thename of the most merciful God ! Haroun al Raschid,Commander of the Faithful, to Nicephorus the Romandog, I have read thy letter, thou son of an unbelievingmother. Thou shalt not hear,—thou shaltbehold my reply." A war of desolation ensued.With a force of 100,000 men, Haroun invaded theimperial territories. Nicephorus was overthrownin Lycaonia, with the loss of 40,000 of his besttroops, having received three wounds in the action.In this campaign the Saracens ravaged the adjacentprovinces, and took a considerable number ofthe principal towns ; after which they compelled theemperor to a treaty of peace, by which he engagedto pay annually 300,000 dinars (138,750/.), and abstainfrom hostile encroachments in future. Onthe faith of this stipulation the caliph withdrew intoWestern Irak ; but the distance of 500 miles, andthe inclemency of the season, which set in with unusualseverity, encouraged Nicephorus to violatethe truce by assailing the Moslem dominions. TheCommander of the Faithful was not slow to punishthe aggression. In a rapid march during the depthof winter, he passed the snows of Mount Taurus,and landed a regular army of 135,000 men in theplains of Phrygia. A large body of volunteersswelled this huge armament to 300,000 persons.

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD* 23Like a host of locusts they swept the surface of AsiaMinor far beyond Tayana and Ancyra, and investedthe Pontic Heraclea, now a paltry town, but then aflourishing- place, whose ships had conveyed homethe intrepid Xenophon and his ten thousand ; andwhose walls, 1200 years afterward, were capable ofsustaining a month's siege agcfinst the combinedforces of the Arabs. The ruin was complete ; thecity was reduced to ashes ; and, besides immensespoil, 16,000 captives enhanced the triumph of theconqueror.Several other towns met a similar fate. Cypruswas attacked, and the inhabitants pillaged withoutmercy ; after which, the " Roman dog" was compelledto retract his haughty defiance, and submitto an annual assessment. As a further mark of hi&degradation, the coin of the tribute-money wasstamped with the image and superscription of Harounand his three sons. It v/as perhaps fortunatefor Nicephorus, as the terms might havebeen still more humiliating, that his adversary washastily called away to check the progress of revoltat Samarcand, where the usurper, Ibn al Leith, hadassumed the title of cahph. The insurrection spreadover the Transoxian provinces, and extended alsoto Khorasan and Kerman. Haroun had left hisfavourite palace at Racca to march against therebels, when death put an end to his triumphantcareer. His general Harethmah, laid siege to Samarcand,and conveyed the refractory chief in chainsto the presence of Almamoun.The Emperor Theophilus, one of the most aetiveand high-spirited princes that reigned at Constantinopleduring the middle ages, had led an army fivetimes in person against the Saracens. In the lastof these expeditions (A. D. 838) he invaded Syria atthe head of a hundred thousand men, and besiegedthe obscure town of Sozometra, the birth-place ofMotassem, which he took and levelled with JJje

24 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.ground. The male inhabitants Avere all put to thesword, and the women and children carried intocaptivity. At Malatia, in Cappadocia, 1000 femaleswere made prisoners ; these, and the natives of othertowns which he reduced, were treated with excessivecruelty, their eyes put out, or their noses andears cut off. The drms of Motassem were at thatmoment occupied with the revolt of the Persian impostorBabec, who was taken in 837 and put to anignominious death. This fanatic had for twentyyears maintained his power against the caliphsduring which time he had massacred above 250,000individuals. Nud, one of his officers, employed inthese executions, acknowledged that he had destroyedwith his own hand more than twenty thousandMoslems.On the suppression of this rebellion, Motassemconducted a formidable army into Asia Minor. Ancyrawas laid in ashes, and not a town or fortressbelonging to the Christians could withstand him.Amorium was invested ; and after an obstinate siegeof fifty-five days, and the loss of 30,000 Greeks, theplace was betrayed by one of the inhabitants, wliohad abjured the Christian religion. The walls werelevelled with the ground, and 30,000 wretched captivesgratified the vengeance of the conqueror. Theophilushad marched to the relief of his native citybut he was opposed by a body of ten thousand Saracens.The two armies came to a general actionat Dazymenum. The Arabs at first were broken ;but the Greeks, in the pursuit, were so galled by thearrows of the Turks, that they were in their turnthrown into complete disorder; and had not theenemy's bowstrings been damped and relaxed by theevening rain, very few of the Christians would haveescaped with their emperor from the field of battle.Tired of destruction, Motassem returned to hisnew palace of Samarra.The loss of 70,000 Moslems in the siege of Amo-

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 25riura entailed a severer fate on the imhappy captives,who were treated hke the most atrocious criminals.Mutual necessity sometimes extorted the exchangeor ransom of prisoners ;but, in the religious conflictof these great empires, peace was without confidence,and war without mercy. Quarter was seldomgiven in the field ; those who escaped the edgeof the sword were condemned to hopeless servitude,or cruel torture ; and a Catholic emperorrelates, with visible satisfaction, the execution ofthe Saracens of Crete, who were flayed alive, orplunged into caldrons of boiling oil. Vathek negotiatedwith Michael III. for an exchange of captives.The Christians and the Moslems were drawn up onthe banks of the Lamus, near Tarsus. Of the Arabs,4460 men, 800 women and children, and 100 confederateswere exchanged for an equal number ofGreeks ; and more might have been redeemed, hadnot the caliph excluded from the benefit of the cartelall heretics who refused to assert the creation ofthe Koran. The two bands passed each other onthe middle of the bridge, and the shouts of Allahakbar ! on the one side, and Kyrie eleison ! on theother, announced the grateful tidings that they hadjoined the respective camps of their countrymen.Under tho feeble successors of Moktader andRhadi, irruptions were occasionally made into theGrecian territories, both by sea and land ; but, inproportion as the Eastern World v/as convulsed andbroken, the Byzantine empire had recovered itsprosperity, especially after the accession of theBasilian race, whose wisdom and talents infused anew strength into the government. The lofty titlesof the Morning Star ard the Death of the Saracenswere applied in the public acclamations to NicephorusPhocas, a sovereign as renowned in the camp ashe was unpopular in the city. The twelve years'reign (A. D. 963-975), or military command of thisprince, and of his assassin and successor John Zi-VoL. IL—

26 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.misces, the two heroes of the age, form the mostsplendid period of the Byzantine annals. In a seriesof bloody combats, they extended their victoriesfrom the mountainous defiles of Cappadocia to thedeserts of Bagdad. The conqest of Cilicia may besaid to have been achieved by the surrender of Masifiaor Mopsuestia, and Tarsus. In the siege of theformer city, which was taken by assault, 200,000Moslems, including probably the inhabitants of thedependant districts, were predestined to death orslavery. Tarsus was reduced by the slow progressoffamine. The besieged held out in the hope ofsuccour from Egypt ; and no sooner had the Sara^cens yielded on honourable terms, than they weremortified by the distant view of their supplies, thearrival of which by sea was too late to avail them.The Mohammedan population were dismissed insafety to the confines of Syria, and their placesreplenished with a colony of Christians.Having forced and secured the narrow passes ofMount Amanus, the Greeks repeatedly carried theirarms into the heart of Syria. Antioch and Aleppowere once more restored to the faith of Christ andthe dominion of the Caesars. Nicephorus, with astrong army, invested the latter place, and havingapplied his military engines to the walls, he madehis attack with great fury. After a fruitless assaultof three days, a dissension of the inhabitants left thegates unguarded, and afforded the Greeks an opportunityof entering the town. Vast multitudes ofmen and women were put to the sword. In thepalace the victors seized a well-furnished magazineof arms, a stable of 1400 mules, and 300 bags of silverand gold. Ten thousand youths of both sexeswere led into captivity ;the weight of the preciousspoil exceeded the strength and number of thebeasts of burden ; the remainder was consumed withfire,and after a licentious possession of ten days,the Romans abandoned the scene of desolation. In.

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 27their Syrian inroads, the Greeks reduced more than100 cities eighteen pulpits of the principal;mosqueswere committed to the ^imes, to expiate the sacrilegeof the disciples of Mohammed. On the shiftingscene of conquest, the names of Hierapolis,Apamea, Emesa, Acre, and Baalbec, again appear.The Emperor Zimisces encamped in the Paradiseof Damascus, where he accepted the ransom of asubmissive people ; and the torrent was only stoppedat the impregnable fortress of Tripoli, on the Pheniciancoast.From the passage of Mount Taurus to the PersianGulf, the Euphrates had been impervious to theGreeks since the days of Heraclius. It was crossedby the victorious Zimisces: and the historian mayimitate the speed with which he overran the oncefamous cities of Samos-ata, Edessa, Martyropolis,Amida, and Nisibis, the ancient limit of the Romanempire in the neighbourhood of the Tigris. Hisardour was quickened by the desire of grasping theimaginary wealth of the Abbassides in their owncapital. But Bagdad was relieved of its apprehensionsby his sudden retreat. Satiated with gloryand laden with plunder, Zimisces returned to Constantinople,where he displayed in his triumph thesilks and aromatics of Asia, with 300 myriads ofgold and silver. The Saracen states recovered fromthe effects of this transient hurricane. On the departureof the Greeks, the fugitive princes returnedlo their capitals ;the Nestorian and Jacobite Christiansbroke their involuntary oaths and exchanged

28 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.sides ; and, in contemplating the fallen fabric oftheir greatness, it is easy to discover the principalcauses which hastened that catastrophe. When theArabian conquerors had spread themselves over distantcountries, and were mingled with the servilecrowds of Persia, Syria, and Eg}'pt, they insensiblylost the hardy and martial virtues of the desert. TheTurks and Tartars, who dwelt nortliward of theOxus and the Jaxartes, possessed the daring enterprisepeculiar to their climate ; and from their hordesthe mercenary forces of the caliphs were frequentlyrecruited. Those robust youths, either taken inwar or purchased in trade, were educated in theexercises of the field and the profession of the Mohammedanfaith. From being slaves they wereimbodied into household troops, and placed in armsround the throne of their benefactor. Motasserawas the first that introduced the dangerous expedieritof Turkish guards, of whom he received above50,000 into his capital. If his own troops had beenfactious, the foreign militia to whom he had intrustedhis person proved still more refractory. From protectorsthey soon became lords over the Commanderof the F^aithful, usurping dominion both in the palaceand in the provinces. Their licentious conductprovoked the public indignation, and may be regardedas one leading cause of detaching the Moslems fromthe allegiance which was due to their lawful sovereigns,and ultimately of subverting the throne.Another formidable enemy to the stability of theAbbassides was the religious sect of the Karmathians,who sprang up in the vicinity of Cufa aboutthe 277th year of the Hejira. Their founder was anArabian fanatic of the name of Karmath, who assumedto himself many lofty and incomprehensibletitles, The Guide, The Demonstration, The Word,The Holy Ghost, The Camel. He aff"ected greatsanctity and strictness of life ; claimed to be theherald of the Messiah, the representative of John

CALIPHS or BAGDAD. 29the Baptist, Gabriel, and the imams descended fromAli. He altered the established forms of worshiprelaxed the duties of ablution and fasting; permittedthe use of wine and forbidden foods ;preachedJigainst the utility of the pilgrimage ; and enjoinedhis disciples to pray fifty times daily. He chosetwelve apostles to govern his flock and propagatehis doctrines ; and such was the success of thesemissionaries among the Bedouins, as to threatenArabia with a new revolution. From Bahrein andthe shores of the Persian Gulf, these zealots spreadtheir conquests far and wide, over Chaldea, Syria,and Mesopotamia. As they disowned the title andabhorred the worldly pomp of the caliphs, they persecutedtheir subjects with the bitterest hostility.Many a bloody conflict ensued ; but the mercenariesof Bagdad were terrified to face an enemy107,000 strong, who neither asked nor acceptedquarter. The cities of Racca, Baalbec, Cufa, andBussora were pillaged ;Bagdad itself was filled withconsternation ; for the daring Abu Taher, with nomore than 500 horse, had advanced to Anber, andthreatened to attack the City of Peace. A lieutenanthad recommended the Karmathian chief to withdraw; when the latter, to evince the determinationof his troops, turned to three of his companions, andat his command the first plunged a dagger into hisown breast ; the second leapt into the Tigris ; andthe third cast himself headlong from a precipice." Relate," continued he, " to your master what youhave seen ; before the evening he shall be chainedamong my dogs." The Saracen camp was surprised,and before the evening the menace was literallyexecuted. Mecca was an object of aversionto the Karmathians, and in the 317th year of theHejira (A. D. 929) Abu Taher entered the sacredcity at the season of the pilgrimage. Every speciesof cruelty and profanation was committed.Thirty thousand citizens and strangers were put toC2

30 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.the sword; and the most venerable relics of theMoslem faith were carried off or trampled in thedust. A fter this bloody and sacrilegio us exploit, theturbulent fanatics continued to infest the borders ofIrak, Syria, and Egypt ; and though they receivedoccasional checks from the Mohammedan arms,they were for two centuries the pest and scourge ofthe caliphate.The unwieldy magnitude of the Saracen empireitself, and the number of independent principalitiesthat sprung up in its bosom, were other obvious andpowerful accessories to its destruction. Almamounmight proudly assert that it was easier for him torule the East and the West than to manage a chessboardof two feet square ;yet errors in the game ofpolitics, though less palpable, are no less fatal thanmistakes in the artificial management of rooks andpawns ; and it is easy to discover, that so early asthe reign of this caliph, the authority of the crownin the remote provhices was already impaired. Distanceslackened the reins of order and obedienceamong the subjects of the Abbassides. A changewas scarcely visible so long as the lieutenants ofthe caliph were content with their vicarious title ;so long as they merely solicited for themselves, ortheir sons, a renewal of the imperial gi'ant ; and stillmaintained on the coin, and in the pulpits of themosque, the name and the prerogatives of the Commanderof the Faithful. But, in the settled andhereditary exercise of power, the viceroys assumedthe pomp and attributes of royalty. The alternativeof peace or war, of punishment or reward, dependedsolely on their will ; and the revenues of thegovernment were reser^'ed for local services, orprivate magnificence. Instead of a regular supplyof men and money, the successors of Mohammedwere flattered with the ostentatious gift of an elephant,a cast of hawks, a few bales of silk, or asupply of musk and amber.

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 31Persia, from being a province, became itself theheritage of several petty dynasties, w^ho successivelythreatened the capital and usurped the power of theAbbassides. The earliest of these was that of theTaherites,—the posterity of the valiant Taher, whohad taken an active part in the civil wars of thesons of Haroun. His descendants, or successors,reigned in Khorasan till the fourth generation,when they were supplanted by the Sofferides, a/name borrowed from the trade of their founder,Jacob ibn Leith, who exercised the humble craft ofa brasier, and afterward the less honourable professionof a robber. This dynasty was overthrownby the arms of the powerful Tartar chief IsmailSamani, whom the caliph Motamed had invited toJiis assistance. In the year 873 he passed the Oxuswith 10,000 cavalry, so poor that their stirrups wereof wood, and so brave that they vanquished theSoffarian army, eight times more numerous thantheir own. For several generations the Samanidesexercised a turbulent and precarious rule over Khorasan,Seistan, Balkh, and the Transoxian provinces,including the cities of Samarcand and Bokhara ; butthey were at length swept away by more potentusurpers. The Bowides or Dilemites, so called fromtheir ancestor Buiyah, a fisherman of Dilem, weretheir rivals and their enemies ; and about the middleof the tenth century the Persian throne and thesceptre of the caliphs were usurped by three powerfulbrothers, Ali, Ahmed, and Hassan, on whom thefeeble Mostakfi bestowed the highest dignities, andthe pompous titles of Moezodowlah (Column of theState), Amadodowlah (Pillar of the Throne), andRocnodowlah (Angular Stone of the Court) ; epithetswhich discover the fallen majesty of the Saracenemperors. Under this dynasty the language andgenius of Persia revived ; and the authority of theArabs beyond the Tigris may be said to have termi-

S2 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.nated within little more than three centuries afterthe death of Mohammed.Mesopotamia, with the important cities of Mosuland Aleppo, were occupied by the Arabian princesor sultans of the tribe of Hamadan. The poets oftheir court could repeat without a blush, that naturehad formed their countenances for beauty, theirtongues for eloquence, and their hands for liberalityand valour. But their elevation and their reignwere marked by scenes of treachery, murder, andparricide. The wealth and dominion of the Bowidesand various other petty dynasties, yielded in theirturn to the victorious arms of the first sultans ofGhizni, whose authority, for a short period, extendedover a great part of Persia. But the chief glory ofthese monarchs arose from their holy wars againstthe infidels of India. Subuktagi, originally a Turkishslave, took Cabul, and overran the fine provinceof the Punjaub. Mahmoud inherited the rulingpassions of his father,—devotion to religion, andlove of military glory. Sensible of the importanceof such an ally, the caliph encouraged him toobtain a never-dying name in this world, and eternalhappiness in the next, by spreading the religion ofthe Prophet ; and, in imitation of other popes, conferredon him the titles of The Right Hand andProtector of the Faith. The other vowed in return,that his sword through life should be consecrated tothe service of Islam ; and it would be difficult tocompute the millions whom he forced, by thatpowerful instrument of conversion, to embrace itstenets. His eldest son, Musaood, was dignified bythe caliph with the title of The Light of Posterityand The Beauty of Nations. On the second wasconferred the appellation of The Aim of Fortuneand The Column of the State. The last services ofMahmoud, after subduing a considerable part ofIndia in twelve expeditions, were against the Turks,

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 33who had invaded his Persian dominions and obtainedseveral advantages over his generals. He expiredat his Palace of Felicity after a reign of thirty-fiveyears, being the first Mohammedan prince that borethe title of sultan. His successors were involvedin fraternal disputes and military rebellions. Theylost the whole of their possessions in Persia, andtheir history for above a century, till their final extinctionby the Tartars, presents only a mournfuldetail of petty wars and massacres.It was from these warlike hordes, whose prowesswas soon felt from China and India to the barrenwilds of Northern Europe, that the tottering throneof the Abbassides received its final overthrow.After the death of Mahmoud, the Seljuks, underTogrul Beg, the first prince of his dynasty (1038),subdued Jorjan, Tabaristan, Azerbijan, Korasm,Irak, and Khorasan. The increasing insolence ofthe Turkish guards had compelled Alkayem to implorethe assistance of this Tartar chief, who hadnow assumed the title and state of a sovereign. Hewas received by the caliph at Bagdad with thegreatest respect. At this interview Alkayem appearedwith all the mummery of state that belongedto his high office. He was seated on a throne, whichwas concealed by a dark veil. The celebrated boneda,or black mantle of the Abbassides, was thrown overhis shoulders, and in his right hand he held the staffof Mohammed. Togrul approached the successoraf the Prophet on foot, accompanied by his nobles,ivho, laying aside their arms, had joined in the procession.He kissed the ground, stood for a shorttime in a respectful posture, and was then led to thecaliph, near whom he was placed on another throne.His commission was then read, appointing him Kingof Bagdad, Viceroy of the Caliph, and Lord of all theMohammedans. He was invested with seven dresses(the usual symbol of oflUcial preferment), and hadseven slaves bestowed on him,—a ceremony imply-

34 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.ing- that he was authorized to rule the seven regionssubject to the Commander of the Faithful. He waslikewise adorned with a collar and bracelets ; a veilof gold stuff, scented with musk, was thrown overhis head, on which two crowns were placed, one forArabia, the other for Persia ; while two swordswere girt on his loins, to signify that he was rulerboth of the East and the West.To consohdate this copartnery of interests, thecaliph married the sister of his new ally ; while thelatter shocked the pride of the house of Abbas byespousing Zeida, the daughter of their spiritual chief.The nuptials were celebrated at Rhe, the Suljukcapital, with great splendour ; but as the royal bridegroomhad arrived at the age of seventy, their happinesswas only of a few months' duration. Togruland his successors, Alp Arslan and Malek Shah, werezealous Moslems of the Sonnee sect ; and it wasowing to this circumstance that the caliphs undertheir administration enjoyed an ease and dignity farsuperior to what fell to their lot while in the handsof the Bowid&s. His victories over the Greeks, andhis cruel persecution of the Christians, on whosenecks he fixed a horseshoe, or large iron collar, asa mark of ignominy, have placed Alp Arslan, accordingto the judgment of the Mohammedans, amongthe most distinguished sovereigns of Asia.The kingdom founded by Togrul, which extendedfrom the Mediterranean to the borders of China,and the various principalities into which it wasdivided, fell in their turn before that great destroyerof the human race Zingis Khan (A. D. 1202), and hisgrandson Hoolaku. The former subdued the wholeof Tartary ; and before his death his vast territoriesreached from the Indus to the Volga, and from theshores of the Persian Gulf to the snowy wastesof Siberia. The carnage he committed was terrible ;for his armies, which exceeded 000,000 men, or, inthe language of oriental hyperbole, " outnumbered

andCALIPHS OF BAGDAD. H*>the drops of rain," were never idle. The conquestsof the father were extended by his immediate successorsinto Russia, Bulgaria, and Poland ; but itwas to Hoolaku that fortune reserved the aehievmentof destroying the capital of Islam and the lastof the Abbassidan caliphs. With 120,000 horse and1000 families of Chinese artificers, skilled in the art ofthrowing naphtlia and other inflammable substances,he quitted the Mogul territory ; and, traversingthe plains of Irak, he appeared (October 1757) atthe head of this prodigious force before the walls ofBagdad. The caliph courted accommodation bysending him valuable presents : it was not tillall hopes of peace had departed, that he discoveredthe treachery of his prime minister, by whoseadvice he had dispersed his troops, and left thecapital defenceless. Forgetting their own weakness,the citizens assumed a tone of defiance, and treatedwith scorn the proposal to surrender. "Who isHoolaku, and what is his power, that he should pre--sume to make war on the house of Abbas'? Theirempire is derived from God alone ; and, therefore,no prince can meet with success that endeavours tooverturn it. Let him return to Hamadan, and wewill intercede with the Commander of the Faithfulto forgive the enormous crime he has committed."The Tartar smiled at this affectation of imperturbablemajesty, and being joined by all his detachments,immediately laid seige to the metropolis.On each side of the city mounds and trencheswere drawn, with high towers, in which the assailantsplanted their stone-engines, fire-engines, andother warlike machines. For the space of nearlytwo months the inhabitants, though exposed to everyspecies of violence and injury, defended themselveswith considerable obstinacy. But the enemy havingmade themselves masters of the walls, and everything being ready for storming the place, Mostasemresolved to commit his person to the hazard of an

36 CALIPHS OF BAGDAD.interview with the Tartar chief. Accompanied byhis two sons, together with a numerous group ofrelatives and the most distinguished members of hiscourt, he quitted Bagdad by the Gate of Peace, andapproached the paviUon of Hoolaku. The cahphand a few of his attendants were admitted withoutdifficulty, but the remainder were excluded ; andmany of them were doomed, the very same day, tothe fatal distinction of becoming the first victims ofthe conqueror's unsparing ferocity. In this melancholyretmue were about 700 women belonging tathe caliph and his sons, with 300 eunuchs. Thetraitorous vizier was set at liberty ; but his masterwas detained in captivity. The two sons were condenmedto death ; but the eldest had already founda more honourable grave in defending one of thegates of his father's capital.On Friday, the ninth of Saphar (Feb. 14, A. D.1258), Hoolaku made his entry into Bagdad, wherehe treated his generals and principal officers to asumptuous entertainment. To this display of barbarousfestivity and triumph the last of the Abbassideswas now summoned, and required, as the hostof his conqueror, to produce something that shouldbe worthy the acceptance of such an exalted guest.Conceiving that nothing more was intended thanexpressed, the unhappy monarch gave direction thata present of 2000 costly and magnificent robes, 2000dinars of gold (925/.), together with a variety of goldand silver plate, vases, and other articles, enrichedwith jewels of the greatest price and beauty, shouldbe selected from his treasury and wardrobe, and laidin the usual style, in trays, before Hoolaku. Surveyingthem with an eye of contempt, the proudMogul distributed every article among his attendants." The whole of thy visible property, ' addressingMostasem, " as well as that of the inhabitantsof Bagdad, is already at the disposal of myfollowers. Of that it was needless to make an

CALIPHS OF BAGDAD. 37What we require of thee is to give us someoffering.indication with respect to thy hidden treasures."The object of the barbarian could no longer be misunderstood.The captive prince pointed in s-ilenceto the area in the court of his palace ; and on openingthe ground there was discovered what mighthave been amply sufficient to glut the utmost cravingsof avarice;—a tank, or covered reservoir,loaded to the brim with ingots of solid gold, eachweighing 100 meskals, or nearly a pound and aquarter avoirdupois. This immense wealth did notsatiate the vengeance of the remorseless Hoolaku,who is said to have kept his illustrious but unfortunateprisoner several days without food or sustenanceof any kind. When the pangs of hungercould no longer be endured, the wretched Mostasemsent to implore relief ; but the tyrant, in mockeryof his distress, ordered his attendants to set beforehim a dish full of gold and jewels. The last act ofthe tragedy approached ; and it became a subject ofdeliberation how the sacred person of the caliphshould be disposed of, as it was superstitiously believedthat the shedding of his blood would be followedby some awful and tremendous convulsion ofnature. " To quiet these uneasy apprehensions, theferocious Tartar resolved that he should be sewedup in a leathern bag ; others say wrapt tightly infelt, or coarse hair blankets, and in this mannerdragged through the streets of the city until he expiredevery joint and bone of his frame being;pounded as in a mortar. The rest of his children,his brothers, his relations, his household officers, andevery agent of his government, were cut off with thesame unsparing cruelty. The devoted city wasnow surrendered to the license of the Mogul Hrmy,and, for the space of forty days, such a scene of pillage,massacre, and blood ensued, as outraged humanity,and almost surpassed the bounds of belief.The Persian authors assure us, that in theVol. II.—D

38 CALIPHS OF BAGDADcity alone the number of the slain amounted to800,000 persons, exclusive of the multitudes thatwere butchered in the adjoining villages. If thisestimate be correct, we may believe that the watersof the Tigris were reddened, and its usual dimensionsswelled, with the tributary streams of humangore. This memorable revolution terminated thedynasty of the Abbassides, after ithad subsisted fora period of 523 lunar years. The regal authorityof this celebrated race, and the greater part of theirremaining dominions, now devolved on the Mogulprinces of the blood of Zingis. Since that eventBagdad has witnessed various other sieges andrevolutions. It was burnt and plundered by theferocious Timur(A. D. 1401), who erected a pyramidof human heads on its ruins. In 1637, it incurredthe vengeance of Amurath IV., the Turkish sultan :300,000 troops encamped under its walls, and bythe incessant play of 200 pieces of artillery, itstowers and ramparts were levelled with tlie ground.The vaults and cellars were filled with the dead bodiesof those who had fled to these recesses for security.The sobs and cries of 15,000 women and childrenwere drowned by the shouts of the enemy exultingover the fallen Queen of the East ; and the tremblingremnant is said to have owed their preservation tothe music of Shah Kali, whose touching strains arealleged to have melted Amurath to tears of compassion.Since that period the once illustrious city ofthe Abbassides lias been degraded to the seat of aTurkish pashalic. In the present century it cannumber 200,000 inhabitants. The rich merchantsand the beautiful princesses of the A rabian Taleshave all disappeared ; but it retains the tomb of thecharming Zobeide, and can b^ast of its numerousgardens and its well stocked bazars. The citizenslive in greater security than is usually enjoyed inthe East ; and a European might fancy that theshade of old Haroun al Raschid still preserves the

CALIPHS OF AFRICA. 39same admirable order which was formerly maintainedamong- all classes by the terror of meetingthat redoubted caliph as he wandered the streets ofhis capital in disguise.CHAPTER II.CALIPHS OF AFRICA, EGYPT, AND SPAIN.The Aglabites or Caliphs of Cairoan—Military Exploits of theWestern Arabs— Reduction of Crete—Conquest of SicilyInvasion of Italy—Pillage of Rome— Siege of Gaeta— NavalVictory of the Christians— Subjugation of Corsica and Sardiniaby the Siracens—Expulsion of the Aglabites—MoorishKingdom of Timbuctoo—Dynasty of the Fatimites in Egypt—Their Subversion by Saladin, Founder of the AyubitesDynasty of the Ommiades in Spain founded by Abdalrahman—Their Power and Magnificence— Extinction of the Caliphate—Conquest of Granada by Ferdinand—Wealth and Populationof the Moorish capitals—The Government, Arms, andMilitary Tactics of the Arabs—Revenue, Trade, and Marineof Spain under the Saracens—Reduction of Sicily by theNormans, and final Overthrow of the Mohammedan power inEurope.Various dynasties of Arab princes rose and successivelyruled in Africa and Egypt. In the year ofChristianity 797, Ibrahim ibn Aglab had been sent,by the Caliph Haroun al Raschid, governor into thewestern parts of Africa. Fifteen years after, encouragedby the rebellious state of the Moslem empireat the accession of Almamoun, he assumed tohimself an almost absolute power in that country,and conquered a large extent of territory, over whichhe and his descendants ruled as sovereign princes,under the name of the Aglabites, for more than a century.This new empire, whose capital was Cairoan,included the ancient kingdoms of Maurit ia and

40 CALIPHS OF AFRICA.Massylia, with the repubhc of Carthage. Severalof these cahphs took the name of Mohammed, andsignahzed their reigns by exploits, both naval andmilitary, not unworthy the heroic age of the Moslemconquests. Numerous bodies of their troops occasionallyserved in the mercenary armies of Bagdad,and assisted the Abbassides in maintaining their authorityover the insurrectionary provinces of theEast.It was in the time of Almamoun that the islandsof Crete and Sicily were subdued by the WesternArabs. The former of these conquests is passedm silence by their own writers, who were indifferentto the fame of Jupiter and Minos. But we learnfrom the Byzantine historians, that a piratical bandof Andalusian volunteers, discontented with theclimate or the government of Spain, had set out withonly a few galleys on an exploratory voyage, in questof a more genial settlement. Landing at Alexandria,they were introduced into that city by a rebelliousfaction, where they cut in pieces bothfriends and foes, pillaged the churches and mosques,sold above 6000 Christian captives, and maintainedtheir station in the capital of Egypt, till they wererepulsed by the forces of Almamoun, who had takenthe command in person. In their excursions amongthe Mediterranean islands they had seen and tastedof the fertility of Crete ; and with forty galleysthey soon returned to make a more serious attack.Loaded with spoil they prepared to retreat; but,on descending to the shore, they were dismayedto find their vessels in flames, and still more surprisedwhen their chief Abu Caab confessed himselfthe author of the disaster. In their indignationthey suspected him of madness or treachery. " Ofwhat do you complain V said the crafty leader inreply to their clamours. " I have lirought you toa land flowing with milk and honey. Here is yourtrue country ; repose from your toils, and forget

CALIPHS OF AFRICA, 41the barren place of your nativity. As for yourwives and children, your beautiful captives v^^illsupply the place of the one;and in their embracesyou will soon become the fathers of a new progeny."Their first habitation was their camp, surroundedwith a ditch and a rampart, in the Bay of Suda.An apostate monk pointed out to them a more desirableresidence ; and the modern appellation ofCandia, from Candax, the fortress and colony of theSpanish Arabs, has superseded the ancient name,and been extended to the whole island. Of its thirtycities the inhabitants of Cydonia alone had courageto retain their freedom and their Christianity. Thetimbers of Mount Ida soon repaired the loss of theSaracen navy ; and during a period of 138 years,these licentious freebooters defied the curses and thearms of the Byzantine emperors, until they wereextirpated by the valour of Nicephorus Phocas;'*when the natives," to use the words of a contemporarywriter, " exchanged the detested superstitionof the Hagarenes for the baptism and disciplineof the Catholic church." In the reign of Motamedthey captured the imperial fleet in the Mediterranean,and put 5000 Greeks to the sword at Melazzoin Sicily. A short time after, they reduced theisland of Lemnos, ravaged without control the coastsof Asia, made themselves masters of Thessalonica,and threatened to invest Constantinople.Sicily had been repeatedly attacked by the WesternArabs ; but its loss was occasioned by an act ofinjudicious rigour. Euphemius, an amorous youth,who had stolen a nun from her cloister, was sentencedby the emperor to the amputation of histongue. He appealed to the Saracens of Africa, whosent him back with a fleet of 100 ships, and an armyof 700 horse and 10,000 foot. These troops landedat Mazara, near the ancient Silenus, and after somepartial victories, in which they made themselvesmasters of Ragusa, Messina, Emia, and other places,D2

42 CALIPHS OF AFRICA.they invested Syracuse. This city was deliveredby the Greeks ; the apostate youth was slain, andhis African auxiliaries reduced to the necessityof feeding on the flesh of their own horses. Intheir turn they were assisted by a powerful reinforcementfrom Andalusia; and by degrees thewestern and largest portion of the island was subdued.Palermo became the seat of the emir orgovernor (A. H. 228), and the navy of the Saracensrode with ease in its commodious harbour. Syracuseresisted the Moslem yoke for a period of fiftyyears ; and in the last fatal siege, her citizens displayedsome remnant of the valour which had formerlybaffled the power of Athens and Carthage.The cruelties and exactions of the Arabs were enormous.The silver plate of the cathedral weighed5000 pounds, and the entire spoil was computed at1,000,000 pieces of gold (about 462,500/.).For more than two centuries the emperors ofConstantinople, the princes of Beneventum, and theMoslem armies, contended in all the horrors of warfor the possession of Sicily. By degrees, the religionand language of the Greeks were eradicatedand such was the docility of the new proselytes, that15,000 boys submitted to be circumcised and clothedon the same day with the son of the African caliph.In the year 953, Hassan, governor of Sicily, sent apowerful army to the coast of Italy. At Reggiothe innabitants and the garrison had fled ;but theimperial forces were overthrown, and their commander,with several ofliicers of note, taken prisonersin the action. Successive squadrons issued fromthe harbours of Palermo, Biserta, and Tunis. Ahundred and fifty towns of Calabria and Campaniawere attacked and pillaged ; and had the Saracensbeen united, the land of Romulus, and the patrimonyof St. Peter's successors, must have fallen an easyand glorious accession to the empire of Mohammed-No event in the military history of the Arabs

CALIPHS OF AFRICA. 43awakens our curiosity or surprise more than theirinvasion of the Roman territories. Who could haveforetold that the roving Bedouins should have insultedthe majesty of the Caesars in their own capital,or raised their tecbar in the neighbourhood of theeternal city ] In full possession of Sicily, these" Sons of Satan," as the Librarian Anastasius withpious indignation calls them, entered with a fleetthe mouth of the Tiber, and presumed to approachthe venerated metropolis of the Christian world.The gates and ramparts were guarded by a trembhngpeople ; but the church and tombs of St. Peterand St. Paul, without the walls, whose sanctity hadbeen respected by Goths, Vandals and Lombards,were pillaged by the rapacious disciples of the Koran.The images, or Christian idols, were strippedof their costly offerings ; a silver altar was torn awayfrom the shrine of St. Peter; and if any thingescaped their destructive hands, it must be imputedto the haste rather than the scruples of the spoilers.But their divisions saved the capital. Directingtheir course along the Appian Way, they pillagedFundi, and laid siege to Gaeta. In the hour of danherthe Romans implored the protection of theLatin sovereign Lothaire ; but the imperial armywas overthrown by a detatchment of the Moslems-The church and the city owed their safety to thecourage and energy of Pope Leo IV., who, fiomthe pressing crisis of affairs, was unanimously caQedto the chair without the forms and intrigues of anelection.The welcome news that the siege of Gaeta hadbeen raised, and a part of the enemy with their sacrilegiousplunder immersed in the waves, gave theharassed Romans the assurance of a short respite.But the storm soon burst upon them with redoubledviolence. A fleet of Arabs and Moors from Africa,after a short refreshment in the harbours of Sardinia,again cast anchor off the mouth of the Tiber,

and44 CALIPHS OF AFRICA.sixteen miles from the city. The vigilance of thepontiff had provided for the emergency, by hisalliance with the maritime states of Naples and-,Amalfi in the hour of danger their galleysappeared in the port of Ostia, under the commandof Caesarius, a noble and valiant youth, who had alreadyhumbled the naval pride of the Saracens,Leo hastened to meet the descent of the enemy, notin the garb of a warrior, but with the solemnity ofa Christian bishop. The allies and city bands inarms attended him to Ostia, where they were reviewed,and animated by his paternal benediction.The pious soldiers kissed his feet, received the communionwith martial devotion, and listened to thepapal supplication, that the same God who had supportedSt. Peter and St. Paul on the waters of thesea, \yould strengthen the hands of his championsagainst the adversaries of the Holy Faith. TheMoslems preferred a similar prayer against the infidels,and with equal resolution advanced to theattack. The Christian galleys bravely maintainedtheir advantageous position along the coast, andvictory was inclined to their side, when it was lessglorfously terminated in their favour by a suddentempest, which confounded and appalled the stoutestmariners. While they enjoyed the shelter of afriendly harbour, the Saracens were scattered anddashed in pieces among the neighbouring rocks andislands. Those who escaped the disasters of shipwreckand hunger neither found nor deserved mercyat the hands of their implacable pursuers. Thesword and the gibbet reduced the dangerous multitudeof captives ; and the remainder were usefullyemployed in restoring the fortifications and sacrededifices which they had attempted to destroy.Among the spoils of this naval victory, thirteenArabian bows of pure and massy silver were suspendedround the shrines of the apostles, where thepontiff, at the head of the wariiors and citizens, paid

CALIPHS OF AFRICA. 45their grateful devotions for so happy a dehverance.By the care of Leo, Rome was soon restored to itswonted splendour. The churches were renewedand embelhshed; nearly 4000 pounds of silver wereconsecrated to repair the losses of St. Peter ; andhis sanctuary was decorated with a plate of gold,weighing 216 pounds, embossed with portraits ofthe pope and the emperor, and encircled with aetring of pearls. Had the Arabs been inspired withthe impetuous energies of the first soldiers of theKoran, a different fate might have awaited the capitalof Christendom.In the year 810 Corsica submitted to the Mohammedanyoke. A powerful Saracen, named LanzaAncisa, introduced some troops into the island;and, by the united influence of arms and eloquence,the inhabitants were induced to expel the Greeksand embrace the Moslem faith. For 166 yearsLanza and his successors were sovereigns of theisland. At the close of that period, the zeal of theChristians in Italy burst into a flame of war ; thelast king was driven away, and Corsica again acknowledgedthe pope for her supreme lord. Sardiniawas invaded and subdued about the same time.The natives did not long submit to the yoke ; theyexpelled their assailants ; and, for a safeguard againstfuture aggressions, placed themselves under theprotection of Louis le Debonnaire, at that periodKing of France and Emperor of the West. Thesuccessors of Charlemagne were as feeble as therepresentatives of the Prophet in the F]ast ; and theSardinians, driven to their own resources, investedtheir leaders, under the title of judges, with fullmilitary power ;and,' for a while, the island was relievedfrom the inroads of the Africans and SpanishMoors. At the end of the ninth or beginning of thetenth century, it seems to have again become aMoslem province, and 100 years elapsed before itsstate was changed. Pope John XVIII. , touched

46 CALIPHS OF AFRICA.with its unhappy condition, invited the Cathohcprinces to relieve it from the cruel devastations ofthe Arabs. The piety and cupidity of the republicsof Genoa and Pisa were awakened at the call ; and,notwithstanding the dreadful annoyance of the Greekfire, they succeeded in annihilating the po\ver of theSaracens. The liberators contended long and vehementlyfor the possession of the island, and theskill of Italian diplomacy was exhausted in settlingthe rival claims. The Emperor Frederic Barbarossa,in the year 1165, bestowed the investiture ofthe whole island on the Pisans. These measures,however, were ill calculated to procure repose ; anequal partition was soon after made between thecontending states, which induced those jealous republicsto lay aside their animosities, and enjoy theirbooty in peace.*In the year of Christianity 909, Abu Abdallah,emir or governor of Sicily, defeated the caliph ofCairoan, and drove the family of the Aglabites fromthe throne, which they had occupied more than acentury. The conqueror, having seized the westerncapital, bestowed the vacant caliphate on Obeidallah,one of the posterity of Ali, who assumed the title ofMahadi, or Director of the Faithful, built a new citywhich he called Mahadia, and claimed the distinctionof being the founder of the Fa//mi7e dynasty in Africa,where he soon put an end to the power of the Edristies,so called from their founder Edris, a descendantof Ali, who fled from Mecca (A. D. 784), and hadwrested the countries of Fez and Tangier from thecaliphs of Bagdad. For five centuries a succession* For the conquests of the Saracens in Italy and the Mediterranean,in addition to the authorities already cited, the readermay consult the annalists Baronius and Pagi ; De Guignes(Hist, des H>ins, tome i.) ; Muratori (Script, rer. Ital.) ; Carusii(Bibl. Hist. Sicil); Cod. Diplom. Arabo-Sicil., Malaterva, andGJannone (Istoria Civil di Nap.); Anuzi (Hist, de Sardaigne)Meursins (lib. ii. cap. 7, 15, 21); Belon. (Observations, &c.chap. 3-20); and Tournefort (Voyage du Levant, tome i.),

CALIPHS OF EGYPT. 47of fleeting dynasties ravaged and distracted thesewestern provinces. Various kingdoms Avere formed,the most considerable of which were those of Morocco,Algiers, and Tunis. From Leo Africanus, itappears that in the year 1215 a flourishing kingdomwas founded at Timbuctoo by a Moorish chief. Someof its rulers had the reputation of warlike princes,who maintained a splendid court, encouraged commerce,and extended their frontiers in all directions.Of their prosperity the Portuguese voyagers receivedthe most flattering accounts, but were never temptedto ascertain their authenticity by ocular evidence.Other adventurers were equally negligent ; and it isonly at the present day that the successful career ofAfrican discovery has made this mysterious capitalknown to Europeans. It were out of our provinceto pursue further the history of Northern Africa.Scenes of horror and bloodshed fill its pages. Thegrand seignior, since tlie time when Solyman assistedthe two Greek corsairs, Hayradin and Barbarossa,with his fleets in reducing Tunis and Algiers, hasalways claimed the Barbary States as fiefs of Constantinople; and the proud list of his titles is stillswelled by their names.Egypt was reduced by Moez, the last of the Africancaliphs, who built Grand Cairo (A. D. 972), andestablished there the dynasty of the Fatimitesleaving his western dominions to be holden in fiefby one of his generals. His g-enealogy was doubtful; but he had now an argument to prove his legitimacy,which it might have been dangerous to call inquestion, and which silenced the indiscreet demandof one of the Arabian princes of the sacred blood,who inquired from what branch of the family he drewhis title. " This," exclaimed Moez, drawing hisscimitar, " is my pedigree ; and these," throwing ahandful of gold among his soldiers, " are my kindredand my children." His general Jauher had sent adetachment of troops towards Syria and Palestine ;

48 CALIPHS OF EGYPT.and with such gallantry were his orders executed,that Ramla, Tiberias, and Damascus were compelledto swear allegiance to the conqueror of Egypt. Thename of Almoti was suppressed, and that of Moezsubstituted in the mosques, not only of Egypt, but inSyria and Arabia, as far as the city of Medina;Mecca being the only place of importance that persistedin recognising the house of Abbas. Saladin,whose name stands associated with the most brilliantachievements of Mohammedan valour, wasfirst elevated to the dignity of vizier; and by aseries of artful and energetic measures, he soonbecame absolute ruler of the country, and the founderof a new dynasty (A. D. 1171). From the IndianOcean to the Mountains of Armenia, from Tripoli tothe Tigris, his power was felt and acknowledged.Even in Arabia, the greater part of which owned hisauthority, his name was inserted in the publicprayers. The title of Ayubites, by which he and hissuccessors are distinguished in history, was derivedfrom the name of his father. Under his descendantsEgypt was repeatedly assailed by the Crusaders,Too feeble to defend themselves, the Ayubiteprinces had recourse to the protection of foreigners.Twelve thousand Turks from the shores of the Caspianhad been purchased, and trained to militaryservice as attendants of the royal person. Frombeing slaves, these Mamlouks soon became masters;and at the end of twenty years from their first introduction into the country, they murdered the last successorof Saladin, and placed one of their own chiefs,Azzaddin, on the throne (A. D. 1250). The sway ofthe Mamlouks and Borghites, two branches of thesame dynasty, endured for two centuries and a half;when the victorious arms of the Turks in 1517, reduced that kingdom to the condition of a province.Spain was one of the first of the Moslem conqueststhat detached itself from the parent stock. In thegeneral proscription and massacre of the Ommiades

CALIPKS OF SPAIN, 49that ensued on the accession of the house of Abbas,a royal youth of the name of Abdab-ahman, ayounger son of Merwan, escaped the fury of hisenemies. With his brother and his child he fled,and concealed himself in the woods on the banksof the Euphrates. His persecutors discovered hisretreat ; the child was slain, and the two brothersplunged into the river. Fainting with fatigue, Solymanaccepted the proffered mercy of the pursuers,and returned to the shore, where he was basely putto death. The more robust Abdalrahman swam thedangerous passage, and was hunted by the ruthlessfoe from the deserts of Irak to the recesses ofMount Atlas in Africa.The Saracens of Spain retained their attachmentto the family of Moawiyah ; their zeal was rekindledby the presence of a prince of that race in theirneighbourhood, and they immediately invited thewandering exile to ascend the throne of his ancestors.Dreading the implacable vengeance of hisenemies, and dazzled by the splendours of a crown,Abdalrahman received the message with joy, andwas saluted with acclamations on the shore ofGranada. The cities of Malaga, Ronda, Xeres,and Seville, tendered him their allegiance ; and thedescendants of Merwan saw restored in Spain(A. D. 755) the honours of the caliphate, which theyhad lost in the East, His elevation was not gainedwithout opposition and bloodshed ;but all the effortsof the Abbassides were in vain. In a battle ofseveral days near Seville, their lieutenant, Alala, fellwith 7000 of his followers ; his head, in salt andcamphor, was sent to Mecca, and suspended beforethe gate of the palace ; the streets of that city andof Cairoan were strown with similar trophies ; andthe Caliph Almansor expressed his thankfulness thathe was separated by seas and lands from an adversarywho appeared to be not a man, but a demon.After a successful struggle he established himselfVol. II.—E

50 CALIPHS OF SPAIN.firmly on the throne of Cordova, where death put anend to his projects (A. D. 788) after a reign of thirtythreeyears. The renown of this prince acquiredhim the friendship and esteem of Charlemagne, who,after having tried his prowess in war, courted hisalliance by offering him his daughter in marriage.His rival, the Caliph of Bagdad, spoke of him withadmiration, calling him the Hawk of the Koreish, onaccount of the ability he displayed in surn»^untingdifficulties in his flight from Asia to Europe, and ofthe celerity with which he made Ijimself masterof a kingdom, without the assistance of friends orfollowers.The dynasty of the Spanish Ommiades existedfor nearly three centuries. In wealth and grandeursome of their princes equalled, if not surpassed^their gorgeous rivals in the East. Under Alnasar(A. D. 939), the annual revenue of Spain from thetowns and villages is said to have amounted to5,480,000 dinars (2,534,500/.) ; and from spoils takenin war, to 765,000 dinars (353,812/. lOs.), besides afifth of the soldiers' plunder, not computed' in theregister of the treasury. Of this vast income, onethirdwas appropriated to the army, one-third tobuilding, and the remaining third to the royal exchequer.Our imagination is dazzled with this pictureof courtly splendour; yet, if we consult theexperience of the possessor, it will perhaps exciteour pity, rather than our envy or admiration. In amemorial, written Nvith his own hand, and found inhis closet after his decease, he has left an authenticestimate of his felicity. Amid riches and honours,power and pleasure, Alnasar, " the heir of prosperity,"found, in a reign of fifty years and sevenmonths, only fourteen days of undisturbed enjoyment.The glories of this period were even eclipsedby that of his son Hakem, who subdued the provincesof Barbary, and annexed to his other dominions thesovereignty of Western Africa. But the luxury, the

CALIPHS OF SPAIN. ijltyranny, and the negligence of the last princes ofthe house, lost them the conquests which had beenwon by the valour of their ancestors, and were thecauses of this fine kingdom passing into other hands.Lieutenants and viziers rebelled, and aspired to independentrule. The Caliph Hesham was deposed bythe army, and with him was finally extinguished thepower of the Spanish Ommiades (A. D. 1036).Their downfall became the signal for feuds andcontentions ; usurpers divided the sovereignty amongthemselves, and there arose as many dynasties asthere were principal towns. Malaga, Algesiras,Cordova, Toledo, Seville, Jaen, Lisbon, Tortosa,Badajos, Saragossa, Valencia, Murcia, Almeria,Denia, and the Balearic Isles, had each its separateking and government. In consequence of theirmutual jealousies, frequent wars, massacres, andintestine commotions, these petty monarchs eitherfell a prey to each other, or were gradually subduedby the ancient possessors of the country. Thelittle province of Granada alone maintained its independence,reinforced by subsidies from Africa andthe fugitive Moslems from the cities conquered bythe Christians. For nearly three centuries it continuedto increase in population, wealth, and powerand was governed by the laws and religion of Mohammed,until it was finally destroyed by the armsof Ferdinand and Isabella, whose fortunate marriageunited the crowns of Castile and Arragon, and annexedto their dominions all the inferior principalitiesof the kingdom. Thousands of the zealous andconscientious followers.of the Arabian Prophet wereput to the sword or driven into exile, and the moretimid compelled to a nominal acknowledgment ofthe gospel. The surrender of Granada, after tenyears of incessant fighting, terminated the dominionof the Moors in Spain, which had endured 778 years,and engaged the Christians in 3700 battles. " Thisgreat triumph of our holy Catholic faith," says the

52 CALIPHS OF SPAIN.pious and minute Fray Agapida, " took place in thebeginning: of January "in the year of our Lord 1492,being 3655 years from the population of Spain bythe patriarch Tubal ; 3797 from the general deluge ;5453 from the creation of the world; and in themonth Rebiah, in the 897th year of the Hejira, orflight of Mohammed, whom God confound !"*This detested nation, whose conquest and expulsionwere attended with such atrocities, and suchtriumphs to the Catholic church, Avere by far themost industrious and skilful part of the Spanish population;and their loss was a blow to the greatnessand prosperity of that kingdom, from which it liasnever recovered. The literary activity and commercialenterprise of the Arabs, which the wise policyof their caliphs encouraged, contributed both to enrichand adorn their adopted country. Cordova, theseat of the Ommiades, was scarcely inferior in pointof wealth and magnitude to its proud rival on thebanks of the Tigris. A space of twenty-four milesin length and six in breadth, along the margin of theGuadalquiver, was occupied with palaces, streets,gardens, and public edifices ; and for ten miles thecitizens could travel by the light of lamps along anuninterrupted extent of buildings. In the reign ofAlmansor it could boast of 270,000 houses, 80,455shops, 911 baths, 3877 mosques, from the minaretsof which a population of 800,000 were daily summonedto prayers. The seraglio of the caliph,—hiswives, concubines, and black eunuchs, amounted to0300 persons ; and he was attended to the field by aguard of 12,000 horsemen, Avhose belts and scimitarswere studded with gold. Granada was equally celebratedfor its luxury and its learning. The royaldemesnes extended to the distance of twenty miles,the revenues of which were set apart to maintainthe fortifications of the city. Of the duty on grain,* Conquest of Granada by Washington Irving.

CALIPHS OF SPAiy. 63the king's exchequer received about 15,000Z. yearly—an immense sum at that time, when wheat sold atthe rate of sixpence a bushel. The consumptionof 250,000 inhabitants kept 130 water-mills constantlyat work in the suburbs. The population ofthis small kingdom under tlie Moors is said to haveamounted to 3,000,000, which is now diminished perhapsto one-fifth of that number. Its temples andpalaces have shared the same decay. The Alhambrastands solitary, dismantled, and neglected. Theinterior remains of the palace are in tolerable preservation,and present a melancholy picture of theromantic magnificence of its former kings. Seville,which had continued nearly 200 years the seat of apetty kmgdom, enjoyed considerable reputation asa place of wealth and commerce. The populationin 1247 was computed at 300,000 persons, which, inthe sixteenth century, had decreased one-third. Itwas one of the principal marts for olives in theMoorish dominions ; and so extensive was the tradein this article alone, that the axarafe, or plantationsround the subftrbs, employed farm-houses and olivepressesto the amount of 100,000, being more thanis now to be found in the whole province of Andalusia.The government of the Arabs in Spain was amilitary despotism—tempered, however, by mannersand customs which made it preferable to theirresponsible rule of Eastern tyranny. The thronewas elective ;yet the reigning monarch had seldommuch difficulty in transferring the sovereign powerto a favourite son. Though a military people, theSaracens were but little skilled in what may becalled the tactics of the profession. Hakem wasthe first of the caliphs that organized an army, paidhis soldiers regularly, and formed magazines of warlikescores. The command of the native Spanishtroops was usually given to some relation of themonarch, or other confidential person; and theirE2

54 CALIPHS OF SPAIN.arms consisted of a short coat-of-mail, a light helmet,Arabian horse furniture, a leathern buckler,and a slender spear. The African mercenaiiessometimes used camels in battle, so equipped as tomake the hump on their backs appear larger than itsnatural size— a stratagem that frequently threw theChristian army into confusion.Their arms were a peculiar kind of knotted staves,or rather pikes, termed annas, which they drovefuriously against the enemy. The massy silver oftheir belts, their bridles, and their swords displayedthe magnificence of a prosperous nation. Their accoutrementswere light, and not like those of theChristians, who were completely cased in steel.Their combats generally consisted in personal encountersrather than regular engagements ; eachman fighting for himself until the strongest orbravest remained masters of the field. Beyondthis, indeed, the military knowledge of the Spaniardsthemselves was not much advanced ; but theirinfantry was superior to that of the Moors, inasmuchas they could both attack and resist a charge in abody—while the latter, unaccustomed to such amode of assault, was scarcely of any service. Thisdefect, however, was amply compensated by thesuperiority of the Moorish cavalry, which was composedof horsemen selected from the best famihes,and mounted on excellent chargers, to the managementof which they were trained from infancy.Instead of wagons, they were attended by a longtrain of camels, mules, and asses ; the multitude ofthese animals, whom tliey bedecked with flags andensigns, appeared to swell the pomp and magnitudeof their host ; and the horses of the enemy wereoften thrown into disorder by the uncouth figureand odious smell of the camels of the East. Theirorder of battle was a long square of two deep andsolid lines, the first consisting of archers, the secondof cavalry. In general actions they were accus-

CALIPHS OF SPAIK. 55tomi'd to make their first onset with wild cries andbowlings, in order to intimidate the foe—a practicewhich is said to have been introduced in the reignof Almansor, and was adopted by the Turks. Inmilitary tactics the Arabs were, upon the whole,inferior to the Christians ;but their skill in the artsand sciences gave them, during part of their conquests,an incalculable advantage over the latter.With the composition of gunpowder, and the differentways of applying it in war, they were not unacquainted; and we know from various authoritiesthat they employed artillery. Casiri has cited twonative historians, who prove that it was both knownand used by the Spanish Arabs in the latter part ofthe twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth centuryand he has given extracts from two contemporarySpanish writers, who describe these destructive enginesas being certain iron tubes or mortars, whichemitted thunder and fire.The annual revenue of the Spanish caliphs wasimmense. In the reign of Abdalrahman III., thegreatest sovereign that ever sat on the Moorishthrone, it was reckoned equivalent to 5,500,000/. ofsterling money, which at that time probably exceededthe united income of all the Western monarchies.It was derived, first, from a tithe of all producewhatsoever, which was paid in kind ; secondlj^,from a duty of twelve and a half per cent, on everycommodity imported or exported ;of an impost ofone-tenth part on every species of goods transferredby sale ; and, lastly, of a tribute of one-fifth leviedon property belonging to Jews and Christians. HowSpain could supply all this magnificence and expensemay be a subject of wonder or dispute to pohticaleconomists. But the fact is certain, and perhapsnot of very difficult solution. Her population, notwithstandingall the devastations of civil war, wason the same grand scale with her palaces and herproductions both natural and artificial. Under the

56 CALIPHS OF SPAIN.Saracens she boasted of eighty great cities—300of the second and third order ; besides smallertowns and villages innumerable. Most of thesewere planted with nurseries of art and industry,which gave an unexampled activity to trade andmanufactures. There was scarcely a country inthe civilized world to which their traffic did not extend.Throughout Africa, arms and accoutrements,silks and woollen cloths of various colours, were ingreat demand. With Egypt and the Grecian statesthey bartered their different exports, to a still greateramount, for such commodities as were in popularrequest in Spain. Their drugs and dies were exchangedfor oriental perfumes ; and the luxuries ofIndia were brought from Alexandria to Malaga tosupply the wants of the court. The manufactoriesof Spain w^ere the arsenals from w^hich France andEngland drew their best military accoutrementssuch as helmets, lances, swordblades, and coats-ofmail,which had reached a perfection in that countryunknown to the rest of Europe. The profits derivedfrom these successful speculations must havebeen incalculable ; and, while abundantly remuneratingthe merchant, they afforded a prodigioussource of revenue to the sovereign.In the fourteenth century the Arabs had an immensemarine ; the woods and forests of Spain furnishedthem with timber, and they are said to havepossessed a fleet of more than 1000 merchant vessels.From an Arabian waiter on commerce, of thetenth century, it appears that the balance of tradewas decidedly in favour of the Moors, w^hom Cdairi,from their maritime traffic and the distant voyagesthey undertook by sea, compares to the ancientPhenicians and Carthaginians. Gold, silver, copper,raw and wrought silks, sugar, cochineal, quicksilver,iron, olives, oil, myrrh, corals fished on thecoast of Andalusia, pearls on that of Catalonia,rubies and amethysts from mines in the neighbour-

CALIPHS OF SPAIN. 57hood of Malaga and Carthacrena, were among themost valuable and lucrative articles of exportation.These facts, attested by native authors, v^ill throwlight on the hitherto unexplained magnificence ofthe Western caliphs. Commerce was the truefoundation of their greatness—the secret springthat filled the treasures of Spain, and fed the wealthand industry of her inhabitants. At length the fleetsof the Christians, as well as of the kings of Arragonand Portugal, gradually defeated the maritime forcesof the I\Ioors, until they were totally annihilatedafter the conquest of Algesiras, Seville, and Almeria.In all their actions by sea and land, the Arabs retainedtheir characteristic mode of warfare; theysustained with patient firmness the fury of attack,and seldom advanced to the charge until the enemywere thrown off their guard or overcome with fatigue.But if they were broken and repulsed, theyknew not how to rally or renew the combat ; andtheir dismay was always heightened by a superstitiouspresentiment that they were abandoned ofHeaven. The decline and fall of the caliphs countenancedthe fearful opinion that God had declaredhimself on the side of the foe ; nor were there wanting,both among Mohammedans and Christians, someobscure oracles which predicted their alternate defeats.In their various encounters with the Arabs,the princes, both of Asia and Europe, too often feltthat these barbarians had nothing barbarous in theirdiscipline. If their ships, engines, and fortificationswere of a less skilful construction, they had thevanity to think it was a defect of nature rather thanany fault of their own ; for they readily acknowledgedthat the same God who had given a tongueto the Arabians had more nicely fashioned the handsof the Chinese and the heads of the Greeks.Since the reduction of Sicily by the Moslems, theGreeks had been anxious to regain that valuable

8 CALIPHS OF SPAIN.fpossession. The southern provinces, which nowcompose the kingdom of Naples, were in the ninthcentury divided into the rival principahties of Benevento,Salerno, and Capua, whose mutual jealousieshad invited the Arabs to the ruin of their commonniheritance. Their shores were visited almost annuallyby the squadrons which issued from the harbourof Palermo ; while a colony of Saracens hadfixed themselves at Bari, which commands the entranceto the Adriatic Gulf. The depredations ofthese adventurers called down the vengeance of theGreeks and Franks, whose combined strength wasnecessary to root out this nest of pirates. The fortresswas invested by sea and land ; and, after adefence of four years, the Arabs submitted to theclemency of Louis, grandson of Charlemagne, whocommanded in person the operations of the siege.But they still continued to infest the country, pillagingthe monasteries and profaning the churches,Tn the work of devastation they were joined by anew enemy from the north. The citizens of Barihad invited the Normans (A. D. 1016) to assist inshaking off the Grecian yoke. These ferociousauxiliaries soon established themselves permanentlyin the dukedom of Naples, and ultimately assisted8uch of the petty princes as appealed to their sword.In every enterprise of war or danger they promptlyvolunteered their aid, and Sicily at that time openedtin inviting scene for their services. In their firstefforts against that island, the Latin emperors hadbeen unsuccessful ; 20,000 of their best troops werelost in a single expedition, and the victorious Moslemsridiculed the policy of a nation which entrustedeunuchs, not only with the custody of their women,but with the command of their armies.Internal divisions, however, effected what theByzantine armaments had attempted in vain. Theemirs aspired to independence ; the people rebelledagainst the emirs, and the cities and castles were

CALIPHS OF SPAIN. 59inurped by their respective chiefs. In these domestic quarrels the weaker of two rival brothersimplored the friendship of the Christians ; and a bandof 500 Norman warriors, knights on horseback,landed in Sicily under the standard of the Governorof Lombardy. The valour of the Arabs quailed beforethe ponderous swords of this new and untriedfoe. In three successive engagements they weredefeated ; in the second their leader fell ; and in thelast, 60,000 of their troops were left dead on thefield. Thirteen cities, and the greater part of theisland, after a possession of 200 years, w^ere reducedto the obedience of the Greek emperor.Twenty years afterward, Sicily felt the prowessof a new conqueror, the famous Count Roger, theBefore the walls of Trani, 300 Normans with-twelfth and youngest son of Tancred, a Norman banneret,who had joined the fortunes of his brothersand countrymen, then possessors of the fertile rC'gion of Apulia. In an open boat he crossed thestrait, landed with only sixty soldiers, drove theSaracens to the gates of Messina, and returned insafety with the spoils of the adjacent country. Neitherdifficulties nor dangers could repress his activity.stood and repulsed the whole force of the island.At the battle of Ceramio, 50,000 horse and foot wereoverthrown by only 136 Christian soldiers (mostprobably knights, but so stands the narrative of thehistorian), without reckoning St. George, who foughton horseback in the foremost ranks.Notwithstanding the frequent and powerful succourswhich the Sicilian Arabs obtained from theirbrethren in Africa, town after town yielded to thebravery of the Normans, who added those splendidconquests in the Mediterranean to the list of theirachievements in England, France, and other kingdomsof Europe. After a war of thirty years, Rogerobtained the sovereignty of Sicily, with the title ofGreat Count ; that of king being afterward bestowed

60 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.cn his son. The Saracens were protected in th&enjoyment of their property and religion ; but tli©island was restored to the jurisdiction of the Roniaripontiff, who planted the principal cities with newbishops, and gratified the clergy by a liberal endowmentof the churches and monasteries.CHAPTER IILLITERATURE OP THE ARABS.The Arabs turn their Attention to Learning—Their rapid Progress—LiteraryArdour and Patronage of the Caliphs—Haroui?al Raschid—Almamoun—Vathek— College of Mostanser atBagdad—Academies and Librariesfounded in Persia, SyriaEgypt, Africa, and Spain—Course of Study in the SaracexSchools — Grammar — Rhetoric — Poetry— Tales — ArabianNights' Entertamments— Story-tellers—History— Biography—N umismatics—Geography— Statistics—Metaphysics — Medlcine and Medical Authors—Rhazes—Avicenna— Pharmacy--Anatomy and Surgery—Botany—Chymistry—Astrology—Astronomy—Optics — Mathematics—Trigonometry—Algebra-Arithmetic—Architecture—The Fme Arts—Painting— Calligraphy—Music—Agriculture—Manufactures in Steel, Porcelain, and Leather— Claims of the Arabs as the Restorersof Letters and the Importers of useful Arts and Inventions inEurope.It was at a period when ignorance and barbarismoverspread every part of the Western AVorld, thatliterature and philosophy found an asylum in theschools of the Saracens. Unlike the Goths andHuns, they became the instructers and enlightenersof the countries they had conquered. Their sternfanaticism yielded to the 'mild influence of letters;and, by a singular anomaly in the history of nations,Europe became indebted to the implacable enemiesof her religion and her liberties for her most valu-

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 61able lessons in science and the arts. In the preceding-chapters of this work we have beheld thedisciples of Mohammed in the character of warriorsand conquerors. Their success in arms had beenenough to satiate even the most unmeasured ambition.But, great and splendid as were the eventswe have just detailed, we shall turn with pleasurefrom fields of blood, from scenes of misery and vice,to contemplate the more g-entle and useful progressof the Arabs in the cultivation of learning. Thefirst Mussulmans knew, or at least esteemed, noother book than the Koran. But this aversion tointellectual pursuits gradually relaxed, in proportionas their faith and their empire extended. The possessionof those happy countries, so long the seatsof ancient taste and splendour, naturally introducedamong them a spirit of refinement ; and here theircareer was as rapid and surprising as it had beenin the field. The literature of Greece, such as itwas in the days of Pericles, required the slow growthof nearly eight centuries of progressive cultivation.The same period elapsed between the foundationof Rome and the age of Augustus. In France, thereign of Louis XIV., the brilliant era of wit andgenius, was 1200 years subsequent to that of Clovis.But among the Saracens, such was their enthusiasmfor learning, that little more than a single centui^elapsed from the period of their deepest barbarismto the universal diffusion of science over the vastextent of their dominions. It was in the year 641that Omar committed the Alexandrian library to theflames, and in 750 the house of Abbas, the munificentpatrons of letters, mounted the throne.Under the first of the Ommiadan caliphs, thegenius of Greece had begun to obtain an influenceover the Arabs. But it was not till the great andfinal division of the empire—till Bagdad arose, a fairand splendid city—that the golden age of A rabianliterature commenced in the East, and the MusesVol. XL—F

62 LITERATURE OF THE ARAfiS.were courted from their hallowed retreats beyondthe Bosphorus, to expiate the giiilt of conquest andillustrate the fame of the Abbassides, Almansor,successful in his domestic wars, turned his thoughtsto the acquisition of science. Accident brought himacquainted with a Greek physician, named George,who was invited to court to prescribe for the removalof a temporary indigestion. To him the Saracenswere indebted for the introduction of medicine.The famous Haroun al Raschid has acquired a splendidname as the encourager of letters. He was fondof poetry and music, and himself considerably skilledin these divine arts. Volumes have been writtenon the learning of the Moslem empire during thiscahph's reign. Whenever he undertook a journey,or a pilgrimage, he carried with him a retinue of ahundred learned men. The Arabs were deeply indebtedto him for their rapid progress in education,for he issued a law that a school should be attachedto every mosque erected within his dominions.With a toleration superior to the fanaticism of hiscreed, he did not despise the knowledge which thebelievers of another faith possessed. The head ofhis schools, and the chief director of academicalstudies in his empire, was a Nestorian Christian ofDamascus, of the name of John ibn Messue. Hisgenerous example was imitated by his successors :and in a short time the sciences that were cultivatedin the capital were diffused to the distant extremities of the caliphate.But the Augustus of Arabian literature was Almamoun, whose attention from his youth had beenchiefly engrossed with books and study. Even inhis father's lifetime, and during his journey to Khorasan, of which he was appointed governor, he hadselected for his companions the most eminentscholars among the Greeks, Persians, and Chaldeans.His accession to the throne did not abate hisardour for knowledge. Bagdad became the resort

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 63of poets, philosophers, and mathematicians, fromevery country and of every creed. His ambassadorsand agents in Armenia, Syria, and Egypt wereordered to collect the most important books thatcould be discovered. The literary relics of the conqueredprovinces, which his governors amassed withinfinite care, were brought to the foot of the throne. as the most precious tribute he could demand.Hundreds of camels might be seen entering Bagdadloaded with volumes of Greek, Hebrew, and Persianliterature ; and such of them as were thoughtto be adapted to the purposes of instruction, wereat the royal command translated by the most skilfulinterpreters into the Arabic language, that all classesmight read and understand them. Masters, instructors,translators, and commentators formed thecourt of Bagdad, which appeared rather to be alearned academy than the capital of a luxurious andwarlike government. Aware of the vast treasuresthat were deposited in the libraries of Constantinople,Almamoun, in concluding a treaty of peace withthe Grecian emperor, Michael HI., stipulated, asone of the conditions, that a collection of rare andvaluable authors should be delivered up to him.These were immediately subjected to the processof translation ; but it must be recorded with regretthat, through an ill-judged partiality for his nativetongue, he gave orders that after the Arabic versionswere finished, the original manuscripts shouldbe burned.The Caliph Vathek not only admired and countenancedliterature and the sciences, but was himselfa proficient in some of them, especially poetryand music. He was particularly addicted to astrology; and having conferred with some of his learnedfraternity in his last illness, they assured him, onconsulting his horoscope, that his reign was yet toendure fifty years. His death in ten days falsifiedthis prediction, and ruined the credit of Hassan ibu

64 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.Sohal. Abu Masher, an eminent astrologer, flourishedin the reign of Mostain; but his talents receivedsorry encouragement, for that prince orderedhim to be severely whipped, because an event whichhe had foretold actually came to pass.Long after the power of the Abbassides haddwindled into a mere pageant of state, they affectedto patronise and cultivate learning. Many distinguishedmen in almost every science illustrated thisperiod of Saracen history ; but the capital of themuses in the East had seen innumerable rivalsspring up in other parts of the empire. The lastprince that shed a ray of departing glory on his racewas the Caliph Mostanser, who adorned Bagdad bythe celebrated college that bore his name. Accordingto oriental historians, this edifice had no equalin the Moslem world, w^hether Ave consider thebeauty and elegance of the building, the number ofstudents it contained, or the splendid revenues assignedit by its founder. Each of the four chief sectsof the Sonnees had its appointed professor, with amonthly salary and a maintenance from the royalexchequer. Every student had daily a very handsomeallowance of provisions of all kinds. Therewere baths set apart for their use, and a physicianemployed to attend them at the caliph's expense.The example of the sovereign was sometimes followedby viziers and governors. Achmed ibn Tolun,viceroy of Egypt, distributed every month amongthe most distinguished ecclesiastics in that country1000 dinars of gold (46-2Z. 10s.) ; and sent to Bagdadnot less than 2,200,000 dinars (1,017,500/.) for thebenefit of the poor and learned in that city. Anothervizier founded a college there at the expenseof 200,000 (92,500/.), and endowed it with an annualrevenue of 15,000 dinars (6937/. 10.?.). The benefitsof public instruction in that capital were communicated,perhaps at different times, to 6000 studentsof every degree, from the son of the noble to that

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS, 65of the mechanic. The celebrity of its schools maybe inferred from the vast numbers of poets, historians,physicians, and astronomers which it produced; and for several ages it abounded in learnedmen, in the various departments of science, morethan any other place in the IMoslem dominions.In every considerable town, schools, academies,and libraries were established. Bussora and Cufaalmost equalled the capital itself in reputation, andin the number of celebrated authors and treatisesw^hich they produced. Damascus, Aleppo, Balkh,Ipsahan, and Samarcand became renowned as seatsof science. It was the glory of every city to collectthe treasures of literature ; and we are told thata private doctor refused the invitation of the sovereignof Bokhara, because the carriage of his bookswould have required 400 camels. The same enthusiasmwas carried by the Saracens beyond the frontiersof Asia. Egypt became a second time the asylumof letters and art ; and the Spanish Jew, BenjaminTudela, relates in his Itinerary that he found inAlexandria more than twenty schools for the cultivationof philosophy. At a later period Cairo possessednumerous colleges, some of which were sosubstantially built as to serve, during a rebellion, thepurpose of a citadel for the army. The royal libraryconsisted of 100,000 manuscripts, elegantly transcribedand splendidly bound, which were lent outto the students without jealousy or avarice. In itsarrangement, the first place was given to copies andinterpretations of the Koran ; the next to writingson the traditions of Mohammed; books on law succeeded; and after these philology, poetry, and science,in their respective order.The historians of Africa dwell with pride on theacademical institutions which adorned the townsscattered along its northern coasts. Cairoan, Larace,Fez, and Morocco, were endowed with magnificentestablishments for the instruction of the peo-F2

66 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.pie ; and their rich Hbraries preserved to Europemany valuable works which nowhere else existed.It was in Spain that Arabian learning shone with abrighter lustre, and continued to flourish to a laterperiod, than in the schools of the East. Cordova,Seville, and Granada rivalled each other in themagnificence of their academies, colleges, and libraries.The former city, celebrated as the birthplaceof the poet Lucan and the two Senecas, possessed acelebrated university in the time of the Romans.Its reputation did not degenerate under the Saracens,and Casiri has enumerated the names andwritings of nearly 170 eminent men, natives of thisplace. Hakem founded here a college and a royallibrary comprising 400,000 volumes : he had carefullyexamined every work, and with his own handwrote in each the genealogies, births, and deaths oftheir respective authors. The academy of Granadawas long under the direction of Shamseddin ofMurcia, so famous among the Arabs for his skill inpolite literature. Ibn Almotawakkel, who reignedthere in the twelfth century, possessed a valuablelibrary, many of whose original manuscripts are stillpreserved in the Escurial. Casiri has given a catalogueof those accounted the most rare in the timeof the Moors ; and has recorded the names andworks of 120 authors, theologians, civilians, historians,philosophers, and other professors, whosetalents conferred dignity and fame on the universityof Granada. Toledo, Malaga, Murcia, and Valencia,were all furnished with splendid literary apparatus.In the cities of the Andalusian kingdom alone,seventy libraries were open for the instruction ofthe public. Middeldorpf has enumerated seventeendistinguished colleges and academies that flourishedunder the patronage of the Saracens in Spain, andhas given lists of the eminent professors and authorswho taught or studied in them.A few scattered notices are all that we possess

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 67respecting the course of study and internal governmentof the Arabian schools. Every institution forthe education of youth, strictly speaking, was connectedwith religion ;lience public establishmentsfor this purpose were always found in conjunctionwith the mosques. Of these foundations there weretwo classes ;—one was composed of inferior schools,where children, chiefly of the lower orders, wereinstructed in the elements of reading, v/riting, andreligion. From the Arabic alphabet they graduallyadvanced to the Koran, for the correct pronunciationof which, rules were carefully prescribed. A seconddescription of colleges called the Madras^ thoughsometimes connected with the mosques like thepreceding, were occasionally erected as independentinstitutions. Here were taught the higherbranches of grammar, logic, theology, and jurisprudence.Many of these colleges v/ere so constitutedas to contain thirty apartments, each of whichwas occupied by three or four students. Thegovernment of every school and academy was confidedto a rector, chosen from the most eminent ofthe learned, and often without regard to his religiousopinions. That academical examinations took placeamong all the pupils seems highly probable ;—withrespect to medical students the fact is certain. InEgypt and Spain this class were subjected to a verystrict investigation as to their proficiency. Casirihas noticed a treatise by a professor of Cordova,containing seventy-seven questions to be proposedto medical candidates, and when the Achimbasi orchief physician was satisfied of their qualifications,they received a testimonial or diploma, under hishand, authorizing them to practise. The differentprofessors were furnished with text-books, on whichthey lectured, authorized by the colleges, and accountedclassical by the Arabs.Whatever might be the real progress of the Saracensin the speculative or the useful sciences, their

68 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.studies embraced a course sufficiently ample to exerciseevery faculty of the human mind. Grammarand rhetoric were cultivated with singular assiduityby all who aspired to literary honours and distinctions.As always happens, the precepts ofelegant composition have succeeded the models;the inimitable Koran, and the pure dialect of theKoreish, had refined the Arabian tongue long beforeits rules were fixed and its beauties analyzed in therival schools of Cufa and Bussora. The literati ofSpain were not inferior to those of the East in theprosecution of their philological investigations. Welearn from Casiri that Abdallah ibn Hescham, in his" Introduction to a Chastised Mode of Speaking,"reviews and corrects the errors of hundreds offormer grammarians.Eloquence, one of the three national distinctionsof the ancient Arabs, had ceased to be cultivatedafter the time of Mohammed and his immediatesuccessors, when oriental despotism had banishedthe freedom of the desert. But this art was revivedby the Saracens, who exercised themselves alternatelyin the compositions of the academy and thepulpit. Among these distinguished orators ]Malekwas considered the most pathetic ; while Sharaifpossessed beyond all others the art of blending thebrilliancy of poetry with the vigour of prose. Horairiwas placed in the same rank with Cicero andDemosthenes ; and his academical orations, we areassured, deserved to be written, not on paper orvellum, but on silk and gold. In the sixth century,Granada could boast of Bedreddin, surnamed theTorch of Eloquence ; while Sekaki, the most celebratedwTiter on the belles-lettres, produced a workon rhetoric called the Key of the Sciences, whichobtained him the title of the Arabian Quinctilian.Poetry, anciently a favourite occupation of theArabs, continued, after the restoration of learning,to be cultivated with enthusiasm ; and such was tho

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 69fertility of their genius, that they are said to haveproduced more works in this department than allother nations united. Owing to the distractions ofthe caliphate, the Arabian muses seem to have be-ensilent till the reign of the Abbassides. It was inthe courts of Haroun and Almamoim, and moreespecially under ^he Ommiades of Sp^in, that poetryarrived at its highest pitch of splendour. At thisera flourished that bright assemblage of bards,chivalrous lovers, and romantic princesses, whomthe oriental writers compare to Anacreon, Pindar,and Sappho. Among their most eminent improversof versification were Motanabbi of Cufa, styled thePrince of Poets, and Khalil ibn Ahmed, who firstsubjected it to regular rules.Several of the latter caliphs of Bagdad cultivatedthis elegant art with the greatest ardour ; as did thesultans of Mosul, Aleppo, Seville, and Cordova.Even ladies entered the lists as votaries of the muse.Valadata, daughter of the Caliph of Cordova, endowedwith equal beauty and genius, was consideredas the Arabian Sappho. Aysha, another princess atthe same court, was scarcely less distinguishedher orations and poems were frequently read in theroyal academy of that city with the greatest applause.Labana, also a native of that learned capital,not only excelled as a poetess, but was deeplyskilled in philosophy and arithmetic, and held anoffice not often enjoyed by females, that of privatesecretary to the Caliph Hakem. Seville could boastof Safia, whose poetry and beautiful penmanshipwere the subject of equal admiration; of Algasania,who wrote verses in praise of the caliphs ; and ofMaria, who has been honoured with the title of theArabian Corinna. So great was the number of poets,that Abul Abbas, son of the Caliph IMotassem, wrotean abridgment of Iheir lives, which contains noticesof 130. Casiri has further recorded the fragment ofa work entitled the " Theatre of the Poets," which

70 LICERAHURE OF THE ARABS.originally consisted of twenty-four volumes. Hejiazcomposed a biography of the Arabian bards in fiftyvolumes ; and Safadi another in thirty, besides thelives of illustrious men distinguished for extraordinaryvalour. In the large Miscellany of Thaalebi,called Yatima, may be seen a specimen of the unitedbeauty, elegance, and dignity of the Arabian muse.It contains the lives and some of the verses of thefinest writers who flourished in Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia,Chaldea, Arabia, Persia, and Tartary.Numerous collections of poems exist in Spain,termed Dwans or Academical Prolusions, from thecircumstance of their having been honoured with arecital in the colleges or academies. These compriseidyls, elegies, epigrams, odes, satires, andalmost every other species of poetry familiar to theGreeks and Romans.The structure of the rhymes and verses, as maybe seen in the Commentaries of Sir William Jones,was subjected to particular laws, which imparted adegi'ee of harmony and regularity to the whole composition.The two forms of versification most in usewere the Gazdla and the Cassida ; both of whichwere compositions in distichs, the alternate lines inevery couplet being made to rhyme with each otheithroughout the whole poem. The Gazella was anamatory or lyrical ode, which ought not to containless than seven, nor more than thirteen coupletswhile the length of the Cassida, employed in songsof love or war, might extend from ten to a hundreddistichs. The most celebrated of these Divans werethose of Abu Nowas, and Ibn Mokannas whose epigrammaticwit procured him the title of the ArabianMartial.* Of all the different kinds of poetical com-* The Arabs were extremely fond of reiterations and jinglingBounds in the poetry," When shall it be, and when shall it be, and when shall it be,and when,That I shall be, and love shall be. and music shall be, and wine ?"

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 71position, the moral and didactic appear to have beenin the highest repute with the Saracens ; hence theywrote in verse, with as much facihty as in prose,treatises on grammar, rhetoric, theology, medicine,and even on the abstruse sciences of mathematicsand astronomy.Amid this luxuriant variety, it has been remarkedas a curious circumstance that the Arabs have not asingle poem which is strictly epic. The nearestapproach to dramatic writing are a few dialoguesin rhyme ; but these belong rather to satire thancomedy. The classic models of the Greeks andRomans, the works of Sophocles and Euripides, ofTerence and Seneca, were desp''=5ed by the Arabs astimid, cold, and constrained ; and among all thebooks which, with an almost superstitious veneration,they borrowed from these nations, there isscarcely a single poem. Neither Homer nor Pindar,Virgil nor Horace, were allowed to enter into a comparisonwith their own writers ; and consequentlynone of those relics of classical genius were judgedworthy of translation. A Syriac version of the bardof Troy was made so early as the reign of Harounal Raschid by Theophilus, a Christian Maronite ofMount Libanus ; but much as the oriental muse delightedin the themes of love and wine, she was anentire stranger to the effusions of Ovid and the lyricsof Sappho and Anacreon. The heroes of Plutarch,and Livy, and Tacitus, were left to slumber inOf their epigrammatic wit, Professor Carlyle (Specim. of Arab.Poetry) has translated some examples. The following stanzasare by Ibn Alrumi, who lived and clied at Emesa, in the reign ofMotaded, and who excelled in every species of versification :TO A VALETUDINARIAN." So careful is Isa, and anxious to last,So afraid of himself he is grown,He swears through two nostrils the breath goes too fast.And he's trying to breathe through but one."

72 LITERATURE OF HE ARABS.oblivion; and the eloquence of Koss and Horairisuperseded that of Cicero and Demosthenes.Fully to appreciate the beauties of Arabian poetrywould require an acquaintance with the productionsof the country, and with the manners andpeculiarities of the inhabitants. For want of thisknowledge the oriental muses have been criticisedwith extreme severity and injustice. Nor is it perhapsvery surprising that those who have read themost celebrated compositions of the Eastern poets,in Latin or French translations only, should feel butan indifferent relish for their charms, or form a coldjudgment of their merits. Comparisons and similesfounded on local objects have a point and beauty thatcan only be felt in the land that gave them birththough we may easily comprehend what force andpropriety such metaphors as the odour of reputationand the dews of liberality must have had in the mouthsof those who so much needed refreshment on theirjourneys, and were accustomed to regale their senseswith the sweetest fragrance in the world. The sameremark is true of the figures and images drawn fromthose beautiful and agreeable scenes with which theEastern nations are perpetually conversant. TheHebrew muse delighted in the roses of Sharon, theverdure of Carmel, and the cedars of Lebanon ; sodid the Arabs adorn their verses with the pearls ofOman, the musk of Hadramaut, the woods andnightingales of Aden, and the spicy odours of Yemen.Compared to our idiom, such emblems mayappear fantastic and extravagant, however strikingand just in the glowing language of the East. Theydiffer essentially from those we meet with in theschools of Greece and Rome. The acacia and thetamarisk of the rocks bloomed not in their famedParnassus, nor in the groves of their academy ; andwere we to attempt to transplant these exotic flowersto the gardens of Europe, perhaps we should

ITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 73not be surprised to find a portion of their beautygone, and our gratification diminished."With the Arabs the want of epic and dramaticpoetry was abundantly compensated by a species ofcomposition which in some degree combined thenature of both. It is to their brilliant imaginationthat we owe those beautiful tales, which surprise usnot more by their prodigious number than their exhaustlessvariety. With the Arabian Nights' Entertainments,the AUf Lila wa Lilin, or the Thousandand-OneStories told by the Sultaness of the Indies,who is not acquainted T The pleasure we derivefrom their perusal makes us regret that we possessonly a comparatively small part of these truly enchantingfictions. The author or authors of thisimmense collection of tales are unknown, and thelearned in Europe differ as to their origin. VonHammer, on the authority of Masoudi, suggestedsome years ago that they were not originally Arabian,but translated from the Indian or Persian inthe reign of the Caliph Almamoun,—an opinion certainlyopposed by the circumstance, that a foreignercould scarcely have succeeded in giving so accuratea description of Arabian life and scenery. Mons.Galland, who first supplied a French version (A. D.1706), supposed that not more than a six-and-thirtiethpart of them were known in Europe ; and alate traveller (Dr. Daniel Clarke) has given a list of172 tales contained in a manuscript purchased byhim in Egypt, divided in the same manner as thecelebrated Nights' Entertainments. It rarely happens,this author remarks, that any two copies ofthe Alif Lila wa Lilin resemble each other ; and thetitle is indiscriminately bestowed on every compilationof popular stories that embraces the same numberof parts,—a fact which may help to account forour comparative deficiency in this department oforiental literature.Besides those committed to writing, a vast num-VoL. II.—

74 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.ber of these diverting- legends had no more durabletablet than the memory of itinerating story-tellers.Crowds of both sexes in every region of the Mohammedanworld still earn their livelihood by theirwonderful talent for recital ; and they never fail toattract an audience ; for the indolent natives of Turkey,Persia, and India willingly bury their presentcares in the pleasing dreams of the imagination.The Africans, in the midst of their deserts, assemblenightly round the blazing fire in their tents, andlearn to forget their own hardships and fatigues inthe captivating narrative of ideal adventures. Thepublic squares of the cities in the Levant aboundwith these wandering reciters, and their assistanceis called in to fill up the heavy hours of the palaceand the seraglio. Their art is even prescribed as asubstitute for medicine ; and physicians not unfrequentlyrecommend them to their patients in orderto sooth pain, to calm the agitated spirits, or producesleep after long watchfulness.Of theirastonishing powers of memory we findan instance recorded in Hamad of Damascus, knownby the title oi Arawiyah, or the Narrator, one of theliterary suite of the second Walid, and reckoned themost conversant of men in the history, poetry,genealogy, and language of the Arabs. " Commanderof the Faithful,"' he replied to the caliph," I can relate the works of every poet with whichyou are acquainted, or have heard of; I can, moreover,relate the works of those wdth whom you arenot acquainted ; and no one can repeat to me apoem, ancient or modern, but I can tell to which ofthe two classes it belongs. I will undertake to repeatto you, for every letter of the alphabet, 100 poemsof the larger description, besides small pieces, allmade before the introduction of Mohammedanism,independently of the poetry that has appeared sincethat era." In proof that this was no idle boast,Hamad continued to relate till the caliph grew

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 75tired, and appointed another to hear him ; and wheninformed that the narrator had actually repeated2900 odes from authors before the time of Mohammed,he ordered him a present of 100,000 drachms(2291/. 135. id). An equal sum was paid him by theEmir Yussuf, governor of Irak, who was exceedinglypuzzled on account of a stanza which hadoccurred to his mind, and of which he did not knowthe author. Hamad not only told him the nameof the poet, but repeated the entire compositionfrom which the verse was taken.History, so much neglected by the ancient Arabs,was cultivated with great assiduity by the Moslems; and there is extant an immense number ofworks in this department, comprising annals, chronicles,and memoirs ;besides descriptions of particularkingdoms, provinces, and towns. A catalogueof the authors' names would fill a volume ; and wecan only notice a few of the more celebrated. Theworks of Abulfarage, a Christian physician of Malatia,in Lesser Armenia, who flourished in the thir--teenth century, and of Abulfeda, a writer of highrepute both in the East and the West, we havealready noticed. Ibn Katib, another eminent historianof the fourteenth century, was descended of anoble family, and vizier to Mohammed, caliph ofGranada. He was deeply versed in every branchof science, but chiefly remarkable for the extent andaccuracy of his historical knowledge. He wrotetreatises on forty-one different subjects, some ofthem consisting of many volumes ; and there isscarcely a topic in elegant or scientific literaturethat he left untouched. His Chronology of theCaliphs and Kings of Spain and Africa has the loftyappellation of the " Silken Vest embroidered withthe Needle." A treatise on the Choice of Sentenceshe designates "Pure Gold." His Lives of EminentSpanish Arabs, celebrated for their learning andpiety, are perhaps not inaptly termed "Fragrant

76 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.Plants ;" but it might puzzle a modern reader todiscover that "Approved Butter' means a dissertationon Constancy of Mind ; or to find a History ofGranada in a " Specimen of the Full Moon." IbnHassem, a native of Cordova, was equally renownedfor poetic g-enius, historical information, and attainmentsas a linguist. His writings on various subjects,both in prose and verse, were so multitudinous,that, after his decease, his son is said to have collected400 volumes of them, comprising about 80,000leaves. Ibn Haion, an inhabitant of the same city,wrote an account of Spain in ten volumes ; and anotherwork on history, embracing the occurrences ofhis own times, which extends to sixty. It weretedious to specify the " Golden Chains of Faith," ahighly-celebrated performance on the Character andProductions of Royal and Eminent Spanish Authorsin the fifth century of the Hejira ; or the " Mines ofSilver," a biographical work of the famed Ibn Abbar; or the " Fallen Pearls and Picked-up Flowers"of Abu Bakri. Every state, every province, everycity and town, possessed its individual chroniclerand historian. A full history of Spain, from thetime when it was first peopled to the close of thethirteenth century, giving an account of its geography,productions, and literary institutions, was continuedby six authors in succession, and cost thelabour of 115 years.Works on biography, memoirs of the diflferentcaliphs, and of men peculiarly distinguished for theirvirtues, talents, or achievements, were innumerable.The two Razis of Cordova, father and son, filledmany large volumes with illustrious genealogies,and annals of distinguished viziers. Abul Walid, astatesman and historian of Seville, wrote an accountof the Ommiades in Spain, similar to that given byMasoudi of tlie Caliphs of Asia. These ArabianPlutarchs descended even to the brute creation.Such was the passion for every species of composi-

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 77tion, and the desire to leave no subject untouclied,that Ibn Zaid of Cordova, and Abul Mondar ofValencia, wrote a Genealogical History of celebratedHorses ; as did Alasueco and Abdolmalec that ofCamels which had risen to distinction. This lastmentionedauthor and eminent antiquary renderedto his countrymen the same literary service thatBayle and Moreri conferred on Europeans, by givingthem a copious historical dictionary. The Arabspossessed encyclopaedias, gazetteers, and other similarcompilations on critical and biographical subjects.They were familiar, in short, with all thoseinventions which curtail labour, dispense with thenecessity of research, and afford facilities to indolenceor curiosity. The Dictionary of the Sciences,by Mohammed Abu Abdallah of Granada, was anelaborate work, consisting of eleven parts, of whicha fragment of the seventh and the four last are stillextant. A similar compilation was made by therenowned Farabi, who spoke seventy-two languages,and wrote on every science then known.With numismatics the Saracens were well acquainted.Namari and Makrizi wrote histories ofArabian money ; the latter also produced a treatiseon the legal weights and measures. Azaker wrotecommentaries on the first inventors of the arts ; andGazali, in his learned work on Arabian antiquities,treated in a profound manner of the studies and discoveriesof his countrymen.Of geography they had, so far as their limitedmeans went, a tolerably accurate knowledge. Thelibrary at Cairo could boast of two massive globes,one of which was of brass, the other of pure silver,constructed by an Arabian cosmogi-apher, whichweighed 3000 drachms, and is said to have cost asmany thousand crowns of gold. In this departmentAbulfeda holds a conspicuous rank. The SheriffEdrisi of Cordova, who made the celebrated silverglobe for Roger H., king of Sicily, is justly distin-G2

f§ LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.guishedforhis " Geographical Amusements," whichhe wrote and dedicated to that monarch. Of this,however, only an abridgment has appeared in print,published by the Maronites under the absurd titleof " Geographia Nubiensis." The Saracens of Spainwere at great pains to cultivate this science by actualsurveys ; and Casiri has described not less thaneighteen Voyages or Itineraries of learned men, whotravelled for the express purpose of acquiring anddiffusi'ng a knowledge of geography. Ibn Raschid,one of them, journeyed through Africa, Egypt, andSyria, hearing and conversing with the most eminentscholars in those countries ; of whom, as wellas of their most remarkable libraries and academies,he has given some account in his travels.Statistics and political economy, though of slowgrowth among the Arabs, did not escape their attention. The ambition of conquest was succeeded bya spirit of inquiry into the wealth and resources ofthe countries that had yielded to their arms. Soearly as the reign of Omar II., Assam ibn Malechis viceroy in Spain, transplanted into that countrymuch of the wisdom of the East as respects theimprovements of productive industry. In the statisticalsurvey which he composed for the caliph'sinformation, he described not only the different provincesand cities, together with their respective rivers,ports, and harbours, but also the nature of the cli-.mate and different soils of Spain, its mountains,.plants, and minerals ;giving an exact account of itsimports, and of the manner in which its various productions,natural or artificial, might be manufacturedand applied to the best advantage.In the speculative sciences the Arabs excelled a?much as they did in polite literature. Their acutetemperament of mind was well adapted to the studyof philosophy and metaphysics, and on these acquirements is founded the reputation of many ingenious and celebrated men, whose names are stillrevered in Europe. Gazali applied the doctrines of

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 79metaphysics to theology ; and Alkendi, a native ofBussora, who flourished in the caliphate of Almamoun,was so celebrated among his contemporaries,that he was called, by way of eminence, the ArabianPhilosopher, the Great Astrologer, the Phcenix ofhis age. Notwithstanding the extravagant encomiumsof his friends, he was unquestionably endowedwith rare talents ; the 200 different workswhich he composed show him to have been deeplyversed in all the learning of the Greeks, Persians,and Indians.But, however enthusiastically the Arabs pursuedthese ingenious studies, their progress was more speciousthan real. Their ardour was ill-regulated, preferringthe subtleties to the more important andpractical lessons of the science. The system ofAristotle was well fitted to this prevailing taste ofthe Saracens. Though they were neither unacquaintedwith Plato, nor insensible to the merits ofhis works, the Stag}Tite became their exclusivefavourite, and received from them an intellectualhomage that was almost divine. All parties acknowledgedhis authority and appealed to his assistance,whether in attack or defence ; and the mostsolid arguments both of Jews and Christians againstthe truth of the Koran were laid prostrate beforethe resistless artillery of his syllogisms. An accuratetranslation, or a learned commentary on hisworks, appeared to them the highest pitch of excellenceto which the genius of man could attain.At the head of all these subtle expounders stoodAverroes, who, in the felicitous obscurity of hisopinions, was by some reckoned superior to hismaster. The library of the Escurial comprisesmany authors on ascetic and mystic divinity ; butfor a detail of their lives and writings the curiousreader is referred to the elaborate pages of D'Herbelotand Casiri.** For the state of literature among the Arabs the authoritiesare numerous :—Middeldorpf (De Instit. Lit. Arab, in Hisp.),

80 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.The natural sciences were cultivated by the Arabsnot only with great ardour and success, but withjudicious views of the means whereby their progressmight be promoted. The knowledge which theypossessed of medicine is a subject of curious inquiry.In a country where the climate is healthful and theinhabitants abstemious, the healing art was not likelyto be highly esteemed ; and accordingly we find thestarving physicians of Arabia complaining that exerciseand temperance deprived them of the greatestpart of their practice. About the time of Mohammedthe profession appears to have been held inbetter repute. His contemporary, Hareth ibn Kaldah,an eminent practitioner, who had settled atMecca, was occasionally honoured with his conversationand applause. This learned personage wasphysician to Abu Beker, and a pupil of the GreekAbulfarage (Dynast, a Pococke), Asseman (Bibl. Orient.), Casiri(Bibl. Arab. Hisp.), Toderini (Litter, des Turcs), Anciies(Deir Orig. Prog, e Stat. d'Ogni Litterat.), Schnurrer (Bibl.Arab.), Renaudot (Hist. Pat Alex.), Fabricius (Bibl. Graec).Each department of learning has been treated by particular writersPhilosophy,—Brucker (Hist. Grit. Philos.), Leo Africanus:(De Virib. Illust. Arab.). Poetry,— Sir W. Jones (Comment dePoes. Asiat.), Carlyle (Specim. of Arabian Poetry), Sismondi(Litt. du Midi.). Medicine,—Le Clerc (Hist, de la Med.). Freind(Hist, of Med.), Sprengel (Hist.de la Med.), Moir (Ancient Hist.of Med.). Botany,—Haller (Bibl. Botanlca, tome i.). Chymistry,—Beckmann(Hist, of Inventions), Watson (Chemic. Essays),Boerhaave (Chymistry). Mathematics,—Montucla (Hist.deMathemat.), Encyclopasd. Britannica(Playfair's Supplement).Astronomy,—Lalande (Astronom. tome i.), Bailly (Hist, de I'Astronornie),Halley (Philosoph. Transact, vol. xvii.), La Place(Sysl^me du Monde). Architecture,—Murphy (Arabian Antiquitiesof Spain), Sw^inburne (Travels in Spain), Professor Shakspearand Hartwell Plorne (Hist, of the Mohammedan Emp.in Spain.) Agricultiire,—Jacob (Travels in Spain), Tovvnshend(ditto), La Borde (Voyage, Pittoresque et Historique, de I'Espagne),Masdeu (Hist. Grit. d'Esp.), Gregorius (Rerum Arabic.quae ad Hist. Siculam spectant Gollectio). The most valuablecollection of Arabic literature is that of Casiri, who haspreserved and classed 1851 manuscripts ; but it is to be regrettedthat the work was not executed, until a fire, in the year 1671,had consumed the greater part of the Escurial library.

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 81school of Jondisabour in Persia, founded by ShapoorI. who, according to Abulfarage, married a daughterof the Emperor Aurehan, and by her means introducedthe doctrines of Hippocrates into the East.When conquest had supphed the Arabs with themeans of kixury and intemperance, this science wasbetter appreciated. In the schools of Bagdad andAlexandria, the study of physic was encouragedwith the usual munificence of the caliphs. Translationsof Hippocrates and Galen issued from thesame manufactory that had clothed Plato and Aristotlein an oriental dress. Most of these versions,the merit of which is freely discussed by Renaudot,and piously defended by Casiri, are ascribed to Honain^an eminent physician of the Nestorian sect,who died A. D. 576 ; and Messue, the celebratedpreceptor of Almamoun, who was principal or superintendentof the College of Bagdad. Serapion,Alkhendi, Thibet ibn Korra, the friend and astrologerof the Caliph ^Motaded, Baktishua and his sonGabriel, with a host of others, are names which adornthe medical annals of the Saracens. The lives ofmore than 300 Mohammedan physicians, consistingof Arabs, Syrians, Persians, and Egyptians,were recorded by an author named Osaiba, part ofwhose work, about a century ago, Mr. Mead, at hisown expense, caused to be translated from the original; but it proved so incoherent and so full ofpuerile stories, that the task was abandoned. ToAh ibn Al Abbas, surnamed the Magian, from thesect to which he belonged, we are indebted for theearliest as well as the best account of Arabian physic.This eminent author was a star of the first magnitudem the galaxy of learned men who flourishedat the court ofAdodowlah, sultan of Aleppo. Hisbook, called Al Meleki or Royal Work, which appearedabout the year 980, was intended to be a completesystem of medicine, and continued to maintainits ascendency till superseded by the Canon oiAvicenna.

S2 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.Al Razi, or Rhazes as he is commonly designated,is a name of which Arabian literature hasreason to be proud. He flourished in the tenth century,and had the reputation of being deeply skilledin almost all sciences as well as in medicine. Hewas appointed director of the hospital at Rhe, inIrak, his native city, and afterward delivered lecturesin the College of Bagdad, in which he was byfar the most distinguished professor of his time.His fame rests chiefly on his medical writings, theprincipal of which, Alhawi or the Continent, comprehendedhis account of diseases. He wrote, amongother works, a small but curious tract on quacks,whom he characterizes with a fidelity that makes hisdescriptions applicable to the pretending knaves ofmodern times. This treatise is remarkable, frombeing the earliest medical work in which Eau de vieis mentioned, as also different kinds of beer manufacturedfrom rice, barley, and rye. Another meritof this distinguished scholar, and what perhapsabove all has tended to heighten his reputation asan author, is his treatise on small-pox and measles,being the first account of these diseases ever given.His remarks on climate, season, situation, and constitution,denote the accurate and philosophic observer.Indeed, from the minute and excellent descriptions ofdisease to be found in his works, embracing not onlythe more commonly known, but others of rare occurrence,and some recorded for the first time, suchas tic douloureux and hypochondria, there can be aslittle doubt that his opportunities of observationwere immense, as that his genius enabled him toturn his experience to the best account.But in learning and reputation, Rhazes was surpassedby the famous Abdallah ibn Sina, a namewhich the Jews abbreviated into Abensina, and theChristians into the well-known appellation of Avi-:;enna. This Prince of Physicians, as the Arabsienominate him, was a person nearly as remarkable*or the extent and variety of his precocious attain-

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 82ments as the Admirable Crichton ; while in the medicalworld he attained a celebrity rivalled only bythe fame of Hippocrates and Galen. He was borain the year 980, at a small village near Bokhara.Removing- to Bagdad for the prosecution of hiastudies, he there applied himself to the cultivationof philosophy and medicine, in both of which hisprogress was surprisingly rapid. Besides physic,the range of his acquirements comprehended logic,morals, metaphysics, astronomy, philology, mathematics,natural history, and theology. While yetin his nineteenth year, Avicenna was regardedeven by the old and experienced as a complete prodigyof learning, and the deference paid to his judgmentwas sufficient to flatter his utmost vanity.During his residence at Hamadan, he was chosenfirst physician to the sultan, and afterward raised tothe dignity of vizier. His hterary fame, and that ofthe brilliant court to which he was attached, drewthe admiration of surrounding princes. But hispopularity was short-lived, and his life seemed destinedto be a restless one. Finding his libertyendangered, for having refused the invitation ofMahmoud of Ghizni to honour his capital with avisit, he withdrew to Jorjan, where the splendourof his reputation, not only as a physician but a manof science, increased beyond all rivalry.The subsequent history of this remarkable personageis short. Though possessed of an excellent constitution,he had so impaired it by the use of wine,and its accompanying vice, that he died from intestinalinflammation, in his 56th year, at Hamadan.Avicenna is one of those on whom praise and vituperationhave been lavished with equal excess. Itmay be somewhat ditficult to account for the despoticsupremacy which his writings acquired in the Saracenschools ; for they were not only translated,abridged, and commented on, but formed text-booksfor the professors in the principal colleges of Europe,and continued the oracles of medical knowledge for

S4 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.nearly 600 years. His Cunon consists of five books,each of which has its subdivisions. His MateriaMedica must have been sufficiently absurd, as wefind him recommending the administration of gold,silver, and precious stones, with a view to purifythe blood. It is to this ridiculous belief that thecustom of gilding and silvering pills is to be referred.In anatomical knowledge he appears to havebeen extremely superficial. To follow out the intricaciesof his pathology, his speculations on the functionsof the brain, the vital spirits, pleurisies, fevers,faculties, and temperaments, is unnecessary for ourpurpose. Posterior to Avicenna, flourished, amongmany others of lesser note, Abulcasis, Avenzoar,and his pupil Averroes, whose fame was as distinguishedin medical as in metaphysical science.To pharmacy the Arabs paid particular attentionand they deserve the credit of having set the firstexample of publishing pharmacopoeias or regulardispensatories, containing collections of authorizedformula. The shops of the .Saracen apothecarieswere placed under the immediate superintendenceof the magistrates, who took care that they shouldbe provided with genuine drugs, and that theseshould be sold at reasonable prices. Many of thepharmaceutical terms, as naphtha, camphor, syrup,and jalap, are of Arabian origin. In this branchof the science Avenzoar was well versed ; and in histreatise we find accounts of both simple and compoundmedicines not elsewhere to be met with. Thediscovering of antidotes for poisonous plants seemsto have been a favourite research with him. Variousother writers enlarged the limits of pharmacy.The elder Messue employed, as emetics, powder of.fine bark, and decoctions of hyssop ; and as a stypticin violent bowel-complaints he had recourse to the•rennet of different animals, particularly the hare.In curing similar disorders, Serapion advised boiledmilk, in which red-hot iron had been dipped.

')LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 85In anatomy and surgery, the Arabs never attainedto any remarkable proficiency. The polhited touchof the dead alarmed the most determined naturalistand the orthodox Mussulman felt himself debarredfrom this impious knowledge by the prejudices ofhis creed. When Toderini asked a mufti if it wasallowable to practise human dissection, he Avas toldthat the very question itself was an infringement of^their divine law. To mutilate a corpse was prohibitedby the religious belief that the soul does not departfrom the body at the moment of death, but remains,after deserting the other members, for a considerabletime in the breast. Besides, it was deemednecessary to appear entire at the stern tribunal ofIMunkir and Nakir, to undergo the sepulchral examination.Hence the anatomical studies of the Arabswere restricted to the lower animals, and skeletonsin the cemeteries. In their writings on the subject,they did little piore than translate and paraphrasethe works of the Greeks.The surgery of Ali Abbas has some distinctivefeatures ; for though he modestly professed only tobe a copyist, he made a great many observationspeculiar to himself. His son, Avho followed thesame profession, was the author of a book on thediseases of the eye. In operating for cataract, i^vicennarecommended depression ; and speaks of extraction,which he had several times seen practised,as a very dangerous experiment. The most eminentof the Arabian surgeons was Abulcasis, whosename has been already introduced. He complainedof the deplorable state into which the art had fallenin his day ; and informs us that the Spanish practitionersdashed into all kinds of operations withoutknowing in the least degree the nature of the partsthey were dividing, and consequently without attendingto the precautions necessary for avertingdanger. His surgery is arranged into three booksthe first treating of caustics, the second of surgicalVol. II.—H

'86 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.diseases, and the third of luxations, together withsome miscellaneous particulars. *Abulcasis is the only ancient writer on anatomythat has described the instruments used in each particularoperation. To him we owe the inventionof the pro^ang, an elastic rod tipped with sponge,for dislodgmg extraneous substances from the gullet.Another instrument of his own, was that for operatingin fistula lachrj'malis, which he has explained,as also the needle used by the oriental surgeons forcataract. The knife, which he calls alnessil, andused in the section of a vein, as distinct from puncture,is by some presumed to be our common lancet—a term which the French borrowed from the ancientGauls- The myrtle and olive knives, so calledfrom resembling in shape the leaves of these plants,were employed for blood-letting by incision. Foropening veins in the forehead, use was made of thefosserium, said to resemble the phl^me for bleedingcattle, and which required percussion to make itpenetrate the skin. We jearn"?rom Casiri, thatamong the Escurial manuscripts there is a treatisein the Cufic character, which contains a collectionof plates of surgical instruments.Botany, as subsidiary to medicine, was cultivatedby the Arabs with considerable success. This sciencethey advanced far beyond the state in which ithad been left by Dioscorides, who flourished aboutthe commencement of the Christian era. His herbalthey enriched by the addition of 2000 plants ; andtheir knowledge of the vegetable world enabledthem to insert in their pharmacopoeias severalremedies which had been unknown to the Greeks.Rhazes, Ali Abbas, and Avicenna are names thatadorn the annals of this elegant and useful studybut the most distinguished of all the Arabian botanistswas Ibn al Beithar, a native of Malaga. In hiszeal for herborizing, he travelled over every part ofEurope, Africa, and Asia ; inspected and analyzedevery thing that was rare, curious, or valuable in the

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 87three kingdoms of nature ; and, on his return, publishedthe result of his investigations in three booksfirst, on the nature and virtues of plants—second, onmetals and minerals—and third, on animals. Hedied at Damascus in the year 1248, in which cityheheld the dignity of vizier. Casiri mentions anothereminent botanist, Ibn Phara, a celebrated physicianof Corella, who was appointed curator of thebotanical garden of the Sultan Alnasar. Albiruni,who died in 941, travelled in India during the long,period of forty years, to observe the nature andproperties of the mineral and vegetable kingdomsand has given the result of his researches in arare and exceedingly valuable treatise on preciousstones.The praise of originality, however, is more justlydue to the Saracens for their discoveries in chymistry,of which they may be considered as the inventors,in so far as regards its introduction into medicine.Before their time this science was degradedto the same level with magic and astrology, andconfounded with the reveries of alchymy, or the artof making gold by means of the philosopher's stone,which is usually described as a red powder, havinga peculiar smell. Besides the virtue of transmutingmetals, this precious compound was beheved to havethe inherent property of charming evil spirits, curingall diseases, aiid protracting the span of human existenceto an indefinite extent. The history of alchymy,from first to last, is full of fiction and obscurity,and consists of little else than an account ofdupes and impostors who made a livelihood by vendingtheir mystic nostrums to the ignorant at an extravagantprice ; for, strange as it may appear, multitudeswere found credulous enough to believe thatwealth and immortality could be bottled up in thumbvials,or extracted by means of the crucible fromoxides and powders.This study, however, was attended witji manyincidental advantages, by extending the boundaries

88 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.of chymical knowledge, teaching a greater degreeof facility in operations, and leading to the discoveryof many new and valuable sulDstances which,without some such strong incentive, would haveperhaps remained much longer in obscurity. Struckwith the result of investigations which they did notunderstand, the Arabs applied themselves to this departmentof science, with the view of making itsubservient to the composition of medicines and thecure of diseases. In conducting distillations, anddetecting the properties of various bodies, theymade great improvements. The three mineralacids were discovered ; the vegetable and mineralalkalies were distinguished from each other ; andthe preparation of alcohol made known. Rhazes isgenerally allowed to be the first regular practitionerthat made use of chymical remedies ; andfrom his mentioning corrosive sublimate and mercuria.1ointment, various preparations of arsenic, thesulphates of copper and iron, saltpetre, and borax,is evident that the science had already passed itsitinfancy.But the true patriarch of Arabian chymistry wasthe famous Geber, a native of Harran in Mesopotamia,who lived in the eighth century. Little isknown of this writer, except his works, which containmany and important chymical facts. Besidesthe metals, sulphur, and salt, with which the Greeksand Romans were familiar, he knew the method ofpreparing sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and aqua regia.He was familiar with the art of dissolving the metals,by means of these acids, and actually preparednitrate of silver and corrosive sublimate. He wasacquainted with potash and soda, both in the stateof carbonates and caustic. He was aware thatthese alkalies dissolve sulphur, and he employed theprocess to obtain it in a state of purity.Of Geber's works, so far as they have appearedin Latin or English, we possess only four tracts

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.^9though D'Herbelot states that he wrote 500 volumeson chymistry. The greater number of chymicalprocesses, such as they were almost to the end ofthe eighteenth century, were perfectly known tohim ; and if we compare his writings with those ofDioscorides and Pliny, we shall perceive the vastprogress which chymistry, or rather pharmacy, hadmade in the schools of the Saracens.^The earlynomenclature of the science demj9ilstrates howmuch it owes to the Arabs^^.^he terms alcohol,alembic, alkali, aludel, au&'mhers, clearly indicatetheir derivation ; nor should it be forgotten thatthose characters of drugs, essences, extracts, andmedicines which are frequently to be found in apothecaries'shops, and which to vulgar eyes appear to bevested with occult powers of healing, are all to betraced to them. It is the opinion of Sprengel, thatthe writings of the Arabs, even at the present day,might be of service, were our chymists and physicianscapable of perusing the works of Geber, Messue,Rhazes, Averroes, and Avicenna in the nativetongue.Allied to medicine was the science of astrology,which the Saracens cultivated with'great zeal. Thedoctrine of sidereal influences is very ancient ; andat a later peridfreach part and member of the humanbody was assigned to the custody or dominion of aparticular star. The heart, brain, liver, spleen,bile, kidneys, and other viscera were successivelyaflfected by the sun and moon, and by the planetsJupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars, and Venus ; so thata physician, before he could understand or attemptto cure a disease, had to ascertain the magicalharmony between the planets and the habits of hispatient. He durst not venture to draw blood withoutconsulting the position of the heavens, nor ordera cathartic unless the constellations were favourable.With a people so superstitious as the Arabs,such a science could not fail to be popular. Accord-H2

90 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.ingly its professors, independently of all medicalconsiderations, were seen in the courts, and consultedin the cabinets of princes ; and no public oreven private enterprise of moment was undertakenwithout previously obtaining the concurrence of theheavenly bodies.The most flourishing period of Arabian astronomywas the reign of Almamoun, who was himselfdevoted to the study of this science. He caused acomplete digest of it to be composed by the mosteminent men of his court, and provided at his owncost the necessary instruments of observation.The land of the Chaldeans still supplied the samespacious level, the same unclouded horizon ; andunder his munificent patronage the. philosophers ofBagdad, first on the plains of Shinar, and a secondtime on those of Cufa, accurately measured a degreeof the great circle of the earth, and determinedat 24,000 miles the entire circumference of ourglobe. The process by which this remarkable measurementwas conducted is described by Abulfeda,from the relation of Ibn Khallican and the best historians.The obliquity of the ecliptic was calculatedat about ^venty-three degrees and a half;but not a single step was made towards the discoveryof the solar system beyond the "hypothesis ofPtolemy.Among the Arabian astronomers were severalwho distinguished themselves both by their writingsand observations. Albumazar published an Introductionto Astronomy—a Treatise on the Conjunctionof the Planets—and another on the Origin, Derivation,and End of the World. The celebratedAlfragani composed a classical work entitled Elementsof Astronomy, of which a translation, withnotes, has been given by Professor Golius, andwhich presents a concise exposition of Ptolemy'sAlmagest. This author likewise produced a treatiseon solar clocks, and on the astrolabe. Moham-

«LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 91med ibn Musa, Abdallah ibn Salial, and Yahia ibnMansor were eminent writers on this science, andtheir astronomical tables were admired for theirexactness. Albathani (or Albategni), one of themost learned men that adorned the court of Moktader,was justly renowned as the author of the Sabiantables, drawn up from the astronomical observationswhich he made in the course of forty years(A. D. 879-921), at Racca, on the Euphrates. Hislaborious researches were of the highest importanceto the science. He gave a new and improved theoryof the sun, from which some valuable results werederived ;and supplied the defects of the Ptolemseantables by his more accurate observations. Hiswork on " The Science of the Stars," which is stillextant, long held a very high place in the estimationof philosophers. We owe to him a more correctcalculation of the obliquity of the ecliptic thanhad hitherto been made ; he also determined theannual movement of the equinoxes, and found theduration of the tropical year to be 365 days and adecimal fraction.His contemporaiy, Ibn Korrah, likewise observedthe declination of the ecliptic—distinguished themotion of the apogee of the sun and planets fromthat of the stars in longitude ;and, Avhat is most importantof all, ascertained that the solar revolutionwas completed in 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and12 seconds—a calculation not very different fromthat now in use. Arzakel, the reputed author of theToledan tables, who flourished towards the end ofthe eleventh century, was famous for his hypothesisto account for the diminution of the sun's eccentricity,which he conceived to have taken placesince the time of Ptolemy, and the motion of thesun's apogee. His idea was adopted by Copernicus; and subsequently applied to the moon by Horoccius,Newton, Flamstead, and Halley.Modern astronomy is indebted to the Saracens for

92 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.the introduction of observatories. Appended to thecelebrated mosque at Seville was the lofty tower ofthe Giraldo, built under the superintendence of thefamous mathematician Geber (A. D. 1196), whichlong served this purpose, and which still remainsone of the most noble and ancient monuments, perhaps,in Christendom, in honour of this science.The learned Bailly attributes the revival of astronomyto the Spanish Arabs, and the translations ofthe works of Alfragani. He affirms that Keplerdrew the ideas that led to his discovery of the ellipticalorbits of planets from Nureddin Petrucci, whoseTreatise on the Sphere is preserved in the Escurial.From Lalande and Andres we learn that Alfonso X.,king of Castile, who has immortalized himself byhis astronomical pursuits, and whose tables havecontributed so much to promote the knowledge ofthe heavenly bodies, received his information chieflyfrom the Moors, whom his liberality induced tosettle at Toledo.The schools of Bagdad and Cordova did not neglectthe study of optics. Alfarabi, Ibn Haitim, andAlhazen devoted their attention to this subject ; butthe works of the two former are lost. The treatiseof the latter, who wrote in the twelfth century, hasbeen frequently noticed. It is cited by our distinguishedcountryman Roger Bacon ; and was illustratedby Vitellio, a native of Poland, who lived inthe thirteenth century. In mathematics, thoughthe Saracens did not ascend to the higher branches,yet in the other division of the science their knowledgewas far from being inconsiderable. Theworks of the most eminent Greek geometricianswere translated, and the schools of the East suppliedin their vernacular tongue with versions ofEuclid, Theodosius, Hypsicles, Menelaus, and Apolloniusof Perga.How highly these studies were valued by Almamoim,may be imagined from his liberal offer of 100

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 93pounds' weight of gold to engage in his service thefamous mathematician Leo of Constantinople, whowas then employed by the Emperor Theophilus indelivering lectures and establishing schools in hiscapital. But the invitation was declined ; as theGreeks, from a foolish vanity of their superior excellence,were jealous of imparting to heathen thesacred fire of their learning. Ibn Korrah enrichedthe literature of his country with translations ofArchimedes and the Conies of ApoUonius. Butnone of them seem to have bequeathed to the worldany treatises of importance ; and, at the revival ofletters in the fifteenth century, this branch of thescience is said to have been found nearly in thestate in which it was left by Euclid. Brucker, inhis History of Philosophy, maintains that the Saracensowed their mathematical knowledge solely tothe Greeks, and that the study made no progressw^hatever in their hands. But later writers, particularlyMontucla, have done ample justice to theirresearches in certain departments of this sublimescience.Trigonometry derived from the Arabs the formwhich it still retains. They substituted the use ofsines for that of the chord, which had been employedby the ancients. Ibn Musa and Geber composedoriginal works on spherical trigonometry ; and Alkendi,besides his own treatise, De Sex Quantitatihus,translated that of Autolycus, De Sphara Mota. Algebra,though not the invention of the Saracens,received valuable accessions from their talentsand, on comparing them with their predecessors,their advances will perhaps be found as conspicuousas the improvements which have been suggestedand the progress that has been made by later andeven by modern proficients. Ibn Korrah and IbnMusa are the earliest Arabian mathematicians whohave treated on this science. The former wroteon the certainty of the demonstrations of the

94 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.algebraic calculus, and the latter is accounted theinventor of the solution of equations of the seconddegree. There is an original treatise by Omar ibnIbrahim, on the Algebra of Cubic Equations, whichexists in manuscript in the library of the Universityat Leyden ; and we learn from Casiri that theprinciples and the praises of this science weresung in an elaborate poem by Alcassem, a nativeof Granada.The numerical characters, w^hich have tended somuch to simphfy and abridge calculations, and withoutwhich none of the exact sciences could havebeen carried to the point at which they have arrivedin our day, were beyond all doubt communicatedto us by the Arabs. They were not, however, theinventors of these digits, which, as well as theirarithmetic, they acknowledge to have received fromthe East ; and many of their treatises on this subjectthey denominate " Indian Arithmetic," " TheArt of Computing according to the Indians," &c.It is well known that the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans,and perhaps other nations, used alphabeticalletters for the representation of numbers. TheIndians adopted this simple and natural methodand their original numerals, of which the Arabicciphers are merely an abridgement, may be consideredas primitive words or characters. Their useand general diffusion in Europe must be ascribed tothe persevering industry of the famous Gerbert,afterward Pope Sylvester II., who is the first philosopherknown to have visited Spain in the pursuitof knowledge. On his return he founded twoschools—one at Bobbio in Italy, and another atRheims in France, both of which were numerouslyattended, and contributed to give a new turn to thestudy of philosophy.Their mathematical and mechanical knowledgethe Arabs turned to various purposes of multiplyingand improving the conveniences of life—such as the

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 95construction of aqueducts, baths, cisterns, and canals.Their acquaintance with hydrauhcs is manifestfrom the number of mills and other waterworksemployed in the useful process of irrigation. Accustomedto an arid and sultry climate, they consideredthe command of water to be a material requisitein every country Avhere they settled. The pontanosor reservoirs in Spain, and the tanks in Africa,were either erected or restored by them. Theirpalaces and mosques were furnished with capaciouscisterns. The gardens of the Alhambra containedsheets of water, in the surface of which the buildingswere reflected ; and in most of the principalcities fountains played in the streets, as well as inthe courts of the houses, by which the atmospherewas attempered during summer. Tn the famouspalace of Toledo was a pond, in the midst of whichrose a vaulted room of stained glass adorned withgold. Into this apartment the caliph could enteruntouched by the water, and sit while a cascadepoured from above, with tapers burning before him.We are not aware that any discoveries of theirs inhydrostatics have been transmitted to us ; but thetitles of two works by the celebrated Alkendi arementioned in Casiri, viz. on Bodies that Float onWater, and on Bodies that Sink.Architecture was an art in which the Arabs particularlyexcelled ; and the revenues of kingdomswere expended in erecting public buildings, of whichJerusalem, Babylon, and Baalbec, afforded the moststupendous models. It has been observed as a circumstanceworthy of remark, that no people everconstructed so many edifices as the Arabs, who extractedfewer materials from the quarry. From theTigris to the Orontes, from the Nile to the Guadalquiver,the buildings of the first settlers were raisedfrom the wreck of cities, castles, and fortresses,which they had destroyed.In the style of architecture, the Arabs both of the

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.East and the West had a kindred resemblance, asappears by contrasting- the disposition of the apartmentsof the Alhambra, and other remains of Moorishart, with the accounts given by travellers relativeto the general mode of oriental buildings. Whilelittle attention, comparatively, was bestowed on theexterior of their mansions, on the furniture and accommodationwithin every thing was lavished thatcould promote luxurious ease and personal comfort.Their rooms v/ere so contrived that no reverberationof sound was heard. The light was generally admittedin such a manner as, by excluding externalprospects, to confine the admiration of the spectatorchiefly to the ornaments and beauties of the interior.Their arrangements for ventilation were admirable ;and by means of caleducts, or tubes of baked earth,warm air was admitted, so as to preserve a uniformtemperature. The utmost labour and skill wereexpended in embellishing the walls and ceilings.Their tiles had a blue glazing over them ; theirpaving-bricks were made of different colours,—blue,white, black, or yellow,—which, when properly contrasted,had a very agreeable effect. Nothing ismore astonishing than the durability of the Moorishedifices. The stucco composition on their wallsbecame hard as stone ; and, even in the presentcentury, specimens are found without a crack or aflaw on their whole surface. Their woodwork also,which is of a more fragile nature, still remains in astate of wonderful preservation. The floors andceilings of the Alhambra have withstood the neglectand dilapidation of nearly 700 years ; the pine-woodcontinues perfectly sound, without exhibiting theslightest mark of dry-rot, worm, or insect. Thecoat of white paint retains its colour so bright andrich, that it may be mistaken for mother-of-pearl.The history of Arabian architecture comprises aperiod of about 800 years ; which M. Laborde hasdivided into three distinct epochs, marking its rise,

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS 97progress, and decay. From the end of the thirteenthcentury, the era of its dechne in Spain, it exhibiteda mixture of styles borrowed from the revival of thearts in Italy. The origin of what is called Gothicarchitecture, we know, has been much disputed ; butamong the different hypotheses, that of Sir ChristopherWren, which derives it from the Arabs, iscertainly the most probable. The crescent arch,said to be the symbol of a celebrated goddess whoseworship among the ancients was universal, was firstadopted by the Arabs of Syria, and invariably usedin the edifices erected by them during the reigns ofthe Ommiades. After their dethronement the Abbassides,disdaining to imitate their rivals, introducedat Bagdad an arch resembhng the section of an ovaltaken below the transverse diameter. A similarform was adopted by the sovereigns of Granada ; butit is worthy of remark, that so long as the house ofMoawiyah ruled in Spain, the arch of their Syrianancestors prevailed from the Atlantic to the Pyrenees.The Mohammedan religion was unfriendly to whatwe usually denominate the fine arts. To the firstMoslems painting and sculpture were consideredodious, as leading to idolatry and a breach of theirDivine law. Subsequently, however, these scruplesdecreased as literature and the arts were introducedand the caliphs, both of the East and the West,evaded or violated with impunity the prohibitionsof the Koran. At first, as a substitute for pictorialdelineation, the orthodox artists patiently tracedthose Hneal ornaments of Mosaic and network whichcovered the interior of their mosques and palaces. Itwas the same religious feelings that gave birth to thatpeculiar style of embellishment, which from theArabs has been denominated the Arabesque^ andwhich rejects human or animal figures ; the subjects,whether painted or sculptured, consisting wholly ofimaginary plants, flowers, or foliage. In later timesVol. II.—

98 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.the restraints of religion yielded more and more tothe progress of the arts. Some of the Easterncaliphs caused their images to be stamped on theircoins. In Spain, Abdalrahman 111. ventured to placethe statue of his favourite mistress over the magnificentpalace which he had erected for her reception.The Alhambra had its sculptured lions, its ornamentedtiles, and historical paintings.In one branch of the fine arts, that of calligraphyor ornamental writing, the Saracens particularly excelled.The extensive manufacture of translationsbrought this necessary accomplishment to a veryhigh degree of perfection. Afrihi ibn Adi, a JacobiteChristian, who flourished at Bagdad under thecaliphs Mostakfi and Almoti, and was much employedin transcribing books of literature, wrote sofine a hand as to resemble tj^ography ; and withsuch expedition, that in the course of a day and anight he could finish 200 pages. His contemporaryAhdab, surnamed Al Mozawer, or the Falsifier, wasthe most ingenious forger and imitator of penmanshipthat any country ever produced. He couldcounterfeit any hand ; and with such dexterity, thateven the person whose autograph was imitated couldnot distinguish the copy from the original. Adodowlah,the vizier of Almoti and Altai, turned thissingular faculty to his own advantage, by causinghim to write letters calculated to sow jealousy anddissension between such of the neighbouring princesas he wished to subdue ; and this fictitious correspondenceoften produced the desired effect. To theChinese and Persians, the Arabs were indebted fortheir method of imparting a remarkable purity andneatness to their paper. They employed inks ofextraordinary lustre, and studied to adorn theirmanuscripts with beautiful and vivid colours, so asto render them more pleasing to the eye.Music was an art to which the Arabs were ardentlyattached. But the rude and natural strains in

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 99Haroun, whose inauguration he commemo-which the shepherds of the Desert sung their lovesand their wars, became under the cahphs a studyand a science. Its professors were cherished andhonoured in the courts of their sovereigns, who encouragedtheir exertions, as they did those of thepoets, by handsome rewards. At Bagdad and Cordovaschools were established expressly for thecultivation of this delightful art ; and from theseseminaries issued many illustrious performers. Otthe effects of their skill some very extraordinary butwell-attested instances have been recorded, whichmay justify the remark that, like the famed Timotheusof old, they could, by the magic touches oftheir lute, raise or depress at pleasure the passionsof their masters. Isaac Almouseli, so called fromMosul where he resided, is ranked by the orientalsamong the most distinguished musicians that everlived. Mahadi, father of Haroun al Raschid, havingaccidentally heard him sing one of his compositions,accompanied by a lute, was so charmed with theperformance that he appointed him chief musicianto the court,—an office which he filled with universalapplause during the reign of five successive caliphs.rated in a short poem still extant, was delightedwith his talents, and considered his presence necessaryin every part of amusement.This prince had other reasons for admiring hismusical powers. He had quarrelled with his favouritemistress Meridah, and determined never tosee her more. The lady became inconsolable. Jaaffar,the vizier, imparted her distress to Almouseli,and requested him to perform before the caliph asong composed on the occasion ; which he did withsuch pathos of execution, that in a fit of sudden affection,the repentant monarch rushed into the presenceof Meridah, implored her to forgive his indiscretion,and bury their unhappy discords in eternal oblivion.Overjoyed at this unexpected revolution of fortune.

100 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.the lady ordered 10,000 drachms (229Z. 3^. 4^.) to begiven to Jaaffar, and as much to Almouseli ; whilethe caliph doubled the present to both.Abu Mohammed, another musician of Bagdad,flourished in the reign of the Caliph Vathek, whowas so enchanted with one of his compositions, thathe threw his own robe over the shoulders of theperformer, and ordered him a donation of 100,000drachms (0291^. 13s. 6d.). The famous Al Farabi,whose universal attainments have been already noticed,was so eminently skilled in music, that he hasbeen styled the Arabian Orpheus. On his returnfrom the pilgrimage to Mecca, he introduced himselfat the court of Saifadowlah, the first sultan of Aleppo,whom he astonished with the variety of hisaccomplishments. After disputing with the mostlearned doctors of the court, whom he put to silence,he joined a band of musicians that were accidentallyperforming, and accompanied them with his lute.The prince was delighted, and requested to hearsome composition of his own,—one of which in threeparts he immediately produced and distributed amongthe band. The first movement, we are told, threwthe sultan and his courtiers into a fit of excessivelaughter ;—the second melted them into tears ;—andthe last lulled even the performers themselves tosleep. Al Farabi wrote a work on the subject, entitledthe Elements of Music, preserved in the Escurial,which treats on the principles of the art, theharmony of natural and artificial sounds, and the variouskinds of musical composition, besides containingthe notes or gamut of the Arabs, and upwards ofthirty figures of their musical instruments. Anotherwork on the same subject is the Kitab Al Agani, orGreat Collection of Songs, by the celebrated composerand poet Abulfaraji. Of two volumes, the firstonly is extant, which contains 150 ariettas, the livesof fourteen distinguished musicians, and four eminentfemale singers. There is a striking similitude

LITERATrRE OF THE ARABS. 101between the Arabian and the Italian gamut ; and itis highly probable that the terms, sol, fa, ut, &;c. usedin the old mode of teaching music, were borrowedfrom the Moors of Spain. To the Saracens we areindebted for the invention of the lute, which theyaccounted the most beautiful of all instruments.They had likewise the organ, flute, harp, tabor, andthe mandoline, with which they serenaded theirmistresses. On these occasions, not only the wordsand air of their songs, but even the colour of theirdress, indicated the triumph of the fortunate, or thedespair of the rejected lover. Black and yellowdenoted grief; green was expressive of hope ; blue,of jealousy ; and the violet or flame-colour, of impassionedlove. In addition to the musical instrumentsjust mentioned, a recent traveller alleges thatthe bagpipe, which has so long been considered nationalamong the Scottish Highlanders, was unquestionablyof Arabic origin.* Without pretending todecide whether it be a native of Asia or Europe, wemay remark that, in the two countries, there is awonderful similarity both in the shape of the instrumentand in the mode of playing it. The tube isperforated in the same manner ; the bag is angular,and pressed with the arm. The gaspah of the Arabsis a common reed open at both ends, like the Germanflute, with three or more holes in the side, accordins:to the extent of the musician's abilities.The tarr, another of their instruments (the tympanumof the ancients), consists of a thin hoop of wood,with a skin of parchment stretched over the top likea sieve. This serves for bass in their concerts, andthey touch it, like the tambourine, very dexterouslywith their fingers, knuckles, or palms. Connectedwith this art was the practice of employing j/'on»-Zewr5,who accompanied with their instruments the recitationsof the poets. Dancing was a favourite amuse-* Colonel Johnson's Overland Journey.12

102 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.ment with the Spanish Arabs ; and from them ourancestors borrowed the morris-dance, which formeda part of their May-games. To the diversions ofhunting, hawking, and horsemanship, they werepassionately addicted.Of all the sciences cultivated by the Arabs, agricultureis that in which they made the greatest progress.No civilized nation of their times possesseda code of husbandry more judicious or more perfect.Many of their learned men turned their attention tothis subject, Kutsami, author of the NabathaeanAgriculture, Abu Omar, Abu Abdallah, Abu Zacharia,and others, afforded to their countrymen valuableinstruction in the different branches of rural economy.From these treatises it appears that theSaracens were well acquainted with the nature andproperties of soils and manures ; and the properapplication of them to every particular species ofcrops, trees, and plants. They were familiar withthe rearing and management of cattle ; and the Europeanhorse was greatly improved by a mixturewith the Arabian breed. They had a thoroughknowledge of climate, and possessed the happy artof appropriating, in their various productions, thedifferent soils to that kind of culture best adapted tothem. Great care and skill were also bestowed onthe formation of gardens, and the choice and arrangementof plants ; and by this means many valuableexotics were naturalized. Besides rice, olives,oranges, and the sugar-cane, we are indebted to theSaracens for the introduction of the cotton-tree, thepistachio, ginger, myrrh, henna, sesame, saffron,spinach, and a variety of fine fruits and vegetables,now considered as indigenous. In ornamental gardeningthey took great delight ; studying the gratificationof the eye as well as of the palate. Flowersand fountains of water they had in the richestabundance. A monument of their horticultural tastestill remains in the garden of the Alcazar at Seville,

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 103which is preserved in its original state. There arewalks paved with marble, and so contrived thatthey can be turned into continuous fountains, byforcing up small jets of water from minute pipesinserted between the joining of the slabs.In metallurgy, or the working of mines and metals,there is evidence that the Arabs had arrived atconsiderable perfection. Their skill in the differentmanufactures of hardware was remarkable, andkno^vn to every civilized nation in the world. Theblades of Mushraf and Damascus were not morerenowned in the East than the swords of Granadaand Toledo in the West. The temper of the Spanisharms was held in the highest repute ; that countrybeing the arsenal which supplied Europe andAfrica with cuirasses, bucklers, casques, sciniitars,and daggers. The celebrated Alkendi, among hisnumerous works, produced a treatise on the differentkinds of swords, in which the perfections of themetal are particularly discussed ; and another, onthe art of preparing steel in such a manner that theedge of the weapon could neither be broken norblunted. Of the skill of the Saracens in the formationof porcelain, some exquisite proofs remain inthe superb vases still preserved in the Alhambra,and in the glazed tiles which formed a distinguishedornament of their palaces. One species of manufacturein which they pre-eminently excelled wasthat of tanning, currying, and dying leather ; which,though almost lost in Spain by the expulsion of theMoors, was transferred to Fez, where great numbersof them settled. The skins were stained with green,blue, or scarlet, of the liveliest tints, for which apeculiar sort of woad was used, and then finishedwith such a degree of brilliancy as to resemble varnish.The art was afterward carried to England,where the terms Morocco and Cordovan are still apphedto leather prepared after their mode.Such then, was the state of perfection to which

1104 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.literature, science, and the arts were carried, andcontinued to flourish from the ninth to the fourteenthcentury of our era, in those vast countrieswhich had submitted to the yoke of Islam. Theliterary apparatus of the Saracens was splendid, andtheir progress merits all the eulogy that has beenbestowed on it. Certain prejudices, however, deprivedthem of part of the benefits which they mighthave reaped from a familiar intercourse with classicauthors ;-and, as has been remarked, with all theirenthusiasm for European learning, there is no exampleof a poet, an orator, or even an historian ofGreece and Rome being translated into their language.*Though the Saracens cannot claim to rank highas inventors and discoverers, they must be acknowledgedas the restorers of letters and the great depositariesof science. Many useful treatises, now lostin the original, were preserved in their language.Besides some of the commentaries of Galen midHippocrates, we owe to this cause the completionof the mathematical works of Apollonius Perggeus;part of ivhich, in Arabic, was discovered about themiddle of the seventeenth century, in the MediceanLibrary, and part among the Bodleian Collection,of which a Latin version was given by the Savilianprofessors, Bernard and Halley. It is unquestionablethat a great number of the inventions which^at the present day add to the comforts of life, and'^without which literature and the arts could never'have flourished, are due to the Arabs. They taughtus the)use of the pendulum in the measurement oftime ; and also of the telegraph, though not with all. the speed and efi'ect of modern ipiprovement. The[manufacture of silk and cotton was brought by them* We must make one exception. Erpenius states, that in thegreat library at Fez, which contained 32,000 volumes, there waspreserved an entire copy of Livy in Arabic—iower, deBiblioth.

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 105into Spain, as was probably the art of dying blackwith indigo. They introduced the use of camelsand carrier pigeons into Sicily. The art of enamellingsteel, the system of a national police, theprinciples of taxation, and the benefits of publiclibraries, were all derived from the same source.Rhyme, a pleasing characteristic of modern verse,though some have assigned to it a Gothic origin,was doubtless borrowed from the Saracens by thetroubadours and Proven9al bards, w^ho derivedfrom the same source the sentiment of honour,the mysticism of love, and the spirit of chivalry, socopiously infused into our early romances. EvenDescartes, as Huet has asserted, was indebted tothem for his celebrated metaphysical principle,Cogito, ergo sum. To them also belongs the honourof making us acquainted with the manufacture and Iuse of paper. This invaluable commodity, it is true,had from a very remote period been made in Chinafrom the refuse of silk, bamboo, and other substances.About the year 649 the invention wasintroduced at Samarcand by the Tartars, who usedcotton instead of silk ; and when that flourishingcity was subdued by the Moslems, the process wasconveyed to Mecca, by Yussuf Amru (A. D. 706),where paper was made similar to that now manufactured,though it does not appear to have comeimmediately into general use. From Mecca, theart spread through all the Arabian dominions. InSpain, which was renowned for this article from thetwelfth century downwards, flax, which grew thereabundantly, was substituted for cotton, the latterbeing scarce and dear. Alphonso X. establishedpaper-mills, and his example passed successivelyinto France, Germany, and England.Gunpowder, the discovery of which is generally^attributed to Schwartz, a German chymist, was ,known to the Arabs at least a century before anytraces of it appear in European history. Though it

106 LITERATURE OF THE ARABS.is probable they may have derived their knowledgeI of this composition from the Indians, they certainly''y improved its preparation, and found out differentways of employing it in war. The mariner's compasshas been alternately given to the Italians andthe French; but Tiraboschi, notwithstanding hispartiality for his country, is decidedly of opinionthat the honour of its invention is due to the Arabs.Its adoption in Europe is not older than the thirteenthcentmy, while among the Arabs it wasknown in the eleventh. The polarity of the magnetis alleged to have been known to Aristotle ; andsomething like the compass was in use among theChinese ; but as the Saracens paid considerableattention to navigation, and often undertook longand laborious voyages, history has, with muchprobability, assigned to them the discovery of themagnetic needle.Some writers have offered a conjecture that thissingular people paved the v/ay for our immortalNev/ton towards discovering the doctrine of attraction;but as the astronomical treatises of the famousmathematician Mohammed ibn Musa, upon whichthis supposition is founded, are not extant, the honourof the English philosopher remains unimpaired.It is worthy of remark, that wdien the historians ofthe middle ages mention most of these inventionsfor the first time, they treat them, not as novelties,but as things in general use ; hence the presumptionis, that they were all gradually imported by obscureindividuals, and not by men of genius ; and thathowever much they may have altered our system ofwar, commerce, science, and education, they werebrought by a people familiar with their practice, andfrom a country where they were already universallyknown. But whatever may be the claims of theSaracens to the praise of original genius, they formedthe link which unites ancient and modern' letters.Their schools and academies were the shrines at

LITERATURE OF THE ARABS. 107which the barbarized nations of the West rekindledthe torch of science and philosophy ; and thus theravages occasioned by their wars were, in somedegree, expiated by their scattering the germs ofsocial and intellectual improvement over the wideregions which they successively occupied. In thecolleges of Cordova, Seville, and Toledo, the scholarsof Italy, France, Germany, and England drankfrom the copious fountain of Arabian literature.Among the number of their distinguished studentswere Adelard, a monk of Bath, in the eleventh century,Morley, a native of Norfolk, and our countryman,the celebrated Michael Scott, who is onlyknown in Scotland by his reputation as a wizard.By the command of Charlemagne, the principalArabic books were translated into Latin, for the useof the people in the various provinces of his empire.For several centuries medicine found a secure retreatat Salerno and Montpellier, whither studentsflocked from all quarters of Europe, and where theChristians became acquainted with the works ofGalen and Hippocrates, Even the Greeks and Jewsdid not disdain to learn the healing art from theSaracens, many of whom were induced by theliberality of Alphonso X. to settle at Toledo, TheArabian arithmetic, introduced by Gerbert, was improvedby Leonardo, a merchant of Pisa, who learnedthe art during his residence at Algiers, about thecommencement of the thirteenth century ; and tothai commercial republic may be attributed the distinctionof being the first among the Christian statesof the West which employed this system of notation.In short, without exaggerating the labours ofthe Arabs, it may be said that we are indebted tothem, not only for the revival of the exact and physicalsciences, but for most of those useful arts andinventions that have wrought so total a change, andgiven so beneficial an impulse to the literature andcivilization of Europe.It\\

108 CIVIL HISTORY ANDCHAPTER IV.CIVILHISTORY AND GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA.Extinction of the Saracen Power—Formation of new Kingdomsin the East—Victories and Dominions of Timur—Conquestsof the Turks and Portuguese in Arabia— Selim I. obtains theInvestiture of the CaUphate—Expulsion of the Turks by theIndependent Arab Chiefs—Dominions of the Imam of Sanaa—His Government, Revenues, and Military Force— Description of Sanaa—Visits of European Travellers to that Capital—Principal Town in Yemen— Beit el Fakih—Taas—Mocha—Aden—Government of Hadramaut—Of Oman—Descriptionof Muscat—Court, Revenues, and Commercial Enterprise ofthe Imam—Islands of Bahrein—Pearl Fisheries—Depredationsof the Joassamee Pirates in the Persian Gulf— VariousExpeditions from India to suppress them—Reduction of Rasel Khyma and their principal Fortresses—Arab Settlers onthe Persian Frontier—Classification of the wandering BedouinTribes—Their migratory Habits and Military Strength—Government of their Sheiks—Their Laws and JudicialTrials— Reflections on their Political Institutions.The history of the Saracens, both as a military anda political nation, may be said to have expired withthe reduction of Bagdad by the grandson of ZingisKhan. The successors of Mostasem, to the numberof eighteen, called the Second Dynasty of the Abbassides,were merely the spiritual chiefs of the Mohammedanreligion. For two centuries and a halfthe ecclesiastical supremacy continued in the handsof these venerable phantoms ; when at length thetide of invasion swept away the only remainingvestige, and feeble representative, of the once proudcaliphs of the East. Long before the downfall ofthe Abbassides, Arabia had shared in the decliningfortunes of its masters. Instead of being the seatof the successors of the Prophet, or the centre of

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 109B mighty empire, it had dwindled into the condi*tion of a province ;where, except in the charactefof pontiff, the power of the sovereign was httle re^garded. Amid the distractions of foreign wars manychiefsof the interior shook off their precarious allegiance,and resumed their ancient habits of independence.Only the coast and the principal citiesacknowledged the yoke of the neighbouring monarchs; and during the hostilities which for 300years desolated the continent of Asia, the Arabsmingled with the auxiliary bands that swelled theranks of the Egyptians and Persians in their san-»guinary campaigns against the Turks and Tartars.In the West, their unwieldy empire, despoiled ofSpain, Africa, and the Mediterranean islands, hadshrunk within its original boundary, the Red Sea,'but their power was not increased by the dismem*berment of these remote provinces. The com*manders of the faithful had been stripped of miich val*uable territory in Asia by Mahmoud of Ghizni and hissuccessors, the founders of the Mohammedan powei*in India. The race of the Gaurides and the Afghans,Who had supplanted the descendants of that warlikesultan (A. D. 1160), and extended the dominions andthe faith of Islam from Delhi and Lahore to the distantextremity of the vast province of Bengal, yieldedin their turn to the swords of the Moguls (A. D.1413)|Who, from being the conquerors, became the sovereignsof that peninsula. Persia, whose jewelledsceptre had fallen from the nerveless grasp of thedespicable successors of Omar and AU, was long aprey to every daring adventurer who had the courageto seize it. For a hundred years it was ruled byHoolaku and his descendants, whose fortunes maybe said to have ended with the weak and indolentAbu Seyd (A. D. 1356) for the few princes that sue-';ceeded him were mere pageants, whom the noblesof the court elevated or cast down as suited thepurposes of their ambition. From an obscure ad'Vol. II.—K

^rO" CIVIL HISTORY ANDventurer, Ismael, at the age of eig-hteen, became^sole monarch of the country (A. D. 1502), and founderof the Suffavean dynasty, which continued to holdthe reins of government till the beginning of the lastcentury.The empire of the great Zingis, which had destroyedand superseded the temporal power of thecaliphs, was itself doomed to experience the samefate from the fierce Tartars, who, bursting in swarmsfrom their immeasurable steppes, and rolling onwardlike a resistless torrent, overthrew in onecommon ruin the thrones of the principal dynastiesof the East, The renowned Timur, or Tamerlane,who as chief of one of these tribes had ascendedthe throne of Zagatai in 1370, was the leader ofthose barbarous invaders. A fertile kingdom of500 miles in length and as many in breadth mighthave satisfied a man of ordinary ambition ; but thisAlexander of the Desert aspired to the conquestand monarchy of the Avhole world : and before hisdeath he had the rare fortune to place twenty-sevencrowns on his head. With an army occupying aspace of thirteen miles from wing to wing he lefthis capital of Samarcand. The hostile nationsyielded in succession to his arms, and his namewas pronounced with terror from the Ganges tothe distant wilds of Siberia. Penetrating to the" regions of perpetual daylight," he made himselfmaster of the Russian capital of Moscow; wherethe astonished Moslems found themselves for thefirst time relieved from the obligations of eveningprayer. Everywhere his course was tracked bydesolation and blood. At Ispahan, Bagdad, and twoother places on the road to Delhi, pyramids of humansculls, amounting to 70,000, 90,000, and 100,000respectively, were raised as the barbarous monumentsof his triumphs. The battle of Angora (A. D.1402) has immortalized the glory of Timur and thedefeat of his rival Bajazet, the fourth of the Ottomas^

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA.'111emirs, who gratified the pride and vengeance of hisconqueror in the captivity of an iron cage. Thisdecisive victory cost the Uvcs of about 200,000 Turksand nearly as many Tartars. The dominions of thiswonderful man were inferior in extent only to thoseof the Saracens in the zenith of their power.The star of Timur rose and set amid scenes ofcarnage ; and his race, as well as his empire, mighthave become extinct, had not Baber, the grandsonof Abu Seyd already mentioned, after a long andnoble struggle against the Uzbeck Tartars, the enemiesand subverters of his family, retired to India,where his great talents obtained 'for him one of themost splendid thrones in the world. This sultan wasthe first that received the title of Emperor of Hindostan,and Avith him commenced (A. D. 1526) thesovereignty of the Great Mogul in that peninsula,which flourished till the beginning of the eighteenthcentury, when it received its death-blow in the fallof Aurengzebe (A. D. 1707),—a prince who raised itto the zenith of its glory, and whose sway extendedover a region containing 64,000,000 inhabitants.His successors have in their turn vanished from thescene ; and their richest kingdoms are now possessedby a company of British merchants.Though the Turkish sultans could not, like theArabian cahphs, style themselves the descendantsand successors of the apostle of God, they piouslyespoused the cause of the Koran ; and, like the Saracens,affected to wage war only for the interest*of Islam. Selim I., after reducing the whole peninsulaof Mesopotamia, made himself master, in 1516,of Syria and Eg>^pt. The Arabs alone refused himtheir obedience. Since the ruin of the caliphate,they had in a great measure shaken off the foreignauthorities to which they had been partly subject.The neighbouring powers, too much engrossed withtheir own quarrels, had never attempted their subjugation; till the Portuguese, under Gama, madetheir appearance in the Red Sea (A. D. 1504).

12 CIVIL HISTORY ANDInstigated by the fanatical ambition of foundinganEastern empire, the King of Portugal hadassumed, among other magnificent titles, that ofLord of the Navigation, Conquest, and Commerce*'of Arabia;" and commenced the exercise of hisprerogative by capturing a Moorish vessel, the crewof which were treated in the most savage manner.From the beginning of the sixteenth century differentexpeditions from Lisbon visited the Arabianeoast, Alphonso Albuquerque, in 1506, reducedCuriat, Muscat, and other important cities on bothsides of the Persian Gulf. Gauri, the last of theMamlouk sultans of Egypt, before his overthrowby Selim, desirous to rid his neighbourhood ofthese troublesome adventurers, fitted out an expc'dition, and seized most of the ports on the RedSea. But on the extinction of that dynasty thegreater part of these cities fell again into the handsof their European masters. The Ottomans, in orderto secure the possession of Egypt, and restore to itsports the lucrative trade of the East, found it ne,.cessary to continue the war against the Portuguesein co-operation with the sultans of India. SolymanPasha, the governor of Cairo, was ordered by Selimto equip at Suez a fleet of seventy galleys, mannedby 7000 of the best Turkish soldiers. With thispowerful armament he recovered all the towns onthe Arabian Gulf as far as Aden.Another circumstance tended to confirm the dominionof Selim over Arabia. One of the descend-,ants of the caliphs of Bagdad (Mohammed XL), onthe ruin of that capital by the Moguls, had fled toEgypt ; and being the last of the sacred race, hisfamily were treated with all the respect due to thesuccessor of the successors of the Prophet. A scionof this fallen trunk of the Abbassides was foundby Selim at Cairo in 1517, and conducted to Constantinople,where he maintained him at his ownexpense, and at his demise received from him theIn this emptvformal renunciation of the caliphate.

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 113title the Turkish sovereign obtained a distinction,which secured to him and his descendants theveneration of all Mussulmans of the Sonnee sect.The posterity of this last of the caliphs have sunkto the level of subjects ; but the spiritual influenceand supremacy derived from this investiture is byno means a barren privilege, even to the presentoccupant of the Turkish throne. Partly by gifts,and partly by intimidation, Selim allured manyof the Arabian chiefs and commanders to his allegiance.Even the Sheriff of Mecca delivered tohim the keys of the sacred city, and openly acknovi^ledgedhis sovereignty. By the influence of thisvenerated personage, many of the wandering tribesof the Desert were induced voluntarily to submitto his authority, and to deliver hostages for theirfuture obedience. From this circumstance, andfrom this period, may be traced the duty which hasbeen annually performed by the Turkish sultans,as commanders of the faithful, of conducting thezealous Moslems on their pilgrimage to the sacredterritory,—a privilege which was henceforth delegatedto the Pasha of Damascus, and to whom itstill belongs.The conquests of Selim left his son, Solyman I.,little to achieve in Asia, except to preserve and consolidatethe vast empire which he had acquired. InArabia this sultan, who appears to have carried the^Ottoman name to the highest pitch of glory, employedhis arms with great success. From Suez toAden the whole coasts acknowledged his power.Penetrating inland, he obtained possession ofYemen,and even carried his victories into some of themountainous regions beyond its northern frontierso that the peninsvila became almost entirely anappendage of the Turkish empire, governed bypashas or beglerbegs appointed by the Porte.The reigns of Achmet II. and Mustapha II. (A. D.1696) were disturbed by revolts of the Arab tribes,K2

i 14 CIVIL HISTORY ANDwho plundered and impeded the pilgi-ims on their>'Oute, and even made the Khan of the Tartarshimself their prisoner. The former, unable to conquer,was glad to compound with the sheiks of theDesert ; while the latter, through the bravery ofArslan, the Pasha of Tripoli, defeated the free'hooters, and upheld the authority of the Turkishemperor as protector of the sacred territory. NadirShah made an attempt to subdue the Arabs whoconstantly infested his frontier; and, in the pro^secution of this object, had at an immense expenseequipped a fleet of twenty-five sail on the PersianGulf. But the success of the expedition was frustratedby religious animosities ; for the sailors,being Indians, who were Sonnees, refused to fightagainst their brethren of the same orthodox faithand after massacring their Sheah oflicers theycarried off the ships. Another of his schemes wasto transport these troublesome neighbours to theshores of the Caspian Sea, and settle a colony ofPersians in their room ; but his tragical death,in 1747, prevented the execution of this project.The precarious authority of the Turks receivedfrequent shocks from the independent princes andsheiks in the interior, who had never been sub'dued. So early as 1630 they were expelled fromYemen, where their name and their governmentwere alike odious, and obliged to evacuate all the1 places on the coasts, which they had occupied formore than a century. The sultans style themselvessovereigns of Hejaz ; but their sole title to thisdistinction consists in a few slender prerogatives,which may now be considered as nearly annihilated.As lord-paramount, the grand seignior canappoint or depose a governor, though lie dare notalways venture to punish a rebel. The revenueswhich he draws from this capricious province areproportionate to his diminished authority, beinglimited to a few trifling dues at certain ports. These

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 115are, however, more than counterbalanced by his expenditurein pensions, grants, and pious foundationsestabhshed at the different sacred places.Except under the reigiis of the warlike caliphs,the same primitive and simple form of governmentmay be said to have subsisted in Arabia from themost remote period of its history. Among themodern Bedouins it remains in all its purity; inother parts it has undergone some changes, without,however, being materially altered. The whole peninsulais divided unequally among a vast numberof petty sovereigns, under different titles, and exercisingvarious degrees of authority ; bearing astrong analogy to those social arrangements whichappear to have prevailed in Europe in the middleages, and more recently among the Highland clansof Scotland ; except only that the inferior chiefshave seldom been in a state of vassalage, and neverknew the feudal government. In the fertile andcivilized districts, monarchies more or less extensivehave been formed, either by conquest or by religiousprejudices.Among the most considerable of the Arabianprinces is the imam, who resides at Sanaa, and whomay be styled King of Yemen, as his dominions extendover the greater part of that large and fertileprovince. The elevation of this royal family iscoeval with the expulsion of the Tui'ks in 1630,a revolution which was achieved by their ancestorthe famous Khassem, who traced his descent fromthe Prophet. It was while residing privately ovhis patrimonial inheritance, on the mountains neiLoheia, that with the aid of the neighbouringsheiks he freed his country from the odious swa)of the Ottoman pashas. Raised thus to the dignityof a sovereign, he assumed the modest titleof sejid, or lord ; but, after his death, the gratitudeof the nation bestowed on him the epithet of TheGreat.

116 CIVIL HISTORY ANDHis son Ismael adopted the title of imam : he wasso economical that he made and sold bonnets forhis livelihood, to save the public revenue, and restrictedhis household to one wife and a femaleslave. He died after a reign of thirty years, andwas held in the highest esteem, both for his talentsand his piety. His descendants, to the number ofeleven in succession, had filled the throne at thetime when the traveller Niebuhr visited that country.The interval had been signalized by the contestsof various pretenders to the crown, chiefly ofthe reigning family. The imam Mahadi, who ascendedthe throne in 1746, had some formidableadversaries to oppose, particularly the heroic Abdurrab,governor of the small province of Hosjerie,who proclaimed himself an independent sheik.After taking possession of Kataba, Taas, and otherdistricts, on which he levied heaiy contributions,the imam was obliged to conclude a peace withhim.Though the throne of Yemen is hereditary, anddevolves, if generally approved by the subjects, onthe eldest legitimate son, yet the rightful successionis often violated. The jurisdiction of the imamin ecclesiastical matters, though absolute among hisown subjects, extends not over the dominions ofother sovereigns of the same sect, who employ amufti or cadi as their spiritual ruler. In the exerciseof his prerogative he is controlled by the supremetribunal of Sanaa, of which he is only president,and which consists of a certain number ofcadis, possessing the sole power of life and death.These assessors, generally persons of incorruptibleintegrity, are nominated by the sovereign, and removableat his pleasure—a circumstance which, ifhe is disposed to abuse his authority, puts it in hispower to extort their suffrages by threatening themwith disgrace ; but this extreme measure is seldomresorted to. The public offices at court are numer-

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 117ous, but titles of honour are few. The first ministeris simply styled fakih—an appellation so vague asto include all holding place or employment who arein any degree above the vulgar. Every petty districthas its governor, who, if not of princely ornoble birth, is called walih and dowlah, or sometimesemir, when he happens to be of low extraction. Adowlah in Yemen resembles a pasha in Turkey,only acting in a more restricted sphere. He commandsthe forces in his province, regulates the police,and collects the taxes. They are all obligedto render frequent account of their administrationand to prevent their accumulating too much wealthwhere the governments are lucrative, they are recalledevery two or three years. When guilty ofhigh misdemeanors, or convicted of malversation,they are punished by imprisonment or confiscation,but seldom capitally. Every city in which a dowlahresides has likewise a cadi, who is sole judge incivil and ecclesiastical affairs. In large villages thechief is a sheik ; and in every little town a sub-dowlahresides, with a small garrison of soldiers to preserveorder. The emir hahr is the inspector of sea^ports ; and in the inland districts the sheik el belledis the officer who levies taxes, and determines whateach individual must pay. Sales and markets areregulated by their own emir ; the principal gates incities and fortresses are intrusted to similar ofiicerseven the post of chief jailer and watchman is honourable,and an object of ambition. Where thegovernments are considerable, the dowlahs are attendedby a bas-kateh, or comptroller, whose businessit is to keep a strict eye upon their conduct, andacquaint the imam with the general state of affairs.This spy, by his misrepresentations, often supplantsthe governor ;but he is himself placed at the mercyof another bas-kateb, and shares in his turn the fateof his predecessor.The revenues of the img,m arise both from a land

118 CIVIL HISTORY AXDand a poll tax, and from duties payable on articlesof merchandise. Coffee affords a very considerableincome, as the crown is entitled to receive a fourthpart of the selling price before it can be put on boardship for exportation. The different departmentsvary in their contributions according to circumstances.Niebuhr learned that Mocha, in the summerseason, when vessels from India arrive and depart,paid 7000 crowns per month—at other timesonly 4000 ; Loheia yielded 3000 crowns ; Hodeida,1400; Beit el Fakih, 3600; and Zebid 1400.* It isdifficult to obtain accurate knowledge either of theTevenue or expenditure of the Arabian princes.Strangers are obliged to use great caution in puttingquestions on this subject, otherwise their curiositymay cost them their head. Oraki, a Jew, and surveyor-generalof buildings, the person whom theDanish traveller consulted, estimated the incomeof Mahadi at 830,000 crowns, or 188,306Z., a month ;but in consequence of the temporary loss of Kataba,Aden, Abu Arish, Taas, and some other provinces,it was reduced nearly one-half.The military force of Sanaa, though not preciselyknown, consisted, according to Niebuhr, of about4000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. The chief commandof the army was intrusted to four sheiks ; andunder them were many nakibs, or officers of an inferiorclass, some of whom had been raised from thecondition of slaves. Nakib is the highest title thatthe sovereign can confer, that of sheik being hereditary,and peculiar to petty princes or independentArabs. In tinies of peace the military are employedas state pageants, or engaged in civil occupations.The cavalry attend the imam or the dowlah to themosque, wherever their head-quarters may happento be ; and, after conducting their master home,they exercise themselves in arms and horsemanship,* The German crown is equal to 4s. 6^d. nearly.

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 119which they perform with great dexterity. The cavalryhave no uniform, every one dressing accordingto his own fancy. Their arms are a long lance, asabre, a curved dirk stuck in their girdle, and sometimesa pair of pistols in the holsters of their saddles.A pair of boots are drawn on their nakedlegs, and the ends of their turbans flow down betweentheir shoulders.The infantry, while in garrison, have little else todo than act as sentinels or foot-guards to the dowlah.In accompanying him to the mosque they usewild and grotesque gestures, flourishing their scimitarsor their muskets in the air, and singing andleaping like men insane or intoxicated—a practiceivhich is supposed to have some reference to anancient usage of exciting courage when marchingto battle. Their pay Niebuhr states at two crownsand a half per month, and their dress is as irregularas that of the cavalry. The greater number wearnothing but apiece of short linen around their loins,and over that is a girdle in which their curved daggeris fixed. Their heads are covered M'ith a kerchiefor a cap of blue linen ; and their hair, which islong, is knotted or folded up into a kind of bag. Abuckler, sabre, and lance are their ordinary armsand they are trained in the use of musketry. Theyhave a singular method of displaying their courageand fidelity in battle, resembling that of the solduritamong the Romans. A soldier willing to evincehis devoted attachment to his chief binds up. hisleg to his thigh, and continues to fight until theenemy are routed, or himself cut to pieces. Themarine of Yemen is on a very limited scale, a navalforce being unnecessary, as there is little to dreadfrom enemies or corsairs.Sanaa, the capital of the imam, stands at the footof Mount Nikkum. Abulfeda describes it as beingthe largest city in Yemen, and resembling Damascusfor the multitude of its waters and orchards y

120 CIVIL HISTORY ANDbut the wealth and populousness which it enjoyedunder the Hamyarite kings no longer exist. Niebuhr,who resided in it for a short time, says the cir-^cumference is not more than an hour's walk ; andthe inhabitants are not so numerous as this extentmight lead us to suppose^ a considerable part of thespace being occupied with gardens. The walls areconstructed of earthy faced with unburnt brick, andsurmounted by a great many small turrets ; and ifwe can believe the report of the French travellersWho visited Yemen in 1712, their breadth is sufficientto admit of driving eight horses abreast.* Ithas seven gates, and a number of mosques, some ofwhich were erected by the Turkish pashas. Thepublic baths are only twelve ; but there are severalnoble edifices built in the Arabian style. No lessthan three palaces were erected by the imam Mahadi: these are constructed partly of brick, andpartly of hewn stone ;but they must not be judged,ill point of elegance or accommodation, by thestandard of European taste. Only one of themcould boast the luxury of glass windows, thoughthey are provided with extensive gardens. Someof the principal inhabitants have in their countryhousessmall panes of stained glass, brought fronlVenice. In the city the windows have merely shutters,which are closed in time of rain, and the houseis then lighted by a round wicket fitted with a pieceof Muscovy glass.Here, as in most other places in the East, thereare large simseras or caravansaries for merchantsand travellers ; as also separate bazars for wood^coal, iron, grapes, corn, butter, salt, bread, and thebartering of old clothes for new. The other trades^including all who traffic in the merchandise of India,Persia, and Turkey, as well as those who deal inall sorts of spices and drugs—the fruiterers, carpen-* Voyage de 1'Arable Heureuse.

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 121ters, smiths, shoemakers, saddlers, tailors, stonecutters,goldsmiths, barbers, cooks, and writers orscribes, have each their respective stand in the openstreet, with their little portable shops. Jews arenot permitted to live in the city ; they reside, to thenumber of about 2000, in a village in the suburbs.They are treated with great contempt ;yet the bestartisans in Arabia are of this nation, especially pottersand goldsmiths, who come within the walls byday to work in their little shops, and in the eveningretire to their own habitations. Many of themcarry on a very considerable trade, and are occasionallyadvanced to places of trust. Oraki was aneminent merchant before he was made by the imamcomptroller of customs and surveyor of the royalbuildings and gardens. He had incurred the displeasureof his master shortly before the arrival ofthe Danish traveller, and his disgrace involved hiscountrymen in a severe persecution. Fourteen oftheir synagogues were demolished by order of thegovernment ; all the stone pitchers in which theykept their wine were broken ; all their houses above14 cubits high (25i feet) were pulled down, and noneexceeding that height w^ere permitted to be raisedin future.Fruits are very abundant. It is said there aremore than twenty different species of grapes, oneof which is without stones ; and as they do not allripen at the same time, they continue to afford a deliciousrefreshment for several months. By preservingand hanging them in their cellars the citizenssecure an agreeable food the greater part ofthe year. Vast quantities of them are dried ; andthe exportation of raisins forms a considerablebranch of traffic. The adjacent plain of Rodda iscovered with gardens, and watered by small streams.Timber for firewood is scarce and dear, the hills inthe vicinity being bleak and bare ; so that this articleis brought from the distance of three days' journey,Vol,. TI.—

122 CIVIL HISTORY ANDand a camel's load costs two crowns. There is apartial supply of pit-coal, and even peat is used, butof so bad a quality as to require a mixture of strawto make it burn. The castle contains a mint, and aseries of prisons for persons of different ranks. Itis the residence of several princes of the blood.The battery consisted, when Niebuhr visited it, ofseven iron cannons, partly buried in the sand andpartly mounted upon broken carriages ; and these,with six others near the gates, which are fired onfestival-days, were all the artillery of the metropolisof Yemen.The first Europeans that visited the court of Sanaawere the deputation of a company of Frenchmerchants of St. Malo engaged in the coffee-trade,during their second expedition in 1711 and the twofollowing years. The residence of the imams wasthen at Mohaib or Mouab, a small town to the northof Sanaa, and eight days' journey from Mocha. Itwas built by the sovereign then on the throne, Mohammed,who was involved in perpetual wars ; andappeared remarkable for nothing but its palace, whichconsisted of two large wings three stories high. Thewalls and most part of the houses were of mud.That prince is described as an old man, eightysevenyears of age, of a complexion inclining totawny, and an agreeable aspect. In his dress hemaintained the greatest simplicity, never wearingany other habit than a fine cloth of a green or yellowcolour, without any ornament. His legs and feetwere bare, with the exception of slippers after theTurkish fashion. The only mark of distinction wasa kind of veil of white silk over his turban, whichcovered his head, and, falling down before, was tiedunder his chin like a woman's hood. The sameplainness and modesty of attire were observed inthe courtiers and other officers of the household.The grandees never approached him without takinghold of his right hand, which was laid upon his

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 123knee, and kissing it with the most profound respect.The only thing Uke state ceremony, and in whichthe simple manners of the court were laid aside,occurred when his majesty went to the mosque. Onthese occasions there was a splendid military parade,including infantry, cavalry, and officers of thepalace. The king rode a beautiful wliite charger,which nobody else was permitted to mount. Byhis side were the two princes, his sons, on horsesrichly caparisoned. Over his head, as a screenfrom the heat, was borne a large parasol or canopyof green damask, with a red fringe ornamented withgold tassels, and surmounted by a globe of gilt silver.Immediately before the royal person rode anofficer carrying the Koran in a bag of red cloth ; thesword-bearer rode behind. During the march ofthis pageant, tambours, timbrels, and hautboysceased not to play ; and, to swell the train, theywere joined by fifty led horses and as many camelsfrom the king's stables at Damar, which had saddles,bridles, and housings, ornamented with goldand silver, with a battle-axe suspended on the oneside, and a beautiful sabre on the other. The headsof the camels were furnished with tall plumes ofblack ostrich feathers. The place of prayer was apavilion or open tent, into which the sovereignalone entered, the spectators performing their devotionsat the same time, and imitating the imam inthe various motions of the requisite ceremonies.The French deputies were astonished at contrastingthe size and elegance of the palace with thehomeliness of its furniture. The walls were merelyhung round with a piece of printed calico, five or sixfeet in breadth ;and its only accommodation was asofa, with plain cushions and carpets, which servedthe purposes of chair, table, and bed. The plains inthe vicinity were sown with rice and wheat ; Avhilenearly all' "the hills and valleys were covered with

124 CIVIL HISTORY ANDvines, coffee, and fruit trees of every description.The royal gardens were extensive, but presentednothing particular, except in the arrangement of theshrubberies, which contained specimens of all thetrees known in the kingdom. The harem was keptin the castle, and replenished with 600 or 700 women.When they ventured abroad, their ordinary conveyancewas on the backs of camels, enclosed in a sortof cage covered with scarlet and stuffed with cushions,on which they sat or lolled at pleasure. Theonly entrance into this sedan was by a small openingbefore, which was covered with a curtain orveil of fine linen. The ladies in general used a profusionof scents and odours ; many of them had largegold rings suspended from the end of their nose,besides bracelets of the same metal on their arms,neck, and ankles.When Niebuhr visited the court of Yemen, fiftyyears afterward, Mohaib had ceased to be the royalresidence. Damar contained about 5000 houses,with a dowlah, and a university attended by nearly500 students. At Sanaa the Danish travellers wereconducted to the royal presence by the secretary ofthe vizier. The court of the palace (the Bustan elMotakkel) was so crowded with horses, officers, andservants, that it would have been impossible for thestrangers to force their way, had not the principalequerry, who had formerly been a slave, opened apassage through the crowd with the aid of a ponderousstaff in his hand. The hall was a spacioussquare chamber, having an arched roof, lighted fromthe top. In the centre was a large basin, with somejets d'eau rising to the height of fourteen feet. Behindthis reservoir was a platform about a foot anda half high, and five feet in length. On this was setthe throne slightly elevated, and resembling a squarepedestal or altar, covered with silk stuffs. The floorof the apartment was spread with Persian carpets.The imam sat half-buried in cushions, with his legs

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 125across. His dress was a bright green robe with fullsleeves, such as were worn by the caliphs. On eachside of his breast was a rich filleting of gold lace,and on his head he wore a white turban of ampledimensions. His sons sat on his right-hand, andhis brothers on his left. Opposite to them was thevizier, Fakih Achmed, and on the lower elevationwere placed the European visiters. On each side ofthe hall were ranged the principal grandees andofficers of the court, who all shouted, " God savethe imam !" as the strangers kissed the hem of theroyal robe.The pompous manner of going to mosque, whichis described by the French travellers, was witnessedby the Danes. The better to display his magnificence,the imam usually made along and circuitousprogress, passing out by one gate of the city andentering by another ; his train, after prayers, beingjoined by all the inhabitants who have performedtheir devotions. A large body of soldiers marchedbefore ; and, besides the princes of the blood, therewere in the procession at least 600 noblemen, ecclesiastics,civil and military oflicers, all superblydressed and mounted ; the rear was brought up by avast concourse of people on foot, and by a numberof camels in pairs, bearing empty sedans, and smallflags fixed by way of ornament to their saddles. Oneacn side of the imam was borne a standard, surmountedby a small box or casket of silver filled withamulets, whose virtues were supposed to renderhim invincible. Various other banners were fortifiedwith similar talismans. The same rich canopies,called medallas, were extended over the headsof the king and some other members of his familythese being a distinction peculiar to the sovereignand princes of the blood, and claimed by the sheiks,sheriffs, and nobility in other parts of Yemen, whoconstantly display this mark of their independence.Altogether, the cortege was magnificent but disor-L2

126 CIVIL HISTORY ANDderly, the multitude crossing and jostling each other.The firing of the military was awkward, as weretheir evolutions and exercises in front of the palace.After their audience with the imam, the strangerspaid their respects to Fakih Achmed. The vizier'shouse was not large, and on one side entirely openon account of the heat. The garden was stockedwith fruit trees, and in the middle was a jet (Teau,wrought by an odd sort of hydraulic machinerythe water being put in motion by means of an assand a man alternately mounting and descending an.inclined plane. This apparatus was less for ornamentthan use in cooling the air, and was commonin the gardens of all the principal inhabitants ofSanaa.The traveller and his companions, on the eve oftheir departure, received from the imam each acomplete suit of clothes, with a letter to the Dowlahof Mocha, desiring him to pay them 200 crowns asa farewell present ; while the secretary had ordersto furnish camels and asses for the whole of theirjourney, besides a quantity of provisions. The dressNiebuhr describes as being exactly like that wornby the Arabs of distinction throughout Yemen, consistingof a shirt over wide drawers of cotton cloth,and a vest with straight sleeves covered by a flowinggown. The turban is very large, falling downbetween the shoulders. The jambea, a sort ofcrooked cutlass or dagger, is inserted in a broadgirdle, and to the handle is sometimes attached akind of chaplet or rosary, which the Mohammedansuse at prayers.Since the visit of the Danish travellers internalwars and political revolutions have MTOUght manychanges in Yemen, and greatly eclipsed the splendourof that ancient monarchy. About the commencementof the present century, Mr. Pringle, theBritish resident at Mocha, twice visited Sanaa, whichhe describes as a handsome town surrounded with

An Arab of Rank in the Costume of Yemen,

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 129gardens. The palace was an elegant building ; andat court a considerable degree of dignity and splendourwas maintained. The imam, whom Lord Valentiarepresents as a person about 78 years old, andfast approaching to dotage, was still endeavouringto amuse himself in his harem of 400 Abyssinianslaves ; apparently insensible of the danger thatthreatened him from the encroachments of the Wahabees.His family, consisting of 19 brothers and24 sons and grandsons, was torn by domestic quarrels.The whole disposable force of the kingdomdid not then exceed 600 horse and 3000 foot, thoughit is reckoned in ordinary times at 1000 cavalry and4000 infantry.The dominions of this prince in Niebuhr's timewere subdivided into thirty governments or provinces,of which the Tehama contained six, and theinland country twenty-four. These petty districtswere not all equally populous or important, and todescribe them in detail would be as irksome as it issuperfluous. The territory of Loheia, the most northernpart of the kingdom, is arid and barren. Thecity was built about the middle of the fifteenth century; and, like several others in these parts, owedits foundation to a Mohammedan saint, whose hutstood near the shore, where a town gradually accumulatedround his tomb. The houses, with theexception of a few stone edifices, are mere mudhovels thatched with grass, having a straw mat fora door, and scarcely any windows. The harbour isso indifferent that even the smallest vessels areobliged to anchor at a considerable distance. Itsstaple trade is coffee, of which annual purchases aremade by merchants from Cairo and other places.The journey to Beit el Fakih is represented aslying generally through a parched and barren tractof country. The only accommodation are WTctchedcoff'ee-houses intended to serve the purposes of ourinns. These mokeias, as they are called, are paltry

130 CIVIL HISTORY ANDhuts, furnished merely with a sevir, or long bench ofstraw ropes ; nor do they afford any refreshmentbut kischer, a hot infusion of coffee-beans, or sometimesmillet-cakes with camel's milk and butter.The kischer is served out in coarse earthen cupswheaten-bread was a rarity in the province, and thewater was scarce and bad. The owner or masterof the inn generally resides in some neighbouringvillage, whence he comes daily to wait for passengers.Another description of coffee-houses is themonsale, where travellers are received and entertainedgratuitously, if they will be content with theusual fare of the country. The guests are all lodgedin one common apartment, which is served andfurnished in the same homely style as the mokeias.The city of Beit el Fakih (or House of the Sage)derived its name and origin from a famous saint,Achmed ibn Mousa, whose sepulchre is shown in ahandsome mosque near the touTi. His reputationfor miraculous cures was as celebrated as that ofany martyr or confessor in the Romish calendar.One of his most wonderful performances was theliberation of a Turkish pasha who had been fortwenty years a captive in Spain, where he was boundin a dungeon to two huge stones, with ponderousand massy chains. Long and in vain had he invokedevery canonized name in the annals of Islam ; butwhen the aid of Achmed was solicited, the compassionatesaint stretched his hand from the tomb, andat this signal the pasha instantly arrived from Spain,carrying with him both fetters and stones, to thegreat amazement of the inhabitants of Beit el Fakih,who were then met to celebrate the amiiversary festivalof their ghostly patron. The city containslittle of an interesting nature. The houses standseparate from each other; many of them are builtof stone, others of mud mixed with dung. The surroundingplain, though not fertile, is well cultivatedand the authority of the resident dowlah extends

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 131over a wide district. Hodeida has a tolerable harbour,a small citadel, a patron saint, and a dowlah,whose jurisdiction is confined to the town. Zebid,once the capital of Tehama, the residence of a sovereign,and the most commercial city on the ArabianGulf, now retains little but the shadow of its formersplendour. It is furnished with a dowlah, a mufti,three cadis, and an academy.After visiting the coffee-mountains in the neighbourhood,and the towns of Kahme, Bulgosa, andKusma, which last stood on the loftiest peak of therange, Niebuhr proceeded to Udden and Jobla. Thecountry was solitary ; and in the few villages whichthey passed the houses were still more wretchedthan in Tehama : they had no walls, and consistedmerely of poles laid together and covered with reeds,some of which grew in the valley to the height oftwenty feet, forming an agreeable shade.Taas, a place of some celebrity, stands at the footof the fertile hill of Sabber, and is encompassed witha wall varying from sixteen to thirty feet thick, andflanked with several towers. Within this rampartrises a steep rock about 400 feet high, on which thecitadel or fortress of Kahre is built, defended by anexterior coating of brick. The present town is ofcomparatively modern origin, and owed its foundationto the attractive virtues of the tomb of IsmaelMalec, its patron saint, who according to traditionwas once king of that country. A mosque bearinghis name was reared on the spot where his remainswere buried ; but nobody has been permitted to approachhis tomb since on one occasion he thoughtproper to work a miracle which gave great dissatisfactionto the authorities of the place. This marvellousevent was related to Niebuhr :—Two beggarshad asked charity from the dowlah, of whom oneonly received alms ;the other repaired to the sepulchreof Ismael to implore his interposition. Theholy man, who when ahve had been liberal of his

132 CIVIL HISTORY ANDbounty, gave the mendicant a letter containing anorder on the dowlah for the payment of 100 crowns.Upon examination the document was found to be inthe handwriting of the deceased, and sealed with hisseal. With such evidence before his eyes thegovernor durst not refuse, and paid the beggar thedemand in full ; but, to avoid such troublesomedrafts in future, the tomb was enclosed with a loftywall.In the city and neighbourhood stood many desertedand ruinous mosques, some of which appeared to beerected by the Turkish pashas. The subsequentgovernors of the place had built several noble palaces,which were the greatest ornaments in it ; butmany of the houses had been destroyed, and the surroundingcountry almost depopulated, during thecivil wars occasioned by the revolt of the governor,Dowlah Achmed, brother to the imam El MansorHossein. On being recalled, this officer refused toobey ; and with a force of 2000 men he stood outfor twelve years, leaving the succession to his eldestson Abdallah. The place was taken and pillagedabout the end of the year 1760.On the route from Taas to Sanaa the principalcities are Abb, Jerim or Yerim, and Damar. Abbis situate on the summit of a hill, surrounded by astrong wall, and contains about 800 houses, most ofthem well built. Jerim, which some suppose to beDafar, an ancient capital of the Hamyaric kings, isbut a small town ; the houses are built of stone orsun-dried bricks. The castle stands on a rock, andis the residence of the dowlah. In all the marketslocusts were sold at a low price ; and these thepeasants dry and lay up for winter provisions.In Yemen the usual method of travelling is onasses, which in that country are large, strong, andspirited, walking at a pace not very agreeable to therider. As Christians, however, are not prohibitedthe use of horses, Niebuhr and his companions pre-

(JOVERNSiENT Of ARABIA. 133ferred that animal ; hiring camels for their baggage.A bucket of water is sometimes suspended from thesaddle,—that being an article indispensable in thesearid regions. The roads in general are of a verybad description. Among the mountains the path issometimes so narrow that a single camel only canpass at a time ; in other places it winds up steep andrugged acclivities, and is formed of a causeway orpavement, which is occasionally broken and renderedimpassable by the descending torrents.The town of Mocha, the name of which a celebratedarticle of its eXport-trade has rendered sofamiliar to our ears, has no pretensions to antiquity.It Was not in existence 400 years ago ; and nothingwas known of it till the adventures of the Dutch andPortuguese in India opened the Red Sea to thenations of Europe. Its place, as a commercial port,was originally supplied by the village of Moosa.This wretched hamlet, which now consists of a fewcircular huts with conical roofs, built of matting orleaves of the date-palm, must have then stood on theshore of the Arabian Gulf, though the retirement ofthe waters at this spot, as elsewhere, has left it adistance of five hours' journey from the moderntown. It is still the residence of a sub-dowlah, anddistinguished for its delicious water and its excellentfowls.The origifi of Mocha is ascribed to the greatreputation of its patron saint, the famous SheikSchaedeli, \vho had here a hermitage, which waseagerly resorted to by disciples from all parts ofthe country to drink his coffee and receive hisbenedictions. After his death an elegant mosquewas raised over his tomb : the principal wall andone of the gates of the city still bear his name; thepeople swear by him, and thank Heaven everymorning on his account for having taught mankindthe use of that delightful beverage, the heahng vir-'tues of which were long reckoned as efficacious as-Vol. II.—M

CIVIL HISTORY AND.is prayers ; they implore the Divine favour on hisdescendants, who are held in gi'eat honour, and enjoythe title of sheik. Such is the oriental history ofthe founding of Mocha. When the Portuguese^under Don Alphonso Albuquerque, first visited it in1513, it was with the intention of uniting themselvesto the Abyssinian Christians against their commonenemy the INIoslems; but they returned withoutderiving any advantage from the attempt. In 1538,it seems to have been a place of little importance,probably under a Turkish governor; as SolymanPasha, who commanded the Eg^^ptian fleet, mentionedit as a castle where he stopped on returningfrom his disgraceful expedition against Diu.In the beginning of the seventeenth century, whenthe Red Sea was first visited by the English underCaptain Alexander Sharpey of the Ascension (1609),Mocha had become the grand mart for the trade betweenIndia and Egypt. The Turkish governor wascourteous and liberal, and allowed the foreigners totraffic without injury ; but the succeeding pasha wasa man of a very different character, as Admiral SirHenry Middleton, who was sent by the East IndiaCompany on a trading voyage the following year,experienced to his cost. The treacherous Turksnot only assaulted the strangers in the town, butmade an attack on their ships in the harbour. Thegallant commander and part of the crew "weremanacled like so many slaves;" Sir Henry wasthreatened with the loss of his head for daring toset his polluted foot on the soil where the city oftheir holy Prophet stood^ and consigned to a dungeon,where " he had a hard floor for his bed, a greatstone for his pillow, and good store of rats and miceto keep him company." After lying in captivity forsome time, he was conveyed a prisoner to Sanaa,Avhich he describes as something bigger than Bristol; but by the interposition of certain friends he

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 135obtained his release, and was remanded to Mocha,with a stern injunction that neither he nor any of hisnation should again revisit these ports.Captain Saris with a small expedition arrived inthe course of next year, when he found the Turksmore hberal, and met with greater civility ; but thespirit of religious antipathy was too fierce to admitthe continuance of trade. Monsieur de la Merveille,with the French deputation from St. Malo, hadvisited Mocha in 1708, and obtained a treaty ofcommerce and the establishment of a factory forhis countrymen previous to which time, the onlyforeign;settlement in the town belonged to theDutch.It was not till the year 1618 that Captain Shillingof the Royal Anne obtained a firman from the Imamof Sanaa and the Governor of Mocha, granting to theEnglish, " on the faith of the Prophet's beard, libertyto sell and buy without let or molestation in that orany other port within their dominions." Twentyyears afterward the French bombarded the town, inorder to extort payment of a debt of 82,000 crowns(18,620/.) from the dowlah, which they obliged himto reimburse ;besides reducing the duties from threeto two and a half per cent. During this temporarywarfare, the trade of the English and Dutch, whohad formed a union of interests, remained in perfectsecurity. Several of the Arabs in Niebuhr's timerecollected the siege, and were well pleased at thepunishment of the avaricious dowlah, whom theyrepresented as pursued backward and forward whereverhe went with " pots of fire." This was the lastcity in Yemen of which the Turks retained possession; the Arabs having recovered it, according toreport, not by conquest, but by purchase. Since theOttomans were dislodged, it has had no other masterthan the Imam of Sanaa.In the present century Mocha has been describedby various Europeans. Viewed from a distance;,

136 CIVIL HISTORY ANDthe town looks handsome and cheerful, the housesseem lofty, and have a square solid appearance.Their unvaried whiteness contrasts beautifully withthe dark-blue sea, and, no shrub or tree interveningto break the uniformity of colour, gives it the semblanceof being excavated from a quarry of marble.Over the tabular line of flat roofs, the minarets ofthree mosques rise to a considerable height, withseveral circular domes of kubbets or chapels. Theroadstead is almost open, being only protected bytwo narrow tongues of land, on one of which is aruined castle, and on the other an insignificant fort,A grove of date-trees adjoins the city, and extendsnearly two miles along the southern beach ; apleasing object for the eye to repose upon, contrastedwith the interminable expanse in everyother direction of brown and desolate sterility. Thewall, by which it is completely surrounded, is notmore than sixteen feet high towards the sea ; though,on the land side, it may in some places be doublethat height. The two forts that guard the harbourstand about a mile and a half asunder ; a singlebroadside from an English man-of-war would levelthe whole to the ground.The internal condition of the city corresponds notwith the imposing aspect of the exterior ; and themoment the traveller passes the gates, his romanticideas are put to flight by the filth that abounds inevery street. The houses of the lower class of thepeople, who rarely change their under-dress until itis worn to rags, are circular huts composed ofwickerwork, covered inside with mats, and sometimeson the outside with a little clay. The roofsare uniformly thatched; and in front each has asmall area or yard fenced off. The inhabitants havea singular fancy for crowding their dwellings inclusters, though there is ample space within thewalls left unoccupied. All the principal buildingsface the sea, and consist chiefly of public edifices

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 137The British factory is a large and lofty structurethose of the French and Dutch are rapidly fallinginto decay. The mansion of the dowlah is the bestin the city, having one front to the sea ; while ontwo other sides are a square for military exercises,and a range of official dwellings. None of thesehave much pretension to architectural elegance.The walls have fantastic ornaments in white stucco.The windows are in general small, and not arrangedin any regular order ; they are closed with lattices,and sometimes open into a wooden carved-workbalcony.The town, according to Lord Valentia, does notcontain a population of more than 5000 souls, thoughthe French travellers made it amount to twice thatnumber. The garrison consists of about 80 horseand 200 matchlock-men, who receive a regular payof two dollars and a half per month. There is not avestige of discipline among them. When on guardat the different gates they recline on couches, withtheir matchlocks lying negligently by their side,while the right hand is occupied with sustainingeither a pipe or a cup of coffee. Their greatest displaytakes place when they attend the dowlah to themosque, with the usual pomp of gay streamers, andof green and red flags. A lively writer has describeda procession which he witnessed at Mocha ten yearsago. The dowlah rode a beautiful little iron-graycharger, and was accompanied by about half a dozenpersons, well dressed and of some condition ; therest of the attendants, amounting to the like number,were meanly clothed, and mounted on wretchedhorses. A large band of regular infantry from thegarrison followed, in plain costume,— a commonblue shirt, small dark turbans, a rude body-belt fortheir cartridges, and a priming-horn. They marchedm a wide front, their matchlocks sloped upon theirshoulders, their free hands grasping the firearms oftheir comrades singing as they proceeded some war«M3

138 CIVIL HISTORY ANDsong in loud chorus. When the dowlah reined upat the gateway of his residence, the military rangedthemselves on one side of the square, and firedthree volleys in the air, retiring every time to thewall to load. The only thing remarkable in theirexercise was their address with the lance, and theextremely small space within which the combatantswheeled their horses.The streets of Mocha present a motley appearance,both as to the dress and character of the inhabitants.Under the coarse awnings of its narrowbazars are to be seen brown and black complexions,half-naked peasants, and richly-attired merchants,in robes of woollen cloth, with a red woollen cap,and a tassel of purple silk, peering above the foldsof their snow-white turban. There is the Jew,the Banian, the Persian, the Egyptian, and thejetty Abyssinian, straight as the young areca, andhaving his short curled hair died with a reddishyellow,—the foppery of his country. There is thestout Arab porter in his coarse brown garment,bowing under a heavy load of dates, the mattingall oozing and clammy with the luscious burden.Lastly, there is the Bedouin, with the hue of thedesert on his cheek, the sinewy hmb, the eye darkand fiery, his legs and arms bare, sandals on his feet,and his bronzed bosom open to the sun and wind. Hewalks erect, and moves onward giving place to none—a broad, straight, two-edged sword in his hand,and a long poniard in his girdle. Other objects inthese bazars attract attention :—extended rows ofcamels and asses, the large coarse sheep of Abyssinia,the small thin species of Arabia, the tall browngoats ;—the shops of the armorers, with their longpolished swordblades, daggers, spears, matchlocks,and here and there the half-worn shield of otherdays ;—then there are the cooks' shops, with theirhot cakes of bread, and their large coppers withportions of meat and fowls swimming in ghee, and

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 139ready for the traveller ;—besides there are the caravansariesand coffee-houses, with groups of townsmenand traders reclining on couches of the dateleaf,smoking their small hookahs, sipping theirkischer, and perpetually stroking their long beards.one of the best inThe government of Mocha isthe gift of the imam, owing to the large sums whichthe dowlah is able to extort from the Banians andforeign traders. Formerly an Arab of high rankwas appointed to the office ; but of late it has been,deemed more prudent to give it to a slave, who caneasily be removed, and from whom it is more safeto take the profits of his situation. From theavaricious temper of the local authorities, Niebuhrand his companions experienced the most vexatioustreatment in the seizure of their baggage, and thedestruction of some of their valuable instruments.Lord Valentia makes the same remark as to thecovetous and tyramiical character of the ruler ofMocha, and ascribes to him a new method of extortingmoney from the Banians, by confining themin a room, and fumigating them with sulphur tillthey complied with his demands. The dowlah in1823 is represented as a more amiable personage,quiet and civil to Europeans, and not oppressive tothe people. He was an Abyssinian, not at allsUiking either in his figure or appearance, who hadbeen a slave in the family of the imam, and promotedfor his good conduct. Without the walls ofthe town are three extensive suburbs ; one occupiedby common labourers ;one by the Abyssinian mariners,who detest the natives ; and the third bythe Jews, who are not allowed to wear a turban,and held in such contempt that an Arab may spitupon and strike them. These last carry on an extensiveillicit trade in brandy distilled from dates.These suburbs are not more cleanly than the town.The bed of the river Moosa is filled with an accuulationof filth and rubbish ; its waters never

'and140 CIVIL HISTORY ANDreach the sea except after heavy rains, on one ofwhich occasions it swept away a considerable partof the Jewish village that had been built in its dustychannel.In the territory of Yemen, besides the governmentsalready mentioned, there are an immensenumber of small hereditary princes, sheiks, anddowlahs, w^ho live in a state of vassalage or independence,according to the ability of the imamto retain them in subjection. In nobility of descentand dignity of rank, many of them acknowledgeno superior, and assume the symbols and prerogativesof royalty. To enumerate these petty sovereignswould be impossible. The mountain ofScheehava, north-east from Loheia, contained 300villages, which were divided among a great manysheiks, most of whom claimed kindred with thereigning family at Sanaa. The famous hill of Sabber,near Taas, was said to be parcelled out to morethan a hundred free and hereditary sheiks.Of independent states in Yemen, besides thosewithin the imam's dominions, Niebuhr has specifiedno fewer than thirteen ; and others doubtless mightexist, of which he had obtained no information.These were Aden, Kaukeban, Kobail or Heschid-u.-Bekel, Abu-Arish, Khaulan, Sahan, Saade, Nejeran,Kahtan, Nehm, East Khaulan, Jof, and Jafa,Aden belonged to the imam until 1730, when theinhabitants expelled the governor, elected a sheik,Jdeclared themselves independent. Abulfedaand Ibn-Haukul describe it as a flourishing townbut it suffered repeated devastations in the warsbetween the Turks and Portuguese, and its commercewas transferred to Mocha, When Sharpeyvisited it (1609), " it belonged to the Great Turk,and was the key that let him into all the treasuresand sweetnesses of the Happy Arabia." A hundredyears afterward the French, who put into the harbour,describe the town as of considerable extent,

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 141.and containing several elegant buildings. Of thesethe finest were the public baths : they were all linedwith marble or jasper, covered with a handsomedome, open at the top for the admission of light,and adorned inside with galleries, supported bymagnificent pillars. The markets were stored withmeat, fish, and other provisions of excellent quality.Many of the houses were handsome, and two storieshigh; but the heaps of rubbish and ruins testifiedthat its ancient splendour was gone. The town liesat the foot of high rocky mountains, which surroundit almost on every side ; on their summits and inthe narrow passes were several forts. Towards thesea, by which alone the city can be approached bya very narrow causeway or peninsula, the accesswas guarded by five or six batteries of brass cannon.The bay is eight or nine leagues wide at theopening, and affords good anchorage, from eighteento twenty fathoms. The scenery around is of awild and savage character, giving few indicationsof that felicity or delight of which its name is saidto be the expression. Cape Aden is a very loftyand steep rock, which the mariner can descry at thedistance of 15 or 20 leagues. To this small statepertain a number of inferior towns and castles.The principality of Kaukeban was ruled by imamsof its own, claiming their descent from Mohammed.,until they were obliged to yield up the title to Khassem,the new Arabian conqueror. The chiefs ofKobail compose a sort of confederacy (Heschid-uBekel) for their mutual defence ; their subjectsmake excellent soldiers. The territory of Jafa i,*surrounded by that of Aden, and was under I'nedominion of Sanaa until the end of the 17th century,when the inhabitants revolted from the imam. Inthese districts are a multitude of petty sovereigns,the chief of whom take the title of sultans ; Jafa andJof being he only part of Arabia where that nameis used. Abu-Arish and Mareb are governed bysheriffs ; the latter lies 16 leagues north-east from

142 CIVIL HISTORY ANDSanaa, and, though containing only about 300 housesof mean appearance, is the capital of the province.The province of Hadramaut is ruled by a numberof petty independent sovereigns, of whose historyor dominions little has been recorded beyondthe names of a few cities on the coast. These havetheir particular sheiks, many of whom may havedescended in patriarchal succession from the mostremote antiquity. Among those princes, some havebeen dignified by travellers, but improperly, withthe title of kings. The city of Doan is said to bemore elegant than the capital of Yemen, from whichit is distant five-and-twenty days' journe3^ Themost powerful of these sovereigns is the Sheik ofKeshin, whose dominions composed the imaginarykingdom of Fartach, as laid down in the older maps ;—an error which may, perhaps, have arisen fromhis occasional residence in the town of that name.He possesses the island of Socotra, of which theheir-presumptive of the reigning family is alwaysthe governor. Dafar and Shibam have their residentsheiks, Aidan used to be celebrated for itsannual fair, and the pilgrimage to the tomb ofKahtan.The province of Oman is governed by an imam,but contains a number of petty sovereigns, ofwhom the princes of Jau, Gabria, Gafar, Rank,Gabbi, Dahara, Makaniat, and Seer have the titleof sheik. Seer, which the Persians call Julfar, extendsfrom Cape Mussendom along the Gulf, andjs ruled by a chief of considerable maritime power.It is one of those districts which withdrew fromthe authority of the imam- Of the cities and townsof Oman little is known. Rostak was formerly thecapital of the sovereign. Sohar and Kalbat wereonce flourishing cities, but now greatly decayed.The modern capital, from which the sovereigntakes his title, is Muscat. The Portuguese madethemselves masters of it in 1508, and built two

GOVERNMENT OV ARABIA. 143churches, one of which was afterward convertedinto a magazine, and the other into the residenceof the wah, or governor. From this possession theywere driven by the Arabs about the middle of theseventeenth century, through the treacherous aidof a Banian, who had been robbed of his daughterby the Portuguese commander. In 1746, Oman wasinvaded by Nadir Shah, who subdued all the coun-'try as far as Muscat, which he also tookj with theexception of two forts. On the death of that warlikeprince the Persians abandoned their conquests.The ancient reigning families, the Gaffri, the Hamani,and the Arrabi (the latter pretended to be thedescendants of the Koreish), again resumed the su^preme power. It was at this period that Ahmedthe present imam, succeededibn Said, ancestor toin establishing his independence, after a feeble resistancefrom the Gaffri. Several years ago, whenthe government of India was engaged in suppress"ing Arab pirates (the Joassamees) who infested thePersian Gulf, this prince acted in alliance with theBritish ; and it is to this circumstance that we owemuch of our recent information as to the state of hiscapital, and the resources of his government.*The town of Muscat is romantically situated,being built on a small sandy beach, and lying ina sort of glen or recess behind the bay. On eitherhand it is surrounded v/ith bleak and rugged cliffs ;without a tree, a flower, or a blade of grass to breaktheir uniformity of nakedness. Occasionally theirtops are shrouded in mist^ with here and there ahoary waterfall, dashing from rock to rock until itreaches the ocean below. The harbour, the best andalmost the only one oil that part of the Arabian* Buckingham's Travels in Assyria. Fraser's Journey. SirJ. Malcolm's Sketches of Persia. An interesting account ofSeid-Said. who mounted the throne in 1807, is given by his phyeicisin,Tmcenzo, a native of Italy, under the name of SheikMansfcur.

144 CIVIL HISTOR-? ANDcoast, has a singular appearance. It is bounded oneach side with bold and abrupt rocks, from two tothree hundred feet high, on which are numeroussmall forts. The town is protected by several batteries; but the greater part of the city is composedof ill-built houses, and huts of date-tree leaves ofthe most wretched description, all huddled togetherin the greatest confusion. The streets are rough,narrow, and crooked. The windows, ^vhich arewithout glass, resemble loopholes, and the wallsare covered with a white plaster or cement. TheWater is good ; the fruit of the best quality,— grapesmangoes, peaches, plantains, figs, pomegranates,limes, melons, and dates. Nowhere is there greatervariety of fish ; in the bay they swarm like gnatsin a summer evening ; the rocks supply oysters andother shell-fish, all of which are sold at a verycheap rate. As the pasturage is scanty in thiS'neighbourhood, dried fish a little salted, and poundeddate-stones, form the chief articles of food for their'cattle, of which they are very fond. Horses andsheep as well as cows are fed on this diet.The property of the inhabitants consists for themost part in thehr live-stock ; but the most valuablespecies is the date-tree, the price of which,individually, varies from seven to ten dollars ; andby this standard they estimate landed estates, whichare said to be worth three, four, or five thousanddate-trees, according to the number that growls uponthem. Property of every kind descends by inheritance,the son possessing the liberty of disposing ofit as he pleases. The sovereign has no right in thesoil, farther tlian the tenth of its produce ; nor canhe in any way interfere with the privileges of theowner. Lands are commonly let on lease, or for anannual rent, usually payable in produce. Slaves arehere, as in all other parts of Arabia, employed inagricultural labour ; but they are treated with uniform kindness and indulgence. Oman is by no means

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 145celebrated for its manufactures. Turbans and waistbands,or girdles of cotton and silk, striped or checkedwith blue ; cloaks, cotton, canvass, gunpowder, andarms of inferior quality; earthen jars, called murhtban,for the Zanguebar market,—comprise almost alltheir fabrics. They also prepare an esteemed sweetmeat,named hulwo.h, from honey or sugar, with thegluten of wheat, and ghee, and a few almonds.The price of live-stock at Muscat is extremelyvarious. Camels, according to their blood and quality,will bring from thirty to three hundred dollarsapiece ;goats from four to six ; sheep from oneand a half to six ; mules are not reared, neither arehorses abundant ; but the asses of Oman are celebratedas the finest in Arabia. The price of thecommon kind varies from one to forty dollars ; butthe best breeds sell for very extravagant sums.The present imam is considered the richest andmost powerful sovereign on the Persian Gulf. Suchof the British officers and merchants as have visitedthat port represent him as a man of amiable dispositions,and possessed of superior talents and information;being much superior to the Arab chiefsin general, and adored by his subjects. He administersjustice daily in person, sitting under a porticoin the vicinity of his palace ; and his decisions ingeneral are received without a murmur. Mr. Fraserdescribes his countenance as of mild and pleasingfeatures,—his complexion of a light yellow,—hiseyes dark and expressive, though rendered almostsleepy at times by their heavy lids and long darklashes; his beard was full and black, without theassistance of die ; his mustachios being clipped rathershort, and allowing part of the cheek to be seen.His dress was the plain Arab costume,— a whitecotton gown with wide sleeves, opening down thebreast, but buttoned to the throat, and reaching tothe ankles ; round his waist was a scarf of bluechecked cotton, in which was stuck a silver-hiltedVol. II.—N

146 CIVIL HISTORY ANDdagger or jambea. A blue checked cotton handkerchiefwas wound round his head, the ends hangingdown, and bordered with red, green, and yellow.His sword was of the Persian form, in a plain blackscabbard. The chief minister. Said Abdul Kaherwas as plainly dressed as his master. Neither ofthem wore jewel or ornament of any kind.The palace is the most conspicuous edifice in thetown : it stands close by the sea, is three storieshigh, and might be mistaken for a merchant's counting-houseand store-rooms. The hall of audienceis a veranda overhanging the water, under the terraceof which boats pull up to land visiters.Thefloor was covered v/ith a common Persian carpet,and the furniture consisted of a table and a few plainchairs in the European fashion. A collation wasserved of fruits, sweetmeats, and sherbets, set outin cut crystal of the most elegant fabric. Thoughnaturally gentle, this prince is not deficient in energyand decision when occasion requires. His couragein battle was frequently signalized while co-operatingwith the British forces ;particularly in the expeditionwith Sir John Malcolm against the Arab piratesin the Gulf, where his assistance materially contributedto their suppression. At the attack of oneof the towns, when the British were compelled toretire, the imam observed at some distance a sergeantalone, and surrounded by a detachment of the enemy.Unsupported as he was, he did not hesitate a moment; returning instantly, he dashed singly amongthe rebels, and, after killing several of them, broughtoff the man in safety.The revenues of the imam are derived from varioussources. Besides receiving a tenth of the produceof the soil, he possesses considerable landed propertyof his own, and rents extensive tracts ofcountry from the Persian government, includingvaluable mines of sulphur. A more lucrative sourceincome is the duty of one-half pe^' cent on all

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 147merchandise passing up the Gulf in Arab bottoms.From the province of Oman alone, it has beenreckoned at more than 120,000 dollars (26,250/.)amiually; and from all other ports of Arabia, andfrom Zanguebar, to about 30,000 or 40,000 dollarsmore. Commerce, however, is the chief fountainof his wealth. Besides the ports on the Gulf, hetrades to all parts of the East ; to the coasts ofArabia and Africa ; to Madagascar and the Mauritius.His capital is the great entrepot for warehousing andexchanging the produce of various nations ; and insuch a traffic, the sovereign doubtless possessesmany advantages over his subjects. His expenditureis light compared to his income ; he has noregular military establishment to keep up, nor anyexpensive machinery of government ; and after allhis outlay, it is supposed that he may deposite annuallya surplus of nearly 100,000 dollars.In addition to his hereditary dominions on theArabian coast, the imam holds in possession theislands of Kishma and Ormuz ; and rents, from thecrown of Persia, Gombroon with its dependencies,including a tract of coast of about ninety miles inextent. The inhabitants of Muscat, in point ofmanners, cleanliness, and liberality to strangers, arereckoned the most civilized of their countrymen;and, though not addicted to war, they are esteemedthe best mariners in Arabia. They use small merchant-vesselscalled trankis, the sails of which arenot formed of matting, as in Yemen, but of linen.The planks are not nailed, but tied or sewed together.A little to the north-west of Muscat, and seatedat the bottom of a cove nearly resembling its own,lies the town of Muttra. Though a place of lessbusiness, it contains a greater number of well-builthouses, and affords a cooler and more agreeableresidence than the capital.The province of Hajar, or El Ha^sa, belonged tothe sheiks of the Beni Khaled, one of the most

148 CIVIL HISTORY ANDpowerful tribes in Arabia, whose jurisdiction extendedso far through the Desert as often to harassthe caravans passing between Bagdad and Aleppo.Katif, or El Katif, is a port and a large tradingtown, with a deep bay and the ruins of an old Portuguesefortress. The inhabitants share with theBahrein islands in their pearl-fishery as well as intheir general commerce, though the governmentsare independent of each other. Graine is a largeand populous town, seated on a fine bay; though thesandy desert presses close upon its walls, and nota blade of vegetation enlivens the dreary sceneryaround. It stands about fifty miles from the barof the Euphrates ; and is chiefly inhabited by mercantileand trading people, who engage in all thebranches of commerce carried on throughout theGulf. Their principal employment is fishing, andNiebuhr states that more than 800 boats wereengaged in this species of naval industry.The isles of Bahrein may be considered as partof Hajar, and were formerly sul)ject to the lordsor kings of Lahsa. They were taken possession of,after many revolutions and changes of masters, bythe combined arms of the Portuguese and Persians ;and Antonio Correa, the leader of the former, addedthe title of Bahrein to his name. The cause ofthis expedition was the refusal of Mocrim, sheik ofLahsa, to pay tribute. The chief was beheaded,and the Portuguese commander, in memory of theshare which he had in this event, was authorized tobear a king's head in his coat-of-arms, which thehistorians of his own country say is still borne byhis descendants. These islands are two in numberthe larger is called Bahrein, an appellation whichseems modern, for Abulfeda. and the Arabs of thecoast call it Aval; the smaller retains its ancientname of Arad. The length of the former is aboutten miles, and its breadth five. Its general appearanceis low ; but it is everywhere fertile, well

,turesGOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 149watered, and supports a numerous population. Thewhole soil is industriously cultivated, producingdates, figs, citrons, peaches, and other fruits. Itis reckoned to contain no fewer than 300 villagesMinawah, the principal town, is large and populous,and has a good harbour, with twelve caravansaries.Here many wealthy merchants reside, and carry onan extensive commerce with India, as well as insupplying the Arabian markets with the manufacandproductions of that country.This island is remarkable for its springs of freshwater arising in the sea. One of these gushes upwith great force through a sandy bottom, at the depthof three fathoms. A jar is fitted to the mouth ofthis spring ; and to procure the water a person diveswith an empty bag of goat's skin rolled under hisarm : this he dexterously places over the mouth ofthe jar, and being filled in a few seconds, it floatsup with him to the surface. There are four or fivesprings of this kind round the island, and in thisway is obtained all the water that is drunk at Arad.Strabo mentions a similar spring near the Phenicianisland of Aradus, on the coast of Syria, from whichthe ingenious inhabitants contrived to draw a supplyby means of a leaden ball and a leathern pipe.The chief celebrity of these islands is derived fromtheir valuable pearl-fishery, which is carried on inJune, July, and August. In the sixteenth century,the produce was estimated at five hundred thousandducats (147,395Z.) ; at present it is calculated toyield annually pearls to the value of about twentylacks of rupees (193,750/.) : the greatest portion ofwhich is shipped for India, and the remainder aredispersed throughout the Persian and Turkish empires,by way of Bushire, Bussora, and Bagdad.From thence the best specimens are conveyed toConstantinople, Syria, Egypt, and even the greatcapitals of Europe. The bank on which this fisheryis carried on ex ends nearly southward to Ras elN2

150 CIVIL HISTORY ANDKhyma, and the finest of the pearls are found amongthe group of Maude's islands, near Haloola, so calledprobably from loolo, the Arabic name for a pearl.About two thousand boats are annually employedin this trade, of which the islands of Bahrein furnishone-half, and the small ports on the coast theremainder. In the summer months the bank presentsa busy scene. The divers are Arabs and negroslaves, who are generally trained to the practicefrom their youth. They go down in all depths,from five to fifteen fathoms, remaining from two tofive minutes, and bringing up from eight to twelveoysters in both hands. On reaching the surfacethey merely take time to recover breath, and thendive again immediately. The largest and finestpearls are brought up from the deepest water ; andall of them are said to be as hard when taken outof the fish as they are ever afterward. At firstthey are of a purer white than after they have beenexposed to the air; and in this respect they arecalculated to lose annually one per cent, in value.Of the two kinds, the yellow are chiefly sent toIndia, where this tinge is preferred ; the pure whiteare most esteemed in Europe, and even find a bettermarket in all the great Turkish and Persian towns.The pearl of Bahrein is considered very superior tothat of Ceylon, both in quality and colour. Beforesending them off from the island, they are carefullyassorted as to size, shape, and tint ; then, beingdrilled through, are strung on threads, and made upinto round bundles of about three inches diameter,sealed and directed, and sent in that form to theirvarious destinations. They are then called by themetaphorical name of Roomaan el Bahr, or " pomegranatesof the sea," to which these bundles bear apretty exact resemblance.All the gains of the fishery are divided in the mostequitable way, by shares in proportion to the capitalembarked in the boats. The food of the divers

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 151during the season is chiefly fish, dates, and a smallallowance of bread, rice, and oil. Their earnings arebarely enough to support them through the winter,which they pass in a state of indolence and dissipation.They use the precaution of oiling the orificeof their ears, and placing a horn over the nose whenthey dive, to prevent the water from entering bythese apertures ; but when they have been longengaged in this service, their bodies are subject tobreak out in sores, their eyes become bloodshot andweak, and all their faculties seem to undergo a prematuredecay.*The coast from Cape Mussendom to Bahrein hasbeen, from time immemorial, occupied by a piraticaltribe of Arabs called Joassamees, already alludedto. Their local position necessarily engaged themin maritime pursuits, either as traders in their ownvessels, or as pilots and sailors hired to navigatethe small craft of the Gulf. From their superiorskill and industry, and fidelity to their engagements,they maintained a high reputation, until subdued bythe arms of the Wahabees, after a resistance of threeyears. Their principal town, Ras el Khyma, withall its dependencies along the coast, suumitted tothe yoke, and embraced the new doctrines of theconquerors.This revolution wrought a total change, not onlyin the faith but in the character and habits of theserefractory tribes. Instead of living quietly on thejscanty productions of their own soil, and the fishof their own waters, the Joassamees directed theirviews to war and plunder. Their first captures werethe small coasting traders which, from their defencelessstate, soon fell an easy prey. Imboldened bysuccess, they directed their efforts to higher emprises,until their prowess was felt and dreaded fromthe mouth of the Euphrates to the Indian Ocean.* Buckingham's Travels in Assyria, chap, xxiii. Morier'sTravels through Persia.

152 CIVIL HISTORY ANDIt was about the year 1797 that they first cameinto collision with the British government in theEast ; for as they had hitherto waged war onlyagEiinst what are called native vessels, no hostilemeasures had been taken against them by the English.In that year they had the boldness to violatethis neutrality by attacking, under pretext of obtaininga supply of ammunition, one of the East IndiaCompany's cruisers, the Viper, of ten guns, whilelying at anchor in the inner roads of Bushire. Thepirates were beaten off; but with the loss of thegallant Lieutenant Carruthers and a considerablenumber of the crew. This act of daring treachery,however, did not call forth the immediate vengeanceof the India government. In 1804, fresh aggressionswere commenced, and continued for a series of yearswith increasing insolence and barbarity. Not fewerthan nine British cruisers or ships of war,—theFly, Shannon, Trimmer, Fury, Mornington, Teignmouth,Minerva, Sylph, and Nautilus,—were successivelyattacked or seized by these daring marauders,and numbers of their crews and passengers putto the sword.This system of lawless aggression, and the seriousinjury suffered by the Gulf trade, at length inducedthe British government to have recourse tovigorous measures for maintaining the nationalcharacter, and clearing the seas of these brigands.In 1810, Lieutenant-colonel (afterward Sir Lionel)Smith and Captain Wainwright were sent againstthem with a considerable armament, which sailedfrom Bombay in September, and soon anchored offRas el Khyma, where the troops were landed undercover of the boats and ships. This metropolis ofthe pirates stands in latitude 25° 47', and longitude55° 34', on a narrow tongue of sandy land, with asafe harbour, extending about half a mile in lengthand a quarter in breadth—having several strongpoints of defence with towers and batteries. Their

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 153maritime force was considerable ; and if concentratedmight have amounted to at least 100 vessels,with perhaps 400 pieces of cannon, and about 8000fighting-men, well armed with muskets, swords, andspears. On the landing of the Enghsh, the inhabitantsassembled in crowds to repel the invaders ; butthe regular volleys and steady charge of the troopsovercame every obstacle, and multiplied the heapsof slain. A general conflagration was ordered, withunlimited permission to plunder. The town wasinstantly set on fire in all parts, and about sixty sailof boats and dows, including the captured Minerva,were burned and destroyed. The complete conquestof the place was thus effected with very triflingloss to the assailants.The expedition then proceeded to Linga, a smallport of the Joassamees, on the opposite side of theGulf, which was taken without resistance. Luft,another of their harbours in the island of Kishma,was attacked ; and, though severely galled withmusketry, the British succeeded in getting possessionof the place.The town and fortress were deliveredover to the Imam of Muscat, as this was asettlement which had been taken from him by thepirates. Their next exploit was the recovery ofShenaz, a fort that had also belonged to the sameprince, nearly midway between Muscat and CapeWhen about four thousand shot andJNIussendom.shells had been discharged, a breach was reported tobe practicable, and the castle was accordinglystormed. The resistance made in the town wasstill desperate—the Arabs fighting as long as theycould wield the sword ; and even thrusting theirspears up through the smoking fragments of towersand houses, in whose ruins they remained irrecoverablyburied. Their loss in killed and woundedwas computed at upwards of 1000 men. The expedition,having now swept round the bottom of theGulf, and believing their object was accomplished.

354 CIVIL HISTORY ANDreturned to India. But the sequel proved that theirtask was far from being completed. In a few yearsthe piracies were renewed, accompanied with theusual atrocities, and extended as far as the entranceof the Red Sea.A second expedition was fitted out, which sailedfrom Bombay in November, 1819. Ras el Khymaand the fort of Zyah were again reduced—the Arabsduring these operations displaying a courage and pertinacitythat excited the astonishment of the troopsopposed to them. To bind them more strictly, andto try the effect of moral influence, a treaty was concluded,which guarantied the cessation of plunderand piracy by sea and land. Matters being so faradjusted, the squadron returned to Bombay, leavinga force of 1200 native troops and artillery at Ras eloccupation of which was merely in-Khyma, thetended as a temporary measure. The services ofthis detachment were soon rendered necessaryagainst a tribe of Arabs called the Beni bu Ali, occasionedchiefly by the complaints of the Imam ofMuscat. The settlement of this fierce tribe lay nearCape Ras el Hud; but the first attempt of the British,who were commanded by Captain Thomson,entirely failed. By a sudden and overwhelmingattack of the natives the detachment was totallydestroyed. Out of three hundred and eleven thatwent into action, seven officers and 249 men weremurdered on the spot. Scarcely a wounded manescaped, as the khunjer, or dagger, finished whatthe sword began.This disaster, however, was speedily repaired bya third expedition fitted out at Bombay next year,and which succeeded in getting possession of thetown of Bu Ali ; the works were blown up, and suchof the guns and heavy stores as could not be carriedoff were destroyed. The inhabitants defended theirfortress with a bravery approaching to phrensy,which an eyewitness compared to that of the Scotch

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 155Highlanders at Prestonpans, both as to the mode ofwarfare and the deadly weapon, the broadsword,used on these occasions with such desperate execution." All," says he, " who beheld this extraordinaryattack concur in declaring that more determinedcourage and self-devoting resolution neverwas displayed by any men than by the Arabs. Onthat day, not only were they totally unchecked intheir advance by the heavy and well-sustained firewhich mowed them down in multitudes every instant; but, despising the lines of bayonets opposedto them, they threw themselves upon the troops,seizing their weapons with both hands to break theirranks, and sacrificed themselves to cut dowr theirenemies, even with the bayonet sticking in theirbodies. All the Indian and European troops thatfell were cut down with the broadsword, the matchlockbeing scarcely used during the whole aifair.Before the firing had entirely ceased, women wereto be seen walking among the dead and dying, totallyregardless of the danger that surrounded them :their object was, according to custom,, to drag offtheir friends who had been killed or wounded ; andit appeared that some of them were actually engagedin the attack. Notwithstanding the loss ofhusbands and children, they bore no outward signsof grief; nor did they utter one lamentation, orshed openly one tear of regret or apprehension, atthe very moment when their fortress was blown up,and they believed themselves to be included in thework of destruction."* Part of the prisoners weredelivered over to the Imam of Muscat, and part carriedto Daristan, on the island of Kishma, to whichthe troops left at Ras el Khyma had been transferred,on account of bad health and the scarcityof provisions.On the opposite coast of the Gulf, from the mouths* Fiaser's Journey to Kliorasan. Appendix A.

156 CIVIL HISTORY ANDof the Euphrates nearly to those of the Indus, numerousArab tribes have formed settlements, wherethey live in a state of independence under their ownlaws. They lead a seafaring hfe. employing themselvesin fishing and gathering pearls. The BoniHoul, a powerful and formidable clan, occupy thebarren tract from Gombroon to Cape Berdistan.They are highly esteemed for their valour ; buttheir mode of government r^-nders that quality oflittle avail. Bushire and Bendereek are chiefly inhabitedby different tribes, originally from Oman.Their fondness for the sea contrasts remarkablywith the disposition of the Persians, of whom allclasses have an unconquerable antipathy to thatelement.The territory round the point of the Gulf, extendingfrom the Arabian Desert to Endian, is occupiedby the tribe of Kiab, whose sheik, Solyman, acquiredsome celebrity in consequence of his disputes withthe English, in which he captured some of their vessels.His principal residence was Ghilan, a townnear one of the outlets of the Euphrates. TheBeni Lam, a numerous tribe, occupy the banks of theTigris from Korna to Bagdad. They exact dutieson goods conveyed by that route, and sometimespillage caravans, in spite of the chastisements theyoccasionally receive from the Turkish pashas. Oneof the most powerful tribes, both as to the extentof their territories and the number of their dependencies,is that of Montefik, who possess all thocountry on both sides of the Euphrates from Kornato Arja. In winter they pasture their cattle in thedesert ; and in summer, when the gi-ass is burntup, they remove to the banks of the river. Theytrace their genealogy beyond the era of Mohammedand from time immemorial have been sovereigns ofthat country. Their nobility is divided into manybranches ; and Niebuhr observes that the familythen reigning consisted of 150 persons, all of whom

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 157might aspire to the supreme power, and were intrustedwith a certain share of authority. Morethan twenty inferior tribes hved in a state of subjectionto them, who all, in the event of war, joinedthe troops of the principal chief.The rich plains of Mesopotamia, once cultivatedand populous, are now inhabited, or rather desolated,by wandering Arabs under their respective sheiks,who, if they knew to concentrate their strength,might set tlie Ottoman governors at defiance. TheBeni Khasaal are agriculturists, and have a greatmany petty tribes subject to them, some of whichare again subdivided into thirty or forty inferiorclans. They can muster a force of 2000 cavalry,and a proportionate number of infantry. The BeniTemin and Beni Tai roam between Bagdad andMosul, paying a small annual tribute for their Assyrianpossessions. The whole extent of country,including the frontiers of Persia almost to the sourceof the Euphrates, the Hauran or Syrian Desert, Palestine,the peninsula of Sinai, the greater part ofNejed, and the central wilderness of Arabia, are occupiedby migratory hordes of Bedouins. To detailall the names and minor branches of these tribeswould be to fill our pages with a barbarous nomenclature.Burckhardt, who stands so honourably distinguishedas an oriental traveller, has not onlyenumerated their various classes, but furnished aminute account of their local establishments andmilitary force, as well as of their extraordinary customs,manners, arts, and institutions.*The most celebrated and powerful tribe, perhaps,in the whole Arabian peninsula, is that of theAenezes. In winter they generally take up theirquarters on the plain between the Hauran and Hit, aposition on the Euphrates ; though sometimes theypass that limit and pitch their tents in Irak. In* Burckhardt's Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabys, 2 vols.Vol. II.—

15S CIVIL HISTORY ANDspring they approach the Syrian frontier, and forma line of encampment, extending from near Aleppoto eight days' journey southward of Damascus.The whole summer they spend in seeking pastureand water ; in autumn they purchase their winterprovision of wheat and barley, and return after thefirst rains into the interior of the Desert. They arerdivided into four principal clans,—the Wold Ali, theEl Hessenne, the El Rawalla, or more properly ElJelas, and the El Besher ; and these again are separatedinto numerous inferior bodies. The Sheik ofthe Wold Ali occupies the first rank among theirchiefs, and is therefore styled Abu el Aeneze, or theFather of the Aenezes, The Rawall-^ -^'^nerally occupythe desert from Gebel Shammar towards Jofbut they frequently encamp beyond the Tigris andthe Euphrates. In point of military strength theyare formidable, possessing more horses than any ofthe Aenezes. The El Besher are the most numerousof these grand divisions, and have their residencechiefly in Nejed.To ascertain the population of each of the differenttribes is rendered very diflicult, from a prejudicewhich forbids them to count the horsemen ; as theybelieve, like the Eastern merchants, that whoeverknows the exact amount of his wealth may soon expectto lose part of it. Exclusive of those in Nejed,Burckhardt reckons their forces at about 10,000 cavalry,and perhaps 90,000 or 100,000 camel-ridersand thinks that the whole northern Aeneze nationmay be estimated at from 300,000 to 350,000 souls,spread over a country of at least 40,000 square miles.Most, though not all, of the great Aeneze tribes areentitled to passage-money from the Syrian caravans.The Hessenne take a yearly surra, or tribute, of fiftypurses (about lOOOZ.) ; the Wold Ali levy to the sameamount ; while the Fedaan, one of the strongest ofthese clans, receive nothing in the way of annualimpost from the pilgrims.

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 159The Arabs northward from Palmyra call themselvesAhl el Shemal, or Northern Nations ; a namewhich the natives of Hejaz apply, from their relativeposition, to the whole of the Aeneze tribes. TheEl Mauali inhabit the district near Aleppo and Hamah.Their emir or sheik receives an annual sum from theGovernor of Aleppo, for which he protects the villagesof the pashalic against the aggressions of theother Arabs. They are reckoned treacherous andfaithless ; an example of which is recorded in one oftheir chiefs, who murdered at a convivial feast inhis own tent above 200 Aeneze guests, that he mightget possession of their mares. The Hadedyein, theEl Seken, who reckon about 600 tents, the El Berak,and various other tribes, wander in that neighbourhood.The mountains from Homs towards Palmyra,the extensive territory of the Hauran, theplains of Leja and Jolan, are traversed by numeroushordes, who are tributary to the Pasha of Damascusthough circumstances often induce them to throw offtheir allegiance, and appropriate to their own usethe miri, or tax from the peasants, and other duesthey are employed to collect. The Beni Sakkar, atribe of free Arabs, are celebrated for their courageand their robberies. They have a force of about500 horsemen, who find constant occupation in plunder,or in defending their possessions from theinroads of the Aenezes. The Arabs of Belka, whosecamps extend to the eastern margin of the DeadSea, comprise about forty small tribes, amountmgin all to between 3000 and 4000 tents. They drivecattle for sale to Jerusalem; and their great sheikpays an annual tribute of 2000 sheep to the Pashaof Damascus. The. plains about the Dead Sea andthe Lake of Tiberias are inhabited by the GhourArabs. The Ahl el Kebly, or Southern Nations,comprehend the various tribes that dwell south ofPalestine, and along the borders of the Red SeaGebel Shera is peopled by the Hejaje, who num-

, On160 CIVIL HISTORY ANDber about 400 horsemen. The Howeytat, the Mowali,the Omran, Debourt, Bedoul, Hekouk, andvarious others, occupy the desert from Suez toAkaba. The Omran are a strong clan, and of veryindependent spirit. Their frequent depredationsrender them objects of terror to the pilgrims proceedingto Mecca, who are under the necessity ofpassing through their territories. Five tribes, calledthe Towara, or Arabs of Tor, inhabit the peninsulaof Sinai ; these are the Sowaleha, the Mezeyne, theAleygat, the Tayaha, and the Terabein, who feedtheir flocks in the Petr^ean deserts. They maintainvery little intercourse with their eastern neighbours,and can muster together a force of more than 600matchlocks. In dry seasons they occasionally approachtowards Gaza or Hebron ; and some have acaravan called Kheleit, of more than 4000 camels,which sets out every year to Cairo, where they purchasewheat, barley, and articles of dress.Most of these, with various other branches, calledthe Sherkyeh Arabs, have colonized the westernshore of the Red Sea, from Suez as far as Nubia.During the time of the Mamlouk reign in Egypt,they might be said to have been masters of a considerablepart of the country. They exacted tributefrom the peasants, and engrossed a great share ofthe transport-trade. The Maazy sometimes pasturetheir cattle near the Nile, but generally reside in themountains. From 500 to 600 horsemen constitutethe utmost force of all the Sherkyeh tribes. Someyears ago, if their own reports are to be credited,they could muster at least 3000 ; but their numbershave been considerably reduced by their wars withthe Pasha of Egypt, who at present levies a tributeon them, and observes their movements with sonuich vigilance that they are not even permitted tomake war upon each other,—the most galling re-Ktriction under which an Arab can be placed.the eastern coast of the Gulf, the Bedouins

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA.•161extend from the deserts of Akaba to the northernconfines of Yemen. The Beni Okaba and the ElBily possess the small town of Moilah and theneighbouring country. The Hateym are one of themost widely dispersed of all these wandering hordes.In Syria, in Lower and Upper Egypt, along the Tehama,in Nejed and Mesopotamia, encampments ofthem are always to be found. They are despised asa mean race, with whom the other Bedouins refuseto intermarry ; and for one man to call another aHateymi is considered an unpardonable insult. Thegreat tribe of the Jeheyne inhabit the country roundYembo, and constitute the chief portion of its population.They are much addicted to war, and canraise a force amounting to 8000 matchlocks. Theyacknowledge a nominal allegiance to the Sheriff ofMecca, and, like all the other tribes southward ofAkaba, are entitled to the surra or passage-moneyfrom the Egyptian pilgrims.The Beni Shammar inhabit the mountains of thatname, and are mortal enemies to the Aenezes. Theyare subdivided into numerous branches, some ofwhich have settlements in Irak, and make frequentplundering incursions into the Hauran. Thegreater part of the country extending from Kasymto Medina is occupied by the Beni Harb, who havealso possessions on the coast from Yembo down toJidda and Leith. In summer they migrate to Palestineand Mount Lebanon, on the summits of whichthey pitch their tents and feed their cattle. Fromthe aggregate of this formidable race, there mightperhaps be reckoned a body comprising between30,000 and 40,000 men armed with matchlocks ; andsuch is the numerical strength of their main tribes,that each of them is rather to be considered as a distinctclan. Among their branches extending to theeast and south of Medina, are the Mezeyne, theBeni Safar, Beni Ammer, El Hamede, Beni Salem,Sobh, El Owf, and Dwy Daher. The Sheik of El02

162 CIVIL histokv andHamede is at present considered as chief of all theBeni Harb ; to the Sobh belong the town and districtof Bedr, where a market is held, at which some ofthem are wont to sit during the whole day in theirsmall shops, and in the evening they mount theircamels and return to their famihes in the Desert.The principal station of the Zebeyde tribe is tothe north of Jidda ; but, as their country is in generalpoor, they are obliged to seek for other meansof subsistence than what can be derived from pasturealone. Many of them are active fishermen,and serve as sailors and pilots to ships navigatingthe Red Sea. A certain number have establishedthemselves in this capacity on the Shut El Arabbelow Bagdad. In consequence of their commercialpursuits the other Harbs look upon them withdisdain.The excellent pasture- ground about Taif, andthe chain of mountains eastward, are inhabited bythe Ateybe, who formerly were the inveterate enemiesof the Harb tribe, and could muster a force offrom 6000 to 10,000 matchlocks. The Lahyan andother Bedouin tribes about Mecca are all poor, owingto the sterility of the soil and the high price of commodities.The Beni Fahem regularly supply thecity with charcoal and sheep. Of the once celebratedKoreish, only 300 matchlock-men now remain,who encamp about Mount Arafat. They arebut little esteemed by the other Bedouins, and derivetheir chief subsistence from the charity of the pilgrims,or the price of the milk and butter which theycarry to Mecca. The Adouan, an ancient and powerfultribe, have been nearly exterminated by a seriesof continual wars with their neighbours. 'Many ofthe other tribes in these mountainous regions wereknown in Arabian history prior to the era of Mohammed;such as the Hodhail, who muster 1000matchlocks, and are reputed the best marksmen inthe whole country ; the Thakif, who compose half

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 163the inhabitants of Taif ; the Beni Sofian, Beni Rabiah,Beni Abs, Beni Kelb, and Beni Asyr, who canassemble 15,000 men-at-arms. The Beni Saad andBeni Kahtan are famous from the most remote antiquity; the former being the tribe among whom theProphet himself was educated, and the latter esteemedmore wealthy in camels than any Bedouinsof the Eastern desert. A man is reckoned poorwho has only forty ; and some even of the middle.classes possess 150. The Abyde, the Senhan, Wadaa,Sahar, Begoum, Hamadan, Shomran, and Zohranborder on the territory of the Imam of Sanaa.Among all these nomadic tribes one form of governmentseems to prevail ; and though at first viewit may not seem calculated to secure that grandobject of legislation—the protection of the weakagainst the strong, — yet from the experience ofages, during which their political state has not sufferedthe smallest change, it appears that their civilinstitutions are well adapted to their habits andmode of hfe. Every tribe has its chief sheik, oremir as he is sometimes styled ; and every camp(for a tribe often comprises many) is headed by asheik, or at least by an Arab of some consideration.All the sheiks, however, that belong to the sametribe, acknowledge the common chief, who is calledthe sheik of sheiks. The dignity of grand sheik ishereditary in a certain family, but is not confined tothe order of primogeniture ; on his death the inferiorsheiks choose his successor, more for his personalqualities than from any regard to age or lineal succession.This right of election, with other privileges,obliges the object of their choice to treat themrather as associates than subjects ;and the onlyceremony attending the election is the simple announcementto him, that henceforth he is to beregarded as head of the tribe. Disputes occasionallyarise in choosing between a son, a brother, orsome other distinguished relation, and each party

164 CIVIL HISTORY ANDadheres to its own favourite. A sheik is sometimesdeposed, and a more brave or generous man electedin his place. He has no actual authority over theindividuals of his tribe beyond what he derives fromhis superior abilities ; and though they may paydeference to his advice, they would spurn his commands.The real government of the Bedouins maybe saidto consist in the separate strength of their differentfamilies, who constitute so many armed bodies, everready to punish or retaliate aggression ; and it isthis mutual counterpoise alone that maintains peacein the tribe. The most powerful Aeneze chief daresnot inflict a trifling punishment on the poorest of hissubjects, without incurrfng the risk of mortal vengeancefrom the injured party. The sheiks, therefore,exercise a very precarious sway, and must notbe regarded as princes of the Desert,— a title withwhich some travellers have dignified them. Theirprerogative consists in leading their troops againstthe enemy, in conducting public negotiations, andsuperintending the general economy of the encampment; and even these privileges are much limited.The sheik cannot declare war or conclude peacewithout consulting the chief men of his tribe ; if hewish to break up the camp, he must previously askthe opinion and concurrence of his people ; and ifthe spot which he fixes for the new encampmentdoes not please them, they pitch their own tents atsome distance, or join the camp of another tribe.The sheik derives no yearly income from hissubjects ; on the contrary, he is obliged to supporthis title by considerable disbursements, in the wayof presents to his friends, and hospitality to strangers.His means of defraying these expenses are the sumswhich he levies in tribute and plunder, or obtainsfrom the pilgrim-caravans. He acts in a legal aswell as in a political capacity ; but in cases of litigationhe has not the power to execute any sen-

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 165The Arab can only be persuaded by his owntence.relations ;and if they fail, war commences betweenthe two families and all their kindred respectively.The parties sometimes agree to abide by his decision,or to choose umpires ; but they cannot on anyoccasion be compelled to yield, though an adversarymay be cited before the cadi or judge. The fees ofthis officer are considerable, and always paid by thegainer of the cause, never by the loser.In cases where difficulties occur which baffle hispowers of sagacity to unravel or decide, the cadisends the litigating parties before the mebesshae, orchief judge, who subjects them to the trial by ordeal,similar to that employed formerly in Europe.Should his endeavours to reconcile the disputantsprove vain, he directs a fire to be kindled in his presence; he then produces a long iron spoon (used bythe Arabs in roasting coffee), and having made itred-hot, he takes it from the fire and licks with histongue the upper end of the spoon on both sidesAfter this ceremony he replaces it in the fire, andcommands the accused person first to wash hismouth with water, and then to lick the spoon as hehad done. If the accused escape without injury tohis tongue he is presumed to be innocent ; otherwise,he loses his cause. Persons have been knownto lick the heshaa, as it is called, above twenty timeswithout the slightest harm. In cases of manslaughteror murder, where the accused denies the charge,appeal is always made to this tribunal.Corporal punishments are unknown, pecuniaryfines being always awarded, of whatever nature thecrime may be. An insulting expression, a blowaccording to its violence or the part struck, the inflictionof a wound from which even a single drop ofblood flows, have each their respective fines ascertained.Calling a man a dog incurs the penalty ofa sheep ; a wound on the shoulder, three camels.The forfeit for killing a watch-dog is remarkable

166 CIVIL HISTORY ANDthe dead animal is held up by the tail, so that itsnose just touches the ground ; its length is thenmeasured, and a stick of equal dimensions is fixedinto the earth. Over this the delinquent is obligedto pour as much wheat as will wholly cover it. Thewheat is the fine due to the owner of the dog. Theevidence of a witness may be given verbally or inwriting ; and where there are none, the accusedparty is acquitted on solemnly attesting his innocenceby an oath.There are several kinds of judicial oaths in useamong the Arabs: one of the most common is tolay hold with one hand of the wa'sat or middle tentpole,and swear " by the life of this tent and itsowners." The " oath of the wood" is more serious,and consists in taking a piece of stick or stone, andswearing " by God and the life of him who caused itto be green and dried up." The " oath of the crosslines" is only used on very important occasions,-—suppose stolen goods, or where the fact of the guiltcannot be proved by witnesses. The accuser leadsthe suspected person a distance from the camp ; andthen with his sekin or crooked knife draws on thesand a large circle with several cross lines inside.The defendant is obliged to put his right foot, sometimesboth feet, within this magic ring, the accuserdoing the same, and charging him to repeat the followingwords :— " By God, and in God, and throughGod, I did not take it, and it is not in my possession."To make this ceremony still more solemn,a camel's udder-bag (shemle) and an ant (nemle) areplaced together within the circle, indicating thatthe accused swears by the hope of never being deprivedof milk and winter provision. It is called" the oath of the shemle and nemle ;" and to swearfalsely by it would for ever disgrace an Arab,Generally speaking, the political institutions ofthe Bedouins may be traced to that natural authoritywhich the primitive fathers of mankind exercised

GOVERNMENT OF ARABIA. 167over their families, and which viewed the , duty ofobedience as founded less on any legal obligationsthan upon the opinion of benevolence in the ruler.The office of their sheiks and elders, the maximswhich they observe in war and in negotiating peace,must have arisen from the common wants and thecommon consent of the tribes. They are so simple—so well adapted to the spirit of their free andwandering hfe—that every nation not yet reducedto slavery, if thrown at large upon this wide desert,might be expected to observe the same laws andusages. The case, however, is very different withtheir civil institutions ; and it is not easy to imaginehow so ma"""" arbitrary regulations in their socialeconomy—so inany nice distinctions in estimatingthe price of wounds and insults— could have sprungup by chance, or originated in the gradual improvementof a wild and warlike multitude. Their politicalcode differs from that most generally prevalentthroughout the rest of the Moslem world, and musthave been the work of a legislator older than thftrevolution achieved by Mohammed. The ProphetObliged the Bedouin Arabs to renounce their idolatry, and to acknowledge the unity of a Divine Creator ; but he seems to have been less successful iitforcing his laws upon his own nation than in establishing them with their assistance in the surroundingcountries.

168 HEJAZCHAPTER V.HEJAZj OR HOLY LAND OF THE MOSLEM.Government of Hejaz— Succession and Power of the Sheriffs-^Reign of Ghaleb—Sheriff FamiHes at Mecca—Cities andTowns in Hejaz—Jidda—Yembo—Taif—Mecca— Descriptionof the BeituUah or Grand Temple—The Court and Colonnades—TheKaaba—The Black Stone—The Tob or Cover'ing of the Kaaba—The Zemzem Well— Servants and Revenuesof the Mosque—Inhabitants of Mecca—Their Character,Domestic Manners, and Employments—Low State of Arts andLearning in Hejaz.The g-overnnient of Hejaz, which includes theterritories of Medina, Jidda, Yembo, Taif, and Gonfode,belongs to the Sheriff of Mecca. The honourattached even to a nominal authority over the holycities had led, in former tunes, to frequent disputesbetween the caliphs of Bagdad, the sultans of Egypt^and the imams of Yemen ; although the possessionof that dignity, instead of increasing their income,obliged them to incur great expenses. The solebenefit they derived was the right of clothing theKaaba, and of having their names inserted in theprayers of the mosque. The supremacy of Egyptover Mecca, so firmly established from the beginningof the fifteenth century, was transferred by Selim I.to the sultans of Constantinople ; in whose hands,with the interruption of a few years, it has sincecontinued. The sheriff was invested annually witha pelisse from the grand seignior, from whom heheld his ofhce ; and in tlie Turkish ceremonial hewas ranked among the first pashas of the empire.When the Porte became unable, even by means oflarge armies, to secure its command over that coun-

GOVERNMENT OF THE SHERIFFS. 169try, these subordinate nilers threw off their dependence; although they still called themselves theservants of the sultan, prayed for him in the greatmosque, and received the wonted investiture.The succession to the government of this province,like that of the Bedouin sheiks, is not hereditary; though it usually remained in the same tribeso long as the power of that tribe preponderatedThe election was always made from one of thesheriff families descended from the Prophet, settledin Hejaz. They were divided into various subordinatebranches, of which sometimes one sometimesanother enjoyed the sovereignty of the holy cities.There were no ceremonies of installation or oathsof allegiance. The new governor received complimentaryvisits ; his band played before the door,an honour significant of royalty ; and his name wasinserted in the public prayers. Succession rarelytook place without disputes ; but the contests werein general neither sanguinary nor of long duration.The rivals submitted, or rather withdrew in gloomysilence ; and atonement for the blood shed on bothsides was duly made by fines paid to the relationsof the slain.The result of these poKtical quarrels was attendedwith bad consequences to the community ; forthough they checked the power of the reigningsheriff, they weakened the state by the frequentoccurrence of wars, feuds, and intestine broils.The vicissitudes of fortune to which they gave rise,and the arts of popularity which the chiefs wereobiged to employ, gave to the government of Hejaza character different from that of most other countriesin the East. None of that haughty ceremonywas observed which draws a line of distinction betweenoriental sovereigns or vicegerents and theirsubjects. The court of the sheriff was small, andalmost entirely devoid of pomp. He was addressedby the plain title of seidna (our lord), or sadetkumVol. n.—P

170 HEJAZ.(your highness) ; and the meanest of the peopldconsidered it no violation of etiquette to representtheir grievances personally and boldly though respectfullyto demand redress. No large body ofregular troops was kept up, except a few Mamlouksor Georgians as a body-guard ;and when war wasdetermired upon, he summoned his adherents andpartisans to meet the emergency ; but they receivedno regular pay.The dress of this great functionary is the sameas that of all the chiefs of the sheriff families atMecca, consisting usually of a silk gown, over whichis thrown a white abba of the finest manufactureof El Hassa ; the head is enveloped in a Cashmereshawl, and the feet in sandals, or yellow slippers.When he rides out on state occasions, he holdsin his hand a short slender stick, called metrekand over him a horseman carries the umbrella orcanopy.To present an account of the sheriffs of Meccawere only to describe the petty wars of rival factions.Burckhardt shrank from the task of tracingtheir intricate pedigrees, and the historical noticeof them given by D'Ohsson is chargeable with several errors. About the middle of the last centurythe sovereignty was held by Mesaad ; and after hi*death (in 1770) it was seized by Hossein, the leadeiofan adverse party, but again returned to his family in the person of Serour, who slew his rival inbattle (1773), and whose name is still venerated inHejaz on account of his extraordinary courage andsagacity, which were frequently called into exercisein repressing the turbulence and depredations of th(»inferior chiefs. His death, which happened in 1786remainswas bewailed as a public calamity, and hiswere followed to the grave by the whole populationof Mecca. Two of his brothers aspired to the supreme power, of which Abdelmain kept possessionfor five days only, when the younger brother, Gha

GOVERNMENT OF THE SHERIFFS. 171leb, by his superior skill and intrigue, and by thegreat reputation which he had acquired for wisdomand valour, supplanted him in the government.During the first years of his reign the slaves andeunuchs began to indulge in their former disorderlybehaviour and acts of oppression; but the newsheriff soon freed himself from their influence, andacquired at length a firmer authority over Hejaz thanany of his predecessors had ever enjoyed. Hisnephews, the sons of Serour, attempted to wrestfrom him the reins of power, but without success.His government, on the whole, was lenient andcautious, although his extreme avarice betrayedhim into many acts of individual oppression. Thewhole of his private household consisted of fifty orsixty servants and officers, and as many slaves andeunuchs. His harem contained a small establishmentof wives, being about two dozen of Abyssinians,and twice that number of female attendants to waitupon them and nurse their children. When in thefull enjoyment of his power, he possessed a considerableinfluence over.the Bedouin tribes of Hejaz,but without any direct authority.The income of the sheriff is derived chiefly fromthe customs paid at Jidda and Yembo, which weremuch increased by Ghaleb, who had also engrosseda large share of the commerce to himself, havingeighty dows constantly engaged in the coflTee trade.He also levied a tax upon all cattle and provisions,carried either to the coast for exportation, or intothe interior of the country. The other branches ofhis revenues were the profits realized from the saleof provisions at Mecca ; a capitation-tax on all Persianhajjis ;presents, both gratuitous and compulsory;part of the money sent from Constantinoplefor the use of the temple ; and rents to a considerableamount from landed property, consisting ofgardens around Taif, and plantations in many of thelieighbouring wadis ; besides houses and caravansa»

172 HEJAZ.ries at Jidda, which he let out to foreigners. Burckhardtcalculates the annual receipts of Ghaleb,during the plenitude of his power, to have amountedto about 350,000/. sterling ; but when the Wahabeesoccupied Hejaz, it probably did not exceed half thatsum. The maintenance of his household did notperhaps require more than 20,000/. per annum.Tue small force he kept up in time of peace didnot exceed 500 men, whose pay was from eight totwelve dollars per month. During war, the increaseof his army to 3000 or 4000 troops rendered someadditional expense necessary ; but there is reasonto conclude, that never at any period of his powerdid this governor live up to the full amount of hisincome. The reign of this sheriff has acquired considerableimportance in Europe from its connexionwith the history of the Wahabees ; and his namewill again be necessarily introduced in our notice ofthese fanatical warriors.Of the sheriff families at Mecca, who may be regardedas the former Mamlouks or janizaries ofArabia, only a small number (Burckhardt enumeratestwelve) now remain, who serve as auxiliaries undertheir respective chiefs, either in the armies of theirfriends or their enemies. Their great versatilityof character and conduct has destroyed their creditfor honesty ; and this popular distrust is increasedby the suspicion that they belong to the heterodoxsect of the Zaidites ; while the Meccawees followthe doctrines of Shafei. In personal appearanceand gallant bearing they surpass most other tribesof their countrymen. Those whom Burckhardt hadan opportunity of seeing were distinguished by finemanly countenances, strongly expressive of nobleextraction ;they had all the bold and frank mannersof the Bedouins ; were fond of popularity ; and endowedwith an innate pride which, in their owneyes, set them far above the Sultan of Constantinople.They form a distinct class, into which no foreignersare admitted. They are spread over several

GOVERNMENT OF THE SHERIFFS. 173other parts of Arabia, and acknowledge most of thesheriffs of Yemen and Hejaz as their distant relations.They delight in arms and civil broils ; andhave a singular custom, which was practised in thedays of Mohammed, of sending every male childeight days after its birth to the tent of some neighbouringBedouin, where he is brought up with thechildren for eight or ten years, or till he is able tomanage a mare, when the father takes him home.During the whole of this period, except a short visitin his sixth month, the boy never sees his parents,nor enters the town ; nor is he in any instance leftlonger than thirty days after his birth in the handsof his mother. By this hardy education he becomesfamiliar with all the perils and vicissitudes of thedesert life ; his body is inured to fatigue and privation; and he acquires an influence among theBedouins which afterward becomes of much importanceto him. He acquires for his foster-parentsill the affection of relationship and sometimes thesheriff boys steal;away from their own homes torejoin the friends and associates of their infancy.At Mecca, and in every town throughout Hejaz,justice is administered by the cadi. The fees areenormous, and generally swallow up one-fourth ofthe sum in litigation. The most barefaced acts ofcorruption, bribery, and oppression occur daily inthe Mehkames (halls of judgment), and these disordersare countenanced by the Turkish sultan, whohad long been in the habit of paying the judges 100purses per annum out of his treasury, in considerationof the emoluments he received from the ofl!ice.In lawsuits of importance, the muftis of the fourorthodox sects have considerable influence on thedecisions.Within the dominions of the sheriff are comprehended,as has already been noticed, the cities ofMecca, Medina, Yembo, Taif, Jidda, Gonfode, Hali,and several other places less considerable.

though174 HEJAZ.Jidda, views of which are given by Head andNiebuhr, is described by travellers as a pretty town,built upon a slightly-rising ground, the lower part ofwhich is washed by the sea. It extends along theshore more than half a mile. On the land-side it issurrounded by a wall in a tolerable state of repair,but of no strength. Its watch-towers are mountedwith a few rusty guns, one of which is famous overall the Red Sea, and may be called the Mons Meg ofArabia, as it is said to carry a ball of 100 lbs. weight,A ditch ten feet wide and twelve deep is carriedalong its whole extent ; and there is a battery, whichguards the entrance from the sea and commands theharbour. The approach from the shore is by thequays, where small boats discharge the cargoes ofthe large ships ; the latter being obliged to anchorin the roadstead, at the distance of two miles. Theentrance is shut every evening at sunset ; and thus,during night, all communication is prevented betweenthe town and the shipping.On the land-side are two gates leading to Meccaand Medina ; opposite these the ditch is filled with-rubbish, which serves instead of a drawbridge. The'suburbs contain only huts formed of reeds, rushes,or brushwood, inhabited by peasants, labourers, andBedouins. The streets of the town are unpaved,but, on the whole, regular, spacious, and airy. Thehouses are two or three stories high, handsome, andgenerally built of large blocks of very fine madreporeuniformity of architecture is not ob--,served. There is usually a spacious hall at theentrance, where strangers are received, and which,during the heat of the day, is cooler than any otherpart of the house, the floor being kept continuallywet. There the master, with all his male attendants,hired servants, and slaves, may be seen atnoon enjoying the siesta. The doorways are elegantlyarched, and covered with zigzag fretworkornaments carved in the stone. The windows are

JIDDA. 175siumerous, sometimes large sometimes small, withwooden shutters. The bow-windows exhibit a greatdisplay of joiners' and carpenters' work, which isoften painted with the most gaudy colours. Travellershave been struck with the resemblance betweenthe arches at Jidda and those in the Enghsh cathedrals;some being pointed, like the Gothic ; othersflat, and retiring one within another, like the Saxon.The most respectable inhabitants have their residencenear the sea, where a long street runningparallel to the shore appears lined with shops, andpresents many khans constantly and exclusivelyfrequented by the merchants. The pasha's palaceis delightfully situated on the water's edge ;yet theedifice itself is rather paltry than handsome. Thereare many small mosques, and two of considerablemagnitude. Water is scarce ;bat in all the publicplaces there are persons who sell it in glasses, andhave near them a small chafing-dish, in which theyburn incense and aromatics ; by this means the airis constantly perfumed. The same custom is observedin the khans, shops, and even private houses.The markets are well supplied ; but vegetables andother provisions require to be brought from a distance,there being no gardens near the town orverdure of any kind, except such as is afforded by afew shrubs and date-trees. Beyond the gate is heldthe market for corn, cattle, wood, charcoal, andfruits. Eastward lies the principal burying-ground,containing the sepulchres of several sheiks : here,too, is shown the tomb of Eve, the mother of mankind,which Burckhardt was informed is a rudestructure of stone, about four feet in length, two orthree in height, and as many in breadth. The principalcommercial street of Jidda has a vast numberof shops, which, as in all parts of Turkey, are raisedseveral feet above the ground; before them arestone benches, on which purchasers seat themselves,and where they are sheltered from the sun by an

176 HEJAZ.awning usually made of mats fastened to high poles.The pipe is the constant companion of the lowerclasses, and of all the sailors on the Red Sea. Thehead or bowl consists of an unpolished cocoanutshell which contains water, and the smoke is inhaledthrough a thick reed, or a long serpentine tube. Thecoffee-houses are generally filthy, and never frequentedby the better class of merchants. Thedealers in other commodities are very numeroussellers of butter, honey, oil, and sugar ; of vegetables,fruits, and confectionary of all descriptions.There are pancake-makers and bean-sellers, whofurnish these articles for breakfast ; soup-sellers,shops for roasted meat or fried fish, stands for breadand lehen or sour-milk (which is sold by the pound,and extremely dear), for Greek cheese, and saltedor smoked beef from Asia Minor, to accommodatevisiters at mid-day. Corn-dealers have their shops,vv^here Egyptian wheat, barley, beans, lentils, dhourra,rice, and biscuits may be purchased. The druggists,who are mostly natives of India, have their laboratories; where, ..besides medical compounds, theyretail wax, candles, pepper, perfumery, sugar, andspices of all sorts. A considerable article of theirtrade consists in rosebuds brought from the gardensof Taif : these the inhabitants of Hejaz, especiallythe ladies, infuse in water, which they afterwarduse for their ablutions. Tailors, clothiers, and barbersare not numerous ; the latter act here as surgeonsand physicians, as they formerly did in England.There are a good many shops where smallarticles of Indian manufacture are sold. Very littleEuropean hardware finds its way to these markets,except needles, scissors, thimbles, and files ; coppervessels,water-skins, and other domestic utensils aregenerally imported. In a street adjoining the greatmarket-place live a few artisans, blacksmiths, silversmiths,carpenters, and some butchers, chiefly na*tives of Egypt.

JIDDA. 177Jidda may be called a modern town ; for, althoughknown in ancient times as the harbour of Mecca, itsimportance as a market for Indian goods can onlybe traced to the beginning of the fifteenth century.During the predominance of the Wahabees it hadbeen in a declining state ; its trade was much depressed,and many of the houses had gone to ruin.Since the conquests of the Egyptians, however, ithas recovered its former condition, and is now asflourishing as at any period in its history. In 1823it had a Turkish governor, Rustan Aga, who lived ingreat state, and kept a considerable military establishment.Burckhardt states the number of inhabitantsgenerally at from 12,000 to 15,000; but aboutthe time of the pilgrimage, and during the summermonths, there is a great influx of strangers, whichincreases that amount perhaps one-half: they arealmost exclusively foreigners. The settlers fromIndia, Egypt, Syria, Barbary, Turkey, and othernations may be still recognised in the features oftheir descendants, who are all mixed in one generalmass, and live and dress in the same manner. Theaboriginal tribes who once peopled the town haveeither perished by the hands of the governors, orbeen driven to other parts of the country; thosewho can be truly called natives are merely a fewfamilies of sheriffs, who are attached to the mosquesor the courts of justice. This mixture of races isthe effect of the pilgrimage, which every year addsfresh numbers to the population. The Jiddaweesare almost entirely engaged in commerce, and pursueno manufactures or trades but those of immediatenecessity. Their traffic by land is confined to Meccaand Medina. A caravan departs for the latter placeonce in forty or fifty days, and consists of from 60to 100 camels, conducted by Harb Bedouins. Themore common route of intercourse, however, is byYembo, to which goods are conveyed by sea. Thecaravans to Mecca set out almost every evening, and

178 HEJAZ.perform the journey in two nights ; the camels resting at a station midway during the day. In additionto these, a small caravan of asses lightly laden start?also every evening, and arrives regularly next morning. This conveyance is the usual mail for postletters.The inhabitants evince in their appearancethe extremes of wealth and indigence ; there is agreat deal of luxury in the costume and apartmentsof the rich ; while among the lower orders many arealmost naked, and in the greatest misery. Ali Beyremarked a prodigious number of dogs and cats inthe streets, howUng and roaming without owners,but says there are few flies, and no gnats or otherinsects.Yembo serves as the port to Medina. Thoughthe sheriffs of Mecca were in the habit of appointingtheir vizier as governor of the place, he had inmost cases httle authority beyond that of collectingthe customs; the government being exercised bythe great sheik of the Jeheine tribe, to which manyof the inhabitants belonged. The town is built onthe northern side of a deep spacious bay, whichaffords good anchorage ; and is protected from theviolence of the wind by an island at its entrance.A creek of the bay divides it into two parts, both ofwhich are enclosed by a wall of considerable strength.The houses are low, built of a coarse white calcareousstone full of fossils, and have a mean andwretched appearance. The inhabitants are principallyArabs, no foreigners having settled hereexcept two or three Indian shopkeepers, or a fewTurks who occasionally take up a temporary residence.Yembo possesses about forty or fifty ships,which engage in all the branches of the Red Seatrade ; but they are daring smugglers,—often eludingthe heavy duties of the government by sending aconsiderable part of their cargoes ashore by stealth.The transport to Medina is chiefly in provisions, andoccupies a great number of carriers. Tlie YembJi-

YEMBO TAIF. 179Wees are all armed with a dagger and spear, althoughthey seldom appear so in public, and they usuallycarry a heavy bludgeon in their hand. The situationis healthy, and the markets cheap ; but as a residenceit must be extremely disagreeable, from theincredible quantity of flies that infest the coast.The inhabitants never walk out without a fan todrive oflf these troublesome vermin.Taif is under the government of a subordinateofficer, with little authority, appointed by the sheriff.The town stands in the middle of a sandy circularplain, encompassed by low mountains, called GebelGhazoan. It is in the form of an irregular square,of about two miles in circumference, surrounded bya rampart and ditch, and defended by several towers.The castle occupies a rocky elevated site ; but hasno claim to the title of a fortress, except that it islarger than the other edifices, and has stronger walls.The houses in general are small, but well built, andsupplied with two copious springs. Taif is celebratedover all Arabia for its beautiful gardens,which are situated at the foot of the hills. In someof them are neat pavilions, where the inhabitantspass their festive hours, and to which the greatmerchants of Mecca occasionally retire in summer.Here the fruits of Syria bloom in the centre of theArabian desert ; and from this circumstance traditionhas assigned to it the fabulous origin ofhaving been detached from that country, either atthe general deluge, or by virtue of the prayers ofAbraham, who in this miraculous way obtained forthe natives and pilgrims at Mecca that subsistencewhich their own barren hills refused them,Taif suffered much in the Wahabee war, andsince that period it has remained in a state of comparativeruin. Every thing has the aspect of misery;the principal streets swarm with beggars;and the trade, which consists chiefly in drugs andperfumes, cannot support above fifty shops. For-

180 HEJAZ.merly it was a flourishing commercial town, towhichthe Arabs from a great distance resorted todispose of their caravans of wheat and barley, andto purchase articles of dress. Under the Pasha ofEgypt it may perhaps recover from its present decay.*The indigenous inhabitants of the place areArabs of the ancient tribe of Thakif, so famous mthe wars of Mohammed ; and in their possession areall the neighbouring gardens, and most of the provision-shopsin the town. A few Meccawees aresettled here ; but the far greater part of the foreignersare Indians by extraction.Mecca, the holy city of the Moslems, so long forbiddento the profane eyes of Christians, is nowfamiliar to every reader of Arabian travels ; andnotwithstanding the growing indifference of theMohammedans to their religion, it is still visitedand revered by all orthodox followers ot the Prophet.Among the natives it is dignified with manyhigh-sounding titles,—The Mother of Towns,—TheNoble,—The Region of the Faithful. The city hesin a narrow winding valley, the main direction ofwhich is from north to south, and its breadth vary-* Here Ali Pasha had his head-quarters in 1814 when visitedby Burckhardt, with whom he held a long and interesting conversationrespecting the atfairs of Europe, of which he appeared'to have a tolerable knowledge. He had already heard of thetreaty of peace concluded at Paris, and the captivity of Bonapartein Elba ; and made some curious comments on the newarrangements, both colonial and contmental, of the Allied Powers.That the Enghsh should be guided in their policy by thelaws of honour, or a sense of the general good of Europe, hecould not comprehend. "A great king," he exclaimed withmuch warmth, " knows nothing but his sword and his purse ;.he draws the one to fill the other ; there is no honour among conquerors!" Of the British parliament he had some notion ;andthe name of Wellington was familiar to him. He admitted hewas a great general ; but doubted whether if his grace hadcommanded such bad soldiers as the Turkish troops, he wouldhave been able to do what he himself had done in conqueringEgypt and Hejaz.

MECCA. 181ing from 100 to 700 yards. The buildings cover aspace of about 1500 paces in length ; but the suburbs,from one extreme to the other, extend tonearly 3500. The mountains, enclosing the valleyand overhanging the town, rise from 200 to 500 feetin height, rugged, and completely barren. Meccamay be styled a handsome town ; its streets are in^•eneral broader than those of Eastern cities ; thehouses lofty, and built of stone, which, being of adark-gray colour, looks more agreeable than theglaring white that offends the eye at Jidda and Mocha.The numerous windows that face the streetsgive them a lively and European aspect ; the greaternumber project from the wall, and have their frameworkelaborately carved, or painted with brilliantcolours. In front hang blinds made of slight reeds,which exclude flies and gnats while they admit freshair. The doors are generally approached by a fewsteps, and have small seats on each side.The city is open on every side ; though in formertimes its extremities were protected by three walls,ruins of which are still visible. Except four or fivelarge palaces belonging to the sheriff, two colleges,and the great mosque, it cannot boast of any publicedifices ; and in this respect it is perhaps more deficientthan any other oriental town of the same size.Nearly all the common houses are divided intosmall apartments, for the accommodation of lodgersduring the pilgrimage. The terraces on the roofare concealed from view by slight parapet walls;for, throughout the East, it is reckoned discreditablefor a man to appear where he might be accusedof looking at the women, who pass the greater partof their time on the terraces, employed in hangingup linen, drying corn, and various domestic occupations.The streets, being sandy and mipaved, aredisagreeable in summer, and equally so from mud inthe rainy season, during which they are scarcelypassable ; and the lower parts of the town, whereVol. II.—Q

182 HEJAZ.the water does not run off, are converted into pools,and allowed to remain till they dry.The police of the city is badly regulated : as thereare no lamps, the streets are totally dark, and encumberedwith the rubbish and sweepings cast fromthe houses. The inhabitants are but poorly supphedwith water ; the best is conveyed from thevicinity of Arafat, six or seven hours distant, by anaqueduct of vast labour and magnitude, first erected,according to the Arabian historians, by Zobeide, thewife of Haroun al Raschid, and frequently repairedat great expense by the Turkish sultans. In somequarters of the town there are handsome shops, forthe sale of all sorts of provisions. The baths, threein number, are of an inferior order, and chiefly frequentedby foreigners.The only pubhc edifice worthy of note is theGreat Mosque or Temple, which the Moslem callBeitullah (the House of God), or El Haram (theTemple of Excellence). This celebrated structurehas been so often ruined and repaired, that no tracesof remote antiquity are to be found al30ut it. Fromthe days of Omar, who laid its first foundations, tothe present century, various caliphs, emperors, sultans,and imams have signalized their piety byrenewing, altering, or adding to its buildings. Almansorenlarged the north and south side to twiceits former extent; IMahadi, INIotassem, Motaded,and others of the Abbassides, expended immensesums in the erection of columns, new gates, andmarble pavements. After its restoration from thedisasters it experienced at the hands of the hereticalKarmathians, no changes or additions weremade for several centuries. The Sultan Solymancaused all the domes to be raised which cover theroof of the colonnades, and laid the pavement thatis now round the Kaaba. From the year 1627,when it was rebuilt, after being partly destroyed by

MECCA. 183a torrent from the hills, no other material alterationsor improvements took place till the eighteenthcentury; so that the building, as it now appears,may be almost wholly ascribed to the munificenceof the last sultans of Egypt and the Turkish emperors.In the autumn of 1816, several artists andworkmen sent from Constantinople were employedin repairing the damage done by the Wahabees.The Temple stands near the middle of the cityit is a quadrilateral building, much resembling inform, according to Pitts,* that of the Royal Ex-* Joseph Pitts of Exeter was the first Englishman we knowof that visited either of the holy cities. The ship in which hesailed being captured in 1678 by a Moorish pirate, he was carriedto Algiers, where he remained in slavery fifteen years. Bycruel treatment he was compelled to become a Mussulman :in that capacity he accompanied his master, an old Turkishbachelor, on his pilgrimage to Mecca, who gave him his libertyon their return. His narrative is homely, but surprisingly accurate.It is curious that Gibbon seems not to have seen or knownof it. A much earlier traveller, and the first Christian in moderntimes that gave a tolerable account of Arabia, was LudovicoBarthema of Bologna, who, in 1503, &c. visited Egj'pt, Syria,Arabia, Persia, and India. At Damascus he contrived, in theguise of a Mamlouk soldier, to accompany one of the pilgrimcaravans to Mecca and Medina, where he paid his devoirs atthe tomb of Mohammed, and went through the whole ceremoniesof the haj ; after which he escaped to Jidda, and thence byway of Aden to Persia. The caravan, he says, consisted of35,000 persons, and 40,000 camels. (See his travels in Ramusio'sRaccolta delle Navigat. et Viaggi, tome i.) The Sheik IbnBatuta, whose travels have been recently translated by ProfessorLee of Cambridge, performed the pilgrimage in 1332 ;but they contain few facts concerning Arabia. His whole accountof Mecca is "May God ennoble it !" He observes thesame brevity regarding Sanaa, Aden, Muscat, and other townswhich he visited. Seetzen was also at Mecca during the timeof the pilgrimage, under the protection of a Moorish merchantbut his stay was short, and his description differs little fromthose of Ali Bey and Burckhardt. He went to Sanaa, whichhe represents as superior to most cities that he had seen inPalestine, Syria, or Arabia.

184 HEJAZ.change in London, but nearly ten times larger. Ithas properly no external front, the walls being connectedon the outside with the adjoining houses,some of which have windows that look into theinterior. These tenements belonged originally tothe mosque, but the greater part of them are nowthe property of individuals, who let out the differentapartments to the richer hajjis at very high prices.The gates of the mosque are nineteen in number,dis tributed without any order or symmetry. Mostof them have high pointed arches, though some areroivid, or almost semicircular ; and as each gateconsists of two or three divisions, the whole numbe' of these arches is thirty-nine. They are withoutany ornament except the inscriptions on the exterior,which commemorate the merits of the builder.Theie being no doors, the mosque is open at allhours, night and day.The great inner court of the Temple forms aparallelogram or oblong of about 250 paces in lengthand 200 in breadth. Ali Bey's measurement is 536feet 9 inches by 356. The whole square is surroundedby a colonnade or double piazza, the frontsof the two tonger sides presenting thirty-six andthe two shorter twenty-four arches, supported bycolumns of different proportions, and amounting inall to nearly 500. On the eastern side the row ofpillars is four deep, and three deep on the othersthey are above twenty feet in height, and generallyfrom U to 1| feet in diameter. Some of them areof white marble, granite, or porphyry ; but thegreater number consist of common stone from theneighbouring mountains. No regular order of architectureis observed, and no two capitals or bases areexactly alike. The former are of coarse Saracenworkmanship, while, from the ignorance of theworkmen, not a few of them have been placedupside down. Some of the shafts in the weaker

MECCA. 187parts are strengthened with broad iron hoops orbands, as in many other buildings in the East.*The arches that front the great court are allcrowned with small conical domes, plastered andwhitened on the outside ;beyond these is a secondrow of low spherical cupolas, amounting in all to152 ; and above them rise seven minarets or steeples,from the summits of which a beautiful view is obtainedof the busy crowd below. These are irreguarlydistributed, one being at each angle, and therest at different parts of the mosque. Some partsof the walls and arches, as well as the minarets, aregaudily painted in stripes of yellow, red, or blue.Around the whole colonnade lamps are suspendedfrom the arches, part of which are lighted everynight. The floors of the piazza are paved Avith largestones, badly cemented. The area of the court isbelow the level of the street, and surromided by aflight of stairs eight or ten steps in descent. Fromthe colonnades seven paved footpaths lead towardsthe centre, elevated about nine inches above theground, and of sufficient breadth to admit four orfive persons to walk abreast. The intermediatespaces are covered with fine gravel or sand.* The annexed engraving of Mecca and the Temple is fromthe splendid work of D'Ohsson (Tableau de I'Emp. Ottoman).The appearance of the town has altered materially since theravages committed by the Wahabees in the present centuryut the view of the temple Burckhardt has pronounced to betolerably accurate, only the Kaaba is somewhat large in proporionto the rest of the building. The view given in Niebuhr,copied from an ancient Arabic drawing, is less accurate thanthat by D'Ohsson. The ground-plan of the mosque in Ali Beyis perfectly correct ; but his views in Mecca and the Hejaz arenot faithful. The view of Medina (vol. i. p. 262) is also fromD'Ohsson. That city has also been altered in its appearanceby the fate of war. The suburbs are entirely omitted by thelatter writer ; and the mosque of the Prophet, being copied froman old Arabic drawing, differs in several particulars from themodern structure. It is to be regretted that Burckhardt wasprevented by severe illness from giving a correct plan of it

188 HEJAZ.Nearly in the middle of the court stands theKaaba, the " navel of the world," as Ibn Haukalcalls it, the most remarkable building about themosque, and the only part which lays claim to highantiquity. It is an oblong massive structure, thesides and angles of which are unequal, so that itsplan forms a trapezium ; but the flat roof, the sizeof the edifice, and the black cloth covering, give itthe appearance of a perfect cube. It is constructedof the gray Mecca stone, in large unpolished blocksof different sizes, and remains as it was when rebuiltin 1627. The length, according to Burckhardt, iseighteen paces, the breadth fourteen, and the heightfrom thirty-five to forty feet. The only entranceis by a door on the north side, which is opened buttwo or three times in the year, and elevated aboutseven feet above the ground. In entering it awooden staircase is used, mounted on six large rollersof bronze, with hand-railings on each side, andbroad enough to admit four persons abreast. It consistsof ten steps, and is moved to the wall whenvisiters ascend. The present door, which was sentfrom Constantinople in 1633, is wholly coated withsilver, and fastened with an enormous padlock ofthe same metal. It has several gilt ornaments ;and upon the threshold are placed every night varioussmall lighted wax-candles, and perfuming-pansfilled with musk, aloes-wood, and other aromatics.On the western side projects tlie myzab or waterspout,through which the rain collected on the roofis discharged. It is about four feet in length, andreported to be of pure gold, but is more probably ofgilt bronze. The water falls on two large slabs offine verde antique, which are said to mark the spotwhere Ishmael and his mother Hagar were buried.This is enclosed by a semicircular wall (called ElHatim) about three or four feet from the side ofthe Kaaba. It is built of solid stone, five feet inheight and four thick, cased all over with white

MECCA. 189marble, and inscribed with prayers and invocations.The interior of the Kaaba consists only of a hall,the floor of which is paved with the finest marble ;and the lower part of the walls is ornamented withinscriptions, arabesques in relief, and similar decorations.The ceiling is supported by two columns,and there is a door through which persons ascendto the roof. The hall is hghted by an infinite numberof gold lamps, and almost entirely covered withcloth of a rose-coloured silk, lined with white, andsprinkled with flowers embroidered with silver.Near the entrance, at the north-eastern corner, isthe famous Black Stone, called by the MoslemsHajra el Assouad, or Heavenly Stone. It forms apart of the sharp angle of the building, and is insertedfour or five feet above the ground. The shape is anirregular oval, about seven inches in diameter. Itscolour is now a deep reddish brown, approaching toblack ; and it is surrounded by a border of nearlythe same colour, resembling a cement of pitch andgravel, and from two to three inches in breadth.Both the border and the stone itself are encircledby a silver band, swelling to a considerable breadthbelow, where it is studded with nails of the samemetal. The surface is undulated, and seems composedof about a dozen smaller stones of differentsizes and shapes, but perfectly smooth, and welljoined with a small quantity of cement. It looksas if the whole had been dashed into many piecesby a severe concussion, and then reunited ;—anappearance that may perhaps be explained by thevarious disasters to which it has been exposed.During the fire that occurred in the time of Yezzid I.(A. D. 682), the violent heat split it into three pieces;and when the fragments were replaced, it was necessaryto surround them with a rim of silver, which issaid to have been renewed by Haroun al Raschid.It was in two pieces when the Karmathians carriedit away, having been broken by a blow from a soldier

190 HEJAZ.during the plunder of Mecca. Hakem, a maa sultanof Egypt, in the eleventh century, endeavoured,while on the pilgrimage, to destroy it with an ironclub which he had concealed under his clothes ; butwas prevented and slain by the populace. Sincethat accident it remained unmolested until 1674,when it was found one morning besmeared withdirt, so that every one who kissed it returned witha sullied face. Though suspicion fell on certainPersians, the authors of this sacrilegious joke werenever discovered. As for the quality of the stone,it does not seem to be accurately determined.Burckhardt says it appeared to him like a lava, containingseveral small extraneous particles of awhitish and a yellowish substance. Ali Bey callsit a fragment of volcanic basalt, sprinkled with smallpointedcoloured crystals, and varied with red feldsparupon a dark black ground like coal, except oneof its protuberances, which is a little reddish. Themillions of kisses and touches impressed by thefaithful have worn the surface uneven, and to a considerabledepth. This miraculous block all orthodoxMussulmans believe to have been originally a transparenthyacinth, brought from heaven to Abrahamby the angel Gabriel ; but its substance, as well asits colour, have long been changed by- coming incontact with the impurities of the human race.The four sides of the Kaaba are covered with ablack silk stuff called the kesoua, and the tob or shirt,which is brought from Cairo, and put on every yearat the time of the pilgrimage. The roof is left bare,and during the first days the new kesoua is tuckedup by means of cords, so as to leave the lower partof the building exposed ; but in course of a shorttime it is let down so as to cover the whole structure,and is then fastened to strong brass ringsbelow. On this curtain various prayers and passagesof the Koran are interwoven ; and a little above themiddle is a hue or band of similar ijiscriptions (called

MECCA. 191El Hazem, or the belt) worked in gold thread, andrunning round the entire edifice. An opening ismade for the black stone ; but the part of the kesouawhich covers the door is richly embroidered withsilver.In the first centuries of Islam the tob was nevertaken away,—the new one being always put overthe old ; but this custom was at length abolished,the Meccawees fearing that the Kaaba might sinkunder such an accumulation of clothing. The removalof the old kesoua was performed in a veryindecorous manner;-— a contest always ensuedamong the pilgrims and the people for the shredsor rags. Even the dust that adhered to the wallmider it was collected and sold as sacred relics.The curtain and belt belong to the sheriff, who cutsthem up and disposes of them at five francs a cubit.Pitts says that a piece the size of a sheet of papercost nine or ten shillings : it is esteemed an excellentamulet, and many have it laid on their breastwhen dying.The clothing of the Kaaba was a practice of thepagan Arabs, who used two coverings,— one forwinter and the other for summer. It appears tohave always been considered as an emblem ofsovereignty over the Hejaz ;and has in consequencebeen furnished by the princes of Bagdad, Egypt, orYemen, according as their influence prevailed atMecca. It is now supplied at the expense of thegrand seignior ; and such a sacredness attaches toit, that the camel which transports it to Mecca isever after exempted from labour. The black colourof the vestment, and the size of the building, giveit at first sight a xQYy singular and imposing appearance.Seventy thousand angels have this edificein their holy care, and are ordered to transport it toparadise when the trumpet of the last judgment shallbe sounded. The colour of.the tob was not alwaysblack ; in ancient times it was white, and sometimes

192 HEJAZ.red, consisting of the richest brocade. The Wahabeescovered it with a red camlet stuff, of which thefine Arabian abbas are made. The new kesoua isput up fifteen days after the old one has beenremoved, during which interval the Kaaba continueswithout a cover. At the moment when the buildingis clothed, crowds of women surround it, rejoicingwith shouts or cries, called ivalwalou.The ground for about forty feet round the Kaabais paved with fine marble, variously coloured, andforming a very handsome specimen of Mosaic. Thisspace, on which the pilgrims perform the toicaf orcircuit, is of an elliptical figure, and surrounded witha sort of railing or enclosure of thirty-two slendergilt pillars, about seven feet and a half in heightbetween every two of which are suspended sevenlamps of thick green glass of a globular shape, whichare always lighted after sunset.Opposite the -four sides of the Kaaba, and in thecircular line of the pillars, stand four other smallbuildings, called makams, where the imams of thefour orthodox sects, namely, the Hanifees, Shafees,Hanbalees, and Malekees, take their station, andguide the congregation in their prayers. The MakamIbrahim, or Place of Abraham, faces the doorof the Kaaba, and is supported by six pillars. Nearthis structure stands the mamhar, or pulpit of themosque, which is of fine white marble, with manysculptured ornaments. A straight narrow staircaseleads up to the post of the khatib or preacher, whoofficiates, wrapped up in a white cloak, which covershis head and body ; two green flags are placed oneach side of him, and in his hand he holds a stick ;a practice also observed in Egypt and Syria inmemory of the first ages of Islam, when the preacherfound it necessary to be armed for fear of beingsurprised. Here sermon is delivered every Friday,and on certain festivals. It is near the mambarthat visiters on entering deposite their shoes ; none

MECCA. 193being permitted to walk round the Kaaba with coveredfeet.The only other building within the court worthyof notice is the Bir Zemzem or Zemzem Well. Thisbuilding, which was erected about the end of theseventeenth century, is a square of massive construction,with an entrance opening into the apartmentwhich contains the spring. The room istastefully ornamented with marbles of various colours: it is rather more than seventeen feet square,and lighted by eight windows. The depth of thewell is said to be fifty-six feet to the surface of thewater ; its mouth is surrounded by a brim of finewhite marble, five feet high, and about ten in diameter.Upon this the persons stand who draw thewater in leathern buckets attached to pulleys ;—aniron railing being so placed as to prevent their fallingin. The chief of the well has the somewhatalarming title of the Poisoner ; but Ali Bey assuresus, he was a very handsome person, of the mostwinning and graceful manners. The number ofpitchers is immense ; they are of unglazed earth, soporous that the liquid filters through. Their formis long and cylindrical, terminating in a point at thebottom, so that they cannot stand unless placedagainst the wall. The Turks consider it a miraclethat the supply never diminishes, notwithstandingthe continual demand ; for it serves the whole town,and there is scarcely a family that does not dailyuse it for drinking or for ablution ; but it is deemedimpious to employ it in culinary or common occasions.This phenomenon, however, is explainedby Burckhardt, who discovered that the water wassupplied by a subterraneous rivulet. When firstdrawn up it is slightly tepid, resembling in this respectmany other fountains in Hejaz. It is heavyto the taste, and sometimes of a colour resemblingmilk ; but it is wholesome and perfectly sweet, dif-VoL, II.—

194 HEJAZ.fering in this respect from the brackish wells in thetown.On the north side of the Zemzem stand two smallugly buildings, one behind the other, called kobbeiein,in which are kept water-jars, lamps, carpets,brooms, mats, and other articles. They are coveredwith painted domes ; but are not considered asforming any part of the mosque, no religious importancebeing attached to them. The gravelground,from the circular pavement to the colonnade,is covered at the time of evening prayer with carpetsof Egyptian manufacture, from sixty to eighty feetin length and four in breadth, which are rolled upafter the devotions are over. It is only, however,during the time of prayer, that the sanctity of themosque is regarded. Every hour of the day personsmay be seen under the colonnades reading theKoran, or hearing lectures delivered by the ulemason religious subjects. There many poor Indiansand negroes spread their mats, where they are allowedto eat and sleep ; and at noon loiterers cometo repose under the cool shade of the piazza. Inother parts of it are public schools, where the stickof the pedagogue is in constant action among noisygroups of children. Winding-sheets and other linenswashed hi the Zemzem water, are constantly seenhanging to dry between the pillars ; for many pilgrimspurchase their shrouds {keffen) at Mecca, believingthat if their corpse be wrapped in linenwhich has been wetted in holy water, the peace ofthe soul after death will be more effectually secured.The square is used as a play-ground for boys ; andservants carry luggage across it, to pass by thenearest route from one quarter of the city to another.Here, too, men of business meet and converse ontheir affairs ; and sometimes the precincts are so fullof mendicants and diseased people lying about inthe midst of their tattered baggage, as to make the

MECCA. 195place resemble an hospital rather than a temple ;even the Kaaba itself is rendered the scene of suchindecencies as cannot be particularly described, andwhich are practised not only with impunity, but itmay be almost said without concealment.Near the gate of Bab es Salem, a few Arab sheiksdaily take their seat, with their paper and inkstands,ready to write for any applicant, letters, accounts,contracts, amulets, billet-doux, or any similar documents.They are principally employed by the Bedouins,and demand an exorbitant remuneration.One species of inviolable property belonging to themosque are the flocks of wild pigeons with whichMecca abounds, and which nobody dares ventureto kill. Several small stone basins are regularlyfilled with water for their use ; and as it is consideredan act of piety to feed them, there are womenwho expose corn and dhourra for sale on smallstraw mats, and who occasionally embrace the opportunityof intriguing with the pilgrims, underthe pretence of selling them corn for the sacredpigeons-The service of the temple employs a vast numberof people, consisting of khatibs, imams, muftis, muezzins,ulemas, eunuchs, lamp-hghters, metowafs, orguides, with a host of other menial servants, all ofwhom receive regular pay from the mosque, besidestheir share of the presents made to it by the hajjis.The first officer is the Naib el Haram, or guardian,who keeps the keys of tlie Kaaba, and superintendsthe repairs of the building. Burckhardt says hewas one of the heads of the three only families descendedfrom the ancient Koreish, then resident inMecca. Next to him is the aga or chief of the eunuchs,who performs the duty of police-officer inthe temple. His attendants prevent disorders, anddaily wash and sweep the pavement round theKaaba. Their dress is the Turkish kaouk, and theycarry a long stick in their hand, with which they

196 HEJAZ.lay freely about them in cases of quarrels or riots.Their number exceeds forty, and most of them arenegroes or copper-coloured Indians. The ag-a is apersonage of great importance, entitled to sit in thepresence of the pasha and the sheriff.The revenue of the mosque is considerable, althoughit has been deprived of the best branches ofits income. There are few towns or districts in theTurkish empire in which it does not possess propertyin land or houses ; but the annual amount isoften withheld by the provincial governors, or diminishedby the number of hands through which itpasses. Formerly the sultans of Egypt and Constantinoplesent it large sums every year ; but atpresent it is reduced to a state of comparative poverty.Notwithstanding the stories about its riches,it possesses no treasures except a few golden lamps.The history of the Beitullah has occupied the pensof many learned Arabs ; but in its construction itdiffers little from many other buildings of the samekind in Asia. Those of Aleppo, Damascus, andCairo are exactly on the same plan, with an archedcolonnade round an open square.The inhabitants of Mecca may all be called foreignersor the offspring of foreigners, except a fevrHejaz Bedouins or their descendants, who have settledthere. Though a mixed population, they havenearly the same manners, and wear the same dressso little tenacious are they of their national customs.There are few families in moderate circumstancesthat do not keep slaves ; the male and femaleservants are negroes ; and most of the wealthier inhabitants,in addition to their lawful wives, keepAbyssinian mistresses. It is considered disgracefulto sell a concubine : if she bears a child, and themaster has not already four legally-married wives,he takes her in matrimony ; if not, she remains inhis house for life ; and in some instances the numberof concubines, old and young, is increased to

MECCA. 197several dozens. The middling and lower classesmake a lucrative traffic in young Abyssinians,whom they bring up on speculation, and sell tostrangers.The Meccawees are very expensive in theirhouses ; the rooms being embellished with fine carpets,and abundance of cushions and sofas coveredwith brocade. Their furniture is costly—theirtables well supplied—and in receiving visits, whichare frequent, every mistress mnkes it her endeavourto surpass her acquaintances in show and magnificence.The great merchants, most of whom havecountry-residences at Jidda or Taif, live very splendidly,maintaining an establishment of fifty or sixtypersons. Every native delicacy is to be found attheir tables ; the china and glass ware in which theviands are served up are of the best quality ; rosewateris sprinkled on the beards of the guests afterdinner ; and the room is filled with the odours ofaloes-wood. The usual custom is two meals daily,—one before midday, the other after sunset. Theirmutton is of inferior quality ; they hardly know theexistence of fish ; and their pot-herbs are broughtfrom Taif and other neighbouring places.In personal appearance the Meccawees are thinrather than robust ; their features are expressive,particularly in the vivacity and brilliancy of theeyes; their colour is a yellowish sickly broM^n,lighter or darker according to the origin of themother, who in many cases is an Abyssinian slave.The lower classes are stout and muscular but;thenumerous retainers of the temple appear to be themost meager and emaciated beings imaginable. AliBey represents them as absolutely walking skeletons,clothed with a parchment to cover their bones.From their lean and scraggy frame, their hollowcheeks, large sunken eyes, shrivelled legs and arms,they might be mistaken for true anatomical modelsR2

198 HEJAZ.and but for the prospective felicities of paradise,their existence on earth would seem intolerable.One singular practice has been remarked by travellers,that all the male natives both of Mecca andJidda, except Bedouins, are tattooed in a particularway, which is performed by their parents when theyare forty days old. It is called meshale, and consistsof three long incisions down both cheeks, andtwo on the right temple, the scars of which remainthrough life. Instead of a deformity, this is reckoneda beauty ; and they pride themselves on alocal distinction, which precludes the other inhabitantsof Hejaz from claiming in foreign countriesthe honour of being born in the holy cities.This tattooing is very seldom inflicted on femalechildren.In disposition, the Meccawees are lively ; in thestreets, bazars, and even in the mosque itself, theylove to laugh and joke. In talking or dealing witheach other they often introduce proverbs, puns, andwitty allusions ; and as they possess, with all thisvivacity of temper, much intellect, sagacity, andsuavity of manners, their conversation is very agreeable; so that whoever cultivates even a merely superficialacquaintance with them seldom fails to bedelighted with their character. They have a naturalpoliteness, which they display not only to strangers,but in their daily intercourse with each other.In exchanging civilities on the streets, the youngman kisses the hand of the elder, and the inferiorthat of his superior in rank ; while the latter returnsthe compliment by a salute on the forehead. Individualsof equal rank and age in the middle classesmutually kiss each other's hand In the ceremonyof shaking hands, they lay hold of the thumb withthe whole hand, pressing it, and again opening thehand three or four times : this is said to have beenthe practice of Mohammed.

MECCA. 199The vices of pilfering and theft are not prevalentat Mecca ;robberies are seldom heard of ; althoughrogues avail themselves of such opportunities duringthe pilgrimage, and are tempted by the negligenceof the inhabitants in not using locks or bars. Thestreets abound with beggars, who are entirely supportedby the charity of strangers. Many adoptmendicity as a profession, and have a ready stockof pious sentences, which they address to all passengers.Some of them are extremely importunate,and demand alms in a tone of authority little accordantwith their condition. Mecca is called theparadise of beggars, and this may account both forthe number and the insolence of that class. TheMeccawees are proud of being natives of the HolyCity and countrymen of their Prophet. In this respectthey consider themselves favoured beyond allother nations, and under the special care of Providence.The consequence is, that they are haughtyand intolerant towards Christians and Jews, whoprofess a different creed ; and though they do notopenly persecute them, their name is always coupledwith some opprobrious and contemptuous epithet.The sincerity of their own profession, however,does not correspond with their outward zeal. Suchof them as have no particular interest in assumingthe appearance of extreme strictness are very negligentin observing both the forms and precepts oftheir religion, thinking it enough to utter piousejaculations in public, or comply in trivial matters.In imitation of the Prophet, their mustachios are cutshort, and their beard kept regularly under the scissors; in like manner they allow the ends of the turbanto fall loosely over the cap : they put antimonyon their eyelids, and have always a messouak, ortoothbrush, in their hands, because such was thecustom of Mohammed. They know by heart manypassages of the Koran and the sacred traditions, andquote or allude to them every moment ; but they

200 HEJAZ.forget that these precepts were given for rules ofconduct, and not for mere repetition. They excusethemselves from the duty of almsgiving, by sayingthat Providence ordained them to receive charity,not to bestow it ; and instead of attending the Friday'sprayers, as every Moslem is bound to do, themosque is filled chiefly with strangers, while the inhabitantsare seen smoking in their shops. Thelaw prohibiting wine is evaded, so as to become almosta dead letter. Intoxicating liquors are sold atthe very gates of the temple ; neither the sanctityof the place nor the solemn injunctions of the Korancan deter them from indulging in all the excesseswhich are the usual consequences of drunkenness.The Indian fleet imports large quantities of raki inbarrels ; and when mixed with sugar and an extractof cinnamon, it is sold under the name of cinnamonwater.The rich merchants, ulemas, and grandeesare in the habit of drinking this liquor, which theypersuade themselves is neither wine nor brandy, andtherefore not prohibited by the law. The lesswealthy inhabitants, who cannot purchase so dear acommodity, use a fermented liquor made of raisins,while the lower classes drink bouza. Tobacco,hashish, and other intoxicating substances areopenly smoked, and cards played in almost everycoff'ee-house.The inhabitants of Mecca have but two kinds ofemployment—trade and the service of the BeituUah.Many of the latter calling, which may be said to includeone-half of the population, engage privately incommercial affairs ; but the greater proportion haveno other support than their wages, or what theycan extort from the charity of pilgrims. The mostimpudent, idle, and worthless individuals adopt theprofession of guides ; and as there is no want ofthese qualities, nor of a sufficient demand for theirservices, this class of rogues is very numerous.They besiege strangers with their importunities

MECCA. 201from mom to night ; invite themselves to eat anddrink at their expense ;and generally contrive in amonth to wheedle from the simplicity or piety oftheir employers as much as will suffice for the expenseof their families during the remainder of theyear. The position of Mecca, as it is not situatedin the direct route to any country of consequence,and surrounded with perpetual sterility, is unfavourableto commerce ; and but for its being the centreof the religious enthusiasm of the Moslem w^orld,it must have long ago sunk into poverty and insignificance.In ordinary times there is a considerabletrade with the Bedouins and inhabitants ofNejed, who are in want of India goods, drugs, andarticles of dress. The less opulent merchants usuallyemploy their capital in the traffic of corn andprovisions ; and, though the Pasha of Egypt hasmade these articles a strict monopoly of his own,the grain-dealers, after paying freight, have usuallya profit of fifteen or twenty per cent. The consumptionof this species of commodity, it may be observed,is much greater in Arabia than in any of thesurrounding countries ;the great mass of the peopleliving almost entirely on wheat, barley, lentils, orrice ; using few vegetables, but a great deal of butterand spicery.The natural disadvantages of the place are counterbalancedby a source of opulence possessed byno other city in the world. During the pilgrimage,and for some months preceding it, the magazinesof foreign commerce are opened, as it were, by thousandsof wealthy hajjis, who bring the productionsof every Moslem country to Jidda, either by sea oracross the desert, exchanging them with one another,or receiving from the native merchants thegoods of India and Arabia, which the latter haveaccumulated the whole year in their warehouses.At this period Mecca becomes one of the largestfairs in the East, and certainly the most interesting,

202 HEJAZ.from the variety of nations that frequent it. Thevalue of the exports is, however, greatly superiorto that of the imports, and requires a considerablebalance in dollars and sequins, part of which findtheir way to Yemen and India, and about one-fourthremains in the hands of the Meccawees.So profitableis this trade, that goods brought from Jiddayield a clear gain, varying from thirty to fifty percent.Much profit is also fraudulently made ;great numbersof pilgrims are ignorant of the Arabic language,and are in consequence placed at the mercyof brokers or interpreters, who are generally Indians,and never fail to make them pay dearly fortheir services. It is a practice with dealers, whenthey wish to conceal their business from others, tojoin their right hands under the corner of the gownor wide sleeve ;where, by touching the differentjoints of the fingers, they note the numerals, andthus silently conclude the bargain. The wealth thatannually flows into Mecca might render it one ofthe richest cities in the East, were it not for theprodigal and dissipated habits of the people, especiallyof the lower orders, who are loose and disorderlyspendthrifts, squandering away their gains indress, gluttony, and the grossest gratifications.Marriage and circumcision feasts are celebrated ina very splendid style ; so that a poor man will sometimesin one day throw away the expenditure ofhalf a year.It is owing to their dependence on foreign commercethat the arts and sciences are so little cultivatedat Mecca. Travellers have remarked howfew artisans inhabit its streets—such as masons,carpenters, tailors, or shoemakers ; and these areinferior in skill to the same class in other parts ofthe country. With the exception of a few potteriesand die-houses, there is not a single manufactory.There are braziers for working in copper, and tin-

MECCA. 203smiths, who make small vessels for the hajjis tocarry away some of the Zemzem water ; but not aman is to be found capable of engraving an inscription,or fabricating a lock and key. All the doorsare fastened with large wooden bolts ; and the skillof the cutler is only adequate to the manufactureof matchlocks, lances, and halberds, which areforged in the rudest manner ; a hole in the groundserving for a furnace, and one or two goat-skins,waved before the fire, supplying the place of bellows.The swords, watches, and other hardware tobe found in the bazars are imported from Europe.In different shops are sold strings of coral and falsepearls, rosaries made of aloe, sandal, or kalambarwood, brilliant necklaces of cut carnelions, seals,rings, and similar jewelry; but all these*are keptby Indian merchants. Here, too, are to be seengrocers, druggists, tobacconists, haberdashers, sandal-makers,and a great many dealers in old clothes.There are a few large flour-mills worked by horses;but the common practice is to use hand-mills, whichare usually turned by women or the slaves of thefamily.It cannot be expected that learning can flourishin a place where every mind is occupied in thesearch of gain or of paradise ; and in this respectMecca is perhaps inferior to any city of equal populationin the East. The whole knowledge of theinhabitants is confined to reading the Koran, andwriting but indifferently. There are no public libraries,and not a single scliool or seminary ; the mosquebeing the only place where boys are taught the elementaryparts of education. Children from theirinfancy learn to repeat prayers and ceremonies ; butthis is merely to make money by officiating as guidesto the pilgrims. The crafts of bookselling and bookbindingare of course unknown. The language ofthe Meccawees, however, is still more pure and elegant^both in phraseology and pronunciation, than

204 HEJAZ.that of any other town where Arabic is spoken. Itapproaches nearest to the old written Arabic, and isfree from those affectations and perversions of theoriginal sense which abound in other provinces. Asthe sciences form no lucrative profession, they arein consequence totally neglected. The astronomerof the mosque learns to know the exact time of thesun's passing the meridian, to regulate the hoursof prayer ; and the few druggists, or venders ofmedicine, deal in nothing but miraculous balsamsand infallible elixirs ; their potions are all sweet andagreeable, while the musk or aloes-wood, whichthey burn in their shops, diffuses a delicious odourthat tends to establish their reputation.As for the number of inhabitants in Mecca, travellershave found it very difficult to calculate withany degree of certainty ; registers are never kept,and even the amount of houses is not ascertained.In former times it is said to have contained morethan 100,000 souls ; and when sacked by the Karmathianchief in 936, his ferocious soldiers are supposedto have put more than 30,000 to the sword.Ali Bey reckoned that it did not shelter more thanfrom 16,000 to 18,000 ; Burckhardt, a later authority,gives as the result of his inquiries, for the populationof the city and suburbs between 25,000 and30,000 stationary inhabitants, besides from 2000 to4000 Abyssinians and black slaves. The dwellings,however, are capable of containing three times thatnumber, some quarters of the suburbs being entirelydeserted and in ruins ; so that, unless the zeal of thehajjis revive, the capital of Islam must graduallysink into decay.

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 205CHAPTER VI.THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.The Pilgrim-caravans—Their different Routes—Description andNumber of Pilgrims—The Mahmal—The Ihram—Duties ofthe Pilgrims on arriving at Mecca—Walk to Safra and Omra—Journey to Arafat— Sermon of the Cadi—Curious Appearanceof the Scene— Stoning of the Devil—The Feast of Sacrifice—Returnof the Procession to Mecca—Visit to the Interiorof the Kaaba—Departure of the Caravans—AlteredAppearance of the City—Holy Places round Mecca— Pilgrimageto Medina—Description of the City—Its Inhabitants—Their Character and Occupation—The Mosque of theProphet—The famous Tomb of Mohammed—Ceremoniesrequired of the Hajjis— Servants and Revenues of the Mosque—Sacred Places near Medina—Return of the Pilgrims— Bedr—Suez—Convent of St. Catherine—Regulations and Hospitalityof the Monks—Places of Superstitious Resort aboutMount Sinai—The Cave of Elijah—The Rock of Meribah—Gebel Mokkateb or the Written Mountains—The Conventnear Tor—Gebel Narkous or Mountain of the Bell.The law of the Koran, as is well known, enjoinson every Mussulman, who has the means, to performa pilgrimage to Mecca once at least in his life.Dulhajja, as the name imports, is the month peculiarlyset apart for the performance of this solemnity.To those whom indispensable occupationsconfine at home, the law permits a substitution ofprayers; but even this is often evaded, and theduty executed by commission at the expense of afew dollars. Formerly, when devotional zeal wasmore ardent, the difficulties of the journey wereheld to increase the merit of the act ; but at presentmany, instead of encountering the perils of desertsand robbers by land, adopt the more cheap andeavy mode of traveUing by sea. The regular haj-VOL. II.—

206 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.caravans are six or seven in number, though theydo not always make their appearance tog'ether, noreven perform the visit annually. That from Syria,which used to be accompanied by the caliphs in person,sets out from Constantinople, and collects thepilgrims from Northern Asia until it reaches Damascus.During the Avhole route, for the sake ofsafety and convenience, it is attended from town totown by the armed force of the district. From Damascusto Medina it moves with great pomp acrossthe desert,—a journey of thirty days ; and here achange of camels, for which the Bedouins contract,is necessary ; the Anatolian breed being unable tobear the fatigues of such an expedition. The Pashaof Damascus, or one of his principal officers, alwaysattends it, and gives the signal for encamping anddeparting by firing a musket. The different classesof hajjis know their exact stations, and alwaysplace their tents according to their town or province.At every stage is a castle or storehouse forprovisions, with a small garrison, and a large tankat which the camels water. These stations are seldomfarther distant from each other than a marchof eleven or twelve hours. The usual time of travellingis from three o'clock in the afternoon to anhour or two after sunrise next day, torches beinglighted during the night. The Egyptian caravan,which starts from Cairo, is under the same regulationsas the Syrian. Its route is more dangerousand fatiguing, lying by Suez and Akaba, along theshore of the Red Sea, through the territories of wildand warlike tribes, who frequently attack it by openforce. The Persian haj departs from Bagdad, andtraverses Nejed by Deraiah. As the Persians arereckoned notorious heretics, and are generally personsof property, they are subjected to severe impositions,and have occasionally been prohibitedfrom entering the Holy City. The Moggrebin caravanbrings the pilgrims from Barbary and Morocco.

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 207It is usually accompanied by a relative of the king,and proceeds from his capital by slow marches towardsTunis and Tripoli, thence along the Mediterraneanshores to Alexandria or Cairo, collecting thehajjis in every district through which it passes. Yemensent two caravans ;one from Saade, whichtook its course along the mountains to Tai'f, and theother travelled by the coast, taking up such of thePersians and Indians as had arrived in the harboursof the country. A caravan of Indian pilgrims is saidto have started from Muscat and travelled throughNejed ; but this route, it appears, has been long discontinued.Of late the greater portion of the hajjisdo not travel with the regular caravans, but arriveby sea at Jidda. Those from the north, includingTurks, Tartars, Syrians, Moors, and Africans, embarkat Suez or Cosseir; but the wretched andcrowded state of the vessels renders the passagedisagreeable and often dangerous. Crowds of devoteesarrive in the opposite direction from Yemen,the borders of Persia, Java, Sumatra, and the distantrealms watered by the Indus : these comprise Hindoosand Malays — people from Cashmere and Guzerat—Arabsfrom Bussora, Oman, and Hadramautnatives of Nubia and Upper Egypt—and those fromthe coasts of Melinda and IMombaza. All Moslemsdwelling near the ocean are certain of finding, towardsthe period of the haj, ships departing fromsome neighbouring harbour to the Red Sea ; but thegreater number come with the regular Indian fleet.From all these regions swarms of beggars flock toMecca ; they get a free passage from charitable individualsamong their own countrymen, or their expenseis defrayed by those who employ them asproxies in performing the indispensable duties of thepilgrimage. But on landing they are thrown entirelyon the benevolence of the hajjis, and the almsthey collect must serve to carry them back to theirhomes. All the poorer class of Indians turn mendi-

208 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.cants ; and their wretched appearance would makethem worthy objects of commiseration, were it notknown that they assume a tone and character ofoutward misery, because it ensures them a subsistencewithout labour.None of these paupers bear a more respectablecharacter for industry than the negroes of Tekrouris,as they are called, who employ themselves as portersfor carrying goods, cleaning the court-yards, orfetching firewood from the neighbouring mountains.Some of them manufacture small baskets and matsof date-leaves, or little hearths of clay painted yellowand red, which they sell to the hajjis, Avho boiltheir coffeepots upon them. Others serve as watercarriers,or prepare bouza, or occupy themselves inany species of manual labour.Among the pilgrims are to be found dervises ofevery sect and order in the Turkish empire ; manyof them are madmen, or at least assuming the appearanceof insanity ; and as the Mohammedansregard them as saints or inspired beings, sent as ablessing to them from Heaven, they are much respectedby the devotees, who scruple not to fill theirpockets with money. The behaviour of some ofthem is indecent, and so violent, that many willinglygive them a trifle to escape from their importunities.Most of the pilgrims that arrive in detachmentsand before the caravans, are professed merchants,who occupy the interval very pleasantly indisposing of their wares, praying, smoking, readingthe Koran, enjoying the gratifications of sense, andanticipating the happiness of futurity. Except mendicants,almost every hajji combines with his religiousduties some little mercantile adventure, witha view to lessen his expenses. The Moggrebins,for example, bring their red bonnets and woollencloaks ; the Western Turks, shoes and slippers,hardware, embroidered stuffs, sweetmeats, amber,trinkets of European manufacture, knit silk purses,

THE MOHA.MMEDAN PILGRIMAGE, 209and other small wares ; the Anatolians bring carpets,silks, and Angora shawls ;the Persians, Cashmereshawls and large silk handkerchiefs ; the Afghans,toothbrushes made of the spongy boughs ofa tree in Bokhara, yellow beads, and plain coarseshawls of their own manufacture ; the Indians importthe numerous productions of their rich andextensive regions ; and the people of Yemen bringsnakes for the Persian pipes, sandals, and variousarticles in leather.In general, the regular caravans have fixed periodsfor their arrival. Those from Syria and Egypt unitetheir routes at Bedr, whence they proceed to Meccaat a short distance from each other. The approachof the foremost is announced by a horseman, whocomes galloping through the town to the governor'shouse ; a prize being always awarded to him whobrings the first tidings of its safety.The pomp and magnificence of this moving solemnityare still considerable, though much diminishedsince the time of the caliphs, both in point ofsplendour and attendance. When Solyman performedthe pilgrimage (A. D. 716), 900 camels wereemployed in transporting his wardrobe alone. Mahadi,besides the vast sums he expended in presents,built fine houses at every station between Bagdadand Mecca, and caused them to be splendidly furnished.He was the first caliph that carried snowwaterwith him to cool his sherbet on the road; aluxury in which he was imitated by many of hissuccessors. Haroun al Raschid, who performed thehaj nine times, spent in one of his visits nearly amillion and a half of gold dinars (693,750/.) inpresents ; in another, he and his wife Zobeide accomplishedthe journey from Bagdad (nearly 1000miles) on foot ; but the merit must have been lessened,as the whole road was covered daily with finecarpets on which they walked. The retinue of themother of Mostasem, who visited Mecca in 1231,S2

210 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.was composed of 120,000 camels. On a similaroccasion the equipage of the Sultan of Egypt consistedof 500 of these animals for the transport solelyof sweetmeats and confectionary ; 280 for pomegranates,almonds, and other fruits ;besides having histravelling-larder provided with 1000 geese and 3000fowls.In 1814, the Syrian caravan, which was reckonedsmall, amounted only to 4000 or 5000 persons, andwas attended by 15,000 camels. The Barbary caravansometimes contained 40,000 men but it has;not of late exceeded 6000 or 8000. That from Egyptused to be extremely numerous : Barthema statesthat when he was at Mecca it had 64,000 camels. In1814, it consisted principally of Mohammed All'stroops, with very few pilgrims ; but in 1816, a singlegrandee of Cairo joined the haj with 110 camels forthe transport of his baggage and retinue ;and histravelling expenses alone, Burckhardt supposes,could not have been less than 10,000/. The wife ofAli had a truly royal equipage, comprehending 500beasts of burden. The tents of the pubUc womenand dancing-girls were among the most splendid inthis caravan. Females are not excluded from performingthe pilgrimage ; but the law prescribes thatthey shall be married women, and accompanied bytheir husbands or some very near relation. Richold widows, and such as lose their husbands by theway, are provided with delils or guides, who facilitatetheir progress through the sacred territory, andact also in a matrimonial capacity ; but these unionsare only temporary, and at the conclusion of theirdevotions the man must divorce his companion,otherwise the marriage would be considered binding.There is one distinction formerly common to alllarge caravans, but now used only by the Syrian andEgyptian ; each of these has its holy camel, carryingon its back the mahmal with presents for theKaaba, and which also serves the purpose of a sign

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 211or banner to their respective companies. This appendageis mintftely described by Maundrell andD'Ohsson as a high hollow wooden frame, in theshape of a cone, having a pyramidal top coveredwith fine silk brocade, and adorned with ostrich-feathers.A small book of prayers and charms isplaced in the middle, wrapped up in a piece of silk.It was not used by the caliphs, having been firstintroduced (A. D. 1274) by the Sultan of Egypt.Since that time the different Mussulman sovereignshave considered the mahmal as a privilege, and abadge of their own royalty.* On the return of thecaravans, the sacred camel, which is never afteremployed in labour, and the book of prayers, areobjects of great veneration among the lower class,or such as have not been at Mecca ; men and womenflock in crowds to kiss it, and obtain a blessing byrubbing their foreheads upon it.The awful sanctity of Mecca and its territoryrenders it necessary that every traveller, whetheron a religious visit or not, shall undergo a certaintransformation in dress the moment he enters theBelled el Haram, or Holy Land of Islam. f From* " The mahmal (of Damascus) is a large pavilion of blacksilk, pitched upon the back of a very great camel, and spreadingIts curtains all round about the beast down to tlie ground. ThisHcamel wants not also his ornaments of large ropes of beads, fishshells,fox-tails, and other such fantastic finery, hanged uponhis head, neck, and legs. All this is designed for the Alcoran,which thus rides in state both to and from Mecca, and is accompaniedwith a rich new carpet sent every year by the grandseignior for the covering of Mahomet's tomb,—having the oldone brought back in return for it, which is esteemed of an inestimablevalue, after having been so long next neighbour to theProphet's rotten bones." MaundrelVs Travels.t The Belled el Haram is properly the sacred district roundMecca, which has the privileges of a sanctuary or asylum,—thelaw having forbidden the shedding of blood, kiUing of game, orcutting of trees within it. This sanctity, however, is but littleregarded ; criminals are slain without scruple, — persons haveoeen assassmated even undej the wails of the Kaaba, -aiid bat

212 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.whatever quarter the hajjis arrive, they are instantlyrequiredto strip themselves nidced, throw awaytheir garments, and put on the ihram or pilgrim'scloak, which consists of two pieces of linen, woollen,or cotton cloth ; one of which is wrapped round theloins, and the other thrown over the neck and shoulders,so as to leave part of the right arm uncovered.The law ordains that there shall be no seam in it,no silk, nor ornament of any kind. White Indiancambric, that being considered the preferable colour,is generally employed for the purpose ; buft richhajjis use Cashmere shawls without flowered borders.In assuming it, certain ceremonies are observed; such as making a general ablution, sayinga prayer while naked, taking a few steps in thedirection of Mecca, and uttering pious invocations,called telbi.The ihram, whether taken in summer or in winter,is equally inconvenient and prejudicial to health.The head remains totally unprotected, and exposedto the sun's rays : the instep of the foot must likewisebe uncovered ; so that those who wear shoesinstead of sandals cut a piece out of the upper leather.The northern Moslem, accustomed to thickwoollen clothes, find it a severe experiment on theirreligious zeal to remain sometimes for months, nightand day, with no other vestment than this thin garb.The ihram of the women consists of a cloak, soclose that not even their eyes can be seen. Old ageand disease are excuses for keeping the head covtles,both with infantry and cavalry, fought within the enclosureof the Temple. The Umits of this sacred territory are differentlyrepresented. At present it is generally supposed to bebounded within those positions where the ihram is assumed inapproaching Mecca, viz. Hadda, on the west ; Asfan, on the northWady Mohrem, on the east ; and Zat Ork, on the south. AliBey mistakes when he considered this district a particular province.Medma has the same privileges, but they are held in aalittle veneration.

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE 213ered; but this indulgence must be purcnased bygiving alms to the poor. Umbrellas are not forbidden,and are used by most of the visiters from colderclimates ; but the natives of the south either bravethe sun's rays, or screen themselves by means of arag tied to a stick.Though many have died in consequenceof this exposure, nobody utters a complaint.There are no restrictions now as to particulardiet ; but the mohrem, as the vested pilgrim iscalled, is enjoined to behave decently, not to curseor quarrel, nor to kill any animal, not even the verminthat may infest his own person ; although, accordingto Pitts, " if they cannot well be enduredany longer, it is lawful to remove them from onepart of the body to another." The laxity of moderntimes occasionally dispenses altogether with theceremony of the maharmo, especially among theservants and camel-drivers.All the caravans, as they arrive, pass through thetown in procession, accompanied by their guards ofsoldiers, with martial music. The equipage of theemirs is very splendid. They are mounted in palanquinsor taktrouans,—a kind of close litter orcage, carried by two camels, one before and theother behind. The heads of the camels are decoratedwith feathers, tassels, and bells ; the streetsare lined with people, who as they move along greetthem with loud acclamations.On entering Mecca, the first duty of the pilgrim isto visit the mosque immediately ; and this injunctionapplies to all strangers whatever. The prescribedceremonies are, first to repeat certain prayersin different parts of the Temple ; namely, at theentrance under the colonnade, two rikats and fourprostrations are addressed to the Deity in thankfulnessfor having reached the holy spot, and in salutationof the mosque itself: then, advancing into thecourt, certain ejaculations are uttered while passingunder the insulated arch in front of the Kaaba, and

'The214 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.two rikats are pronounced opposite the black stone ;at the conclusion of which it is touched with theright hand, or kissed, if the pressure of the crowdwill admit. The devotee then performs the towaf,keeping the Kaaba on his left-hand ; this ceremony,which was done by the Pagan Arabs in a state ofnudity, is repeated seven times, the three first in aquick pace, in imitation of the Prophet ; each circuitis accompanied with prescribed prayers and a salutationof the black stone. This done, after a fewmore rikats, he proceeds to the Zemzen Well, inhonour of which he addresses some pious ejaculations,and then drinks as much water as he wishesor can get. Some have it poured over them inbucketfuls, " and then," says Barthema, "the foolsthink their sins are washed into the well." Othersswallow it so unreasonably, that they lie for hoursextended on the pavement, while their flesh breaksout into pimples : and this, as Pitts wittily remarks,they call " the purging of their spiritual corruptions."These are the different ceremonies observedwithin the Temple, which the pilgrims repeatafter their guides.next ceremony that the hajji has to performis the sai, or holy walk between Safa and Merouawhich is done along a level street about six hundredpaces in length, and terminated at each end by a stoneplatform covered with open arches, and ascended bya flight of steps. This perambulation, which for ashort space must be run, is to be repeated seventimes;prayers are incessantly recited in a loudvoice ; and on the two platforms the face must beturned to the mosque. A third ceremony is that ofshaving the head ; and the barbers, whose shopsabound in the vicinity of Meroua, during the operationutter a particular prayer, which the hajjis repeatafter them. This religious tonsure is followed bythe walk to Omra, a place about an hour and a half'sdistance from Mecca, where the pilgrim prays two

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 215rikats in a small chapel ; and must chant the telbi orpious ejaculations all the way. After this the towafand sai must be again performed, which closes thepreliminary ceremonies. Some have only part ofthe head shaven before the visit to Omra, and therest completed immediately afterward. The walkround the Kaaba may be repeated as often as thepilgrim thinks fit : and the more frequently the moremeritorious. Most foreigners do it twice daily,—in-the evening and before daybreak.When all the necessary rites have been gonethrough at Mecca, the whole concourse of visitersrepair in a body to Mount Arafat, which is the grandday of the pilgrimage. This mountain is a principalobject of Moslem veneration ; and some even assert,that a pilgrimage to it would be equally meritorious,though the Kaaba ceased to exist. Tradition sayswas here that the common father of mankind metitEve after the long separation of 200 years consequenton the Fall ; that he built the chapel on itssummit before he retired with his wife to the islandof Ceylon ; and was there instructed by the angelGabriel how to adore his Creator ; the spot stillbears the name of Modaa Seidna Adam, or Place ofPrayer of our Lord Adam. It was here, too, thatMohammed is said to have addressed his followers,—a practice in which he was imitated by the caliphs,who preached on the same spot when they performedthe haj. This hill, or rather granite rock,which is about 200 feet high, stands about six hours'journey to the eastward of Mecca, at the foot of ahigher mountain, in a sandy plain about three quartersof a league in diameter. On the eastern sidebroad stone steps lead to the top, and these are coveredwith innumerable handkerchiefs for receivingthe pious gifts which are claimed by the families ofthe Koreish, in whose territory this sacred eminencestands.On the Day of Arafat, or Feast of Sacrifice as it is

ai6THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.called, and which can only be performed at a certaintime, the pilgrims take their journey, some on camels,others on mules or asses; but the greaternumber walk barefooted, which is esteemed the mostpious mode of travelling. The crowd is so vast, thatseveral hours elapse before they can clear the narrowoutskirts of Mecca. Beyond the town a fewmiles the road widens, in pass'ing through the valleyof Muna, where the law enjoins certain prayers andceremonies (paring the nails, and cutting the hair)to be observed. This march is necessarily attendedwith great confusion. " Of the half-naked hajjis,"says Burckhardt, " all dressed in the white ihram,some sat reading the Koran upon their camelssome ejaculating loud prayers ;while others cursedtheir drivers, and quarrelled with those near themwho choked up the passage."Leaving Muna, the plain of Arafat opens througha rocky defile in the mountains; on reaching wiiichthe caravans and numerous detachments of pilgrimsdisperse in quest of their respective places of encampment.It was about three hours after sunsetwhen Burckhardt arrived ; but stragglers continuedto pour in till midnight. Numberless fires werenow seen lighted up over an extent of ground threeor four miles in length ;while high and brilliantclusters of lamps marked the different places whereMohammed Ali, Solyman Pasha, and other emirs ofthe haj, had pitched their tents. Pilgrims were seenfrom camp to camp,wandering in every directionill search of their companions whom they had loston the road; and it was several hours before thenoise and clamour had subsided. Few personsslept ; the devotees sat up praying and uttering theirloud chants ; the merry Meccawees formed themselvesinto parties, singing the jovial songs calledjok, accompanied by clapping of hands ;while thecofi'ee-tents were crowded the whole night withcustomers.

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 217The dawri was announced by a discharge of mi?s^ketry, which summoned the faithful to make readyfor their morning- prayers. After sunrise Burckhardtascended the summit of the mount, whichpresented a very extensive and singular prospect.Long- streets of tents, fitted up as bazars, furnishedthe busy crowds with all kinds of provisions. TheSyrian and Egyptian cavalry were exercised by theirchiefs ; while thousands of camels were feeding- onthe dry shrubs all around the camps. About 3000tents were dispersed over the plain; though thegreater number of the assembled multitudes had nosuch accommodation. The caravans were placedwithout order ; and many of them in the form oflarge circles or doioars, in the inside of Which theircamels reposed.Of these encampments the most rich and magnifl-=cent were those of Yahia, the sheriff of Mecca, thepasha of Damascus, the viceroy of Egypt, and moreparticularly his wife, who had lately arrived fromCairo. Her equipage included a dozen tents of differentsizes, inhabited by her women : the wholeVvas surrounded with a wall of linen cloth 800 pacesin circuit, the sole entrance to which was guardedby eunuchs in splendid dresses. Around this enclosurewere pitched the tents of the men who formedher numerous suite. The beautiful embroidery onthe exterior of this linen palace, with the variouscolours displayed in every part of it, must have remindedthe spectator of the gorgeous descriptionsin the Tales of the Thousand and One Nights. Someof the Mecca merchants, especially the family ofJelani, had very elegant tents ; this being almostthe only occasion when the Arabian gfafidees everventure to display their wealth in the presence of apasha.Burckhardt estimated the whole persons assembledon the plain at about 70,000 ; and the numb{»rof camels from 20,000 to 25,000 This seems aVol. II.—T

218 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.favourite number with the Mohammedans;but it isdeserving of remark, that he is the third traveller*who has made the same calculation. Pitts and AllBey mention this as being the smallest number thatmust necessarily attend at any pilgrimage on MountArafat ; and, in every case where there are fewer,angels are sent down from heaven to make up thedeficiency.Burckhardt's 70^000 appears a tolerableassemblage, even without the addition of celestialrecruits ;yet he says that two only of the five orsix regular caravans had made their appearance thatyear. When the Spanish Mussulman performedthis ceremony, he reckoned the number of hajjis at80,000 men, 2000 women, and 1000 children ; Avho"must have presented a curious spectacle, with their60,000 or 70,000 camels, asses, and horses, marchingthrough the narrow valley in a cloud of dust, carryinga forest of lances, guns, swivels, and other arms,-and forcing their passage along as they best could.The law ordains that the true position of the hajshouldbe on Arafat ; but it wisely provides againstany possibility arising from its scanty dimensions,-by declaring that the mountain includes the plainin the immediate neighbourhood. A similar provisionis made with regard to the great mosque, whichcan accommodate at prayers about 35,000 persons.There is, however, an opinion prevalent at Mecca,founded on a holy tradition, that it is capable of containingany number of the faithful—even the wholeMohammedan community, who might all enter atonce, and find ample room. The guardian angelsare gifted with the power of invisibly extending thelimits of the building, or diminishing the size of theworshipper ; but in modern times there is no occasionfor this miracle, as the temple is never halffilled, and seldom visited, even during the haj, bymore than 10,000 individuals at once.About three o'clock the chief ceremony of the daytakes place, that of the khoteh or sermon, W'hich is

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 219usually preached by the Cadi of Mecca. The wholemultitude now unpitch their tents, press forward towardsthe mountain, and cover its sides from top tobottom. The orator takes his stand on the stone-platformnear the top, whence he addresses the crowed.The discourse lasts till sunset, and no pilgrim,although he may have visited all the holy placesof Mecca, is entitled to the name of hajji unless hehas been present on this occasion.The cadi, whom Burckhardt describes as mountedon a richly-caparisoned camel, read his sermon froma book in Arabic, which he held in his hand ; at intervalsof every four or five minutes he paused, andstretched forth his arms to implore blessings on hishearers ; while the congregation around and beforehim waved the skirts of their ihrams over theirheads, and rent the air with shouts of " Lebeik, Allahuma,lebeik !" (Here we are at thy commands,O God !) During the wavings of the white garmentsby the dense crowd, the side of the mountain hadthe appearance of a cataract of water, and the greenumbrellas of the myriads of hajjis sitting on theircamels below bore some resemblance to a verdantlawn. The sermon lasted nearly three hours, duringwhich the cadi was constantly wiping his eyes ;for the law enjoins the preacher to be moved withfeelings of compunction, and to consider tears asevidence that he is divinely illuminated, and that hisprayers are acceptable.The effect of this scene upon the audience wasextremely various. Some of the pilgrims were cryingloudly, weeping, and beating their breasts fortheir sins ; others stood in silent reflection, withtears of adoration in their eyes, But these penitentswere mostly foreigners. The natives of Ilejaz,and the Turkish soldiers, spent the time in conversingand joking, and imitating the waving of theihrams by violent gestures as if in mockery. Paritiesof Arabs v/ere quietly smoking their nargiles3

220 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.while the frequenters of the cafes, some of whichwere kept by pubhc women, by their loud laug-hterand riotous conduct, gave great annoyance to thedevotees in their neighbourhood.To every stranger, whether Mohammedan, Jew,or Christian, such an assemblage must furnish acurious and impressive spectacle. " It was a sight,"says Pitts, " enough to pierce one's heart, to beholdso many in their garments of humility and mortification,with their naked heads, and cheeks wateredwith tears ; and to hear their grievous sighs andsobs, begging earnestly for the remission of theirsins." Many of the poor pilgrims are in an ecstasy,and believe themselves in actual possession of paradise." It is here," observes Ali Bey, " that thegrand spectacle of the Mussulman pilgrimage mustbe seen. An innumerable crowd of men from allnations, and of all colours, coming from the extremitiesof the earth, through a thousand dangers, andencountering fatigues of every description, to adoretogether the same Deity ! The native of Circassiapresents his hand in a friendly manner to the Ethiopian,or the negro of Guinea ; the Indian and thePersian embrace the inhabitants of Barbary andMorocco ; all looking upon each other as brothers,or individuals of the same family united by the bondsof religion, and the greater part speaking or understandingmore or less the same language. What acurb to sin," adds this zealous Mussulman, " whatan encouragement to virtue ! but what a misfortune,that with all these advantages we should not bebetter than the CaMnists !"By the time the cadi had finished his discourse, thegreater part of the audience seemed to be wearied.The sijn was descending behind the western mountainsas he shut the book and pronounced the lastgreeting of " Lebeik." Instantly the crowds preparedto quit Arafat on their return ; those behindhurrying and pressing on those before ; so that with

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 221Many it is a trial of strength and speed. Formerly,bloody affrays took place almost every year ; eachparty endeavouring to outrun and carry its mahmalin advance of the other. Two hundred lives haveon some occasions been lost in supporting- what wasthought the honour of their respective caravans.The cause of this precipitation is, that the ritualorders the mogreb or prayer of the setting sun, to besaid at Mezdelifa, a mosque or oratory two hoursdistant. The departure and march is a scene ofsplendid confusion ; many pilgrims had lost theircompanions, others their camels, who were heardcalling loudly for their drivers, or searching for themover the plain. As it was dark, innumerable torcheswere lighted, emitting sparks of fire ; there w^erecontinual volleys of artillery ; sky-rockets were letoff ; and bands of martial music played till theyarrived at the mosque. Here another sermon ispreached by torchlight, commencing with the firstdawn, and continuing till the sun rises above thehorizon, when the pilgrims move onward to WadyMuna, a distance of three miles.This narrow valley, enclosed on both sides bysteep barren cliffs of granite, contains a single streetof houses, built of stone, some of which are inhabited,but the greater part in ruins. It abounds w4thsacred relics. Here is the mosque of Meshed el Kheif,in which the Arabs assert that Adam w^as buriedhere Abraham intended to sacrifice his son, and agranite block is shown, alleged to have been cleft intwo by the stroke of his knife ;here Mohanmied wasfavoured with many of his revelations ; and here thedevil had the malice to whisper Tshmael in the earthat he was about to be slain ;—other traditions say,he attempted to obstruct his father in his passage atthree different places, which are marked by as manystone pillars. The first duty of the pilgrim is toprovide himself with twenty-one small pebbles ofthe size of a horse-bean : these he must throw at theT2

222 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.proper times and places, seven at each pillar, exclaiming," Bismillah ! God is great ! this Ave do tosecure ourselves from the devil and his troops!"This ceremony, as may easily be imagined, is attendedoccasionally by accidents. Ali Bey tells us,he came off with two wounds in his left leg. Itappears also to be the subject of jocularity ;for afacetious hajji observed to Pitts, "You may save yourlabour at present, if you please, for I have hit out thedevil's eyes already."After the " stoning," which is repeated three days,and without which the pilgrimage is imperfect, comesthe grand sacrifice of animals,—a rite that all Mussulmansare bound at this time (the 10th day of themonth) to perform. In the space of a quarter of anhour, thousands of sheep and goats are slaughteredin the valley: some of which are brought by thehajjis, others purchased from the Bedouins, whodemand high prices for them. The law requiresthat the throats of the animals be cut in the nameof the most merciful God, with their faces towardsthe Kaaba. The number of victims has sometimesbeen very great. The Caliph Moktader sacrificed50,000 sheep, besides 40,000 camels and cows. Barthemaspeaks of 30,000 oxen being slain, and theircarcasses given to the poor, who seemed " moreanxious to have their bellies filled than their sinsremitted." We are apt to wonder how so manymyriads of animals can subsist in so desolate a region,or how they can be contained in so contracteda space as Wady Muna ; but the Moslems explainit, by pretending that the valley can expand itsdimensions ; and that on the Day of Sacrifice, neithervultures nor flies molest the votaries by carryingoff the lambs or tainting the raw flesh, vast quantitiesof which remain unconsumed.On the completion of the sacrifice, the pilgrimsthrow off the ihram, and resume their ordinary attire; many of them putting on their best dresses to

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 225celebrate the day of the feast or beiram. The longstreet of Muna is converted into a fair ; sheds, booths,and tents being fitted up as shops for provisions andmerchandise of all kinds. The Syrian bargains forthe goods of India ;the stranger from Borneo andTimbuctoo exhibits his wares to the natives of Georgiaand Samarcand ; while the poor hajjis cry theirsmall stock, which they carry on their heads. Themixture of nations and tongues, costumes and commodities,is more striking here than at Mecca. Atnight the valley blazes with illuminations, fireworks,discharges of artillery, and bonfires on the hills.The second day of the feast ends the pilgrimage toArafat ; when the devotees return, to Mecca, testifyingtheir delight by songs, loud talking, and laughter.Many of the indigent pilgrims remain behindto feast on the offals and putrefying carcasses of thevictims that strew the valley. The starved Indianscut the meat into slices for their travelling-provisions,which they dry in the sun, or in the mosque,where they are spread on the pavement, or suspendedon cords between the columns.On arriving at Mecca, a repetition of the previousceremonies takes place. The pilgrims must visit theKaaba, which, in the mean time, has been coveredwith the new black clothing. The visit to the interiorof this building is performed by immense crowds,though it forms no part of the religious duty of thehajjis. On opening the door, which takes place anhour after sunrise, a rush is made up the steps, andsometimes over the heads of the people, in spite ofthe eunuchs, who endeavour to keep order with theirsticks, which fall particularly heavy on such as omitto drop a fee into their hands ; for all the oflScers,from the sheriff who holds the silver key to be kissedat the entrance, to the lowest menial, expect to bepaid. The hall is immediately filled, when everyvisiter must pray eight rikats, and perform sixteenprostrations. Nothing but sighing and moaning is

224 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.heard,—the effect of pressure, perhaps of sincererepentance ; but it is easy to imagine how these devotionsare performed, for while one is bowing- downanother walks over his back ; some are unmercifullycrushed, and many are carried out with diihcultyquite senseless from heat and suffocation.On the first and second days the men and womenenter alternately ; on the third, the sheriff, the sheiks,and illustrious hajjis, perform the holy ceremony ofsweeping and washing the floor. AH the watercarriersin Mecca advance with pitchers and besoms,which are passed from hand to hand until they reachthe guards at the entrance. The negroes then throwthe water on the pavement, while the devoteessweep and scrub with both hands, until the floorappears polished like glass. The water flows outby a hole under the door ; and foul as it is, it iseagerly drunk by the Faithful ; while those who areat a distance have quantities of it thrown over themby the eunuchs. It must require no common pitchof fanaticism to reconcile the stomach of the worshipperto this practice ; but the Moslem excuse itby alleging, that although the liquid is very dirty, ithas the benediction of God, and is besides much perfumedwith the essence of roses. The brooms ofpalm-leaves, as well as the shreds of the cloth thatsurrounds the door and bottom of the hall, are dividedamong the pilgrims, and treasured up as relics.Pieces both of the exterior and interior coveringsare constantly on sale at a shop before the Bab esSalaam ; the latter are most esteemed, and waistcoatsare made of it, which the Believers reckon thesafest armour they can wear.During the Ramadan, and especially on the lastday, the mosque is particularly brilliant. At thecelebration of the evening orisons, the whole squareand colonnades are illuminated by thousands oflamps ; and in addition to these, most of the hajjisiiave each his own lantern standing before him. The

THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE. 225agreeable coolness of the place induces them towalk about or sit conversing till after midnight. Asthe legal period of abstinence now terminates, everyone brings in his handkerchief a few dates or grapes,with bread and cheese, waiting in suspense until theimam from the top of the Zemzen proclaims, " AllahAkbar," when they hasten to break their fast(the lesser heiram) and drink a jar of the holywater. The whole scene presents a curious mixtureof the gay and the grave. The mind is struckwith some degree of awe to witness so many thousandsperforming the towaf, or prostrating themselveson their carpets ;while the mingled voicesof the metowafs, intent on making themselves heardby those to whom they recite their prayers,—theloud conversation of idle spectators,—and the runningand laughing of boys, some of whom are divertingthemselves with swinging machines, or the featsof jugglers in the streets, make the Temple morelike a place of public amusement than a sanctuaryof religion.Before the caravans take their final departure, thepilgrims, from the highest to the lowest, are occupiedwith commercial transactions, either buyingprovisions for their journey or engrossed in the pursuitsof gain. The termination of the haj changesthe entire aspect both of the town and the Temple.Of the brilliant shops lately filled with the productionsand manufactures of every climate in the world,Burckhardt remarks, that not more than a fourthpart remained. The streets were deserted, coveredwith rubbish and filth, which nobody seemed disposedto remove, and swarming with beggars, whoraised their plaintive voices towards the windowsof the houses they supposed to be still inhabited.** The streets and mosques of Mecca resound with the criesof beggars :—"0 Brethren! O Faithful ! hear me! I ask twentydollars from God to pay for my passage home; twenty dollars onlyGod is all boimtiful, and may send me a hundred dollars : but

226 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.The suburbs were crowded with the carcasses ofdead camels, of which above 10,000 are supposed toperish annually ; the smell rendering the air offensive,and spreading pestilence among the inhabitants.The mosque itself is not free from these pollutions.Poor hajjis, worn out with disease and hunger,are seen dragging their emaciated bodies alongthe colonnades ; and when no longer able to stretchforth their hand to ask the passengers for charity,they place a bowl to receive alms near the mat onwhich they lie. All the sick, when they feel theirlast moments approach, are carried to the Temple,that they may either be cured by a sight of theKaaba, or have the satisfaction of expiring withinthe sacred enclosure. The friendless stranger thinksparadise secure if he can obtain a sprinkling of theZemzen water, and breathe his latest sigh " in thearms of the Prophet and the guardian angels." Fora month subsequent to the conclusion of the haj,dead bodies are carried forth almost every morning,and buried by persons in the service of the mosque.Before bidding adieu to the capital of Islam, thereare several holy spots in the town and suburbswhich the pilgrims visit. Among these are the?nouleds, or birthplaces of Mohammed, Fatima, Ali,Abu Beker, and Abu Taleb who is the great patronof the city, and whose name is held most sacred.it is twenty dollars only that I ask ! Remember that charity is thesure road to paradise !" Burckhardt mentions a Yemen beggarat Jidda who mounted the minaret daily after noon prayer, ande.-:ciaimed, loud enough to be heard through the whole bazaar,•' I ask. from God fifty dollars, a suit of clothes, and a copy of theKoran. O Faithful, hear me ! I ask of you fifty dollars," &c.This he repeated for several weeks, when a Turkish :— pilgrimoffered him thirty dollars to discontmue his cries " No," saidthe beggar, " I will not take them, because I am convinced Godwill send me the whole." At length the same haiii gave himhis full demand without being thanked for it— " Pull my beard,"the needy suppliant will say to the scrupulous pilgrim, "if Go44oe» not send ypu ten times more than Vidiat I ask !"

MEDINA. 227The tombs of Kadijah and Amina the Prophet's motherare also objects of veneration. The guardianshipof these places is shared by several families,principally sheriffs, who attend by turns with a trainof servants, and generally expect a contributionfrom the purse of the visiters. Most of the hills inthe vicinity are held as consecrated ground, frombeing the scene of the miracles or revelations of theApostle. On the top of Gebel Kobeis, the hajjis areshown the place were the moon was split ; at GebelTor, the cavern where the fugitive Prophet and hiscompanions took shelter in their flight to Medinaand at Hira, now called Gebel Nour, or the i\Iountainof Light, the small grotto is pointed out in the redgranite; rock, where several passages of the Koranwere revealed by the angel Gabriel. But the talesapplied to these places are not supported by any authentictraditions ; and a journey to them is enjoined,less out of *iy feeling of reverence than from adesire to extort money.A more attractive object of devotion is the tombof Mohammed at Medina ; and such of the hajjis asdo not immediately disperse to their homes, usuallyjoin the Syrian caravan, or form themselves intosmall detachments, who are supplied with camelsby the Bedouins. Their mode of travelling is notthe most convenient ; some being mounted on theback of the loaded animal, and others sitting, one oneach side, in panniers or machines (she/cdafs), whichmust be balanced with great care. According tothe usual practice in Hejaz, the camels walk in asingle row, those behind being tied to the tails ofthose that precede them ; so that a mistake committedby the foremost leads the whole astray. Ajourney of ten or eleven days (about 270 miles),through sandy plains, irregular ridges of mountains,and cultivated valleys, brings the pilgrims to thecity of the Prophet. On the whole of this routethere is not a public khan; nor is any provision

228 THE MOHAMMEDAN PIL6RIMAGE.made for the accommodation of travellers, exceptthe watering-places, which are kept in tolerablerepair. Although reckoned sufficiently safe forlarge bodies, yet daring robberies are occasionallycommitted by the Arabs.The sacred city of Medina lies on the edge of theGreat Arabian Desert. According to the strict preceptof Mohammed, a circle of twelve miles roundthe place should be considered as holy territory ;•but this injunction is completely set aside. Thetown itself is well built : the houses are generallytwo stories high, entirely of stone ; and not beingwhitewashed, they have for the most part a gloomyaspect. The main streets are paved ; the rest arenarrow, often only two or three paces across. Thewall, which completely surrounds the city, forms akind of oval of about 2S00 paces in circumference^ending in a point or small rocky elevation, on whichstands the castle. This latter is enclos#id by a thickstone rampart, between thirty-five and forty feet^high, flanked l3y about thirty towers, and defended'by a ditch. It contains sufficient space for 600 of800 men, has many arched rooms bomb proof, andis supplied with excellent water.The suburbs extend on the west and south, andcover more ground than the town itself, from whichthey are separated by an open space occupied withhuts, coffee-shops, markets, and gardens. There arevery few fine edifices or public buildings, and thosehere, as well as at Mecca, are the works of the sultansof Egypt and Constantinople. There is ariabundant supply of water by means of subterraneouscanals and wells, which are scattered over thetown. The number of inhabitants Burckhardt supposedmight be between 16,000 and 20,000 ;thegreater part of whom are of foreign origin, and presentas motley a race as those of Mecca. No yearasses without an influx of new settlers, attractedEy the hope of making gain in their religious traffic

MEDINA. 229with the pilgrims. Few descendants of the originalArabs who lived here in the time of Mohammed nowremain. Of the Ansars not more than ten familiescan establish their pedigree ;and these are of thehumbler class, living as peasants in the suburbs andgardens. The number of sheriffs descended fromHussein and Hossein were formerly considerable :the latter are reduced to about a dozen families, wholive apart by themselves, and still rank among thegrandees of the town. A few individuals claimingthe honour of descent from the Abbassides stillreside at Medina in a state of poverty, and areknown by the appellation of Caliphi, implying theillustrious source whence they are sprung.The mixed race, of which the greater portion ofthe inhabitants are composed, all become Arabs as tofeatures and character in course of the second orthird generation. In their disposition they are lesslively and cheerful than the Meccawees ;but, thoughthey appear outwardly more religious, and displaymore gravity and circumspection in their manners,their moral character is not better, nor are theirvices fewer than those of their neighbours. Theirstyle of living is poor ; though their houses are wellfurnished, and their expense in dress and entertainmentsis very considerable. As many of them aredescended from northern Turks, they retain muchof the costume as well as the habits of that nation.Everybody, from the highest to the lowest, carriesin his hand a bludgeon or long heavy stick. Therich have theirs headed with silver ; others fix ironspikes to them, and thus make a formidable weapon,which the Arabs handle with great dexterity in theirfrequent bloody affrays.No great or wealthy merchants are settled here ;the trade is merely retail, and those who possesscapital generally invest it in goods ; their not beingany public institution like banks, or commercialcompanies, or national funds, from which the capi-Vol. II.—U

230 THE MOHAMTVIEDAN PILGRIMAGE.talist might derive interest for his money. As thelaw rigorously prohibits usury, this source of gain isleft wholly in the hands of Jews and Christians, theoutcasts of Europe. The produce of the lands aroundthe town is said to be barely sufficient for fourmonth's consumption, which is estimated at the rateof twenty-five or thirty-five camel-loads per day.The rents of fields and gardens, if the crop be good,is very considerable ; the proprietor in ordinaryyears being able to sell at such a rate as to leave aprofit of from twelve to sixteen, and sometimes evenforty per cent, upon his capital, after giving up, asis generally done, half the produce to the actual cultivators.The middling classes, who have smallfunds, require exorbitant returns,—none of them arecontent with less than fifty per cent, annually ; andin general they contrive, by cheating foreigners, todouble their fortune in the course of a single pilgrimage.Most of the merchants have trifling capitalsof 400Z. or 500/. : there are only two or threefamilies that can be considered wealthy, and theseare reported to be worth 10,000/. or 12,000/. sterling,half of which perhaps is vested in land, and the rest'in trade.The principal support of the place is drawn fromthe mosque and the hajjis. The former, from containingthe tomb of Mohammed, is reckoned theprecious jewel of Medina ; which on this account isesteemed equal, and even preferred by some writersand sects of the Arabs, to Mecca itself. Thisvenerated edifice is situated towards the eastern extremityof the town. It is built much on the sameplan with the Temple at Mecca, forming an opensquare, which is divided by a partition into two separatecompartments, and surrounded on all sidesby covered arcades ; but its dimensions are muchsmaller, being 165 paces in length and 130 in breadth.The colonnades are less regular, being composed often rows of piUars behind each other on the south

MEDINA. 231side ; four rows on the west ; and only three on thenorth and part of the east side. The cohimns areof stone, of different sizes, and all plastered white.The small domes on the roof are whitewashed, asare the interior walls, except that on the south side,which is cased with slabs of marble nearly up to thetop, and adorned with several rows of inscriptions,one above another, in large gilt letters, which havea very brilliant effect. Spacious windows with glasspanes, some of which are finely painted, admit thelight through this wall : the floor of the colonnadeis here formed of marble, one of the best specimensof Mosaic to be seen in the East ; the other parts,as well as the open court, are laid out with a coarsepavement, or merely covered with sand.The history of this mosque resembles that of theBeitullah. It received many donations and improvementsfrom the caliphs ; and was repeatedlyplundered, destroyed, and repaired. In 1250 A. D.,a few months after the eruption of a volcano nearthe town, it caught fire, and was burned to theground,— an accident which was ascribed to theheterodox Sheahs, who were then the guardians ofthe tomb. More than 200 years afterward it wasagain reduced to ashes by a conflagration occasionedby lightning. All the walls, the roof, and 120 columns,fell ; the books were consumed, and the onlypart that escaped was the interior of the tomb. Itsrestoration was undertaken by the Sultan of Egypt,to whom Hejaz owed a number of public works.The whole mosque then assumed its present form,and since that period (A. D. 1487) only a few immaterialimprovements have been made by the Turks.The approach to the temple is choked up on allsides by private buildings, some of which are separatedfrom it only by a narrow street, while othersare close upon the walls. There are five minaretsand four gates ; the principal one, by which the hajjisare obliged to enter on their first visit, is ex-

232 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.tremely handsome,—its sides being- inlaid with marbleand glazed tiles of various colours, which give ita very dazzling appearance. Immediately before itis a small fountain, where it is usual for the devoteesto perform their ablutions. There are a few stepsof ascent at all the entrances,—the area of the courtbeing on a higher level than the streets. In thecentre of the northern division of the square standsa small building with a vaulted roof, where the lampsof the mosque are kept. Near it is an enclosure oflow wooden railings, which contain some palm-treesheld sacredby the Moslem, because they are believedto have been planted by Fatima. There are no sacredpigeons as at Mecca; but thequantity of woollencarpets spread on different parts, where the most dirtyArabs and the best-dressed strangers kneel side byside, have rendered this " inviolable Haram" thefavourite abode of millions of other animals lessharmless than turtle-doves, and a great pest to allvisiters, who transfer them from their persons totheir private lodgings, which in consequence swarmwith vermin.It is in the south-east corner of this division thatthe famous sepulchre of Mohammed is placed, sodetached from the walls as to leave a space of abouttwenty-five feet on the one side and fifteen on theother. To defend its hallowed contents from theapproach of the impure, or the superstitious adorationof the visiter, it is surrounded by an enclosurecalled El Hejra, in the form of an irregular squareof nearly twenty paces, arched overhead and supportedby colunms. This space is encircled by aniron railing about thirty feet high, of good workmanship,painted green, which fills up the intervalsbetween the pillars, and rises to about two-thirds oftheir height, leaving the upper part entirely open.The railing is in imitation of filagree, interwovenwith inscriptions of yellow bronze, supposed by thevulgar to be of gold, and of so close a texture that

MEDINA. 233no view can be gained into the interior, exceptthrough several very small windows, which areplaced on each of the four sides, about five feetabove the ground. The two principal windows,before which visiters stand when they pray, are onthe south side, where the iron fence is thinly platedover with silver, having the often-repeated inscripwonof " La Illha" carried across it in silver letters.Tour gates lead into this cage-like enclosure,three of which are kept continually shut,—one onlybeing open night and morning to admit the eunuchs,whose office it is to clean the floor and light thelamps. What appears of the interior is merely acurtain carried round on all sides, resembling a bed,which is of the same height as the railing, and fillsnearly the whole space, leaving only an open walkbetween of a few paces in breadth. This veil isa rich silk brocade, of various colours, interwovenwith silver flowers and arabesques ;with a band ofinscriptions in gold characters running across themiddle, like that on the covering of the Kaaba.Within its holy precincts no person is allowed toenter except the chief eunuchs, who take care of it,and whose business it is to put on during the nightthe fresh curtain, which is sent from Constantinoplewhenever the old one is decayed, or when a newsultan ascends the throne. The venerable remnantsof this sacred brocade are sent back to the Turkishcapital, and serve to cover the tombs of the sovereignsand princes of the empire.It is within this double frame of silk and rails thatthe ashes of the Prophet repose, along with theremains of his two earliest friends and immediatesuccessors, Abu Beker and Omar. Authors differas to the respective position of the three tombsbut they are said to be of plain masonwork, in theform of a chest, and covered with precious stuffs.** The vulgar story long prevalent in Christendom, which suspendedthe Prophet's coffin in the air at Mecca by the action ofU2

the234 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.The historian of Medina, Samhoudi, says, that thecoffin which contains the dust of Mohammed iscased with silver and overlaid with a marble slab,inscribed, Bismillai Allahumd Salli alei (In the nameof God bestow thy mercy upon him). Glass lampsare suspended all round the curtain, which are keptburning every night : floor of this part of themosque is paved with various-coloured marbles inMosaic. The whole of this enclosure is surmountedby a fine lofty cupola, rising far above the domes onthe roof of the colonnades, and visible at a great distancefrom the town ; it is covered with lead, andhas on the top a globe of considerable size and acrescent, both glittering with gold.In the immediate neighbourhood are the tombs ofFatima and other Mohammedan saints. Traditioneven alleges, that, when the last trumpet shall sound,the Saviour of the Christians, after having announcedthe great day of judgment, will die, and be buried bythe side of tlie Arabian apostle ; and that, when thedead are raised from their graves, they shall bothascend to heaven together. These and other fableshave been invented merely to confer an ideal importanceon the city and tomb of the Prophet. Thesame may be said of the exaggerated accounts of itswonders and riches, which have been long propagatedamong strangers. It was in this sanctuary,two powerful magnets, was a ridiculous invention of the Greeksand Latins, and is unknown in Arabia. The Moslem of thepresent day smile at the credulity of foreigners who talk of thesemarvels. The fable may easily be explained without the aid ofphilosophy, and seems to have originated, as Niebuhr supposes,from the rude drawing sold to strangers, in which the figures of three golden coffins were represented, ^^not as lying horizontally, but placed one above the BBother, to mark their position within the railing in the _|_annexed order. Chalcondyles (De Ken. Turc, lib. ^^iii. p. 66) ; Bayle (Diet. Art. Mahomet) ; Reland (De ReUg. Mah.lib. ii. c. 19) ; Gagnier (Vie, lib. vi. c. 20) ; and Pococke (Spedmen, p. 180), will satisfy the curious student of the iron tomb.

IHEDINA. 235indeed, that the treasures of Hejaz were formerlykept, either suspended on silken ropes drawn acrossthe interior of the building, or placed in large chestson the ground. The whole must have formed a collectionof considerable value, though far from beingto that immense extent which many have pretended.Next to the hejra, the most holy place in the mosqueis the rodha, where the pulpit is placed, and the twotnehrabs. On the sides of the former and of boththe mehrabs huge wax-candles are fixed, twelve feethigh and as thick as a man's body, which are lightedevery evening with the aid of a ladder kept for thepurpose.The ceremonies required of the hajjis are heremuch easier and shorter than at Mecca. On enteringthe mosque he must pass his right foot first overthe threshold ; while reciting certain supplications hesteps forward into the rodha, where he is enjoinedto repeat two short chapters of the Koran, and a briefprayer, with four prostrations. His next process isto advance slowly towards the railing of the hejra,before the window of which, on the south side, hetakes his stand. With arms half raised he addresseshis invocations to the Prophet, repeating the wordsof the Moslem creed, besides about twenty of thesurnames or honourable titles of Moham-

236 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.to the Deity on returning to the rodha before leavingthe mosque, completes the ceremony of the ziaraor visit, the performance of which occupies at mostabout twenty minutes.Certain gifts and gratuities are exacted of everypilgrim ; the eunuchs and porters expect their fees asa matter of right ;privileged persons sit at differentstations to receive his donations ; and beggars besethim at the gate imploring his charity. The wholevisit cost Burckhardt fifteen piasters ; though hestates that he might have accomplished it for halfthe expense. An additional sum is paid by thosewho enter within the railing of the hejra : admissionis granted free to pashas, emirs, and persons of rank ;but others must purchase this favour of the eunuchsat the price of twelve or fifteen dollars. Few, however,avail themselves of this indulgence, becausethere is little to gratify the prying eye of curiositybeyond what falls under their external observation." All the privileges the hajjis have," says Pitts, " isonly to thrust in their heads at the windows betweenthe brass grates, and to petition the dead juggler,which they do with a wonderful deal of reverence,affection, and zeal." Though the visit to the mosqueand tomb are not obligatory on the faithful, it isthought to be an act highly acceptable to the Deity,and to expiate many sins, while it entitles the visiterat the same time to the patronage of the Prophet inheaven. The Moslem divines affirm, that a prayersaid in sight of the hejra is as efficacious as a thousandsaid in any other place except Mecca, and thatwhoever recites forty prayers in this mosque will bedelivered from the torments of hell-fire after death.These reputed virtues attract swarms of pilgrimsalmost every month in the year, and from all partsof the Mohammedan world.The entire superintendence of watching, cleaning,and lighting is intrusted to the care of forty or fiftyeunuchs, who have an establishment of khatibs,

MEDINA.. 237muezzins, or mezowars and guides, similar to that oftheir brethren of the Beitullah. They are personsof far higher importance, and are more richlydressed, though in the same costume. Their usualtitle is aga ; the chief, or Sheik el Haram, is styledHighness, and considered the principal person inthe town. They have large stipends sent yearlyfrom Constantinople, besides a share of the fees anddonations of the hajjis. Their number is fixed at500, and they have correspond-ents dispersed overthe whole Turkish empire. Besides their share ofthe income of the mosque, they have their surra orannuity, which is transmitted from Constantinopleand Cairo ;many of their families receiving as muchas 100/. or 200/. sterling per annum, without performingany duty whatever. It is from this sourcechiefly that the city, with its public and pious foundations,is supported, though the greater portion ofthese annuities is often misapplied, and only servesto pamper a swarm of idle hypocrites.Notwithstanding some valuable presents, its reputationfor wealth, and its splendid exterior, themosque of the Prophet ranks only as a poor establishment.The gaudy colours displayed on everyside, the glazed columns, fine pavements, and giltinscriptions, dazzle the siglit at first; but after ashort pause it becomes evident to the spectator thatthis is an exhibition of tinsel decoration, and not ofreal riches. " It will bear no comparison," saysBurckhardt, " with the shrine of the most insignificantCatholic saint in Europe, and may serve as aconvincing proof that, whatever may be their superstitionand fanaticism, the Moslem are not disposedto make the same pecuniary sacrifices to their religiousfoundations, as the Popish or even the ProtestantChristians do for theirs."There are several other places in the neighbourhoodwhich are also included in these pious visitations,among which are the sepulchres of the son

238 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.daughters, wives, aunts, uncles, relations, and immediatesuccessors of the Prophet. So rich indeedis Medina in the remains of great saints, that theyhave almost lost their individual importance, althoughthe relics of any one of the persons just mentionedwould be sufficient to immortalize any other Moslemtown. A visit is made to Gebel Ohud to pray at thetombs of Hamza and the seventy martyrs who fellthere in battle. A small cupola marks the spotwhere Mohammed was struck by the stone whichknocked out four of his front teeth. Koba, the villagewhere he first alighted on his flight from Mecca,and the place where he changed the kebla fromJerusalem to the Kaaba, are the only other spotsthat the pilgrims are enjoined to visit.As to the government of Medina, it has alwaysbeen considered since the commencement of Islamas forming a separate principality. Under the caliphsit was ruled by persons appointed by them,and independent of the sheriffs of Mecca. Whenthe power of the Abbassides declined, these deputiesthrew off their allegiance, and exercised the sameinfluence in the northern Hejaz that the governorsof Mecca did in the southern. The sheriffs, however,often succeeded in extending a temporary authorityover Medina, and whenSelim I. mounted thethrone, he planted here a garrison of Turkish soldiers,under the command of an aga, who was to bethe military chief of the city ; while the civil jurisdictionwas placed in the hands of the Sheik el Haram,or Prefect of the Temple, who was to correspondregularly with the capital, and to have the rank of apasha. This mode of government, with the exceptionof a short period when the whole territory fellunder the power of Mecca, continued till the timeof the Wahabee invasion, about thirty years ago.After the subjugation of that sect, Medina was againplaced under the authority of a Turkish commander.The Aga el Haram takes the management of the

SUEZ. 239pecuniary business of the mosque, and of allecclesiasticalaffairs. Next to him in importance is thecadi^ though many of the native sheiks still enjoygreat respect and consideration.After a stay of three days at the City of the Prophet,the caravans take their departure—the Syrianreturns to' Damascus, and the Egyptian to Cairo, byway of Bedr, Akaba, and across the desert to Suez.The entire route of the former from Mecca occupiesforty days, that of the latter thirty-seven : thecaravan to Sanaa requires forty-three days. Bedr,famous for the battle fought by Mohammed in thesecond year of the Hejira, contains upwards of fivehundred houses, and still boasts many rehcs of thatmiraculous engagement. The celebrated field whichlaid the foundation of the Moslem empire lies southof the town about a mile distant, at the foot of thehills.Suez, about seventy miles from Cairo, and once acity of considerable wealth and splendour, is nowreduced to a paltry half-ruined village—a state ofdesolation chiefly owing to the ravages committedby the French, who thus avenged the oppositionthey experienced from the beys of Egypt. The•walls and fortifications, which never were of muchstrength, are rapidly falling into decay. The harbouris spacious and safe, and near the shore aresome well-built khans. The water is brackish andthe air bad, occasioned by the extensive salt-marshes,which are filled with stagnant waters.* The influenceof this malaria the inhabitants endeavour tocounteract by drinking brandy ; but the mortality isA well was discovered in 1831, near Suez, by two Englishengineers, who made several experimental borings before theysucceeded. A reservoir containing 1200 cubic feet of good wateris now resorted to by the Bedouin and the pilgrim. By the applicationof science, .— the deserts of Arabia might perhaps be renderedhabitable Transact, of the Royal Asiat, Soc. Capt. Head'sJtnerweyy p. 44,

240 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE,not diminished, and fevers of a malignant kind prevailduring the spring and summer. It is very thinlypeopled, containing a mixture of Greeks, Copts, andArabs. At the time of the pilgrimage and the departureof the fleet there is an influx of strangers jbut nobody will reside permanently except from thetemptation of gain. There are neither merchantsnor artisans, except a few Greek shipwrights,—thisharbour being one of the few in the Gulf where vesselscan be repaired. In ancient times the navigablecanal (the bed of which, 115 feet wide, is stillvisible) that connected it with the fertile banks ofthe Nile made it an emporium of considerable celebrity; but the disadvantages under which it laboursfrom its situation at the extremity of a narrow sea,down which the winds blow with great force ninemonths in the year, render it unfit for the purposesof extensive trade. The government was formerlyintrusted to a bey from Cairo, who kept a numeroushousehold, though the Bedouins might be calledcomplete masters of the place. Since the powerof Ali Pasha has been established in Egypt, the authorityof the native sheiks has ceased, and a dowlahnominated by the Turkish sultan is now the residentgovernor.In travelling fromyAkaba to Suez, the hajjis oftenturn aside from the great route to visit the shrineof St. Catherine and the pious monuments aboutMount Sinai. The convent, though bearing thename of that saint as its vice-patroness, is dedicat'idto the Transfiguration. According to the accreditedtradition of the place, it dates its origin from thefourth century. Helena, the mother oif Cmistantinethe first Christian emperor, is said to have erectedhere a small church to commemorate the spot wherethe Lord appeared to Moses in the burning bushand in the garden of the convent a small tower orchapel is still shown, the foundation of which issaid to have been laid by her. The piety of the

CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI. 241empress was imitated by others, and in course of thenext century similar buildings were erected in differentparts of the neighbourhood ; but the ill treatmentwhich the monks and hermits suffered fromthe Bedouins induced them to apply to Justinianand in compliance with their request, he built a fortifiedconvent, capable of protecting them againsttheir oppressors. Monastic estabhshments had thenbecome prevalent ; and the generous emperor issaid to have assigned the whole peninsula in propertyto the monks.It was not till some years afterward that it gotpossession of the corpse and obtained the name ofSt. Catherine, who had suflfered martyrdom at Alexandria,and was transported thence by angels to thehighest peak of the adjacent mountains. Of thismiracle one of the friars was informed in a visionand search;being made, the body was found andentombed in the church, which thus acquired anadditional claim to the veneration of the GreekChristians.At the time of the Saracen conquests the numberof priests and hermits belonging to this and* otherneighbouring establishments is said to have amountedto 6000 or 7000. Notwithstanding the continueddanger to which they must have been exposed fromthese bigoted zealots, they contrived to defend theirpossessions against the attacks of the hostile tribes,not by any military array, but by the more successfularms of patience, meekness, and money. Underthe sultans of Egypt, they were charged with theprotection of the haj-caravans to Mecca, on thatpart of the route which lay along the northernfrontier of their territory. The increasing powerof the Bedouins gradually impaired their influenceand encroached on their possessions, untilthey were at length confined to the walls of theirmonastery.The situation of the convent is wild and pic-VOL. II.—

242 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.turesque. It stands at the southern extremity of agreen valley, in a narrow recess which is terminatedby steep impending- rocks. Its form is an irregularquadrangle of about 130 paces, having the appearanceof a fortress, enclosed with high and solid wallsof granite, and defended by several small towers.When the French were in Egypt, a part of the easternwall, which had fallen down, was rebuilt byorder of General Kleber. Within there are eight orten small court-yards, some of which are neatly laidout in beds of flowers and vegetables ; a few datetreesand cypresses also grow there, besides a quantityof vines. The distribution of the interior apartmentsis very irregidar. There is a great numberof small rooms in the lower and upper stories, mostof which are at present unoccupied. The principaledifice is the church, which was built by Justinian,though it has since undergone frequent repairs. Itforms an oblong square ; the roof is supported by adouble row of fine granite pillars, coated with whiteplaster ; and the floor is paved with beautiful slabsof marble. An abundance of silver lamps, paintings,and portraits of saints adorn the walls round the altar;among the latter is a large picture of the Transfiguration, portraits of Justinian, Theodora, and St. Catherine,and a St. Christopher, with a dog's head. Thesilver lid of a sarcophagus likewise attracts attentionupon which is represented at full length the figureof the Empress Anne of Russia, who entertainedthe idea of being interred here, although the monkswere disappointed of that honour. There are twentysevensmaller churches or chapels dispersed overthe convent, in many of which daily masses areread, and in all of them one at least every Sabbath.None of them have steeples ;and as there is but onebell, which is rung only on Sundays, it is customaryto summon the monks to daily prayers by strikingwith a stick on a long piece of granite suspendedfrom ropes, the sound of which is heard all over the

CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI. 243premises. The call to vespers is made by strikinga piece of dry wood in the same manner.In former times, every principal Christian sect,except Lutherans and Calvinists, had its chapel inthe convent of Sinai ; but most of these have longbeen abandoned by their owners. What may beconsidered more remarkable is, that close by thegreat church stands a Mohammedan mosque, spaciousenough to contain two. hundred people at prayers.It is said to have been built in the fifteenth orsixteenth century, to prevent the destruction of themonastery, and is sometimes visited by stragglingpilgrims. The greatest number of these is perhapsfrom sixty to eighty annually ; but so late as thelast century, regular haj-caravans used to come fromCairo as well as from Jerusalem ; 800 Armeniansare stated to have arrived in one day, and 500Copts on another occasion. Adjoining the conventis a pleasant well-stocked garden, which is enteredby a subterraneous passage. It produces fruitsand vegetables of various kinds, and of the finestquality.The number of monks, most of whom are nativesof the Greek islands, does not now exceed twentyor thirty. They have a president or prior ; but theeconomos or steward is the true head of the community,and manages all its affairs. The superiorof the whole order is the archbishop or reis, w^ho ischosen by a council of delegates, and formally confirmedby the Greek patriarch of Jerusalem. In ancienttimes he resided in the convent ; but since itsaffairs have been on the decline, it has been foundexpedient that he should live abroad ; the Bedouinsconsidering his presence as entitling them to exactvery high fees, especially on his entering the estabhshment.On this occasion 10,000 dollars (2156/.)were sometimes demanded ; hence the monks, ratherthan purchase this honour so dearly, shut up thegate, and have dispensed with the archbishop's pres-

244 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.ence since the middle of the last century. Theirdiscipline with regard to food and prayer is very severe.They all employ themselves in some profession;and their little fraternity can boast of a cook,a distiller, a baker, a shoemaker, a tailor, a carpenter,a candle-maker, a mason, and other handicrafts,each of whom has his workshop, with a stock ofrusty utensils, which still indicate traces of the formerindustry of the establishment. Brandy madefrom dates is the chief solace these recluses eiijoyand. they are permitted, even during their fasts, toindulge in this domestic beverage. They have alibrary, which contains about 1500 Greek volumesand 700 Arabic manuscripts ; but of this they makelittle use, as they can read or write no languageexcept their vernacular tongue. Notwithstandingtheir ignorance, they are fond of seeing strangers intheir wilderness, and always receive them with hospitalityand kindness. As the gate has been longwalled up, visiters and provisions are hoisted up bya windlass with a rope and a noose ; a stick beingfixed transversely to the lower end, which is letdown from a window about forty feet from theground.The only habitual frequenters of the convent arethe Bedouins. They are never indeed admittedwithin the walls ; but they have established thecustom, that whoever among them, whether man,woman, or child, comes here, must be supplied withbread for breakfast and supper, which is lowereddown in a basket. Scarcely a day passes that theinmates have not to feed thirty or forty personsand during the last;century the demand was stillheavier, as the Arabs had a privilege to call for adish of cooked meat in addition to their allowanceof bread. In consequence of this practice disputescontinually happen : if the Bedouins are not satisfiedwith the distribution of food or fuel, they assail themonks, lay waste the garden, and throw stones, or

CONVENT OF MOUNT SINAI. 245even fire their muskets from the surrounding heightsinto the convent. The priests in their turnaresometimes obhged to retaliate, for they have awell-furnished armoury and two small cannon ; butthey take great care never to kill any of theirassailants.Notwithstanding the daily claims on their charity,the expenses of the monastery are supposed tobe very moderate. The yearly consumption of cornBurckhardt estimates at 2500 bushels, and theiiannual expenditure at lOOOZ. sterling. A considerablerevenue must arise from their possessionsabroad ; for besides the convent at Cairo, whichcontains a prior and about fifty monks, they haveestablishments and landed property in many otherparts of the East, especially in the Archipelago andat Candia. They have also a small church at Calcutta,and another at Surat.The mountains and deserts in the neighbourhood,being the scenery of many events in Scripture history,are pointed out by the hermits to the attentionof their visiters. On Gebel Mousa is shown a smallchurch dedicated to the Virgin ; a convent whichbears the name of St. Elias, erected on the spotwhere Elijah was fed by the ravens ; and a poormosque without any ornaments, where the Bedouinsslaughter sheep in honour of Moses, making vowsto him, and entreating his intercession with Heavenin their favour. At a small distance, a place isshown in the rock, somewhat resembling the printof the forepart of the foot, which is said to be thatof the Prophet, and is devoutly kissed by all theMoslem. The head of the golden calf which theIsraelites worshipped, now changed into stone ; theplace where the brazen serpent was erected ; theburial-place of Moses and Aaron ; the grotto whereSt. Athanasius lived ;the spot touched by the footof Mohammed's camel on its way to heaven ; thepulpit and petrified pot or kettle of Moses ; and theX2

246 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.granite rock, resembling a chair, on which he satand beheld the fight between Joshua and the Amalekites,—areamong the sacred spots pointed out tothe credulity of pilgrims, and identified by the brotherhood,who find it their interest to multiply objectsof curiosity and veneration.On the very summit of Gebel Mousa stands achurch, ^yhich, though now much dilapidated, is anobject of great attraction. The Arabs believe thatthe original tables of the commandments are buriedunder the pavement ; and they have made excavationson every side in the hope of finding them.They more particularly revere this spot from a beliefthat the rains which fall on the peninsula areunder the immediate control of Moses ; and theyare persuaded that the monks of St. Catherine arein possession of the taouraf^ or book which he sentdow^n from heaven;upon the opening and shuttingof which depends the state of the weather. Thereputation which the holy men have thus obtainedof having the dispensation of rain in their handssometimes becomes rather troublesome to them,especially as they have encouraged that superstitiousbelief with a view to enhance their own credit. Bya natural inference the Bedouins have concluded,that if they can bring rain, they have it likewise intheir power to withhold it ; and, in consequence,whenever a dearth happens, they accuse them ofmalevolence, and often tumultuously assemble tocompel their prayers. The same imputation theylay to their charge when violent floods happen toburst down the hills and destroy their cattle or datetrees.A peasant some years since, whose sheepand camels had been swept off" by the torrent, wentin a fury to the convent and fired his musket at it,exclaiming, " You have opened the book so muchthat we are all drowned !" The monks pacified himwith presents ; but, on departing, he begged that in

ROCK OF MERIBAH. 247future they would only open half the taourat, 'inorder that the rains might be more moderate.In a valley between Mount Moses and MountCatherine stands the convent of the Forty Martyrs,with a good garden and an orchard of olive-trees.Near it is the Fountain of the Partridge {Bir Shomar),so named from having been revealed by one ofthese birds to the priests when they were removingthe body of their patroness, and fainting with thirst.In the same valley a block of granite is shown asbeing the Rock of Meribah, out of which waterissued when struck by the rod of Moses. It liesquite insulated by the side of the path, and seems tohave formerly belonged to Mount Sinai, which hangsin a variety of precipices all over the valley. Burckhardtsays the block is about tv/elve feet in height,of an irregular shape, approaching to a cube. Thereare about twenty apertures on its surface, lyingnearly in a straight line round its three sides,through which the water is said to have burst out.These fissures are, for the most part, ten or twelveinches long, two or three broad, and about the samein depth ;some of them appearing to be incrustedall over like the inside of a teakettle.This stone is greatly venerated by the Bedouins,who put grass into the crevices as offerings to thememory of Moses, in the same manner as they placeit upon the tombs of their saints ; this vegetablebeing to them the most precious gift of nature, andthat upon which their existence depends. Shaw,Pococke, and the earlier travellers, in describmg thisrock, seem credulously to have adopted the extravagantlegends of the monks. The former regardsthe incrusted apertures as the lively and demonstrativetokens of their having been anciently somany fountains ; and is of opinion that art or chancecould by no means be concerned in the contrivance,—evidently afraid to injure the reputation of theScripture miracle. More recent visiters have yen-

248 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE,tured, without impugning the truth of Sacred History,to question the antiquity and identity of this surprisingblock, and consider it one of the deceptionsinvented by the brothers of the convent, w^ho havea personal interest in encouraging this superstition.Every observer, Burckhardt has remarked, must beconvinced, on the slightest examination, that mostof the crevices are the work of art,—three or fourof them perhaps are natural,—and these may havegiven rise to the tradition. That the incrustationis the effect of moisture may be quite true ;for theadjoining rocks, where water is still dripping, aremarked in the same manner ; so that if a fragmentof the cliff were to fall down, it might be difficult ina few years to make a distinction between the two.What renders the locality of this venerated stonemore suspicious, is the fact that this part of thedesert abounds with perennial springs, which seemsto prove decidedly that it cannot be the parchedvale of Rephidim, " where there was no water forthe people to drink." While, therefore, the miracleof Moses remains untouched, we may be permittedto doubt the accuracy of the monks and Bedouins,who are naturally pleased to see strangers struckwith religious surprise at the same objects whichthey themselves revere, perhaps with all the sincerityof a conscientious belief.Not far from Sinai a valley was discovered aboutthe beginning of the eighteenth century, whichcreated a considerable sensation in Europe from therocks being covered with inscriptions in unknowncharacters and uncouth figures; this was the famousGehel Mokkateh, or Written Mountain. Learned societiesand several governments encouraged travellersto examine them ; and Mr. Clayton, bishop ofClogher, offered 500Z. to defray the expenses of thejourney, provided any man of letters would undertaketo copy them. Expectations were entertained thatthese inscriptions might furnish some testimony

THE WRITTEN MOUNTAIN. 249eoncerning the passage of the Israehtes throughthe Desert, or their residence in that country. Buton nearer inspection these sanguine hopes vanished.The carvings were found by those who examinedthem to be for the most part httle else than thenames of travellers or pilgrims, ill-engraven in Greek,Jewish, and Arabic characters. Crosses were seenamong these hieroglyphics, and a great many drawingsof mountain-goats and camels, the latter sometimesladen, or with riders. The whole sandstonecliffs, occasionally to the height of twelve or fifteenfeet, are thickly covered with such delineations,which are continued for several miles with only afew intervals.Different opinions have been entertained as to theage and purport of these writings ; the most probableis that which ascribes them to the hajjis in thesixth century, who were in the habit, during thepilgrimage, of visiting the holy places about Sinai,or rather Mount Serbal ; which Burckhardt supposesto have been anciently the principal place ofdevotion, from the circumstance that, though similarinscriptions abound in other parts, none are to befound at Gebel Mousa or Gebel Katerin. Pococke,Montague, Niebuhr, and other travellers, copiedthem ; but little success has been made in decipheringtheir meaning, though, from what is knowTi, thegeneral opinion is that they are of no great importance.The top of the Written Mountain is coveredwith large stones inscribed with hieroglyphics, someof them standing upright, while others are lying flat.They appear to be sepulchral monuments with epitaphs,and may either indicate that the ruins in theneighbourhood were once populous cities, or beattributed to the v/ell-known propensity of the Arabsto bury their dead on high places. There are fewof the Bedouin tribes who have not one or moretombs of sheiks or protecting saints on the top ofthe hills, in whose honour they still offer sacrifice.

250 THE MOHAMMEDAN PILGRIMAGE.A goat is piously slain at the sepulchre of Aaron onMount Hor ; and the tomb of Sheik Saleh, nearSinai, ranks next in veneration to the Mount ofMoses. On its rude walls are suspended silk tassels,handkerchiefs, ostrich-eggs, halters, bridles, andsimilar articles, as votive gifts. Once a year all thetribes of the Towara Arabs in their best attire repairto the spot, and remain encamped three days : duringwhich many sheep are sacrificed, camel-races run,and the nights spent in dancing and singing. Mercantiletransactions are usually connected with thesesepulchral pilgrimages ;and fairs are annually heldon the spots where the bones of the patriarchs andprophets are supposed to rest.The only other place in this interesting peninsula,connected with the hermits of Sinai, is the smallconvent of El Bourg near Tor. Here they possess aspacious enclosure, stocked with date-trees, whencethe fruit is conveyed to their monastery, where it isused for making brandy. A solitary monk inhabitsthe little fort built close to the garden-wall ; and,notwithstanding his care in drawing up the ladderby which he ascends to his habitation, he is notunfrequently subjected to the visits of the Bedouins,who from time to time levy a contribution of breadand provisions as the price of their protection. Torhas been identified, on account of its springs andpalm-groves, with the ancient Elim ; but this seemsto rest on no better authority than many other traditions.The town is described as a wretchedassemblage of huts, in the occupation of a fewfamilies drawn together by its waters and fruit-trees.The fortress is said to have been built by the Portuguese,but is now in a state of decay. A fewmiles to the north, and Avithin a short distance ofthe sea, lies the Gebel Narkous, or Mountain of theBell, which is said to emit a sound " sometimesresembhng musical glasses, sometimes like onepiece of metal struck against another." This phe-

MOUNTAIN OF THE BELL. 253nomenon is variously explained by travellers. TheArabs believe that the bell belongs to a conventburied under the sand. The Greeks have theirlegends about saints, demons, and genii, who celebratetheir respective mysteries under this incomprehensibleprecipice. Mr. Fazakerley says thesound was louder or softer, according as the sandwas more or less pressed ; and that at the sumotime a quivering or vibration was very sensibly felt.Burckhardt observed nothing that could throw anylight on it ; nor did he discover the slightest markof volcanic action, to which he supposed the thunderingnoise might be attributable. Perhaps themiracle may be explained by the existence of acavity underneath, in which steam or rarefied air isgenerated ; or by the moving of the fine white sand,of which the bank is composed, over the moisterand harder sand beneath.** Similar sounds are not uncommon in other parts of theworld. (See Family Library, No. LIV.) In a paper lately readbefore the Geological Society in London, Sir John Herschelsuggests as the only probable explanation which occurred toliim of the sounds at Narkous, that they are caused by thegeneration and condensation of subterraneous steam ; and belongto the same class of phenomena as the combustion of a jetof hydrogen gas in glass tubes. He makes the general remark,that wherever extensive subterraneous caverns exist, communicatingwith each other or with the atmosphere by means ofsmall orifices, considerable difference of temperature may occasioncurrents of aii to pass through those apertures with sufficientvelocity for producing sonorous vibrations. The sounds describedby Humboldt, as heard at sunrise by those who sleep on certaingranitic rocks on the banks of the Orinoco, may be explained onthis principle.Vol. IL—

'ardour254 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.CHAPTER VII.HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.Origin of the Wahabees—Their Founder, Abdel Wahab— Accountof their Doctrines— Success of Ibn Saoud and Abdeiazeezin Nejed— Siege and Plunder of Kerbela— Submissionof Mecca and Medina—Destruction of religious Monuments—Murder of Abdelazeez—Accession of Saoud—His Character—Government—Revenues—MilitaryTactics—Revival ofthe pilgrimage—Predatory Incursions of the Wahabees—Attemptsof the Turkish Government to suppress them—Expeditionfrom Egypt lands at Yembo—Defeat of Toussoun Beyat Jedeidn— Recapture of Medina by the Turks—ThomasKeith, a Native of Edinburgh, made Governor of the CityRecovery of Mecca and Hejaz—Mohammed Ah takes theCommand in Person— Arrest and Death of Ghaleb—Repulseof the Turks at Taraba—Capture of Gurtfode—Death ofSaoud—Accession of Abdallah— Strength of the Turkishj^rmy—Defeat of the Wahabees at Bissei—Surrender of Tarabaand Beishe— Cruelties of Ali—His Return to EgyptCampaign of Toussoun in Nejed—Treaty of Peace with Abdatian—Treacheryof Ali and Renewal of Hostilities—Expeditionunder Ibrahim Pasha—His success in Nejed—Siegeand Surrender of Deraiah—Death of Abdallah— Suppressionof the Wahabees and Destruction of their Capital—Reflectionson the Character of their Government and Rehgion.OxE of the most remarkable revolutions whichArabia has witnessed since the days of Mohammed,was that effected by the Wahabees, a relig-ious sect,who evinced in their military enthusiasm all theand intolerance of the early Saracens. Theirfounder, from whom they took their name, was AbdelWahab, of the pastoral tribe of Temin, in Nejed,and of the clan called El Wahabe, of which hisfather was sheik. He was born in 1691 at the villageof El Ayeneh, in the province of El Ared. InMecca, Medina, Bussora,his youth he had visited

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 255Bagdad, and various other schools of the principalcities in the East ; and being- convinced, by what hehad observed during- his travels, that the primitivefaith of Islam had become totally corrupted in practice,and that by far the greater part of Turks andPersians were heretics, he determined to assumethe character of a reformer. His manners werenaturally grave and austere ; while his talents andlearning secured for him the respect of his countrymen,among whom he made several converts bymeans of his writings and his reputation for wisdom.The religion and government of this sect may bevery briefly defined, as a Mohammedan puritanismjoined to a Bedouin phylarchy, in which the greatchief is both the political and religious leader of thenation. In their creed they are perfectly orthodox.The unity of God is the fundamental principle oftheir faith. They believe in the Prophet, but regardhim as a man essentially mortal, though giftedwith a divine mission. They reject the fables andfalse glosses of the Koran, acknowledging only thetraditions of the Sonnees. As they consider all menequal in the sight of God, they hold it sinful to invokethe intercession of departed saints, or to honourtheir mortal remains more than those of any otherperson. Hence chapels, cupolas, and monuments,where reverence was paid to their memory, theycondemned as an abomination, and forbade them toTo swear by Mohammed is criminalbe visited.and they accuse the Turks of idolatry when theygive him the title of lord in their prayers, or reverehim in a manner which approaches adoration.In morals they were pure and rigid ; they reprobatedthe use of spirituous liquors and other exhilaratingsubstitutes ; they condemned all sensualindulgences, the neglect of justice and almsgiving,the common practice of fraud and treachery, usury,games of chance, and the other vices with whicheven the sacred cities were polluted. In the true

256 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.spirit of fanaticism, they were as zealous about theinferior as the weightier matters of the law. Nextto the war which they declared against saints andsepulchres, their indignation was principally turnedagainst dress and luxury : they strictly forbade thewearing of silk and the smoking of tobacco ;and cutfrom their heads the only tuft of hair which theirearly Moslem discipline had left them. Amongother unwarrantable acts which they abolished, wasthat of praying over the rosary, and lamenting thedead, thinking it impious to mourn for the soul of abrother in heaven. They did not, however, so farstrip themselves of all superstition as to abolish theceremonies of ablution and the Meccan pilgrimage,or even those of kissing the black stone and throwingpebbles at the devil.The doctrines of Abdel Wahab, it will be seen,were not those of a new religion ; though they wereso represented by his enemies, and have been describedas such by several European travellers.*His sole guide was the Koran and the orthodox traditions; and his efforts were entirely directed toremove corruptions and abuses, and restore the faithof Islam to its original purity. Whether this greatreformer, when he preached to his countrymen inthe villages of Nejed, had any idea of establishing anew dynasty to reign over the proselytes of Arabia,is much to be doubted. Neither his birth, nor thestrength of his tribe, could authorize him in entertainingsuch a design. But it cannot be denied thathis doctrines had a favourable effect on the people,by suppressing the infidel indifference which universallyprevailed, aud which has generally a more* The tenets of the Wahabees were erroneously stated byRousseau ( 1808) in his " Description of the Pashalic of Bagdad ;"and in a Memoir of this Sect in the " Mines de I'Onent." Whatis said of them in Niebuhr and Valentia is not very correct.The best and fullest account of them is given by Burckhardt,Mons. Corancez, and Mengin (Append, tome ii).

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 257baneful effect on the morals of a nation than thedecided acknowledgment even of a false religion.To trace the history of this sect, from its originto the vast ascendency which it gained in Arabia,were merely to record events similar to those whichdaily occur in the feudal wars of the desert. It wasabout the year 1746, when Abdel Wahab was compelled,by order of the governor of El Hassa, toquit his native village, where for eight years, in thecapacity of sheik, he had peaceably disseminated hisopinions, and made converts of several neighbouringchiefs. Having escaped the poniard of an assassin,he repaired to Deraiah, and obtained a friendly asylumfrom Mohammed ibn Saoud, sheik of the BeniMokren, a branch of the Wold Ali belonging to theAeneze tribe. Here he continued to inculcate hisdoctrines, which soon gained credit enough to encouragethe extension of his project, and enable himto employ force to subdue the refractory. Of thenumerous hordes scattered over the central wastes,some offered their voluntary submission,while otherscombined against him, and refused to acknowledgeeither his temporal or spiritual authority. To increasethe activity of the new missionaries, theywere diligently instructed in regard to the merit ofusing arms to convince heretics and infidels. Thetemptations of plunder were added to the stimulantsof religious zeal ; and a share of the booty taken inbattle was always distributed among the conquerors,according to the strict law of the Koran.It does not appear that the great founder of thesect himself assumed any other character than thatof their apostle or ecclesiastical ruler. His constantresidence was at Deraiah until his death in 1787,when he had reached the advanced age of 95, Hepossessed in a high degree the art of persuasion,and is said to have captivated all hearts by his eloquence.Equally distinguished as an able politicianand an intrepid warrior, he maintained to the lastY2

258 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.the influence which he had gained by his sword overthe destinies of Arabia. He had all the uxoriouspropensities of Mohammed, and his twenty wivesproduced him eighteen children.The first military champion of the new doctrines,and the political founder of the Wahabee government,was Mohammed ibn Saoud, who had marriedthe daughter of Abdel Wahab. When he commencedhis missionary exploits under the title of emir, accompaniedby his eldest son Abdelazeez, his forcewas so small, that in his first skirmish with theenemy he had withhim only seven camel-riders.While the venerable apostle contented himself withmaking proselytes at Deraiah, the two warriorssuccessively conquered Nejed, and most of the greatBedouin tribes who annually visited that territoryin quest of pasturage. The earliest and most formidableof their opponents was Erar, sheik of El Hassa.The first army which he sent against them, in 1757,was defeated. Again he made his appearance inperson, at the head of 4000 men, with four piecesof artillery, and laid siege to Deraiah ; but he wasagain repulsed, and compelled to retreat in greatdisorder. The death of Ibn Saoud, in 1765, leftAbdelazeez sole commander of the sectarian armyand by his bravery and indefatigable eiforts theirvictories were pushed to the remotest provinces ofArabia. Mekrami, sheik of Nejeran, from being anenemy, became a devoted follower ; the sheriff ofAbu-Arish was also reduced to obedience, and bytheir means the new doctrines were spread fromthe coast of Bahrein to the confines of Mocha andAden. As the cattle and spoils of the unconvertedwere unceremoniously seized by the Wahabees, atitle by which they now became known, numbersturned proselytes to save their property, and testifiedthe sincerity of their faith by attacking and plunderingtheir neighbours.After many hard struggles the whole of the Nejed

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 259had embraced the reformed doctrines. It had alsoassumed a new poUtical condition ; and instead ofbeing divided as formerly into a number of smallindependent territories or clanships, perpetually atwar with each other, it became the seat of a formidablepower, under a chief whose authority, hkethat of the first cahphs, was supreme both in civiland spiritual affairs. Yet hostilities had not beendeclared ; nor did the Wahabees encroach upon therights of the two governments nearest to them,Bagdad and Hejaz. The pilgrim-caravans passedthrough their land without molestation. They wereeven on friendly terms with Serour, sheriff of Mecca,and, in 1781, obtained leave to perform their devotionsat the Kaaba. Their increase of power seemsat first to have excited the jealousy of Sheriff Ghaieb; and within a few years after his accession tothe, government he had declared open war againstthem, which was carried on in the Bedouin siyle,interrupted only by a few shortlived truces. Beingthen in regular correspondence with the Porte, heleft no means untried for prejudicing the Ottomangovernment against the sectarians. He representedthem as infidels ; and their treatment of the Turkishhajjis did not remove this unfavorable opinion.Similar accounts were given by the pashas of Bagdad,who had seen the neighbouring country assailedalmost annually by these invaders, who exacted acapitation-tax from all Persian devotees that crossedthe desert.No place on the eastern border seemed betteradapted than Bagdad for pushing the war into theheart of the enemy's territory ; and, in 1797, SolymanPasha despatched an expedition to attack Deraiah,consisting of 4000 or 5000 Turkish troops,and twice that number of allied Arabs, under the-command of his lieutenant-governor. Instead ofadvancing directly to the capital, they laid siege tothe fortified citadel of Hassa, which resisted their

260 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.efforts above a month, until the arrival of a strongforce under Saoud, the son of Abdelazeez, determinedthem to retreat. The Wahabee chief anticipatedthis measure, and endeavoured to intercepttheir return, by throwing camel-loads of salt, whichhe had brought for the purpose, into the wells ontheir line of march. The soldiers of Bagdad werethus compelled to halt ; and for three days the twoarmies continued within sight of each other, butwithout venturing on an attack. A truce for sixyears was at length concluded, and both partiesquietly dispersed to their homes.The failure of this expedition was fatal to the successof the Turks, as the Wahabees had now learnedto despise them. The peace was soon broken ; and,in 1801, Saoud at the head of 20,000 men attackedKerbela, so famed for the magnificent tomb ormosque of Hossein, which had long attracted thedevotion of the Moslem. The town was entered,after a very slight resistance, by means of palmtrunksplaced against the wall, and five thousandpersons were massacred. While executing thishorrible butchery, a fanatical doctor cried from thetop of a tower, " Kill, strangle all infidels who givecompanions to God!" In their fury they sparednone but old men, women, and children. Theirindignation was specially directed against the sepulchre,which was filled with the riches of Turkey andPersia. The cupola, with its golden ornaments, wasthrown down ; and in this act the spoilers wereheard to exclaim, " God have mercy upon those whodestroyed, and none upon those who built them !"Treasures were found to a vast amount, which hadaccumulated in proportion to the excessive venerationof the pilgrims. Over the tomb was suspendeda huge pearl ; near it were deposited twenty sabresmounted with precious stones ; these, together withvases, lamps, rubies, emeralds, diamonds, and articlesof gold and silver, became the property of

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 261Saoiid. The houses were stript of their valuablefurniture ; 4000 Cashmere shawls, 2000 swords, andas many muskets, were piled in one heap for distributionwhen the troops evacuated the place,which in five days they had reduced to a mass ofsmoking ruins.While the Wahabees were occupied on the banksof the Euphrates, Ghaleb penetrated into Nejed andtook possession of Shara, a small town in the provinceof Kasym. In his campaigns he had hithertobeen alternately victor and vanquished; but Abdelazeez,extending his \'iews with his conquests,now began to invade Hejaz with more zeal andperseverance than he had ever before manifested.Already Saoud had carried the arms and the faithof his father among the mountain-tribes on theconfines of Yemen, where Abu Nocta, the sheik ofAzir, was left in charge of the new proselytes. Thetribes eastward of INIecca were obliged to yield ; andthe country was intrusted to the command of 0thmanel Medaife, brother-in-law to Ghaleb, but whohad for some years been at enmity with his kinsman.In 1802, he besieged Taif, which was taken after avigorous resistance, and condemned to share thefate of Kerbela ;—with this difference, that the soldiershad orders to spare neither old age nor infancy.Eight hundred males were put to the sword ; but theharems were respected. Many houses were burnt,and the whole were plundered. All the holy tombswere destroyed ; among others that of Al Abbas, theuncle of Mohammed, celebrated throughout Arabiafor its beauty and its sanctity. The palace and finegardens of the sheriff were desolated ; but his treasureshad been carried to Mecca. These successesemboldened the Waliabees, and for the first timethey interdicted the pilgrim-caravans.In the following year, they effected the total coiiquestof Hejaz. Saoud and Othman, after severalbattles with Ghaleb. approached ^Mecca, and pitched

262 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.their camp within an hour and a half's distance ofthe city. The eastern suburb was attacked andtaken possession of, and from that point frequentsaUies were made into the town. The governor,undismayed, defended himself with great bravery.He laid a mine near his palace, which obliged theassailants to make a temporary retreat. But thesupply of water was cut off by diverting the caneJof Arafat ; and the inhabitants, after a siege of twoor three months, were reduced to extreme necessityfor want of provisions. Dogs and cats were eagerlydevoured ; the only stores were at the disposal ofthe sheriff and his warriors ; and when these wereconsumed he retired towards Jidda, carrying off thewhole of his family and baggage, having previouslyset fire to his palace to destroy such furniture aswas not easily portable. The city was now abandonedto its fate. On the next morning, the chiefinhabitants went out to capitulate, or rather to surrenderat discretion ; and on the same day (April 27)Saoud made his entrance. Not the slightest excesswas committed ; and the Meccawees still rememberwith gratitude the excellent discipline observed bythe wild Bedouin soldiers. All the shops wereimmediately opened by order of the victorious chief,and every article which his troops required waspurchased with ready money. This forbearancewas doubtless the effect of policy ; but the artfulconqueror ascribed it to a miracle. He told theulemas, in full council, that he had seen Mohammedin a dream, who threatened him that he should notsurvive three days if a single grain of corn wereforcibly taken from the holy city. But the displeasureof the Prophet did not extend to thoseobjects of idolatry which offended the religiousprejudices of the Wahabees. Above eighty splendidtombs, which covered the remains of the descendantsof the Apostle, and formed the great ornamentsof Mecca, were levelled with the ground ; nor was

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 263the monument of the favourite and venerable Kadijahsaved. The coffee-houses, or rather shops forspirituous hquors, next felt the desolating zeal of thereformers. Piles of hookahs and Persian pipeswere collected from these haunts and burnt in thepresence of Saoud. The use of brandy and tobaccowere prohibited under severe penalties ; and theinhabitants were obliged to conform, outwardly atleast, to the new creed, by abandoning their luxuriesand rich dresses, and being more punctual intheir devotions. Prayers for the sultan in the grandmosque were ordered to be abolished ; the governmentwas placed in the hands of Abdel Main, thebrother of Ghaleb ; and in the following epistle thismemorable conquest was communicated to the OttomanPorte :" Saoud to Selim.—I entered Mecca on the 4thday of Moharram, in the 1218th year of the Hejira.I kept peace towards the inhabitants. I destroyedall the tombs that were idolatrously worshipped.I abolished the levying of all customs above two anda half per cent. I confirmed the cadi whom youhad appointed to govern in the place, agreeably tothe commands of Mohammed. 1 desire, that in theensuing years you will give orders to the pashas ofSham (Damascus) and Mesr (Cairo) not to comeaccompanied with the mahmal, trumpets, and drums,into Mecca and Medina. For why ] Religion is notprofited by these things. Peace be between usand may the blessing of God be unto you !—Datedon the 10th day of Moharram." (May 3, 1803.)From Mecca the reformer turned his arms againstJidda; but the interval had allowed Ghaleb time toprepare for his reception by mounting the wallswith cannon from the vessels in the harbour. Foreleven days the town was besieged; the suppliesof water were cut off, in consequence of whicTinumbers perished of thirst. But the inhabitantsfought bravely, and the Wahabee chief, despairing

231 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.of victory, \va,s obliged to retreat ; though someallege this forbearance was purchased with a bribeof 30,000 dollars (6496/. 155.). While Saoud directedhis march towards the northern desert, the otherissued from his stronghold, and resumed the governmentof Mecca. Knowing that he could not defendthe place for any length of time, he compromisedmatters with the invader ; and in consideration ofhis influence and high station, he obtained morefavourable terms than were usually granted to otherproselyte chiefs. The capture of this city was thesignal for other advantages in Hejaz. The powerfultribe of Harb were compelled to yield, but notwithout a severe contest ; and their submission wasfollowed by the surrender of Yembo.Early in the spring of 1804, Medina was added tothe Wahabee conquests. The inhabitants, beingmore attached to the Turkish interest than theMeccawees, were not so leniently treated. Theusual tribute was required, but private property wasnot injured. Saoud's first care was to demolish thetombs and strip them of all their valuable ornaments.During the siege, a considerable part of the treasuresof the great mosque, more especially the goldenvessels, had been seized by the governor of thetown, Hassan el Khalaji, ostensibly for the purposeof relieving the general distress ; but they werefinally distributed among his own friends. Theremainder fell a prey to the Wahabee general, whoentered the sacred hejra himself, and penetratedbehind the curtain of the Prophet's tomb, wherehe laid his sacrilegious hands on every thing valuablethat could be found. Among these hoardedtreasures the most remarkable is said to have beena brilliant star set in diamonds and pearls, whichwas suspended directly over the coffin. Around itwere deposited many costly vessels set with jewels,earrings, bracelets, necklaces, and other ornaments,sent as presents from all parts of the empire, but

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 265principally brought by the great hajjis who passedthrough the city. Of this collection he sold part tothe sheriff of Mecca, and carried the remainder withhim to Deraiah, which is said to have consistedchiefly of pearls and corals. The total value of thebooty was estimated at more than 300,000 dollars(64,687/. 105.) ; though there is good reason for supposingthat the donations of the Faithful, accumulatedthere for ages, must have amounted to a muchgreater sum, had not the governors of the town orthe guardians of the sepulchre occasionally relievedtheir necessities by large drafts from this religiousexchequer. Allured by its glittering appearance,the Wahabees attempted to destroy the lofty dome,and throw down the gilded globe and crescent whichsurmount it ; but the solid structure and the leadencovering rendered this a difficult undertaking ; andas two of the workmen slipped from the roof andwere precipitated to the ground, the work of destructionwas abandoned ;—a circumstance ascribedto a visible miracle wrought by the Prophet in favourof his monument. The tomb itself was left uninjured; but Saoud prohibited as idolatrous all visits,prayers, or adorations addressed to it ; no other markof devotion being allowed but the regular pilgrimage.Here, as at Mecca, the due observance of prayer, andthe negation of silk and tobacco, were imposed withgreat strictness. At the appointed hours a body ofArabs, armed with large sticks, had orders to patrolthe streets and drive the inhabitants to the commonplace of worship. The names of all the adult maleswere called over in the mosque after morning, noonday,and evening prayers, and such as did not answerto the roll were punished. A. respectable woman,accused of having smoked a hookah, was paradedthrough the streets on a jackass, with the pipe suspendedfrom her neck, round which was twisted thelong flexible tube.Between the capture of Mecca and that of Me-VOL. II.—

266 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.dina happened the death of Abdelazeez, who wasassassinated, in October, 1803, by a Persian whoserelations the Wahabees had murdered. His eldestson Saoiid was unanimously elected his successor;and inthe necessary quahties of a religious leaderhe far surpassed his father. He had been trainedto war from his youth, having carried arms in battlewhen only at the age of twelve. For many yearshe had conducted all the wars; and to him may beascribed the conquest of Hejaz. From the time,however, that his reign began, it was remarked thathe never fought personally in any engagement, butalways directed his army from a position at somedistance in the rear. In person, he is said to havebeen remarkably handsome ; he had a fine countenance,and wore a longer beard than is generallyseen among the Bedouins ;—a peculiarity which obtainedhim the name of Ahu Shouareb, or Father ofMustachios. All the Arabs, even his enemies,praised him for his wisdom and moderation, hislove of justice and skill in deciding litigations.For several years after his father's death he worea coat-of-mail under his shirt, and never went abroadexcept v^ith a chosen guard around him. His dominionshe divided into several districts or provinces,over which he placed the great Bedouin sheiks, withthe honorary title of emirs ;whose principal duty itwas to execute public justice, to assist the taxgatherers,and recruit troops for the army. Thevigilant and rigid policy which they were compelledto maintain tended to secure the country againstrobbers, and to check the sanguinary feuds of hostileparties ; but the new system was not popular,and the frequent revolts of the Bedouins proved howimpatient they were of restraints so directly opposedto their habits of wild and lawless independence.The several tribes were made responsible forevery depredation committed within their territory,should the perpetrator be unknown; and if

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 267they had neglected to repel or resist the aggression,they were amerced in a fine equivalent to theamount of the cattle or other property that had beencarried off.The revenues of the Wahabees had been establishedon a plan similar to that prescribed by iMohammed.On fields v^^atered solely by rain Saoudlevied a tithe of the crops ; but he was content withonly a twentieth part from grounds where the labourand expense of artificial irrigation were necessary.Merchants paid yearly two and a half per cent, ontheir capital, though they seldom returned an accountof more than one-fourth of their property.The most considerable portion of his revenue wasdrawn from his own domains. As he made it a rule,whenever any of the conquered cities or districtsrebelled, to plunder them for the first offence, andconfiscate for the second, most of the landed propertyin Nejed had accrued to the public treasury(Beit el Mai), and was let out to farmers, who wereobliged to pay a third, or a half, of the produce,according to circumstances. Many villages of Hejaz,the pastures near the Syrian Desert, and themountains towards Yemen, were thus attached tothe exchequer at Deraiah. The sheiks were notallowed any concern in the taxes ; Imt they met thecollectors at the spots appointed for payment, whichwere generally watering-places, where the peoplewere directed to repair.The income of Saoud was much more than sufRcientto defray the public expenditure, though it wasby no means so great as was generally reported.The largest amount, according to Burckhardt's information,in one year was 2,000,000 of dollars(431,250/.) ; but on an average it did not exceed1,000,000 annually. The outlay for military purposesmust have been trifling, as there was no'standingarmy and no regular pay. The costliest part ofthe establishment were his guests and his horses.

268 HISTORY OF the wahabees.Of the latter he had no fewer than 2000 as his ownproperty; for some of which he gave the extravagantprice of 500/. or 600/. When an expedition was meditatedagainst the enemy, the sheiks levied soldiersby a kind of conscription, from every village, camp,or family, under their control, according to its population; and the corps was again dissolved as soonas the campaign was over. All from the age ofeighteen to sixty, whether married or unmarried,were required to attend. On pressing emergenciesno numbers were mentioned ; the chief merely said," We shall not count those who join the army, butthose who stay behind ;" a summons which wasunderstood to include every man capable of bearingarms.The necessary provisions for a soldier during onecampaign were reckoned to be 100 lbs. of flour, 50lbs. or 60 lbs. of dates, 20 lbs. of butter, a waterskin,and a sack of wheat or barley for the camel.Stratagems and sudden invasions being most favourablefor their purpose, no other mode of warfarewas practised. When Saoud planned an incursion,the object of it was known to himself alone.He assembled the emirs at a certain point, generallya watering-station, which was always selectedso as to deceive the enemy. If the march was intendedfor the northward, the place of rendezvouswas appointed several days' journey to the souththe foe was then taken completely by surprise ; andsuch were the caution and celerity with which theseattacks were executed, that they seldom failed ofsuccess. They were made at all seasons of theyear, even in the sacred month of Ramadan. Thearmy was always preceded by a vanguard of 30 or40 horsemen ; and if they were obliged to advanceunder night, the chief and all the principal sheikshad torches carried before them. In coming toclose action, the troops were divided into three orfour squadrons, one behind another ;the first com-

. habitantsHISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 269posed of horsemen, and the second of camel-riders,these being reckoned the main strength of the army.The bravest andmost renowned of Saoiid's warriorswere his body-guard, about 300 in number, who wereconstantly kept as a corps of reserve. They usuallyfought in' complete armour, and had their horsescovered with a quilted woollen stuff called lebs^impenetrable to lances or swords. To all who fellin battle he ensured the enjoyment of paradise ;and when the mare of a slain sheik galloped back tothe ranks with an empty saddle, it was hailed asthe happy tidings that a true believer had exchangedhis cotton keffie for a crown of martyrdom.At the time of his accession nearly the wholeextent of Arabia had been reduced to submission.It was seldom thought advisable to garrison anydistrict that he had subdued, the influence of thesheik whom he placed over it, and the terror ofhis own name, being generally sufficient to keepthe vanquished in subjection. When some of themore powerful tribes relaxed in their allegiance, orbecame irregular in the payment of tribute, threeor four flying expeditions were sent against them,which soon brought them back to obedience. Thedread of losing their crops and their cattle overcamethe scruples of the most refractory ;and Saoud wasoften heard to say, " That no Arabs had ever beenstanch Wahabees until they had suffered two orthree times from the plundering of his troops."Medina was the only instance where it was foundnecessary to keep a constant military force, the in-being naturally hostile to his leligion andhis government. In Mecca, the power of Ghalebwas still considerable, and at Jidda his authorityrenmined in full force ; but his great talents for intrigue,his venerable office, and his personal influenceover several Bedouin tribes, induced his rivalto keep on amicable terms with him.Since the conquest of Hejaz most of the regularZ 2

270 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.pilgrim-caravans had ceased, rather than submit tothe conditions which the reformers exacted. Onlya few succeeded in making their way, and thesewere chiefly Moggrebins, Abyssinians, and Indians,who showed more humihty than the other Moslem.For several years this state of matters continuedbut the pilgrimage, so far from being abohshed, assome travellers have alleged, might have continuedwithout interruption, had the terms and safe-conductof the Wahabees been accepted. Saoud waspunctual in his annual visits to Mecca, and wasalways accompanied with numbers of his followers,whose enthusiasm, as described by an eyewitness(Ali Bey), must have put laxer Mussulmans to theblush. Columns of half-naked men, with matchlockson their shoulders and khunjers in their belts,pressed towards the Temple to perform the towafand kiss the black stone. Impatient of delay, theyprecipitated themselves upon the spot, some ofthem opening their way with sticks in their hands.Confusion was soon at its height ; and in the tumultthe devotees were prevented from hearing thevoices of their guides or the commands of theirchiefs.In making the seven circuits, their movementswere accelerated by mutual impulse, until they resembleda swarm of bees flitting in rapid disorderround the Kaaba ; and bj?^ their tumultuous pressurebreaking all the lamps near it with the musketswhich they carried on their shoulders. These ceremoniesdone, they rushed to the Zemzem Well, butin such crowds, and with such precipitation, thatin a few moments, ropes, buckets, and pulleys, werelaid in ruins. The servants abandoned their posts ;and in this emergency the Wahabees contrived toobtain the miraculous liquid, by forming a chain ofeach* other's hands, which enabled them to descendto the water. Unfortunately for the numerous charitiesof the mosque the reformers had brought no

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 271money with them. The well required alms, andthe officers of the Temple expected their gratuities;and these pious debts the Bedouins discharged bygiving them twenty or thirty grains of very coarsegunpowder, small bits of lead, or a few grains ofcoffee. The guides that repeated their prayers, andthe barbers who shaved their heads, were paid inthe same coin. On these occasions Saoud, perhapsdreading the fate of his father, always kept himselfsurrounded with his chosen guard, even while makinghis turns round the Kaaba ; and, instead of seatinghimself during his devotions in the usual place,he mounted on the roof of the well, as being a moresafe position.While Hejaz thus remained tranquil, the Wahabeeschiefly directed their expeditions against theirneighbours in the east and the north. The districtabout Bussora being rich in cattle and dates, thebanks of the Shat el Arab and of the Euphrates up toAnah, were the scenes of their annual attacks. Anegro slave of Saoud's, called Hark, at the head of astrong detachment, made various incursions into theSyrian Desert, and frightened the Arab tribes in thevicinity of Aleppo. In 1810, the plains of Houranwere invaded by the commander in person ; and sorapid and unexpected were his movements that, althoughit required more than a month to arrive atthe point of attack, thirty- five villages were sackedand laid in ashes by his soldiers before the Pashaof Damascus, who had only two day's notice of hisapproach, could make any demonstrations of defence.Towards the south the Wahabees were not idle inextending the influence of their arms over some ofthe still unconquered provinces. Abu Nokta, nearthe close of 1804, descended with a numerous bodyof Arabs from the mountains, and spread dismayover the country. The towns of Loheia and Hodeidawere plundered ;after which he retired to thehills, where he kept the whole frontier of Yemen in

272 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEtS.check till his death in 1809. Sanaa, however, doesnot seem to have been made the object of attack.Saoud had repeatedly offered the plunder of that richcity to Hamoud and Abu Nokta, by way of attachingthem to his interest ; but he never actually orderedeither of them to undertake the conquest of it, probablyfrom a wish to reserve that enterprise for himself.The extensive districts of Hadramaut andOman offered a tempting booty, and were harassedby frequent plundering incursions. The sovereignsof these principalities had tendered their homage tothe Wahabee chief, and agreed to pay an annualtribute ; but in a single year they threw off theirsubmission to him, and his arms were then too muchoccupied in another quarter to effect their reduction.The isles of Bahrein and the Joassamee pirates hadembraced the new doctrines, and carried them intoprofitable operation by harassing the commerce onthe Gulf; but the power of Saoud on that coastsustained an irreparable loss in the destruction ofRas el Khyma, by the English expedition fromBombay.Although the Wahabees had come to open hostilitieswith the Turkish government since they hadinterrupted the haj-caravans, and forbidden the peopleto pray in their mosques for the welfare of thesultan, yet the Porte had hitherto remained almostinactive. Yussuf, pasha of Damascus, in 1809, madeindeed some faint preparations for attacking thedistrict of Jof. But this was merely a vain demonstrationof his zeal, as the expedition never tookplace. The immense deserts that extended betweenthe Syrian and Arabian capitals rendered it impossibleto transport sufficient provisions and ammunitionfor a regular campaign ; and made it obviousthat, if ever the Turkish influence was to be restoredover the holy cities, the effort for dispossessing theWahabees must proceed from Egypt, on which theHejazees almost exclusively depended for the com-

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 273The turbulent state of thatmon necessaries of life.country, and the insubordination of the Maniloukbeys, for some time prevented Mohammed Ali,who had been appointed pasha by the Porte in1804, from adopting any warlike measures againsta foreign enemy. IMuch might have been done,however, towards the reduction of Hejaz, by merelyshutting the ports of Suez and Cosseir against theArabian shipping ; but the viceroy, notwithstandingthe firmans from Constantinople, had too deep aninterest hi the traffic of the Red Sea to sanction aprohibitory system, which would have cut off thegains that flowed into his coffers from that channel.Ambition at length overruled the passion of avaricein the breast of Ali. The deliverance of thesepulchres was likely to add a celebrity to his namethat would exalt him far above all the pashas in theTurkish empire. To stimulate his exertions thesultan promised him the pashalic of Damascus forone of his sons as soon as he should obtain possessionof Mecca and Medina. As it was essential tohave a sufficient flotilla at his command for the conveyanceof troops and provisions, he caused 28 largeand small vessels (from 100 to 250 tons burden) tobe built at Suez, which kept about 1000 workmenfor three years in constant employment.In August, 1811, this armada was ready for departure.Toussoun Bey, the second son of the pasha, ayouth of eighteen, who had given proofs of extraordinarycourage in the Mamlouk war, was placed incommand. The expedition consisted of two parts,cavalry and infantry; the former amounting to abody of about 800 men, Turks and Bedouins ; andthe latter, composed principally of Arnaout soldiers,to the number of 1500 or 2000, under the directionof Saleh Aga and Omar Aga. In October, the fleetreached Yembo, which capitulated after a feebleresistance of two days. The town was not garrisonedby Wahabees, but by some troops belonging

274 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.to the sheriff, who had declared himself a proselyteand an ally of Saoud.Several months were consumed in negotiationsfor Ghaleb, when he heard of the formidable armamentof Ali Pasha, had thought it advisable to enterinto a secret correspondence with him, in which hecommunicated much information as to the actualstate and force of the enemy ; and promised to throwoff his allegiance to them on the first appearance ofa respectable Turkish army in Hejaz. Toussoun,however, soon discovered that the state of the countrywas by no means such as he had expected fromthe representations of the sheriff, who was evidentlynot smcere in his offers of friendship, and only waitingto join the stronger party. The inhabitants weretoo much overawed by the vigilance and power ofSaoud to stir without some more decided prospectof ultimate success. A few of the Bedouins in theneighbourhood of Yembo were all he was able todetach from the Wahabees.To put an end to this state of fruitless inactivity,Toussoun resolved to attack Medina, wisely judgingthis step more prudent than marching towards Jiddaor Mecca, where the stratagems of the sheriff mighthave been as fatal to him as the arms of Saoud.Leaving a garrison at Yembo, he set out on his expeditionin January, 1812. The towns of Bedr andSafra were taken after a slight skirmish. At thevillage of Jedeida the road leads through a narrowpassage between steep and rugged mountains. Inthis defile, which extends in length about one hourand a half, the Turkish army was at once assailedby the united force of the Harbs and Wahabees, whothickly covered the precipices on both sides, to thenumber of 20,000 infantry, and from 600 to 800horsemen, commanded by Abdallah and Faisal, twoof the sons of Saoud Instead of retreating to thevillage, where they might have defended themselves,the invaders, on the first cry of alarm, took to flight

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 275while their nimble enemies pressing from behind,and outrunning them along the hills, poured incessantvolleys upon their disordered ranks. About1200 were killed ; and the whole body might havebeen annihilated had the Wahabees instantly pushedover the mountains, instead of contenting themselveswith seizing the baggage and artillery.Under such disastrous circumstances Toussoundid not forfeit his reputation for bravery. With tearsgushing from his eyes, he was heard to exclaim tohis flying squadrons, " Will none of you stand byme ?" and after vainly endeavouring to rally histroops, he hastened to the rear with only two horsemenof his own suite, and plunged into the midst ofthe enemy, to make them desist from the pursuit.Having set fire to his camp at Bedr, and left his militarychest, which he had not the means to remove,he embarked at the nearest port, where some of hisships lay at anchor, and proceeded to Yembo, wherein a few days he was joined by the wreck of hisarmy. These losses completely disheartened thetroops ;the Bedouins deserted, Saleh Aga and OmarAga declared they would no longer fight in Hejaz,and were sent back to Cairo. The Wahabeesscoured the country to the shores of the Red Sea,being joined by the Sheriff Ghaleb in person.When the intelligence of this failure was knownto Ali Pasha, he lost no time in preparing for a newexpedition. Fresh reinforcements of men and ammunitiondaily arrived ; while large sums of moneywere sent for distribution among the Bedouin sheiksby which means a considerable number of them weredetached from the interest of Saoud. In October,1812, Toussoun thought himself sufficiently strong tomake a second attempt upon Medina. The gold ofEgypt had opened the dangerous pass of Jedeidaand the Turkish army arrived without oppositionunder the walls of the city of the Prophet. Thetown and castle were occupied by a Wahabee gar-

276 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.rison, well supplied with provisions for a long siege;but the chief and his soldiers were so elated withtheir former success, and so confident in the strengthof their fortress, that they seemed to have abandonedthemselves to a state of the most culpable inactivity.Ahmed Aga, an officer of acknowledged bravery,but whose idle boasting had procured him the surnameof Bonaparte, entered the suburbs with littleresistance, and drove the enemy into the inner town.As the Turks had nothing but light field-pieces tobatter the wall, the siege was protracted to fourteenor fifteen days. At length a mine was laid, andwhile the inhabitants were engaged in their mid-dayprayers part of the fortifications was blown up, andthe Arnaouts marched into the city. The Wahabeesfled in surprise towards the castle : above 1000 ofthem were butchered in the streets, and about 1500sought refuge in the citadel, which, from its situation,might have set the Egyptian artillery at defiance.and after stand-The place was instantly plundered ;ing out for three weeks, the garrison, finding theirprovisions exhausted, were forced to capitulate,Ahmed Bonaparte having promised to grant them asafe condact, and provide camels for carrying thebaggage of such as wished to return to Nejed. Thesestipulations, however, were shamefully violated.Only fifty camels instead of 300 were procured,which obliged the emigrants to leave behind themthe greater part of their effects ; and no sooner hadthey quitted the precincts of the town, than theTurkish soldiers pursued, stopped, and slaughteredas many of them as they could overtake. In thetrue style of Tartar barbarity, Ahmed collected thesculls of all the Wahabees killed at Medina, andconstructed them into a kind of tower on the highroad to Yembo,Among the soldiers in the pasha's army whosignalized their bravery at the siege of Medina wasa young Scotchmsui, about twenty years of age, a

andHISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 277native of Edinburgh, named Thomas Keith. Hehad served as a gunsmith in the 92d Highlanders,during the English expedition into Egypt, where hewas taken prisoner, and purchased from a commonsoldier by Ahmed Bonaparte, in whose service hechanged his rehgion and became a Mussulman. Afavourite Sicihan Mamlouk of his master havingoffered him some insult, the indignant Scotchmandrew his sword ; blows ensued, and the aggressorfell. To escape the consequences, Keith, who nowbore the name of Ibrahim Aga, implored the protectionof Mohammed Ali's lady, who befriended him,and recommended him to her son, Toussoun Bey.Here again, on account of some trifling neglect ofduty, he incurred the displeasure of his master, whogave orders that he should be put to death. Hisroom was beset with slaves, ready to execute thecapricious mandate of the prince ; but the brave fellowdefended the entrance with his sword for halfan hour against the assailants, and then threw himselfout of the window, and escaped to his kind protectress.Toussoun was soon reconciled being;sensible of Ibrahim's merit and approved courage, hemade him chief of his Mamlouks. Keith was oneof the two horsemen that stood by the young princeat the pass of Jedeida, on which occasion he waspromoted to the office of treasurer,—the second inrank at the court of a pasha. At Medina he foughtwith equal courage, being the first man that mountedthe breach, and after distinguishing himself on severalother occasions, he was made governor of that cityin April, 1815.The success of the expedition in northern Hejazencouraged Ali Pasha to despatch another of 1000horse and 500 foot against Jidda and Mecca, underthe command of his brother-in-law Mustapha Bey.The Sheriff Ghaleb, intimidated by the fall of Medina,had renewed his offers to the Turks, and sentmessengers inviting their chief to enter the townVol. II.—a a

I278 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.under his charge. Thus deserted by his relation,Medaifa, who commanded the Wahabee forces inthat district, found himself too weak to hazard abattle, and retired towards Taif. Jidda was seizedby a detachment of a few hundred men, while Mustapha,with the principal corps, entered Mecca inJanuary, 1813. The property of the citizens wasrespected, as it had formerly been by the soldiersof Saoud; while 1000 Arabs and black slaves, withthe sheriff at their head, were added to the ranksof the Egyptian army. Taif immediately fell, andits brave defender, Medaifa, was soon after seizedby the partisans of Ghaleb, and despatched to Constantinople,where the youngest son of MohammedAli presented him to his sovereign, with the keysof the holy cities, together with many valuable offerings.The noble captive was immediately beheadedand thus the reformers lost their most active andintrepid ally in Hejaz.The recovery of this province opened a free passagefor the haj-caravans, which had been interruptedfor several years ;but it had not broken thepower of the Wahabees. All the tribes eastward ofthe mountains that bound the great desert parallelwith the sea still acknowledged the supremacy ofSaoud. The Turks never encountered them in theopen country without being defeated ; and as theconduct of Ghaleb was by no means such as to inspirehis new allies with confidence, Mohammed Alithought it necessary to visit in person the scene ofaction, that he might establish his authority on amore secure and permanent footing. Egypt hadlong been in a state of complete subjection ; so thathe could allege no excuse to the Porte for disobedienceto its peremptory commands. He embarkedat Suez with 2000 infantry, while an equal numberof cavalry, accompanied by a train of 8000 camels,proceeded by land. Of the latter only five hundredsurvived, the rest having perished on the road,

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 279owing to the scarcity of herbage. On his arrivalat Mecca ]ie ingratiated himself with the inhabitants,by distributing presents, and ordering themosques to be repaired. His first interviews withGhaleb were on friendly terms, but he soon becamecool in his demojistrations of amity. Although bothhad sworn on the Koran never to attempt any thingcontrary to the interest, safety, or life of each other,these vows were not considered binding longer thanit was convenient to keep them. Both were equallysuspicious, and accused each other of insidiousmachinations. It now became the principal objectof the Egyptian pasha to arrest and imprison hisrival;—an enterprise of no small difficulty, consideringthe sheriff's influence over the neighbouringArabs, and the strength of the castle where heresided, which was well supplied with provisions,and defended by a garrison of 800 men. This featwas at length accomplished by a stratagem ; Ghalebwas seized, while paying a visit of ceremony toToussoun, by a detachment of soldiers, who lay concealedin the apartments adjoining the court-yard ofthe house which he had just entered. After a shortcaptivity at Mecca, he was conveyed by way of Cosseirto Cairo, where he was joined by his wives anda retinue of eunuchs and slaves ;but he died of theplague in the summer of 1816 at Salonica, the placewhich the Porte had assigned for his residence.The fate of this chief spread terror among all hispartisans, and caused a revolution in the wholepolitical affairs of the country. Yahia, a distantrelation of his, and formerly an antagonist, was appointedgovernor of the city, with a monthly stipendfrom the pasha.Among the hostile tribes near Mecca, none haddisplayed a more resolute opposition than the BegoumArabs who inhabited Taraba, where most ofGhaleb's troops had taken refuge ; and which thusbecame a point of union for all the southern Waha-

280 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.bees, as Deraiah was of the northern. Their leaderat this time was a widow, named Ghalia, whose husbandhad been one of the principal men of the place.She was possessed of great wealth, which was distributedliberally among all the poor of the tribe whowere willing to fight against the Turks. The Egyptiansoldiers entertained the most absurd notion ofher powers as a sorceress, and believed that she hadthe faculty, by means of certain personal favours,of rendering the Wahabee chiefs invincible.In the beginning of November, 1813, Toussounwas despatched from Taif with 2000 men, and onhis reaching Taraba the troops were immediatelyordered to attack the place. The Arabs defended,their walls with great spirit, being animated by thepresence and exhortations of the heroic widow.The assailants were easily repulsed ; and next daythey commenced their retreat, closely pressed bythe Bedouins, who harassed them so severely thatthey were- obliged to abandon their baggage, tents,arms, and provisions. Upwards of 700 men wereslaughtered in the flight ; many more died of hungerand thirst ; and the whole must have been annihilatedbut for the intrepidity of the celebrated ThomasKeith, who with a handful of horsemen retook apiece of artillery, which he pointed so well that hegave the fugitives time to cross the defile before theenemy could advance. After a variety of hardshipsand hairbreadth escapes, Toussoun arrived at Taifwith the wreck of his army ; and for eighteenmonths all hostile operations in the field were suspended.As Alihad seen every expedition into the interiorfail, except that against Medina, a naval armament, accompaniedby 1500 soldiers and numerous transportswith provisions, under the command of Hossein Agaand Zaim Oglu, was fitted out at Jidda, and directedto make an attack on Confode, which for five yearshad been in the possession of the Sheik Tami, chief

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 281of the Azir Arabs and successor of Abu NocktaThe town, which was without a natural supply ofwater, and defended only by a small garrison, wastaken in March, 1814 ; not, however, without a bravedefence and a great expense of blood. The wallsand bastions being composed of earth or unbakedbricks, yielded to the cannon-balls, which sunk intothem without destroying them. From the smallnessof the space, and the close contact of the parties,the scene of carnage within became dreadfulin the extreme. Not only the swords and knives,but even the teeth and nails of the combatants weremade use of in their fury ; several of the besiegerswere killed, or rather torn to pieces, in this horridencounter ; while not one who had been engaged onthe other side was left alive. The brutal Zaim, exasperatedat their obstinacy, published a reward of200 piastres (3/. 6^. 8d.) for every Arab head, or pairof ears, that should be brought to him by his troops.The Arnaout soldiers, naturally greedy, dispersedthemselves in every direction to reap their bloodyharvest, dragging their wretched victims from theirlurking-holes, some of whom consented to save theirlives at the expense of mutilation. The Turks, havinggot possession of the place, were ordered tomaintain it as a military post. But their triumphwas short. Early in May they were surprised bythe descent of a corps of 8000 or 10,000 Wahabees,under the personal command of Tami. Their ap-the Arnaoutpearance spread general consternation ;guard at the well were cut to pieces ; and the panicstruckcommander, with most of the troops, fled tothe ships that lay in the harbour. The invaders enteredthe town, where they put all that could befound to the sword ; and such was their eagernessin pursuit, that they swam after the fugitives, andactually killed numbers of them in the water underthe guns of the vessels.These repeated disasters greatly displeased, butAa2

282 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.they did not discourage Ali Pasha, who had nowestabUshed his head-quarters at Taif. Zaim Ogluwas appointed governor of Jidda; and Toussoun,who by his inconsiderate attack on Taraba had incurredhis father's displeasure, remained stationedat Mecca. At this time the state of Turkish affairsin Hejaz did not by any means promise a favourableissue to the contest. The certain death that awaitedall prisoners rendered the very name of Wahabee aterror among the pasha's troops. The arrears of payfor two or three months, and the extreme dearth ofprovisions, which had risen to such a height that asoldier could barely afford to purchase a subsistenceof bread and onions (his only food), spread considerablediscontent in the army.Under these circumstances, Ali was perhaps theonly individual of his own court or army that didnot despair of ultimate success. Relying on thepowerful auxiliaries of money and patience, he had,since his residence at Taif, endeavoured to reopena friendly intercourse with the Bedouins ; and inthis he partially succeeded. The profusion withwhich he scattered dollars around him was felt inthe heart of the Wahabee host ; and although theattachment thus procured was perhaps not very sincere,yet numbers affected to be so, and at least remainedneuter, that they might partake of his bounty.His policy towards the inhabitants of Hejaz wasequally conciliatory. He abolished or diminishedthe customs on various articles, particularly coffee ;he gave liberal donations to the holy places ; andeven performed at the Kaaba the tedious and absurdceremonies of the Moslem ritual.At this important crisis an irreparable misfortunebefell the Wahabees in the death of Saoud, who expiredof a fever at Deraiah in April, 1814, at the ageof sixty-eight. In him they lost an indefatigableleader, possessing all the talents necessary for theeminent situation which he held. Victory never

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 283abandoned his colours while he was at the head ofhis troops ; and to his loss may be attributed the disasterswhich soon after befell his nation. His lastwords, it is said, were addressed to his eldest sonand successor, Abdallah, advising him never to engagethe Turks in open plains—a principle which,if strictly followed, would have ensured in all probabilitythe recovery of Hejaz.Abdallah had been trained to arms from infancy;and it is recorded of him, that at the early age offive years he could gallop his mare. He was evenmore distinguished for courage than his father, ashe made it a constant rule to fight everywhere inperson. His mental qualities were considered tobe of the first order—and so long as Saoud filled thethrone, he occupied the second place in his dominions; none of his other brothers being allowed toexercise any influence in public affairs. With allhis superior reputation for bravery and skill in war,however, he knew not so well as his predecessorhow to manage the political interests of the tribesunder his command, whose general strength wasnow weakened by the quarrels of the great sheiks ;while the measures which he adopted in opposingMohammed Ali seemed to prove that he by nomeans possessed the wisdom and sagacity of hisfather.The prospects of the Turks began to assume abrighter aspect. Their army had been strengthenedby various reinforcements : 20,000 men were nowat the command of the viceroy, and distributed overdifferent parts of the country. At Mecca 350 werestationed under Ibrahim Agaand the Sheriff Yahia ;between 300 and 400 were at Medina, where DivanEffendi had the command ; 300 formed the garrisonof Yembo and Jidda. The remainder were eitherwith Ali himself, or with Hassan Pasha and hisbrother Abdin Bey, acting as the advanced posts ofthe army to the southward of Taif. Four hundred

234 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.Bedouin soldiers were placed under the charge ofSheriff Rajah, a relation of Ghaleb, and a distinguishedleader of the Wahabees in Hejaz, who hadbeen won over to the side of the enemy.One obstacle alone retarded the immediate adoptionof offensive measures. The campaign hadproved most destructive to the Egyptian camels:hundreds of their dead bodies strewed the roads betweenJidda and Taif, and occasioned such a pestilentialstench that the inhabitants were obliged toconsume them to ashes with dry grass from theadjoining mountains. At a moderate calculation,during the three years of the war, 30,000 of theseanimals belonging to the army had perished in Hejaz.The arrival of the pilgrim-caravans in Novemberbrought a reinforcement of 6000 or 7000, chiefly ofthe Syrian breed, which were better adapted thanthe others for military purposes.While these measures were in preparation, theWahabees had made frequent incursions towardsTaif, and against the tribes which had espoused thecause of the pasha. To intercept the communicationbetween Jidda and Mecca, they attacked thecamp at Bahra, which they pillaged of its baggage,carrying off a small caravan, and massacring all theinhabitants they could find. The pride of the Turkswas still farther humbled by another defeat. AbdinBey, with his Arnaouts, who occupied certain districtsin the province of Tehama, had laid desolatethe country to the extent of forty miles, that bymeans of this artificial desert he might prevent thesudden incursions of the enemy. Notwithstandingthese cruel precautions, the Sheik Bakrouj, at thehead of his Arabs and a strong detachment fromTami, stole by surprise into the Turkish camp atBarush about daybreak, and fell upon the sleepingsoldiers, of whom they slaughtered 800, besides 80horsemen. Bakrouj pursued the fugitives duringtwo days ; and not an individual would have es-

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 285caped destruction had not Hossein Bey, with atroop of cavalry, covered their retreat. Such ofthem as fell alive into the hands of the pursuerswere cruelly mutilated, by having their arms andlegs cut oft; and then left to perish in that horridcondition.The whole effective strength of the Egyptianarmy, reinforced by 800 horsemen of Libyan Bedouinsfrom Cairo, was now collected near Taif ; andfrom the state of his storehouses and the numberof his camps, Mohammed Ali considered his successno longer doubtful. He resolved to place himself attheir head, and to take command in person of thenext expedition, which was directed against Taraba,in revenge for the disgrace and losses that had beensustained there by his favourite son. A well-appointedartillery, consisting of twelve fieldpieces500 axes for cutting down the palm-groves near thetown—a company of masons and carpenters for thepurpose of opening a mine to blow it up at onceencouraged the soldiers to believe that the walls ofTaraba could not long remain standing. To crownthe work of desolation, a load of watermelon seedswas brought from Wady Fatima, and paraded throughthe ranks, indicating his intention of sowing themon the spot which the devoted place still occupied.The Wahabees were nothing daunted at these pompousdemonstrations. Confident in the strength of hisposition, Bakrouj wrote a sneering epistle to Ah,advising him to return to Egypt, or provide bettertroops if he meant to fight with him.In January, 1815, the pasha, with all the forcesand camels he could muster, left Mecca and proceededtowards Kolach, where Hassan Pasha, AchmedBonaparte, Topouz Oglu, Sheriff" Rajah, andother chiefs were already assembled ; and wheresufficient provisions had been collected for fifty orsixty days. While here, information was broughtthat the enemy had seized upon Bissel, a strong

286 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEESposition in their rear, which would enable them tointerrupt the communication between Kolach andTa'if. Bissei is a level spot of ground, encircled bya natural rampart of hills, through which are severalnarrow passes or entrances. On these eminencesthe Wahabees were posted, while the areawithin contained their stores and ammunition, besidesa great quantity of private property. Theirwhole force was reckoned at 25,000 infantry, accompaniedby 5000 camels ; but they had few cavalry,and were entirely destitute of artillery. Amongthe distinguished leaders of this army were Faisal,brother of Abdallah, the renowned heroine Ghalia,the Sheik Tami, with all the chiefs of the Yemenmountains, and some whose dwellings were as fareastward as the borders of Hadramaut.When the pasha's cavalry approached they wiselyremained on their hills, and repulsed with some lossan attack made on a valley where the Turks wishedto plant one of their fieldpieces. A whole day wasconsumed in fruitless attempts ; and such was theterror inflicted by the lances of the Wahabees, thatnumbers deserted the ranks and fled to Mecca, wherethey spread the alarming news of the pasha's death,and the total defeat of the expedition. Finding hecould have no chance of success so long as theenemy kept the mountains, the policy of Ali was todecoy them into the plain. He sent during thenight for reinforcements from Kolach, and earlynext morning renewed the assault ; commandingthe ofl[icers to advance with their columns closer tothe enemy's position, and after the first fire, to retreatin seeming disorder. The stratagem had thedesired eff"ect. The Arabs, seeing their adversariesfly, thought they were panic-struck, and thatthe fortunate moment for completely crushing themhad arrived. They imprudently abandoned the steepsand gave chase over the plain ; and when they hadadvanced to a sufficient distance from their strong-

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 287holds, the pasha wheeled round with his cavalry,outflanked the pursuers, and, after a hot engagementof five hours, gained a decisive victory.In this action the pasha fought in person at themoment when he ordered his cavalry to wheel andrepel their pursuers. In order to keep alive thespirit of resistance, he dismounted, commanded hiscarpet to be spread on a little level spot in presenceof the whole line, and seating himself upon it,he called for his pipe, declaring that from thatground he would not move, but there await victoryor death as fate might determine. A reward of sixdollars was proclaimed to every soldier who shouldpresent him with the head of an enemy;and in afew hours 5000 of these ghastly trophies were piledup before him. Mere courage was all the Wahabeeshad to oppose to military skill and experience ; andthis noble quality did not forsake them to the last, foreven in the most desperate condition they maintainedthe fight during a considerable time. The Turkishinfantry at length turned their position ; when SheriffRajah, who had just arrived with his corps, likeanother Blucher, fell upon their rear, and compelledthem to fly in the utmost disorder. He beset thenarrow valley through which they attempted to retreat,and here 1500 of them were surrounded andcut to pieces.The slaughter was prodigious, the whole fieldbeing strewed over with headless bodies ; for therewere few of the mercenary Turks who did notclaim and receive the recompense promised them bytheir commander-in-chief. About 300 were takenalive at the express desire of Ali, who ordered histroops to offer them quarter, as very few of theA rabs had condescended to beg for mercy, A bodystill remained on the heights with a view to guardthe baggage ; they stood their ground with desperatebravery, but their position was at length carried,and not a man left alive. Tami fled with only a

288 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.very few followers, as did also Faisal and Ghalia,The escape of this amazoii was a disappointmentto Ali, who was anxious to send her as a trophyto Constantinople ; but no proposals could induceher to desert the Bedouins, or confide in the offersof the Turks. The whole camp of the Wahabees,—their provisions, ammunition, camels, women,and all that belonged to them,—became the preyof the victors. The tent of Faisal, which containedabout 2000 dollars (437/.), was bestowed on Rajah,who had especially distinguished himself. Mountedon a famous mare, he had galloped far in advanceof the lines through the enemy's ranks, and strikinghis lance into the ground immediately before thedoor of the tent, he defended himself with his sworduntil he was rescued by the approach of his friends.The loss of the Turks was reckoned only between400 and 500 men, chiefly owing to the skilful dispositionsof the pasha. Individual instances are recordedof tlie most romantic valour among the Arabs.Bakrouj killed two of the pasha's officers with hisown hand ; and when his mare was shot under him,he fought on foot among the Turkish cavalry untilhe found an opportunity of pulling a trooper fromhis horse, which he instantly mounted, and by thismeans escaped. Ibn Shokban, chief of Beishe, witha few hundred men, cut his way through the wholebody of the enemy's infantry. Numerous partiesof the Azir Arabs had sworn by the oath of divorcenot to fly, but if possible to return to their familiesvictorious. After the battle, whole ranks of themwere found lying dead upon the hills, tied togetherby the legs with ropes. Having fought as long astheir ammunition lasted, they had resolved to perishto the last man rather than disgrace their tribe byrunning away.Tidings of this important victory were immediatelydespatched to Constantinople and Cairo.Elated with success, the Turks resumed their na-

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 289tional fierceness and insolence, which had in somedegree been checked. Ah stained his laurels withthe most revolting cruelties. The 300 prisoners towhom he had promised quarter fell by the hand ofthe executioner. Fifty of them were impaled alivebefore the gates of Mecca ; twelve suffered a likehorrible death at the halting-places on the road toJidda ; and the rest imder the walls of that town.Their carcasses were allowed to remain until thedogs and vultures devoured them.Without suffering the ardour of his troops to cool,the pasha directed his march on Taraba, where hearrived within four days after the battle. Faisal fledat his approach ; and the deserted inhabitants, whoconsisted chiefly of old men, women, and children,were glad to capitulate and beg for protection. Apanic had seized the whole country, and the Turkisharmy met not the slightest opposition. As thestrength of the enemy lay in the southern countries,Ali resolved to follow them into their own territories,and if possible to exterminate their party.Several of the chiefs and fugitives who had madetheir escape from Bissel posted themselves at Beishe,a fertile country eastward of the Yemen mountains.Here they had assembled to a considerablenumber, and seemed determined to maintain a veryobstinate resistance,—having defended themselvesby a line of mud-fortifications, pierced everywherewith loopholes for the discharge of fire-arms. Acannonade was kept up without effect for two days,when a discharge of shells put an end to the contest.One of these having exploded, set fire to somecombustibles, which communicating to all the drywoodwork and thatching of reed and palm-branchesin the interior, had the effect of spreading almostimmediately into one general blaze ;—the heat andsmoke of which became intolerable even to the assailants,and soon drove out the besieged to a precipitateflight, when they were instantly pursued byVol. II.—B b

2j}0 history of the WAHABEES.vhe Turkish horsemen. Among those who escapedwas the heroine Ghaha. Having no longer any secureplace of retreat, she led her followers into thedesert, and ultimately reached Deraiah. The castleof Ranniah, with several others, capitulated.One formidable enemy yet remained in the field,the Sheik Tami, who was resolved to try a secondbattle, and had assembled a considerable army beyondthe rugged mountains of Azir, twelve or fourteendays' journey westward from Beishe. Towardsthis district Mohammed Ali next directed his attempts.On the march, his army suffered the extremitiesof "hunger and fatigue. A hundred horsessometimes died in one day, and out of more than'10,000 camels only 300 survived the expedition.The sinking spirits of the troops were kept up by theipasha, who promised them a glorious booty in plunderingthe towns of Yemen. Tami had collected aforce of 8,000 or 10,000 men at a mountain-fortresscalled Tor, so strong as to be deemed by the Arabsimpregnable. In two days the Turkish artilleryforced the Wahabees to yield, though the combatwas more vigorously maintained than at Bissel.;In the castle were found considerable stores ofprovisions, which proved most seasonable to the in*-vading army.Tami fled ; but he was the last to quit the field.Having taken refuge in the house of a friend, hewas betrayed and delivered up in chains to SheriffRajah, who was roaming about the mountains insearch of the fugitive. Bakrouj was at the sametime defeated in Zohran, and being hemmed inbetween two fires, was taken prisoner. The twonoble captives were sent to the pasha, and both sufferedthe death of traitors. Bakrouj was neverforgiven the insulting letter which he wrote fromTaraba. He maintained a sulky silence under hismisfortunes. Once he made his escape on findinghis guards asleep- but was retaken, after killing

HISTORY OF THE AVAHABEES. 291two men and wounding another with a poniardwhich he had seized. His death was accomplishedwith a studied cruelty,—such as might at once gratifythe revenge of Ali, and furnish a barbarous entertainmentto his soldiers. The prisoner, with hishands bound, was placed in the midst ; and theywere directed with their sabres to cut him slightly,that he might die as it were by inches. His tormentswere severe and protracted ; but he expiredat last without having uttered one complaint.The fate of Tami was equally tragical. Thischief is represented as a man of strong naturalpowers ; short in stature, with a long white beard,and eyes darting fire. His conduct inspired thewhole army with respect. The pasha often conversedwith him for amusement ; but it was likethe treachery of the tiger, who sports with his preybefore he seizes it in his grasp. He promised towrite to the sultan in his favour, and procure himpermission to live in retirement in the mountains ofRoumeha ; but this solemn pledge was violated.The captive sheik was sent to Cairo, were he wasparaded through the streets, seated on a camel,loaded with an immense chain about his neck, andthe head of Bakrouj in a bag suspended from hisshoulders. From this city he was conveyed to Constantinople,where he was immediately beheaded.After vanquishing the most renowned chiefs of thesouthern Wahabees, it seemed to be the eager desireof Ali to riot in the far-famed wealth of Yemen ; andwith this view he opened a correspondence with theImam of Sanaa. But the soldiers, worn out withdisease and fatigue, and considering the object ofthe expedition as accomplished, openly declaredtheir wish of returning to Mecca. Instead of advancingsouthward, Ali directed his march towardsGonfode, which surrendered without the slightestresistance. Thence he proceeded to Mecca, with aremnant of ojily 1500 men, moneyless and in rags.

292 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.being all that remained of an army of 4000.In Aprilhe visited Medina, where Toussomi was governor ;probably with a design to obtain information respectingthe affairs of the northern Hejaz, and toconcert with him measures for their future proceedings.But the state of Egypt afforded a sufficientreason for his immediate departure. Apprehensionswere entertained of an attack being made on Alexandriaby the capitan-pasha of the grand seignior.An insurrection of the troops had also broken out atCairo, originating in their dislike to the attemptedintroduction of the European system of discipline ;and when the pasha reached his capital in June, 1815,after an absence of nearly two years, he found everything in tumult and confusion.The remainder of the Arabian war was now leftin the hands of Toussoun Pasha, who, while hisfather was subduing the southern tribes, had conductedoperations in the north against Abdallah ibnSaoud. When the news of All's success becameknown to the Arabs on the frontier of Nejed, manyof their sheiks came to Medina, and made proposalsto Toussoun to join him against the Wahabees,whose power they had felt more severely than othersat a greater distance. With these assurances heconceived hopes of conquering the province of Nejedand emulating his father's fame. Setting out with asmall expedition of 2500 men, infantry and cavalry,he resolved to try his fortune by making an attackon Kasym. After a march of ten or eleven days, hearrived at Rass, a considerable town defended by awall. This, with several other large villages, gave intheir submission. But here he found himself in aprecarious situation ; and discovered that, like mostTurks, he had not sufficiently calculated his means.The light troops of the Wahabees were hoveringaround, and rendered his army wholly dependent ontwo or three villages for their daily subsistence.The road to Medina was occupied by the enemyand it was on this occasion that the gallant Thomas

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 293Keith, while hastening with 250 horsemen to theassistance of his commander, was surrounded by asuperior force, and fell at the head of his troops,who were all cut to pieces. In this action the braveScotchman killed four of the enemy with his o\vnhand.In the mean time, Abdallah had not neglectedhis duty, having likewise entered the province ofKasym with his army, and fixed his head-quartersat Shenana, only five hours distance from Khabara,where Toussoun was now encamped. In this dilemmathe adventurous pasha wished to terminateall suspense by a battle ; but his officers and soldiersdeclined,—deeming it more prudent for persons intheir situation to compromise than to fight ; themore so as Mohammed Ali had written to Abdallahbefore quitting Hejaz, exhorting him to submission,and offering terms of peace ; at the same time authorizinghis son to conclude the truce, if that couldbe done on favourable conditions. Abdallah on hispart had reasons for bringing matters to a pacifictermination. He foresaw that the destruction evenof Toussoun's entire force would be of Httle realadvantage to him so long as the Turks could repairtheir losses from the abundant resources of Egypt.He knew also that they possessed the means ofbribery ; and that some of his companions in armswere in their hearts the allies of his enemies.Negotiations were speedily concluded ; and inratifying the treaty Abdallah renounced all claim tothe holy cities ; affected to style himself the dutifulsubject of the sultan ; and obtained a free passagefor the Wahabees whenever they wished to performthe pilgrimage Toussoun restored those towns ofKasym which he held in his possession, and dismissedfrom his party all the sheiks of that countrywho had joined his standard.The exchange of ratifications was conducted withconsiderable ceremony. The manifesto inBb2which

294 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.the chief of the desert acknowledged his allegianceto the Porte ran in these words :— " To Toussoun.—I lie at the gate of your mercy, sire ; I ask pardonof God and your highness ; 1 desire to be receivedinto the number of the faithful subjects of the sultan; and from this day hence we shall obey hisorders, in making prayers for his august personevery Friday in our mosques and on the mountaintops.Finally, on our part there shall be no attemptat rebellion." On this being read to the Wahabeearmy, they shouted, with one voice, " Yes, we willobey I" and instantly the air was rent with prayersfor the health of the sultan and the glory of his arms.The envoy of Toussoun then invested Abdallah withthe emblems of his submission,—a pelisse, a sabre,and several horses richly caparisoned. " This,"said he, in presenting him with the sword, " is thepledge of your fealty ; it will be your protector solong as you are faithful to your promises ; but ifyou disobey the orders of the sultan, our master, itwill be his avenger." Again the whole camp resoundedwith shouts for the prosperity of the grandseignior, and promises to repeat his name in theirFriday's prayers.Toussoun quitted Arabia in the beginning of November.At Cairo he was welcomed with all thehonours due to his rank and bravery. Salvos of artilleryannounced his approach, and crowds throngedthe streets to behold the deliverer of the holycities. By his father alone he was coldly received., His subsequent history is short : he was appointedto command a large body of troops encamped atRosetta for the defence of the coast, and died therenext year (September, 1816) of the plague.Mohammed Ali was evidently not sincere in hisoffers of peace ; and pretexts were easily found forrenewing hostilities. His letters of acquiescenceto Abdallah were extremely ambiguous. He demandedthe restitution of the treasures which his

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 295father had taken from the tomb of the Prophet ; herequired that Deraiah should submit to the jurisdictionof the governor of Medina ;and he refused toconfirm the treaty, unless the Wahabees would cedeto him the province of Hassa. Deceit wrs one ofthe most prominent and reprehensible features inthe character of Ali ; and although his son, his equalin rank (both being pachas of three tails), had concludeda peace that was considered binding on hi&whole party, he represented matters under a differentpoint of view at Constantinople. As he hadpledged himself to annihilate the heretics by destroyingtheir capital, he found it necessary to persuadethe sultan that he had not yet abandoned thatobject ; the treaty agreed to by Toussoun being onlya temporary armistice.It now became manifest to Abdallah, either thatthe young prince had deceived him, or that the father,by his extravagant demands, had given a freshproof of the contempt in which he held all engagements.He summoned a council of his kinsmen andprincipal officers, and their opinion was, that theyhad no alternative but arms if they wished to preservetheir religion and their independence. Defensivepreparations were everywhere made ; storesof provisions and ammunition were thrown into thecities and fortresses ; the sheiks were obliged torenew their oaths of fidelity ;the imams in the pulpitsdiscoursed of war and the treachery of theTurks. Thirty thousand troops were raised, andthe command assigned to officers whose talents andcourage had been tried in the preceding campaigns.The rich sold their property to pay the army andpurchase the necessary supplies. All were animatedwith the most patriotic enthusiasm :" God," saidthey, " will give us, who profess his unity, the vic^tory over those who admit a plurality." Abdallahvisited the provinces in person, and obtained reinforcementsfrom Bahrein and Hassa ; some tribes

296 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.from Oman joined his standard, and the Arabs ofYemen sent him 2000 combatants.The pasha on his side had displayed equal activity.When the alarm of invasion and revolt in Egypt hadsubsided, he ordered a powerful expedition to befitted out for Hejaz, which he intrusted to the commandof his adopted son Ibrahim, a prince of eminentbravery, and who had already disting:uishedhimself in suppressing' the mutinous Mamlouks,Six months were devoted to the transport of militarystores. In September, 1816, the general leftCairo. He was accompanied by about 2000 infantry,who went by Cossier to Yembo, and 1500 LibyanBedouin hersemen, who proceeded by land. In histrain were some French officers, and the Arab heroSheik Rajah, who had been sent to Egypt in chains,but was now released, as his services might proveuseful to the expedition. His orders were to attackDeraiah, by way of Medina and Kasym. In tendays after his landing he reached the city of theProphet. Here he took a vow never to sheath hissword, nor to drink wine or other forbidden liquor,until he had entirely extirpated the enemies of hisreliarion. Following the route of Toussoun, he tookup his position at Henakiah, where several weekswere spent in skirmishing and plundering. Someof the neighbouring chiefs joined his ranks, amongwhom was Ghanem, sheik of the Harbs, who broughtover 500 of his tribe. Nothing could have beenmore seasonable than such reinforcements, as histroops were suffering from epidemic diseases andthe harassing warfare of the desert ; for the Arabsfound means to steal at night into the Turkish camp,where they killed or cut the legs of their horses andcamels.Abdallah was encamped in the vicinity of Aenezeh.He had conceived the bold project of marchingdirectly on Medina, at the head of 30,000 men ;whilehis brother Faisal should make a descent on Mecca,

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. 297Jidda, and Vembo, and thus intercept the convoysof troops and provisions from Egypt. From thisenterprise he was diverted by the revolt of some ofhis allies, and the defeat of a body of 10,000 troops,which he commanded in person. The town of Rasswas the first that offered any serious obstacle tothe advance of Ibrahim. It was strongly fortified,and the inhabitants exerted themselves with signalcourage. The women in the garrison assisted theirbrave defenders, and the besiegers were repulsed atall points. Already 3000 Turks had fallen, and themortality daily increased. Hundreds of the headsof the slaughtered Wahabees were exposed to theview of the inhabitants, in the hope that this hideousspectacle might terrify them into a surrender ; butit only increased their desire of revenge.In this perilous situation, and reduced to extremedistress, Ibrahim was compelled to raise the siege,after wasting three months and seventeen days inuseless efforts. This, however, was the only reversewhich he experienced. As if the fortunes of hisfather had suddenly returned, he advanced fromvictory to victory, and in the blood of the hereticsspeedily washed out the affront which his arms hadreceived under the walls of Rass. Khabara surrenderedafter a cannonade of a few hours. Aenezehfollowed the example ; the greater part of the troopshaving fled, without waiting to obtain articles ofcapitulation. All the towns and tribes of Kasymhad now submitted to the Turks ; Abdallah retiredfrom place to place before the invaders, and saw allhis strongholds fall into their hands. Boureidah,Shakara, and Dorama, were successively invested,taken possession of, and demolished by the enemy.Shakara was a handsome commercial town, andreckoned the. strongest fortress in the country.The obstinacy which the Turks had experienced atDorama led to a cruel retaliation. All the inhabitantswere put to the sword ; the soldiers had orders

298 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.to fire upon them in their houses ; and in two hoursthe work of indiscriminate carnage was completed.Nothing- now remained to consummate the triumphof Ibrahim but the capture of Deraiah, With aforce nearly 6000 strong he directed his march towardsthat capital, which he reached on the 6th ofApril. The place was immediately invested, redoubtswere constructed, intrenchments thrown up, andevery preparation made for a resolute siege. Thiscity, famous as the metropolis of Nejed and the seatof the power and government of the Wahabees, liesabout 400 miles eastward of Medina, in a fertile valleycalled Wady Hanifa, rich in fruits and grain, andwatered by a stream (El Baten) which, though dryin summer, in the rainy season runs a course of considerableextent. Its position is naturally strong,the mountains enclosing it on either hand ; and theonly entrances to the valley being through two inlets,of which that on the west side is so narrow asto admit but of one camel at a time, and mighteasily be defended against any number of assailants.Though formerly a place of some note, its truesituation and importance were now for the firsttime known to Europeans. The town was composed of five small villages or quarters, each surroundedby a wall fortified with bastions. Thesuburbs were unprotected, and covered with gardensand fruit-trees. The houses were chiefly of stoneor brick, and the bazars consisted of shops madeof reeds, which could easily be transported from oneplace to another. There were twenty-eight mosquesin it and thirty colleges, but no baths, khans, orpublic inns. The inhabtants, proverbial for theirhospitality, were estimated at 13,000.Five months were consumed in the siege of thisimportant capital; both parties maintaining the courtest with undaunted resolution, and with alternateadvantages. Abdallah did his utmost by word andlaction to animate his troops ; money and presents

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES* 299were lavishly distributed ;and the women braved thofire of the besiegers to fetch water to the wounded.Ibrahim meanwhile made little progress, and theaccidental explosion of a magazine threatened todefeat entirely the object of the expedition. Morethan 200 barrels of gunpowder, and as many loadedshells, blew up in the midst of his camp ; thus leavinghim almost destitute of ammmiition, and surroundedwith enemies in the heart of a desert 500leagues from Egypt. No resource remained forthe Turks but their courage and their sabres untilfresh supplies were obtained from Medina and theneighbouring garrisons. The governors of Bagdadand Busso.ra sent large caravans with provisions,while recruits with ammunition and artillery-storesarrived in successive detachments from Cairo. Thecombat was renewed ; and to inspirit the languidsoldier, fifty piastres were promised for every heador pair of ears he should bring to his commander.Abdallah now found that his capital could nolonger be defended. All his sorties had been attendedwith loss ; two of his sons were taken prisoners^and one of them put to death. The fortresses on theadjoining heights, in the gardens, and on the banksof the dry bed of the river, had fallen into the handsof the assailants. Three of the five quarters of thecity made a conditional surrender, and the rest werecut off from connnunicating with the villages thatsupplied them with provisions. In this forlorn position,Abdallah, with his guard of 400 black slaves,-still maintained a brave resistance in his palace,determined to sacrifice his life on the nrins of hisexpiring country ; but he was at length compelled,by the impatient clamours of the citizens, to hoist aflag of truce and demand a conference, which wasimmediately granted. With a retinue of 200 men,he repaired to the tent of Ibrahim, and offered termsof surrender, which the pasha consented to acceptat the same time acquainting him, that in compliance

300 HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES.with the order of his father, the Wahabee chief mustimmediately take his departure for Egypt. Thecondition was alarming ; but it seemed to be the onlymeans of averting a more tragical catastrophe, andthe generous Abdallah accepted it.Trusting to the hopes of security expressed by theconqueror, and that his family and capital would besaved from destruction, in token of which he hadreceived a white handkerchief, the emblem of peace^he quitted his palace amid the tears and regrets ofhis friends, crossed the desert with a small train ofattendants, and was received at Cairo by the vice*roy with every outward demonstration of respect.After a short conference he was despatched to Constantinopleunder an escort of Tartars. The partisansof Ali give him the credit of interposing withthe sultan to pardon the obnoxious captive ; forsuch was now the situation of the too credulousAbdallah. But the Ottoman divan were implacable.Mercy is no attribute either of the religion or thepolicy of the Turks ; and, after being paraded overthe city for three days, the unhappy chief, with histwo companions in misfortune, his secretary andtreasurer, were beheaded (December 19, 1818) inthe public square of St. Sophia. The pasha and hisson were complimented on their victories by theSublime Porte, and honoured with several costlypresents.The fall of the Wahabee capital may be said tohave completed the conquest of Nejed. The provinceof Haryk was reduced after a slight resistance.Other districts sent deputies offering voluntarysubmission. The want of sufficient provisions,rendered more severe by the destructive operationsof the siege, occasioned a very general mutiny inthe Turkish army. The soldiers committed all sortsof excess, plundering the houses and pillaging thecountry. Ibrahim himself narrowly escaped assassination; but his well-timed intrepidity, and the

Abdallah ibn Saoud, Chief of the Wahabees.Vol. II.—C c

HISTORY OF THE WAHABEES. " 303decapitation of some of the insurgent chiefs, had theeffect of restoring order. One of the Arab sheikswas punished by having his teeth drawn, and anotherwas blown from the mouth of a cannon.The news of Abdallah's death spread universalgrief among the inhabitants of Deraiah : and theirconsternation was increased when the orders of Allwere communicated, that the place must be razed tothe ground, and the whole family of their chief sentcaptives to Egypt. A group of 500 exiles, includingseveral of the brothers, uncles, and sons of Abdallah,were transported to Cairo, where small pensionswere assigned them. As it became desirable toevacuate the place, an epidemic, the consequenceof fatigues and privations of all kinds, having begunto commit the most frightful ravages, the work ofdemolition was enjoined without delay. The datetreesin the gardens and suburbs were cut downand the soldiers set fire to the houses the momentthe inmates had made their escape, many of whomclung affectionately to their homes until they werenearly buried in the ruins. As the season of theyear was at the hottest, and disease and devastationdoing their work at the same time, the spectaclewas truly afflicting. In the space of twenty daysDeraiah was completely unpeopled, and not onestone left upon another.Before quitting the scene of devastation, Ibrahimtraversed the country to ascertain that the exterminatorydecree had been executed against all thefortresses that might serve as future strongholds orrailying-points for the heretics. This done, herepaired to Medina, having already despatched theartillery and part of the troops to that place. Hereand at Mecca he returned thanks to the prophet forthis signal triumph over his enemies ;after whichhe departed with the sickly and exhausted remainsof his army for Egypt.The disturbances which had broken out in the

304 HISTORY OF THE M'AHAEEES.soutli of Hejaz were suppressed by Halil Pasha,who had been sent with a remforcement to Deraiahbut on finding that the place had surrendered hedirected his march on Abu-Arish, of which he tookpossession ; and in reward for his services was madegovernor of Mecca. It was at this time that theBritish authorities in India, in consequence of thedepredations committed by the Wahabees on thecommerce of the Persian Gulf, made proposals toIbrahim, through Captain Sadlier, to co-operate withthe Egyptian army by sending an expedition againstEl Katif, which relight produce a diversion in favourof the Turks ; but, as the campaign had already beenbrought to a favourable conclusion, the aid of anEnglish fleet was declined as unnecessary.It may appear surprising that a power so widelyextended and so firmly established as that of theWahabees should have been so rapidly overthrown.Saoud had not only laid the foundation, but organizedthe political system of a great empire. Hewould have made himself master of all Arabia hadnot death arrested him in the midst of his conquests.Bagdad and Bussora would have opened their gatesto him ; Syria and Egypt, torn by jarring factionsand weakened by revolution, might again have fallenan easy prey to the hordes of the desert.Such was the splendid legacy which he bequeathedto his successor ; and never, perhaps, had a^iy princegreater facilities for securing the independence ofhis nation than Abdallah. But, unfortunately, heinherited not the qualities necessary for followingup the brilliant career which his father had pointedout to him. He was brave ; but courage is not theonly virtue essential to a sovereign. His inflexibleseverity alienated the aff'ections of his people ; andhis want of military tact was evinced in the numerouserrors he committed in the progress of the war.Had he known to profit by his advantages, he mighthave annihilated the Ottoman army, exhausted with

'HISTORy^ OF THE WAHABEES."305disease and fatigue in the nydst of burning sands,instead of being compelled to sue for a dishonourableand fatal peace. The desertion of the Bedouinsno doubt weakened his power, which may be saidto have yielded to the gold of Ali rather than to thevalour of his troops. But the influence of a popularchief could have prevented or counteracted theseseductions ; and had the hardy tribes of the desertfound such a prince in Abdallah, the carcasses of theTurks might have fed the eagles, and the fate ofArabia been entirely changed.Some writers lament the suppression of the Wahabees,from a belief that the downfall of Islam wasto follow the propagation of their doctrines, andthat a purer religion would be established in itsstead. These regrets appear to be inspired by erroneousconceptions of the principles of this sect,which are nothing else than the gross and primitivesuperstitions of the Koran enforced with greaterrigour. Their creed was even more sanguinary andintolerant than that which the first followers of Mohammedoffered to the nations on the points of theirswords. Their reform extended only to a few absurdor scandalous practices, and the more strictinjunction of certain moral precepts ; but they leftuntouched all the impious and heretical dogmas ofthe Moslem faith. Their chief merit consisted, notin their teaching their countrymen a more refinedand rational theology, but in suppressing their infidelindifference to all religion ;in improving their poliicalcondition ; and in subjecting their wild passionsto the restraint of law and justice.** It was the opinion of Burckhardt that the suppression of theWahabees and the conquest of Nejed are merely temporaryand that these warlike fanatics, who are dispersed rather thansubdued, will take the earliest opportunity to effect the restorationof their empire. This of course must greatly depend onthe character of the future pashas of Egypt ; but it is not likelyto happen in the reign of Mohammed AU or his son, to whomCc2

306 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.CHAPTER nil.SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.National Character of the Arabs—Their Family Pride—Ordersof Nobility—Their Domestic Life—Their Tents—Furniture-Mode of Encamping—Dress—Personal Appearance—Acutenessof their Senses— Sagacity in tracing Footsteps—TheirArms—Food and Cookery—Manner of Eating—DiseasesWealth and Industry—Marriage — Divorce—Education ofS-, their Children—Funerals—Modes of Salutation—HospitalityWarfare—Robbery and Theft—The Blood-revenge—Amusements—Poetryand Music—Learning—Medicine—Superstitions—Language—Arts-Commerce—ProposedSteam Routeoy the Euphrates and the Red Sea—Population—ConcludingReflections.Climate, government, and education are in everycountry the great agents that form and modify tJiecharacter of nations. Nowhere are their effectsmore strikingly exemplified than in Arabia. To thethe Porte has ceded by a recent treaty (May, 1833) the wholeof Syria, including Tripoli, Aleppo, Damascus, and Jerusalem ;besides the command of the harbours in the Red Sea, and thesacred privilege of conducting the pilgrim-caravans. Ibrahim,by pushing his victories in the late Syrian campaigns almost tothe gates of Constantinople, has acquired fresh laurels as aconqueror, and a new title to be Sheik el Haram of Mecca.Under these circumstances the Bedouins, of whom not fewerthan 5370 are now serving in the armies of the pasha, can haveno immediate prospects of reasserting their independence. Thesuccesses of Ibrahim led to a serious conflict, in the month ofJune, 1832, between the Turkish and Arab regiments stationedat Mecca. Of the former 1400 were sabred in the streets. Thebattery that overlooks the city was made to play upon themosque, where the mutinous Turks had taken .fuge, and withsuch effect, that the walls were pierced, one of the pillars brokendown, and several persons killed.

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 307first of these causes may be ascribed many of thesocial virtues for which the natives have been alwaysdistinguished ; while most of the crimes, vices, andprejudices by which they are degraded are thenatural fruits of the two latter. On the seacoastsand in the towns, their manners have been corruptedby commerce and a free intercourse with foreigners.Travellers, who have formed their opinions frommixing exclusively with those classes, have drawn avery unfavourable picture of the inhalDitants in general,as a nation of tyrants, hypocrites, and deceivers,plunged in a lower state of ignorance and debaucherythan the most barbarous islanders of theSouth Seas, These representations are no doubtpartially true, but they are far from being universallyjust, A longer residence among them and betteropportunities of judging have contributed to removeniany erroneous impressions as to their social anddomestic habits.No people are more remarkable than the Arabsfor their spirit of nationality and family pride. Thepoorest of them glory in their birth, and look withdisdain on the natives of other countries. Theyboast of the accuracy with which they have preservedtheir genealogies ;yet the lower, and mosteven of the middle classes, keep no register of theirparentage, and would often be at a loss to know theirfathers or grandfathers were it not regidated bycustom that the son frequently joins their names tohis own. The sheiks and sheriffs are the true aristocracyof Arabia ; and these have reason to be vainof their ancestry, which some of them can trace inregular descent from the days of Mohammed orMoses. The oldest nobility in Europe are but ofyesterday compared todesert.these petty princes of theThough the title of sheik is the most ancient andmost common in use among the Arabian grandees,the sheriffs, being the descendants of Mohammed,

'308 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.hold the .first rank in point of dignity. This hasarisen doubtless from the singular veneration inwhich the family of the Prophet is held, and it hasentailed on his posterity the double honour thatalways attaches to splendid descent and superiorsanctity. The sheriflfs are very numerous, and multipliedover all Mohammedan countries. Wholevillages are peopled with them ;and they are frequentlyfound in the lowest state of misery. Stilltheir presence commands universal respect; in afray no arm would violate their person,—their characteris held sacred, and furnishes a better protectionfor their property against thieves than bolts orbars. The reason why these families are so numerousis that the honour is hereditary both by maleand female descent. The son of a Turk or Syrian isennobled if his mother can reckon kindred with Fatima.To this class belong the seyeds and mollahsbut between these and the sheriffs there is this distinction,that the latter are constantly devoted to amilitary life, while the former engage in the pursuitsof trade and science. There are, besides these, othernoble families at Mecca, such as the Koreish andmuftis of certain sects, who have hereditary employmentabout the mosque, and for the retentionof which they are obliged to prove the genuinenessof their pedigree.In the domestic life of the Arabs there is little toattract the admiration of strangers. Their besthouses display httle exterior magnificence, and arestill more deficient in point of internal accommodation.The tent forms the cherished home of thelarger proportion of the inhabitants, and when theyremove they transport their dwellings with them.The height of this dwelling is generally seven feet,its length from twenty-five to thirty, and its breadthabout ten. It is divided into two apartments, onefor the men and the other for the women ; and theseare separated by a white woollen carpet of Damas-

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 309cus manufacture drawn across, and fastened to thethree middle posts.The furniture comprises pack-saddles, as well asthose for riding, large water-bags made of tannedcamel-skins, goat-skins for milk and butter, thelittle bag into which the hair or wool is put that fallsfrom the sheep and camels on the road, the leatherbucket for drawing up water from deep wells, a copperpan, coffee-pot, mortar, hand-mill, wooden dishes,the horse's feeding bag, and the iron chain whichfastens their forefeet w^hile pasturing about thecamp. The Arabs seldom allow their women to beseen ; and when a stranger is introduced, the cry oftarik (or retire) w^arns them instantly to disappear.It is reckoned a breach of decorum to salute a lady,or even to look her steadfastly in the face.The mode of encamping differs according to circumstances.When the tents are but few, they arepitched in a circle {dowar) ; if the number is considerablethey extend in a straight line, perhapsalong a rivulet, in rows three or four deep. Thesheik's is always on the side where danger is apprehended,or where travellers are expected ; it beinghis particular business to oppose the former and tohonour the latter. Every chief sticks his lance intoground in front of his tent, to which he ties hishorse or camel ; the pack-saddles forming the couchon which he and his guests recline. When wanderingin search of water or pasture, they move inparties slowly over the sandy plain. The armedhorsemen ride foremost, as a reconnoitring detachment; the flocks with their young follow ; behindcome the beasts of burden, loaded with the womenand children, tents, baggage, and provision.The ordinary costume of the Bedouins is extremelysimple, consisting of a coarse cotton shirt,over which is v/orn a thin, light, white woollen mantle{kombaz), or sometimes one of a coarser kind (theebba), striped white and brown. The wealthy sub-

310 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.stitute for this a long gown of silk or cotton stuff.The mantles worn by the sheiks are interwovenwith gold, and may be valued at 10/. sterling. Thecommon abba is without sleeves, resembling a sack,with openings for the head and arms, and requires solittle art in the making that blind tailors earn theirlivelihood by this employment. Public taste, however,is occasionally more capricious, especially asto the headdress, which is often expensive, and ina hot country must be extremely inconvenient. Afashionable Arab will wear fifteen caps one aboveanother, some of which are linen, but the greaterpart of thick cloth or cotton. That which coversthe whole is richly embroidered with gold, and inwroughtwith texts or passages from the Koran.Over all there is wrapped a sash or large piece ofmuslin, with the ends hanging down, and ornamentedwith silk or gold fringes. This useless encumbranceis considered a mark of respect towardssuperiors. It is also used, as the beard was formerlyin Europe, to indicate literary merit ; andthose who affect to be thought men of learning discovertheir pretensions by the size of their turbans.No part of oriental costume is so variable as thiscovering for the head. Niebuhr has given illustrationsof forty-eight different ways of wearing it.The Bedouins use a keffie, or square kerchief ofyellow or green cotton, with two corners hangingdown on each side to protect them from the sun andwind, or to conceal their features if they wish to beunknown. A few rich sheiks wear shawls stripedred and white, of Damascus or Bagdad manufacture.The Aenezes and some other tribes do not usedrawers, which they consider as too effeminate fora man ; and they usually walk and ride barefooted,though they have a particular esteem for yellowboots and red shoes.In Mecca and other large towns the winter suit ofthe higher classes is the benish or upper cloak, and

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 311the juble or under one,—both of cloth such as isworn in all parts of Turkey. The rest of their dressconsists of a showy silk gown, tied with a thin Cashmeresash, a white mushn turban, and yeUow shppers.In summer the benish is composed of a veryslig-ht silk stuff of Indian manufacture. Beneaththe jubbe some wear a gown, c^Me&heden, of whitemuslin, without lining or sleeves, and very short.The Meccawees are remarkable for being cleanly andtasteful in their attire. On feast-days and other publicoccasions their finery is displayed in the highest degree.The common shopkeeper, who walks aboutthe whole year in his short gown with a napkinround his loins, appears in a pink-coloured benishlined with satin, a gold-embroidered turban, rich silksash, and jambea with its scabbard ornamented withgold and silver. His wives and children are deckedin tke gaudiest colours ; but after the feast is overthe fine suits are laid aside. At home in his dishabille,the citizen seats himself near his projectinglatticed window, holding in one hand the long snakeof his Persian hookah, and in the other a smallsquare fan made of the chippings of date leaves, withwhich he dri\ es away the flies. The women's dressis generally Indian silk gowns, and very large bluestriped trousers reaching down to the ankles, embroideredbelow wifh silver thread. Over these theythrow a sort of cloak called /sa-^ra or mellaye, of blackor striped silk, w^hich covers the head, and has agraceful eff"ect. The wealthy wxar gold necklaces,bracelets, and silver ankle-rings, while the poorerclasses have similar trinkets of horn, glass, or amber.A ring is sometimes passed through the cartilageof the nose, and hangs down upon the upperhp.The face is concealed with a white or lightbluepiece- of cloth called 3o/-A-o, in which there aretwo holes worked for the eyes, but so large thatnearly the entire features maybe seen. This pieceof female vanity, according to Ah Bey, had better be

312 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.spared, as the illusion of hidden charms is completelydispelled when a sight is obtained of theirlemon-coloured complexions, their hollow cheeksdaubed all over with black or greenish-blue paint,their yellow teeth, and their lips stained of a reddishtile-colour. Though custom has reconciledthem to these artificial means of heightening theirbeauty, their appearance is frightful and repulsive tostrangers. It ought to be added, however, that ingeneral they have fine eyes, regular noses, andhandsome persons. The women at Loheia wearlarge veils, which conceal their faces so entirelythat only one of their eyes can be seen. In the interior,females are less shy than in cities ; they conversefreely with strangers, and have their countenancequite uncovered. The Arabs of the Hauranuse a coarse white cotton stuff for their komhaz orgown, and have their keflie tied with a rope ofcamel's hair.In ^\'inter, the Bedouins throw over the shirt apelisse made of sheep-skins stitched together. Manyeven in summer wear these skins, as they learn fromexperience that thick clothing is a defence fromheat as well as cold. The dress of the women consistsof a wide cotton gown of a dark colour, blue,brown, or black, and on their heads a kerchief. Theygo barefooted at all seasons, have the same affectionfor ornaments as their more polished rivals inthe city, and employ similar arts to increase theirbeauty. Silver rings are much worn both in theirears and noses. Round their naked w^aists bothsexes wear from infancy a leathern girdle, or cord,consisting of four or five thongs twisted together,which they adorn with amulets or pieces of riband.They all puncture their lips, and die them blue.Some of them also tattoo their cheeks, temples,forehead, breasts, arms, and ankles ; and in thesepractices they are sometimes imitated by the men.

A Young Female of the Coffee Mountains.Vol. IL—D d

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 315Their eyes and eyelashes they paint black, with apreparation of lead ore called kohel.Fashion has a powerful influence in determining'the various modes in which the hair and beard areworn. Within the Imam of Sanaa's dominions allmen of whatever station shave their heads ; in otherparts of Yemen the hair is carefully preserved andknotted up behind. The Aenezes never cut theirlong- black tresses, but cherish them from infancyuntil they hang in twisted locks over their cheeksdo\\Ti to the breast. Everybody without exceptionwears the beard of its natural length ; being consideredas the ensign of honour and dignity, it isreckoned disgraceful to appear without it. Shavingis often prescribed as a penance for some fault, andit is one of the severest punishments that can beinflicted. By threatening this chastisement, Saoudkept in order many a rebellious sheik. A favouritemare which he wished to purchase, belonging to achief of the Beni Shammar, and valued at 2500 dollars(546/.), v/as yielded up by the reluctant ownerthe moment th« barber produced his razor. Someold men still die their beards red ; but this practiceis generally disapproved.In personal appearance the Arabs are of themiddle size, lean and athletic. Their complexionis brown, their eyes and hair dark. When youngthey have a mild but expressive countenance ; inadvanced age their aspect is truly venerable. TheAenezes are rather diminutive in their stature, fewof them being above five feet two or three inchesin height ; but their features are good, their personsextremely well formed, and not so meager or slightas some travellers have represented. Their deepsetbut lively dark eyes sparkle from under theirbushy black eyebrows with a fire unknown in ournorthern climes.From living constantly in the open air the Arabsacquire a remarkable acuteness in all their senses.

316 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.Their powers of vision and of hearing improve bycontinual exercise ; and on their vast plains theycan descry distant objects far beyond the ken of aless practised eye. Their sense of smelling, too, isextremely nice ; hence their dislike to houses andtow^ns, where they are disgnsted with the nauseousexhalations which dense collections of people alwaysgenerate. One of the most singular faculties theypossess is the athr^ or the power of distinguishingthe footsteps of men and beasts on the sand, in thesame manner as the American Indians discover impressionsmade upon the grass. This art is carriedto a perfection that appears almost supernatural.From inspecting the footstep an Arab can tell whetherthe individual belonged to his own or someneighbouring tribe, and thus he is able to judge ifhe be a stranger or a friend. He likewise knowsfrom the faintness or depth of the impression whetherthe person carried a load or not ; whether hepassed the same day or several days before. Fromexamining the intervals between the steps, he judgeswhether or not he was fatigued, as the pace becomesthen more irregular and the intervals unequalhence he calculates the chances of overtaking him.Every Arab can distinguish the footmarks of hisown camels from those of his neighbours ; he knowswhether the animal was pasturing or loaded, ormounted by one or more persons ; and can oftendiscover, from marks in the sand, certain defects orpeculiarities of formation that serve him as a clewto ascertain the owner. This sagacity becomesextremely useful in the pursuit of fugitives, or insearching after stolen cattle. Instances occur ofcamels being traced by their masters to the residenceof the thief, at the distance of five or six days' journey.A Bedouin shepherd can track his own camelin a sandy valley where thousands of other footstepscross the road in all directions, and sometimeshe can tell the name of every one that has passed

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 317in the course of the morning-. Many secret transactionsare brought to hght by this curious art : anoftender can scarcely hope to escape detection inany clandestine proceeding, as every footstep maybe a witness against him, by recording his guilt onthe public road, and in characters which he thatmns may read. Of their remarkable acuteness inhearing, some wonderful but well-attested anecdotesare told of those who act as pilots in the Red Sea.They know very nearly the time when ships fromIndia arrive ; and going down to the water's edgeevery night and morning, they lay their ear close tothe surface for three or four minutes ; and if the shipis not more than 2 or 2h degrees distant (120 or 150miles) they can hear the report of the signal-gun,or feel the ground shake, upon which they immediatelyset off with their pilot-boat.*The Arabs are thoroughly inured to fatigue, andcan endure hunger and thirst to a surprising degree.They sometimes travel five days without tastingwater, and can discover a brook or a natural springby examining the soil and plants in the environs.They are dexterous horsemen, swift of foot, expertin handling their arms, and reckoned good marksmensince they became familiar with the use of themusket. Their most common arms are lances,sabres, matchlocks, pistols, and daggers. The shepherdshave slings, with which they throw stoneswith great precision. The lance is made of woodor bamboo, twelve feet long, with an iron or steelpointed head. Occasionally they are covered withworkmanship in gold and silver, but are often withoutany ornament except two balls or tufts of blackostrich-feathers placed near the top. In striking,* Captain Newland mentions an instance of a ship which,after firing the morning gun, ran 95 miles by the log ; and whenthe pilot came on board in the evening, he declared he had heardthe signal at sunrise, on the faith of which he had put off witkhis boat. Philosoph. Transact, vol. Ixii.Dd2

318 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.they balance it for some time over their head, andthrust forwards, or back%yards if hard pressed by anenemy. Should a horseman be without a lance, hearms himself with a club or mace, which is madeeither wholly of iron or with a wooden handle. Thefoot-soldiers sometimes carry a small round target,made of the wild-ox hide, and covered with ironbars. Some wear iron caps and coats-of-mail, whicheither cover the whole body to the knees, hke a longgown, or reach only to the waist.The hardy and athletic frame of the Bedouins isto be ascribed in part to their abstemious habits.They are models of sobriety, and never indulge inluxuries except on some festive occasion, or on thearrival of a stranger. Their usual articles of foodare rice, pulse, dates, milk, butter, and flour. Thecommon people eat bread made of dhourra, whichis coarse and insipid. When they have no gridironthey roll the dough into balls and cook it amongembers. They generally eat their bread while hotand only half-baked. Though not strangers to theinvention of mills, they grind their flour with thehand, or merely bruise the grain between two stones.The daily and universal dish of the Aenezes is theayesh^ which is flour and sour camels' milk made intoa paste and boiled. The hourgoul is wheat boiledwith some leaven and then dried in the sun ; and inthis state it is preserved for the whole year. Breadis used at breakfast, which they bake in round cakeseither upon gridirons or on heated stones, over whichthe dough is spread and immediately covered withglowing ashes ;sometimes the fire is put into glazedearthen pots, and the paste spread over the outside.In some districts they have abundance of poultryand garden-stuffs. Butter is used to excess. It is aningredient in every dish ; all their food swims in itand they frequently swallow a whole cupful beforebreakfast. The operation of churning is performedin a goat-skin bag, which is tied to the tent-pole or

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 319the branch of a tree, and moved constantly backwardsand forwards until coagulation takes place.Animal food is less used than vegetable, as it is notreckoned so wholesome in hot countries. Camels'flesh is rarely eaten ; it is more esteemed in winterthan in summer, and that of the female is preferred.If a man of rank happens to be a visiter, a kid or alamb is prepared : a guest of less distinction is treatedwith coffee, or bread and melted butter. Sometimesan entire sheep is roasted in a hole, dug in the sandand lined with heated stones. Upon these the fleshis laid, and then covered closely up with cindersand the wet skin of the animal. In an hour and ahalf the meat is cooked ; and as it loses none of itsjuices it has an excellent flavour. It is customaryin the desert, when a sheep or goat is killed, toeat the liver and kidneys raw, with the addition ofa little salt.The Arabs drink little during meals ; but whencamels' milk is plentiful it is handed round afterdinner. In their style of eating, they are slovenlyand disagreeable, if tested by the standard of Europeans.They tear the meat with their fingers, ifnot cut into small pieces before it is set down. Awooden bowl containing the melted grease of theanimal is placed in the middle, into which everymorsel is dipped. They thrust the whole hand intothe dish at once, which is soon emptied of its contents,as they eat with great avidity. The food beingalways very hot, it requires some practice to enablea stranger to keep pace with the company and yetavoid burning the fingers. They have only twomeals, breakfast in the morning, and dinner or supperat sunset. They wash their hands just beforeeating, but seldom after ; merely licking the greaseoff their fingers, rubbing them on the scabbards oftheir swords or a corner of the tent-covering. Amongthe better classes table-napkins are used, or a longlinen cloth which is spread under their knees. The

Jaundice,320 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.women and slaves eat what is left by the men ; andit is seldom they have the good fortune to taste anything but the fragments and refuse of the table. Itis accounted a mark of respect towards superiorsnot to eat out of the same dish.From their regular and temperate life the Arabsare subject to few diseases. Leprosy seems alwaysto have been an endemic in that country. Of thethree varieties, two are reckoned more disgustingthan dangerous ; but the third is infectious, andx^erymalignant. The ravages of the small-pox have longbeen arrested by artificial means ; as the practiceof inoculation has been in use among the Bedouinsfrom time immemorial. ]\Iothers perform this operationon their children, by opening the skin of thearm with the prickle of a thorn or the point of aneedle charged with infected matter. There aremany tribes, however, where this art is unknown,and in consequence whole encampments have fallenvictims to this unsparing malady. Vaccination hasbeen lately introduced, and met with a favourablereception. Attacks of the Guinea-worm (the VctiaMedinensis) are common in Yemen ; and supposed tooriginate from the use of putrid waters in which theeggs of the insect have been deposited. The disorderis not fatal if the person affected can extract the>vorm, which is slender as a thread, and two or threefeet long, without breaking it. This is done by rollingit gradually on a small bit of wood as it comesout of the skin. Toothache is rare ; but ophthalmic•disorders are very common. bilious complaints,and agues or intermittent fevers are of frequentoccurrence, though seldom fatal. At Medina,Burckhardt reckoned the mortality at about 1200deaths annually, which may be considered a largeproportion for a population of 10,000 or 12,000. Theplague is the most terrible scourge of Arabia, thoughit is less destructive there than in some other Easterncountries. Notwithstanding the belief of the

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 321Hejazees, that the Almighty has exchided it fromthe holy territory, it made its appearance in 1816.At Yenibo, forty or fifty persons expired daily ; whileat Jidda the proportion was as high as two huritiredand fifty. The Arabs seldom employ medicine forit ; but, though predestinarians, the common beliefin Europe is erroneous that supposes they use noprecautionary measures. Burckhardt states thatmany of the townsmen fled to the desert ; allegingas an excuse, that although the distemper was amessenger from Heaven, sent to call them to a betterworld, yet being conscious of their unworthiness,and that they did not merit this special mark of grace,they thought it more advisable to decline it for thepresent, and make their escape from the town. TheYembawees have a superstitious custom of leadinga she-camel through the town, covered with feathers,balls, and all sorts of ornaments, after which it isslaughtered, and the flesh throwTi to the dogs. Bythis process they hope to get quit of the malady atonce, as they imagine that it has been concentratedin the body of. the devoted animal. The choleramorbus, now fearfully familiar to British ears, is nostranger in Arabia. At Mecca, in the month of May,1831, it raged with the greatest violence ;having carriedoff" above 5500 persons in the course of twentyor thirty days. Of 50,000 pilgrims assembled thatyear nearly one-half are said to have perished. Thedead were buried in their clothes indiscriminately,in large trenches dug for the purpose, Medina,Yembo, and Suez were visited at the same time bythis dreadful epidemic.An Arab's property consists chiefly in his flocks ;the profits of which enable him to procure the necessaryprovisions of wheat and barley, and occasionallya new suit of clothes for his wife anddaughters. No family can exist without one camelat least ; a man who has but ten is reckoned poor,thirty or forty place him in easy circumstances, and

322 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.he who possesses sixty is rich. The annual expenditurefor an Arab possessed of moderate affluenceis calculated by Burckhardt at between 35/. and 40/.sterling. The lower classes spend less in proportion.Wealth in such a fluctuating state of societyis extremely precarious, and the most rapid changesof fortune are daily experienced.Domestic industry is little known among the Bedouins;the husband enjoys his amusements, w^hileall the household cares devolve on his females. Thisdegradation of the weaker sex is common to theArabs with most other Asiatic nations. Womenare regarded as beings much inferior to men, and tothem exclusively all the labour and menial offices inthe tent are assigned. In these employments thereis sometimes a curious inversion of character,women work at the loom, while the men milk thecattle and handle the distaff, without regardingthese effeminate duties as in the least derogatory totheir masculine dignity. The loom, called nutou, isextremely simple, being merely two sticks fixed intothe ground with a third placed across them.The Arabs practise polygamy in common withmost other Eastern nations ; but in general they arecontent with one wife, and rarely avail themselvesof the legal privilege of marrying four. The richespouse as many wives and keep as many concubinesas they can maintain ; though this luxury istoo expensive to be generally adopted. But thosewho restrict themselves to one wife make amendsfor this self-denial by indulging in variety, or entertainingat the same time a number of female slaves.In courtship the Arabs often display a great dealof gallantry ; for the constraint to which theirwomen are subjected does not altogether preventintrigues. But the opportunities of the lover's meetingor seeing his mistress are more rare ; and theyouth who is bold enough to trespass on the sanctuaryof the meharrem finds his path encompassed

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 323with perils, battles, and death. The desert is thegenuine theatre of those keen passions depicted inthe Arabian tales, and perhaps the Bedouins are theonly people in the East that can with justice be entitledtrue lovers. While Europeans merely languishand sigh, and while the townsmen composeamorous verses, the Bedouins sometimes cut andslash their arms Avith knives to show the violenceof their affections. The pastoral life is favourableto forming acquaintances ; and there are occasionswhen the youth of both sexes mingle in parties tosing and dance in the open space before or behindthe tents.The marriage ceremony in general is very simple.—Negotiations commence with the father of themaiden, who usually consults the wishes of hisdaughter, and if her consent is gained the matchtakes place. The marriage-day being appointedperhaps five or six days after, the bridegroom comeswith a lamb in his arms to the tent of his betrothed,and there cuts the animal's throat before witnesses,and as soon as the blood falls upon the ground theceremony is regarded as completed. It is accompaniedAA-ith feasting and singing ; all the guestspresent must eat bread and meat ; for this is a circumstanceabsolutely necessary on such occasions.The form of betrothing differs in different tribes,sometimes the friend of the lover, holding the girl'sfather by the hand, merely says before witnesses," You declare that you give your daughter as wifeto ." Among the Bedouins of Sinai the fatherof the bride gives to the suitor a twig of a tree orshrub, or something green, which he sticks in histurban and wears for three days, to show that hehas taken a virgin in matrimony. The betrothed isseldom made acquainted with the change that is totake place in her condition. On returning home inthe evening with the cattle, she is met at a shortdistance from the camp by her future spouse and a

324 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.couple of his young friends, Miio carry her by forceto her father's tent. If she entertains any suspicionof their designs she defends herself with stones, andoften inflicts wounds on the assailants though shehas no dishke to the lover; for the more shestruggles, bites, kicks, cries, and strikes, the moreshe is applauded ever after by her own companions.Sometimes she escapes to the neighbouring mountains,and several days elapse before the bridegroomcan find her ; her female friends, meantime, beingapprized of her hiding-place, furnish her with provisions.When brought to her father's tent she isplaced in the women's apartment, where one of theyoung men immediately throws over her an abba inthe name of her future husband ; and this is oftenthe first time she learns who the person is to whomshe is betrothed. She is then di'essed by her motherand female relations in her wedding-suit, whichis provided by the bridegroom ; and being mountedon a camel ornamented with tassels and shreds ofcloth, she is conducted, still screaming and strugghngin the most unruly manner, three times roundthe tent, while her companions utter loud exclamations.If the husband belong to a distant camp thewomen accompany her ; and during the processiondecency obliges her to cry and sob most bitterly.These lamentations and struggles continue aftermarriage ;and sometimes she repeats her flight tothe mountains, refusing to return until she is foundout, or is even far advanced in pregnancy.Marriages are generally solemnized on the Fridayevenings, and the contracts are drawn up by thecadi ; if the bride be a widow or a divorced womanit is attended with little ceremony or rejoicing. Thissort of connexion is always reckoned ill-omenedno resistance is made,—no feast takes place,—noguest will eat of the nuptial bread; for thirty daysthe husband will not taste any provisions belongingto his wife, and visiters when they come to drinkcoffee bring their own cups, because to touch any

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 325vessel belonging to the newly-married widow wouldbe considered the sure road to perdition. Sheiksand rich citizens display more splendour in theirdresses and entertainments. The bride is deckedout in the finest attire, perfumed with essences, andevery part of her body painted with figures offlowers, trees, and houses, as well as antelopes andother animals.Instead of receiving a marriage portion, the husbandpays for his wife,—the sum varies accordingto rank and circumstances. Among the Arabs ofSinai it is from five to ten dollars ; but sometimesthirty if the girl is handsome and well connected.At Mecca the price paid for respectable maidens isfrom 40 to 300 dollars (8^. 15.?. to 65/. 12^. 6d.) ; andon the borders of Syria young men obtain their masters'daughters by serving a number of years. Partof the money only is paid down, the rest standingover as a kind of debt, or as a security in case ofdivorce. The price of a widow is never more thanhalf, generally but a third, of what is paid for avirgin.The sacred tie of marriage has but a slender holdon the Arabs, and may be dissolved on slight occasionsat the pleasure of the husband. This facilityof separation relaxes morality, though it reflects nodishonour on the woman or her family. She maybe repudiated three or four times, and yet free fromany stain or imputation on her character. It is notuncommon for a Bedouin before attaining the ageof forty or forty-five to have had fifty wives. If thewoman depart of her own accord she receives nothing,and even forfeits the unpaid portion of herdowry ; but if she is turned away without any validreason or proof of misconduct, she is entitled to asmall sum of money, a camel, a goat, a copperboiler and handmill, with some other articles ofkitchen furniture. This operates as a check uponthe evil, and makes the customs in some degree cor-VoL. IL—E e

when326 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.rect the laws. The form consists of two words," Ent taleka /" (Thou art divorced) : once pronouncedit cannot be revoked ; but it does not preventthe man from again marrying- the same person,though she may in the interval have had severalother husbands. Many instances occur of conjugalfidelity ; and a Bedouin has been known in a fit ofdistraction to commit suicide on seeing his wife giveher hand to a second bridegroom.The law also allows females a kind of divorce. Ifill used, or not happy, they may fly for refuge to theirfather's tent, and their husbands have no right toreclaim them. The extreme jealousy of the Arabsleads them to speak but seldom or indirectly on thissubject ; and instead of saying " my wife" or " mydaughters," they say " my house," and " those athome." In domestic quarrels the loquacity of thespouse very often triumphs over the just cause ofher partner ; and rather than see himself overpoweredby so contemptible an instrument, and exposedto ridicule in the presence of his neighbours, he pronouncesin a moment of irritation the fatal " Enttaleka !" which is always applauded by the spectators.These broils are the most frequent cause ofdivorces, which are perhaps to be ascribed rather tothe unruly temper of these wild sons of the desertthan to any want of conjugal feeling.Children are brought up in the most hardy manner; the name is given immediately on their birth,and at the age of six or seven the boys undergo theceremony of circumcision. This is always celebratedwith feasting and rejoicing ; and it is generally arranged by those who have families in a campthat the operation shall take place on the same day.On these occasions the boys are dressed in the richeststuffs, set upon fine horses highly adorned, andare carried in public procession with drums beatingbefore them ; the men exhibit equestrian feats andwarlike evolutions : the common people have sham

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS 327fights and other buffooneries; while the youngwomen join in the song and the dance, taking careby removing their veils to allow their lovers a hastyglance of their beauty as they pass.Funerals in Arabia are attended with certainpeculiar circumstances. Some tribes bury with thedead man his sword, turban, and girdle. From thescarcity of linen the Bedouins not unfrequentlywrap the body in an abba, which serves as a winding-sheet.Women, but not men, wear mourning.Females are hired on these occasions, and paid asmall sum by the hour, to howl in the most heartrendingaccents : sometimes they dance before thehouse of the deceased with sticks and lances in theirhands, tearing their arms, faces, and hair, and behavinglike furies. Medina, according to Burckhardt,is the only place wiiere this absurd custom isnot practised. The female relatives of the familyaccompany the bier through the streets dressed inblack ; and, as a further demonstration of their grief,they stain their hands and feet with blue indigo, whichthey suffer to remain for eight days. During allthat time they abstain from milk, alleging that itswhite colour but ill accords with the gloom of theirminds.Though rude in manners and fierce in their generalcharacter, the Arabs are not without civility andpoliteness. Their usual salutation is the Salaamaleikum (Peace be with you). Shaking hands andkissing after a long absence are everjrvvhere practised,and sometimes it is customary to quote a passageof the Koran. The Bedouins know nothing ofthose numerous court phrases and ceremonious expressionscurrent in the towns. They simply wisha good morning when they meet their friends uponthe road, or a farewell when they depart. When anEgyptian hails an acquaintance, he says, " Mayyour day be white ;" and there is absolutely no otherreply but " May yours be like milk." These studied

328 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.and superfluous compliments a Bedouin would considerat once ridiculous and ill-bred. They attachno indelicacy to the disgusting practice of eructationafter meals ; but they are shocked beyond measureat an involuntary accident which is the naturalconsequence of indigestion on certain articles of diet.An habitual offender in this way is deemed unworthyof being admitted as a witness before the cadiand some for this reason have been obliged to betakethemselves to voluntary banishment. In townsthere is a greater ostentation of politeness :— " Welcome!" says the obsequious shopkeeper of Meccato his foreign customer "; a thousand times welcome! you are the guest of the holy city ; my wholeproperty is at your disposal !" In Yemen, personswho value themselves on their good breeding usemany compliments. In ordinary visits pipes andcoffee are always presented. Sometimes the beardsand clothes of the guests are sprinkled with rosewaterand perfumes. Men salute each other bykissing the beard or hand, and women by kissing theforehead, chin, and both cheeks. Even in quarrellingamong themselves the Arabs do not use the illnames and scurrilous language so frequently heardin the mouths of more polished nations.Hospitality, the ancient and hereditary virtue ofthe nation, is still exercised in all its primitivecordiality. A hungry Bedouin always divides hisscanty meal with a still more hungry wanderer. Ifa stranger be seeft coming from afar towards thecamp, he is reckoned the guest of the first personthat descries him ; and for this honour there is oftena generous rivalry which leads to serious altercations.When he alights, the friendly carpet and theready meal are spread for him. So long as he remainshis life and property are perfectly secure ;and should a robbery occur, the host, if he possessthe means, will indemnify him for whatever loss hemay sustain while under his protection. His person

whenSOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 329is sacred, and he may trust the fidelity of his entertainerthe moment he has eaten bread and salt underhis roof. An Arab considers no emergency so urgentor embarrassing as to palliate the neglect, muchless the violation, of that social virtue. He hasbeen heard to declare, that if his enemy should presenthimself at the door of his tent carrying thehead of his own son, it would not exclude him from ahospitable reception.These generous dispositions have been subjectedto certain regulations ; and it cannot be denied thatin some instances they proceed less from goodnessof heart than from vanity or the fear of reproach ;for the greatest insult that can be offered to a Bedouinis to tell him that he does not treat his guestswell. The hours of hospitality are numbered,three days and eight hours are the term, after whicha stranger ceases to be a ward, and becomes a simplevisiter. He is not dismissed ; but if he prolonghis stay he is expected to assist in the domesticbusiness of the tent—in fetching water, milking thecamel, or feeding the horse. Should he declinethese menial offices he may still remain, but he willbe censured for ingratitude ; or he may go to anothertent, where he will receive a fresh welcomeand if he has a distant journey to perform, he may,by changing his residence every third or fourth day,be comfortably entertained until he reach his destination.It is a received custom inevery part of the Desert,that a woman may entertain strangers in the absenceof her husband ; when this is not permitted,some male relation does the honours of the table.In certain parts of Nejed, a guest is welcomed byAmongpouring on his head a cup of melted butter.the Azir tribes a practice exists not very consistentwith our ideas of female honour : astranger arrives, he is required to be the companionof his hostess for the night, whatever be her age orEe2

330 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.condition ; and it depends upon his rendering- himselfagreeable, whether he is to be honourablytreated or dismissed with disgrace. This customthe Wahabees abolished ; but on a representationbeing made bj'^ the tribe to Abdelazeez, of the misfortunesthat had befallen them for having abandonedthe good old practice of their forefathers, permissionwas granted to honour their guests as before. Theestablished laws of the Desert sanction manners thatto European nations must appear extravagant andunnatural. But the influx of foreigners, and especiallythe gold of Mohammed Ali, have had a perniciouseffect on the virtues of the Bedouins.Another singular institution is that of the wasy^ orguardianship. An Arab may, in the prime of life,request a friend to act as guardian to his children.If the trust is accepted, the friend is solemnly installedin his office ; and one family is thus constitutedthe hereditary protectors of another. Tothe weak, such as minors, women, and old men, thispractice affords some security, hovvever imperfect,against the oppressions of the strong. It is observedby all the Arabs of Nejed, but not generally tliroughoutthe Desert ; and affords another instance of thosepeculiar ties, domestic as well as political, by whicha fierce and v/arlike community are held togetherand protected amid the lawless ravages occasionedby their own dissensions.'That the Arabs are brave, and capable of displayingexalted courage, was confirmed by numerousexploits in the Turkish campaign. Examples mighteasily be adduced of the most heroic personal valour.The Wahabee soldiers fought with desperation,encouraged by the songs of the female warriors.It was the custom for the favourite wife ofthe sheik, on the day of battle, to ride in front on aswift dromedary splendidly caparisoned ; and on occasionsof extreme importance she had her legs tiedunder the belly of the animal—a signal to the troops

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 331that they must either conquer or perish by her side.She formed the rallying-point when the combat wasat the hottest, and to kill or take her captive wasreckoned the proudest achievement of the enemy.When an Arab is hotly pursued, he may save hislife by throwing himself from his steed and begg-ingfor mercy ; but he does it at the expense of his honour,and forfeits his mare and his clothes. If herefuses to yield after repeatedly hearing the cry of" Howel ! howel .'" (Get down !) the pursuer instantlystabs him with his lance. Some tribes use battlebannersornamented with ostrich-feathers ; but theseare never displayed except in important actionsand their loss is regarded as a signal of defeat. AllBedouin tribes without exception have their agyd,who acts as commander-in-chief; for it is a remarkablecircumstance in the policy of the Desert, that,during a campaign in actual warfare, the authorityof the sheik is completely set aside, and the soldiersare wholly under the control of the agyd. Thisperson is esteemed as a kind of augur or saint ; heoften decides the operations of the war by hisdreams, visions, or prognostications, and announcesthe lucky or unlucky day for attack. His office ishereditary; but he possesses no more coercivepower than the sheik, arid his authority ceaseswhenever the combatants return to their homes.This curious institution doubtless was intended tocheck any increase of power in the person of thechief of the tribe, by rendering it difficult for him toengage in feuds merely from private motives.In the Desert the character of the soldier passesby an easy transition into that of the brigand. TheArabs may be styled a nation of robbers (harami) ;but they are far from attaching to this practice anyideas of criminality or disgrace. They consider theprofession as honourable, and one of the most flatteringtitles that could be conferred on a youthfulhero. They rob, indiscriminately, enemies, friends,

332 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.and neighbours ; and these acts are daily committedin their own tent without entaiUng- any permanentdisgrace on the offender. The defenceless travelleris waylaid, seized, and stripped of every thingbut his life is not taken unless he resist, or shed theblood of a Bedouin. There are many instances oftheir extreme ignorance in appreciating the valueof their booty. A peasant has been known to boila bag of pearls, mistaking them for rice, and afterwardthrow them away as useless.The Bedouins have reduced robbery to a science,and digested its various branches into a completeand regular system. In distant excursions everyhorseman chooses a companion (zammal), and bothare mounted on a young and strong camel, carryinga provision of food and water, that the mare maybe fresh and vigorous at the moment of attack. Ifthe expedition is to be on foot, each of the partytakes a small stock of flour, salt, and water. Theyclothe themselves in rags, to make their ransomeasier if they should be taken. In this guise theyapproach the devoted camp under cloud of night,and when all are fast asleep. One of them endeavoursto irritate the watch-dogs ; when they attackhim, he flies and artfully draws them off, leavingthe premises unprotected. The harami then cutsthe cords that fasten the legs of the camels, whenthey instantly rise from their kneeling posture, and> walk away, as all unloaded camels do, without theleast noise. To quicken their pace, the tails of theforemost or strongest are twisted, and the rest followat the same trot. The third actor in the robberykeeps watch at the tent-door with a heavybludgeon, to knock down such of the inmates as mayventure to interfere. In this manner fifty camelsare often stolen, and driven by forced marches to asafe distance during the night. An extra share ofthe prey is always allowed to these three principaladventurers.

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 333It frequently happens that the robbers are surroundedand seized ; and the mode of treating theirprisoners affords a curious illustration of the influencewhich custom, handed down through manygenerations, still exercises over the minds of thesefierce barbarians. It is an established usage in theDesert, that if any person who is in actual dangerfrom another can touch a third person, or any inanimatething which he has in his hands, or withwhich he is in contact ; or if he can touch him byspitting, or throwing a stone at him, and at the sametime exclaim, " I am thy protected !" the individualis bound to grant him the protection he demands.This law or point of honour is called the dakheil ;and however absurd or capricious, it seems naturallyto arise out of those scenes of violence, the ferocityof which it is calculated to soften. A robber detectedin the act of plundering is always anxious toavail himself of the privileges of this artificial convention; while the inmates of the tent are equallydesirous to prevent him. The person who firstseizes the prisoner demands on what business he iscome. " I came to rob : God has overthrown me ;"is the common answer. The captor (rabat) thenbinds him hand and foot, and beats him with a club,until he exclaims, Yeneffa !" I renounce !" (namely,the benefit of any protector). But this renunciationbeing only valid for one day, the prisoner (rabiet) issecured in a hole dug in the ground, with his feetchained to the earth, his hands tied, and his twistedhair fastened to two stakes at both sides of hishead. This temporary grave is covered with tentpoles,corn-sacks, and other heavy articles,—small aperture only being left through w^hich hemay breathe. Here he is detained, and every endeavourused to extort from him the highest possibleransom.Still the buried captive does not despair ; and circumstancessometimes favour his escape. If he

334 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.can contrive through the aperture to spit upon aman or a child, or receive from their hand thesmallest morsel of food, he claims the rights of thedakheil. To obtain his release gives rise to manyadventurousintrigues and ingenious stratagems.His mother or his sister will often enter the campin the garb of a beggar, or during night, and havingput the end of a worsted thread in his mouth, sheretires, still unwinding the clew, to some neighbouringtent, and places the other end in the hand of theowner, who by this means is guided to the prisoner,and claims him as his " protected." The right offreedom is at once allowed ; the thongs which tiedhis hair are cut, his fetters are struck off, and he isentertained by the captor as his guest, with all thehonours of Arabian hospitality. To avoid paying aransom, a prisoner will often remain six monthsunder this rigorous custody, always conceahng hisreal name, and giving himself out for a poor mendicant.He is, however, generally recognised, andobliged to purchase his liberty at the expense of allhis property in horses, camels, sheep, tents, provisions,and baggage.Should the robbers fail in their enterprise, andmeet, when returning, a hostile party of the tribethey intended to pillage, their declaration, " Wehave eaten salt in such a tent," is a passport thatensures them a safe journey.The Arabs are the most adroit and audaciousthieves in the world ; their address, indeed, in thisart is proverbial. They spring behind the horseman,seize him with one hand by the throat, andwith the other rifle him of his money. They stolethe swords from the sides of the French officers inEgypt, and even purloined clothes and valuable articlesfrom under their heads while sleeping. Theseacts of rapacity they always palliate by using a softenedand delicate language when relating them.Instead of saying, I robbed a man of this or that

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 335article, they say, " I gained it." They even pretenda sort of kindred or relationship between themselvesand the victim they plunder. " Undress thyself,"exclaims the brigand of the Desert, as he rides furiouslyupon the wayfaring stranger ;" thy aunt'(meaning his own wife) " is without a garment !"This license they regard as a sort of birthright ornational prerogative. If they are reproved for theirdepredations, " You forget that I am an Arab" is alwaysthe reply; which is spoken with a tone andexpression of countenance that shows how little thehaughty marauder is affected by the supposed opprobrium.But the chivalry of pillage, hke that ofhospitality, has been impaired by their intercoursewith strangers. The honourable asylum of the tenthas often been violated, and the sacred shield of thedakheil has not always screened the unfortunatewho sought its protection.The natural jealousy and fiery temperament of theArabs have always proved a source of the most implacableenmity among themselves. They betraythe quickest sensibility to any affront or injury;and instances might be multiplied where a contemptuousword, an indecent action, or the mosttrifling violation of etiquette, can only be expiatedby the blood of the offender. If one sheik say toanother, " Thy bonnet is dirty," or " The wrongside of thy turban is out," it is considered a mortaloff"ence. To spit on the beard of another, even accidentally,is an insult scarcely to be forgiven.Murder is the deepest injury that can be committed.The Arab code regulates the revenge for blood(called thar) by the nicest distinctions ; and it is perhapsowing to this salutary institution more than toany other, that the Avarlike tribes of the Desert havebeen prevented from exterminating each other.It is a universal law among them, that he whosheds blood owes on that account blood to the famlyof the slain person ; and this debt may be required,

336 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.not only from the actual murderer, but from all hisrelations. The right of the thar is limited withincertain degrees of kindred. In the case of a slainparent, his lineal descendants to the fifth generationinherit the sacred duty of revenging his death on acorresponding series of descendants on the otherside. This right is never lost by prescription, butdevolves on both sides to the latest posterity. Ifone death is simply avenged by another, the accountis considered to be cleared ;but if two of the assassin'sfamily be killed by the relatives of the deceased,the former retaliates. Though murder may be expiatedby fine or confiscation, it depends upon thenext relations of the slain to accept or reject thepenalty. If the offer is deemed unsatisfactory, thehomicide, and all his kin comprised within the lawof vengeance, make their escape to some friendlytribe. A sacred custom allows the fugitives threedays and four hours, during which their enemiesabstain from the pursuit : the exiles are permittedto return so soon as a reconciliation can be effected.The dye, or fine for a murdered man, varies amongthe different tribes from 1000 to 500 piastres (50/. to25/.), and the sum is often made up by contributionsin money or cattle from the friends of the guiltyperson, who are generally liberal with their assistanceon such occasions. The Beni Harb in Hejazfix the price of blood at 800 dollars (175/.). Amongthe Aenezes it is rated at fifty she-camels, oneriding camel, a mare, a black slave, a coat-of-mail,and a gun. Tlie quality of these articles is notmuch regarded, and it is seldom they are all demanded,as the wives or daughters of the slayerpetition earnestly for some abatement. The matterbeing finally settled, a she-camel is brought to thetent of the adversary and there killed, that bloodmay be expiated by blood. The parties, now reconciled,feast upon the flesh of the animal ; and at

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 337parting the homicide flourishes a white handkercliiefon his lance, as a pubUc notification that he is " freefrom blood." This mode of arrangement is notcommon among the more wealthy and independenttribes. Most of the great sheiks regard it as shamefulto compromise in any degree for the slaughterof their relations.Amid the continual hostilities in which the Arabsare involved, debts of blood are frequently incurred,when the slaughter is accompanied with treachery,or contrary to the law of nations. "When a tribeviolates the rights of war by killing their enemies asthey lie wounded on the field, the adversary retaliatesby killing double the number with the samecircumstances of cruelty. However revolting thispolicy may appear, an Arab would be censured werehe not to follow the general practice.*The amusements of the Arabs are comparativelyfew,—chess, draughts, and mangela are the onlygames they play ; the latter consists of a woodentable with a dozen holes, into which two playersdrop so many little stones, beans, or shells. Thevacant unvaried life which they lead, and the monotonousscenery amid which they dwell, mustoften render existence irksome. It is to relievethis weariness and want of novelty that they haverecourse to tobacco, kaad, hashish, and other intoxicatingstimulants. Smoking is universal among allclasses, notwithstanding the warmth of the climateand the natural dryness of their constitution.Persons of opulence and fashion always carry withthem a box filled with odoriferous wood,—a bit ofwhich, when put into the pipe, communicates to* Hence we may extenuate the slaughter of the captive kings(who were Bedouin sheiks) by the Israelites, as being dictatedless by a wanton desire of bloodshed than by the necessity ofadhering to ttie usages of the land where they dwelt ; a derelictionfrom which must have diminished the respect in whichthev were held by their neighbours. Judges, chap. viii.Vol. II.—F f

338 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.the tobacco a fragrant smell and a very agreeabletaste. Throwing the jereed is a kind of rudetournament which they frequently practise. Thisis a blunt spear, made of heavy wood, about ayard long and the thickness of a mopstick. Theobject of the game, in which they evince the mostastonishing dexterity, is for one party to pursueand the other to fly, and try to elude being struckwith the weapon. Sometimes they amuse themselveswith sham-fights ; and nothing can be morepicturesque than to see a group of wild men huddledtogether in the greatest apparent confusion,with drawn swords and couched lances. The moredomestic pastimes are dancing, singing, and storyteUiiig,for which they have a singular passion, andwhich fill up all their leisure hours. There is aspecies of song common all over the Desert, in whichthe youths of both sexes join in the chorus, accompanyingit with clapping of hands and various motionsof the body. It is called the mesamer, and isthe only opportunity which the lover has of serenadinghis mistress ; the verses are often composed extempore,and relate to the beauty and qualities ofthe beloved object. They have war-songs, calledkadou, in praise of their chiefs, and chants to enliventheir camels; for it is well known that that animalnever moves with so much ease as when he hearshis master sing.*- When an Aeneze recites versesor ancient poetry, he accompanies his voice withthe rehaba, a kind of guitar, the only musical instrumentused in the Desert. Some tribes are morefamous than others for their poetical and vocal* Of the Asamer, or Camel-driver's Song, Burckhardt givesthe following specimen :— " Lord preserve them from all threateningdangers ! Let their lirnbs be pillars of iron I"In their amatory songs the lover sometimes expresses hispassion in epithets that sound rather oddly in European ears:"O, Ghalia! if my father were a jackass, I would sell him topurchase Ghalia !"

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 339The people of Jof sing among the tents oftalents.the Aenezes for a trifling remuneration; and in townsthere are regular professors of the art, who attendat the coffee-houses and lend their aid on festiveoccasions. A common entertainment among: theBedouins is the reciting of tales after the mannerof the Arabian Nights.Notwithstanding the natural abilities of this people,the arts and sciences are neither cultivated ^lorencouraged. The literary splendours of the caliphatehave long been quenched. Except Abulfeda, inwhom the sun of Arabian learning appears to haveset, no historian, philosopher, or writer of any celebrity,has risen to dissipate the gloom with whichthe Tartars in the thirteenth century overspread theEast under the banners of Zingis Khan. In almostevery mosque there is a school, having a foundationfor the support of teachers and the instructionof poor scholars in the common elements ofreading, writing, and arithmetic. In large townsthere are academies, colleges, and other seminariesof education, in which astronomy, astrology, medicine,and some other sciences are taught ; but, fromthe want of books and competent masters, extremelylittle progress is made. The principal employmentamong men of letters is the interpretation of theKoran and the study of ancient Mohammedan history.All the Bedouins throughout Arabia are entirelyignorant of letters. The Wahabee chief took.pains to instruct them, by establishing schools inevery villaiSfe of Nejed, and obliging parents to superintendthe education of their children. Deraiahwas made an attractive seat for learned ulemas, bycollecting valuable libraries from all parts of thecountry ; but, in spite of every effort, these warliketribes still remain, as might be expected, a mostilliterate race. Among a people sp superstitious asthe Arabs no science is so much cultivated as astrology,which is held in high repute. Though the

340 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.Koran expressly forbids the prying into futurity byany form of divination, yet a Moslem seldom concludesa bargain without consulting the stars.In a country where there are so few patients, itcannot be expected that the healing art should bemuch studied, or held in great esteem. The commonpractitioners know little more than the use ofsimples, and the technical terms, such as they findthem in the books of Avicenna. Physicians areobliged to act as chymists, apothecaries, surgeons,farriers, and cattle-doctors ; and yet, with all thisvariety of employments, they can scarcely earn alivelihood. If the sick man die they get no rewardand this custom has taught them to use many pettyand disgraceful artifices to obtain payment beforehand.There is not a single individual of this professionin the whole of Nejed. The natives curethemselves, and their mode of treatment is sufficientlyrude. They heal sabre-wounds by applyingraw flesh taken from a camel newly killed. Inbowel-complaints they have recourse to senna. Forheadache, colic, and sore eyes, the most approvedremedy is a red-hot iron. In cases of rheumatism thepatient is rubbed with warm oil or the fat of mutton; in dropsical complaints the water is drawn offby means of setons in the back. Toothache is sometimescured by inhaling the smoke of a certainplant ; and the bite of venomous serpents by suckingout the poison. Blood-letting is performedwith a common knife, and the lower classes sometimesscarify their legs, being of opinion that this hasa tendency to improve their strength. From thesame persuasion the inhabitants of Yemen anointtheir bodies with oil, which protects them from theheat of the sun, and by closing the pores of the skinis supposed to check the debilitating effects of toocopious perspiration. The Arabs have many familynostrums, and are implicit believers in the efficacyofcharms and other mystic arts. No species ofknow-

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 341ledge is more highly venerated than that of the occultsciences, which afford a maintenance to a vastnumber of quacks and impudent pretenders. Thescience of Ism Allah (or Name of God), enables thepossessor to discover what is passing in his absence,to expel evil spirits, cure diseases, and dispose ofthe winds and seasons as he chooses. Those whohave advanced far in this study pretend to calmtempests at sea by the rules of art, or say theirprayers at noon in Mecca, without stirring from theirown houses in Aden or Bagdad. The Simta is notquite so subhme a science, as it teaches merely thefeats and illusions of jugglers. Dervises and mollahspractise it, and appear to the astonished spectatorsto pierce their bodies with lances, strikesharp-pointed instruments into their eyes, or leapfrom the roofs of houses upon a pole shod with iron,which seems to run through their body, while theyare carried like spitted victims about the streets.The Kurra is the art of composing billets or amulets,which secure the wearer from the power ofenchantments and all sorts of accidents. They arealso employed to give cattle an appetite for food,and clear houses from flies or other vermin. Thepractice of fortune-telling, which they call ramie,is very common.The natives of Oman are peculiarlyskilled in sorcery {sihr) ; they are inferior,however, to the witches and wizards of Europe, asthey know nothing about the art of riding through theair on broomsticks, saihng to India in cockle-shells,or holding nocturnal revelries in their mosques,under the visible presidency of Satan.The Arabs pay great attention to their language,which they speak and write with the utmost care.No tongue, perhaps, is diversified by so many dialects:the pronunciation in Yemen differs from thatof Tehama ; and both are distinct from the Bedouinphraseology.It is a mistake, however, to suppose,Ff2

342 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.as Niebuhr and Michaelis have done, that thesedialects differ as widely as the Spanish or Italiandoes from the Latin. Burckhardt, who had the bestopportunity of judging, says, that notwithstandingthe vast extent of country in which the languageprevails, whoever has learned one dialect will easilyunderstand all the rest. A ccording to this traveller,it is in the Desert where the purest Arabic is spoken.The Bedouins, though they have different idioms,are remarkable for the grammatical accuracy aswell as the elegance of their expressions. Next tothem are the Meccawees and natives of Hejaz, whoselanguage approaches nearer to the old written dialectthan that of any other district. The inhabitants ofBagdad and Sanaa, and the Yemenees in general,speak with purity, but have a harsh accent. AtCairo the pronunciation is worse ; and it graduallydegenerates among the Libyan and Syrian Arabs.After them come the tribes on the Barbary coast,at Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers ; and, lastly, the nativesof Fez and Morocco, whose rough articulation isconsidered the extreme point from the pure Bedouinstandard ;yet this difference is not greater, perhaps,than between the spoken language of England andScotland. All the Arabs pay much attention to penmanship,though there is great diversity in their styleof writing. The several countries have also theirpeculiar method of folding letters. In Hejaz theyare sealed with gum-arabic, and a small vessel filledfor the purpose is suspended near the gate of everykhan or pubhc-house. Wax is never used, as theheat prevents it from retaining the impression.In the mechanical arts the Arabs are extremelydeficient. The Bedouins know little else than thetanning of leather and the weaving of coarse fabrics.They have a few blacksmiths and saddlers ;but allhandicraft occupations are considered degrading.There is only one watchmaker at Jidda, and not a

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 343single shoemaker in Hejaz. In Yemen there areworkers in glass, gold, and silver ; but the artificersin the precious metals are all Jews and Banians.The want of home manufactures obliges the nativesto supply their markets by means of foreigntrade. Though their ports have long lost theircelebrity as the grand entrepdts for the commoditiesof the East, they still continue to enjoy a portionof the commerce between India and Europe. Jiddahas become the principal emporium of the Arabiantrade. It is perhaps the wealthiest town of thesame extent in the Turkish dominions ; hence itsname, which means " rich," is well bestowed. Afew years ago it employed about 250 ships in theRed Sea. The two main branches of its commerceare coffee and Indian produce. In May the annualfleets from Calcutta, Surat, and Bombay maketheir appearance, bringing different kinds of goods,—Cashmere shawls, cocoanuts, rice, sugar, drugsof all sorts, china and hardware, pipes, glass beads,rosaries, mirrors, and cards. These commoditiesare mostly sold for cash to India merchants, someof whom possess capital to the amount of 150,000^.•or 200,000Z. sterling ; while several inferior housesIhave capitals of 40,000/. or 50,000/. Sales of entire•cargoes are often made in the course of half an hour,and the money paid down next day. Trade is therecarried on chiefly by barter, or by cash transactions.Credit is with difficulty obtained ; hence no Arabianmerchant can contract debts which he is unable topay, and consequently there are no mercantile failuresin speculations such as daily occur in Europe.From Jidda the India goods are sent to Suez andCairo, whence they are dispersed over Egypt andthe ports of the Mediterranean. The returns fromthese countries are made either in dollars or sequins,or in produce, such as wheat and barley, for whichArabia depends on Egypt; an inferior sort of tobacco,which is called tambak; Bedouin cloaks,

344 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.coarse Turkish carpets, cotton quilts, linen for shirts,red and yellow slippers, and other articles of dress ;besides a variety of commodities which are notmanufactured in Arabia. Ships laden with coffeeare constantly arriving from Mocha, and their cargoesare generally converted into dollars. Thisbranch of trade suffered, when the Mocha coffee wassupplanted, in the markets of European Turkey,Asia Minor, and Syria, by that produced in the Eastand West Indies ; but there is little doubt that itwill revive under the auspices of Mohammed Ali,who may be said to command the entire commerceof the Arabian Gulf, now that he has become theindependent sovereign of Egypt and Syria. Withthis view he has already proposed to augment hisnavy ; to construct a canal from Suez to the Nile ;to establish regular marts on the Mediterraneancoast ; and open a communication between theOrontes and the Euphrates. Should these mightyprojects be carried into effect, a few years may beholda total revolution in the mercantile intercoursebetween the nations of the East and the West. Theannual exports of coffee at present, from Jidda,Mocha, Hodeida, and other contiguous ports, isestimated at 12,000 tons. The duties on the bestare 100 per cent., and fully 150 per cent, on theinferior sorts. Independently of coffee, the exporttradeof Mocha is very considerable in gum-arabic,myrrh, and frankincense. Muscat carries on a valuabletrade with India and the Persian Gulf. Itsinhabitants are reputed excellent seamen.There is one circumstance connected with thecommerce of Arabia that deserves notice, from theattention which it has recently excited in this country;we mean the communication with India bysteam conveyance. Two routes have been proposed,both of which are practicable, but attended withobstacles that it may be difficult to overcome. Oneof these is by the Persian Gulf along the Euphrates

Miles.

346 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.is the article of expense, which has been estimatedat 40,000/. or 50,000/. per annum, if the communicationis made monthly. But, though in abeyance inthe mean time, it is highly probable that the planwill be carried into effect.* The changes at presentcontemplated in the government andpohcy of Indiawill render it of vast importance to establish ashorter and cheaper line of intercourse than by theCape of Good Hope ; and perhaps the period is notvery remote when the commerce of the East willresume its ancient channel, and the great tradingcapitals of Europe and Asia be brought, by the marvellousagency of steam, within a few days' journeyof each other.The population of Arabia cannot, perhaps, be veryaccurately ascertained. In the towns and districtsbelonging to Nejed, Mengin reckons 50,945 males,and 2i3 1,020 women and children. Its whole militaryforce consisted of 41,100 infantry and 8620cavalry. The population of Hejaz, Burckhardt computedat 150,000, the greater proportion of whichare Harb Bedouins. The territory of Sinai, southof a line drawn from Suez to Akaba, he supposedmight contain nearly 4000 ;but the number diminishesin years when pasturage is scarce. Yemenis reckoned to have about a million of inhabitants,most of whom belong to the sect of the Zeidites.The entire population of the Arabian peninsulaHead states at 11,000,000; Malte Brun thinks itmay probably amount to 12,000,000; a numberwhich, if united by a system of regular governmentand acting under one p'olitical head, might prove aformidable enemy to the countries once overrun bytheir warlike ancestors.That this vast region wasanciently more rich and populous than it is now thereis undeniable evidence in its own deserts. The* Captain Head estimates that a monthly voyage would leavebalance of no less than 52,486/. of annual prnfits.

SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS. 347tribes on the northern frontiers, in the days of theHebrew judges, are represented as coming up andencamping against Israel, with their camels, theircattle, and their tents, like grasshoppers for multitude.The plains of Hauran are strown with theruins of towns and villages ; and many places whichare susceptible of culture, and must once have beenthickly peopled, are overgrown with wild herbage.It may even be doubted whether these regions havealways existed in the same state of hopeless sterilitywhich they at present exhibit. Numbers of petrifiedtrunks have been discovered in desolate tracts,where neither tree nor shrub has grow^n within theremembrance of history ; but of the same speciesthe date and the sycamore—which still abound inthe more fertile parts of the same district. Thesefacts seem to demonstrate a more flourishing conditionof soil and population in certain places thanare now witnessed by modern travellers, but at aperiod of which antiquity is silent.In casting a retrospective view over the mannersand habits of the Arabs, we are struck with the contradictoryfeatures which they discover, both in theirsocial and moral character. Independently of thegrand distinction between natives and settlers, shepherdsand citizens, which naturally creates a differencein their modes of life, other anomalous circumstancesare found to exist among the pure aboriginaltribes. The spirit of patriotism among them is strongand universal, yet they have no home but the pathlesswaste and wretched tent. They are a nationof brothers, yet live continually at war ;jealous oftheir honour, and at the same time addicted to themeanest vices. Though fierce and sanguinary intheir temper, they are not strangers to the virtuesof pity and gratitude. They are faithful wherethey pledge their word, and charitable to the needy ;but they are covetous, and by no means of goodfaith in pecuniary transactions.

348 SOCIAL STATE OF THE ARABS.Their religious character is marked by the sameirreconcilable extremes. Their fanaticism is coupledwith infidelity ; their prayers and devotions aremingled with the pursuits of commerce and theideas of worldly lucre. Islam has but very littlehold on the reverence of its disciples, even underthe domes of its own temples. In the Desert thereis a still more lax observance of its precepts andceremonies. In a pleasant indifference about thenatter, the Bedouins remark that the religion of^Mohammed never could have been intended forthem. " In the Desert," say they, " we have nowater ; how then can we make the prescribed ablutions1 We have no money, and how can webestow alms ? Why should we fast in the Ramadan,since the whole year with us is one continualabstinence ; and if God be present everywhere, whyshould we go to Mecca to adore him V The wholeof their social and moral economy remarkably illustratestlie truths of Holy Writ, that " Ishmael shallbe a wild man, whose hand is against every man,and every man's hand against him.'" Enemies aliketo industry and the arts, they dwell " without boltsand bars," the wandering denizens of the wilderness.Religiously opposed to the luxuries and refinementsof civilized life, these rude barbarians present thephenomenon of a people living in a state of nature,unsubdued and unchanged yet, in their acknowledgmentof the true God, still preserving evidence;of their lineage as the children of Abraham.

NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA. 349CHAPTER IX.NATURAL HISTORY OFARABIAWant of Information on the Natural History of Arabia— ScientificDiscoveries of the Danish Travellers Geology—MountSinai—Hills of Hejaz and Yemen—Volcanic Rocks—HotSprings Soil—Agriculture—Crops—Harvest— ComparativeFertility of different Districts IVIineralogy—No Gold orSilver Mines in Arabia—Precious Stones Botany—Vegetables—Plants—Coloquintida—Tobacco—Hemp— r E e s andAnimalsCows—Buffaloes—Asses—Horses—Camels—Dromedaries-Sheep— Goals Dogs—Mice— Birds— Poultry— Birds of Game— Birds of Prey—The Ostrich—The Lapwing—The Samarman—Fieldsports of the Arabs Reptiles—Tortoises— Scorpions—Serpents Fishes— Insects—Tne Locust—Ants —TenebrionesShells— Coral Bariks.Shrubs— Fruit-trees The Palm — Date-groves—MannaGum-arabic—Honey — S hrubs —The Nebek—Tamarisk —Balsam of Mecca—The Gharkad—Henna—Acacia—IncenseTree—Coffee Zoology—Wild Animals — Hyenas — Monkeys— Rock-goats—Hares—J erboas — DomesticAs few travellers comparatively have visited Arabia, itcannot be supposed that its natural history has been veryminutely investigated. The knowledge of the ancients onthis subject was extremely imperfect, consisting chiefly offabulous or exaggerated reports as to some of the more celebratedof its mineral and vegetable productions. Severaluseful observations, not indeed referring peculiarly to thatcountry, occur in the works of Kaempfer, Bochart, Norden,Belon, Pauw, Rauwolf, and Tournefort. Shaw and Hasselquistwere both distinguished for their attainments in physicalscience ;but the reader will look in vain in their worksfor that systematic arrangement or accuracy of descriptionwhich modem philosophy has introduced into every departmentof natural knowledge. It is to the Danish travellers,Niebuhr and his companions, who have done so much to illustratethe geography, manners, and civil institutions of Arabia,Vol. II.—Gg

and350 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.tlxat we are indebted almost exclusively for whatever isknown in Europe of ils minerals, animals, and plants.That literarv expedition, which owed its formation to thepatronage of Frederick V. and his minister Count Bernstorff,sailed from Copenhacren in Januan.', 1761, and, after a shortstay at Constantinople, reached the coast of Yemen, by wayof Egypt, in December, 1762. Each of the academicians whocomposed it had his particular task assigned him. ProfessorVon Haven was appointed linguist ; Mons. Baurentiend actedas draughtsman ; Dr. Cramer had the office of physician ;Mons. Forskal was charged with the department of naturalhistory •,Niebuhr with that of geography. The noveltyof the undertaking xcited a lively interest among the learnedassociations of Europe. A series of questions, embracingmany intricate points both physical and philological, was preposed for solution bv Michaehs, professor of theology at Gottingen.A similar list was drawn up and addressed to theseaccompHshed travellers by M. de Brequigny of the RoyalAcademy of Inscriptions at Paris, with a view to obtain authenticinformation respecting the antiquities, chronology,government, religion, and language of Yemen. Of the historicaltreasures brought to light in the answers to theseinterrogatoreis we have not failed to avail ourselves in thepreceding chapters of our work.It is to be regretted, however, that from a concurrence ofunfavourable circumstances, the hopes of the scientific worldwere in a great measure frustrated. Von Haven died atMocha within five months after their arrival. Forskal survivedhim but a few weeks, having expired at Jerim on the11th of July ;but not before he had visited Sanaa, and madevarious professional excursions among the Coffee Mountainsnear Taas. In the course of the following year Niebuhr losthis two remaining companions : Baurenfiend died at sea nearthe island of Socotra, and Cramer ended his davs at Bombay.By this melancholy catastrophe, numerous valuablediscoveries were doubtless left unaccomplished ;yet it istruly surprising how much was effected in so short a time bythe ardent zeal and indefatigable industry of M. Forskal. Hecollected and gave descriptions of more than 300 species inthe animal kingdom, and upwards of 800 in the vegetable ;and this number might have been considerably increased hadhe not scrupulously adhered to the resolution of admitting

GEOLOGY. 351nothinor which he had not examined with the greatest care.These fracrments were afterward reduced to order by Niebuhr,according to the Linnaean arrangement, and publishedin Latin in two quarto volumes.* Owing to the rigour withwhich Christians were then excluded from the Holy Land ofthe Moslem, the observations of the Danish travellers werenecessarily restricted to the southern provinces, and thoseparts of the country thro'igh which Niebuhr passed in his journeyfrom Bagdad to Aleppo. Since that time Mohammedanbigotry has relaxed ; but this tolerance has not much increasedthe information of naturalists ;and a few geologicalremarks gleaned from the pages of Burckhardt and Ali Beyare all that have been added to the scientific treasures of thenorthern philosophers. In collecting and arranging the materialswhich we have drawn from these various sources, wehave been less anxious to follow a particular system than topresent the general reader with a simple and intelligible treatiseon the subject.SECTIOX I.GEOLOGY.Mountains.—It has been already stated in the descriptionof Arabia, that the mountain-chain which traverses thatpeninsula from north to south is a continuation of Lebanon inPalestine. Passing eastward of the Dead Sea, it runs towardsAkaba, and from thence extends as far as Yemen ; insome places approaching the shore of the Arabian Gulf, andin others being separated from it by the intervening plain ofTehama. On the eastern side the descent of this range isless by one-third than on the western, owing perhaps to theconstant accumulation of sand ;so that the great centraldesert is considerably elevated above the level of the sea. Thelofty summits, that tower to the clouds when viewed from thecoast, dwindle into mere hills when seen from the interior.At Wady Arabah the surface of the western plain is perhaps1000 feet lower than the eastern. The structure of GebelShera (Mount Seir) is principally of calcareous rock ; thereare also detached pieces of basalt, and large tracts of breccia,formed of sand and flint. About Mount Hor and WadyMousa sandstone of a reddish colour prevails ; and from this* Flora Arabica, 4to Hafniae, 1775. Descriptiones Anima«iiura, ibid. 1775.

352 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.all the tombs and temples of Petra have been excavated. Tothe southward it follows the whole extent of the great valley.The summits of these cliffs are so irregular and grotesque,that when seen from a distance they have the appearance ofvolcanic mountains. Their naked perpendicular sides presentcalcareous rocks, sandstone, and flint lying over eachother in horizontal layers. In several parts of the caravanroutebetween Suez and Akaba, Burckhardt observed largeinsulated masses of porous tufwacke. The famous GebelMokkateb, or "Written Mountain, is of sandstone ; but atWady Borak the formation changes to porphyry, alternatingwith strata of greenstone.The peninsula of Sinai exhibits a considerable diversity ofstructures, differing in their ingredients from the ridges inother parts of Arabia. On approaching the central summitsof the Sinai group, the traveller encounters abrupt cliffs ofgranite from 600 to 800 feet in height, whose surface isblackened by the sun. These precipices enclose the HolyMountain on three sides, leaving for a passage a narrow defileabout forty feet in breadth. The upper nucleus, includingthe rugged peaks of St. Catherine, is composed almost entirelyof granite. Among the lower ridges porph\T)' and greenstonebegin to appear. In many places the latter takes thenature of slate. The layers of the former are sometimesverj' striking, running perpendicularly from the top to thebase of the mountain in strata of about twelve feet in width,and projecting slightly from the other rocks. The porphyryof Sinai, Burckhardt rem.arks, is usually a red indurated argillaceoussubstance. Some specimens had the appearanceof red felspar. In the argil are imbedded small cr^'stals ofhornblende or of mica, and thin pieces of quartz, the colourof which is universally red. The granite is gray and of thesmall-grained species, of which the Towara tribes manufacturehand-mills, which they dispose of to the northern Arabs,or export for sale. The intervening valleys are interspersedwith blocks of chalk-rock ; on each side, beds of red or whitesandstone present their smooth perpendicular surface.Shaw remarks, that on the route between Cairo and Suezan infinite number of flints and pebbles are to be met with,all of them superior to the Florentine marble, and frequentlyequal to the Mocha stone in the variety of their figures andrepresentations, having the images of little trees, shrubs, or

GEOLOGY. 353plants impressed upon them,—and hence they have obtainedthe name of dendrite stones. The poqjhyry of Sinai and St.Catherine is distinguished by the same remarkable appearances,—acircumstance which has induced some naturaliststo call it marmor ernbuscatum, or bushy marble. It was thissingular feature that led Buxtorf to derive the name of Sinaifrom the bushes (the tamarisks and acacias) figured in therocks ; although it seems more natural that the appellationshould have originated from the shrubs themselves, as theyare known to abound in these deserts.* Shaw noticed somebranches of this fossil tamarisk that were nearly half an inchin diameter ; the constituent matter appeared rather of amineral substance, not unlike the powder of lead-ore, whichcrumbled into dust when touched or rubbed with thefingers.The porphyry, he says, is sometimes of so small and compacta grain that the contexture is not inferior to the ophites or serpentinemarble ;and he thought it probable, that out of thisrock were hewn the two tables of the law on which the TenCommandments were written with the finger of God.On the shore towards Akaba rise numerous promontoriesof black trap and basalt, the bases of which have beenscooped by the sea into creeks, resembling small lakes withvery narrow entrances. Some of these cliffs, which run closeby the water's edge for upwards of a mile, present graniteand red porphyry crossing each other horizontally or perpendicularlyin irregular layers. The granite of this peninsulaexhibits the same numberless varieties, and the same beautifulspecimens, of red, rose-coloured, and almost purple, that areto be found near Es Souan and above the cataract of the Nile,The transitions from primitive to secondary rocks, partakingof the nature of greenstone or graywacke, or hornstone andtrap, present also an endless diversity, the description of whichwould only tire the patience of the reader. Om Shomar con-* Sinai montis nomen a sine, rubus, quod lapides invent! in eafiguratum in se habuerint rubum, &c. Buxtorf in voce nJD>Other commentators say that sine also signifies a breast ; and asMounts Sinai and St. Catherine are the highest peaks in thatquarter, they might be so called from their likeness to that partof the human body ; a derivation far less probable than the other.The dendritic appearance of these rocks is mentioned by ProsperoAlpino (Hist. Nat. Egypt, cap. vi. p. 147), who speaks ofthe "silices sylviferae, in quibus lapidibus sylvae, herbarum,fruticum, &c. pictae imagines cemuntur."Gg2

354 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.si;sts of granite ; the lower stratum is red ; at the top it isalmost white, so as to appear from a distance hke chalk.This arises from the large portion of white felspar in it, andthe minute particles of hornblende and mica. Towards themiddle of the mountain and between the granite rocks arebroad strata of brittle black slate, mixed with layers of quartz,felspar, and micaceous schistus. The quartz includes, thinstrata of mica of the most brilliant white colour, whichis quite dazzling in the sun, and forms a striking contrast withthe blackened surface of the slate and the red granite.The hills that branch off from this great chain betweenMedina and Mecca differ httle in their formation. Granite,both of the gray and red species, limestone, and porphyry arethe prevailing rocks. Ohud, famous for one of Mohammed'sbattles, consists of different-coloured granite. On its sidesBurckhardt found flint, but no lava. Its entire extent fromwest to east is about four miles. The lowest range aboveJidda, which is seldom more than 400 or 500 feet high, iscalcareous ; but the rock soon changes into gneiss and a speciesof granite, with schorl in the place of felspar, accompaniedby masses of quartz and some mica. This formationcontinues with little variety as far as the vicinity of GebelNour, near Mecca, where granite begins. The mountainsenclosing the valley of Muna are composed of variouslycoloured granite, mixed in a few places with strata of greenstone,trap, and porphyry schistus. Although there are somebeds of hornblende, felspar, mica, and schorl to be foundaccidentally among them, yet, according to Ali Bey, quartzforms in general the principal masses. Their beds areobhque, and in different angles of declination, dipping westwardfrom thirty to forty-five degrees. White marble is saidto be found in the neighbourhood ; and some travellers suppose that there is abundance of valuable minerals, which areonly hid because the inhabitants want skill or enterprise todiscover them.The geological description of the country northward ofHejaz applies, with httle variation, to the lofty chain thatextends along the coast for nearly 1800 miles, from Meccato Muscat ; except that, in the ridge behind Tehama, schistusand basalt predominate, instead of granite. At Kahhme,near Beit el Fakih, Niebuhr saw a hill composed entirely ofpentagonal basaltic columns, each about eight inches in diam-

GEOLOGY. 355«ter, and so uniformly regular, that they might be mistakenfor the work of art. They rise vertically one over the other,sometimes spreading in parallel rows to a considerable extent.In different parts of Yemen, especially among the CoffeeMountains, similar phenomena were observed, which contributedgreatly to the beauty of the landscape;particularly inthe rainy season, when the water was seen rushing over theirsummits, and forming cascades, which had the appearanceof being supported by rows of artificial pillars. These basaltswere useful to the inhabitants, serving as materials for buildingsteps to climb the hills where the ascent was ditficult, andalso as walls to support the plantations of coffee-trees on thesteepest declivities. The mountains southward of Muscat,behind Ras el Hud, are chiefly of granite, and according toCaptain Owen rise to the height of 6000 feet.Volcanic Rocks.—The first and only appearance of volcanicaction which Burckhardt detected in the peninsula of Sinaiwas on the coast near Sherm. For a distance of about twomiles the hills presented perpendicular cliffs from sixty toeighty feet in height, some of them nearly circular, otherssemicircular. The rocks were black, slightly tinged withred, of a rough surface, and full of cavities. In other placesthere was an appearance of volcanic craters. No traces o*lava vvere observed towards the higher mountains, whichseemed to prove that the discharged matter was confined tothat spot. The hills round Medina, as well as the lowerridge of the great northern chain, exhibit a layer of volcanicrock. It is of a bluish-black colour, verv"^ porous, yet heavyand hard, not glazed, and intermixed with small white substancesof the size of a pin-head, but not cr)^stallized. Thewhole plain is blackened by the debris, with which it is overspread.This traveller observed no lava, although the natureof the ground seemed strongly to indicate the neighbourhoodof a volcano. The inhabitants gave him an account of anearthquake and a volcanic eruption, which took place thereabout the middle of the thirteenth century. They describedit as bursting forth eastward of the town, with a smoke thatcompletely darkened the sky ;at the same time a fiery massof immense size, resembling a large city with walls, battlements,and minarets, was seen ascending to heaven. Thenumber of hot-springs found at almost every station of theiroad to Mecca seems to authorize the conjecture that simi-

356 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.lar volcanoes have existed in many other points of the mountain-ridgebetween Syria and Yemen. Ali Bey remarkedseven groups of volcanic hills near Jedeida, which were entirelyblack, and had the appearance of very picturesque ruins.The islands of Kotembel and Gebel Tar, in the Red Sea,have been already noticed as exhibiting traces of eruptionsnow extinct ; and travellers have remarked that the rockypeninsula on which Aden is situated resembles the fragmentof a volcano, the crater of which is covered by the sea.*Hot Springs.—The fountains already mentioned, calledAyoun Mousa or the Wells of Moses, are lukewarm and sulphureous,boiling three or four inches above the surface, asif they were agitated below by some violent heat. Thewater brings up the sand with it ;yet the inhabitants abou\.the place drink it in preference to the brackish springs nearSuez. Tococke says that the ground around them is like aquagmire, and dangerous if approached too near. Severalof these springs appeared to be dried up : one only affordssweet water ;but it is so often rendered muddy by the camelsof the Arabs that it is rarely fit to supply the wants of thethirsty traveller.The waters of Hammam Faraoun or BathsShawof Pharaoh, near Wady Gharendel, are extremely hot.was assured that an egg might be boiled hard in one minute ;but he had no opportunity of making the experiment himself.These baths he within a cavern or grotto in the rock, andhave a low narrow entrance leading to them. " As soon asone enters this passage," says Pococke, " there is heatenough to make anybody sweat very plentifully, and manypeopfe have died that have gone as far as the water, by a vapourthat extinguishes the lights. The water runs through therocks and sandbanks in a great number of little streams intothe sea for a quarter of a mile, and it is even there exceedinglyhot, and so are the stones, which are incrusted with awhite substance, apparently of salt and sulphur." This travellergives an analysis of the fluid, which was found to beimpregnated with much earthy gross sulphur, a neutral salt,a small quantity of alum, but no vitriol. The taste is nauseous; but its virtues are much esteemed in cutaneous andnervous disorders, as also for removing sterility. The patients,male or female, who desire a family, have this fertilizing* Vol. i. p 66. Valentia's Travels, vol. ii. p. 86.

SOIL. 357element copiously poured over them ;during forty days theirsole food must be oil, honey, and bread baked without salt,and their drink water with dates steeped in it.Soil.—Arabia presents great diversities of soil. In thehighlands of Yemen its general character is clay mixed withsand ; but the conformation of those schistous hills is unfavourableto the growth of plants. They are usually so craggyand precipitous as to afford neither room nor aliment for vegetableproductions ; the nutritive earth being continuallywashed down by the rains. This circumstance has also hadthe effect of rendering culture in these districts extremelydifficult and expensive ; water must be supplied either fromwells, or by terraces constructed along the sides of themountains. The barren sands of Hejaz resemble pulverizedquartz ; the calcareous stone from the hills is decomposedinto a blackish earth, which in time becomes fit to bear coarsevegetables. The cultivable soil around Medina is clay,mixed with a good deal of chalk and sand, and is of a grayishwhite colour. In other parts it consists of a yellow loam,and also of a substance resembling bole-earth ; of the latter,small conical pieces about one and a half inches long, driedin the sun and suspended on a piece of riband, are sold tothe pilgrims, who carry them home in commemoration of amiracle said to have been performed by Mohammed, whocured several Bedouins of a fever by washing their bodieswith water in which this earth had been dissolved. Theplain of Tehama contains large strata of salt. Lord Valentiastates, that in digging a well at Mocha Mr. Pringle foundthe first eight feet to he the rubbish of buildings,—the nexttwo of clay,— one of sea-mud and wreck,— six of brokenmadrepores, and eleven of sand and shells ; thus showingthat, to the depth of twenty-eight feet, the earth was entirelycomposed of marine exuviae, with the exception of clay.Near the surface the water was highly mephitic ;lower downit became less brackish, and yielded only one per cent, ofsalt. The wadis are generally formed of alluvial depositionsand are in consequence the most rich and beautiful spots inthe peninsula.The extreme variety of soils admits of a correspondingdiversity in the modes of cultivation, as well as in the kindand quantity of the crops produced. In the greater part ofArabia agriculture may be said to be entirely unknown. In

358 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.Yemen, where there is a settled government, husbandry is ina more prosperous condition than in Syria or Mesopotamia."WTiole fields are cultivated like gardens. Great pains aretaken in watering them, though the Arabs have not adoptedthe hydidulic machinery which is used by their neighbours inEgypt and India. Their plough is of a very rude construction.It is dragged over the ground in every direction byoxen, until the surface is sufficiently broken and loosenedfor the reception of the seed. On the banks of the Euphratessometimes asses and mules are employed in thislabour. "VMiere the ground is hilly and not accessible to theplough it is dug by the hoe ; and this implement is sometimesso large as to require the management of two men,one of whom presses it into the earth, while the other pullsforward with a cord.The crops most common in Arabia are wheat, barley, rice,millet, maize, dhourra, dokoun, and safra. The two latteryield small round yellow grains, which the Bedouins grind toflour, and subsist on during winter. No oats are sown inany part of Hejaz ; bat they grow in other districts of thecountry. There is great variation in the season both ofsowing and reaping. In Nejed wheat and barley are sown inOctober and gathered in April. Rice is sown in June, andcomes to maturity in September. The seedtime for dhourra,maize, dokoun, and safra is May; and they are reaped inAugust. No rice is cultivated in Nejed, owing to the aridityof the climate ; but it grows abundantly in El Hassa, Oman,and Yemen, where nature has supplied the means of irrigation.In the Hauran, where there is plenty of water, thepeasants sow winter and summer seeds ; but where theyhave to depend entirely upon the rainy season nothing canbe cultivated in summer. The first harvest is that of horsebeans,at the end of April, of which vast tracts are sown ;next comes the barley harvest, and the wheat towards theend of May. In abundant years this grain sells at fiftypiastres the gharara, or about 21. lOs. for fifteen cwt. Inthe southern provinces there is a material change both as tothe time and the relative produce of the harvest. At Muscatwheat and barley are sown in December, and reapedabout the end of March ; while dhourra is sown in August,and ripens in November. This difference of seasons may beremarked even within the narrow extent of the province of

AGRICULTURE. 359Yemen. At Sanaa, Niebuhr observed that the barley wascut down on the 15th of July, while the inhabitants of theneighbouring mountains were occupied in sowing their pulseand lentils. In the plain of Beit el Fakih the dhourra wasseven feet high in the beginning of August ; and at the sametime the peasants in the valley of Zebid, distant only a veryshort day's journey, were ploughing and watering their fieldsfor a second crop. Along the banks of the Euphrates barleyis cut early in May, and wheat about six weeks later. Allkinds of grain ripen at Bagdad twenty-four days sooner thanat Mosul. This singular diversity of season is nowhere moreremarkable than in the districts bordering on Syria. Burckhardtobserved, that while the Hauran was everywhere coveredwith the richest verdure of wild herbage, every plant inWady Ghor was already dried up. To the north Gebel Sheikwas covered with snow ; to the east the fertile plains ofJolan were clothed in the blossoms of spring ;while towardsthe south the withered vegetation indicated the effect of atropical sun.The usual mode of sowing is with the hand : the seed isthen covered with the plough or with a large rake, andwatered every ten days, either by manual labour or with theaid of a simple machine, called niakalah, placed over themouth of a well furnished with buckets, and wrought byasses or oxen. The Arabs use a small quantity of seed :they are disposed to trust in the bounty of Heaven and theregularity of the seasons, rather than lose a superfluous particle.In some districts of Yemen, maize, dhourra, andlentils are planted with the hand in furrows or drills : andthese crops Niebuhr represents as the finest and most luxurianthe had ever seen. As the planter went on he coveredthe grain by pushing in the mould with his feet on both sides.In other places he followed the ploughman, who in his turncovered the seed by coming back upon the same furrow ;amethod which, though economical, must be exceedinglytroublesome. Noxious weeds are rooted out with the handwhile the corn is in the blade ;and sometimes this operationis performed by a small plough, to which the oxen are soyoked, that they pass between the rows v/ithout injuring theplants, even when these are eight or ten inches high. Forpreserving the young crops the peasants watch their fields byturns, to drive away birds and granivorous animals. In the

360 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.hififhlands of Yemen the comherd seats himself on a tree ;in Tehama a sort of scaffold is raised, having a roof or awnincTspread over it. They are not, however, all equally careful; and Niebuhr remarks, that he passed fields betweenMofhak and Sanaa very irregularly sown, and overrun withcockle-weeds.In Nejad reaping is performed with the sickle ; but in Yementhe ripe grain is pulled up by the roots ; the instrumentbeincr only used in cutting grass or other forage for cattle.Like the Indians, the Arabs have a simple method of sharpeningtliis implement by rubbing the blade with moistenedsand. In thrashing their com they have made no advancebeyond the ancient and patriarchal fashion of which we readin the books of Moses. The sheaves are laid down on thefloor in a certain order, and over them eight or ten oxen,fastened to an upright post in the centre, are driven, until thegrain is completely separated from the ear. The straw isremoved with pitchforks, and preserved as food for horsesand cattle. In Yemen this operation is performed by twooxen dragging a large stone over the sheaves ; and in theHauran a heavy plank is used for the same purpose. Comof all kinds is cleared from the chaff by being thrown upagainst the wind with a shovel (the /an of the sacred writers),and then passed through a sieve ;after which it is ready farthe process of grinding.Travellers have remarked a very great difference withregard to the comparative increase of certain crops, and theproductive powers of the soil. In Oman, according to Niebuhr,wheat yields ten to one ;while in the best-cultivatedlands of Yemen it gives a return of fifty fold. In the vicinityof Bussora and Bagdad the increase seldom exceedstwenty to one ; at Mosul it varies from ten to fifteen ; andin Diarbekir the ordinary wheat-crop produces from four tofifteen fold. In the Hauran this grain yields in middlingyears twenty-five, and in good seasons one hundred andtwenty fold ;while barley gives fifty, and in some instanceseighty fold. But the corn of those districts which are wateredsolely from the clouds is of better quality, and produces moreflour than what is grown on fields irrigated by artificialmeans : hence a return of fifteen in Syria is reckoned morethan equivalent to twenty fold in Mesopotamia. A government-taxof ten per cent on all grain is levied in Nejed

MINERALOGY. 361but where the labour of irrigation is required this impost isreduced one-half, in consideration of the additional expense.Of all kinds of grain dhourra is the most productive. Onthe hills of Yemen it gives a return of 140 ; and in Tehama,where the inhabitants reap three successive crops from thesame field in the same year, this increase varies from 200 to400 : an exuberance that appears almost incredible, butwhich is chiefly owing to their mode of sowing and theirindustrious irrigation. As this grain forms the staple articleof food, not only in Arabia, but in other Eastern countries,its extraordinary fertility must be regarded as one of thosebenevolent arrangements of Providence, whose economy isadapted with such exquisite wisdom to the wants and circumstancesof man in all climates and in every region of the earth.SECTION II. MINERALOGY.We have noticed elsewhere, that the mineral treasuresascribed by the ancients to Arabia have almost entirely vanished; although the positive and unanimous testimony bothof the Greek and Latin authors will not permit us to doubtas to the fact of the wealth formerly drawn from the veinsof Yemen. We have the authority of Niebuhr, that theprecious metals are not found or known to exist in Arabia,which has no mines either of gold or silver. The rivuletsno longer wash down the yellow grains f'-om the hills ;nordo their sands exhibit any trace of so rich an intermixture.All the gold circulating in that country- comes from Abyssiniaor Europe, and is generally received in payment forcoffee or other merchandise. When the Imam of Sanaa lastcentury attempted to introduce a gold currency, he was obligedto melt down foreign money (Venetian sequins) for the purpose.There are still enthusiasts in alchymy who prt-tendto know the art of transmuting metals, and im.agine themselvessure of success could they but discover a certain herb,called haschischet el dab, which gilds the teeth and gives ayellow colour to the flesh of the sheep and goats that eat it.At Beit el Falcih the Danish travellers found two alchyinistswho had ruined themselves by their researches into the mysteryof gold-making ; and they mention a philosopher ofLoheia, who endeavoured to persuade them that mines ofVol. II.-^H h

362 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.thgt precious article were known to him, and to nobody else;an assertion to which they paid not the slightest credit.JVo veins of silver are known to exist ; but a small quantityof that metal is extracted from the rich lead-mines inOman. As the lead of that province is extremely fusible,the inhabitants export it in great abundance ;and it formsan article of considerable traffic from the port of Muscat.In "VVady Osh near Sinai the Arabs collect native cinnabar,which is usually found in small pieces about the size of apigeon's egg. It is very seldom cr}'stallized, though thereare sometimes nodules on the surface. The fracture is inperpendicular fibres ; and it stains the fingers of a darkcolour.Of precious stones, strictly so called, Niebuhr could learnnothing ; and he supposes that in ancient times they musthave been all imported from India. Though the onyx iscommon in Yemen, especially between Taas and Mount Sumarra,he did not think it probable that Ihe emerald was indigenous.There is a hill ^that bears this name, but it is onthe Egyptian side of the Gulf, and forms part of that largechain of granitic mountains that runs parallel with the RedSea. The agate, called the Mocha slone, comes from Surat,and the finest carnelions are brought from the Gulf of Cambay.The smaragdus cholos, or inferior emerald, which accordingto Pliny was used in building to ornament the wallsof houses, was probably diallage ; and some writers (MaltaBrun) have conjectured that the aromalites,ox aromalic stoneof the ancients, was amber. In a mountain near Dainar isfound a stone which the Arabs call ayek yemani, and whichthey hold in the highest estimation. It is of a red or rathera light brown colour, and seems to be a carnelion. Thenatives set it in rings or bracelets, and ascribe to it the talismanicvirtue of healing wounds, and stanching blood wheninstantly applied. The topaz belongs to Arabia, and derivedits name, according to Pliny, from the island Topazos (nowcalled Zemorget) in the Red Sea. He also mentions Cytes,another islet where good specimens were found.Stones of less value are by no means rare. In the neighbourhoodof Loheia, the Danish travellers found a bluishgypsum, a gray schistus, and spheroidal marcasites, in bedsof grit-stone, which are used in building. Near Kahhmethey saw a ferruginous spar, mixed with brown and white

MINERALOGY. 363selenite, almost transparent. The dark granitic rocks ofSinai contain jasper, amethyst, and syenite ; macrnets arefrequently to be met with in the province of Kusma; and atSaade there are iron-mines which are still worked. Particlesof this ore are also to be found among the sands thatare washed down from the hills by the rain. It was thebelief of the ancients that Arabia was entirely destitute ofiron ;but this opinion proves to be unfounded. Niebuhrconfesses, however, that it is coarse and brittle : and, fromthe scarcity of wood, it sells at a higher price than that whichis imported from other countries.At Loheia, and near the isle of Kameran, to the north ofHodeida, there are hills consisting almost entirely of fossilsalt. These masses are piled up in large transparent strata,and enclosed in a crust of calcareous stone. The Arabs formerlywrought these mines ; but the galleries have beenallowed to sink down, although a considerable quantity ofthat article is still quarried in the neighbourhood.* Burckhardtstates, that rock-salt is found in the mountains southof the Dead Sea, and in the sandstone strata in Wady Romman,near Gebel Mokkateb. Oman possesses copper-mines;and in the neighbourhood of Mecca Ali Bey observed someveins of sulphur that were open. In the northern Ghor, piecesof native sulphur are discovered at a small depth beneath thesurface, which are used by the Bedouins for curing diseases intheir camels. Shaw was of opinion that lead-mines existednear Sinai.The Arabs, in general, still believe in the foolish old superstitionsrespecting their gems and precious stones ; and aremore apt to wo-nder at their miraculous virtues than to turnthem to account in the way of commerce. In ancient timesthey were used as antidotes, to which the wearer piouslyascribed his safety when surrounded with invisible danger.Among other absurdities, it is recorded of the Caliph Solimanthat he wore constantly round his arm a bracelet composed often of these magical stones, which never failed to strike oneagainst the other, and make a slight noise when any poisonwas near.t The carbuncle was believed to possess manypvonderful qualities. It was supposed to be an animal sub-* Capt. Head's Journey, p. 7.t Marigny, Hist, des Arab, tome ii.

364 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.stance formed in the serpent, which had a most ingeniousmethod of preserving it from the song of the charmer. Thedistinction of sex was also ascribed to it ; the females threwout their radiance, while the males appeared within like brilliantand burning stars.** The historian De Thou mentions a marvellous carbunclethat was brought by an Eastern merchant to Bologna. Amongits surprismg properties, he states, " that being most impatientof the earth, if it was contined it would force its way, and immediatelyfly aloft. Certain shape it had none, for its figure wasinconstant, and momentarily changing ; and though at a distanceit was beautiful to the eye, it would not suffer itself to be handledwith impunity, but hurt those who ob.stinately struggledwith it, as many persons, before many spectators, experienced.If by chance any part of it was broken off, for it was not veryhard, it became nothing less." Thuanus, lib. viii. ix. Besidesthe power of charming against spells, some of them were believedto have the virtue of rendering their possessor invisible orinvulnerable, of enabling him to see through rocks, and to discoverhidden treisures. Of their medicmal properties, we aretold that the amethyst could remove the effects of intoxication ;" for being bound on the navel, it restrains the vapours of thewine, and so dissolves the inebriety." The borax or crapondinuswas reckoned of unfailing efficacy in poisons. Jt was said to beextracted from a dead toad, and described as of a black or duncolour, with a cerulean glow, having in the middle the similitudeof an eye. The kinocteiis was employed to cast out devils ;and the corvina, a stone of a reddish colour, found in crows'nests, was supposed to make boiled or addled eggs fresh and prolific;besides having the virtue " to increase riches, bestowhonours, and foretel many future events." The alectoria, astone of a darkish crystalline colour, was said to be found in theintestines of capons that had lived seven years. Its size was nobigger than a bean ;but its qualities are represented as of a verypotent and miscellaneous nature. " Jt could render the personwho carried it invisible ;being held in the mouth it allays thirst,and therefore is proper for wrestlers ; it makes a wife agreeableto her husband ; bestows honours, and preserves those alreadyacquired ; it frees such as are bewitched ; it renders a man eloquent,constant, and amiable ; it helps to regain a lost kingdomand acquire a foreign one." Mirror of Stones. " In the countreycalled Panten or Tathalamasin, there be canes, called cassan,which overspread the earth like grasse, and out of every knotof them spring foorth certaine branches, which are continuedupon the ground almost for the space of a mile. In the sayd

BOTANY. 365It was customary with the Arabian physicians, during thehighest era of Saracen learning, to administer preciou-j stonesin the way of medicine, as remedies for certain diseases ; buttheir miraculous properties have been long since exploded.It is now generally admitted, as has been already observed,that the greater part of the gems, je'vels, and precious metals,with which the ancient Hamyarites embellished their cities,temples, and palaces, were obtained from the Indians, Persians,and Romans, in exchange for the spices and perfumeswhich they imported from the Happy Arabia.SECTION III.BOTANY.Throughout the greater part of Arabia neither the soil northe climate is favourable to vegetation ; the botany of such acountry cannot therefore be either varied or extensive. Theheat of the sun is so intense that the flowers no sooner blowthan they are withered ; so that the naturalist is not onlycircumscribed as to the number of plants, but limited as tothe proper time for observation ; and if he miss the particularmoment in examining certain species when they are in bloom,he can have no subsequent opportunity until another season-Besides these physical inconveniences there are others arisingfrom the character of the inhabitants. The Arabs, whoare an ignorant, jealous, and avaricious people, cannot comprehendhow foreigners should be prompted by mere curiosity,or a love of science, to expose themselves to so much dangerand fatigue; hence the idea prevalent among them is, thatEuropeans are attracted by motives of interest and the desireof discovering hidden treasures, either in their mountains oramong the ruins of ancient cities. This belief operatesstrongly against scientific investigations ;as travellers areexposed to the risk of being plundered or murdered, on accountof the imaginary wealth which they are supposed tocanes there are found certaine stones, one of which stones whosoevercarryeth about with him cannot be wounded with anyyron ; and by the vertue of these stones, the people aforesaid doefor the most part triumph both on sea and land." Odoricus inHakluyt. This evidently refers to the Tabasheer, a siliceoussubstance found in the joints of the bamboo, and to which greateirtues are attributed in India.Hh2

366 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.possess. In Yemen there is less of this prejudice, and consequentlyless interruption, than in other provinces.*There are in Arabia a considerable number of vegetableproductions common to other regions, both of a colder and awarmer climate. In the highlands plants grow which arefound in the northern parts of Europe ; while in the plainsand valleys may be seen species that are to be met with inIndia and Africa, and which have probably been introducedby settlers from these countries. Niebuhr has remarked,however, that where there are in Europe various species ofany genus of plants, the Arabian species of the same genusare almost all new ; while no such diversity is observed inthose which are common to Arabia with India. So littleknown were the indigenous plants of Yemen, that Forskalwas obliged to form no less than thirty new genera, besides avariety of doubtful species which he could hardly venture toinclude under any generic arrangement. Of the 800 specimenswhich he has described, it is unnecessary for our purposeto do more than allude to a few that may be consideredremarkable for their novelty or their usefulness.Vegetables.—The Arabs cultivate several pot-herbs thatare common in our gardens,—such as carrots, turnips, beans,onions, leeks, garlic, asparagus, beet, spinach, lettuce, a verydelicate purslain with sharp leaves, a sort of radish of whichthe leaves only are eaten, water-cresses, besides an immensevariety of gourds, cucumbers, pumpkins, and melons ; of thetwo latter there is a sort that grows wild in the woods, andserves for feeding camels. The proper melons are reared inthe fields, and in such abundance that the natives of all ranksuse them for some part of the year as their chief article offood. When nearly ripe the fruit is pierced into the pulpthis aperture is then stopped with wax, and the melon leftupon the stalk. By means of this simple process, the pulp ina few days is converted into a delicious hquor. Of Indianvegetables naturalized in Arabia, Forskal enumerates a Sida• Much was anticipated from the talents and attainments ofSeetzen, who expected to make several discoveries in the mineralas well as in the animal and vegetable productions of thecountry ;but the hopes of the scientific world were disappointedby his premature death at Akaba (supposed by poison). A shortcorrespondence between him and M. de Zach of Saxe Gothawas translated and pnnted in 1810 by the Palestine Association.

BOTANY. 367and Hibiscus, resembling our mallows ;a Jussitea, the Betel,a beautiful species of Acanthus, and Bunias somewhat likeour cabbages, the leaves of which are eaten boiled. Thereare other Indian plants which the Arabs eat raw by way ofsalad ; a Slapcha, a Cleome not unlike mustard ; a Dolichosand Glycyne, resembling French beans, are very common inYemen, and so beautiful when ripe that they are strunginto necklaces and bracelets, which are highly esteemed.There are some culinary vegetables that require no culture,such as the Corchoriis, the Scelanthus, the leaves of which,when boiled, have a pleasing acid taste ;and the celebratedColocasia (a species of Arum), which flourishes abundantlyin all marshy places.Plants.—Of these the variety is not great ; and they arechiefly of the saline or succulent kind. The sandy plainsproduce the same genera as Northern Africa, which serve asagreeable objects to the traveller, as well as to alleviate thethirst of the camel in the weary journeys of the caravansthrough the Desert. Different kinds of Zygnphyllum, Hedysarum,Culutea, Mesembryanfhemum, Salsola, with otherprickly herbs and shrubs, are browsed by these animals,which are content with the driest and hardest fare. The asseats a species of the Scorzonera, so rough and bitter that eventhe camel refuses to taste it. There is a species of Mesembryanthermim, the grain of which the Bedouins prepare intoa sort of bread, and eat it as readily as if it were made ofwheat. It is in the wadis and recesses of the mountains thatArabian botany ought to be studied ; and here, as Burckhardtremarks of the Sinai group, the naturalist would find arich harvest. He mentions in particular the tatlar {Ocymumtatarhe7idi), as affording the best possible food for sheepand the nooman (the Euphorbia retusa of Forskal), bearing apretty red flower, which abounds in these valleys, and is seenamong the cliffs of the most barren granitic rocks. Themonks of St. Catherine collect various herbs when in fullbloom, which they dry and send to their archbishop, who distributesthem to his friends and dependants, as they are supposedto possess many virtues conducive to health. Thisbarren peninsula is the favourite soil of the rose of Jericho,anApocynum or dog's bane, the Absinthinm sanioniaim judaicum,the Asteriscus trianthophorus, Astragalus perennis, andseveral others, which Shaw has enumerated in his " Speci-

368 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA. 'men Phytographiae." The Ocymum, the most beautiful speciesof the Basilic, is much valued for its perfume, as arealso an Inula, a sort of elecampane ; a Cacalia from the heartof Africa ;and the genus Dianthera, of which Forskal discoveredeight species. The same traveller gave the name ofMoscharia to a plant of a new genus, on account of its muskysmell. Among the odoriferous herbs of which he collectedspecimens were lavender, marjoram, lilies, and pinks. Themost fragrant, as well as the most remarkable for their fineflowers, were those common to India and Arabia, such as anIpomcea, resembling the rope-weed ; a Pancraticum, with a .flower of the purest wlrite, which he called the sea-daffodil,and a species of Hibiscus, whose flower is singularly large,and of the brightest red colour. The Arabs are by no meansindifferent to the beauties of Flora, as the peasants in manypartsretain the ancient custom of crowning themselves onfestive occasions with chaplets and garlands.There are certain plants used for purposes of domesticeconomy, while others are universally esteemed for their medicinalqualities. A mean-looking herb like orache is mentionedby Forskal, and ranked by him as a distinct genus, bythe name of Su(zda, which affords abundance of an alkalinesalt excellent for whitening linen, and employed instead ofsoap by the common people. Burckhardt states, that theBedouins of Wady Genne, near Sinai, use for the same purposethe herb ajrctn, which they dry and pound between twostones.In the same valley he found several people occupiedin collecting shrubs, which they burn into charcoal for theCairo market. The thick roots of the rethem (the GenistarcEtan of Forskal), which grows there in great plenty, is thekind they prefer. For its well-known properties in dying,the indigo-shrub {Indigofera, Linn.) is universally cultivatedhere, blue being the favourite colour of the Arabs, \^'e aretold, that when this plant happens to be scarce the nativescontrive to extract indigo from a species of Polygala. Thecommon kali {Salsola kali, Linn.) grows in great abundanceon the coasts and in the islands of the Red Sea. There isone plant which, though not a native of Arabia, deserves tobe noticed, as it serves a very important economical purposeboth in that country and in Egypt. It is a gray-coloured herb,called sch(zbe, an infusion of which, mixed with a certain quantityof meal, forms a leaven for the fermentation both of bread

BOTANY. 369and beer. This is considered essential to the process ofbrewing, and it communicates an agreeable taste to theliquor. Upon examining this herb, Forskal found it to be alichen of the plum-tree, of which several ship-loads were thenannually imported from the Archipelago into Alexandria.Among the new genera discovered by the Danish botanist,several were distinguished for their curious properties. ThePolycephalus suaveolens, which resembles the thistle, has at adistance the appearance of a heap of loose balls each ofwhich encloses a bunch of flowers. The Ncrmm obesum, asort of laurel-rose, is remarkable for a singular bulb close tothe earth about the size of a man's head, which forms all itstrunk, and out of which the branches spring. The Volutellaayhylla {Cassyta Jiliformis, Linn.) appears like a long slenderthread, without root or leaves, which entwines itself abouttrees. It bears, however, a sort of flower, and berries whichare eaten by children. The caydbcja (called Forskalea byLinnaeus, in honour of its discoverer) grows in the driest partsof the country. It has small feelers, with which it fixesitself so tenaciously upon soft or smooth substances, that itmust be torn in pieces before it can be removed.Arundinaceous plants are necessarily limited to certaindistricts. In most parts of Yemen, a sort of panick-grass orbulrush {Panicum and Scirpus, Linn.) is used in roofinghouses ; and as rains are not frequent, these slender coveringsare found to be sufficient. There is a particular sort ofrush on the borders of the Red Sea, of which the nativeswork carpets so fine that they are exported to other countries,even as far as Constantinople, and foma a considerable branchof trade. There is also a species of field-reed, which risesto the gigantic height of twenty-four feet, and is found ingreat abundance in the district of Ghobebe, near Suez. It isan article of commerce, being exported to Yemen, where itis used in the ceiling of houses. In the same neighbourhoodNiebuhr was surprised to see a Conferva growing at the bottomof the Hammam Faraoun, the temperature of which wasat 1421 '^ of Fahrenheit's scale. That the sugar-cane wasfrom a very early period cultivated in Yemen has been alreadynoticed.* When the Arabs conquered Spain and the Medi-Pliny mentions it." Saccharon et Arabia fert, sed laudatinsIndia." Lib. xii. cap. 17.

370 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.terranean islands they introduced it among their other improvements.The experiment succeeded ; and in Sicily theduty imposed on its exportation produced a very large revenueto the government. The ancient records of Calabriainform us that seven villages were entirely employed in thiscommerce. With the Portuguese discoveries the Indian canetravelled to America, v\-here its extensive plantations so loweredthe price of sugar that it became impossible to support acompetition ; in consequence of which its cultivation wasgradually abandoned.Medicinal Plants.—Vegetables were evidently the firstmedicines ; and among all primitive nations a traditionaryknowledge of their virtues has been preserved. The Arabsused them with a wonderful degree of success, though thegreater part of these simple remedies is a mystery to strangers.It is unnecessary to describe plants belonging to suchwell-known genera as Atoc and Euphorbia ; of the latter thespecies are exceedingly numerous in Arabia. In hot countriesinfested with venomous animals, the inhabitants learnfrom experience what plants are salutary to man by operatingas counter-poisons ;among the Arabs these from time immemorialhave been held in the greatest esteem. They appear,however, according to Forskal, to be ignorant of the propertiesof the Ophiorrhiza (serpent-root), which is very commonon their hills ; but they highly value the evergreen Aristolochia,which they consider, not only as a remedy, but a preservativeagainst the bite of serpents. \Mioever drinks adecoction of this herb six weeks successively is fortified, intheir opinion, against all future danger from these noxiousreptiles. It is not improbable that jugglers, who in the Eastexpose themselves so daringly to be bitten by serpents, haverecourse to some such artificial protection. The pricklycaper is reckoned an excellent antidote against all kinds of poisons.Senna (Cassia Senna, Linn.) and other sorts oi cassia,are prescribed in various diseases. Cassia fistula, or blackcassia, is reckoned by the Arabian physicians the best cure forcholera morbus, and other affections of a similar nature,•which in warm climates are peculiarly dangerous. Thoughits favourite soil seems to be Upper Egypt, it abounds on theopposite side of the Red Sea. That which we call Senna ofAlexandria grows in the territory of Abu-Arish ;the nativessell It at Mecca and Jidda, whence it passes by way of Egypt

BOTANY. 371to the Mediterranean ports. There are several species ; and,judging from the differently-shaped leaves, it would seemthat what is imported into Europe is not all the produce ofthe same plant. The Bedouins of Sinai use coloquintida,which abounds in all the wadis of that peninsula, in syphiliticcomplaints. They fill the bulk with camel's milk, roast itover the fire, and then administer to the patient the contentsthus impregnated with the essence of the fruit. They likewisemanufacture it into tinder, which is done by the followingprocess :—After roasting the root in the ashes, they WTapit in a wetted rag of cotton cloth ; it is then pounded betweentwo stones ; and by this means the juice is expressed andabsorbed bv the cloth, which imbibes a tint of a dirty bluecolour. The rag, when dried in the sun, ignites with theslightest spark of fire.In the same districts tobacco is raised in considerablequantities, and forms a profitable branch of traffic. TheTowara tribes are all great consumers of this luxury ; andwhether they sm.oke or chew, they always mix with it natron orsalt. They draw their chief supply from Wady Feiran,where its quality is very strong, and of the same species asthat grown on the other mountains of Petraea, near WadyMousa and Kerek, which retains its green colour even whendry. Such is the currency which this commodity has acquiredin trade, that the moud, or measure of tobacco, formsthe standard by which the Tebna Arabs buy and sell minorarticles among themselves.* Hemp, as has been alreadyobserved, is cultivated and used as a narcotic over all Arabia.The flowers, or small leaves surrounding the seed, whenmixed with tobacco, are called hashish ; and with this thecommon people fill their pipes. The higher classes eat it ina jelly or paste called maujoun, and made in the followingmanner :—A quantity of the leaves is boiled with butter forseveral hours, and then put under a press until the juiceexudes, which is mixed with honey and other sweet drugs,and publicly exposed for sale in shops kept for the purpose.* A moud, accordmg to Burckhardt, is equal to 18 or 19 lbs.English ; 3^ rotolo (about 5J lbs. each) make a moud, and 80mouds are a gharara. The rotolo or pound of Mecca contains144 drachms ; at Jidda it is nearly double. The erdeb is equivalentto about 15 English bushels. At Mecca it is divided into50 keile or measures, and at Medina into 96.

372 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.The hashish paste is poUtely termed bast (cheerfulness), andthe venders of it are called basti, or cheerful-makers. Itexhilarates the spirits, and excites the imagination as powerfullyas opium. Many persons of the first rank use it m oneshape or other ; and there are some who mix with it seedsof the benj, which is brought from Syria.SECTION IV. TREES AND SHRUBS.Forests are neither common nor extensive in Arabia ; theyare only to be seen in the wadis, and where the hills retainenough of earth for vegetation. In general, however, treesare either absolutely unknown, or at least different from thoseof the same genera and species in Europe. As the interiorhas been little explored by travellers, it is not surprising thatwe should remain comparatively ignorant of its indigenousproductions. But from what Forskal accomplished in hishasty excursion, it would appear that Yemen possesses agreat variety of trees, as these alone comprehend more thanhalf of the new genera proposed by that naturalist. Hehkewise enumerates eighteen others which he saw, but whosegenus he had no opportunity of ascertaining. Of most ofthese he merely learned the Arabic names and a few of theirproperties. Nncman, a native of the Coffee Mountains, isoften confounded with the cassia-tree. Bceha and anas arecommon in the hills ;their juice is narcotic and poisonous.Schnmama bears a fruit that tastes and smells like a lemon ;gharib el bceke abounds in Abu-Arish, and distils an agreeablesubstance, of which the birds appeared to be particularlyfond. Segleir, in the same district, bears leaves, the sap ofwhich when expressed is esteemed an excellent remedy incases of weak sight. In Yemen Forskal saw two trees, oneof which resembled the lemon, and the other the apple-tree;but the inhabitants knew neither their names nor their qualities.The sym el horat (or poison of fishes) is the fruit ofan unknown tree in Southern Arabia, and exported in considerablequantities. Fishes swallow it eagerly, after whichthey float in a state of seeming intoxication on the surfaceof the water, and are easily taken. Among the new generadescribed by the Danish traveller, and considered peculiar toArabia, are the katha^ el kaya, keura, and onkoba. Thekathoy which is improvable by cultivation, is commonly

FRUIT-TREES 373planted on the hills among the coffee-shrubs. The nativesconstantly chew the buds of this tree, which they call kuad,and to which they ascribe the virtues of assisting digestion,and of fortifying the constitution against infectious distempers.The taste, according to Niebuhr, is insipid, and the onlyeffects he experienced from eating them was the interruptionof sleep. The kuera and el kaya are celebrated for theirperfume. The former bears some resemblance to the palm,and produces flowers of a rich and delicious odour. Theyare scarce, and draw a high price ; but a small quantity, ifpreserved in a cool place, will continue for a long time todiffuse its fragrance through a whole apartment. The latteris common on the hills of Yemen ; the women steep its fruitin water, which they use for washing and perfuming the hair.The onkoha is a large tree, yielding an insipid fruit, whichchildren eat. Of the khadara, the antura, and the kulhamiawe know nothing, except that they are new species discoveredby Forskal, and that their wood is used in building. Thechestnut and sycamore gi'ow to a gigantic size in Hejaz. TheArabs, however, have little timber suited for this purpose,their trees being generally of a light porous texture. Theskeura, a new genus, which grows on the shore of the RedSea, is so soft that it is entirely useless. The el all, whichabounds in Nejed, resembles the oak, and is employed in theconstruction of houses. The samar, sarch, salem, wahat,and kathad serve only for firewood ; their leaves afford shelterfor the cattle, and form the chief nourishment of thecamels.Fruit-trees.— Most of the fruit-trees reared in the gardensand hot-houses of Europe are indigenous to Arabia. Theapple, pear, peach, apricot, almond, quince, citron, pomegranate,lemon, orange, olive, mulberry, and filberts are to bemet with in the wadis and irrigated plains, from the bordersof the Dead Sea to the Euphrates and the shores of Oman. *"The Arabs likewise eat the fruit of several common shrubs,such as Asclepins and the Rhamnus ; but they have a speciesof pear and a cornel peculiar to themselves. From com-* Burckhardt doubts whether apples or pears grow in Arabia(Travels, p. 367) but he seems to have forgotten that he mentionsthem elsewhere among the fi-uits m the garden of the con-;vent at Mount Sinai. Niebuhr speaks of them as common inYemen, tame iii. 130.Vol. II.— I i

374 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.mon oranges, cut through the middle while green, dried inthe air, and steeped forty days in oil, they prepare an essencefamous among old women for restoring a fresh black colourto gray hairs.* Though wine is forbidden, they plant vines,and have a great variety of grapes, a small kind of which,without stones, called zebib or kiscfimis, they dry and exportin considerable quantities. They also prepare from mint asyrup known by the name of dubs or debs, which they find alucrative article of commerce.The Banians have imported many fruit-trees from India,which have all become naturalized in their adopted country ;such are the banana {Mut^a, Linn.), the mango {Mangiferaindira, Linn.), the papaya {Canca papaya, Linn.), a Cissus,an excellent counterpoison, the cocoa, and the Indian figtree{Ficus reiigiosa). The singular property that the latterpossesses of propagating itself by means of filaments shootingfrom its boughs, which take root on reaching the groundand spring up into new trunks, is well known. Forskal sawmore than a dozen species of fig-trees, not one of which arementioned by Linnaeus ; but their fruit was far from beingagreeable, and seldom eaten as food. The bark of one specieswas used in tanning leather ;and the leaves of anotherwere so rough that they served for cleaning and polishingiron. At Beit el Fakih he found some fine ornamental trees,which he supposed to be of Indian origin ; but, as their characteristicswere different from those of any other known species,he classed them in two new genera, under the namesof Hypcraiilhera and Binectaria (Mimusops obtuaifolia ofbotanists).By far the most common and important of the palm tribeis the date-tree, the fruit of which constitutes the staplenourishment of the Arabs during the greater part of theyear. In Hejaz the places chiefly renowned for this valuableproduction are the gardens of Medina, and the valleysat Safra and Jedeida on the route to Mecca. Almost everydistrict, however, has its own variety, which grows nowhere* From the name Portvghnv, given to the orange both in Arabiaand Italy, travellers nnd naturalists have supposed that itwas brought into P>uro[e by the Portuguese. Tliis is a mistake.The orange was cultivated by the Arabs in Sicily and Spainmany centuries before the Portuguese visited the East — See p.102 of this volume. Cod. Diploin. Arab. Sicil.^ tome i. p. 114.

THE DATE-TREE. 375else. Burckhardt was informed that upwards of a hundreddifferent sorts grew in the immediate neighbourhood of Medina; and a native historian in his description of that cityhas enumerated one hundred and thirty. The cheapest andmost common kinds are the jebeli, the kcloua, the heleya, avery small date not larger than a mulberry ; it has its namefrom its extraordinary sweetness, in which it equals thefinest figs from Smyrna ; and, like them, when dried is coveredwith a saccharine crust. This was the date with whichMohammed is alleged to have performed a very great miracle,by planting a kernel in the earth, which instantly tookroot, grew up, and in five minutes became a full-grown treeloaded with fruit. Another miracle is related of the speciescalled d syhani, which hailed the Prophet as he passed underit with a loud Salaam Aleikoom ! The birni is esteemedthe most wholesome and the easiest of digestion ;Mohammed,with whom it was a favourite, recommended the Arabsto eat seven of them every morning before breakfast. Thejebeli, which is scarce, is about one inch in breadth, threem length, and has a very agreeable taste. The price of thebirni is twenty paras, or 2A)83d. per keile (a measure containingabout 120 dates), while the jebeli are sold at the rateof eight for the same money. They are in great requestwith the hajjis, who always carry some of them home aspresents to their friends : they are bought in small boxesholding about a hundred. One species of the Medina dateremains perfectly green even when ripe and dried ; anotherretains a bright saffron colour. These are threaded onstrings, and worn as ornaments by children, or sold underthe name of Kfilayd es Sham, or Necklaces of the North.Dates are dressed in a variety of ways ; they are boiled,stewed with butter, or reduced to a thick pulp by simmeringin water, over which honey is poured. It is a saying of theArabs, "that a good housewife may furnish her husbandevery day for a month with a dish of dates differently prepared."The many purposes to which almost every part of this treeis applied have been mentioned by several travellers. Thetimber serves for rafters or firewood, the fibres for cordage,and the leaves for cages, boxes, bedsteads, baskets, cradles,and other articles of the hurdle species. The Hejazees, likethe Eg}'ptians, make use of the leaves, the outer and inner

376 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.bark, and the fleshy substance at the root of the leaves wherethey spring from the trunk. The kernels, after being soakedfor two days in water until they become soft, are given asfood to camels, cows, and sheep, instead of barley, and aresaid to be much more nutritive than that grain. In Nejedthe kernels are ground for the same purpose ; but this is notdone in Hejaz. At Medina there are shops where nothingelse is sold but date-stones ; and in all the main streets beggarsare occupied in picking up those that are thrown away.The fruit does not all ripen at the same time, each specieshaving its particular season. The harvest at Medina continuesfor two or three months (from July till September),but dates are eaten by the beginning of June. This epochis expected with as much anxiety, and attended with thesame general rejoicings, as the vintage or the harvest-homein Europe. " What is the price of dates at Mecca or Medina?" is always the first question asked by a Bedouin whomeets a passenger on the road. A failure of the crop, eitherfrom the ravages of the locusts or the exhaustion of thetrees, which are seldom known to produce abundantly morethan three or four successive years, causes a general distress,and spreads a universal gloom over the inhabitants.The process of impregnating this tree artificially, by scatteringthe pollen over the female flowers, is still practised bythe modern Arabs, exactly as described by Pliny and Ammianus.The date-groves around Medina are cultivated byfarmers, called nowakhcle, who were assessed by the Wahabeesaccording to the number of trees m each field. Forevery erdeb of dates the Nejed tax-gatherers levied theirquota either in kind or in money according to the currentmarket-price. At Safra the plantations, which extend to fourmiles in length, belong partly to the inhabitants of the villageand partly to the neighbouring Bedouins (the BeuiSalem). Every small grove is enclosed by a mud or stonewall, and interspersed with hamlets or low insulated huts.The trees pass from one individual to another in the courseof trade ;they are sold singly, according to their respectivevalue, and often constitute the dowry paid by the suitor tothe girl's father on marrying her. The sand is heaped upround their roots, and must be renewed every year, as it isusually washed away by the torrents from the hills, whichsometimes form a brook twenty feet broad and three or four

MANNA. 377deep. Here the Wahabees imposed heavy assessments,taxing not only the produce of the groves and gardens, butthe very water used in irrigating them. In Wady FeiranBurckhardt mentions the jamya as the best species, of whichthe monks of Sinai send large boxes annually to Constantinopleas presents, after having taken out the kernel and putan almond in its place. Among these date-groves he observedseveral doun-trees, as well as in other parts of thepeninsula. They belong to the Tebna Arabs, and during thefive or six weeks of harvest the valley is crowded with people,who erect temporary huts of palm-branches, and passtheir time Ik great conviviality. At Dahab the plantationshave a very diiferent appearance from those in Hejaz. Thelower branches, instead of being taken off annually, are sufferedto remain, and hang down to the ground, forming analmost impenetrable barrier round the tree, the top of whichonly is crowned with green leaves.Manna.—The true nature and origin of this substance,celebrated as the miraculous food of the Israelites, have notyet been very satisfactorily ascertained. The observationsmade by travellers and naturalists do not accord with theScripture nairative, nor do they afford any explanation of thephenomena as recorded by Moses (Exod. xvi., Numb, xi.)That it is a vegetable production is generally admitted. Rauwolfhas described a thorny plant called algul, which yieldsa species of manna ;and Michaelis mentions another underthe name of alhagc. Niebuhr neglected to inquire after thissubstance, and what he heard from a monk near Suez was anidle legend not worth repetition. He was told that in Mesopotamiamanna is produced by several trees of the oak genusthat it covers the leaves like flour, and is obtained by shakingthe branches. July or August are the months in which it isgathered, and it is found in greater abundance in moist thanin dry seasons. When fresh it is white and saccharine, butit melts in the sun. At Bussora this traveller was shownanother species called taranjubil, which is gathered from aprickly shrub near Ispahan : the grains were round and yellowish.Both of these sorts were used by the inhabitants assugar in preparing several dishes, especially pastry. Burckhardtis clearly of opinion that the manna of Scripture isthat which distils from the tar/a or tamarisk- tree, a shrubabounding in the peninsula of Sinai. This remarkable fact,Ii2

378 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.he observes, remained unknown in Europe until it was firstmentioned by Seetzen. It is called mann by the Bedouins,and accurately resembles that described by the Jewish historian.*In the month of June it drops from the prickles ofthe tamarisk upon the fallen leaves and twigs, which alwayscover the ground beneath the branches, in its natural state.The Arabs collect it in the morning, when it is coagulated,but it dissolves as soon as the sun shines upon it. Theyclean away the leaves and dirt which adhere to it ; and, afterbeing boiled, it is strained through a coarse piece of clothand put into leathern skins, in which it is preserved till thefollowing year. They do not seem to make it into cakes orloaves ;but they dip their morsel into it, or pour it as they dohoney over their unleavened bread. It is found only m seasonswhen copious rains have fallen, and sometimes it is notproduced at all. When kept in a cool temperature it is hardand solid, but becomes soft if held m the hand or exposed tothe sun. The colour is a dirty yellow ; but the taste isagreeable, somewhat aromatic, and sweet as honey. Ifeaten in considerable quantities it is said to be slightly purgative.The Bedouins esteem it as the greatest daintywhich their country affords : the produce, however, even inthe best years, is trifling, perhaps not exceeding 500 or 600pounds. The harvest is usually in June, and lasts about sixweeks. Though the tamarisk abounds in Hejaz, on the Euphrates,and in every part of Arabia, Burckhardt never heardof its yielding manna except in Mount Sinai. He was informedthat in Asia Minor near Erzeroum, the kind mentionedby Niebuhr was still collected from the tree whichproduces the galls ; but this is probably the gum-tragacanth,which is obtained from a spinous shrub of the genus Astragalus,and which is so strong that a drachm will give to a pintof water the consistency of a s}'rup. This gum is indigenousin Natoha, Crete, and Greece. There is, however, a confusionin his diffeient accounts of the manna, which he appears* Josephus derives the name from the Hebrew particle man,which, he says, means What is it ? this being the exclamationof the Jews when they firsl beheld that divine and wonderfulfood.— (Antiq. b. iii. c. 1.) Whiston, in a note on the text,rather thinks it comes from the verb mannah, to divide ; andmentions that in an old heathen writer, Artapanus, it is com*pared " to oatmeal, and like snOw in colour."

MANNA. 379sometimes to have mistaken for other vegetable substances.The modern officinal drug sold under this name comes fromItaly and Sicily, where it is obtained from a species of ash,with a leaf resembling that of the acacia. The Calabrianmanna is said to exude after the puncture of an insect,—species of grasshopper that sucks the plant ; and this factled Michaelis to propose the question to the Danish travellers,whether the Arabian species might not be produced ina similar manner. But notwithstandmg the identity of thename, the resemblance in the description, and the concurrenceof learned naturalists, it is impossible to reconcile themanna of Scripture with any species of vegetable gum, muchless to explain the preternatural circumstances connectedwith its appearance. We are expressly told that it wasrained from heaven ; that it lay on the ground when the dewwas exhaled, round and small as the hoar-frost, like corianderseed,and its colour like a pearl ; that it fell but six days inthe week ; that it became offensive and bred worms if keptabove one day ; that the double quantity provided for theSabbath kept sweet for two days ;that it continued fullingfor forty years, but ceased on the arrival of the Israelites atthe borders of Canaan. These and other facts all indicate4;he extraordinary nature of the production ; and in no one^respect do they correspond with the distillations of the tarfa,the gharrab, or the talh-tree. These gums are collectedonly for about a month in the year ; they do not admit ofReiner ground in a hand-mill, nor baked ; they are not subjectto putrefaction if kept, nor are they peculiar to the Petraeanwilderness ; besides, the constant and daily supply in adesert often barren of all vegetation must have been impossible,except on the supposition that the trees accompaniedthem on their march. Whatever the manna was, it was-obviously a substitute for food ;and the peculiarities connectedwith its regular continuance, its corruption, and peri-•odical suspension are facts not less extraordinary than themysterious nature of the substance itself. It is in vain to attemptany explanation of these phenomena by natural causes.A skeptical philosophy may succeed in reconcihng preternaturalappearances with its own notions of probability ;butthis gives not a particle of additional evidence to the credibilityof the sacred narrative. The whole miracle, as related byMosesj admits but of one solution—the interposition of a

380 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.Divine power. As for local traditions or moddm practices,these, we have already shown, are unsafe guides in mattersof history ; much less can they be admitted as authorities insupport of revealed truth.Gum- Arabic.—According to Burckhardt this substance isthe produce of the talh, which he calls the gum-arabic-tree.In describing Wady Lahyane, between Akaba and Gaza, hesays that the Bedouins feed their camels upon the thornybranches of this shrub, of which they are extremely fond.In summer they collect the gum, which they sell at Cairo forabout 12.9. or 155. per cwt. The taste he represents as insipid,but he was assured it was very nutritive. Of this latterfact Hasselquist mentions a striking confirmation, in thecase of an Abyssinian caravan crossing the African desert toCairo in 1750. Finding their provisions consumed whilethey had yet sixty days to travel, they had recourse to gumarabic,of which they carried a considerable quantity withthem ; and upon this alone 1000 persons subsisted for twomonths. Burckhardt, however, in another place says, thatin Wady Nebk he found the acacia-trees thickly coveredwith this gum, which the Towara tribe sell at Cairo, thoughits quality is inferior to that from Sennaar or Soudan. TheBedouins use it as a substitute for water. Some have supposedthe gum-arabic-tree to be the Acacia vera (the MimosaNiloLica., Linn.), which Hasselquist says the EgyptianArabs call charrud (perhaps the gharrab of Burckhardt), andwhich he represents as also producing the thus or frankincense,and the Succus acacice. The thus he describes aspellucid and white, or rather colourless ; while the gum is ofa brownish or dirty yellow. This exactly agrees with theaccounts given of the manna ; hence it is probable thesesubstances are nearly, if not altogether, identical. In collectingthe leaves of the acacia for the use of their camels,the Bedouins spread a straw mat under the tree, and beatthe boughs with long sticks, when the youngest and freshestbuds are brought down ; and these are sold in the marketsas fodder.Honey is an article much used in Arabian cookery, andfound in various districts of the country. The mountainsnear Safra swarm with bees, of which the Bedouins take possessionby placing wooden hives upon the ground. Thishoney is of die finest quality, white, and clear as water. One

SHRUBS.-381of the most interesting productions of Wady Ghor is thebeyrouk honey (the Assal beyrouk of the Arabs), whichBurckhardt supposed to be manna. It was described to himas a juice dropping from the leaves and twigs of the gharrabtree,about the height of an olive, with leaves like those ofthe poplar, only somewhat broader. The honey is sweetwhen fresh, but turns sour when kept for two days. It isgathered in May and June, either from the leaves, on whichit collects like dew, or from the ground under the tree. Thecolour is brownish, or rather of a grayish hue.Shrubs.—The deserts and mountains of Arabia producea variety of shrubs, with the uses and qualities of which weare but imperfectly acquainted, and many of their namesmight have remained utterly unknown had they not been accidentallynoticed by the passmg traveller. Several new generawere discovered by Forskal, but he had little opportunityfor examining their properties. Of the mcEnia, kadaba, andmasa nothing particular has been recorded. The fruit ofthe sadada is eaten ; and from the berry of the kebulha isextracted a very strong kind of brandy, the acid taste ofwhich is counteracted by a mixture of sugar. Dolichos, aspecies of that false phaseolus already mentioned, grows upto a bushy shrub, so as to form hedges in a short time whichare almost impenetrable. The wood of the Cynanchumjcalled march by the Arabs, is used for fuel ; it has all thelightness and combustibility of tinder ; and Forskal observedthat the peasants near Loheia kindled it by rubbing one pieceagainst another. The nebtk {Rhamnus Lotus), the fruit ofwhich the Arabs sometimes eat in preference to dates, is verycommon in the plain of Medina ; large quantities of it are exposedin the market, where a person may obtain enough tosatisfy himself far a pennyworth of corn, which is readilytaken in exchange instead of money. The inhabitants ofWady Feiran grind the dried fruit together with the stone,and preserve the meal, which they call bryse, in leathern skinsin the same way as the Nubian Bedouins do. It forms anexcellent provision for journeying in the desert, as it only'requires the addition of buttermilk to make a m.ost nourishing,pleasant, and refreshing diet. Among the rocks of MountSt. Catherine, Burckhardt observed, besides other shrubs, theSorour nearly in full bloom ; its fruit is about the size of asmall cherry, and has very much the flavour of the straw-

382 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.berry. In Wady Mousa junipers grow in considerable numbers.The tamarisk and talh-tree abound in the same region.The tree called asheyr by the Arabs is very common in WadyGhor. It bears a fruit of a reddish yellow colour, about threeinches in diameter, which contains a white substance resemblingthe finest silk, and enveloping the seeds. The Bedouinscollect this stuff, and twist it into matches for their muskets,preferring it to the common match, as it ignites more readily.Burckhardt says that more than twenty camel-loads of thissubstance could be annually procured, and perhaps might befound useful in the silk and cotton manufactures of Europe..This tree, when incisions are made into the branches, yieldsa white juice, which the natives collect, by putting a hollowreed into the aperture, and sell to the druggists at Jerusalem,who are said to use it in medicine as a strong cathartic. Inthe gardens of Medina the ithcU a species of tamarisk, iscultivated for its hard wood, of which the Arabs make camels'saddles, and every utensil that requires strong handles. Theburial-grounds round Mecca are adorned with a low shrub ofthe aloe genus called sahber (or patience), which is plantedat the extremity of almost every tomb opposite the epitaph.It is an evergreen, requiring very little water ; and is chosenfor this purpose in allusion to the patience necessary in waitingfor the resurrection. Of the Mimosa genus there areseveral species in Arabia. One of these {Mimosa selam)produces splendid flowers of a beautiful red colour, withwhich the natives crown their heads on festive occasions.The flowers of another {Mimosa Lebheck ; Acacia Lebbeck,Linn.) are no less remarkable for a fine silky tuft formed bytheir pistils. There is another so sensitive that it droops itsbranches whenever any person approaches it, appearing tosalute those who retire under its shade. This mute hospitalityhas so endeared it to the Arabs, that the injuring orcutting of it down is strictly prohibited. The pod of thesi/ale and the tender shoots of the branches serve as fodderfor cattle, while the bark is used in tanning leather. Theleaves of the Mimosa orfora {Acacia horrida, Linn.) preservecamels' milk sweet for several days ;the smoke of the woodis said to expel a worm, which fixes itself in the flesh of thehuman neck and produces epileptic fits. The tamarisk iscultivated as an object equally useful and agreeable ; itsshade is a protection from the scorching heat of the sun ; and

BALSAM OF MECCA. 383its graceful figure adorns the scenery of the country. It isone of the most common productions of the desert fromMecca to the Euphrates, and m the driest season, when allvegetation around is withered, it never loses its verdure.The balessan or celebrated balsam of Mecca (the balm ofGilead in Scripture) has been already noticed in the Botanyof Abyssinia. According to Burckhardt, Safra and Bedr arethe only places in Hejaz where it can be obtained in a purestate. The tree from which it is collected (called by theArabs heskern) grows on Gebel Sobh and the neighbouringmountains, and is said to be from ten to fifteen feet high, witha smooth trunk and thin bark. In the middle of summersmall incisions are made in the rind ; from these the juiceimmediately issues, which is then taken otf with the thumbnailand put into a vessel. The gum appears to be of twokinds ; one of a white colour, which is most esteemed, theother of a yellowish-white. The latter, which the Bedouinsbring to market in small sheepskin bottles, has a bitter tasteand a strong turpentine smell. The people of Safra generallyadulterate it with sesamum-oil and tar. When theytry its purity, they dip their finger into it and apply it to thefire ; if it burn without giving pain or leaving a mark, theyjudge it to be of good quality ;— if otherwise, they considerit bad. The test mentioned by Bruce of letting a drop fallinto a cup of water, when the good falls coagulated to thebottom and the bad swims on the surface, is unknown to theHejazees. The Bedouins, who sell it to the Safra Arabs, demandtwo or three dollars a pound for it when quite genuine ;while the latter dispose of it to the hajjis, chiefly the Persians,in an adulterated state, at five or six times the prim,ecost. The richer classes put a drop into the first cup ofcoffee which they drink in the morning, from the notion thatit acts as a tonic. That which is sold at Mecca and Jidda,for the (Jairo market, always undergoes several adulterations.The seeds are employed to procure abortion, but thebalm itself is used medicinally, and highly valued in theharems on account of its cosmetic qualities. Forskal, whogives a botanical description of this tree as a new species ofAmyrts, found one of them in the open fields. Its appearancewas not beautiful ; but what seems very remarkable is,that the inhabitants of Yemen, according to his account, wereignorant of its qualities. They only burn ihe wood as a

384 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.perfume in the same manner as they do the kafal, anothersort of Amyris, which is exported to Egypt, and there usedas fuel, to communicate an agreeable odour to the vessek andthe liquors which are boiled in them.Gharkad (the Peganum retusum of Forskal), a thornyshrub, bearing a small red berry about the size of a pomegranaie-seed,is common in the peninsula of Smai, especiallyin Wady Gharendel. It comes to maturity in the height ofsummer, and surprises the traveller by the delicious refreshmentwhich it affords in the parched and solitary wilderness.The fruit is juicy and pleasant, much resembling a ripegooseberry in taste, but not so sweet ; and when the cropis abundant, the Arabs make a conserve of the berries. Thisis the shrub which Burckhardt supposes might have beenused by Moses to sweeten the bitter waters of Marah (Exod.XV. 25) ; but as he made no inquiries on the spot, his suppositionrests on mere conjecture.Another shrub, of high celebrity in the East as an articlefor the toilette, is the henna-tree {Lawsonia inermis, Lirm.),whose leaves and odoriferous flowers, when pulverized andwrought into a paste, are universally used by the iadies forstaining the face, hands, feet, and nails, of a reddish or yellowishcolour ;lighter or deeper according to the manner inwhich this fashionable pomatum is applied. The tmcturerequires to be frequently renewed. This shrub, which insize and character resembles privet, is very abundant inWady Fatima, and sold to the hajjis at Mecca in small redleathern bags. A species of Glycyrrhiza, or liquorice-shrub,is common in Yemen, as is also a sort of caper-tree (Cappansspinosa, Linn.), which is reckoned the only antidoteagainst the effects of a shrub (called Adcnia by Forskal),whose buds, when dried and given in drink as a powder, arestrongly poisonous. The rose-laurel (Nerium), the cottonplant,the acacia, and various others, spring in the sandyplains, and form scattered tufts of verdure in tlie cliffs of thebarren rocks. The acacia being one of the largest and mostcommon shrubs in the desert, Shaw conjectures that it musthave been the shithm-wood of which the planks and severalutensils of the tabernacle were made. Exod. xxv. As itabounds with flowers of a globular figure, and of deliciousfragrance, it is perhaps the same as the shitfah-trce, which(Isaiah ill. 19) is joined with the myrtle and other sweet-

LVCENSE-TREE COFFEE. 385smelling plants. Of the cotton-tree Niebuhr mentions twospecies, one of which grows to some size, and the other bearsred flowers. The profits from the culture of this article areinconsiderable, as most of the Arabs wear the cotton-clothsof India and Egypt.The incense-tree, so famous in all antiquity, is not oncementioned by Forskal : the travellers could learn nothing ofit, except that it was to be found in a part of Hadramaut.where it is called olihan. The soil of the hills where it growsis said to be of a clayey texture, impregnated with nitre.Ibn Batuta, who visited Dafar and Hasec (A. D, 1328), says," We have here the incense-tree, which is about the heightof a man, with branches like those of the artichoke ; it hasa thin leaf, which, when scarified, produces a fluid like milkthis turns into gum, and is then called labaii, or frankincense."Some French naturalists suppose it to be BuswelHadentata of Roxburgh, which is described as growing to aconsiderable height on the mountains of Coroinandel ;* butthis account does not agree with what the ancients say ofthe incense-tree. According to Lord Valentia, the frankincenseis chiefly produced near Cape Guardafui, and is exportedfrom a harbour of the Somaulies called Bunder Cassim.It forms an article of trade with the Red Sea, and isprincipally consumed in Catholic countries. As the nativeshold their own produce in no estimation, and make use of thatonly which comes from India, we deem it unnecessary to addany farther remarks to what has been already said of thissubstance, as well as of myrrh, cassia, spikenard, with otherresinous and aromatic plants, in treating of the commerce ofthe ancient Arabs. The name thus, by which it was knownto the Greeks and Romans, was superseded in the declineof the Latin language by that of incense {inceiisvm), fiomthe universal practice of burning it in the temples of theirgods.tCoflfee {Cnffea Arahica) is a native of Abyssinia, and hasbeen noticed among the vegetable productions of that country.That it was introduced into Yemen by the Abyssinianconquerors is highly probable ; and when the Koran prohib-* Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Hist. Nat. art. Encens. Roxburgh,Plants of Coromandel.t Vol. 1 chap. V. p. 162. Eutrop. Rer. Rom. hh. xi.Vol. II.—K k

386 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.ited the use of wine, this supplementary drink would take itsplace, and propagate itself, by degrees, over the reg-ions whichembraced the creed of Islam. This supposition is notfounded on mere conjecture. We learn from Poncet, whotravelled in Ethiopia in 1698, that the opinion then universallyprevalent in the East was, that coffee had been originally'transported from that kingdom into Arabia Felix. Theetymology of the name itself is a strong presumption that itwas at first intended as a substitute for the juice of the grape.Cahuuch (or cahvch, as the Turks pronounce it with a t;,whence our word coffee is derived) was used by the old Arabs,in its primary sense, to denote wine or other intoxicatingliquors. It was afterward applied to the decoction of theAbyssinian berry, to which they gave the name of buun,while they called the shrub on which it grew the buun-tree.The early Mohammedan authors furnish us merely with a fewdetails about the supposed qualities of this liquid, and thedisputes that occurred concerning its lawfulness as an articleof diet. Avicenna, Ibn Jazlah of Bagdad, and some otherprofessional writers of that time, speak obscurely of buun ;hence we may presume that coffee, like sugar and chocolate,was then prescribed as a medicine. Its use, however, waslong peculiar to the East ;and the city of Aden is the firston record that set the example of drinking it as a commonrefreshment, about the middle of the fifteenth century. Adrowsy mufti, called Jemaleddin, had discovered that it disposedhim to keep awake, as well as to a more lively exerciseof his spiritual duties. On his authority coffee becamethe most fashionable beverage in the place. The leaves ofthe cat (tea) were abandoned ;and all classes,—lawyers, students,loungers, and artisans,—adopted the infusion of theroasted bean. Another discovery of the same individualrendered it still more popular. Having contracted some infirmityduring a voyage to Persia, on returning to Yemen heapplied to his favourite stimulant, and in a short time foundhis health perfectly restored. This pious doctor, to whomEurope perhaps owes one of the most useful luxuries of theEast, died A. D. 1470 ; and such was the reputation which hisexperience had given to the virtues of coffee, that in a shorttime it was introduced by Fakeddin at Mecca and Medina,and became so agreeable to the general taste, that publicsaloous were opened, whore crowds assembled to enjoy the

COFFEE. 387amusements of chess, singing, dancing, gambling, and otherrecreations not very consistent with the rigour of the Koran.About the beginning of the sixteenth century it was broughtby certain dervises of Yemen to Cairo, where its quahtiesrecommended it to general use. But the innovation of drinkingit in the mosques gave rise to a bitter controversy, whichseemed to threaten the East with a new revolution. In theyear 1511, it was pubhcly condemned at Mecca by an assemblyof muftis, lawyers, and physicians, who declared it to becontrary to the law of the Prophet, and alike injurious to souland body. The pulpits of Cairo resounded with the anathemasof the more orthodox divines ; all the magazines of this" seditious berry" were laid in ashes ; the saloons were shut,and their keepers pelted with the fragments of their brokenpots and cups. This occurred in 1523 ; but by an order ofSelim 1. the decrees of the muftis were reversed ;thetumults both in Egypt and Arabia were quashed ; the drinkingof coffee was pronounced not to be heretical ;and twoPersian doctors, who had declared it to be pernicious to thehealth, were hanged by order of the sultan. From Cairothis contested liquor passed to Damascus and Aleppo, andthence to Constantinople (in 1554), where it encountered andtriumphed over the persecution of the dervises, who declaimedvehemently against the impiety of human beingseating charcoal, as they called the bean when roasted, whichtheir Prophet had declared was not intended by God for food.From the Levant it found its way by degrees to Europe,and was probably imported by the Dutch and Venetian merchants.Pietro de la Valle, who travelled in 1615, seemsthe first that made it known in Italy. Mons. Thevenot, onhis return from the East in 1657, brought it Avith him toFrance as a curiosity, though it appears to have been usedprivately at Marseilles ten years earlier ; and in 1679 themedical faculty of that city made its deleterious effects thetheme of a public disputation. The first coffee-house openedin Paris was in 1672, by an Armenian named Pascal (orPasqua), who sold this beverage at 2s. 6d. a-cup ; but thewant of encouragement obliged him to remove to London.The government of Charles II. attempted in vain to suppressthese places of entertainment as nurseries of sedition ; and ina few years they became general throughout the country.The first European author that wrote expressly on coffee was

388 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.tProspero Alpino, a celebrated botanist and physician of Padua,who resided at Cairo in 1580. It is not mentioned byBelon, who has described the most remarkable plants ofEgypt and Arabia (A. D. 1546-49). Lord Bacon, who diedin 1626, and Dr. John Ray, both speak of it ; but in a mannerwhich shows that they had a very superficial knowledgeof the subject. Its quahties, however, were soon afterwardcelebrated both by naturalists and poets. Delia Valle insistedthat it was the nepenthe of Homer, while Mons. Paschiusalleged that it was among the articles presented toDavid by Abigail. In France it became a theme for thedramatic muse ;and in 1694, Le Cafe was the most fashionablecomedy in Paris. A national song under the same namewas written by Fuzelier, and set to music by Bernier. Thefollowing stanza will suffice as a specimen :" Favorable liqueur, dont mon ame est ravie.Par tes enchantemens augmente nos beaux jours ;Nousdomptons le sommeil par ton heureux secours :Tu nous rend les momens qu'il derobe a la vie.Favorable liqueur, dont mon ame est ravie,Par tes enchantemens augmente nos beaux jours."The method of roasting and sweetening it, and the praisesof the cups and saucers into which it was poured, were sungin a heroic poem by a Jesuit of the name of Father Vaniere,who thus speaks in the eighth book of his PrcBdium RuS'ticum :" Tritaque mox validis intra mortaria pilis,Diluitur lympha ; facilique parabiiis arteVulcano coquitur, donee vas pulvis ad imum.Venerit, et posito mansueverit oUula motu.Fictihbus rufis pateris defunde liquores,Adde peregrina dulces ab arundine succos.Ora sapore caUx ne tristia laedat amaro."This shrub has long maintained a vast importance as an articleof commerce ; and though it has been transplanted tovarious countries in Asia, Africa, and America, its chief celtbrityis derived from Arabia, where its cultivation seems to bebest understood. It appears originally to have grown wild inAbyssinia, where the natives were in the habit of eating thebean as food. They roasted and pounded it, and then mixed

COFFEE. 389the powder with grease or butter to give it consistency. Asmall quantity of this preparation was sufficient to supportthem during a march of several days. In Upper Egypt thispractice is still common. Reynier often saw the soldiersprefer this mixture to their rations when they had long fatiguesto support ; facts which leave no doubt as to the nutritivequalities of coffee.In Arabia the fmit of the tree, when allowed to grow wild,is so bad as to be unfit for use. It is only in certain parts ofthat country that the soil is adapted for its production.Burckhardt was informed that it does not grow farther norththan Mishnye, in the district of Zohran, and that it improves inquality towards the south. The plantations are found to thrivebest on the western side of the great mountains of Yemen.They abound in the provinces of Heschid-u-Bekil, Kataba, andJafa ; but the climate about Udden, Kahhme, Kusma, Jebi,Jobla, and Taas, is reckoned the most favourable, as theshrub on these hills yields the berry in greater quantity andof better flavour. The coffee produced in the neighbourhoodof Sanaa is esteemed the best. Europeans are mistaken insupposing the tree should be planted in a dry soil, and undera torrid sun. Though it is cultivated only in the hillyregions, it requires both moisture and coolness ; and it is forthis reason that the Arabs plant other trees in their coffeegroundsin order to afford it shade. In times of intense heatthe plantations are regularly irrigated ;which is the moreeasily done, as they usually stand upon terraces in the formof an amphitheatre, where they are so densely crowded thatthe rays of the sun can hardly penetrate among the branches.Most of them are only moistened by the rain ;but othershave the benefit of large reservoirs (birkets) upon the heights,from which water is conveyed and sprinkled over the steepdeclivities. The coffee-shrub is an evergreen ; its averageheight is from twelve to fifteen feet ; the branches are elastic,the bark rough and of a whitish colour ; the flowers resemblethose of the jasmine, and though bitter to the taste,they diffuse a strong balmy fragrance. At Bulgosa, Niebuhrfound the trees in full bloom in the beginning of March, andthe whole atmosphere perfumed with their delicious odour.When the blossom dies the fruit appears in its place, greenat first, but red and resembling a cherry when ripe ;in thecentre of wliich lies the bean, enclosed in a thin membrane,Kk2

390 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.and easily separated into two halves. There are two or threecrops in the year ;and it is quite common to see fruit andflowers on the same tree ; but the first produce is always thebest. May is the proper harvest month ;the berries areshaken from the branches on cloths spread underneath ; theyare then dried in the sun ; after which a heavy roller ofwood or stone is passed over them, to separate the bean fromthe husk.* All the Arabs are extravagantly fond of coffee ;yet less of it is drunk in Yemen than in the other provinces.The flavour is greatly improved by their mode of preparing: It instead of grinding the beans in a mill, they pound themto an impalpable powder in a close mortar, which seems betterto express and preserve from evaporating those oily particlesthat give the decoction its peculiar relish. They alsouse a preparation from the husks, called cafe a la sultane,which is made by pounding and roasting them, and is esteemedan excellent beverage. The greatest care is takenof the powdered coffee, which is kept closely pressed downin a wooden box, and the quantity required for use is scrapedfrom the surface with a wooden spoon. Two small pots areoften used ; in the one the water is boiled (generally mixedwith the remains of the preceding meal) ; into the other isput the fresh coffee, and it is sometimes heated by standingnear the fire before the boiling water is added. This lattermixture is then boiled two or three times ;care being takento pour a few drops of cold water upon it the last time, or toplace over it a linen cloth dipped in cold water. After thisprocess it is allowed to subside, and then emptied into the* In the West Indies this operation is performed by a millcomposed of two wooden rollers furnished with iron plateseighteen inches long and ten or twelve in diameter. Thesemoveable rollers are made to approach a third, which is fixed,called chops ; between these the fruit falls from a hopper, whereit is stripped of its first skin, and divided into two parts. Out ofthis machine it falls into a brass sieve, which separates it fromthe husks. It is then thrown into a vessel full of water, whereit soaks for one night, and is afterward thoroughly washed anddried. Another machine, called the peeling-mill, which is awooden grimier, turned vertically upon its axis by a mule orhorse, is employed to strip the thin pellicle from the bean ;andafter this process it is winnowed by slaves, who set the air inmotion by turning rapidly four tin-plates fixed upon an axle.

WILD ANIMALS. 391pot containing the boiling water. All classes use it withoutmilk or sugar ;people of rank drink it out of porcelain cups ;the lower sort are content with coarser ware. In Hejaz it isser\-ed up to travellers in small earthern pots like bottles, containingfrom ten to fifteen cups. This vessel has a long narrowneck, with a bunch of dry herbs stuck into its mouth,through which the liquor is poured. At Mocha, Mrs. Lushingtonobserved that every lady, when she pays a visit, carrieson her arm a little bag of coffee, which is boiled at thehouse where she spends the evening ; and in this way shecan enjoy society without putting her friends to expense. TheBedouin cooks this meal in the same rude manner that hedoes his cakes and his mutton. He roasts a few beans on aniron shovel, hammers them to atoms in a wooden mortar withhis bludcreon, and boils his pot between two stones, over aifire lighted with tuider, and composed of dry shrubs or camel'sdung.SECTION IV. ZOOLOGY.Wild Animals.—The zoology of Arabia differs but littlefrom that of other Eastern countries. Most of the animalsfound there being described in works which are familiar tothe reader, it will not be necessary here to enter into anylengthened details on their natural history. Lions, leopards,panthers, lynxes, wolves, foxes, boars, antelopes, and variousdomestic animals in a wild state, are to be met with inalmost every district in the peninsula. The small panther(called falh) is more common than the large one (the ncmerof the Arabs) ; but it is not regarded with the same terror, asit only carries away cats and dogs, never venturing to attackman. It is the Felis jubafa or hunting-tiger of naturalists.The jackall (el vam) abounds in the mountains ; but its habitsand appearance are too well known to require particularnotice. The hyena inhabits the solitary caverns of the Petraeanrange, and is also common round the shores of the PersianGulf.It assails men and beasts with the same ferocitystealing out at night, it seizes on the natives who sleep inthe open air, and frequently carries off children from besidetheir parents. In the forests of Yemen, and on the hillsaround Aden, are swarms of monkeys without tails, and whosehind-quarters are of a bright red. They are extremely docile,and iearn readily any tricks that are attempted to be taught

392 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.them. On this account vast numbers of them are exportedto Egypt, Persia, and Syria, where itinerant jugglers make alivehhood by exhibiting them to the people. The sandyplains, and the valleys of the mountains, are stocked withgazelles. So common is this beautiful creature, that as abeast of chase, it furnishes amusement and food for the Arabsof the desert, and supplies the poets with many of their finestsimilitudes. On the Eastern frontier there are several placesallotted for the hunting of this animal, enclosed with a highwall. Gaps are left, with a broad ditch on the outside, wherethey are caught in hundreds while attempting to escape.The rock-goats {Capra Ibex, the steinbok or bouquetin of theSwiss) abound in the Alpine districts, especially among thecliffs of Sinai, where they are hunted by the Bedouins. Theirflesh is excellent, and has nearly the same flavour as that ofdeer. In the plains dogs are employed to catch them ; butamong the rocks it is difficult to come near them, as theyoccasionally take a leap of twenty feet, and are so keenscented,that on the slightest change of wind they smell thepursuer at a great distance, and lake to flight. They pasturein herds of forty or fifty together, having a leader whokeeps watch ;and on any suspicious sound, odour, or object,he makes a noise, which is a signal to the flock to make theirescape. The chase of the heden, as the wild-goat is called,resembles that of the chamois of the Alps, and requires asmuch enterprise and patience. Burckhardt was assured, thatwhen hotly pursued they would throw themselves from aheight of fifty or sixty feet upon their heads without receivingany mjury. The Arabs make long circuits to surprise them,and endeavour to come upon them late, or early in the morningwhen they feed. Their skins are made into water-bags,and their long, large, knotty horns are sold to the merchants,who carry them to Jerusalem, where they are made intohandles for knives and daggers.Hares are plentful, and hunted by the Arabs, who knockthem down with small sticks or clubs, which they throw to agreat distance, and with admirable dexterity. As the lineof a caravan sometimes extends nearly a mile in length, theyare often started in considerable numbers, and scarcely oneof them ever escapes the shower of missiles to which theyare exposed. The more orthodox, however, object to dressor eat them until they have undergone the operation of hulaul.

WILD ANIMALS. 393or being made lawful ; a ceremony which is performed bycutting the throat with the neck turned towards the HolyCity. Forskal mentions several wild animals of which heknew nothing except what he learned from the indistinct accountsof the natives. The jcear was said to resemble thethe ass in shape and size, and the flesh is reckoned excellentfood. The bakar wash, from the vague descriptions given bythe Arabs, seemed to be the wild ox. They mentioned anotherquadruped of a similar form, which was without horns,and fed only by night. One of the most singular of theseanonymous animals was described as resembling a cat, whichfed on grass, and was eaten as a great delicacy. The Bedouinsof Sinai frequently mentioned to Burckhardt a beastof prey called wober, which inhabited only the retired partsof the desert ; they represented it as being about the size ofa large dog, with a head hke a hog. He was told of anothervoracious creature called shyb, stated to be a breed betweenthe leopard and the wolf, but their accounts as to this originare not much to be trusted, their common practice being toassign parents of different known species to any animal whichthey seldom meet with. The jerboa or Pharaoh's rat isseldom to be found in great numbers in the sandy tractsamong the hills, and on the banks of the Euphrates. Itsappearance and manners have already been noticed in theZoology of Abyssinia and Egypt. Its size is that of a largerat ; the upper part is of a light-fawn colour, striped withblack ; and this dusky hue contrasts agreeably with the fineshining white of the belly. The body is short,—broaderbehind than before, and well provided with long, soft, silkyhair. According to Hasselquist, the tail is three times longerthan the whole body ; Sonnini says he never found it muchmore than half its length. Its thickness hardly exceeds thecircumference of a large goose-quill ; but it is of a quadrangular,and not of a round shape. The fore-legs, which havefive toes, are white and short, scarcely extending beyondthe hair ; but they are less serviceable in walking than inconveying food to the animal's mouth, or digging his subterraneanhabitation ; hence the name dipus or two-footedmouse, erroneously applied to the jerboa. The hind-legs arecovered with white and fawn-coloured hair ;but its long feetare almost entirely naked. Its motion, especially when pursued,is that of leapmg and bounding like the kangaroo which

394 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.it performs with great rapidity, assisted by its long musculartail. It is this peculiarity which induced naturalists to givethis species the name of Mus jorulus, or flying mouse. 7'hoflesh is eaten by the Arabs, and its taste is said to be verylittle different from that of a young rabbit.Domestic Animals.—The Arabs rear in abundance all thedomestic animals common to hot countries. They breedhorses, mules, asses, camels, dromedaries, cows, buffaloes,hogs, sheep, and goats.* Their cows and oxen are distinguishedby a hump or bunch of fat on the shoulder, immediatelyabove the fore-legs. Those in Hejaz are described byBurclihardt as small, but of a stout bony make ;they havefor the most part only short stumps of horns, and bore astrong resemblance to those he had seen on the banks of theNile in Nubia. Of the instinct ascribed to these animals, offorming into circular bodies to defend themselves againstbeasts of prey, Niebuhr could obtain no information, nor didhe think the story probable. Buffaloes are found in allmarshy parts of the country and on the banks of the rivers,where they are more numerous than the common hornedcattle. The male is as fit for the yoke as the ox ;his fleshis inferior, being hard and unsavoury ; but when voung, ithas much the taste and appearance of beef The femaleyields more milk than the ordinary cow. The Arabs have amode of forcing her to yield more than she would do voluntarily: while one person milks, another tickles her ; a customwhich the ancient Scythians practised with their mares.Asses.—There are two sorts of asses in Arabia,—onesmall and sluggish, which is there as little esteemed as inEurope ; the other a large and noble-spirited breed, whichsells at a high price. Niebuhr thought them preferable to ahorse for a journey, and reckoned their progress in half anhour equal to 3500 paces of a man. In Yemen, the soldiersuse them on patrol, as well as in every militar}'^ service inwhich parade is not an object ; the pilgrims employ them inconsiderable numbers ; and Ali Bey mentions, that theysometimes travel the distance from Jidda to Mecca (fifty-fivemiles) in twelve hours. In various parts of the country these*•Strabo must have been misinformed when he exceptedmules, horses, and hogs ; as also geese and hens. "In Arabiapecorum, omnis generis copia, exceptis muhs, equis, et porcis;avium etiam omnium praeter anseres et gallinas." Lib. xvi.

THE WILD-ASS. 395animals abound in a wild state. To the northward of Nejed,adjoining the district of Jof, they are found in great numbers.The Sherarat Arabs hunt them and eat their flesh (thoughforbidden), but not before strangers.* They sell their skinsand hoofs to the pedlars at Damascus and the people of theHauran. The hoofs are manufactured into rings, which areworn by the peasants on their thumbs or under the armpits asamulets agamst rheumatism.According to Buifon, the domesticated breed of asses usedin Europe came originally from Arabia. The uniform aspectof this animal, when compared with the great variety ofcolour exhibited by the domestic races of the horse, has inducedsome to suppose that the former has not been so longnor so generally under the dominion of man. In the time ofAristotle the ass was not found in Thrace, nor even in Gaulbut, on the other hand, v.'e know from the Sacred Writings,that it was used as a beast of burden in the remotest acres ofJewish history, and was therefore, in all probabdity, reducedto servitude by the Eastern nations fully more early than anyother animal not immediately necessary to the existence of apastoral people. t Its comparatively recent reduction, then,cannot, as Buffon has alleged, be assigned as the cause ofits greater uniformity of colour. This must be sought for inthe different natures of the two animals when acted upon bythe influence of climate, leading the one to vary only in formand stature, and the other in colour as well as form. Thedomestic ass of our northern climes being never improved bycrosses from a purer race, the inferiority of the animal isscarcely to be wondered at. But under the warm and serenechmates of Asia, where the breed is not only carefully tended,but frequently improved by intercourse with the fleet and fieryonager, it is an animal of great strength and considerablebeauty.The onager or wild-ass, called koulan by many of the tribesof Asia, is distinguished from the domestic kind by the* Ibn Batuta says, that the flesh of the domestic ass was consideredlawful in Oman, and publicly sold in the streets.Travels, p. 62.+ The first mention of mules is in the time of David, previousto which time asses seem to have been used for riding. Theword rendered mules in Genesis xxxvi. S4, signifies springs ofwater.

396 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.greater length and finer form of its limbs, its straight chest,and somewhat compressed body. Its head is better jmt on,and more erectly carried, than in the common ass ; and theears, which are shorter by one-third, are slender and sharppointed. The true source of our domestic race, though wellknown to the ancients, appears to have been lost sight ofduring the middle ages, and was indeed but obscurely knownfor some centuries after the revival of learning. We owethe best modern elucidation of its history, as we do that ofseveral other species, to the researches of Pallas. TheRomans were familiar with the aspect of this animal. JuliusCapitolinus, in the life of Gordian (in Hist. August.) observes,that that emperor brought up thirty onagers and as many wildhorses ; and in the secular games of Philip, twenty of theformer and forty of the latter were exhibited.The Turkish name of the wild ass, Dugh Aischaki or mountain-ass,points out its natural locality :— " Whose house Ihave made the wilderness, and the barren land his dwellings.—The range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searchethafter every green thing."* Even the choice which thedomestic ass makes of the narrow and irregular paths by thewayside has been regarded as a remnant of natural instinct, fA good ass of Arabian origin sells, according to Chardm, foras high a 9um as 18/. sterling. That the breed is capable ofsupporting great fatigue was evinced by the young femalementioned by Pallas, which travelled from Astracan to Moscow,attached to his post-chaise, with only an occasionalnight's repose. It afterward proceeded in the same manner,and without being incommoded by the journey, 700 wersts(464) miles) from Moscow to Petersburgh.JThe Horse.—Arabia has been called the native country ofthe horse ; and certainly if the most valuable conquest of manover the animal creation be that of this noble quadruped,which shares with him the fatigues of industry and the gloryof war,—ro nation better merits that distinction than theArabs. The care and affection which they bestow in breedingand rearing it, and the decided predilection with whichit is constantly regarded, are founded not merely on its utilityto them in their predatory and wandering life, but also on an« Job xxxix. 6-8. t Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat. t. iii.p. 563.X Edinburgh Journal of Agriculture, No. VII.

THE HORSE« 397ancient prejudice, which induces them to consider horses asbeincrs endowed with generous sentiments and an intelligencesuperior to that of other animals. They suppose that thesespirited creatures, so serviceable in the cause of Islam, haveobtained, through Mohammed, the blessing of God, and anoccult capacity to read or repeat tacitly every day some versesof the Koran. It was one of their old proverbs, that afterman, the most eminent creature is the horse ;the best em^ployment is that of rearing it ; the most dehghtful posture isthat of sitting on its back ; the most meritorious of domesticactions is that of feeding it. They were taught by their prophetto beheve that it was originally predestined for theirspecial service. " WHien God," said he, " wished to createit^ he called the south wind, and said, ' I desire to draw fromout of thee a new being ; condense thyself by parting withfluidity,'—and he was obeyed. He then took a handful of thiselement, now become tangible, and blew upon it, and the'horse was produced. Thou shalt be for man,' said theLord, ' a source of happmess and wealth ; he will renderhimself illustrious by ascending thee.' " The " brood mares"were particularly recommended by Mohammed to his disciples," because their back is the seat of honour, and theirbelly an inexhaustible treasure. As many grains of barley asare contained in the food we give to a horse, so many indul-^gencesdo we daily gain by giving it."The care which the Arabs take in classifying and preservingthe pedigrees of their horses, to a European must appearalmost incredible. The collective term whereby they designatethem in general is Kohayl or Kochlani ; but they commonlydistribute them into five great races, all originally fromNejed. Some authors trace them back to the most remotetimes of paganism, assigning as their sire the famous stal^lion Mashour, the property of Okrar, chief of the Beni Obeida.Others assert that they are merely the issue of the fivefavourite mares of the prophet, named Rhabda, Nooma,Waja, Sabha, and Hezma. Whatever be the fact as tothese genealogies, history has certainly commemorated froma very ancient period the names and noble qualities of someof the Arabian horses. With the beautiful description of thewar-steed in Job (chap, xxxix. 19-26) every reader is fami--har ": His neck is clothed with thunder ;and the glory ofhis nostrils is terrible : He paweth in the valley, and rejoicethVol. n.—LI

398 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABU.in his strength : He mocketh at fear ;neither turneth he backfrom the sword : He swalloweth the ground with fiercenessand rage, and smelleth the battle afar off." The famousracers Dahes and Ghabra have been already noticed (vol. i.p. 170), from which it would appear that the amusements ofthe turf were among the national festivals of the ancientBedouins. D'Herbelot speaks of the Kamel el Sanaieyn,an old work which treats of the keeping and physickingof horses. Another on the same subject, still morecurious, bears the title of " Summary of all tbat can bedesired to be learned respecting the different Races ofHorses:" According to the author of this treatise, all thebreeds already alluded to sprung from a stallion and a mare,called Zad al Rckeb and Serdet Shekhan, which belonged toMuthayer Ibn Oshaim, chief of one of the primitive tribes ofYemen. He has given a table, which contains 136 races ofArabian horses,—three Persian, nine Turkoman, and sevenKurdj—and mentions the Safenet as being of the same specieswith those presented to Solomon by the Queen of Sheba.The modern Bedouins repose implicit faith in the traditionsof antiquitv, and still reckon their five noble breeds to bsdescended from the stud of the prophet. The following are thenames:Taueysc, Manekeye, Koheyl, Saklawye, and Julfa ;which, according to the \'ulgar notion, are derived from thedifferent districts of Nejed, where they were born. Theseprincipal races diverge into innumerable ramifications. TheSaklawye is subdivided into the Jcdran, Abriyehi and Nejmcl Subh ; the Koheyl into Ajuz, Kerda, Sheikha^ Dabbah, IbnKhuei/sha, Khumeyseh, and Abu Moarraff ; the Julfa hasonly a single branch, that of Estemblath. Besides these,they have various others of a secondary or less-esteemedbreed, such as the Henaydi, Abu Arkub, Abayan, Shcraki,Shueyman, Hadaba, Wedna, Medhemehy Khabitha, Omeriah^and Sadathukan. The different races have not any characteristicmarks by which they can be distinguished from eachother. Every mare particularly swift and handsome, withnoble blood in her veins, may give origin to a new stock, thedescendants of which are called after her ; so that the catalogueof distinct races in the desert is almost endless. Theonly means of recognising them is by certificates of theirgenealogy, which are drawn up by the proprietors, and attestedby witnesses : in these the issue, both masculine am^

THE HORSE. 399feminine, are specified with great exactness ; so that anArabian horse offered for sale is usually provided with histitle of nobility. The pedigree is often put into a smallpiece of leather, covered with waxed cloth, and suspendedround the animal's neck. Burckhardt has given one of thesecurious documents, which he translated from the original inthe handwriting of the Bedouins. It is as follows :''GOD." Enoch." In the name of the most merciful God, the Lord of allcreatures, peace and pravers be with our Lord Mohammedand his family and his followers until the day of judgmentand peace be with all those who read this writing, andunderstand its meaning." The present deed relates to the grayish-brown colt, withfour white feet and a white mark on the forehead, of thetnie breed of Saldavyc, called Oheyan, whose skin is asbright and unsullied as milk, resembling those horses of whichthe Prophet said, True riches are a noble and pure breed'of horses;' and of which God said,'The war-horses, thosewhich rushed on the enemy with full blowing nostrils,—thosewhich plunge into the battle early in the morning.' And Godspoke the truth in his incomparable book. This Saklawyegi-ay colt was bought by Khoshrun, the son of Emheyt, ofthe tribe of Zebaa, an Aeneze Arab. The sire of this coltis the excellent bay horse called Merdjan, of the breed ofKoheylan ;its dam is the famous white Saklawye mareknown by the name of Djeroua. According to what we haveseen, we attest here, upon our hopes of felicity and upon ourgirdles, Sheiks of Wisdom and Possessors of Horses !this gray colt, above mentioned, is more noble even than hissire and dam. And this we attest, according to our bestknowledge, by this valid and perfect deed. Thanks be toGod, the Lord of all creatures !—"Written on the 16th ofSaphar, in the year 1223 (A. D. 1808). Witness," &c.This purity of blood and descent the Bedouins are extremelycareful to preserve uncontaminated. During twenty days, ata certain season, the mare must be watched to secure herfrom the approaches of any common horse, which she is notallowed to see, even at a distance ;for the Arabs are believersin the effects of imagination on the progeny of theircattle. Wliea tjie foal is produced- the same witnesses mu&i

400 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.be present, and within seven days a notarial certificate ofits legitimacy is made out, in which is wTitten an account ofthe colt's distinctive marks, with the names of its sire anddam. These genealogical tables, called Hujeh, never ascendto the granddams, because it is understood that every Arabof the tribe knows by tradition the purity of the whole breed.Nor are such testimonials at all necessary in the interior ofthe desert, where many horses are of such illustrious descentthat thousands can attest their nobility. A Bedouin wouldlaugh at being asked by an inhabitant of Nejed for the pedigreeof his mare ; wTitten evidence he never thinks of producing,except when attending distant markets, such as Bussora,Bagdad, Damascus, Aleppo, Medina, or Mecca, Acolt, at the moment of birth, is never allowed to drop uponthe ground ;they receive it in their arms, and so cherish itfor several hours, washing and stretching its tender limbs,and caressing it as they would a baby. After this theyplace it on its legs, and watch its feeble steps with particularattention, prognosticating from that time its futureexcellencies or defects. The ears are tied together overits head with a string, that they may assume a fine pointeddirection ; the tail is pressed upwards, and other measurestaken at the same time, in order that it may becarried high. The only care taken of the dam is to wrap apiece of linen cloth round her body, which is removed nextday. At the end of a month the foal is weaned, and for thespace of a hundred days thereafter it is permitted no otherfood than camel's milk. "V\Tien that period has elapsed itreceives a daily portion of wheat diluted with water. Ahandful only is given at first ; by degrees this quantity isincreased ; although milk still continues to be its principalfood. T\ds diet continues a hundred days more ; and whenthis second period has expired, it is allowed to eat grass, andis fed on barley ; receiving every evening, along with thatprovender, a bucket of camel's milk, should the tent happento be well supphed with it. The Nejed Arab gives his coltsneither barley nor wheat, but nourishes them with a paste ofdates and water ; and sometimes to a favourite he will givethe fragments or leavings of his own meals. In that provincehorses are regularly fed upon dates ; at Deraiah and in ElHassa the dates are mixed with birsim, or dried clover.The wealthier classes often give them flesh, raw as well as

THE HORSE. 401boiled ; and sometimes before the commencement of a longjourney they get roasted meat, that they may be the betterable to endure fatigue. A native of Hamah told Burckhardt,that in order to prevent a favourite horse from faUing intothe hands of the governor of that town, he fed it for afortnight exclusively on roasted pork, which excited its mettleto such a degree that it became absolutely unmanageable,and could be no longer an object of desire to the avariciousfunctionary. In Egypt, vicious horses are cured of the habitof biting by having a leg of mutton presented to them newlytaken from the fire ; the pain which the animal feels in seizingthe hot meat with its teeth teaches it in a few lessonsmore gentleness of temper. The Arab steed, like its master,is accustomed to the inclemency of all weathers. Duringthe whole year they are kept in the open air, being seldomtaken into a tent even in the rainv season. The Bedouinsnever rub or clean their horses ; but take care to walk themgently whenever they return after a ride. They generallyrest in a standing position, and have been known to remainon their legs for years in succession without lying down.Yet with so little attention to health they are seldom ill.The most prevalent diseases are the gripes, farcy, warbles,surfeit jaundice, strangles, mange, broken wind, and wateryswellings upon the stomach. Burning is the most generalremedy. To cure the strangles they rub the tumours with apaste made of barley, chaff, and butter ;at the same timethe smoke of a linen rag died with indigo is inhaled up theanimal's nostrils, which occasions a copious discharge. Ineases of surfeit they bleed the horse's feet, and wrap theskin of a sheep newly killed round its body. They have nouse for farriers, except for making shoes, which are of a softflexible iron, hammered cold, and very small, that the swiltnessmay not be impeded. They give different names bothto fillies and colts every year until the age of four.* In general,they do not allow their mares to breed until they have* So extremely accurate are the Arabs in every thing relatingto their horses, that they have invented appropriate names fordistinguishing the several competitors in a race, according totheir respective merits. Instead of saying the first, second,third, (fee. as we do, they call the foremost the outrunner of theoutrunners: the next the 6acfc-pre«ser ; the third the ^ran^wj'Zhzer ,'*nd t^iis .distinction they cofitmue as far as the eleventh.LU

402 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIAcompleted their fifth year ; but the poorer class somethnes•wait no longer than the fourth, as they are eager for the profitsarising from the sale of the foals. The colts are usuallyridden after the completion of the second year, and from thetime they are first mounted the saddle is but rarely taken offtheir backs. In winter a coarse sackcloth is thrown over them,and in summer they stand exposed to the mid-day sun. Theirsaddles are of wood, covered with Spanish leather ; but theyhave no pommels, instead of which they make use of stitchedfelt. The stirrups are very short, with flat square bottomsand sharp-pointed corners, which answer the purpose of spurs ;the slightest touch makes the animal fly like the wind, whilethe rider bears himself upon the stirrups that he may use hislance with greater vigour. The Nejed Bedouins have noother saddles than a stuflfed sheep-skin ; they all ride withoutstirrups or bridles, guiding the horse merely with a halter.This is nowise surprising, when the extreme docility of theanimal is considered,—without vice of any kind,—and morethe friend and companion than the slave of his master. Whennot employed in war or travelhng, they loiter about the tents,often going over heaps of children lying on the ground, andcarefully picking their steps lest they should hurt them.They allow themselves to be kissed and toyed with, orhugged round the neck, without doing the smallest injurv.The different colours of Arabian horses are clear bay (ahmar),brown bay {adhem), sorrel (ashekwar), white {ahead), puregray (azrek), mottled gray (raktha), bluish gray (akhdar),black (udhern), and dark chesnut {ulmar mukruk) : black andlight bays {aswad and ashehah) are unknown in Arabia, andonly found in Persia, Tartary, and Turkey.In general, these animals are of a middle size, of a slenderdelicate shape, light and active, rather lean than fat, but ofsurprising swiftness, and accustomed to the fatigue of longmarches. They have small ears, little belly, and a shortscanty tail. They are almost invariably free from apparentdeformities, and so gentle that women or children may managethem. The physical qualities which the Arabs prizemost in this animal are the following :—Neck long and arched,—head small,—ears tapering and almost meeting at thepoints,—eyes large and full of fire,—lower jaw thin,—muzzlebare,—wide nostrils,—belly not too broad,—sinewy legs,pasterns short and flexible,—hoofs hard and ample,—chestbroad,—rump high and rounded. Whenever the three beau-

THE HORSE. 403ties of head, neck, and rump, are found combined, the horseis considered as perfect. There are several particular marksor natural signs which the Arabs regard as sinister and unfavourable; while others are esteemed the reverse, and capableof producing happiness to the owner. They reckon abouttwenty evil indications ; but the only bad effect they have onthe animal is that of depreciating its value by two-thirds ormore. The Persian and Turkoman horses, whose figuresare much alike, differ from the Arabian in this, that they aremore corpulent, and their coat is not so soft to the touch. Itis, moreover, an opinion pretty generally received in theEast, that the latter are especially distinguished from theothers by the repugnance they evince towards clear water ;while that which is turbid pleases them to such a degree,that they never fail to prance about in any that happens tocome in their way. The price of Arabian horses is variable,and often depends much on the caprice of the buyer andseller : in Syria, it fluctuates from 10/. to 120Z. A goodmare can scarcely be obtained under 601. ;and even at thatprice it is difficult to purchase one, as the Bedouins alwaysprefer the females to the males for riding, because they arenot accustomed to neigh, and thus expose them in their ambuscadesto the risk of detection. For a celebrated mare asheik has been known to pay 200/. ;sometimes the pricehas amounted to 500/., and even to 800Z. The favouritemare of Saoud, named Koraye, which he constantly rode onhis expeditions, was purchased from a Kahtan Bedouin for1500 Spanish dollars. Kinneir states that 1200/. was refusedfor one at Aleppo. At Bussora, where they form an importantarticle of trade with India, the average price is about 300rupees, though the cost is thrice, or even five times as muchat Bombay or Calcutta. Over all Arabia, as also in Egyptand Syria, horses are possessed by several owners in partnership; each is divided into a number of shares (kerat), ofwhich several may be purchased by a single individual. Ifan Aeneze has a mare of remarkable breed, he seldom ornever consents to sell her without reserving one-half or twothirdsfor himself. The ownership of the progeny is regulatedby special compact : the fillies of the first or secondyear belong to the seller ; those of the subsequent yearsbecome the property of the buyer. This contract is called

404 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA." selling the mare's belly ;" and in this manner most of theArabian breeders are held in joint property. Sometimes thedam and her offspring are disposed of in equal shares, or oncondition that the booty shall be equally divided between theoriginal owner and the man who rides her. As the Bedouinsare ignorant of those frauds by which a European jockejdeceives his customers, a stranger may take a horse on theirword, at first sight or trial, without much risk of beingcheated. Niebuhr alleges that no instance of false testimonywas ever given in respect to the descent of a horse,the Arabs, in his days, being persuaded that they and theirfamilies would be cursed should they prevaricate in givingan oath on a matter of such consequence ; but the modernsdo not scruple to tell falsehoods if they find they can make abetter market by it. The affectionate terms in which familieslive with their horses sometimes occasion extreme regretwhen they are obliged from necessity to sell them. D'Arvieuxmentions a Syrian merchant who cried most tenderlywhile caressing his mare, whose genealogy he could tracefor 500 years. Rubbing her with his shirt-sleeves, and wiprincr her forehead with his handkerchief, " Mv eyes," hewould say to her, " my heart, must I be so unfortimate asto have thee sold to so many masters, and not to keep theeall myself! I am poor, my antelope but I have broughtthee up like my child :jI never beat nor chid thee ; God preservethee, my dearest, from the looks of the envious ; thouart pretty, thou art sweet, thou art lovely." It may be re^marked, that the Arabs have great faith in certain superstitiouscharms, which they suppose will protect their horsesfrom accidents. They use talismans written on a piece oftriangular paper, which are put into a leathern purse of thesame shape, and fastened round the anin.al's neck as adefence against witchcraft from unlucky eyes. A couple ofboar's tusks, joined at the extremities by a silver ring, is suspendedfrom their mane, to keep them from the farcy.Though the Arabs jusiy boast of their horses, it is a commonerror that supposes them to be very abundant in that cour.'try. In the Sacred Writings, and down to the time ofMohammed, they are seldom mentioned ; camels beingmostly used both in their warlike and predatory excursions.The breed is limited to the fertile pasture-grounds, and it istjiefe pnly that they thrive ; while the Bedouins whg occupy

THE CAMEL. 405arid districts rarely have any. In Nejed, they are not nearlyso numerous as in the rich plains of Syria and Mesopotamia.In Hejaz, they become scarcer ; and thence towards Yementhey become fewer still, both the climate and pasture therebemg reckoned injurious to their health. The great heat ofOman is also deemed unfavourable to them. In the districtof Gebel Shammar there are many encampments that possessnone ; in Medina they are not seen, and in Mecca there areperhaps not more than sixty belonging to private individuals ;so that the estimate of Burckhardt is perhaps correct, whenhe affirms that, from Akaba to the shores of Hadramaut,comprising the great chain of mountains and the westernplains towards the sea, the amount of horses is not more than5000 or 6000 ; while the aggregate number in the wholepeninsula does not exceed 50,000,—a number far inferior towhat the same superficial extent in any other part of Asia orEurope would furnish. The rich pastures are not onlystocked more abundantly, but likewise produce the finest andmost select race. The best Koheyls of the Khomse, or noblebreed, are found among the Aenezes and the Rowallas inNejed and the Hauran, towards the Euphrates. They arenot all of the most perfect or distinguished quality ;and perhapsnot above five or six in a whole tribe deserve the nameof first-rate in respect to size, bone, beauty, and action. Butstill their numbers are considerable ; each of which may bebought, if purchased in the desert, at from 150Z. to 200Z,Taking the comparative excellence of the diflTerent races onan average, Nejed is generally reckoned to produce thenoblest ; Hejaz, the handsomest ; Yemen, the most durable ;Syria, the richest in colour ;Mesopotamia, the most quietEgypt, the swiftest ; Barbary, the most prolific ;Persia andKurdistan, the most warlike.The Camel.—This useful animal is esteemed by Easternnations one of the most precious gifts of Providence to man.It seems formed and qualified by nature for a life of patientdrudgery. Justly has the Arab, to whose comfort and accommodationit is indispensable, named it the Living Ship ofthe Desert, as without it he could neither transport himselfnor his merchandise across those oceans of sand with whichhis country is covered. Descriptions of its habits and useshave been so often given, since the times of Aristotle andPliny, who have treated with remarkable accuracy of the

408 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.only two distinct species of this genus which are known, thatwe shall restrict our account to what may be consider-edpeculiar to it as an inhabitant of Arabia. Between the racesof camels in the northern and southern provinces there is aconsiderable difference. On the borders of Syria and Mesopotamiathey are covered with thick hair, and in generalattain to a much greater size than in Hejaz, where they havevery little wool. The prevailing colour of the Arabian breed: is brown or black further south, as in Egypt, the hue becomeslighter ; and towards Nubia they are mostly white.The largest kind are from Anatolia, of the Turkoman race ;and the smallest from Yemen. Those of the Eastern Desertnear the Euphrates are reputed the best for carriage ; theEg}'ptian are less qualified than any other to undergt) fatigue,being too well fed to endure the privations of the wilderness.The Syrian camel, though smaller than the Anatolian, bearsheat and thirst much better. The natives of Nejed are notonly remarkable for their fecundity, but are less susceptibleof epidemic diseases than most others ; hence they are preferredby the Bedouins, who repair thither from all quartersthat they may renew their flocks. So rich and abundant isthat province in the produce referred to, that it has obtainedthe appellation of Om el Bel, or the Mother of Camels. InYemen they are plentiful ;but in Hejaz, where pasture isscanty, their number is very limited.The Arabs are in the habit of producing a variety of kindsby crossing the breed. The young ones are weaned in thebeginning of the second year, and they call them by differentnames according as they are one, two, three, or four yearsold ; the latter being the period when they begin to propagate.To prevent them from sucking, a small piece of wood, fourinches long and sharp pointed, is driven up the palate andcomes out at the nostril, which pricks the mother. Sometimesthe teats are covered with a thin round board, or acamlet bag, which is fastened with a string tied round thebody. After the fore-teeth have reached their full length, thefirst pair of grinders appear, about the commencement of thesixth year ;the second, third, and last pair make their appearanceat the end of two years successively ; so that the.animal does not complete its full growth until the age oftwelve, when it is called ras. It will live as long as fqrtyyears : but after twenty-five or thirty its activity begins to

VTHE CAMEL. 40?rfail-, and it is no longer capable of enduring much fatigue.If it become lean after passing the sixteenth year, the x\rabssay that it can never again be rendered fat ;and in that casethey generally sell it at a low price to the peasants. WTienfed upon tender verdure, this animal improves so much thathe seems no longer to belong to the hard-working or caravanspecies ; and when he has attained the full degree of fatnesSjhis hump assumes the shape of a pyramid, extending its baseover the entire back. None of this description, however, arefound except among the wealthy Bedouins in the interior, whokeep whole herds solely for the purpose of propagating thespecies. In some provinces butter is made of the camel'smilk ; the Aenezes and other northern tribes use it as drink,and also as food for their horses. About the end of springthe wool, which seldom exceeds two lbs. a-head, is easilytaken off the skin with a person's hand. All the flocks ofthe different owners are branded with a hot iron, that theymay be recognised should they stray or be stolen. The prop*erty af each has a peculiar markj—a ring, a cross, or a tri*angle, which is usually placed on the neck or the left shoulder.When called home in the evening, wliich is done byuttering a sound resembling that of the letter r, every animalknows its master's face; and putting its own to hisj dropsdown upon its knees as if to ask for supper.The two grand services in which camels are employed areridinor and carriage. Among the Bedouins females arealways more esteemed and dearer than the males : the latterjon the contrary, are most valued in Egypt and Syria, wherethe quality chiefly wanted is strength in bearing heavy loads.The wandering tribes in Nejed prefer he-camels for riding,while the peasants use only the females on their journeys,because they support thirst better. The term deloul is appliedto those that are trained to the saddle, of which themost swift and easy-paced are said to be from Oman, thoughsome of the Aenezes have likewise excellent breeds. Theydiffer little from the others in appearance, except that theirlews are somewhat more straight and slender ;but there is anoble expression in their eye and in their whole deportment,by which the generous among all animals may be distin'finished. In Egypt and Nubia, the delouls are called hejein Ithey are very docile, and have a pleasant amble. The deloulsaddle, throughout every part of Arabia, is called ^hciad'i

408 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.and in the equipping of this article the Arab women on alloccasions make a great display. In Hejaz, they use a kindof palanquin named shebriahj having a seat made of twistedstraw, about five feet in length, placed across the saddle^with cross-bars above, over which mats or carpets are spreadto screen the traveller from the sun. Similar machines, butshorter and narrower, are occasionally suspended lengthwiseon each side of the animal : these are called skekdcf, andcontain one person each ; but they do not admit of hisstretching himself at full length, as in the other vehicle.These conveyances are chiefly used for women, who paygreat attention to fashion and etiquette in their equipage,A lady of the Aene'zes prefers a white or a gray camel, whilea belle in the Nejed would think herself degraded were she"to ride any other than a black one. In Syria and Mesopotamiathe Arabs are in the practice of mounting their saddleswith small swivel-guns, which turn upon the pommel and arefound to be as serviceable in the way of inspiring terror asthe heaviest pieces of artillery. The first thing that a Be^douin examines about his camel when preparing for a longjourney is the hump. Should he find it large, he knows thatthe animal will endure considerable fatigue, even with a verymoderate allowance of food ; for he believes in the proverb^that " the camel can subsist for one expedition on the fat ofits own hump !" This index is indeed an infallible criterionas to the ability for exertion, for whenever it subsides thebeast gradually yields to fatigue. A long journey will causethe hump almost entirely to disappear : it is easily restored^however, by a few weeks of good nourishment and repose.The favourite pace of the riding-camel is a kind of gentleand easy amble at the rate of 5 or 5^ miles an hour ; and thisspeed the more robust will continue for six days in succession.*' His back is so soft," an x\rab will say in conmiendationof this agreeable trot, " that you may drink a cup ofcoffee while you ride him."Many stories were related to Burckhardt concerning thewonderful performances of a breed in Egypt and Nubia calledoshari, implying a camel that could travel ten days' journeyin one ; but these exploits he consid-ered to be inventions ofthe Bedouins to amuse credulous strangers. The greatestfeat of this kind that ever came to his knowledge was thatof a camel which was to go for a wager from Esneh to Genne

THE CAMEL. 409and back again between sunrise and sunset ; the whole distancebeing equal to one hundred and thirty miles. In elevenhours its strength failed, after having finished about one hundredand fifteen miles^ and lost twenty minutes in twicecrossing the Nile in a ferry-boat ; but had it not been urgedto forced exertion, it would probably have performed one hundredand eighty or even two hundred miles within the spaceof twenty-four hours. Messengers have travelled in sevendays from Bagdad to Aleppo, which is a journey of twentyfive;and from Cairo by land to Mecca, which is forty-fivestations, in eighteen days, without changing their camels.But the swiftness of this animal never approaches for shortdistances even to that of a common horse : though it is perhapsunrivalled for the ease with which it will despatch anuninterrupted journey of several days and nights if allowedits own natural pace. Twelve miles an hour is reckoned itsutmost degree of celerity in trotting ; at full speed it may gallopfrom sixteen to eighteen, but it cannot support so violentan effort for more than half an hour without showing symj>tomsof distress. Niebuhr calculates that the larger onesmake nine hundred and seventy-five paces in half an hour,and the smaller one thousand and fifty. In those used forcarriage, strength is the principal quality desired. In commoncases the load is from four hundred to five hundredpounds for a short journey, and from three hundred to fourhundred pounds for one of any considerable distance. Somewill carry fifteen cwt. ;but the longer the journey, and thefewer wells on the route, the lighter is the burden. Thecapability of bearing thirst varies considerably among thedifferent races. The Anatolian camel requires water everysecond day : in Arabia, the utmost extent to which they canendure in summer without drinking is four days, and in casesof absolute necessity they may perhaps go five : but in thecaravans from Darfur they travel nine or ten days withoutwater. Burckhardt never heard that the Arabs, even in theextremity of their distress, slaughtered this animal for thesake of finding a supply in its stomach to allay their thirstnor did he think it likely that they would resort to this expedient,as their own destruction was involved in that of thebeast on which they rode. In Egypt they are guided by acord attached to a nose-ring ; but those of Arabia seldomhave their nose perforated, and ara more obedient to theVol. II —M m

410 NATURAL HISTORY OF AEA.BTA.she-*' «tick of the rider than to the bridle. The drivers haveasong full of guttural sounds that they chant, and by whichthe animals know to halt, walk, trot, eat, drink, stop, or liedown. In loading or unloading they are taught to obey aparticular signal, crouching down upon the ground with theirlegs bent under them, so that the rider may get off and mountagain without trouble. They are content with the scantiesttare,—a bunch of dry grass or the stunted shrubs of thedesert. Their ordinary food is a ball of paste {maaOouk)"weighing about a pound, made of barley-meal and water,which each receives in the evening ;and this is all the dailyexpense of these useful creatures. The value of the cameldepends of course on its kind and quality. In Hejaz, Burckhardtstates that the price of a good one was sixty dollars, or14/. ; but they sometimes cost 150, or 35/. ; and Saoud hasbeen known to pay as much as 300, or 70/., for one of theOm-an breed. They are subject to various defects and diseases,which very much affect their value ; such as stiffnessof the neck, tremor and swellings in the hind-legs, pustulesabout the mouth, ulceration below the chest, and colic anddiarrhoea, which generally prove fatal. To most of thesedistempers the Arabs apply cauterv', as well as to the woundsor injuries which are often occasioned by bad pack-saddles,.or burdens of too great a weight. No pain, however, provokesthe generous animal to refuse the load or throw it onthe ground. Overcome with hunger and fatigue, it spendsits latest breath in its master's service, and leaves its bonesto whiten and rot in the desert.Dromedary.—This animal was considered by the ancientsas a distinct species of the camel. Diodorus and Strabogave it the appellation of dromos or the runner, to distinguishit from the Bacht, or Bactrian camel, which was reckoned bestadapted for carr}'ing burdens. It is, however, rather a varietyof the same species, and is found sometimes with asingle and sometimes with a double hump. It breeds readilywith the conunon camel. The Anatolian or Turkoman raceare produced between an Arab she-camel and the doublehumpeddromedrary from the Crimea. A dromedary and ashe Turkoman produce a small handsome camel (callediaous), which has a very thick growth of long hair under theneck reaching almost to the ground ; and two humps, one ofwhich the natives cut off to render it more fit for bearing a

SHEEP GOATS DOGS. 411ioad. The Arabs 'have none with a double hump ; nor didBurckhardt meet with any of them in Syria ; and the onlyone seen by Niebuhr was in a town in Anatolia, to which ithad been brought from the Crimea. "It diifers," says Henniker," in its make, its uses, and its master, only as a hunterdiffers from a pack-horso." Chenier says this animal cantravel sixty leagues in a day, or 145^ miles ; and some ofthe African Bedouins have offered to ride 400 miles throughthe Great Sahara in four days. His motion is so violent andrapid that the rider must be girded to the saddle, and have ahandkerchief before his mouth to break the current of thewind.Sheep and goats form a considerable part of the pastoralwealth of the Arabs, but there seems to be nothing verypeculiar in the breed. Russell and Barthema relate that thesheep have a thick and broad tail, which they drag behindthem, supported on a small carriage. In Hejaz, Ali Beyremarked that the tail, though large, was less so than in thesouthern countries ; while Burckhardt informs us, that in thenorthern deserts this appendage is of the ordinary size.The ears, however, are rather bigger than those of the commonEnghsh kind. In the neighbourhood of Mecca andMedina he noticed a dirainutive species with a white andbrown spotted skin. They are purchased as rarities byforeigners. At Cairo, where they are kept in the housesof the grandees, they are painted red with henna, andhave a collar with little bells hung round their neck toamuse the children. The Aenezes shear their flocks yearlyabout the end of spring ; they generally sell the wool beforeit is cut from the sheep's back, at so much per hundredThe greater part of them are black, having the head andneck, or sometimes only the face, white. The goats alsoare mostly black, with long ears. The male lambs and kidsare sold or slaughtered, except two or three which are keptfor breeding. The ewes and goats are milked morning andevening during the three spring months. From the milk ofone hundred (which is always mixed together) the Bedouinsexpect, in conmion years, about eight pounds of butter perday ; of this a single family will consume about two quintals(about two hundred and twenty pounds) a year ; the remainderis carried to the market.Of dogs there are several varieties in the domesticated

412 Natural history of Arabia.state. There is a wild kind called derboun, of a black colour,wnich is found in the country near Syria, and eaten bythe Fellahs. Those which Ali Bey saw at Mecca appearedto be of the shepherd breed ;and as they had no ownersthey roamed about the streets at pleasure. This animalbeing declared unclean by the Koran, the Mohammedanswill not allow it to enter their houses. Linnaeus, speakingof the dog, says, " a Mahometanis expellitur." In Egypt,they are obliged to resort to the house-tops ; and Burckhardtobserves, as a circumstance worthy of remark, that Medina,so far as he knew, was the only town in the East from whichthey were entirely excluded. They are never admittedwithin the gates, but must remain in the suburbs, lest theyshould chance to pollute the sanctity of the mosque. Thewatchmen assemble and make a regular search once a yearfor the purpose of driving out such intruders as may havecrept into the city unperceived. The Bedouins, as we learnfrom Sonnini, who are less superstitious than the Turks,have a fine breed of very tall greyhounds, which serve notonly for the chase, but likewise mount guard around theirtents. They have a great affection for them, and to kill oneof these useful domestics incurs a heavy penalty. Keppel,on his route from Korna to Bagdad, saw some of this speciesthey are beautiful animals, somewhat less in size than- theEnglish ;the ears hang down ; and these, as well as thetail, are covered with fine silky hair. He mentions an oddcircumstance, that the Faithful are not allowed to touch adog except on the crown of the head ; that being the onlypart free from pollution, as he cannot lick it with his tongue.The cat is held in good repute, from the belief that it was afavourite with Mohammed. It seems to be the same speciesas the European, only a little smaller. The domestic mouseof the Arabs resembles our own ; but, according to Ali Bey,they are more fierce and troublesome. " I never saw,"says he, " any mice so bold as those of Mecca. As I hadmy bed on the floor, they danced and leaped upon me everynight. I gave them some blows, which made them fly." Inspite of this warning, however, they returned to the chargeand bit his fingers, having been attracted by the smell ofgome balm of juniper which he had been handling, and hadneglected to wash off. Even when his bed was suspended,these imperturbable vermin leaped from the nearest furniture

BIRDS. 418on the coverlid, and quietly stared him in the face, but wouldnot permit themselves to be touched.Birds.—Travellers have had but few opportunities of examiningthe winged tribes of Arabia ; though that country isbv no means deficient in the number or variety which itproduces. In the fertile districts, tame fowls are very plentiful,and all sorts of poultry,—hens, ducks, geese, and turkeys,—arebred in great abundance. The pintado or guineafowlis not domestic ; but they inhabit the woods in suchnumbers, that children kill them with stones, and sell themin the towns. The pheasant, and several varieties of thepigeon species, abound in the forests of Yemen. In theplains are to be seen the gray partridge, the common lark,and a sort of white crane with the under part of the belly of abeautiful red. About Mount Sinai, Henniker found manycoveys of partridges ; some the red-legged of the GrecianIsles ; others brown, and diflfering but httle from the Engbsh; and a third sort speckled like the quail. Over all thatpeninsula, and in every part of Syria, the katta (a kind of partridge)is met with in immense numbers, especially in Mayand June. They fly in such large flocks, that the Arab boysoften knock down two or three at a time, merely by throwinga stick among them. Burckhardt thinks it not improbablethat this bird is the seluca, or quail of the Children of Israel.*The Bedouins mentioned to him a large eagle, which carriedoff their lambs, and whose outspread wings measured sixfeet. The one called rakham is very common in thesemountains ; and the fields are infested by vast numbers ofcrows, which are sometimes eaten, although forbidden bothby the Mohammedan and the Levitical law. Of birds ofprey, the Arabs have falcons, sparrow-hawks, bustards, andvultures. The latter are of great service to the natives byclearing the earth of all carcasses, which corrupt very rapidly,and are extremely noisome in warm climates. Theyalso destroy the fieldraice, which multiply so prodigiously insome districts, that were it not for this assistance the peasantwould find it absolutely in vain to cultivate his fields.It was gratitude for these importaiit offices that induced theancient Egyptians to pay them divine honours ; and even at* It has been particularly described in Russell's Hist, ofAleppo, vol. ii. p. 94.Mm2

414 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.present it is held unlawful to kill them in all hot countrieswhich they frequent.Tke Ostrich.—Ostriches (called by the Arabs Naamah andTJiar es Jemmel, or the camel-bird) are to be met with in thedeserts ; the Bedouins, however, do not tame them whenyoung, nor take the trouble of hunting them. Burckhardtsaw two in Wady Tyh;but on a shot being fired, they wereout of sight in an instant. They chiefly inhabit the plainstowards Gebel Shammar and Nejed. When full grown, theneck, particularly of the male, is covered with beautiful redfeathers. The plumage upon the shoulders, back, and someparts of the wings, from being of a dark grayish colour, becomesblack as jet ; while the tail and the rest of the feathersare of an exquisite whiteness. The belly, thighs, and breastdo not partake of this covering, being usually naked. Thefemale is of a spotted gray colour. Under the joint of thegreat pinion, and sometimes \ipon the smaller, there is astrong pointed excrescence like a cock's spur, with which,according to certain naturalists, it stimulates itself whenpursued. In speed it outstrips the fleetest horse, beingassisted by the quick vibratory motion of its wings. lufeeding it is voracious, devouring every thing indiscriminately,insects, reptiles, leather, rags, wood, stones, and eveniron. Shaw says he saw one swallow, without any apparentuneasiness, several leaden bullets as they were thrown uponthe floor scorching hot from the mould ; a proof that theyare well furnished with powerful digestive organs. Thoughnaturally shy, they are fierce and mischievous when tamed,especially to strangers ; they peck with their bills, and strikeso violently with their feet, that they have been knowm torip open a man's belly with their pointed angular claw at asingle blow. This bird breeds in the middle of winter, andlays from twelve to twenty-one eggs,—some say from thirtyto fifty,—while others make them amount to eighty. Thenest is made on the ground, generally at the foot of someisolated hill. The eggs are placed close together in a circle,half-buried in the sand to protect them from rain ; and a narrowtrench is drawn round, which carries off the water. Atthe distance of ten or twelve feet from this circle the femaleis said to place several other eggs, which she does not hatch,as these are intended for the young ones to feed upon ; instincthaving taught her to meike this provision for her off-

THE SAMARMAN« 415«pr'mg, which might otherwise perish of hunger in the desert.*The parents sit by turns ; for it is an error to suppose thatthey leave their eggs to be hatched in the sun ;and whileone is on the nest the other keeps watch on the summit of theadjacent hill, which circumstance sometimes enables theArabs to kill them. The usual mode of taking them is bydigging a hole in the ground near the eggs, into which theBedouin puts his loaded gun pointed towards the nest, andhaving a long burning match fastened to the lock. After hehas retired for some time, the ostrich returns, and not perceivingany enemy it rejoins its mate sitting upon the eggs.In a short while, the match being burnt down, the gun isdischarged ; and the two birds are frequently killed at oneshot. The inhabitants in the district of Jof purchase andeat their flesh ; the eggs are reckoned dehcious food, andare sold for about a shilling each. The shells are hung inrooms as ornaments ; and the feathers are carried to themarkets of Aleppo and Damascus, where they bring abouttwo shillings a piece. Sometimes the whole skin is sold withthe feathers upon it the price, when Burckhardt was at:Aleppo in 1811, was from 250 to 600 piastres the rotolo,being from 21. lOs. to 6/. per lb. A beautiful lapwing(called hudhiid) is common on the shores of the Persian Gulf.The Arabs have a fabulous tradition, perhaps descended fromSolomon, that its language may be understood.There is a bird named Samarman or Samarmog, to whichthe Arabs pay a degree of respect bordering on adoration.It is thought to be a native of Khorasan, and is ranked amongthe thrushes by Forskal, who calls it Turdus seleucus. Itcomes annually into Arabia in pursuit of the locusts, ofwhich it destroys incredible numbers. The service doneby it, in protecting vegetation from the desolating ravages ofthese insects, has given rise to several ridiculous and superstitiouspractices. The Syrian Arabs believe that it isattracted from Persia by means of water, which for this purposethey bring from a distance with great ceremony, andpreserve in a stone reservoir on the top of the tower of amosque at Mosul. When this consecrated liquid fails, the inhabitantsare in despair. The periodical visits of the samar* This instinctive habit of the female ostrich is, however,doubled by same authors.

416 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIAtnan are easily accounted for on the principle of instinct,which prompts it not only to feed on locusts, but to kill asmany of them as possible ; and hence, it naturally followsthem in the course of their passage. The Arabs named toForskal several other birds which he could never see, andof which, consequently, he did not ascertain the genus. Ofthese were the Sumana ; the Salva, which he understood tobe the rail, a bird of passage which frequents some districtsthe Thar el Hind, remarkable for its gilded plumage, andsupposed from the name to come from India ; the Ackjal,famous for the beautiful feathers with which the Highlandersadorn their bonnets : so careful is the bird about their growth,that it is said to bore a hole in the nest to preserve them uninjured.Game is abundant in Arabia, especially on the plainsalong the Euphrates,—the ancient kinofdom of Nimrod, that"mighty hunter before the Lord." The inhabitants, however,regard neither the exercise nor the amusement of fowling.With a people living in a climate where animal foodis injurious to health, game is despised. The precepts of theKoran are inimical to the diversion of field-sports. Thelabours of the huntsman or the fowler are lost, and his prevbecomes impure, if he has but neglected the repetition of oneshort prayer when he killed the animal •,if it has not lost theexact quantity of blood required by the law ; if the beast orbird struggled with any remains of life after it was shot ; orif it fell upon a place which was either inhabited or in anymanner defiled. These causes will explain why the Arabshave an apathy or aversion for those sports of which savagesin other countries are so passionately fond. From the natureof the climate, it cannot be expected that Arabia possessesany great variety of waterfowl. In marshy places, however,cranes, herons, snipes, storks, swans, pelicans, and a beautifulspecies of the plover, are found. Sea-birds are numerouson the coasts, especially those of the Red Sea, which is copiouslystored with fish. Besides gulls, of which there area variety of species, Niebuhr saw in one of the islands ofthat gulf pelicans which had built nests, and laid eggs aslarge as those of the common goose.Reptiles.—The Danish travellers never met with the seatortoise; but the land-tortoise was not uncommon. In severalplaces they saw the peasants bring them in loads to themarket. The Eastern Christians eat them in Lent, and

REPTILES. 417drink their blood with great rehsh. The hzard-tribe are numerous.On the coast and in the valleys of Petraea, Burckhardtsaw a species called dhob, that has a scaly yellow-colouredskin, of which the natives make tobacco-pouches. Thelargest are about eighteen inches in length, and the tail measuresnearly one-half. Another sort of lizard is that calledjccko, the saliva of which, falling upon victuals, is said bythe Egyptians to infect the person that eats them with leprosy.Scorpions are numerous in the deserts, particularlyon the confines of Palestine, which they have continued toinfest since the time when the Children of Israel " passedthrough that great and terrible wilderness." Deut. viii. 15.Ali Bey saw a very large one in the great court of the Templeat Mecca. It was of a sallow colour, and walked withthe tail bent over its back. Its length appeared to be aboutSIX inches. Of serpents there are several sorts whose biteis mortal ; though the harmless are more numerous than th*'dangerous. The only kind that is truly formidable is th^'tcalled bcetarty a small slender creature, spotted black andwliite. The bite is said to cause instant death ;while thedead body is swelled by the poison in a very extraordinarymanner. It has been remarked that, in general, life is endangeredby the wound of such only as have a distinct setof teeth larger than the rest, which serve to conduct thepoison. Of this peculiarity the Arabs are aware ;and theyscruple not to play freely with these reptiles after the fatalteeth are extracted. In some species, the bite occasionsmerely a disagreeable itching, which the Bedouins cure byapplying the leaves of the caper-tree. Serpents are verycommon in the Petraean deserts. On the shore near AkabaBurckhardt observed the sand everywhere bearing impressionsof their passage crossing each other in all directions ;and from the traces it appeared that the bodies of some ofthem could not be less than two inches in diameter. Hewas told that the fishermen were much afraid of them, andalways extinguished their fires in the evening before goingto sleep, as the light was known to attract them. It waswhile traversing these wilds, " from Hor to the Red Sea, tocompass the land of Edom," that many of the Israehtes weredestroyed by these venomous reptiles (Numb. xxi. 4-6. Deut.viii. 15), called somewhat inaccurately fiery or flying serpents.** The meaning of the original is " serpents whose b'te causes

418 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.Fishes.—The Arabian seas swarm with all sorts of fishes.In the short passage between Suez and Jidda, Forskal observedmore than a hundred new species, only a part of whichne could rank among the known genera. Of these weresome with which he was familiar ; such as crabs, oysters,cod, mackerel, mullet, scarus, perch, and ray, but of speciesunknown in our seas. Others, such as the Chatodon and theSci

LOCUSTS. 419they make in flying is like the rush of a waterfall, and stunsthe inhabitants with fear and astonishment. "V\Tien theyalight upon a field, it is wasted and despoiled of its verdurein an instant. The palm-trees are stripped of every leaf andgreen particle,—nothing being left but naked boughs as inthe dead of winter. Pulse and succulent crops are devouredbut grain, either ripe or nearly so, is preserved, being toohard for their use. No pen has so beautifully :— depicted theirravages as that of the Prophet Joel " The land is as thegarden of Eden before them, and behmd them a desolatewilderness."* Africa, Egypt, Persia, and the whole of Asia,are subject to their visitations. In Arabia the locusts comeinvariably from the East, which makes the Arabs supposethat they are produced by the water of the Persian Gulf.Nejed is particularly exposed to their ravages ; and whenthey have destroyed the harvests, they penetrate by thousandsinto private dwellings, and devour whatever they canfind,—even the leather of the water-vessels. The Bedouinsof Sinai are frequently driven to despair by the multitudes ofthese vermin, which remain generally during a space offorty or fifty days, and then disappear for the rest of the season.They arrive towards the end of May, when the Pleiadesare setting, which leads the natives to suppose tl"iatlocusts entertain a dread for that constellation. A few visitthe country annually ;but the great flights take place everyfourth or fifth year. All Arabs, except those of Sinai, whereverthey reside, are accustomed to eat locusts. In almostevery town tnere are shops where they are sold by measure.In preparing them the cook throws them alive into boilingwater, with which a good deal of salt has been mixed. Aftera few minutes they are taken out, and dried in the sun ; thehead, feet, and wings, are then torn off; the bodies arecleansed from the salt, and perfectly dried, after which theyare put up into sacks or bags. Sometimes they are broiledin butler, and spread on the unleavened bread used at breakfast.The Jewish Arabs beheve that the food of which theIsraelites ate so abundantly in the desert was showers oflocusts ; and they laugh at our translators, who suppose thatquails were rained where quails were never found.See Africa, in Edinburgh Cabinet Library, 2d edit. p. 500,501.

420 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.Another scourge of Arabia, and of hot countries in general,is a small insect named arda (Termes falale, Linn.), ofthe bulk of a grain of barley. On account of some generalresemblance, this insect is represented as an ant. Its instinctdisposes it to travel only by night ; it forms a sort of galleryor mine in the earth ; and, after reaching the end of its journey,it destroys every thing,—victuals, clothes, and furniture.At Beit el Fakih, the Danish travellers were grievouslyannoyed by them ; they invaded their chambers, andpersisted in their attacks with singular obstinacy. They arevery destructive to trees, the sweetness of whose leaves andfruit is extremely gratifying to them. To preserve their gardensfrom ruin, the natives are obliged to surround the trunkswith sheep's dung, the smell of which this insect cannot endure.In Arabia there are many species of ants, all of whichare harmless, except two ; one of these attacks the natives,and its bite is little less painful than that of the scorpion ;the other settles upon their -vnctuals with great avidity, andcan only oe driven away by the odour of camphor. They arflikewise much infested by a sort of scolopendrar which tormentswith a burning pain those on whom it fixes. Thisinsect inserts its feet into the flesh, so that it is impossible toget rid of it, otherwise than by successively burning all theparts affected with a hot iron. Another venomous insect,resembling a spider, which infests the deserts, is that to whichthe Bedouins give the name of abou havekein, or the two-^mouthed. Its length is about three inches ; it has five longlegs on both sides, covered like the body with satcE or bristles,of a light-yellow colour. The head is long and pointed,with large black eyes ; the mouth is armed with two pairsof fangs, one above the other, recurved and extremely sharp.It makes its appearance only at night, and is chiefly attractedby fire. The Arabs entertain the greatest dread of them ;their bite, if not always mortal, produces vomiting, swelling,and the most excruciating pains. Among the tenebriones isone species which destroys reeds and attacks the stalks ofcorn, where it deposites its eggs. Another tenebrio, foundamong the filth of gardens, is used as an article of femaleluxury Plumpness being thought a beauty in the East, boththe Turkish and Arab women, in order to obtain this enviableobesity, swallow every morning and evening three ofthe«e insects fried in butter.

SHELLS. 421Shells.—It would be difficult to enumerate the vast diversityof shells that adorn the banks, or lie in the shallows ofthe Arabian Seas. Cypreez are seen in the Gulf of Suez,beautifully spotted, and in a great variety of sizes. Turbinatedand bivalve shells are also common, remarkable notonly for the luxuriance of their colours, but so exceedinglycapacious that Buc.cina have been found a foot and ahalf long, while some of the bivalve specimens are as muchin diameter. There are three kinds of shell-fish highly valuedon account of the pearls which they contain. The firstof these is a muscle, which is found chiefly on the Egyptiancoast of the Gulf; the second is a Pinna, rough, brittle, andof a beautiful red colour ; the third bears a resemblance toour oyster. The pearl of the first is seldom of a clear colour,but esteemed for its form and lustre ; the second yieldsa rich mother-of-pearl, of a white colour, tinged with a delicateshade of red ; the third, called lulu el berber, is mostsought after. Vast quantities of it are carried to Jerusalem,where it is used in veneering, or formed into boxes, beads,and crucifixes. Bruce says that he observed none of theseshells on either side of the Gulf southward of the parallel ofMocha. Edrisi mentions a place on the western arm of thesea, where pearls were found ; and Burckhardt states that theBedouins still pick up a considerable quantity there, whichthey sell to advantage to the ships that anchor at Moilah.Nor is this the only benefit which the Arabs derive from theirmarine wealth ; much of the furniture and utensils of theirhouses, as well as their personal ornaments, are supplied fromthis watery magazine. The Nautilus serves them instead ofa cup ;the Buccinum instead of a jar ; and a bivalve is thedish or platter from which they eat their food. Fossil shellsare not very common yet at Wady Gharendel, Ayoun Mousa,;Tor, and Suez, Shaw found quantities of Chamce, Pectunculi,Echini, and other species ; most of which correspondedexactly with their respective families still contained in theRed Sea. Most of the echini are remarkablv beautiful,some being flat and unarmed, of the pentaphylloid kind ;others oval or globular, very elegantly studded with littleknobs, and covered with prickles, which are sometimesthicker than a swan's quill. The Asterias or star-fish is an»other of these marine productions. Shaw observed some ofVol. II.—N n

422 NATURAL HISTORY OF ARABIA.them nine inches in diameter ; but there seemed to be nothingpeculiar in their habits or conformation.Coral Banks.—We have already spoken of those immensemasses of submarine rocks, formed by myriads of minutecreatures of the polypus kind, called Polypes a polypiers bythe French naturalists, which traverse and almost fill up theArabian Gulf. In some places they rise ten fathoms abovethe surface of the water. Being soft, and easily wrought,they are preferred to all other stones for the purpose ofbuilding. Most of the houses in Tehama are constructed ofthis material ; so that every cottage is a cabinet of naturalhistory. The island of Kameran is formed entirely of coralrock, which rises without the slightest inquality of surface tothe height of twenty feet above the level of the sea. Thequantity of madrepores, millepores, algse, and other substances,which procured for that gulf the name of the WeedySea, is immense. When rowing gently along in a calm day,they appear to the eye much the same as in the time of Straboand Pliny, who described them as forests under water. Noris the comparison inapposite. Shaw remarks that several ofthem were eight or ten feet high, growing sometimes pyramidallike the cypress ; at other times their branches spreadmore open, resembling the oak ; while the entire bottom wasoverlaid with a rich green carpet of creeping plants. Atlow water, especially after strong tides or high winds, thesemarine productions are cast ashore in great quantities. Thecoralline bodies increase to an extraordinary size. Severalof them, such as the meandrina, or brainstone, are observedto retain constantly a certain specific form ; while the astroitemadrepores have each their different asterisks or starlike figuresimpressed upon their surface. They assume the mostfantastic shapes, as m course of their increase they mouldthemselves into the figures of rocks, shells, and other objectsthat lie within the reach of their growth. With respectto the other inhabitants of the waters, it is sufficient to statethat both the Red Sea and especially the Arabian Gulfswarm with species of Meduscz, Salpa, FistularioE, and otherkinds, which led Forskal to believe that the phosphorescenceof the seas was owing to the immense numbers of theseanimals.THE ENP.

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