The Europeans Come to North America 4

4The EuropeansCome to NorthAmericaBen squinted as he went below deck.He was touring the replica of a 17thcenturysailing ship, and he washaving a hard time seeing in the dim light.When his eyes adjusted to the lighting, henoticed how short the sleeping bunks were.My head would be touching my sailingmate’s feet, he thought. As he looked around,he did not see where a sailor could find anyspace away from the other sailors on theship. Ben also realized there was no runningwater on board. It was one thing to spenda summer weekend camping on an islandwith no showers and no toilets. It was quiteanother to spend weeks, and maybe evenmonths, at sea with no showers and toilets.He tried to imagine what it would havebeen like to sail across the Atlantic Oceanin this ship 400 years ago, without a suredestination. He felt the huge waves rollingthe vessel back and forth, day after day. Heimagined the crew trapped in the Arcticice while looking for a Northwest Passage.He saw the hold at the beginning of theexpedition – full of supplies and goods fortrading, but also crawling with mice and rats.He imagined how awful living conditionswere near the end of a voyage, long afterall the fresh fruits and vegetables wereeaten. Without enough vitamin C, mostFigure 4.1 Countries such as Spain, Portugal, England, France,and the Netherlands had sailing ships similar to the onepictured here. For many European adventurers, the 16thand 17th centuries were exciting times of exploration tounfamiliar lands.crew members suffered from scurvy. Theirteeth fell out and their joints ached. Manydied. Perhaps several weeks on a small shipin the middle of the ocean would not be asmuch fun as Ben first thought.52 People and Stories of Canada to 1867 • Chapter 4

A Mi’kmaq storyA young Mi’kmaq woman had a strange dream.In it, she saw a small white island moving throughthe great waters. On this floating island weretrees and living beings. One figure, a male, stoodapart from the others. He was dressed in whiterabbit skins and had hair on his face.The next morning she told her dream to oneof her Elders, who was unable tointerpret its meaning. Notlong afterward, the womansaw what looked like asmall island movingthrough the watertoward her village.The Mi’kmaq warriors took up their weapons andprepared to kill what they thought were bears onthe moving island. They were surprised when theyrealized that the bears were actually white-facedmen, and the island was a large boat. One man,dressed in white, stood apart from the others andmade signs of friendship.When the boat landed, the Elder brought the youngwoman to the man in white. The Elder asked her ifthis was the man in her dream. “Yes,” she replied.Figure 4.2For thousands of years, peoples ofdifferent backgrounds have worked, fought,and traded with each other. In this chapter,you will investigate some of the earliestmeetings between the Aboriginal peoplesof North America and the Europeans whoexplored and claimed these lands as theirown. You will also find out why Europeanswanted to expand their empires, why thiswas a good time for them to expand, andwhy Europeans came to North America.As you read, think about• what made the Renaissance soimportant to the people of Europeand the history of the world• why Europeans were so keenon finding another route to Asia• how it became possible for Europeansto sail far beyond Europe and theMiddle EastThe Europeans Come to North America 53

The Norse in North AmericaAs early as 800 CE, the Norse were on themove. Overcrowding and political unrestin Scandinavia led some people to searchfor new lands. Others were sent away aspunishment for crimes they had committed.In around 870, some of these emigrantslanded in Iceland where they built a colony.They were a hardy and independent people.Eric the RedAround 982, a man named Eric the Redwas exiled to Iceland for a crime he hadcommitted in his homeland. Soon, he wasin trouble with the law again, and took tothe seas, looking for a place to build a newsettlement. He landed in a place he namedGreenland, even though it was treeless,cold, and wintry. He thought that morepeople would come to live there if the landsounded like it was a warm and fertile place.Soon Eric the Red (so named becauseof his red hair and beard) was joinedby more than 300 new settlers fromIceland. The settlement on Greenlandwould survive for nearly 500 years. FromGreenland came the Norse settlers whowould explore North America.Who is who?Viking, Norse, Scandinavian: These terms aredifferent ways of describing people from northernEurope. Their raids on the rest of Europe earnedthem the name Viking, which is based on aNorwegian word for “pirate.” However, manyVikings were farmers, not pirates.about years earlier from a merchant namedBjarni Herjolfsson. He landed at a place hecalled Helluland (meaning “land of the flatstones”), believed to be Baffin Island. Healso explored present-day Newfound landand Labrador. He named the most fertile ofthese stopping points “Vinland.” Leif tooka shipment of lumber back to Green land,made his fortune, andnever returned.Leif the LuckyLeif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) setsail from Greenland. He was searchingfor a tree-covered island he had heardFigure 4.3 Little is known of the Norseships that sailed across the AtlanticOcean a thousand years ago. Mosthist orians believe Leif Ericsson andothers travelled in a one-masted shipcalled a knarr. Knarrs were about 16–17metres long and 4–5 metres wide.54 People and Stories of Canada to 1867 • Chapter 4

Figure 4.4 viking explorations. Vikings explored North America around 1000 CE.Thorvald the LucklessThorvald, Leif’s brother, did return toVinland, however. Thorvald arrived withsupplies and 30 men who were determinedto build a colony there. They wereimpressed with the pastures, the trees,the fish, and the wild fruit.The SagasMuch of what we know about Norse explorationand settlement comes from the Sagas. These arestories that were passed on from generation togeneration. At first, the stories were told orally.Later, the stories were written down. For manyyears, no one knew if the stories were true.However, archaeologists have found things thatcan be read about in the Sagas. Some of the Sagasare actually fun to read. In one, we learn that Leif’smother-in-law was named “Thorbjorg the shipchested.”We also find out that Leif’s father andgrandfather spent time in exile for murder.They also found out that the land wasalready inhabited. In the first recordedencounter with Aboriginal peoples ofLabrador, the Norse stumbled across ninemen sleeping under boats. They killed eightof them, but one escaped and returned withothers to fight the intruders. Thorvald waswounded and died as a result of this skirmish.Those who survived returned to Greenland.The Vinland settlementIn about 1012, a group of approximately160 Greenlanders sailed to Vinland toestablish a permanent colony there.Although they traded with Aboriginalpeoples, the two groups sometimes foughtand even killed each other. After a while,the Norse decided to leave Vinland andreturn to their homeland.The Europeans Come to North America 55

L’Anse aux MeadowsFor a long time, scholars believed that the Norsehad built a settlement in the place we now callNewfoundland. Many other people, however,thought this was just a story. Then, in 1960,archaeologists uncovered an ancient Norsesettlement in Newfoundland. This settlement iscalled L’Anse aux Meadows. It proved, for the firsttime, that Vikings had crossed the Atlantic Oceanand landed in North America around 1000 ce,500 years before any other Europeans would try.Is L’Anse aux Meadows the land that Leif namedVinland? No one knows for sure, although thereare several theories.Theory 1: The vin in Vinland refers to wine, orgrapes. Since no one has ever grown grapes asfar north as Newfoundland and Labrador, Vinlandmust be located in a yet-to-be-discovered placefarther south.Theory 2: L’Anse aux Meadows is Vinland.Vin refers to pastures, of which Newfoundlandand Labrador have plenty.Theory 3: Vin does refer to wine,or grapes. The Norse thoughtthe wild berries growing inabundance in the area, suchFigure 4.5 Artifacts such as these brooches and cloakpin have allowed historians to identify where the Norseexplorers landed in the New World.as crowberries, partridgeberries, and blueberries,would make good wine.Theory 4: Like father, like son? Greenland wasnamed by Leif Ericsson’s father, Eric the Red, eventhough it was treeless, cold, and wintry. He thoughtthat more people would come to live there if theland sounded like it was a warm and fertile place.Perhaps Leif Ericsson named L’Anse aux Meadows“Vinland” because he thought people would settlethere if they believed the place was warm enoughto grow grapes.Figure 4.6 Today, the historic site of L’Anse aux Meadows features buildings reconstructed to look like those from 1000 CE.Archaeologists have concluded that early Norse settlers lived in sod houses like those in the picture above.56 People and Stories of Canada to 1867 • Chapter 4

The RenaissanceBetween the 14th century and the 16thcentury, most of Europe emerged from theMiddle Ages and with new inventions andideas experienced a “rebirth.”The printing press changed the waypeople learned and communicated. For thefirst time, people, other than small groups ofpriests and scholars, could buy books. Thisresulted in new ideas spreading faster thanever before.New inventions also affected the economyof Europe, which, in turn, changedthe way people lived. The invention of thetelescope helped people discover newthings about science and astronomy. Theybegan to question long-standing beliefs,including the idea that the sun revolvedaround the earth.Ship designs improved. People wereable to explore and sail farther than theyever had before. New instruments like thequadrant, sextant, and compass helpedsailors determine direction easily, ensuringquicker and safer ocean voyages. Even theBasques’ method of keeping cod from goingbad had an impact. Fish, which providedsailors with a good source of protein, didnot spoil quickly when it was salted.Spices like cinnamon, ginger, and pepperwere no longer just for the rich. The growingmiddle class could now afford to buy them.However, the overland trip to obtain spicestook years to complete, and many of theroutes were dangerous because of bandits.Europeans wanted to find a safe route by seato the spice-growing countries in Asia andIndonesia. They thought that if they founda western sea passage to Asia, they couldeasily get the things they wanted from theEast. It was like a great big treasure hunt.Whoever found the sea route to the East(called the Northwest Passage) wouldbe rewarded by his king and queen.This period of time is called theRenaissance.Pepper was especiallyprized and, literally,worth its weight in gold.When Columbus returnedfrom his voyage to theNew World, he brought chilis, which weregrown by the Aboriginal peoples. In aneffort to convince his benefactors thathis trip had been worth it, he called thechilis “red peppers.”?did youknow ?Figure 4.8 Spices from AsiaTravel to the western world … is a consequenceof the long struggle of the nations of Europevying for supremacy and control of tradewith the East …. For all those who pushedback the limits of the unknown world, thereis always the glitter of gold and the odour offar fetched spices.— Sir Walter Raleigh, 160558 People and Stories of Canada to 1867 • Chapter 4

Figure 4.9 This painting, The Ambassadors, was painted in 1533 by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497-1543). The objects in thepainting show some of the advances made during the Renaissance. Inventions include a sextant and astrolabe, navigationinstruments that allowed sailors to travel the world’s oceans. Books show how new ideas could be spread to everyone. Theglobes show how knowledge of the world was growing. The carpets on the floor and table reflect the ongoing trade betweenEurope and East Asia.The power of the ChurchIn the mid-1500s, most Europeans followedone of two Christian traditions. RomanCatholics followed the traditional teachingsof the Roman Catholic Church. In the early1500s, some people had disagreed with theCatholic Church and formed their owngroup, known as the Protestants (becausethey had protested some of the CatholicChurch’s main teachings). This was importantto exploration, because the Catholicpopes made decisions about who couldclaim what lands in the New World.Throughout Europe, countries such asFrance, Spain, and Portugal remained Catholic.Other countries such as England and theNetherlands followed the Protestant faith.The Europeans Come to North America 59

The EmpiresDuring the Renaissance, kings and queenshired explorers and crews to expand theirempires, or the lands they controlled allover the world. They competed for newlands, slaves, trade routes, and preciousgoods like spices and gold. They also wantedto spread their religions to people in newlands. The public loved to hear about exoticplaces, and many explorers wrote storiesbased on their experiences. Becausesensational stories sold, some explorerseven altered their adventures to includestories of fantastical people.Sometimes, explorers made their tripssound more successful than they were. Bydoing this, many got sponsors to fund theirexpeditions. One explorer, for example,reported that the Aboriginal peoples ofNorth America were Chinese. Others wrotethat they had found a river in North Americathat would take them to the Pacific andacross Asia. In truth, no one had any ideahow wide North America was, and theearliest maps often show coastline witha rather skinny strip of land (see p. 64).Figure 4.10 Christopher Columbus travelled to Spain to findbacking for his travels. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabellawere eager to find a way to the riches of Asia and so fundedColumbus’s expeditions to search for a passage to Asia.At first, the search for a NorthwestPassage was the reason for much of earlyNorth American exploration. Soon, however,explorers began to realize the enormous sizeof North America. They knew it would beboth costly and difficult to find a way aroundor through the continent. At about the sametime, they also discovered new riches onthe lands that they were exploring. Gold andsilver from South and Central America, andluxurious furs from North America would bevaluable goods in Europe.Explorers began claiming more andmore land for the rulers of the countriessponsoring their expeditions. In turn, therulers started to plan colonies in thesenewly claimed lands. They wanted to makesure they could control both the peopleand the riches they found there.Some of the countries that exploredduring this period of exploration arediscussed below.PortugalOne of the first people to finance explorationsduring this time was Henry the Navigator,the king of Portugal. During the 1430s,he founded a court to which he invitedEurope’s best cartographers (mapmakers),shipbuilders, astronomers, instrumentmakers, and sailors. Portugal, located onthe Atlantic Ocean, was active in explorationduring the 1400s and 1500s.SpainEager to find a way to the riches of Asia,the royal court of Spain sponsored manyexpeditions to search for a passage to the East.When the Spaniards found gold and silver inSouth America and Central America, they60 People and Stories of Canada to 1867 • Chapter 4

gave up on their search for the NorthwestPassage and put their energy into miningthese riches. Spain became very wealthy.The Aztec and Maya civilizations ofMexico and Central America and the Incaof South America had flourished before theSpaniards arrived. But European illnessesand sophisticated weapons would destroythe civilizations.England and FranceBoth England and France began explorationlater than Spain and Portugal. Theysponsored explorations after hearingreports of gold in South America. By thistime, however, Spain and Portugal had laidclaim to South America and Central America.England and France decided to focus onfinding the Northwest Passage to Asia.They had different ways of pursuing theirinterests in North America. Their activitiesare outlined in chapters 5 and 6.Figure 4.12 Europeans expected that people in the New Worldwould look very different from themselves. The artist ofthis painting imagined people’s heads were in the middleof their chests.The NetherlandsThe Netherlands entered the race for spicesand wealth during the 1600s. The Dutchwere involved in the North American furtrade, but when Spain and Portugal left Asiato explore the Americas, the Netherlandstook their place. The Netherlands traded allover Asia, largely through the activities ofthe powerful Dutch East Indies Company.Figure. 4.11 european empires. This map shows the empires of England, France, Spain, the Netherlands, and Portugal aroundthe mid 17th century.The Europeans Come to North America 61

Giovanni da VerrazanoVerrazano (1485 –1528) was an Italianwho sailed for Francein search of theNorthwest Passage.He explored muchof the eastern coastof North America, all the way up toNewfoundland, which he claimed forFrance. He noted in a letter to his kingthat colonization would be difficultbecause of the Aboriginal peoplesliving along the coast. He died at thehands of the Spaniards, who hangedhim for piracy. Some historians thinkJacques Cartier travelled with him toNewfoundland. We know that Cartierfollowed up Verrazano’s explorationswith his own ship in 1534.Martin FrobisherFrobisher (1535– 1594),who first went to seaat the age of nine,sailed for England.He travelled to NorthAmerica in searchof the NorthwestPassage, but he was sidetracked in theArctic at Baffin Island by what he thoughtwas gold. He filled his ships with tons ofgold-speckled rock and headed back toEngland. There, he found out that whathe thought was gold was actually ironpyrite, a worthless rock also known as“fool’s gold.” Many of his backers werefinancially ruined, and the rock waseventually used for gravel.Frobisher died after being wounded ina battle against Spain, and his internalorgans were buried separately fromthe rest of his body. No one knowsthe reason for this.Henry HudsonSir Francis DrakeDrake (1540 – 1596)sailed for England.In England he wasregarded as a hero forhis explorations, butthe Spaniards sawhim as a pirate anddespised him. Drakefirst went to sea as a cabin boy when hewas about 13 years old. Although theexplorer Ferdinand Magellan is creditedwith being the first person to sail all theway around the world, Sir Francis Drakewas the first to complete the trip and live.(Magellan died en route.) In 1580, he wasknighted by Queen Elizabeth I.Hudson (1565 – 1611)sailed under bothNetherlands’ andEngland’s flags.He explored a largebody of water, nowcalled Hudson Bay,thinking that he had found the NorthwestPassage. He and his crew spent thewinter in Hudson Bay. When springarrived and the ice melted, his crewwanted to return to Europe. Hudson,however, was determined to exploremore of the large bay. His crew, tiredof searching for the passage to theEast, mutinied. Hudson, his son, anda few loyal crewmen were last seenalive in a small boat drifting on thebay. The mutineers returned to England.Several of them later returned forfurther explorations.The Europeans Come to North America 63

Figure 4.14 Look at a map of presentdayNorth America, and compare itwith this map. In 1550, mapmakersdid not have instruments (such assatellite images) that present-daymapmakers have to help them drawmaps. The person who made this mapbelieved North America was verynarrow. Like many people of the day,the mapmaker probably thoughtNorth America would be easy to crossto reach the riches of the Orient.Cartier and Donnacona –Friends and Enemies?In 1534, Jacques Cartier (1493–1557) setsail from St. Malo, France. His voyage, paidfor by the king of France, was “to discovercertain islands and lands where it is saidthat a great quantity of gold, and otherprecious things, are to be found.” He wasalso determined to find a Northwest Passageto Asia. Jacques Cartier gets credit as thefirst European to enter (and name) theSt. Lawrence River.Cartier made three voyages to NorthAmerica. He explored the northeast coast ofNorth America, sailed up the St. LawrenceRiver to Hochelaga (called Montreal today),and tried to establish a colony, which hecalled Charlesbourg-Royal, between Stadacona(today’s Quebec City) and Hochelaga.On his first voyage in 1534, Cartier sailedinto Gaspé Bay. There, he met severalhundred Aboriginal people. Relations startedout well. However, when Cartier erecteda nine-metre-high cross (a symbol ofChristianity) and claimed the area for France,Donnacona, leader of the Wendat, becamesuspicious. As Cartier prepared his returnvoyage, he kidnapped Donnacona’s sonsDomagaya and Taignoagny and broughtthem back to France for the winter. Cartierwanted to prove to people in France thathe had found new lands and peoples. Healso wanted his captives to learn to speakFrench, so they could act as interpreters.He promised Donnacona he would bringhis sons back the following year.On Cartier’s second trip, in 1535, heentered the St. Lawrence River for thefirst time. He then sailed to the village ofStadacona, where Donnacona and his sonswere reunited. Cartier also went fartherupriver to Hochelaga.As it was getting late in the season,Cartier decided to stay the winter. He andhis men were ill-prepared for the long, cold64 People and Stories of Canada to 1867 • Chapter 4

Jacques Cartier was thefirst person to refer to theland at the mouth of andalong the St. LawrenceRiver as “Canada.” Canadacomes from the Algonquian word Kanata,which means “village.”?did youknow ?ConclusionMost of the explorers discussed in thischapter, and many others we have notnamed, led the European expansion intonew areas. The leaders of the empires theyrepresented thought this would be a goodway to (1) find the Northwest Passageto Asia, (2) find gold and other preciousmetals, (3) convert Aboriginal peoplesto European faiths, and (4) claim landfor their empires.Jacques Cartier did not find gold likethe Spaniards did in South America andCentral America. He did not find themythical kingdom of Saguenay. Cartierdid, however, open the way for explorersof the next century.In the next chapter, join Sara and Benas they explore the French presence inNorth America and learn about the roleFrance played in colonizing the land thatwould come to be called “Canada.”Figure 4.17 cartier’s three voyagesThe Europeans Come to North America 67