Earthwatch Field Guide - The Kalahari Meerkat Project

Kalahari Meerkat ProjectEarthwatch Field GuideVersion 12007Copyright: Kalahari Meerkat ProjectThis guide or parts of it may not be reprinted or published without written permission

TABLE OF CONTENTS1. GENERAL CONVENTIONS AND TECHNIQUES ....................................................................31.1. SCHEDULE ...................................................................................................................................... 31.2. MEERKAT IDENTIFICATION: The ‘Group Mark’ sheet ...................................................................... 41.2.1. Codes ........................................................................................................................................................................... 41.2.2. Naming meerkats and groups..................................................................................................................................... 41.2.3. Identification of meerkats and dye marks................................................................................................................... 51.2.4. Litter codes................................................................................................................................................................... 61.2.5. Age Categories ............................................................................................................................................................ 61.2.6. Other information on the Group Mark sheet............................................................................................................... 61.3. HABITUATION MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES .............................................................................. 61.3.1. Approaching the group ................................................................................................................................................ 61.3.2. Walking with meerkats................................................................................................................................................. 72. WALKING WITH MEERKATS ................................................................................................103. GPS TRACKING ....................................................................................................................113.1. TRACKING SESSIONS USING GPS (Global Positioning System)....................................................113.2. TRACKING PROTOCOL ..................................................................................................................124. FORAGING FOCALS .............................................................................................................144.1. OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................................144.2. FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL.....................................................................................................145. DRONGO SCANS..................................................................................................................205.1. DRONGO SCAN PROTOCOL..........................................................................................................205.2. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: LOOK FOR RINGS...........................................................................216. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS ....................................................................................................226.1. INVERTEBRATE SURVEY ....................................................................................................226.2. ECOLOGICAL BIODIVERSITY SURVEY...............................................................................226.2.1. Maintenance of species lists .....................................................................................................................................226.2.2. Transect surveys .......................................................................................................................................................237. VANZYLSRUS SCHOOL .......................................................................................................25APPENDIX I – Meerkat behaviours ...............................................................................................26© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 2

1.2. MEERKAT IDENTIFICATION: The ‘Group Mark’ sheetLITTER D.O.B. Motha!Who’stheYOUNG ONESdaddy? CODE NAME ACTUAL DESCRIPTION TELONICS TRANSPONDERVY0109 15-23.11.01 VAF005 WILD VYF084 A ASTERIX (D) RC RADIOCOLLAR34 (L)(16g)2034354B2CVV9902 25.02.99 VVF001 VYM005 VVM037 BALEXANDER(D) LT 41105D650FVY0502 02-04.03.05 VYM122 C AURINKOH + RT +T45753F5409VY0502 02-04.03.05 VYF128 D LOTTE RR 455423435ASVY0504 15.08.2005 VYF084 VYM129 E PHILIPPESH + TB+ 2T 45545E385AVY0504 15.08.2005 VYF084 VYM130 FHOMESTARRUNNERSH + RT+2T 445D0A590CPVY0505 16.12.05 VYF084 VYF132 G FOXYMORON TB + MB 457A10590CSCRUTNYVY0505 16.12.05 VYF084 VYF133 H GIPPO RT + MB 456C685A58VY0602 01.04.06 VYF112 VYM135 I WEENA RT 457053107FVY0602 01.04.06 VYF112 VYM136 J BUNGLE LT 45550A4544D DENOTES DOMINANCETOTAL MEMBERS: 10 WHEN ALL PRESENT1.2.1. CodesEach meerkat is given a unique identity code (e.g. VLF021) at birth, or when it is first identified. Itthen retains this code throughout its life.• the first letter of the code (“V”) stands for “Vanzylsrus”, to differentiate the animals at thisstudy site from those at the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park.• the second (and sometimes third) letter of the code is the initial of the group in which theanimal was born (or where it was first identified) (e.g. L for Lazuli or GG for Gattaca).• the next letter in the code denotes the animal’s sex (F or M). Pups are given the letter Puntil their sex is identifiable.• the code ends with a three digit number which is simply allocated consecutively (i.e.VLF021 is the 21st animal to be named in Lazuli group).1.2.2. Naming meerkats and groupsAs well as an identity code, each meerkat is given a personal name (e.g. Dante, Risca, Cazanna,etc). These names are for day to day use only, and should never be entered into the data© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 4

1.2.3. Identification of meerkats and dye marksAll meerkats born into the project’s focal groups are permanently marked with uniquely numberedtransponders (rice-grain sized microchips detectable with a hand scanner), implanted under theskin at the scruff of the neck. This ensures that the animal’s identity can be ascertainedthroughout its life.For day-to-day visual identification, dabs of black hair dye are applied on a particular part of eachanimal’s body (see Figure 1). New litters of pups have their fur cut on particular areas using a setsequence of marks. The first pup (i.e. the one with the lowest ID number) has the fur on its rump(or tail-base) cut or dyed, the second pup is marked on its right thigh, the third, its left thigh, andso on. The standard sequence for pup marks is: TB (tail base), RT (right thigh), LT (left thigh),RS (right shoulder), LS (left shoulder), MB (mid back), SH (shoulders), RR (right rib), LR(left rib), T (tail), TBL (tail base long), MBL (mid back line), H (head). When pups get older weadd extra marks to all the littermates such as T (tail), MB (mid-back) or SH (shoulders) todifferentiate between the litters.Figure 1. Identification dye marks for meerkats* Please be very familiar with the identification of meerkats, it is the most important skill to develop.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 5

1.2.4. Litter codesEach litter of pups born into the study population is allocated a standard litter code (e.g.VMM0401). The first “V” stands for Vanzylsrus, the next letter/s are the group’s initial/s, thefollowing two digits indicate the year, and the final two-digit number is allocated consecutively aseach litter is born. Hence, VMM0401 was the first litter born into Moomins in 2004.1.2.5. Age CategoriesThe Project recognises four age classes for the meerkats• pups – birth to 3 months• juveniles – 3 to 6 months• sub-adults – 6 to 12 months• adults – over 12 months1.2.6. Other information on the Group Mark sheet• Maternity/paternity – established by genetic paternity testing• Telonics – this is the collar frequency for tracking the group and shows which animal hasthe collar on.• D.O.B. – the date of birth• Description – any oddities about a specific meerkat are noted down here.• ‘Please dye’ – a request to put dye mark/s on the meerkat1.3. HABITUATION MAINTENANCE PROCEDURESThe success of the Meerkat Project results primarily from our ability to collect large quantities ofvery detailed and unbiased long-term data on individually recognised individuals. Withouthabituation, this is not possible, therefore the maintenance of habituated meerkat groups is one ofthe most important things that we (and you) do on a daily basis. Remember that you have theopportunity to improve the habituation of groups and individuals and that your efforts will ensurethat we remain in the privileged position of being able to collect unbiased data from all individualsin a group.1.3.1. Approaching the groupGetting close to the meerkats is crucial. There are a number of steps you must follow onapproaching so that they will allow you to walk with them.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 6

• Always accompany an experienced observerThey will introduce you to habituation techniques and the methods used to ensure that the groupremains calm.• Approach slowly and calmlyThe smoother the better• Don’t walk directly towards meerkatsAlways angle yourself so that you are not walking straight into the group.• Stay togetherWhen approaching form one group of people in a line, i.e. not fanned out around the meerkats.Stay in a group when you arrive until the group relaxes to your presence.• Make your presence known, give recognised “reassurance” callsDo not try to be stealthy. Predators approach with stealth and we obviously do not want to beassociated or confused with predators. So always make the recognised calls when approachingand when leaving all meerkat groups, to ensure that the meerkats are aware of you.• Gauge the meerkats’ response and respond accordinglyIf the meerkats are all standing up and watching you approach, stand still. Only approach veryslowly when this is the case.• Consider contextThe meerkats may be alarming at a predator (other than you!); it could be very windy or the groupmay have had recently had a significant event, e.g. moving very young pups or fighting withanother group. Always respond to them and remember that groups and individuals varygreatly in the level of habituation.1.3.2. Walking with meerkats1. Regularly give the recognised “reassurance” callsRegularly make the recognised calls when walking with meerkat groups. This is critical in the longgrassy conditions common on much of the reserve. Everyone must use the calls when workingwith groups.2. Never reinforce a call when the group is unsettledDo not give them the “relax” call when they are nervous about anything other than a researcher(e.g. a predator scare).3. Watch your step!Meerkats are small and are easily squashed! More commonly, you will scare meerkats that areforaging or standing if you walk to close. They will happily approach you of their own accord if they© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 7

are tolerant of people. Take particular care in the event of a predator alarm. Meerkats will run tocover, and this may involve running between (or under!) your feet. Stand still until they havepassed.4. Move slowlyAll movement should be controlled - move slowly when you sit down or stand up, or when you pickup an object such as a bag or scales, etc.5. Don’t make loud snapping, scraping and rustling noisesBe careful not to tread on twigs or stomp through vegetation. Sound is a major cue that meerkatsuse to detect predators so this will frighten them and the more people the more careful we mustbe.6. Take note of where they are and what they are doingAll members in a group must accept you. It is important to know where group members are, andthe way they are responding to any stimuli you give. This ensures that you stop any action thatscares a member in the group immediately! Continuing such an activity will result in damage to thetrust that the habituated animals have in everyone working on the group afterwards, inevitablydamaging our data collection.7. Cars and burrowsWe attempt not to habituate the meerkats to cars and other vehicles. Do not ever park within 100metres of a meerkat group.8. Touching meerkatsIt is recommended that tactile contact is kept to the minimal required for the maintenance ofhabituation and to allow the collection of data. We expect no person to in any way touch orinterfere with anything a meerkat is doing except when you are weighing or a meerkat sitting onyou is causing you pain.9. Meerkats are more nervous in:• Long grassPoor visibility sometimes leads to the meerkats becoming nervous. Allowing them to know whereyou are is essential to prevent this from happening. The frequency of contact calling betweenmeerkats increases in long grass - we are simply adopting this too, and should call more often insuch circumstances.• WindThe meerkats do not hear you as well in windy conditions, and are usually more nervous – thereare more raptors flying about, vegetation moving suddenly, etc. Be much more aware of what youare doing at these times, and try to make sure that they know where you are so that you do notsurprise them when walking around.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 8

10. Improving habituationWhile collecting data on an individual, as in a focal: use this opportunity to habituate the individualto your proximity and calls. This simply involves carefully following the meerkat without disturbingit in any way. If it looks at you, stops what it is doing or even runs away, then it is not relaxed inyour presence and you will need to be more cautious. Try following from further away and makesure you and your partner stand together, and move very slowly.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 9

2. WALKING WITH MEERKATSAIM: The aim of your first day with the meerkats is to get used to being in their company, givingthe habituation call when appropriate, and to get some good photos. However, there are a fewbasic things that will be included in your first morning session to prepare you for data collectionlater on.1) Habituation:• Make the habituation calls regularly• Watch your step• Watch your movements• Watch the meerkats’ response to you2) Habitat types: Take note of the different habitats you pass through, referring to your guidewhen necessary.3) ID marks: it is VITAL that you are able to identify the meerkats, so spend time using theGroup Mark sheet to identify the various individuals by their dye marks and collars.4) Distances: you will need to be able to judge small distances in metres along the ground.Practice this, if necessary, by using your tape measure to check how accurate you are.5) Foraging: You will be following a specific meerkat observing the type and size of food itfinds. Try to keep your eyes on one meerkat for a short while, observing how it digs for foodand what types of food it finds.6) Drongos: you will be involved in some data collection dealing with drongos. Ask yourmeerkat volunteer to point out when these birds are near the group, and try to observe theiractivities.The meerkat volunteer assigned to that particular meerkat group will try their best to answer anyquestions you might have regarding the group and the activities taking place around you. Alwaysbe aware that they also have important data to collect, and therefore might sometimes bepreoccupied with these activities (e.g. weighing, recordings). Please do not be offended if they donot always respond immediately or if they continue to look at the meerkats rather than you whilstspeaking, or they even run off mid way through the conversation. When in doubt, follow the lead ofyour volunteer. Above all, enjoy your first session with the meerkats.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 10

3. GPS TRACKING3.1. TRACKING SESSIONS USING GPS (Global Positioning System)AIM: Track meerkat movements to investigate whether they follow foraging routes and whatfactors influence group movementUsing your GPSThe short and easy way to take a GPS point, save or access tracks and conquer the world…1. Taking a GPS pointa. Switch on the GPS unit and wait for a

. The ‘save’ option should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once to reveal a dropdownmenu.c. Use the ‘ARROW’ keys to select the ‘midnight’ option if this is the end of yourmorning session, or the ‘noon’ option if it is the end of the afternoon session. Press‘ENTER’ once.d. The ‘OK’ option of the screen should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once.e. Use the down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the track named with today’s date. Press the‘ENTER’ button once. Use the down ‘ARROW’ to highlight the traceback option.Press the ‘ENTER’ button once.f. The ‘to begin’ option should be highlighted. Press ‘ENTER’ once. The distance to goshould appear at the top of the screen above the compass.3. Distance and direction from nearest SBa. Switch on the GPS and wait for 10m. Now store your position as a waypoint in the GPS’s memory. Thepoint should be named with a four-digit time, using the 24-hour clock (e.g. “0620” for 06:20 or“1712” for 17:12). In addition, if you are starting the session at the morning sleeping burrow, add“SB” to the waypoint time (i.e. “0620SB”).© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 12

2. Mark 15-min waypointsFurther waypoints should be taken at 15 minute intervals after the initial point of the session.Position yourself in the centre of the group, and wait for > 10m accuracy. Points should be namedas per the system described above, e.g. “0630”, “0640, “0650” etc.3. Mark encounters with other meerkat groups (IGI)If your meerkat group encounters another group during the tracking session, mark a waypoint toindicate the approximate position of the encounter. As with other waypoints, name this point as atime-stamp, but this time flag it with “I” (e.g. “1052I”). Your Meerkat volunteer partner will give youfurther details of the encounter (e.g. the name of the foreign group encountered), and thisinformation should be noted down for later incorporation into the trackfile when it is uploaded andedited back at Gannavlakte.4. Mark latrines (if seen ) (L)If more than three meerkats defecate or urinate on the same spot, name this point as a timestampon your GPS and flag it with a L (e.g.” 0938L”). Your meerkat volunteer will need collect thefaeces or urine, the time, number of meerkats using the latrine and the meerkat ID’s.5. Mark your final position (AM) or sleeping burrow (PM sessions only)For AM sessions, take your final waypoint just before the commencement of lunch-weights, sinceduring this final period, the appearance of the scales and boiled egg may artificially affect thegroup’s movements! For evening sessions, take your last point as the group arrives at theirevening sleeping burrow, and flag this last point with an “SB” (e.g. “1812SB”).6. Back at Gannavlakte: Data Entrya. Connect the GPS and switch onb. Open ‘Map source’c. Download saved tracks and waypointsd. Delete superfluous waypoints and tracks from filee. Rename any incorrectly labelled waypointsf. Save the file in the relevant group folder, naming it according to group code, date, am/pm,observer initials (e.g. CD60301amHB)g. Clear all tracks and delete waypoints from GPSh. Reload default waypoints to GPS from ‘EW Farmmap’, then switch off GPS© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 13

4. FORAGING FOCALS4.1. OVERVIEWNote: a ‘focal’ means observing a specific animal for a specified time.AIM:1. Undertake foraging focals to answer a range of questions:a. Which meerkats are the most efficient foragers?b. How do meerkats develop their ability to find food, and how does this change withhole depth?c. How does good foraging ability influence individual reproductive strategy?d. How do individuals alter their foraging strategies in response to ability and foodavailability?2. Collect tracking data3. Observe behaviours4. Learn Identification marks by doing group compositionsForaging focals are conducted only on foraging meerkats and cannot be started until at least 50%of the group is actively foraging. You will need to focal as many as possible of the prioritymeerkats from the specified group, so move promptly between your focal meerkats to get a fullsample!4.2. FORAGING FOCAL PROTOCOL1. Assign yourself as either ‘Digging Recorder’ or ‘Scribe’The focal needs two people and you take different roles. You should stay in the same role forthe whole day, but can swap around on other days. This is important for the quality andcomparability of the data.a. Digging Recorder: Responsible for timing all the digs that the focal animal starts (thosegreater than 2 seconds). This will provide the total time spent digging. The recorder willalso need to identify the size of holes, number, size and type of prey items found andwhen the meerkat stands up, i.e. is vigilant.b. Scribe: Responsible for timing the total focal time (15 min) while identifying and writingdown the size of each hole dug in (for greater than 2 seconds) and the size and type ofprey items found. They will also need to tally the number of times the meerkat stands upon its hind legs© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 14

2. Get your equipment ready. (Before you go out to the field check you have everything.)Both Digging Recorder and Scribe should have a stopwatch. The Scribe should also have aclipboard with the Foraging Focal Data Sheet.3. Fill in focal details on datasheetAt the start of a session, please remember to fill in the fields ‘Date’, ‘Observer’, ‘Group’,‘number of foraging meerkats’, ‘Pup litter code’ and ‘number of helpers’. Then, for each animalfocalled, record its ‘Individual ID’, ‘date of birth’ and ‘sex’ in the boxes provided. Thisinformation is available on your marksheet.4. Locate your focal animalYou will have specified individual(s) to focal. Remember to double-check the ID of your focalanimal throughout the focal, especially if you temporarily lose sight of it (i.e. by checking theidentification marks). This is extremely important!Starting and timing the focal5. Definitions of ‘Digging’ and ‘Foraging’ and how to observe the focal meerkat withoutaffecting its behaviourFORAGING: This is defined as ‘searching for food’. The meerkat will be wanderingabout scratching and digging at the surface sand. Digging at a bolthole is notconsidered foraging. Anything other than searching for food is considered to be nonforagingbehaviour. Meerkats most commonly stop foraging when they are alarmingat a predator, reacting to the sight of another meerkat group, or resting in the shade.DIGGING: This is defined as when the focal animal starts a dig at a single locationlasting greater than 2 seconds. Usually this involves digging rapidly with both front pawsand chucking sand between its back legs. A dig is complete when the focal meerkatstops digging and moves > 20cm from the hole. They sometimes dig in the same hole(for the same food item) from different angles so it is better to lump together multiplesmall holes dug very close to each other using the definition described above.DOING A FOCAL:From the point you start a focal you must concentrate entirely on the focal animal until15 minutes have passed. Start both stopwatches for ‘Digging Recorder’ and ‘Scribe’simultaneously. If the meerkat stops foraging wait until it has begun foraging again© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 15

efore beginning or continuing a focal. Abort the focal completely if the meerkat stopsforaging for longer than 15 minutes, your recorded data is still good, the focal is just alittle shorter.HABITUATION AND IDEAL FORAGING DISTANCE:While following your focal animal, position yourself as close as possible to ensure youcan clearly see what is going on (about 2 metres away), but be careful not to disturb theanimal, thus affecting its behaviour. If the meerkat looks directly at you back off slowly,you should avoid standing on either side of a meerkat6. Undertake the focal: ‘Digging Recorder’ and ‘Scribe’ have the following rolesDIGGING RECORDER:a. To start the focal follow the target individual. When he digs in a hole for greater than2 seconds start your stopwatch simultaneously with the ‘Scribe’. When the meerkatstops digging in the hole, stop the stopwatch.i. New holes are when the meerkat stops digging at one place and moves>20cm (sometimes they try new angles for the same food items).b. Keep following the meerkat, whenever it digs in a single location for > 2 seconds restartthe stopwatch. If it stops digging and moves >20cm then stop the stopwatch.c. Repeat this until 15 minutes of ‘foraging’ time has passed.d. While recording the above you should also help the ‘Scribe’ by noting:i. Hole Size - Size (Small 30cm)ii. If food is found in a hole:1. Size (see recording prey item types)2. Type (see recording prey item types)3. Number (total number of food items eaten from the same hole. Lookout for quick chews when meerkats eat Ant Larvae (AL)iii. Any time the focal meerkat stands up on its hind legs (i.e. displayingvigilance).SCRIBE:a. To start focal follow the focal individual. When he digs in a hole for greater than 2seconds start your stopwatch simultaneously with the ‘Digging recorder’. Recordthe start time on the data sheet. Do not stop your stopwatch unless the focal© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 16

meerkat stops ‘foraging’ (any food searching behaviour). When the focal meerkatresumes foraging then you can resume the focal (start the stopwatch again).b. Whenever the focal meerkat digs in a single location for > 2 seconds you will need tonote the following information on the data sheet, ask for assistance in observing thisfrom the ‘Digging Recorder’.iv. Hole Size - Size (Small 30cm). If the dig is unsuccessful, make a line to indicate that nothingwas found in the appropriate box on your sheet. However, if food is foundnote the following information in the box for the appropriate hole size:1. Size (see recording prey item types)2. Type (see recording prey item types)3. Number of food items (total number of food items eaten from the samehole. Look out for quick chews when meerkats eat Ant Larvae (AL)c. Throughout the focal you will also need to note down any time the focal meerkatstands up on its hind legs (i.e. displaying vigilance). Tally these in the vigilance box.d. End the focal when you have observed and recorded meerkat ‘foraging’ for 15minutes. If the meerkat is engaged in digging a hole then wait until it has finishedbefore ending the focal. Always record the exact total time the focal lasted, even ifgreater or less than 15 minutes.e. Write down the total time the meerkat was engaged in digging during the focal, thisis obtained from the ‘Digging Recorder’.f. When you complete your focal of a meerkat, move on to the next meerkat you havebeen asked to observe. Your Field Team Leader will specify which individuals havepriority and the order of meerkats which you need to focal may vary.7. Additional informationAt the end of your session remember to obtain the morning and lunch weights, the time themeerkats left the burrow in the mornings and the time the meerkat was weighed at lunch for allyour focal meerkats.TermIndividual IDGroupNo ofmeerkatsforagingNotesUse your group mark ID sheet to identify the individual based on dye marking, sex and size, andrecord the full identification number. (e.g. “VVM037”), never the name (e.g. “Alexander”),Write down the name of the meerkat group (Elveera, Moomins).Count the number of meerkats in the group actively foraging at the start of your focal.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 17

No. ofhelpersMorning andlunchweightsTimemeerkats leftthe burrowTimemeerkatweighed atlunchFocal starttimeTotal focaltimeTotal diggingtimeIf successful,prey codeThis is all the meerkats in the group excluding those under 6 months (pups and juveniles)Enter the morning and lunch weight of the focal animal. Ask your meerkat volunteer or look it up in theweights book.Note the time that at least half of the group leaves the morning sleeping burrow to start foraging.The time each meerkat is weighed is very important when taking lunch weight, to enable us tocalculate time specific rate of weight gain. The time your focal animal was weighed at lunch will benoted next to the weight in the weights book.Recording the time when the focal starts (hh:mm:ss) and the time it ends (hh:mm:ss) gives the totalfocal time. You do not have to record the seconds but try to get as close as you can to a total time of15 min.A foraging hole is classified as follows: the animal uses both its paws, flings sand between its hindlegs, and works at the same hole for more than 2 seconds (you can count the seconds off in yourhead). Consider it as one hole as long as it has not moved more than 20cm from the original diggingpoint. Use a stopwatch to measure the total amount of time spent digging, by starting and pausing thestopwatch at the start and end of each hole. At the end of the 15 min, enter the total time spentdigging from the stopwatch.Prey codes are standardised three-letter codes that indicate the size and type of a prey item (e.g. LLI– large lizard). Size codes and prey type codes are listed below. When the prey item itself isunknown, try to at least record prey size.8. Recording Prey Item TypesTSMLXtiny item: swallowed down immediately, e.g. ants, termites and ant larvae.small item: item not protruding from mouth at all (1 to 5 chews)medium item: less than half the item protruding from mouth (5 to 15 chews)large item: over half the item protruding from mouth (more than 15 chews)Very large item: 80% of the item protrudes from mouth (e.g. very large lizard or mouse. This is usedrarely for invertebrates with the exception of millipedes.The last two letters of the food item code refer to the kind of food. See below for a complete list ofthese two-letter codes.AlAnAiBgBeVgBsCaCeCoCrEgFrLaLiLoMiMoPuRoAnt Larva/Pupa (Always Tiny)Ant (Never Larger Than Small)Ant LionBarking GeckoBeetleBulbs/BerriesBurrowing SkinkCaterpillarCentipedeCockroachCricketEgg (Medium Or Large)FrogLarvaLizardLocust (Can Be Extra Large)MillipedeMothPupaeRodent© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 18

ScSfSnSoSpStTeToGeUnk (or U)ScorpionSilverfishSnakeSolifugeSpiderStick InsectsTermite (Always Tiny)TortoiseUnidentified GeckoUnidentifiedThe original document contains examples and references of prey items in this place.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 19

5. DRONGO SCANSAIM: Collect data on meerkat-drongo interactions in order to answer the following questions:How often do drongos associate with meerkats?Do they kleptoparasitise meerkats (i.e. behave in a way to deliberately steal a food item from ameerkat)?5.1. DRONGO SCAN PROTOCOL1. Please familiarise yourself with the exact difference between a drongo and a glossystarling before doing any drongo work.Fork-tailed DrongoGlossy Starling2. Fill in focal details on datasheetFor each session, fill in ‘Date’, ‘Meerkat Group’, ‘Group Size’, ‘Number of Pups’, ‘Habitat’and ‘Observer initials’. Habitat type is defined by a three-letter code; the first letter is thegeneral topography:a. Flat – between dunes and bottom third of a duneb. Dune – top two-thirds of a dunec. Riverbed – any part of the Kuruman river including the banksThe second and third letters are two letter codes describing the type of vegetation in whichthe majority of the group is foraging:© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 20

• GRass – single-stemmed green/yellow grasses• SHrub – perennial plant or bush with several woody stems• TRee - single bark-covered trunk• FOrbes – small flowering plants, usually annuals, common after rains• OPen – little or no vegetation3. Begin scans at 10 or 15-minute intervals (as requested by the Field team leader)Note the time of the first scan and if any drongos are present. If so, how many? By ‘present’we mean that the drongo is close enough to the foraging meerkats to have them underclose observation. As a rough guide, this is a maximum of 20 metres from a meerkat.4. Drongo scansContinue drongo scans until end of session, recording drongo presence or absence every10 minutes.5.2. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: LOOK FOR RINGSObserve drongo and try to establish if it has rings on its legs. Very few drongos have beenringed so consider this a pleasant surprise. Record this at the end of the scan sheet.Ringed drongos to look out for during data collection:Ring combinationMeerkat territoryMXWWCommandos/BalrogYYXMBalrogBBXMBalrogGGXMCommandos/BalrogRXMXBalrogMXRGCommandos/BalrogWWXMWhiskersYRXMWhiskersMXYYWhiskersNote that rings are read from left to right if the bird is facing you, right to left if facing awayfrom youB = Blue M = MetalW = White Y = YellowG = Green R = RedX = Missing ringe.g. YYXM has 2 yellows on the left and a metal on the right. There is a maximum of two rings oneach leg© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 21

6. BIODIVERSITY SURVEYS6.1. INVERTEBRATE SURVEYAIM: The purpose of the invertebrate survey on KRR is to set up a comprehensive database ofthe invertebrate life on the reserve. This not only forms an important part in the effectivemanagement of any reserve but also yields important information about available food resourcesfor the meerkats, and how this abundance fluctuates from season to season, and how it differsbetween different habitat types.The aim is to set up a baseline invertebrate dataset by trapping insects with• Pitfall traps baited with dung, rotting vegetables/fruit and mushrooms• Sweeping with insect nets• Light traps et out at night• Sifting soil for burrowing invertebratesCollected specimens will be pinned or preserved for subsequent classification. Initially, allspecimens will be roughly grouped into orders with the aid of field guides, after which the data willbe entered into the relevant files for long-term analysis.6.2. ECOLOGICAL BIODIVERSITY SURVEYAIM: To take a detailed inventory of what organisms are present in the reserve, and to try toestablish the distribution patterns and relative densities at which they occur. We will approach thisin the following manner:6.2.1. Maintenance of species listsProvisional species lists for mammals, birds, and plants have been drafted for the KRR. Theseincorporate both organisms whose presence here has been verified by reliable observers andthose that we anticipate to find here, based on published distribution data for the species inquestion (marked with an asterisk (*) next to the species name.As an ongoing activity throughout the expedition, Earthwatch volunteers will be encouraged tocontribute to the updating and maintenance of these lists. A range of field guides are available toassist with species level identification, and project staff will be more than willing to help wherenecessary.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 22

6.2.2. Transect surveysOne day of the expedition will be spent conducting a walking survey along set transect routes.Volunteers will spread themselves out such that each person is 50m from their nearest neighbour.Then, up to six abreast, the formation will advance at a steady, uniform pace, holding true to thespecified bearing with the aid of GPS / compass.While these surveys provide good opportunity to spot new species for the species lists, ourprinciple aim is to record the presence and position of the following features:• All ungulatesThe KRR has reintroduced a number of ungulate species into the reserve. Monitoring ofthese species, in terms of both number and group composition, forms an integral part ofreserve management. Any ungulates seen during game drives will be recorded, as well asage and sex of the animals when possible. This information will supplement data collectedduring the biannual age and sex surveys, and will allow management to monitor trends inungulate populations.• All medium to large size burrows (entrance diameter >7cm)Very many animals in the Kalahari are at least semi-fossorial, i.e. burrowing into the dunesto escape extremes of temperature. Unfortunately, burrows excavated by different animalsoften look alike. Furthermore, burrows excavated by one animal may subsequently beshared with other animals, or taken over by different species altogether. For these reasonsit is often difficult to know exactly which animals are using which burrows. We will note theposition of any burrows or burrow complexes encountered on the transect, and record anysigns that may shed light on the identification of the burrow builder, its present inhabitants,and their activity patterns. Damaraland mole rat burrows are of particular interest to theproject and should be recorded according to the guidelines provided on the data sheets.• Sociable Weaver and White Browed Sparrow Weaver NestsSociable weavers are co-operative breeders and therefore of special interest to the project.Any sociable weaver nests encountered along the transect will be noted. The tree species,size of nest and presence of pygmy falcons are amongst the points we will be recording.The white browed sparrow weaver nests will also be recorded along the transect. Not onlywill we record species of tree, we will try to distinguish between breeding and sleepingnests, as well as sexing the individual birds when possible.• Termite moundsAnts and termites play a fundamental role in the cycling of nutrients in the veld, but alsoprovide a critical food source for specialist feeders such as aardvark, aardwolf, pangolin© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 23

and a range of other generalist birds, mammals and reptiles. Knowing the distribution oftermite mounds may not only provide information on veld health and functioning, but mayalso help to predict distribution patterns, and extent of available habitat, for termite-feedingspecies. Of course, while termite mounds are highly conspicuous, ant nests are usually farmore difficult to detect. We will thus only record the position and status of termite moundsencountered.• Invasive speciesMesquite or Suidwesdoring (Prosopis glandulosa), and Mexican poppy (Argemoneochroleuca) are highly invasive alien plants that can have serious negative consequenceson the ecosystems they invade. Mesquite, for instance, easily out-competes most nativetrees for what little water the ground holds – and can profoundly alter the vegetative profileespecially in water courses. We will note the position of any Mesquite or Mexican poppyinfestations encountered on the transect, to facilitate their later removal.6.3. VEGETATION SURVEYAIM: To take a detailed inventory of what plants are present in the reserve, and to try to establishthe distribution patterns and relative densities at which they occur.In order to determine stocking rates of mammals on a reserve, it is necessary to know not onlywhat plant species the area supports, but also the relative frequency of these species and theoverall condition of the veld. Baseline vegetation surveys are therefore essential in providing thisinformation to management. Monitoring of vegetation is also extremely important. It allows for thedetection of changes in the state of vegetation in response to utilization by mammals. It istherefore critical to conduct reliable and repeatable vegetation surveys to allow for the monitoringof vegetation changes on a reserve.Since the KRR stocks a variety of ungulate species, these surveys are necessary for effectivemanagement. Volunteers will assist management by conducting vegetation surveys in a numberof selected plots on the reserve. Plots measuring 10m x 20m will be marked out, and within theseplots the volunteers will record 200 points, noting amongst other things, plant species encounteredand growth form. KRR staff will be on hand to supervise the sampling and provide interestinginformation about the traditional use of some of the plants.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 24

7. VANZYLSRUS SCHOOLAIM: Aid in environmental education of the children at Vanzylsrus by giving exposure to: foreigncountries and wildlife and the different animals in their own country. Additionally supply the schoolwith teaching aids such as posters, books and magazines.1. Morning visit to Vanzylsrus Primary SchoolVZR school structure• Foundation phase Ages 6 – 10 Grades 1-3• Intermediate phase Ages 11 - 16 Grades 4 - 6• Senior phase Ages 16 – 19 Grades 7 - 830-40 children per classOur task:• Each EW volunteer introduce themselves and their country of origin – 5 -10min• Questions• Competitions, games or other practical interaction or lessons are welcome anddesigned as needed.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 25

APPENDIX I – Meerkat behavioursFor your interest and to assist with our data collection we have listed the primary meerkatbehaviours we observe and record. Your meerkat volunteer will point some of these out to you,but you may need to be patient as they are often rare and happen very quickly.With all meerkats behaviours it is vital to correctly identify each meerkat or group of meerkatsinvolved. Please make sure of the ID codes first and foremost, then who was doing what. Doublecheck the markings with your partner. Remember, inaccurate data damages good data.To make sure you are as accurate as possible, jot down on paper the markings of animalsinvolved in a behaviour and which was initiator or recipient (alter as necessary for each question).1. GroomingMeerkats all seem to groom each other irrespective of who is who but we hope to investigate thesepatterns further. For instance, to see if meerkats prefer to initiate grooming on older partners, and if theyprefer the same sex or the opposite sex as a grooming partner.Grooming is when one meerkat uses its teeth to groom another meerkat. Sometimes meerkats use thisbehaviour when submitting to another meerkat. Look out for which meerkat groomed the other first, andwhether the other meerkat groomed back (even if only for a second).2. Dominance AssertionMeerkats have a despotic dominance structure, a single dominant male and female reproduce andsuppress the subordinate males and females in the group. This usually only happens when a subordinatecould breed in the group. The dominant male shows little aggression towards sons (related to all thefemales) but lots of aggression towards brothers. The dominant female is primarily aggressive towardsolder and bigger females who mate with ‘visiting’ males from other groups.There are various ways meerkats assert dominance, including:• Chinning: one meerkat rubs the underside of its chin over the head of another.• Hip-slams: one meerkat slams its hip against another meerkat.• Approach/ Attack: one meerkat decisively moves towards another meerkat, or attacks it. Theapproached individual can submit or ignore the approach/attack.Look out for who started the interaction and what they did to the other meerkat. Also see how the othermeerkat responded, i.e. submitted.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 26

3. SubmissionSubordinate meerkats often submit to the dominant male and female, usually at times when they arereceiving a great deal of aggression. Submissions to the dominant female are most common bysubordinate females to the dominant female just before she evicts them from the group in the late stages ofher pregnancy.Submissions are initiated by subordinates in the presence of dominant individuals; they can be very long orextremely brief and very subtle. Meerkats submit by:• Drooping head and relaxing body - This is a posture offering no offensive threat. They oftenapproach by crawling up to the dominant.• Making submission calls - repeated high-pitched ‘mi-mi-mi-mi-mi-mi-mi’ calls.• Grooming - they approach making submission calls and begin grooming.Look out for what the subordinate did and how the dominant responded. The dominant usually ignores itbut sometimes asserts dominance over the subordinate.4. Dominance CompetitionSubordinate or dominant meerkats of the same sex occasionally compete for dominance. It is unclearwhether this resolves any conflict but the behaviour is common between adult competing brothers orsisters. These are the individuals who typically compete for dominant positions in later life. Another entirelymore aggressive form of dominance competition is when a subordinate male or female competes with thedominant male or female for the dominant position, or after an old dominant dies. This is extremely rareand usually results in a bloody fight as seen by the scars on a number of adult meerkats. Look out for thescars over the left eyes on Yossarian and Zorilla, inflicted by Zaphod and Klientjie respectively.The most common behaviours displayed when competing for dominance includes:• Nasal to nasal: two meerkats move towards each other and rub their noses side to side.• Hip Slamming: two meerkats push and rub their sides against each other.This behaviour is hard to spot but watch adult brothers or sisters next to each other at bolt holes and try toidentify both protagonists.5. Scent markingInformation regarding territory ownership, location, sexual state, group size and much more can be left byscent marking. The primary advantage of this form of communication is that it does not alert predators toyour immediate location and remains in a specific location for long periods enabling information transferwithout risk of contact. The idea that marking your territory scares others away has been rejected in thevast majority of species.Marking is used to pass on or collect information regarding territory, dominance and group location. Typesof marking include:© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 27

• Anal marking: Rubbing of the anal gland against objects or other meerkats. This is usuallythe ground or vegetation, but when on another individual, it is considered assertion ofdominance.• Rubbing: Rubbing the length of the body alongside or over vegetation, objects or othermeerkats (dominance).• Chewing: Biting vegetation and shaking of the head whilst biting the vegetation.• Urination/defecation: When the same place is defecated/urinated on by 3 or moreindividuals it is defined as a latrine. It is also useful to note whether the mark is sniffed ormarked over another individual’s mark.• Frenzy: When an animal undertakes lots of different marks in a very short space of time and‘scuffs’ at the surface.6. Raised guardRaised guarding is one of the main helping behaviours meerkats engage in. The better foragers usuallyguard more as the cost of doing so is lower. Listen carefully for the ‘Pip Pip’ sentinel call they emit causingthose in the near vicinity to look for predators less and spend more time foraging.A meerkat is considered to be on raised guard when it is raised off the ground for more than 10 seconds ormakes the sentinel call.It is very helpful to point out who is up on guard, especially when they go up and when they go down, asthe meerkat volunteer will need to record all guards!7. Predator AlarmMeerkats emit many different alarm calls but they can be categorised into aerial (high pitched ‘Mrrup’,when they have seen something in the air), terrestrial (rolling mu’ru’ru’ru’ru’ru’ru, seen on land), panic(hard to describe but it sounds as if someone trod on a meerkat, or maybe that’s how I remember it?) andmobbing calls (including growling and spitting). These have different levels of urgency depending on hownear a threat is and how dangerous it is. Sometimes they are generally scared and make panic calls atmost things! This is a fascinating form of communication in any species, especially a non-primate.It is considered a predator alarm when over 50% of the group reacts to the alarm by moving away, goingdown into a burrow, looking briefly or watching continuously. This alarm can be given in response to anythreat, including birds, terrestrial animals, researchers, plastic bags etc.Look out for meerkats dashing to boltholes or standing up suddenly. Check if half the group has done soand look for the most common response.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 28

8. DiggingDigging is another helping behaviour enabling the maintenance of escape boltholes and sleeping burrows.The meerkats do not dig them initially but invade those used by other species and maintain them in theterritory. Their sleeping burrows are usually made by ground squirrels.Meerkat will dig at sleeping burrows or boltholes. This type of digging is defined by a meerkat using both itspaws to move soil between its hind legs. It is commonly seen, especially after alarms or in the morning orevening.9. ChatteringTypically meerkats chatter to reject or fend off other meerkats. This is usually seen when males approachthe dominant female and sniff her. It is difficult to ascertain a precise function for the behaviour but it isapparently fairly rude as the animal chattered at typically moves away.This is a repetitive, high-pitched ke’ ke’ ke’ ke ‘ke sound, made in relation to various interactions includingplay, submission, sex and food competition.Listen out for it and see what context it is given in, who gave it and who approached who.10. Pup feedsOne of the most fascinating helping behaviours; group members, typically older than 9 months thoughsome times younger, find food items and give them to a young pup in the group. This is the primaryhelping behaviour and enables meerkats to support numerous entirely dependent mobile young. This hasbeen the focus of a great deal of research investigating who gives food and which pup do they feed.A meerkat brings a food item to a pup and drops it in front of the pup who then eats the food item letting offa high-pitched squeal. There are variations on this theme:• Feeder eats the food itself rather than giving away the food item (false feed). Thismay be because another adult or pup is trying to steal the food.• The pup loses the food. Sometimes the adult finds it and brings it back.• The pup rejects the food item.• The food is manipulated in some way by the helper to make it easier to eat.Try to note the individuals involved, then the size and type of food item. Sometimes the food does not getsuccessfully fed as outlined above, so make a note of this.11. Foraging competitionMeerkats apparently compete for food in poor conditions, but the dominant male and female quitefrequently steal food from other group members. The dominant female does this most often when she ispregnant or lactating.Foraging competition occurs over food items or foraging holes. Usually just two competitors are involved,but sometimes many get involved. The most common forms of competition include:© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 29

• Blocking: meerkat places its body between the food item/hole and competitor, or growls atthe competitor.• Pushing: Similar to blocking but with sustained physical contact between the competingindividuals.• Fighting: Meerkat bites the other in an attempt to win the food item.It is important to note what they are competing for and who the winner was, if this was clear (i.e. the onewho succeeded in getting the food item).12. Pup competitionPups actively compete for helpers whom they are foraging with. The high levels of aggression areprobably caused by the enormous benefit of early nutrition for the development of subsequent foragingability and thus reproductive success.This is similar to foraging competition, but occurs between two pups and can be for a food item, an adulthelper or space.Ensure you get the identity of the pups and the ultimate winner. If the fight is over an adult try to record whothis was.13. Lead callsIt is important that groups have some form of cohesion and/or mechanism of coordination. It is likely thatlead calls enable individuals (typically the dominants) to draw the group together and move.This can be difficult to see and hear, but occurs when one individual (usually a dominant or elder individual)tries to lead the group in a specific direction by giving high-pitched rolling calls. Try to get the identity of anymeerkat making lead calls to the group and note whether the group/pups follow.14. Leave/returnAdult male meerkats (excluding the dominant) often come and go from their own group as they try to matewith unrelated females in other groups, possibly even a dominant female! In addition, subordinate femalesmay be evicted from the group by the dominant female and consequently spend their time trying to getback into the group.Males typically come and go as they please but note what happens, particularly when they return. Femalesare usually chased from the group, and it is obvious when this happens, but keep a close eye out for themhanging around on the edge of the group.When evicted or roving meerkats return, pay attention to the group’s reaction. For example, when ameerkat was evicted: did the group give chase? If so, who lead the group? If a meerkat was returning, wasthe meerkat accepted back or chased away again?© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 30

15. ‘IGI’ Inter group interactionsInter group interactions occur wherever two groups encounter each other, typically near territory borders,as maintaining control of foraging grounds as a safe home range for reproduction is very important formeerkats. Failure to do so can result in babysitting burrows being attacked by other groups and pupsbeing killed.The groups may react in the following fashion• Flee• Do a ‘war dance’ (bounce up and down with tail pointing upwards)• Chase• Fight (inevitable if neither group backs down or they have been taken bysurprise)Make sure you are ready! The meerkats sometimes run for as far as a kilometre. We have to stay withthem as much as possible.© Kalahari Meerkat Project, www.kalahari-meerkats.com 31