Achieving Improved Primary and Secondary Education ... - AMP

Our Children,Our Future –Achieving Improved Primary and Secondary EducationOutcomes for Indigenous StudentsAn overview of investment opportunities and approachesA REPORT PUBLISHED BY

There has been tacitacceptance of the non-achievementof educational standards byAboriginal children and young people.The resultant acceptance of thislack of educational success has acumulative effect. It is based on thebelief that Aboriginal children andyoung people will never reach theirfull potential and if they fall behindsociety then welfare will protectthem. Their low level of educationalsuccess is accepted as a normativeexpectation.1This has to change.Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey: Improving theEducational Experiences of Aboriginal Children and Young People1 Zubrick S, De Maio J, Shepherd C, Griffin J, Dalby R, Mitrou F, Lawrence D, Hayward C, Pearson G, MilroyH, Milroy J, Cox A. The Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey: Improving the EducationalExperiences of Aboriginal Children and Young People. Perth: Curtin University of Technology and TelethonInstitutes for Child Health Research, 2006, p.vi. (Zubrick et al. 2006)

Foreword by Tom CalmaAccess to education is a basic human right enshrined inthe Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Most peoplenow accept that education is the key to improving lifechances and life choices. An education leads us to greateropportunities to participate in employment and in thewider society. This in turn can lead to other benefits such asimproved emotional and social wellbeing and better accessto services such as housing and health care.To m Ca l m aA b o r i g i n a l & To r r e s St r a i t I s l a n d e rS o c i a l J u st i c e Co m m i s s i o n e rN at i o n a l R ac e D i s c r i m i n at i o nCo m m i s s i o n e rH u m a n R i g h ts a n d E q ua l O p p o rtu n i t yCo m m i s s i o nIndigenous Australia has a population of over half a million people and it isgrowing. Unfortunately for this growing population, the education statisticspaint an alarming picture. Indigenous youth remain the most educationallydisadvantaged group in Australia. In many parts of Australia they aredisadvantaged in terms of access to appropriate and high quality education, andas a consequence many are not reaching the basic educational milestones. Theextent of this disadvantage and the challenges and opportunities to overcomethis disadvantage are well documented in this Report.While at present there are large challenges, improvements can be made withappropriate policies, funding and partnerships between government, educationproviders and communities. Strategies and resources that are commensuratewith this long-term challenge are urgently needed. Investment in Indigenouseducation needs to be significant, and at all levels. Recruitment programs,skill development and employment retention programs are required so thatthe Indigenous labour market increases rather than decreases. Every schoolcommunity needs a quantum of Indigenous teachers so that liaison betweenthe Indigenous home and school environments is managed by a large, enabledIndigenous workforce. Indigenous teachers and teachers’ aides need to be wellresourcedand provided with first class professional learning and developmentopportunities. The best and brightest non-Indigenous teachers need to beencouraged to work in remote Indigenous schools. Education facilities need to beof the same standard across the country. There is much work to be done.This Report will assist you to understand the current challenges in Indigenouseducation. It will also clarify the role that the philanthropic sector can play inassisting to close the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous educationalopportunities and outcomes. This is an important challenge and we must all workin partnership to make a difference. I hope you will lend your support.I commend this report to you.

About this PublicationThis Report has been published in collaborationby The AMP Foundation, Effective Philanthropyand Social Ventures Australia. It is based on anearlier report on Indigenous education preparedfor, and funded by, the AMP Foundation. The AMPFoundation has generously agreed to support theextension and publication of the earlier report forthe benefit of the broader philanthropic sector.This work is copyright apart from any use aspermitted under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Youmay copy this Report for your own personal use andresearch or that of your firm or company. You maynot republish, retransmit, redistribute or otherwisemake the Report available to any other party withoutwritten permission from the Authors.Copies of the Report are available for download atthe publishing organisations’ websites. Requestsand inquiries concerning reproduction should beaddressed to the publishing organisations throughone of the contacts listed here.In all cases the Report must be acknowledged as thesource when reproducing or quoting any part of thispublication.For any inquiries in relation to this Report pleasecontact:The Publishing OrganisationsThe AMP Foundation – www.amp.com.auAMP has been contributing to the Australiancommunity for more than 150 years. The AMPFoundation was established in 1992 and is one of thevehicles through which AMP invests in the community.Our purpose is to make a difference in the Australiancommunity at a grassroots level, where AMP peoplelive and work. Based on the philosophy of offering a‘hand up and not a handout’, the Foundation investsin two key areas – Capacity Building and CommunityInvolvement.Our Capacity Building programs encourage andsupport people to help themselves. Our effortsare especially focused on young people and thesustainability of the not-for-profit sector.Our Community Involvement programs encourage andsupport people to help others. We focus on supportingthe work of AMP employees and AMP financialplanners in the community.–––Authors Louise Doyle or Regina Hillinfo@effectivephilanthropy.com.auThe AMP Foundationamp_foundation@amp.com.auSocial Ventures Australiadpeppercorn@socialventures.com.auNotice and DisclaimerThe AMP Foundation, Effective Philanthropy andSocial Ventures Australia shall not be liable for lossor damage arising out of or in connection with theuse of this Report. This is a comprehensive limitationof liability that applies to all damages of any kind,including without limitation compensatory, direct,indirect or consequential damages, loss of data,income or profit, loss of or damage to property andclaims of third parties.Effective Philanthropy –www.effectivephilanthropy.com.auEffective Philanthropy is a research consultancy thatworks to identify, promote and pilot innovative andeffective approaches to social and environmentalissues. It seeks to do that through the preparationof social issue reports to inform intervention design,social policy definition and philanthropic investment.Effective Philanthropy works with philanthropiststo assist them in identifying and funding effectiveresponses to social and environmental issues.Effective Philanthropy assists in the design, pilot andevaluation of innovative not-for-profit interventionprograms and collaborates with philanthropists andthe organisations that they fund to improve theeffectiveness of program delivery.

a b o ut t h i s p u b l i c at i o nSocial Ventures Australia –www.socialventures.com.auSocial Ventures Australia (SVA), an independentnon-profit organisation established in 2002, is anew model of social investment that aligns theinterests of philanthropists with the needs of socialentrepreneurs to combat some of Australia’s mostpressing community challenges.With a focus on accountability and impact, SVAprovides funding, mentoring and organisationaltools to a carefully selected portfolio of nonprofitorganisations led by outstanding socialentrepreneurs. In doing so, we seek to boost theireffectiveness, efficiency, capacity and sustainabilitythrough our hands-on approach – supporting theirprograms to grow and mature so that they are ableto create sustainable and lasting change.SVA also offers consulting services to the nonprofitsector, and to philanthropic organisationsand individuals. These focus on helping non-profitsto develop and implement their strategic plans, toimprove their operations and to demonstrate theirimpact. We work with funders including foundations,philanthropists and governments to demonstratefunding impact, to improve funding efficiency andto identify organisations that deliver demonstrableoutcomes. SVA’s consulting services complementSVA’s program of workshops and mentoring services.SVA has conducted a range of research in the areacovered by this Report. It has prepared knowledgeand information papers and in 2007 it conductedan Indigenous roundtable investigating Indigenouseducation and transitions to work. SVA’s work inthese areas is ongoing.The AuthorsLouise DoyleStanford Executive Program for Philanthropy Leaders,BA, Certificate in Public Relationslouisedoyle@effectivephilanthropy.com.auLouise Doyle is a principal with EffectivePhilanthropy. Louise works as a consultant in the notfor-profitsector providing advice to philanthropicinvestors in relation to their investment strategy andgrant making. She is also the Executive Officer ofThe Becher Foundation.Regina HillMaster International Laws, MBA, BA/LLB Honsreginahill@effectivephilanthropy.com.auRegina Hill is a principal with Effective Philanthropy.Regina works as a consultant and researcher inthe commercial and not-for-profit sectors. She hasa special interest in issues relating to Indigenousaffairs, early childhood development, children andyoung people at risk, education and mental health.AcknowledgementsThe Authors are grateful to Chris Boys and HelenStanley for the support that they provided in relationto the preparation of earlier versions of this Report.They also thank Dr. Jo Stubbings for editing thisReport.The publishing organisations are grateful to thefollowing subject matter experts who have reviewedthis Report:– Adrian Appo, Executive Officer, Ganbina KooriEconomic and Employment Agency– Dr Barry Osborne, Adjunct Associate ProfessorJames Cook University and Djarragun CollegeBoard Member– Jennifer Samms, Executive Director, Taskforce onAboriginal Affairs, Department of Planning andCommunity Development Victoria– Dr Nereda White, Coordinator, WeemalaIndigenous Unit, Australian Catholic UniversityNationalThe publishing organisations are grateful for theinput provided by the Review Panel. The publishingorganisations take full responsibility for the viewsexpressed in this Report and note that any errors oromissions are their responsibility and not those ofanyone consulted in the process of preparingthe Report.

Table of contentsPage Section6 1. Executive summary10 2. Introduction11 2.1 Purpose of this Report11 2.2 Scope of this Report12 2.3 Who will find this Report useful andhow?13 2.4 Methodology used to prepare this Report14 3. Background16 3.1 The objectives of education16 3.2 The Australian education system19 3.3 The Indigenous student population19 .3.1 Overall Indigenous population –a contextual overview20 .3.2 Student population profile22 3.4 Government-based Indigenous-specificeducation initiatives25 4. Indigenous educationoutcomes28 4.1 Attendance28 .1.1 Preschool attendance29 .1.2 School attendance30 4.2 Retention31 4.3 Student performance and achievement32 4.4 Post-secondary qualifications33 4.5 Labour force participation andemployment (positive transitions fromschool to work)34 4.6 Socio-economic status35 4.7 Individual wellbeing36 5. Factors contributing topoor Indigenous educationoutcomes37 5.1 Underlying conceptual framework39 5.2 Social or community context41 5.3 Home context43 5.4 School context48 5.5 Student contextPage Section49 6. Intervention options50 6.1 The role of the philanthropic sector51 6.2 Considerations when investing in theIndigenous sector52 6.3 Identified intervention options54 6.4 Key success factors56 6.5 Detailed intervention summaries56 6.5.1 Holistic schooling approach58 6.5.2 Tailored curriculum59 6.5.3 Appropriate staff training60 6.5.4 Holistic student support62 6.5.5 Student and parental engagement66.5.6 Intensive learning support66 6.5.7 School-based vocational trainingand development programs68 6.5.8 Scholarship programs70 7. Conclusion71 7.1 Key insights for philanthropic investment72 7.2 Final words73 Glossary of Terms75 References77 Acknowledgements78 Appendix One – Factors identified as affectingIndigenous student absenteeism79 Appendix Two – Detailed description of schooland student-based change levers

1. Executive summaryFor a number of years Australian Governments have soughtto position Australia as the ‘Clever Country’. They havepromoted the importance of education and training as thefoundation for our economic prosperity and future growth.In the case of Indigenous Australians, however, educationand training arguably hold even greater significance as theyprovide the key not only to economic prosperity but also tosocial equality.

1 . e x e c utive summaryIn Australia today Indigenous students at alllevels experience worse education outcomes thannon-Indigenous students. 2 Indigenous studentsdemonstrate lower school attendance, retentionand achievement than non-Indigenous studentsacross all age groups and all States and Territories. 3Indigenous post-school qualifications, labour forceparticipation and employment rates are also lowerthan those of non-Indigenous Australians 4 as istheir general socio-economic status, health andwellbeing. 5Historically, poor Indigenous education outcomes arereflected in low economic participation.These outcomes have been linked to the historicalexclusion of Indigenous people from the Australianeducation system, both formally through pastgovernment policy and informally through thefailure to deliver education services that meet theneeds of Indigenous students.In order to improve Indigenous education outcomesthere is a need to address a range of factors thatnegatively impacts the ability of Indigenous studentsto access and to engage successfully in education.This Report seeks to provide insight into the rolethat can be played by the philanthropic sector tohelp improve the education outcomes of Indigenousyoung people in Australia.The area of education is broad and the issuesimpacting the effectiveness of Indigenous educationare complex. For that reason this Report has focusedon the specific challenges and opportunities relatingto primary and secondary school level education(Years 1 to 12).2 Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision.Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2007 Overview.Canberra: Productivity Commission SCRGSP, 2007, p.4. (SCRGSPOverview 2007)3 Steering Committee for the Review of Government Service Provision.Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators 2007. Canberra:Productivity Commission SCRGSP, 2007, pp.13–14. (SCRGSP 2007)4Ibid., pp.14–16, 13.2, 13.11.Primary and secondary education is only oneelement of a broader education system that startswith early childhood development and pre-primaryschooling and extends through to vocational andtertiary education and the transition from schoolto post-school employment. In choosing to focuson Years 1 to 12 education, we are not seeking todowngrade the importance of those other areas,which clearly play an important role in Indigenouseducation and the translation of education outcomesinto labour force participation and employment.Indeed, each area could be the subject of aseparate report.This Report provides an overview of the state ofIndigenous primary and secondary educationoutcomes in Australia and the impact that they haveon the capacity of Indigenous students to accesspost-secondary qualifications and employmentopportunities.The Report identifies the underlying factors thatcontribute to those outcomes, including the Social/Community and Home Contexts in which Indigenousstudents live, the School Context in which theyparticipate and their own personal life experience(referred to as Student Context).It also discusses some of the approaches that arebeing taken by the not-for-profit sector to addressthose factors. In doing that, the Report seeks tofocus on approaches that are related to the way inwhich schooling is delivered, the experience thatstudents have of school and their capacity to accessand to engage in school and to learn. The Reportdoes not investigate interventions that seek toaddress broader Social issues (e.g. health, housingand community function) or Home-based issues (e.g.parenting and parental education and employment)affecting the capacity of Indigenous students toaccess or to engage in education. It also does notcover government-funded activity.5 SCRGSP Overview 2007, pp.12, 18–23; Australian Bureau of Statistics.The Health and Welfare of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Peoples. Cat. no. 4704.0. Canberra: ABS, 2005. (ABS 4704.0)

1 . e x e c utive summaryThe Report identifies eight Intervention Categoriesthat work within a School and Student Contextto improve the delivery of education and theeducation outcomes of Indigenous students thatare suited to philanthropic investment on the basisthat they either augment or complement existinggovernment funding or provide an opportunity forthe philanthropic sector to invest in more innovativeresponses to issues affecting Indigenous education.The eight Intervention Categories covered in thisReport include:1.2.3.4.Holistic Schooling Approach – the adoption ofa holistic approach to schooling that delivers aculturally and contextually relevant and capabilityappropriate curriculum that relates students’learning to their life experience. Such schoolingapproaches incorporate program elements thataddress the full range of student needs (includingtheir basic material needs, travel to and fromschool, health and nutrition, personal andlearning support requirements). They provide ahighly supportive school environment and engagestudents, family and community in the design/delivery of day-to-day schooling.Tailored Curriculum – the development anddissemination of a culturally and contextuallyrelevant and capability appropriate curriculumthat is tailored to the needs of Indigenousstudents and teaching tools to supportIndigenous student learning.Appropriate Staff Training – the development anddelivery of culturally appropriate and capabilityrelevant pre- and in-service principal, teacherand teaching support staff training that includesskills relating to the design and delivery of thecurriculum as well as the establishment andmanagement of supportive teacher–studentrelationships.Holistic Student Support – the delivery of schooland non-school-based programs that specificallyseek to meet students’ individual needs byassisting them to access and engage in schoolincluding material, personal and learning supportrequirements and to promote parental and familysupport for student education and learning.5.6.7.8.Student and Parental Engagement – the deliveryof school and non-school-based programs thatspecifically seek to engage students with schooland learning by encouraging school attendance,attachment and retention by promoting parentaland family support for student education,connecting parents with school and helpingparents to better support their children to learn.Intensive Learning Support – school and nonschool-basedprograms that seek to provideintensive learning support including remedialliteracy and numeracy programs, generalcurriculum-based learning support or tutoring,extension learning and homework support.School-based Vocational Training andDevelopment – school-based vocationaldevelopment and training programs includingcareer planning, school-based apprenticeshipsand TAFE programs etc.Scholarships – the provision of scholarships tosupport Indigenous student access to education.This Report provides case studies of each of theabove Intervention Categories in order to providea sense of how they operate. (These case studiesare provided by way of example only and theirinclusion in the Report should not be seen as arecommendation for funding.) Having analysed eachof the above Interventions we have also identifiedthe types of Key Success Factors that apply to eachof the Intervention Categories and which can helpphilanthropic investors to assess the effectivenessof individual intervention programs.The Report concludes with some insights forphilanthropic investors when investing in this area.When reviewing programs that seek to improveIndigenous education outcomes, it is rare for a singleprogram to address the range of outcomes or factorsthat often need to be addressed to support change.In many (if not most) cases a mix of interventions isrequired to do that.The strongest intervention models tend thereforeto be multi-faceted and to involve the coordinationof a range of programs to address the issuesaffecting students’ capacity to engage with schooland learning. The key often lies in providing acoordinated response that addresses both thelearning and other support needs of the individualstudents.

1 . e x e c utive summaryFigure 1 Intervention Categories covered in this ReportSchool ContextStudent ContextChange LeversAccess toSchoolSchool/LearningEnvironmentCurriculumTeachingApproachParental,Family andCommunityInvolvementBasicMaterialandPersonalSupportEngagementwith Schooland LearningIntensiveLearningSupportVocationalDevelopmentandTransitionSupportIntevention Categories1. Holistic Schooling Approach4. Holistic Student Support8.Scholarships2.3.Tailored Appropriate(Culturally (CulturallyRelevant & Relevant &Capability CapabilityAppropriate) Appropriate)Curriculum StaffTraining5.Student &ParentalEngagement6.IntensiveLearningSupport7.School-BasedVocationalTraining &DevelopmentThe implication of this for philanthropic investors isthat well-focused investments in this area:–––––require a holistic understanding of the local issuesthat need to be addressed in order to achieveeffective outcomesmay involve multiple service providers (andas a result tend to require more extensive duediligence, more complex funding structures andmore extensive coordination, monitoring andevaluation processes)often require higher levels of overall fundingin order to make sure that all relevant programcomponents are covered and so often involvelarger investments or collaborative fundingarrangementstend to require higher levels of supportwhere interventions are delivered in remoteareas compared to less remote areas due tothe narrower range of services and serviceproviders in those areas and the higher levels ofdisadvantage that tend to be faced thereneed to allow a reasonable timeframe for changegiven the complexity of the factors affectingeducation outcomes–in the case of school-based investments:• require the underlying organisational systemsat the school (e.g. school managementand culture, staff recruitment and training,curriculum planning and student disciplineprocedures etc.) to support the delivery of theprograms being funded – the alignment of suchsystems, as well as the organisational structureand staffing of the school, with programdelivery is critical to ensure that such programsare sustainable, rather than dependent onthe principal and staff who are present at theschool at the time of investment• need to take into account taxation structuresthat currently limit the capacity of investors toaccess Deductible Gift Recipient (DGR) basedtax deductions.This Report does not provide specificrecommendations to philanthropic investorsregarding which programs they should fund. TheReport has been structured to provide investorswith useful background information to help them tounderstand the issues associated with Indigenouseducation and conceptual frameworks to help themidentify and assess potential investment options.

2. IntroductionThis section of the Report provides an overviewof the objectives of this Report and themethodology used to prepare it.1 0

2 . i n t r o d u c t i o n2.1 Purpose of this Report2.2 Scope of this ReportAlthough there is significant interestamong the philanthropic sector inIndigenous issues, investors often donot invest in the area:‘because they lack the expertise and knowledge to grantwell in a complex sector and some labour undermisconceptions about working with Indigenous causes.’ 6This Report seeks to provide insight into the rolethat the philanthropic sector can play to assist inimproving the education outcomes of Indigenousyoung people in Australia. It is also intended to bea useful tool for practitioners in the not-forprofitand government sectors with an interest inIndigenous education.The Report does not provide specificrecommendations to philanthropic investors interms of which programs they should fund. Instead,the Report has been structured to provide investorswith useful background information to help themto understand the challenges and opportunitiesassociated with improving primary and secondarylevel Indigenous education outcomes. It also seeksto provide investors with conceptual frameworksto help them to identify and independently assesspotential investment options.The area of education is broad and the issuesaffecting the effectiveness of Indigenous educationare complex. For that reason this Report focuses onthe specific challenges and opportunities relatingto primary and secondary school level education(Years 1 to 12).This Report looks at:– Indigenous education Outcomes – it providesan overview of the state of Indigenous primaryand secondary education outcomes in Australiaand the impact that they have on the capacityof Indigenous students to access post-secondaryqualifications and employment opportunities– Contributing Factors – it identifies the underlyingfactors that contribute to those outcomesincluding the Social/Community, and HomeContexts in which Indigenous students live, theSchool Context in which they participate and theirown personal life experience (referred to in theReport as Student Context)– Interventions – it discusses some of theapproaches that are being taken to address thosefactors and identifies a series of InterventionCategories that are suited to philanthropicinvestment on the basis that they either augmentor complement existing government fundingor provide an opportunity for the philanthropicsector to invest in more innovative responses– Key Success Factors – it identifies the Key SuccessFactors (KSFs) relating to program design andimplementation that apply to each of theidentified Intervention Categories.The Report focuses on interventions that are relatedto the School and Student Context, in particular, theway in which schooling is delivered, the experiencethat students have of school and their capacity toaccess and engage in school and to learn. The Reportdoes not investigate interventions that seek toaddress broader Social/Community or Home-basedissues affecting the capacity of Indigenous studentsto access or to engage in education and to learn. Italso does not cover government-funded programs.Primary and secondary education is obviously onlyone element of a broader education system thatstarts with early childhood development and pre-6 Scaife W. Challenges in Indigenous philanthropy: Reporting Australiangrantmakers’ perspectives. Australian Journal of Social Issues 2006,p.18. (Scaife 2006)1 1

2 . i n t r o d u c t i o n2.3 Who will find this Reportuseful and how?primary schooling and extends through to vocationaland tertiary education and the transition from schoolto post-school employment. This Report does notdeal with those areas, nor does it deal with the areaof parental or adult education which is also relevantwhen considering Indigenous education outcomes.In choosing to focus on Years 1 to 12 education weare not seeking to downgrade the importance ofthose other areas, which clearly play an importantrole in Indigenous education and the translation ofeducation outcomes into labour force participationand employment. Indeed, each of those areas could,in themselves, be the subject of a separate reportsuch as this.The decision to focus on school-based education hasbeen taken as a starting point from which to buildan understanding of the underlying issues relatingto Indigenous education and some of the approachesthat can be taken to address them.Although the Report references some of theapproaches that are being undertaken bygovernment in this area it is not intended to(and does not) provide a detailed discussion orassessment of government policy in this area.Throughout this Report the term ‘Indigenous’ isused to refer to people identifying themselves asAustralian Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander.This Report has been written predominately toinform philanthropic investors. As noted above, it isalso intended to provide a guide for practitioners inthe not-for-profit and government sectors with aninterest in Indigenous education.Figure.2 What this Report is designed to help you doUnderstand the Social ContextSection 3Understand the Target Issues – Indigenous Education OutcomesSection 4Understand the Factors Contributing to those OutcomesSection 5Understand Available Intervention OptionsSection 6 and 7Understand the Key Success Factors for those InterventionsSection 6 and 7In particular, the Report has been designed to helpphilanthropic investors to:– build an understanding of the issues surroundingIndigenous education in terms of the pooroutcomes that are being achieved and the factorscontributing to these outcomes (Sections 4 and 5)– identify the types of intervention that they caninvest in to address these issues (Section 6)– identify Key Success Factors that they can use toassess specific programs that they identify forpotential investment (Section 6).The case studies that are set out in Section 6 areprovided by way of example only. The programsset out in these case studies have not beenindependently reviewed or audited. Their inclusionin the Report should not, therefore, be seen as arecommendation for funding. As a matter of goodpractice philanthropic investors interested in fundinginterventions such as those identified in Section6 should ensure they undertake appropriate duediligence prior to investment to make sure that theprograms they invest in align with their fundingstrategy and meet appropriate investment criteria.1 2

2 . i n t r o d u c t i o n2.4 Methodology used to preparethis ReportThe preparation of this Report has involved five stages:Stage 1 – Literature reviewA detailed literature review was undertaken and interviews were conducted withsubject matter experts to:–––understand the state of Indigenous education outcomes and collect backgrounddataidentify the factors contributing to these outcomesidentify the types of intervention that are effective in addressing these factors.Stage 2 – Program/response identificationA program review was conducted to identify examples of programs applying thesetypes of intervention and the service providers delivering them.This involved consultations with subject matter experts, internet-based research,a review of recommendations in research and policy papers, contact withCommonwealth, State and Territory Education Departments and Indigenousorganisations, as well as a range of philanthropic foundations that fund in this area.Stage 3 – Program/response investigationInterviews were then used to build an understanding of each of the aboveIntervention Categories and to identify Key Success Factors associated with thedelivery of higher impact programs and responses.The case studies provided in Section 6 are based on some of the programs that wereinvestigated. As noted above, the case studies in Section 6 are provided by wayof example only. Their inclusion in the Report should not, therefore, be seen as arecommendation for funding.Stage 4 – Framework development and draft report preparationThe information collected in Stages 1 to 3 was then used to develop the conceptualand intervention frameworks set out in this Report and a draft report was prepared.Stage 5 – Peer review and Report finalisationThe draft report was then reviewed by a panel of subject matter experts. Thefeedback and views of the Review Panel were used to inform the structure andcontent of the Final Report.1 3

3. BackgroundThis section sets the context for the Report. It looks at thepurpose of education and provides an overview of theAustralian education system and the Indigenous studentpopulation. It also provides a snapshot of the approachesthat government has adopted to address disparities inIndigenous versus non-Indigenous education outcomes.1 4

Bac kg ro u n dIssues relating to child development and educationIndigenous Australians continue to experience10 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.poorer outcomes than non-Indigenous Australiansacross most social and economic parameters. Onaverage Indigenous people live 17 years less than thenon-Indigenous population, their health is generallypoorer and they are approximately three times morehave been identified as key areas for strategicaction within this framework. Improved educationoutcomes are specifically identified in the frameworkas playing a key role in improving socio-economicstatus, health, wellbeing and social cohesion. 10likely to be unemployed. When they are employedtheir incomes are likely to be lower and they aremore likely to live in communities that are subject tosocial dysfunction. 7The Commonwealth Government has adopted astrategic framework through which to understand,address and report on issues of Indigenousdisadvantage. 8 This framework identifies a range ofheadline indicators in relation to the state (relativedisadvantage) of Indigenous people and identifiesseven focus areas for strategic action.Figure 3 Commonwealth Government’s strategic framework for addressing Indigenous disadvantage 9Key objectivesCurriculumSafe, healthy and supportivefamily environments with strongcommunities and cultural identityPositive child developmentand prevention of violence,crime and self-harmImproved wealth creation andeconomic sustainability forindividuals, families and communitiesHeadline indicators– Life expectancy– Disability and chronic disease– Years 10 and 12 school retentionand attainment– Post-secondary educationparticipation and attainment– Suicide and self-harm– Substantiated child abuseand neglect– Family and community violence– Deaths from homicide andhospitalisations for assault– Imprisonment and juvenile– Labour force participationand unemployment– Household and individual income– Home ownershipdetention ratesStrategic areas for actionEarly child Early school PositiveFunctionalEconomicdevelopment engagement &SubstanceEffectivechildhood andand resilientparticipationand growth performanceuse andenvironmentaltransition tofamilies andand(prenatal – (preschool –misusehealth systemsadulthoodcommunitiesdevelopment3 years)Year 3)Directly education related7 SCRGSP Overview 2007, pp.1–55; ABS 4704.0.8 SCRGSP 2007, pp.7–9.9Ibid.1 5

Bac kg ro u n d3.1 The objectives ofeducation3.2 The Australianeducation systemDefined in its broadest terms, education is theprovision of formal or informal instruction to developskills and to acquire knowledge, understanding,values and attitudes that will allow students tooperate effectively in society and to succeed in lifein personal, social and economic terms. 11An effective school education system supportsstudent development across a range of skill areas.It contributes to: 12––––––Academic attainment – based on the acquisitionof academic skills and qualifications thatdemonstrate individual ability and provide aplatform for further education, vocational trainingand employmentVocational preparation – based on theidentification of vocational interests and skillsthat prepare individuals for employmentSocial skills – based on the development ofbehavioural management, communicationand interpersonal skills that allow individualsto interact with other people and to buildfriendships and personal relationshipsEngagement as a citizen – based on anunderstanding of individual rights andresponsibilities, social institutions and valuesEmotional and spiritual wellbeing – based on thedevelopment of a sense of personal and culturalidentity and self-worthPhysical health – based on an understandingof how to manage personal and family health,maintain a healthy environment and accessavailable services to meet health needs.Under the Australian Constitution matters relatingto education are the responsibility of the Stateand Territory Governments. In practice, policy andfunding responsibility for education is sharedbetween the State, Territory and CommonwealthGovernments. 13Education policy is coordinated at a national levelthrough the Ministerial Council on Education,Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA).Current policy is based on the goals and objectivesset out in the National Goals for Schooling for the21st Century that was agreed by the MinisterialCouncil in 1999. Vocational and technical educationis specifically coordinated through the AustralianNational Training Authority Ministerial Council(ANTA MINCO). 14Responsibility for education funding is split, withthe State and Territory Governments having primaryresponsibility for funding government schoolsincluding preschool, primary and secondary schooland vocational training, and the CommonwealthGovernment having primary responsibility forfunding non-government/independent schools,registered training providers and tertiaryeducation. 15In most Australian States and Territories schoolingis compulsory for children aged between six and 15years 16 with compulsory education ending in Year9 or Year 10. Preschool attendance is not currentlycompulsory. 17There are some minor variations in the structureof the schooling systems across the differentStates and Territories in terms of the delineationbetween primary and secondary schooling and theterminology that is used to refer to different studentgroups (particularly in the preschool, middle schooland senior school years). However, the underlyingeducation system is similar.13 National Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education andTraining 2004. Department of Education, Science and Training.Commonwealth of Australia, 2004, pp.1–3. (DEST 2004)14 Ibid., pp.2–3.11 Council for the Australian Federation. The Future of Schooling inAustralia. Federalist Paper 2. April 2007, p.27. (CAF 2007)12 Ibid.; Steering Committee for the Review of Government ServiceProvision. Report on Government Services 2007, IndigenousCompendium. Canberra: Productivity Commission SCRGSP, 2007,p.22. (SCRGSP Compendium 2007)15 Ibid.16 ACT, QLD, NSW, VIC, NT 6–15 years, TAS and SA 6–16 years, WA6–17 years.17 SCRGSP 2007, p.6.3. The term preschool has been used to refer topreschool in ACT and NSW or kindergarten in QLD, VIC, TAS, SA andWA and transition in NT.1 6

Figure 4 Australian schools profile 18In 2006 there were9,612 schoolsoperating in Australia,the majority of whichwere governmentoperatedschools(72%).Chart 1 Australian schools breakdownIndependent 1,00710%Catholic 1,70318%Chart 2 Breakdown of schools by studentgroup coverageCombined Primaryand Secondary 1,18113%Secondary 1,47816%Government 6,90272%Primary 6,55871%Figure 5 Education system structure by jurisdiction 19Year Level ACT NSW VIC TAS QLD SA WA NTPre-Year 1 Kindergarten Kindergarten Prep.School Prep.School Preparatory Reception Pre-Primary TransitionYear 1CurriculumPrimary Primary Primary Primary Primary Primary Primary PrimarySchool School School School School School School SchoolYear 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Year 6Year 7 High School High School Secondary High School MiddleSchoolSchoolYear 8 High School Secondary/ High SchoolHigh SchoolYear 9Year 10High SchoolYear 11 College CollegeYear 12Preschool Primary school Secondary school18 Australian Bureau of Statistics. Schools Report. Cat. no. 4221.0.Canberra: ABS, 2006, pp.3, 7–8, 16. (ABS 4221.0)19 DEST 2004, p.30.1 7

Bac kg ro u n dAll States and Territories provide basic primary andsecondary education. Academic and vocationalstreams are available in all jurisdictions. Althoughcurriculum components are similar, they are notcurrently standardised, and so there is somevariation from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, and schoolto school. Differing tertiary entrance assessmentsystems are applied; however, cross-jurisdictionalrecognition is given to the different systems.Post-compulsory education is regulated within theAustralian Qualifications Framework (AQF) thatprovides a system of national qualifications inschools, vocational education and training and thehigher education sector.Tertiary education is provided in all States andTerritories as is Vocational Education and Training(VET) or Technical and Further Education (TAFE).VET and TAFE training options can be accessedthrough school-based programs or as a form of postsecondaryeducation. They typically target tradebasedcareers that do not require a university degree.Typically VET or TAFE courses take two to three yearsto complete.Tertiary and vocational qualifications are transferablebetween all States and Territories.Figure 6 Educational pathways map 20School-BasedPathwaysNon School-BasedPathwaysSchool-BasedAcademic StreamSchool-BasedVET StreamExtensionLearningSpecial NeedsSupportAlternativeLearningProgramsAlternativeLearningProgramsStandard schoolcertificate curriculumor equivalentACT – Year 12 CertificateQLD – Senior CertificateNSW – Higher SchoolCertificateVIC – VictorianCertificate of EducationTAS – TasmanianCertificate of EducationSA – South AustralianCertificate of EducationWA – Western AustralianCertificate of EducationNT – Northern TerritoryCertificate of EducationVocational educationcertificate, applied learningand industry internshipsQLD, VIC and SA –accredited VET from Year 10and from Year 9 in WADualTargetedCurriculum – Curriculum –offered as offereda parallel throughtrack to the specialistacademic schools (e.g.stream within technicala school colleges)Extensionlearningprogramsprovided togifted studentsSpecialist teachingsupport providedto high-need orat-risk students(e.g. AboriginalEducation Workers,Youth Counsellors)1:1 servicesprovided to highneedor at-riskgroups(e.g. mentoring,case management,individual learningpathways etc.)Specialistprograms thatprovide remedialeducationsupport toat-risk andgifted studentsSpecialist programsthat provide supportto disengaged or at-riskstudents to re-engagestudents in school,provide alternativeeducation in a nonschoolenvironment,support transitionsfrom school to workPathway to connectto further educationor employmentPathway toconnect tofurthereducation oremploymentPathway toconnect tofurthervocationaltraining oremploymentPathway toreconnectwithschoolingPathwayto enteremployment20 Social Ventures Australia. Big Picture Company Australia: BriefingPaper, January 2007, p.13. (SVA 2007)1 8

3.3 The Indigenous student population3.3.1 Overall Indigenous population –a contextual overviewCensus data in 2006 indicates that Australia hasan estimated Indigenous population of 517,200people, equating to approximately 2.5% of the totalAustralian population. 21The Indigenous population is growing atapproximately 2% per annum, twice the rate of thegeneral population. 22Figure 7 Indigenous population by State and Territory 23WA 15% NT 13%TAS 3%SA 5%VIC 6%QLD 28%ACT 1%NSW 29%Indigenous Population NT QLD NSW ACT VIC SA TAS WAApproximate Population 67,236 144,816 149,988 5,172 31,032 25,860 15,516 77,580% Total Indigenous Population 13% 28% 29% 1% 6% 5% 3% 15%% State or Territory Population 31.6% 3.6% 2.2% 1.2% 0.6% 1.7% 3.4% 3.8%Figure 8 Indigenous population distribution based onThe majority of Indigenous people in Australia livestandard remoteness scales 25in major cities and urban centres (31%). The balanceof the Indigenous population is reasonably evenlydistributed across regional and remote areas. JustRemote/Very remoteMajor citiesunder a quarter (24%) of the Indigenous populationlives in remote or very remote locations. 2424%31%Outer regionalInner regional23%22%21 Australian Bureau of Statistics. Population Distribution, Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander Australians. Cat. no. 4705.0. Canberra: ABS,2006. (ABS 4705.0)22 Ministerial Council for Education, Employment, Training andYouth Affairs AESOC Senior Officials Working Party on IndigenousEducation. Australian Directions in Indigenous Education 2005–2008MCEETYA, 2006, pp.11, 15. (MCEETYA 2006)23 ABS 4705.0.24 Ibid. The remoteness structure shown here is based on the AustralianStandard Geographical Classification (ASGC) used by the ABS.There are five major categories of Remoteness Area: Major Cities ofAustralia, Inner Regional Australia, Outer Regional Australia, RemoteAustralia and Very Remote Australia, together with a residualMigratory category.25 Ibid.1 9

Bac kg ro u n dFigure 9 Comparison Indigenous and non-Indigenous population age profile 26Estimated resident population by ageMalesAge groupsFemales75+70–7465–6960–6455–5950–5445–4940–4435–3930–3425–2920–2415–1910–145–90–43.3.2 Student population profileTwenty-seven per cent of the total Indigenouspopulation (140,381 people) were enrolled as fulltimestudents in 2006, making up approximately 4%of the total full-time student population. 29The majority of those Indigenous students (64.8%)were enrolled in primary school (compared to 57.2%for the non-Indigenous student population). 30Over 90% of Indigenous students were aged 15years or less (15 years of age being the age at whichcompulsory schooling ends for most students inYear 9 or 10). 31 The bias in the age of the Indigenousstudent population reflects the higher rate at whichIndigenous students drop out of school following thecompletion of compulsory schooling in Year 9 or 10. 32services required to meet the needs of this group. 28 15 yearsFigure 10 Indigenous secondary student population 337 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 % 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 719 years and over12 years and underIndigenousNon-Indigenous31818 years5,66613 yearsThe Indigenous population overall is younger than the non-Indigenous population. 72311,50417 yearsThe median age of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population (21 years)3,560is considerably lower than that of the non-Indigenous Australian population (36years). Almost half of the Indigenous population is approaching or of school age. 2716 years14 yearsThe lower age profile of the Indigenous population has implications for the6,69011,225proportion of the population that is (or should be) at school and the support9,683Figure 9 Indigenous secondary student population 34Indigenous Student 12 Years 13 years 14 Years 15 Years 16 Years 17 Years 18 Years 19 Years Total % TotalPopulation and under and overPrimary School 90,396 598 18 – – – – – 91,012 64.8%Secondary School 5,666 11,504 11,225 9,683 6,690 3,560 723 318 49,369 35.2%Total 96,062 12,102 11,243 9,683 6,690 3,560 723 318 140,381 100%Percentage of Population 68.4% 8.6% 8.0% 6.9% 4.8% 2.6% 0.5% 0.2% 100% –26 Australian Bureau of Statistics. Population Characteristics ofAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians. Cat. no. 4713.0.Canberra: ABS, 2001. (ABS 4713.0)27 ABS 4713.0; ABS 4704.0; Department of Health and Ageing.Department of Health and Ageing Factbook 2006. (DHA 2006)28 MCEETYA 2006, p.11.29 ABS 4221.0, p.18.30 Ibid., p.17.31 ABS 4221.0, p.17.32 SCRGSP 2007, pp.7.22–7.23.33 ABS 4221.0, p.17.2 0

Figure 11 Indigenous versus non-Indigenous secondary school student population profile 341412108611.811.0School context9.46.868.6% Drop instudent numbers300250200150161.1263.0 260.8 258.4228.026.7% Drop192.74204.63.72.110050018.5Year 7Year 8Year 9Year 10Year 11Year 12 UngradedYear 7Year 8Year 9Year 10Year 11Year 12 UngradedIndigenousNon-IndigenousThe majority of Indigenous students are enrolled ingovernment schools. 35In most cases Indigenous students make up onlya very small percentage of their school’s studentbase (which is not unexpected given the size ofthe overall Indigenous population). Approximatelythree quarters (74.9%) of Australian schools provideeducation to one or more Indigenous students andin over half of those schools Indigenous studentsrepresent 5% or less of the school population. 36The number of Indigenous staff operating in schoolsis also low. Although the number of Indigenousteachers is increasing, the proportion of Indigenousteachers and staff working in individual schools isusually smaller than the proportion of Indigenousstudents. 3734 Ibid.35 MCEETYA 2006, p.15; SRCGSP Compendium 2007, p.24.36 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.25.37 Ibid., p.32.2 1

Bac kg ro u n d3.4 Government-based Indigenous-specificeducation initiativesAustralian Governments have recognised the needto address disparities between Indigenous and non-Indigenous students’ education outcomes. 38Specific government policy objectives in relation toIndigenous education are set out in the NationalAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander EducationPolicy (AEP). This Policy has been endorsed by theCommonwealth, State and Territory Governmentsand forms the foundation of all governmentIndigenous education programs. It sets out 21long-term national goals for the improvementof Indigenous education. These goals have beenlegislated for in the Indigenous Education (TargetedAssistance) Act 2000. In particular, the AEP aims tomake the level of education access, participationand outcomes for Indigenous people equal to thatof other Australians. 39National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Policy Goals 40Involvement of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in educationaldecision-making1. To establish effective arrangements for the participation of Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander parents and community members in decisionsregarding the planning, delivery and evaluation of preschool, primary andsecondary education services for their children.2. To increase the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peopleemployed as educational administrators, teachers, curriculum advisers,teachers assistants, home–school liaison officers and other educationworkers, including community people engaged in teaching Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander culture, history and contemporary society, andAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages.3. To establish effective arrangements for the participation of Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander students and community members in decisionsregarding the planning, delivery and evaluation of post-school educationservices, including technical and further education colleges and highereducation institutions.4. To increase the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peopleemployed as administrators, teachers, researchers and student servicesofficers in technical and further education colleges and higher educationinstitutions.5. To provide education and training services to develop the skills ofAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to participate in educationaldecision-making.6. To develop arrangements for the provisions of independent advice fromAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities regarding educationaldecisions at regional, State, Territory and National levels.Equality of access to education services7. To ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children of pre-primaryschool age have access to preschool services on a basis comparable to thatavailable to other Australian children of the same age.8. To ensure that all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children have localaccess to primary and secondary schooling.9. To ensure equitable access of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderpeople to post-compulsory secondary schooling, to technical and furthereducation, and to higher education.38 CAF 2007, p.23; MCEEYTA 2006, p.4.39 DEST 2004, pp.2–3 and 149–150.40 Ibid., pp.149–150.2 2

Equity of educational participation10. To achieve the participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander childrenin preschool education for a period similar to that for other Australianchildren.11. To achieve the participation of all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderchildren in compulsory schooling.12. To achieve the participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoplein post-secondary education, in technical and further education, and inhigher education, at rates commensurate with those of other Australians inthose sectors.Equitable and appropriate educational outcomes13. To provide adequate preparation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanderchildren through preschool education for the schooling years ahead.14. To enable Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander attainment of skills to thesame standard as other Australian students throughout the compulsoryschooling years.15. To enable Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students to attain thesuccessful completion of Year 12 or equivalent at the same rates as forother Australian students.16. To enable Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students to attain the samegraduation rates from award courses in technical and further education,and in higher education, as other Australians.17. To develop programs to support the maintenance and continued use ofAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages.18. To provide community education services which enable Aboriginaland Torres Strait Islander people to develop the skills to manage thedevelopment of their communities.19. To enable the attainment of proficiency in the English language andnumeracy competencies by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults withlimited or no educational experience.Pursuant to these goals Commonwealth and Stateand Territory Government policies have sought toimprove/strengthen:– preschool access and attendance as aprecondition of ‘school readiness’– school attendance– the quality of school leadership and teaching– the design and delivery of culturally relevantand capability appropriate curriculum andteaching approaches– literacy and numeracy outcomes– post-school transitions into employment throughthe delivery of improved school and non-schoolbasedvocational and employment pathways– school, family and community partnershipsto support improved school attendance,engagement, retention and attainment. 41Examples of the above activities are reflected inCommonwealth Government funded initiativesunder the National Indigenous English Literacy andNumeracy Strategy (NIELNS) (e.g. Scaffolding Literacyprograms) 42 and the Indigenous Education StrategicInitiative Program (IESIP) (e.g. What Works and Dareto Lead programs) implemented under the previousCommonwealth Government. 43Ongoing commitment to those areas is reflectedat a national level in the recommendations to theMinisterial Council on Education, Employment,Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) for the 2005–2008 quadrennium endorsed by the MinisterialCouncil. 44 These recommendations identified sixareas for focus in Indigenous education.20. To enable Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students at all levels ofeducation to have an appreciation of their history, culture and identity.21. To provide all Australian students with an understanding of and respect forAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander traditional and contemporary cultures.41 MCEETYA 2006; National Indigenous Education and Training Strategy2005–2008. http://www.dest.gov.au (IETS); National IndigenousEnglish Literacy and Numeracy Strategy. http://www.dest.gov.au(NIELNS)42 NIELNS43 IETS44 MCEETYA 2006, pp.5–10. Cross-government endorsement of theprinciples outlined in the above document means that they areunlikely to change as a result of the recent transition in FederalGovernment. It is not yet clear whether the approach to how thoseareas are addressed through Federal Government policy, fundingand coordination mechanisms will change.2 3

Bac kg ro u n dTable 1 – Australian Directions in Indigenous Education 2005–2008 45Focus AreasIdentified PrioritiesEarly childhood– Provide all Indigenous children with access to two years of high-quality earlyeducationchildhood education prior to formal schooling– Develop and implement educational programs that respect and valueIndigenous culture, languages (including Aboriginal English) and contexts;explicitly teach standard Australian English and prepare Indigenous childrenfor formal schooling– Provide opportunities for Indigenous parents and care givers to develop skillsto support the development of their children’s literacy skills and to allowparents and care givers to play an active role in the education of their childrenSchool and community – Promote the value of formal educationeducational partnerships – Encourage the development of school, parent and community partnershipsthat encourage Indigenous parents and communities to work with schools toaddress local attendance, retention and attainment issues– Increase parent and community involvement in the design and delivery ofIndigenous schooling (particularly in schools with significant Indigenousstudent cohorts or local Indigenous communities)Schooling curriculum – Tailor curriculum to meet student requirements (i.e. through the design andand approachdelivery of culturally relevant and capability appropriate curricula) whilemaintaining high educational standardsSchool leadership – Include learning outcomes for Indigenous students as a key part of theaccountability framework for school principals and teaching staff– Review and improve incentives that attract and retain high-quality principalsto schools with significant Indigenous student cohorts or local Indigenouscommunities– Implement strategies that recognise high-performing schools and principals– Provide accredited school leadership and teacher-training programs thatdevelop school leadersQuality teaching – Provide accredited pre- and in-service teacher training that includes culturalawareness and specialist teaching skills tailored to Indigenous student needs(e.g. English as a Second Language)– Review and improve incentives that attract and retain high-quality teachersPathways to training, – Design and deliver mentoring, counselling and work-readiness programs thatemployment andprovide culturally inclusive and intensive vocational development support inhigher educationsecondary school to assist Indigenous students to transition from school intopost-school education, training or employment– Improve vocational learning opportunities for Indigenous students from Year10 onwards– Expand trade-based training– Strengthen school to tertiary education support programs45 Ibid., pp.5-10.2 4

4. Indigenous educationoutcomesThis section looks at the status of IndigenousEducation Outcomes. It outlines the performance ofIndigenous students against a range of educationoutcomes including school attendance, retention,performance, post-school qualifications, labourforce participation and employment, socioeconomicstatus and individual wellbeing.2 5

i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e s‘While Indigenous student outcomes have improved incrementallyover recent decades, marked disparities continue to exist betweenIndigenous and non-Indigenous student outcomes. Poor results limitthe post-school options and life choices of students, perpetuatingintergenerational cycles of social and economic disadvantage.’ 46The outcomes of effective education can beconsidered at multiple levels. At the most basiclevel education engages students and encouragesparticipation in learning, which is reflected inschool attendance and retention. At the next levelit promotes the development of skills and theacquisition of knowledge, which is reflected instudent achievement and performance. Studentperformance in turn influences the capacity ofstudents to access post-school qualifications. Thesequalifications, combined with school performance,influence labour force participation andemployment, which in turn influence socio-economicstatus and individual health and wellbeing.Figure 12 Education outcomes – conceptual frameworkOutcomesSixth OrderFifth OrderCurriculumIndividualWellbeingSocio-economicStatusFourth OrderLabour Force Participationand EmploymentThird OrderPost-School QualificationSecond OrderSchool Performance / AchievementFirst OrderSchool AttendanceSchool Retention46 CAF 2007, p.23.2 6

The achievement of higher order outcomes isdependent on the achievement of the lower orderoutcomes on which they are built.It is important to acknowledge that there has beenimprovement in Indigenous education outcomesover the last decade. Indigenous participation ineducation has increased across all education levels(schools, universities, and vocational educationand training) as has the number of studentsgraduating from Year 12 and attaining postschoolqualifications. 47 However, this progresshas been slow and significant disparities betweenthe education outcomes of Indigenous and non-Indigenous students continue to exist. 48In Australia today Indigenous students at all levelscontinue to experience worse education outcomesthan non-Indigenous students. 49 Indigenousstudents demonstrate lower school attendance,retention and achievement than non-Indigenousstudents across all age groups and all States andTerritories. 50 Post-school qualification, labourforce participation and employment rates are alsolower. 51 Indigenous employees are more likelyto be employed in lower skilled occupations thannon-Indigenous employees, Indigenous employees’incomes are likely to be lower 52 , their health isgenerally poorer, their life expectancy is lower andthey are more likely to live in communities that aresubject to social dysfunction. 53Indigenous children in remote areas tend to haveeven lower rates of school attendance, retention andachievement, and lower post-school outcomes thanthose in non-remote areas. 54Indigenous Australians:– are less likely to get a preschool education– are well behind in literacy and numeracy skills development beforethey leave primary school– have less access to secondary school in the communities in whichthey live– are absent from school two to three times more often thanother students– leave school much younger– are less than half as likely to go through to Year 12– are far more likely to be doing bridging and basic entry programs inuniversities and vocational education and training institutions– obtain fewer and lower-level education qualifications– are far less likely to get a job, even when they have the samequalifications as others– earn less income– have poorer housing– experience more and graver health problems– have higher mortality rates than other AustraliansThe need to address the gap between Indigenousand non-Indigenous outcomes across each of theabove areas has been recognised in the COAGNational Reform Agenda and the MCEETYAquadrennial statement on National Directions inIndigenous Education 2005–2008. 56Overview of the current state of Indigenous education outcomes 55 2 747 ABS 4704.0; ABS 4221.0; MCEETYA, 2006, pp.4, 11.48 MCEETYA 2006, p.11.49 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.4.50 SCRGSP 2007, pp.13–14.51 Ibid., pp.14–16, 13.2, 13.11.52 Australian Bureau of Statistics. Labour Force Characteristics ofAboriginals and Torres Strait Islander Australians. Cat. no. 6287.0.Canberra: ABS, 2006. (ABS 6287.0)53 SCRGSP Overview 2007, pp.12, 18–23; ABS 4704.0.Sub-sections 4.1 – 4.7 of this Report provide moreinformation in relation to the current state ofIndigenous education outcomes against eachof the key outcome areas identified in Figure12. A discussion of the factors contributing tothese outcomes is set out in Section 5. A range ofinterventions to address these issues is outlinedin Section 6.54 SCRGSP 2007, p.6.9.55 National Indigenous English Literacy and Numeracy Strategy.Supporting Statement from Indigenous Supporters of the NIELNS.http://www.dest.gov.au (NIELNS SS)56 SCRGSP 2007, p.6.3; COAG National Reform Agenda: Human Capital,Competition and Regulatory Reform, Communique 14. Canberra, July2006. (COAG 2006); MCEETYA 2006, pp.1–32.

i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e s4.1 AttendanceOutcome AreasPreschool participation(enrolment) 57Preschool attendance 58School readiness 59School participation(enrolment)School attendanceKey Performance Indicators– Indigenous children aged 3 to 5 years aremarginally less likely to be enrolled in preschool(25%) than non-Indigenous children (29%)– Preschool attendance is significantly lowerfor Indigenous children than for non-Indigenous children– Indigenous children who do attend preschool donot demonstrate the same level of literacy andnumeracy skills as non-Indigenous children– School participation rates for Indigenouschildren aged 5 to 8 years (Years 1 to 3) (97%)are marginally higher than those for non-Indigenous children (94%) 60– Indigenous school participation rates throughhigher primary and secondary school are lowerthan those for non-Indigenous students 61– Indigenous participation rates drop offmuch more rapidly than non-Indigenousstudent numbers following the completion ofcompulsory schooling in Year 9 or 10 62– School attendance is lower for Indigenousstudents with Indigenous students likely tobe absent from primary and secondary schooltwo to three times more often than non-Indigenous students 63– The gap in school attendance appears early inprimary school and widens in the early yearsof secondary school 644.1.1 Preschool attendanceResearch indicates that access to early childhoodeducation has a positive impact on educationoutcomes. Children who attend preschool formore than one year show statistically significantimprovements in performance in later school yearscompared to students not attending preschool. 65Data indicates that Indigenous children aremarginally less likely to be enrolled in preschool thannon-Indigenous children. In 2005 approximately 25%of Indigenous children aged three to five years wereenrolled in preschool compared to approximately29% of non-Indigenous children. 66The ability to assess attendance – as distinct fromenrolments – on a national level is limited due toconstraints in existing data collection techniquesthat focus on enrolments rather than attendance.Where attendance data is collected, variations in theways in which absences are defined and recordedmake comprehensive analysis difficult.Although available attendance data is limited,anecdotal evidence suggests that attendance ratesfor Indigenous students enrolled in preschool aresignificantly lower than those for non-Indigenousstudents. 67The lower attendance rate, combined with the lowerenrolment rate, translates into a significant disparityin real access to early childhood education.57 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.29.58 SCRGSP 2007, pp.6.3–6.459 MCEETYA 2006, p.18.60 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.30.61 SCRGSP Compendium 2007, p.27.62 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.30.63 Zubrick et al. 2006, pp.113ff; Bourke C, Rigby K, Burden J. BetterPractice in School Attendance: Improving the School Attendance ofIndigenous Students. Commonwealth Department of Education,Training and Youth Affairs, 2000, pp.1, 12. (Bourke et al. 2000)64 Bourke et al. 2000, p.13.65 SCRGSP 2007, p.6.1; Kronemann M. Universal Preschool Educationfor Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children. AEU Briefing Paper2007, p.4. (Kronemann 2007a)66 SCRGSP 2007, p.6.5.67 Ibid., pp.6.3-6.4.2 8

4.1.2 School attendanceResearch indicates that regular school attendanceis important, with high levels of absenteeism beingassociated with reduced learning and retentionoutcomes. 68As with preschool, anecdotal evidence suggeststhat attendance rates are significantly lower forIndigenous students than for non-Indigenousstudents. 69 The number of days absent forIndigenous students has been estimated to be twoto three times greater than for non-Indigenousstudents. 70The gap in school attendance appears early inprimary school and widens in the early years ofsecondary school. 71Rates of non-attendance (absenteeism) are reportedto be higher in more isolated, traditionally orientedcommunities. 72Factors impacting attendance in remote schools 73A study of Indigenous student attendance inremote schools in the central desert regionof Australia (Desert Schools Project, NationalLanguage and Literacy Institute of Australia 1996)reported that:‘[I]n all communities but one, student attendancewas low and irregular, with sometimes as manyunexplained absences as attendances.’In some cases variations in attendance in remotecommunities have been mapped to seasonalfactors – suggesting that improved attendancelevels could be achieved by adjusting schoolcalendars and timetables to better fit withcommunity practices.‘Attendance typically rises … during the wet seasonas people move from the homeland centre to(the regional centre) and then falls during the dryseason as people disperse and become involved inhunting, gathering and ceremonial activity.’Indigenous student perspectives on school and schoolattendance 74‘I did actually [turn up at school] … every day butwe [sic] didn’t learn much.I ended up in the top class for Years 7 and 8 eventhough I couldn’t read or write.A typical day at high school involved my cousinsand I taking some golf clubs to school and hidingthem in the bushes early in the morning. Wewould then go and sign the attendance book inthe office and disappear to the golf course forthe day. At the end of the school day about 3pmwe would go back to school and sign out theattendance book … The official records at a schoollike this indicate a high attendance record, but thereality, of course, is that kids just sign the bookand then disappear.There wasn’t much learning going on. In fact,there wasn’t really anyone in the classroom, andnobody seemed to care about that much.’ 75An Indigenous student describing his experienceat school prior to accepting a scholarship at StJoseph’s College Hunters Hill where at the age of15 he learned to read and write for the first time.Lower attendance rates have been identified as a keyfactor in the poorer educational outcomes achievedby Indigenous students. 75 It should be noted,however, that even where attendance levels are inline with overall community standards, Indigenousstudent outcomes tend to remain lower than thoseof non-Indigenous students (see Sub-section 4.3 inrelation to student performance and achievement).68 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.1ff; SCRGSP 2007, p.6.1.69 SCRGSP 2007, p.6.6; Zubrick et al. 2006, pp.113ff.70 Zubrick et al. 2006, pp.113ff; Bourke et al. 2000, pp.1, 12.71 Bourke et al. 2000, p.13.72 Ibid., p.12.73 Ibid, pp.3–4.74 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. Report of theNational Inquiry into the Separation of Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Children from Their Families. Commonwealth Governmentof Australia, 1997, p.147. (HREOC 1997)75 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.1ff.2 9

i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e s4.2 RetentionOutcome AreasSchool retention andcompletionKey Performance Indicators– Indigenous students leave school earlier thannon-Indigenous students– In 2005 22% of the Indigenous population hadcompleted Year 12 compared to 47% of the non-Indigenous population 76– In 2006 the retention rate from Years 7/8(commencement of secondary school) to Year 9for Indigenous students was 98.4% compared to100% for non-Indigenous students 77– The retention rate from Years 7/8 to Years 10 and12 was 91% and 40% for Indigenous studentscompared to 99% and 76% for non-Indigenousstudents respectively 78– By Year 12 the gap in apparent school retentionrates between Indigenous and non-Indigenousstudents was between 30 and 40% withIndigenous students being around half as likelyas non-Indigenous students to complete Year 12schooling 79– Many of those Indigenous students who leaveschool early have poor literacy and numeracyskills and limited post-school options 80For most students, compulsory schooling ends duringYear 9 or 10. Compulsory schooling requirementsare reflected in relatively high school enrolment andapparent retention rates for both Indigenous andnon-Indigenous students through to Year 9, althoughIndigenous retention levels remain lower than thosefor non-Indigenous students. 84Grade retention data between primary andsecondary school are limited; however, anecdotaldata indicate that there is some drop-off in schoolenrolment between primary and secondary school. 85Indigenous secondary school enrolment andretention rates for Indigenous students are clearlylower than for non-Indigenous students. 86 In 2006the retention rate from Year 7/8 (commencement ofsecondary school) to Year 9 for Indigenous studentswas 98.4% compared to 100% for non-Indigenousstudents. 87Indigenous student enrolment and retentiondrop significantly from Year 10 when compulsoryschooling ends. 88That drop-off is reflected in the gap betweenIndigenous and non-Indigenous students’ retentionthat starts to appear in Year 10 and growssignificantly by Year 12. 89School completion is linked to economic and socialwellbeing. Research indicates that students who stayon at school and complete Year 12 are much morelikely to undertake additional education and trainingand to have more, and better, employment andcareer options. 81Although the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous retention has reduced over recent years itremains high and is viewed by experts as a key factorlimiting Indigenous students’ post-school options. 82Figure 13 – Indigenous versus non-Indigenous school retention from Years 7/8for full-time students by year level (2006) 83Apparent Retention Indigenous Non-Indigenous Differenceto Year LevelYear 9 98.4 100.0 (1.6)Year 10 91.4 98.9 (7.5)Year 11 67.7 88.8 (21.1)Year 12 0.1 75.9 (35.8)In 2006 the retention rate from Years 7/8 to Years 10and 12 was 91% and 40% for Indigenous studentscompared to 99% and 76% for non-Indigenousstudents respectively. 90Data suggest that Indigenous students have asignificantly higher rate of suspension than non-Indigenous students and are up to three times morelikely to be suspended, expelled or alternativelyplaced (i.e. in another school) than non-Indigenousstudents. 91 In many cases this is linked to disciplinaryaction relating to attendance and behaviouralissues which are often linked to breakdowns incommunication/cross-cultural misunderstandingsbetween teachers and students.76 84 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.15. SCRGSP 2007., p.7.24.77 85 ABS 4221.0, p.31.C Atkins, Victorian Council for78 Ibid.Social Service.7986Ibid.SCRGSP 2007, p.34, 7.24.8087SCRGSP 2007, p.7.22; Zubrick etABS 4221.0, p.31.88al. 2006, p.116.Ibid.; SCRGSP 2007, p.34.81 89 SCRGSP 2007, pp.21–22.ABS 4221.0, p.31; SCRGSP 2007,82 Ibid.p.34.8390ABS 4221.0, p.31.Ibid.91 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.13, 15.3 0

4.3 Student performance and achievementOutcome AreasLiteracy and numeracy 92Tertiary entrancequalificationKey Performance Indicators 93– Indigenous students perform significantly belowmainstream numeracy and literacy levels– Indigenous student performance against Years3, 5 and 7 national literacy and numeracybenchmarks is generally about 20% lower thanthe national average– Over 50% of Indigenous Year 7 students do notmeet numeracy benchmarks– Approximately 35% of Indigenous Year 7students do not meet literacy (reading/writing)benchmarks– As Indigenous students progress throughschool the proportion who achieve the nationalbenchmark standard decreases (i.e. theproportion of Indigenous students who meetthe national benchmark drops significantlybetween Year 3 and Year 7)– Proportionately more Indigenous studentsparticipate in vocationally streamed curriculathan non-Indigenous students– Proportionately fewer Indigenous studentscompleting Year 12 achieve a Year 12 certificateor meet the requirements for tertiary entrancethan non-Indigenous studentsNumeracy and literacy have been recognised asimportant contributors to school attendance andas key indicators for student performance, Years 10and 12 retention, post-secondary education andemployment. 94Disparities in Indigenous and non-Indigenousstudent learning performance are identifiable fromYear 1 and are maintained throughout primary andmiddle school. 95The percentage of Indigenous students not meetingnational benchmark standards for numeracy, readingand comprehension and writing at Years 3, 5 and 7is significantly higher than that of non-Indigenousstudents. 96As Indigenous students progress through school theproportion of students not achieving the nationalminimum benchmark standard increases.Students not meeting benchmark standards willhave difficulty with school.In 2005 over 50% of Year 7 Indigenous studentswere not meeting numeracy benchmarks andapproximately 35% were not meeting literacy(reading/writing) benchmarks. 97Table 2 – Percentage of Indigenous versus non-Indigenous student population NOTmeeting National Numeracy and Literacy Benchmarks (2005)Year Level Competency Area Student GroupIndigenousOverallYear 3 Numeracy 20% 6%Reading and Viewing 22% 7%Writing 26% 7%Year 5 Numeracy % 9%Reading and Viewing 37% 13%Writing 26% 7%Year 7 Numeracy 51% 18%Reading and Viewing 36% 10%Writing 6% 8%92 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.33; MCEETYA 2006, pp.13–14.93 Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and YouthAffairs, 2005. National Report on Schooling in Australia 2005:Preliminary Paper: National Benchmark Results Reading, Writing andNumeracy Years 3, 5 and 7., pp.5ff. (MCEETYA 2005).94 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.2.95 Ibid., p.6.9.96 MCEETYA 2005., pp.5ff.97 SCRGSP 2007, pp.7.5ff.3 1

i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e s4.4 Post-secondary qualificationsOutcome AreasPost-secondaryqualifications 98Key Performance Indicators– Indigenous students obtain fewer post-schoolqualifications than non-Indigenous students– Indigenous people are half as likely as non-Indigenous people to have completed a postsecondaryqualification of Certificate Level IIIor above– Students obtaining post-secondaryqualifications tend to obtain lower levelqualifications than non-Indigenous students(i.e. Indigenous enrolments tend to be inlower level (Certificate I and II) qualificationsrather than higher level qualifications(Certificate III and above))– Indigenous completion rates for higher levelqualifications (Certificate III and above)are lower (55%) than for non-Indigenousstudents (80%)– Labour force participation rates for bothIndigenous and non-Indigenous people aged18 and over are much higher for people with aCertificate III vocational qualification or higherAlthough Indigenous participation in vocationaltraining and tertiary education has increased inrecent years it remains relatively low compared tothe non-Indigenous population. 99Indigenous people in all age groups are still less likelythan non-Indigenous people to have a vocational orhigher education (non-school) qualification with over70% of Indigenous people aged 15 years and overhaving no non-school qualifications, compared to49.5% of non-Indigenous people. 100Indigenous student participation in vocationaleducation and training (VET) is broadly in line withpopulation, with Indigenous students constitutingapproximately 3% of the total student populationenrolled in VET courses. 101 However, Indigenousstudents’ module completion rates are relativelylow compared to those of non-Indigenous students(in 2003, the rate of VET module completions forIndigenous students was 65%, compared to 78% ofthe total VET student population). 102 The disparityin course completion has been attributed in part tolower school completion and attainment levels andbasic numeracy and literacy deficits.Indigenous students are under-represented in thehigher education sector comprising approximately1% of the total higher education population. 103 Someeducators have raised concerns that the growth ofVET programs in schools, while making an importantcontribution to educational and employmentoutcomes, is contributing to the diversion ofIndigenous students away from tertiary education.The Western Australian Aboriginal Child HealthSurvey 2006 notes that anecdotal evidence fromIndigenous students suggests that some schoolsare providing Indigenous students with informationrelating to VET courses without providing them withinformation relating to their tertiary options. 10498SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.16; MCEETYA 2006, p.14.99MCEETYA 2006, p.11.100 SCRGSP 2007, p.13.11.101 ABS 4704.0.102 Ibid.; Hunter B, Schwab R. Practical Reconciliation and ContinuingDisadvantage in Indigenous Education. The Drawing Board: AnAustralian Review of Public Affairs, 2003, Nov: 4(2), pp.83–98.(Hunter et al. 2003)103 ABS 4704.0.104 Zubrick et al. 2006, p.xxix.3 2

4.5 Labour force participation and employment(positive transitions from school to work)Outcome AreasLabour forceparticipationEmployment rateEmployment profileKey Performance Indicators 105– Labour force participation rates for Indigenouspeople (58.8%) are lower than for non-Indigenous people (65%)– Indigenous people aged 18 to 24 years wereapproximately three times more likely not to beparticipating in the labour force or undertakingpost-school education or vocational trainingcompared to non-Indigenous people in the sameage group– Unemployment rates for Indigenous people(14.3%) are approximately three times the ratefor non-Indigenous people (4.7%)– Indigenous people are more likely than non-Indigenous people to be employed part-time(35% compared to 28%)– Indigenous people are more likely to beemployed in lower skilled occupations (26%)than non-Indigenous people (16%)Labour force participation (defined as working orlooking for work) provides an indication of both thedesire for paid work and the ability to obtain andperform paid work.Labour force participation rates are lower forIndigenous people (58.8%) than for non-Indigenouspeople (65%) across all eligible age groups. 106Indigenous unemployment rates (14.3%) areapproximately three times the rate for non-Indigenous people (4.7%). 107People aged 18 to 24 who are not involved inemployment, post-school education or training havebeen identified as being at higher risk of long-termdisadvantage. 108As is the case with respect to post-secondaryeducation, the disparity in labour force participationand employment has been attributed in part tolower school completion and attainment levels andbasic numeracy and literacy deficits.105 ABS 6287.0.106 Ibid.107 Ibid.108 Ibid.3 3

i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e s4.6 Socio-economic statusOutcome AreasHousehold andindividual incomeHome ownershipKey Performance Indicators– In 2001 the mean gross household weeklyIndigenous income ($364) was approximately38% lower than the mean non-Indigenousincome ($585) 109– 45% of the Indigenous population falls withinthe lowest quintile (20%) for gross householdweekly income compared to 19.3% for the non-Indigenous population 110– 72% of the Indigenous population is in eitherthe lowest or second lowest income quintile andonly 5% are in the highest 111– In 2004–5 over half of the Indigenouspopulation (52%) received most of theirindividual income from government pensionsand allowances, 34% from salaries and wagesand 10% from community developmentemployment projects. 112– In 2002 (the most recent year in whichcomparable data are available) 27% ofIndigenous adults lived in homes owned orbeing purchased by a member of their familycompared to 74% of non-Indigenous adults 113– In 2001 10% of Indigenous households and 22%of Indigenous people aged 15 years and overlived in overcrowded housing (six times morethan among the non-Indigenous population) 114– In 2004–5 25% of Indigenous people aged 15years and over lived in overcrowded housing 115– Indigenous homelessness rates (2%) are3.5 times the rate for the non-Indigenouspopulation 116Indigenous people generally have poorer socioeconomicoutcomes than the non-Indigenouspopulation. The disparity in status is reflectedin lower than average levels of household andindividual income and home ownership, and highlevels of household overcrowding and homelessness.The areas of disadvantage described in this table areaffected by a range of factors, of which education isone. This Report does not go into detail in relation tothe areas covered in the table. Further informationon these areas can be obtained from the OvercomingIndigenous Disadvantage: Key Indicators Report for2007 117 prepared by the Productivity Commission.109 ABS 4713.0.110 Australian Bureau of Statistics. Year Book Australia. Cat. no. 1301.0.Canberra: ABS, 2004. (ABS 1301.0)111 ABS 4713.0.112 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.18.113 Ibid., p.19.114 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Indigenous HousingNeeds 2005: A Multimeasure Needs Model. Cat. no. HOU 129.Canberra: AHIW, 2005, pp.2, 94. (AHIW 2005)115 Ibid., pp.2, 94.116 Ibid., p.2.117 SCRGSP 2007.3 4

4.7 Individual wellbeingOutcome AreasLife expectancyat birth 118Health, disability andchronic disease 119Suicide and self-harm 120Substantiated childabuse and neglect 121Family and communityviolence 122Deaths from homicideand hospitalisations forassault 123Imprisonment andjuvenile detentionrates 124Key Performance Indicators– Average Indigenous life expectancy is approximately 17 years lower than for the total Australianpopulation– Indigenous infant mortality rates are two to three times higher than for the total infant population– Death rates from external causes and preventable diseases are approximately five times higher forIndigenous children than for non-Indigenous children– Indigenous hospitalisation rates for potentially preventable chronic conditions is eight times the ratefor non-Indigenous people– Indigenous children are three times more likely to have adverse hearing conditions thannon-Indigenous children– Suicide rates are higher for Indigenous people than for the non-Indigenous population– A marginally higher number of Indigenous people are hospitalised for intentional self-harm than non-Indigenous people– Indigenous children are nearly four times as likely as other children to be the subject of substantiatedabuse or neglect– Almost 30 out of every 1,000 Indigenous children aged 0 to 17 were on care and protection orders at30 June 2006 compared to 5 per 1,000 for non-Indigenous children– Indigenous people are more likely than non-Indigenous people to be victims of domestic violencerelatedassault– In 2005–6 4,000 Indigenous people and 15,000 non-Indigenous people sought Supported AccommodationAssistance Program (SAAP) assistance to escape domestic or family violence– In 2004–5 Indigenous people accounted for 15% of homicide deaths and 16% of homicide offenders– The homicide rate in the Indigenous population is five to 15 times the rate in the non-Indigenouspopulation in QLD, WA, SA and the NT– Indigenous people are 17 times more likely to be hospitalised as a result of assault thannon-Indigenous people– Indigenous people are significantly over-represented in the criminal justice system– Indigenous people are 13 times more likely to be imprisoned than non-Indigenous people– Indigenous juveniles are more than 23 times more likely to be detained than non-Indigenous juvenilesIndigenous Australians continue to experiencepoorer outcomes than non-Indigenous Australiansacross most social and economic parameters. 125A range of those parameters is summarised in theabove table.As with socio-economic status, the areas ofdisadvantage described in the table are affected bya range of factors, of which education is one. ThisReport does not go into detail in relation to theareas covered in the table. Further information inrelation to these areas can also be obtained fromthe Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage: KeyIndicators Report for 2007 126 prepared by theProductivity Commission.118 SCRGSP Overview 2007, p.13.119 Ibid., pp.25–27, 41.120 Ibid., p.20.121 Ibid., pp.20, 40.122 Ibid., p.21.123 Ibid.124 Ibid., p.23.125 SCRGSP 2007, pp.11–16.126 SCRGSP 2007.3 5

5. Factors contributingto poor Indigenouseducation outcomesSection 4 detailed the poor status of Indigenous educationoutcomes. The following section looks at the factors thatare contributing to these poor outcomes.3 6

5.1 Underlying conceptual frameworkA number of factors impact the education outcomesof Indigenous students. These factors can be groupedinto four areas:1. Social or Community Context – factors linked tosocio-economic status such as family income,health, nutrition and housing2. Home Context – factors linked to the homeenvironment in which the student lives such asparental status and life experience, parenting,early childhood development and parental andfamily capacity to support student learning3. School Context – factors linked to the educationsystem and the way in which educationis delivered4. Student Context – factors linked to the individualstudent’s life experience, skill base, emotionalstatus, behaviour, life goals and aspirations,experience of and attitude towards school andschool performance.Figure 14 – Contributing factors influencing Indigenous student learning and developmentSocial or Community Home School StudentContext context context context– Household income/financial stability– Access to mainstreamservices– Health and nutrition– Housing/physicallearning environment– Communityenvironment/safety– Family stability/function– Family mobility– Parenting– Early childhooddevelopmente.g. physical, cognitive,cultural and spiritualdevelopment– Parental/familyexperience e.g. education,labour force participationand employment– Parental/family supportfor student learningat home– Language and culture– Access to school(availability of localeducational institutions/transport)– School/learningenvironment– Curriculum– Teaching approach– Parental/family/community involvement– Basic materialand personalsupport needs– Engagement withschool and learning– school experience– foundation skillse.g. communication,language skills andsocial interaction– personal andcultural identity– behaviour– Learning supportneeds– school performance– literacy andnumeracy– Vocationaldevelopment– life experience– life and vocationalgoals andaspirations3 7

fac to r s co n t r i b uti n g to p o o r i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e sWhere students are affected by factors acrossmultiple contexts then each of those contexts needsto be addressed in order to support optimal learningand development outcomes effectively. Many, if notmost, Indigenous students will be affected by factorsacross all four contexts.When considering these factors it is worth notingthe cross-generational impact that historicallypoor Indigenous education outcomes have had,and continue to have, in influencing the Social orCommunity, Home, School and Student Contextsof the current generation of Indigenous students.A more detailed discussion of the contributingfactors adversely affecting Indigenous education isset out in Sub-sections 5.2 – 5.5.Figure 15 Cross-generational effect of poor Indigenous education outcomesOutcomesSixth OrderFifth OrderCurriculumIndividualWellbeingSocio-economicStatusThe higher orderoutcomes of pooreducation reinforcethe underlyingfactors contributingto those outcomesFourth OrderLabour Force Participationand EmploymentThird OrderPost-School QualificationSecond OrderSchool Performance / AchievementFirst OrderSchool AttendanceSchool RetentionContributingFactorsSocial orCommunityContextHomeContextSchoolContextStudentContext3 8

5.2. Social or community contextA. Poverty/low household incomeLow income negatively impacts key health andhousing indicators.Low household income often means that familiesare not able to cover school fees, subject levies orother school-based costs. It therefore limits theability of Indigenous families to access education andeducation support services and to fund the provisionof basic school equipment, uniforms and transport. 127B. Limited access to or use ofmainstream servicesUntil the late 1960s many Indigenous Australianswere excluded from mainstream governmentservices, including education. 128 Exclusion from thoseservices has led to socio-economic disparities in areassuch as health, housing, education and employment.Some researchers suggest that in many cases currentaccess to mainstream services is impeded by thefailure to address long-term disadvantage linked tohistorical exclusion from such services or to adaptservice delivery appropriately to meet the culturalneeds of Indigenous people. 129Some researchers also suggest that the rapidmovement from exclusion to inclusion in theAustralian welfare system has led to welfaredependency, creating a ‘poverty trap’ that is difficultto escape. 130Negative experiences associated with exclusion from(or in some cases adverse experiences associated withparticipation in) the education system, have had across-generational impact, leading some Indigenousparents and families to have a negative view ofeducation or to see the education system as beingthe domain of non-Indigenous people, not suited toIndigenous needs. Those views affect parental andfamily engagement with the education system andthe approach that they take to encouraging schoolattendance.High Indigenous unemployment and reliance onwelfare can also have a negative effect on theperceived relevance of education. High levels ofparental and family unemployment and limitedaccess to post-school employment opportunities canmean that students do not appreciate the connectionbetween school and post-school employment andso can lead them to exit school early and revert towelfare rather than pursuing employment or postschoolqualifications.C. Poor health and nutritionPoor health and nutrition have been identified askey factors impacting both the ability of Indigenouschildren to attend school and to be able toconcentrate and participate effectively in schoolwhen they do attend. 131Basic illnesses and conditions related to poorenvironmental health and hygiene, such as chronicear infections, have a significant negative impacton Indigenous children and their capacity to engageeffectively at school.Snapshot of Indigenous versus non-Indigenouschild health 132‘Each year, around 11,000 Aboriginal children are born. By the age of 10years, in many remote Aboriginal communities, up to 40% of these childrenwill have developed a chronic suppurative ear infection causing hearingloss, about 20% will have been infected with trachoma, 10 to 15% will havedeveloped malnutrition, around 30% will have anaemia, some will suffer thehighest rates of acute rheumatic heart disease in the world, and a further 5%will have been hospitalised for preventable pneumonia.In non-Indigenous Australian children, it is likely that none will developtrachoma, rheumatic fever, and chronic suppurative ear infections, and onlya few may develop the other diseases’.127 Greer T. Submission to the Senate Standing Committee onEmployment, Workplace Relations and Education Inquiry into theIndigenous Education (Targeted Assistance) Amendment (CapeYork Measures) Bill 2007, pp.4–7. (Greer 2007)128 Fletcher J. Clean Clad and Courteous: A History of Aboriginal SchoolEducation in New South Wales. Sydney: Southwood Press, 1989.(Fletcher 1989)129 Behrendt L. Achieving Social Justice: Indigenous Rights andAustralia’s Future. NSW: The Federation Press, 2003. (Behrendt2003)130 Cechanski J. Poverty in Australia: A Focus on Indigenous Povertyfrom an International Human Rights Perspective. Human RightsDefender, 2002: 2, p.25. (Cechanski 2002); Pearson N. Address tothe National Reconciliation Planning Workshop. Canberra, 30 May2005. (Pearson 2005)131 SCRGSP 2007, p.23; Blair E, Zubrick R, Cox A. The WesternAustralian Aboriginal Child Health Survey: Findings to Date onAdolescents. The Medical Journal of Australia 2005, 8, pp. 433–435.(Blair 2005)132 Couzos S. Perspective – Aboriginal Health. ABC Radio National, 15January 2004. (Couzos 2004)3 9

fac to r s co n t r i b uti n g to p o o r i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e sRecent studies conducted by the National AboriginalCommunity Controlled Health Organisation haveidentified that school attendance rates tend tobe lower for students suffering from chronic earinfections than for other children. 133 Chronic earinfections and related hearing loss have also beenidentified as contributing to language and learningdeficits in affected children. 134Impact of chronic ear infections on Indigenous school attendance 135Indigenous children are three times more likely to have adverse hearingconditions than non-Indigenous children.Results from the Western Australia Aboriginal Child Health Survey indicatethat approximately 18% of Indigenous children in West Australia sufferfrom recurring ear infections.Poor nutrition has a similar effect. It also hasthe capacity to impact cognitive and physicaldevelopment and reduce students’ concentrationand capacity to learn. 136Anecdotal evidence suggests that a number ofIndigenous children (particularly in regional andremote areas) attend school without adequatebreakfast or lunch. 137D. Poor housingPoor or overcrowded housing has been identified ashaving a negative impact on health, family stabilityand education.At the most basic level, it limits the ability ofstudents to get enough sleep and to establish aproductive home-learning environment (with aquiet, appropriately lit space to study). Those factorsnegatively impact the ability of Indigenous childrenboth to concentrate and participate effectively inschool and to learn at home. Data from the WesternAustralia Aboriginal Child Health Survey (2006)indicate that students who have trouble gettingenough sleep are one and a half times more likely tobe absent from school than other students. 138E. Poor or unsafe communityenvironmentHigh levels of community violence or anti-socialbehaviour tend to have a negative impact onindividual and family welfare and to reduce thestability of students’ home environment. That inturn tends to have a negative impact on students’physical and emotional wellbeing and to reduce theircapacity to focus on education and to establish aproductive home-learning environment.Research has established that the experience ofstressful events (such as a death in the family, familyviolence or trauma) can have an adverse impact onthe individual’s and family’s ability to cope with dayto-daylife. 139The Western Australia Aboriginal Child Health Survey(2006) identified that over 20% of Indigenous childrenwere found to be living in families experiencinghigh levels of stress (7 to 14 major life stress eventsper year). 140 Those children were found to be morethan five times more likely to be at risk of clinicallysignificant emotional and behavioural difficultiesthan children in families subject to lower levelsof stress. 141These emotional and behavioural difficulties areidentified as tending to have a negative impact onstudents’ capacity to learn by reducing their ability to:– concentrate– interact with peers and teaching staff– regulate their behaviour.Research indicates that students who have emotionaland behavioural difficulties are more likely to havepoor school attendance. 142 Indigenous students withsuch difficulties are also approximately three timesmore likely than other Indigenous students to havelow academic performance. 143133 National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation.NACCHO Ear Trial and School Attendance Project: Final Reportto the Department of Education Science and Training. Canberra:NACCHO, 2003. (NACCHO 2003)134 Ibid.135 Zubrick S, Lawrence D, Silburn S, Blair E, Milroy H, Wilkes T, Eades,S, D’Antoine H, Read A, Ishiguchi P, Doyle S. The Western AustralianAboriginal Child Health Survey: The Health of Aboriginal Childrenand Young People. Perth: Telethon Institute for Child HealthResearch, 2004, pp.142ff. (Zubrick et al. 2004)136 Center on Hunger and Poverty. Statement on the Link BetweenNutrition and Cognitive Development in Children., Instituteof Assets and Social Policy, Heller School for Social Policyand Management, Brandeis University, 1998. http://www.centeronhunger.org (Center on Hunger and Poverty 1998)137 Program and Educational Subject Matter Expert Interviewsconducted in the preparation of this Report.138 Zubrick et al. 2006, p.113.139 Ibid., p.134.140 Ibid.141 Ibid.142 Ibid., pp.113, 127.143 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.6.4 0

5.3 Home contextA. Low parental/family engagementwith the education system/employmentResearch indicates that people who have completedsecondary or post-secondary education and/or areemployed, are more likely to encourage their childrento do the same and are better positioned to providechildren with educational support. 144Historically low Indigenous engagement in theeducation system and poor educational andemployment outcomes mean that Indigenousstudents are less likely to have parental support toassist them in their studies than non-Indigenousstudents. 145At a practical level, low parental and familyeducation has:– negatively affected Indigenous experiences of,and attitudes towards, the education system–––reduced the capacity of Indigenous parents/families to engage effectively with the educationsystemreduced parental involvement in school-basedactivities and decision-makinglimited the capacity of Indigenous parents/families to support their children in educationand employment. 146Poor parental education levels mean that manyIndigenous parents and families are not able toprovide their children with much of the earlychildhood support that most non-Indigenousfamilies take for granted when building basiccommunication and literacy skills.B. Parenting and early childhooddevelopment‘There is a proven relationship between thequality of early childhood experiences … and thedeveloping capabilities of the brain.’ 147Positive parenting and engagement in earlychildhood education have been identified asimportant factors in providing a good groundingfor school attainment. Poor environmentalcircumstances (such as low family income), poorhealth and negative experiences (such as exposureto family and community trauma and dysfunction)have been identified as having a negative effect onchildren’s cognitive development, behaviour andschool attainment. 148The Western Australian Aboriginal Child HealthSurvey (2006) identified that 24% of the Indigenouschildren surveyed were at high risk of clinicallysignificant emotional and behavioural difficultiesassociated with:– developmental problems – including hearing,language and visual deficits– family factors – including carer illness, poorparenting and poor family function in somecases relating to adverse health, behavioural andeducational outcomes associated with long-termsocio-economic disadvantage and the impact ofthe Stolen Generation on individual and familyhealth and wellbeing. 149The above figure compares with a rate of 15% fornon-Indigenous children. 150Effect of family removals on current Indigenous population 151Government policy provided for the forced removal of Indigenous childrenfrom their families from the late 1800s until 1969. Such removals involvedputting children in government institutions and fostering or adoption bywhite families.As many as 100,000 children are believed to have been taken away fromtheir families.The 2002 National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey(NATSIS) identified that 8% of Indigenous people aged 15 years or over and10% of Indigenous people aged 35 years or over reported that they had beentaken away from their natural family.It is generally accepted that the forced separation of children from theirfamilies resulted in trauma for the children, families and communitiesaffected by the removal policy, and that that has had long-termconsequences in terms of social and cultural dislocation, poor health andwellbeing and social dysfunction.144 Ibid., p.6.6.145 Ibid., p.6.6.146 Ibid.; Mellor S, Corrigan M. The Case for Change: A review ofContemporary Research in Indigenous Education Outcomes.Camberwell: Australian Council of Education Research Press, 2004,p 17. (Mellor et al. 2004)147 Wise S, da Silva L, Webster E, Sanson A. The Efficacy of EarlyChildhood Interventions. AIFS Research Report No.14, July 2005,p.1. (Wise et al. 2005)148 Ibid., p.1.149 Zubrick et al. 2006, p.xxxiii.150 Ibid., p.1.151 Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Aboriginal and Torres StraitIslander Social Survey, Cat. no. 4714.0. Canberra: ABS, 2002; Zubricket al. 2004, pp.30ff; HREOC 1997.4 1

fac to r s co n t r i b uti n g to p o o r i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e sStudents who have emotional and behaviouraldifficulties are more likely to struggle at school. 152The Western Australia Survey notes that in order forIndigenous students to access learning effectively,additional support is required to address basichealth and developmental needs.C. Language barriers‘Australian Aboriginal English … is now the primarylanguage of internal and wider communication forthe majority of Australian Aboriginal people.’ 153Although most Indigenous people (approximately80%) speak either Standard Australian English(SAE) or Aboriginal English (a non-standard dialectof English) 154 at home, approximately 12% of theIndigenous population speak an Aboriginal or TorresStrait Island (Australian Indigenous) language athome. 155Indigenous students aged 12 and 13 comment on their inability to engagewith school on Yolngu Radio 158‘We don’t retain information – we hear teaching especially in English andfeel that we don’t grasp what is being taught, and so it disappears.We go to school, hear something, go home, and the teaching is gone.We feel hopeless. Is there something wrong with our heads because thisEnglish just does not work for us?We want to learn English words but the teachers cannot communicatewith us to teach us. It is like we are aliens to each other’Data from the 2001 Census indicate that more thanhalf (55%) of the Indigenous people living in veryremote areas speak an Indigenous language at home(the figures in non-remote areas are significantlylower, with only 1% in major cities and inner regionalareas). 156The difference between the language spoken athome and at school affects Indigenous educationoutcomes in multiple ways. It increases thechallenges that Indigenous students face when theystart (pre)school in understanding what is beingtaught. It inhibits communication between teachersand their students. It limits the ability of the schooland teaching staff to communicate with parents(at the most basic level, this includes the fact thatsome parents cannot understand school newslettersand school reports that are written in StandardAustralian English). It also limits the capacity ofparents to provide home-based learning support fortheir children.Cultural differences can also make it difficult forstudents and their parents to understand theoften unspoken rules about how school operatesand what is expected of students and parents in aschool environment. This can lead to confusion andmisunderstanding and make school seem like anunwelcoming and foreign place. 157152 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.6.153 Harkins, J. Structure and Meaning in Australian Aboriginal English.Asian Englishes: An International Journal of the Sociolinguistics ofEnglish in Asia-Pacific, 2000, 3(2), pp.60–81 on p.60. (Harkins 2000)154 MCEETYA 2006, p.13.155 ABS 4713.0.156 Ibid.157 Osborne B. (Ed.) Teaching Diversity and Democracy. Victoria:Common Ground, 2001, pp.105–110. (Osborne 2001)158 Wild R, Anderson P. Board of Inquiry into the Protection ofAboriginal Children from Sexual Abuse. Northern TerritoryGovernment, 2007, p.147. (Wild et al. 2007)4 2

5.4 School contextA range of factors associated with the socioeconomicand home context in which students live,the school context in which they are engaged andthe student’s own personal experience have beenidentified as contributing to Indigenous studentabsenteeism.Research indicates that students are more likely toattend school when 159 :––––––––they are encouraged to attend school by theirparents/family – data indicate that this is morelikely to happen when one or more membersof the student’s family have completed Year 12and/or are employed and can act as positive rolemodels for the student 160they perceive school as a safe caring place wherethey and their parents feel valued and welcomethey have a positive and supportive relationshipwith their teachersthey find school interesting and relevant – dataindicates that this is more likely to be the casewhere:• the curriculum is contextually relevant (i.e.it takes into account the student’s situation,is linked to their practical interests) andculturally relevant (i.e. it includes some form ofIndigenous language/cultural studies)• the teaching approach is aligned withIndigenous learning styles/preferencesthey see the connection between school and postschooleducation and employment opportunitiesthat align with their individual life goalsand aspirationsteaching staff are trained in teaching English asa second language (ESL) and have experienceteaching in a cross-cultural and bilingualsituationsteachers place reasonable demands on thestudent and do not cap student potentialor motivation by setting a low performanceexpectationIndigenous parents and communities are involvedwith the school and in the teaching process.A detailed summary of the factors identified asaffecting Indigenous student absenteeism isprovided in Appendix One.A. Access to education‘It is estimated that as many as 7,500 Indigenouschildren in the Northern Territory do not attendschool and preschool. In most cases, the teachers,classrooms, chairs and desks simply do not exist toaccommodate them.’ 161‘Secondary teachers are still only available in arelatively small number of communities.’ 162Although physical access to education institutions isnot an issue in most urban and regional areas, someservice gaps continue to exist in a number of remoteIndigenous communities.Some outer regional and remote communitiesonly have access to limited preschool and primaryschool services. Although long-distance secondaryeducation is technically available, low parentaleducation levels and poor service access meanthat, in practical terms, students seeking to pursuesecondary education are often required to moveaway from their community in order to attendsecondary school.The distance between regional and remotecommunities and an appropriate educationalinstitution and access to reliable transportexacerbate this issue.The need for students from regional and remotecommunities to move away from their community(often for the first time) makes the transitionfrom primary to secondary schooling particularlychallenging for many Indigenous students. 163In some cases where schools do exist in outerregional and remote communities they are notadequately resourced to service the local studentpopulation.For example, in the Northern Territory resourcingdecisions have been based on student attendancelevels rather than enrolments which, given the highnon-attendance levels, means that if all Indigenous159 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.16–17; Zubrick et al. 2006, pp.124ff.160 SCRGSP 2007, p.30; Zubrick et al. 2006, p.131.161 Kronemann, M. Education is the Key: An Education Future forIndigenous Communities in the Northern Territory. AEU, 9September 2007, p.6. (Kronemann 2007)162 Ibid., p.25.163 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.2; Ministerial Council for Education EmploymentTraining and Youth Affairs Taskforce on Indigenous Education.Discussion Paper: Exploring Multiple Pathways for IndigenousStudents. Melbourne: MCEETYA, 2001. (MCEETYA 2001)4 3

fac to r s co n t r i b uti n g to p o o r i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e sstudents of school age did turn up for schooltomorrow there would not be enough teachers,classrooms and resources for them. 164It has been noted that in some cases this resourcingmodel has the effect of discouraging schoolsfrom doing more to get Indigenous students toattend school on the basis that they do not havethe resources to service those (often higher need)students if they do attend. 165Snapshot of issues affecting remote access to school facilities and resources 166‘At least 10 schools in the prescribed communities in the Northern Territoryhave current average student attendance that exceeds available classroomcapacity. A further 12 schools have emerging classroom pressures whereclassrooms are operating at 80% or more of current capacity and will facesignificant accommodation pressure when school attendance provisionsimpact on communities.’ (DEST)Commonwealth Government funding has been allocated as part of theNorthern Territory Intervention to increase the number of classrooms in aseries of Northern Territory schools to respond to gaps in existing facilities.The use of short-term teaching contracts and highteaching staff turnover in remote communitieshas also been identified as an issue, as has theinadequate pre- and in-service training of remoteteaching staff. 167B. School environmentResearch indicates that students are more likelyto engage positively with school if they and theirfamilies feel safe and welcome. Poor Indigenousstudent attendance is often linked to students notfeeling comfortable, valued or supported at school. 168The above reaction is often linked to multiple factorsincluding:– poor student–teacher relationships–––feelings of social isolationracial discrimination or bullyinglearning difficulties/poor performance.Teacher–student relationships and perceived staffattitudes towards and interest in students, theirfamily and community have been identified as beingparticularly important in influencing how studentsand families experience the school environment. 169Research shows that Indigenous student and parentalengagement with school tends to improve whereschools adopt an organisational culture and teachingapproach that affirms Indigenous culture andidentity. 170C. School curriculum‘Teachers need to identify the learning needs andstrengths of individual Indigenous students andadopt culturally appropriate teaching strategies tomeet these needs.’ 171C.1 Capability appropriate curriculumResearch indicates that a large proportion ofIndigenous students attend school with limited basicliteracy and English comprehension skills. 172 (This isparticularly true of students from outer regional andremote areas where Standard Australian/AboriginalEnglish are not spoken at home.) 173164 Kronemann 2007, p.13; Department of Education, Employmentand Workplace Relations, Northern Territory Emergency Response.http://www.dest.gov.au (DEWR NTER)165 Kronemann 2007, p.27.166 Ibid., p.36.167 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.20–26; Kronemann 2007, p.24.168 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.26ff.169 Ibid.170 MCEETYA 2006, p.23.171 Bourke et al. 2000, p.20.172 Kronemann 2007, p.12.173 Senate Employment, Workplace Relations, Small Business andEducation Committee. Katu Kalpa – Report on the Inquiry into theEffectiveness of Education and Training Programs for IndigenousAustralians. Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 2000.http://www.aph.gov.au p.2. (SEWRSBEC 2000)174 MCEETYA 2006, p.17.In order to address the needs of these students,school curricula need to incorporate intensivelanguage and comprehension components based onESL and bilingual teaching practices that recogniseand accommodate students’ linguistic backgroundsand capabilities.‘It follows that teachers need to develop aninformed understanding of, at least, AboriginalEnglish to enable them to understand andcommunicate effectively with Indigenous studentsand to assist them in teaching literacy to studentsfor whom Standard Australian English is a secondlanguage or dialect.’ 1744 4

Research indicates that in many cases inadequate focusis placed on addressing the language and literacy-basedlearning needs of these students through the provisionof intensive language and learning support programs.Some practitioners believe that the relatively low focuson English as a Second Language (ESL) teacher trainingand curricula in recent years has reduced the ability ofschools to meet the needs of Indigenous and other ESLstudents. 175The adoption of a bilingual or two-way-learningapproach that recognises the student’s existinglinguistic and cultural knowledge base while buildingSAE language, literacy and numeracy skills has beenendorsed by a number of education specialists. 176C.2 Culturally and contextually relevant curriculumResearch also indicates that in many cases (againparticularly in regional and remote areas) Indigenousstudents struggle to engage with schooling becausecurriculum components are not seen as beingsufficiently practical or relevant to student experiencesin that they:––––are not adequately contextualised in relation tostudents’ daily experience or knowledge basedo not align strongly with students’ goalsand aspirationsdo not take into account local job opportunities orprovide clear linkages from school to VET, highereducation and employmentdo not incorporate Indigenous knowledge, cultureor language. 177The failure to adequately contextualise what isbeing taught:– distances schooling from students’ community andcultural experience––makes it difficult for students to establish a clearframework on which to build an understandingof what they are being taughtmakes it difficult for students to connect school withpost-school education or employment options.Education researchers have identified the need forschools to adopt culturally and contextually relevantcurricula that are structured to connect with andengage students. 178The adoption of such approaches does not imply a‘dumbing down’ of curricula, but rather the adoption ofcurricula and teaching approaches that are:–culturally relevant – recognise and build on students’social, linguistic and cultural capital––contextually relevant – recognise and incorporatethe local/community contextindividually relevant – recognise and respond tostudents’ interests and aspirations. 179Approaches to incorporating Indigenous culture inschool curricula vary. Most States and Territories havedeveloped policies to incorporate cultural studies intheir curricula in some form. 180 Education researcherssuggest that (particularly in regional and remotecommunities where the Indigenous student populationis high) school curricula should be developed inconjunction with parents and community members,taking into account the local environment and culture,and including Indigenous language/cultural studies. 181It is broadly agreed that the inclusion of such studies incurricula should not be at the expense of the deliveryof the core academic program or academic standard. 182The inclusion of Indigenous cultural studies andlanguage in school curricula has been identified as animportant element in supporting:––student attendance and engagement in learningparental involvement in, and attitude towards, thecurriculum and the teaching process. 183The inclusion of Indigenous culture, history andlanguage in standard school curricula has also beenidentified as playing an important role in building bothIndigenous and non-Indigenous student understandingand appreciation of Indigenous history and culture andaddressing racism and discrimination. 184175 Bourke et al. 2000, p.21; Program and Educational Subject MatterExpert Interviews conducted in the preparation of this Report.176 Northern Territory Department of Education. Learning LessonsReport: An Independent Review of Indigenous Education in theNorthern Territory. Darwin, 1999, pp.125–131. (NTDE 1999)177 National Language and Literacy Institute of Australia, SouthAustralian Teaching and Curriculum Centre, 1996. Desert Schools:An Investigation of English Language and Literacy Among YoungAboriginal People in Seven Communities. Canberra: Department ofEmployment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DEETYA), 1996,2, p.77 (NLLIA); MCEETYA 2006, p.21.178 MCEETYA 2006, p.25.179 Ibid.180 SCRGSP 2007, p.7.26; SEWRSBEC 2000, p.7.181 Bourke et al. 2000, p.5; NTDE 1999, pp.129–131.182 SEWRSBEC 2000, p.15.183 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.29.184 Watego L. An Indigenous Perspective on MathematicsContextualisation in a Preschool: From Safety to Empowerment.Brisbane: Queensland University of Technology, pp.767–774.(Watego et al.)4 5

fac to r s co n t r i b uti n g to p o o r i n d i g e n o u s e d u c at i o n o utco m e sD. Teaching approachIndigenous student attendance tends to be higher when 189 :– teachers are seen as:‘A good teacher can overcome many of the• being warm and supportivenegative effects caused by the problems and• positively encouraging student attendance andbarriers facing Indigenous children. Good teachersperformancecan improve students’ learning. Indigenous• setting reasonable demands on students based onstudents are frequently taught in an environmentappropriate academic and behavioural standardsof low expectation. Non-Indigenous teachers can– teachers:often find it difficult to adopt culturally inclusive,• are trained in ESL-teaching techniquesappropriate and effective approaches with• have an understanding of Indigenous cultureIndigenous students without adequate trainingand preparation. Research suggests that only about• are experienced in teaching in a cross-cultural andbilingual situationhalf the universities in Australia offer teachingcourses that include Aboriginal or Indigenous– teachers tailor their teaching approaches to meetthe specific needs of the student group by:Studies as a core component.’ 185• structuring curricula to align with student skills• incorporating remedial and extension work toEducational researchers note that the currentmeet specific student needseducation system is set up to support a student• linking curricula to practical experiencepopulation in which relatively few students require• incorporating Indigenous language and culturesignificant support; however, for a number ofIndigenous students this is not the case. 186 where possible in curriculaFor these• adopting teaching strategies aligned withstudents there is often a need to provide broaderpreferred Indigenous learning styles.based support to address the social, cultural, physicalIn many cases, the existence of a warm and supportiveand emotional barriers that limit student learningteacher–student relationship is seen as involving theand attainment.adoption of a mixed teaching and support function inResearch indicates that teacher attitudes andteaching approaches play an important role inwhich the teacher provides both educational instructionand personal support.how Indigenous students feel about school and sohave a significant impact on student attendance,Attributes of effective teacher–student relationships 190learning and attainment. 187 Bourke et al. go as faras suggesting that in the case of many Indigenousstudents: ‘If they liked their teachers they liked theThe existence of a positive, supportive teacher–student relationship has beenidentified as a critical factor in encouraging Indigenous student attendance.Education researchers have noted that ‘effective classroom teachers arepersonally warm towards, respectful of and academically demanding ofstudents’. (Osborne 2001)The key characteristics of an effective teaching relationship have beenidentified by educational specialists as:– being warm and supportive– making realistic demands on students– acting in a responsible, business-like and systematic manner– being stimulating, and imaginative. (Fanshawe 1989 quoted in SCRGSP 2007)185 NIELNS SS.186 Zubrick et al. 2006, p.xxxiii.187 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.24–25.188 Ibid., p.26.189 Osborne B. 2001; SCRGSP 2007, pp.23–26; Kleinfield J. EffectiveTeachers of Indian and Eskimo High School Students. The SchoolReview; 1975, pp.301–341 on p.335. (Kleinfield 1975)190 Bourke et al. 2000, p.25.‘A warm teacher is one who welcomes personal friendships with studentsand makes use of non-verbal communications such as high frequency ofsmiling, close body distance and physical contact to convey acceptance andencouragement.’ (Kleinfield 1972 quoted in SCRGSP 2007)Teachers who establish rapport first (‘personal warmth’) then make activedemands (‘active demandingness’) ‘tend to be successful with … students inboth integrated and all-[Indigenous] classrooms.’ (Kleinfield 1975)4 6

Anecdotal evidence suggests that in many casesthe failure of teaching staff to establish an effectiveteacher–student relationship is linked to:––––low teacher expectations of Indigenous studentsthat are reflected in curriculum contentand deliveryinadequate pre- or in-service training in ESLteaching and cultural awarenesspoor communication and engagement skillsthat limit the ability of the teacher to engageeffectively with students and their parentsracist/poor attitudes to Indigenous people. 191The need to strengthen teacher training to supportthe improved delivery of Indigenous education hasbeen acknowledged by education specialists and ingovernment policy. Currently, specialist Indigenousstudies and ESL-related courses are not included ascore/compulsory components in pre-service teachertraining in many universities.E. Indigenous teaching staffAs noted previously, Indigenous teaching staffnumbers are relatively low. Indigenous staffgenerally makes up a relatively low proportionof school staff and are usually in subordinate orassistant teaching positions. 192Education practitioners have noted that Indigenousteaching and assistant teaching staff:‘provide a vital link between the language, cultureand expectations of Aboriginal children andthe community, and the culture, language andexpectations of Western schooling’. 193Educational researchers have recommended that aneffort be made to train Indigenous teachers so thatthe number of Indigenous teachers in classrooms canat least equal the percentage of Indigenous people inthe population. 194F. Parental, family and communityengagement‘The involvement of families and communities indetermining the policy directions and priorities ofthe school is a vital part of ensuring educationalengagement, and must be fostered.’ 195Parental, family and community engagement in thedesign and delivery of education has been identifiedas an important factor in encouraging parentalsupport for education and promoting studentattendance, retention and attainment. 196In many cases negative parental or familyexperiences of the education system have ledIndigenous parents and families to feel excluded ordistant from the education system.The development of strong school, parent andcommunity partnerships has been identified as a keymechanism through which to:––––––build stronger connections between schools andlocal parents and communityprovide an opportunity for the cultural exchangeof knowledge in relation to Indigenous and non-Indigenous knowledge and education structuresand systemsalign the schooling system with local communityand student needs (e.g. adjust local school termsto cater for the cultural needs of outer regionaland remote Communities to ensure maximumparticipation at school while recognising culturalactivities 197 )develop and implement culturally relevantcurriculaleverage parental, family and community supportfor education and promote student attendance,retention and attainmentstrengthen parental involvement in the schooland their children’s education. 198191 Program and Educational Subject Matter Expert Interviewsconducted in the preparation of this Report.192 Kronemann 2007, pp.10–12193 Ibid., p.26.194 Bourke et al. 2000, p.4.195 Kronemann 2007, p.29.196 Bourke et al. 2000, p.31; MCEETYA 2006, pp.21–22.197 Kronemann 2007, p.16.198 Bourke et al. 2000, p.31; MCEETYA 2006, pp.21–22.4 7

5.5 Student contextA. Student skills, identity andB. School experiencebehavioursSeveral factors linked to Indigenous students’individual life experience have a direct impact ontheir capacity to engage with school and learn. 199These include:– basic material and personal support needs– school experience– foundation skills (including communication,language skills and social interaction)– personal and cultural identity– behaviour/engagement in risk-taking(including alcohol and drug consumption) orcriminal activity– learning support needs based on schoolperformance and basic literacy andnumeracy skills– life and vocational goals and aspirations.Many of the above factors are influenced by thepreviously discussed Social/Community and HomeContexts and so are not discussed separately in thissection.199 Bourke et al. 2000., pp.26-31.200 Ibid.201 Zubrick et al. 2006, p.126.Past negative experiences of school (often linkedto the factors outlined in the School Contextsection), and those of their parents and other familymembers, have been identified as having a negativeimpact on school attendance and retention. 200C. School performancePoor school performance and the inability to‘keep up’ with school have also been identified ashaving a negative impact on school attendanceand retention. 2014 8

6. Intervention optionsThis section identifies a series of Intervention Options thatcan support the delivery of improved Indigenous educationoutcomes. It provides examples (case studies) of thoseinterventions and identifies the key factors that contributeto the success of interventions of that type.4 9

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.1 The role of thephilanthropic sectorGiven that it is the role of government to takeresponsibility for mainstream funding of educationthrough investment in schools, philanthropicsector investment in other areas can complementgovernment funding. In light of that, philanthropicinvestment in education can sensibly be targeted inthree main areas:–––services that build on or complement the coreschool and program funding providedby the Commonwealth and State andTerritory Governmentsservices that help students and their familiesto access the education facilities and programsprovided by government and non-governmentschools and not-for-profit organisations that arealready supported by government fundingresearch, policy development and advocacy aimedat improving Indigenous schooling and learningsupport services.Cultural Art Class atMission Australia’sDubbo Program.5 0

6.2 Considerations when investingin the Indigenous sectorIn her article ‘Challenges in Indigenous philanthropy:Reporting Australian grantmakers’ perspectives’ 202 DrWendy Scaife identifies grant-making to Indigenouspeople as sitting within the parent disciplineof ‘social change philanthropy’. Social changephilanthropy concerns itself not just with outcomesbut also with the process through which changeis achieved. Its focus is on the creation of systemicchange, rather than the giving of alms or charity.As such it is vital that there is appropriateengagement of Indigenous people in programsdesigned to benefit them, whether the organisationis run by Indigenous or non-Indigenous staff.Interviews conducted by Scaife with philanthropicinvestors experienced in funding programs tosupport Indigenous Australians identified thefollowing themes as being associated with successfulphilanthropic investment in this area 203 :–––––––having the objective of ‘change not charity’entering the area as a long-term commitmentrecognising cultural sensitivity as beingparamount in this area (a key recommendationmade by funded organisations was forphilanthropic investors to take the counselof Indigenous representatives groundedin Indigenous culture on issues impactingparticipant outcomes, program design anddelivery to guide funding options and plan forrealistic outcomes)recognising that assumptions of cooperation andautomatic translation of programs from areato area are dangerous due to the multi-tribalenvironment and diversity of Indigenous cultureand languagemaintaining flexibility when making grants andevaluating their successaccepting that investment over a long timeframeis required to see change occurrecognising that infrastructure funding is oftenbadly needed before a program can succeed.The importance of providing an adequate level ofsupport to facilitate change was also highlighted.Because there are often multiple and persistenttypes of disadvantage present for an Indigenousstudent, providing support that either addressesjust one problem, or does too little to address themultiple problems, is unlikely to achieve positiveresults. It is particularly important to consider thisfactor in relation to remote and outer regionalprograms, where the level of disadvantage is oftenmore acute.Philanthropic investments in the Indigenous sector(and more generally) tend to generate greater valuewhen funding provided is sufficient to:–––support rigorous evaluation and measurement ofimpact and outcomesbuild ongoing organisational capacity rather thanjust investing in program funding alone (e.g.including the development of strategic planning,management and financial skills and resources)support the dissemination of practice learnings,networking and collaboration to promote thescaling and replication of successful programs.202 Scaife W. Challenges in Indigenous philanthropy: ReportingAustralian grantmakers’ perspectives. Australian Journal of SocialIssues 2006, p 4 (Scaife 2006)203 Ibid. pp.12–14.5 1

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.3 Identified intervention (investment) optionsResearch has shown that in order to improveIndigenous education outcomes it is necessary totake a holistic approach and address factors acrossthe Social/Community, Home, School and StudentContexts that limit the capacity of students toengage in school and to learn.It is rare for a single intervention to address all fourcontexts. In many (if not most) cases, communitiesare reliant on a mix of interventions (and serviceproviders) to do that.In this Report we focus on interventions that seek toaddress factors in the School and Student Contextsthat reduce Indigenous students’ capacity to engagein school and to learn.We have identified eight Intervention Categoriesthat work within School and Student Contextsto improve the delivery of education and theeducation outcomes of Indigenous students thatare suited to philanthropic Investment on the basisthat they either augment or complement existinggovernment funding or provide an opportunity forthe philanthropic sector to invest in more innovativeresponses to issues affecting Indigenous education.These interventions seek to improve Indigenouseducation outcomes by pulling one or more of thefollowing ‘Change Levers’:–––––––––improving student access to school/schoolfacilitiesimproving the school/learning environmentsupporting the development and adoption of anappropriately tailored curriculumimproving teaching approach by:• improving teacher training and development• supporting the adoption of more stronglystudent-focused teaching approachesimproving parental, family and communityengagement with school and involvement in theteaching processproviding for basic student (material andpersonal) support needsstrengthening student engagement with schooland learningproviding intensive learning support to addressstudent learning support needsstrengthening student-based vocationaldevelopment and training support, includingexposure to vocational and alternative life optionsand support in the development and realisationof vocational education, training andemployment goals.A more detailed discussion of each of these ChangeLevers is set out in Appendix Two.Figure 16 Intervention suited to philanthropic investmentSchool ContextStudent ContextChange LeversAccess toSchoolSchool/LearningEnvironmentCurriculumTeachingApproachParental,Family andCommunityInvolvementBasicMaterialandPersonalSupportEngagementwith Schooland LearningIntensiveLearningSupportVocationalDevelopmentandTransitionSupportIntevention Categories1. Holistic Schooling Approach4. Holistic Student Support8.Scholarships2.3.Tailored Appropriate(Culturally (CulturallyRelevant & Relevant &Capability CapabilityAppropriate) Appropriate)Curriculum StaffTraining5.Student &ParentalEngagement6.IntensiveLearningSupport7.School-BasedVocationalTraining &Development5 2

A description of each of the above InterventionCategories is set out below. In some cases a singleintervention program may sit across more than oneIntervention Category.1.2.3.Holistic Schooling Approach – the adoption ofa holistic approach to schooling that delivers aculturally and contextually relevant and capabilityappropriate curriculum that relates students’learning to their life experience. Such schoolingapproaches incorporate program elements thataddress the full range of student needs (includingtheir basic material needs, travel to and fromschool, health and nutrition, personal andlearning support requirements). They provide ahighly supportive school environment and engagestudents’ parents, family and community in thedesign/delivery of day-to-day schooling.Tailored (Culturally Relevant and CapabilityAppropriate) Curriculum – the development anddissemination of a culturally and contextuallyrelevant and capability appropriate curriculumthat is tailored to the needs of Indigenousstudents and teaching tools to supportIndigenous student learning.Appropriate (Culturally Relevant and CapabilityAppropriate) Staff Training – the developmentand delivery of culturally appropriate andcapability relevant pre- and in-service principal,teacher and teaching support staff training thatincludes skills relating to the design and deliveryof curricula as well as the establishment andmanagement of supportive teacher–studentrelationships.5.6.7.8.Student and Parental Engagement – the deliveryof school and non-school-based programs thatspecifically seek to engage students with schooland learning by encouraging school attendance,attachment and retention by promoting parentaland family support for student education,connecting parents with school and helpingparents to better support their children to learn.Intensive Learning Support – school and nonschool-basedprograms that seek to provideintensive learning support including remedialliteracy and numeracy programs, generalcurriculum-based learning support or tutoring,extension learning and homework support.School-based Vocational Training andDevelopment – includes career planning, schoolbasedapprenticeships and TAFE programs etc.Scholarships – the provision of scholarships tosupport Indigenous student access to education.The above interventions are complementary andin many cases will either go hand in hand or,indeed need to do so, to be most effective (e.g.curriculum development and teacher training anddevelopment need to be aligned if culturally relevantand capability appropriate curricula are to beimplemented effectively).It is worth noting that many of the aboveresponses are equally applicable to other highneedstudent groups.4.Holistic Student Support – the delivery of schooland non-school-based programs that specificallyseek to meet students’ individual needs assistingthem to access and engage in school includingmaterial, personal and learning supportrequirements and to promote parental and familysupport for student education and learning.5 3

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.4 Key success factorsBased on the research that has been conducted toprepare this Report and the interviews that havebeen conducted with subject matter experts acrossthe Indigenous Education Sector, a number of KeySuccess Factors (KSFs) applying to the InterventionCategories outlined in this Report have beenidentified. A summary of those Key Success Factorsis set out in Table 3.Well designed and delivered programs will meetthe Key Success Factors that have been identified asapplying to the Intervention Category to which theyrelate in the table.It is recommended that those Key Success Factors betaken into consideration by philanthropic investorswhen assessing programs for investment in additionto standard organisational capacity and programdelivery capability criteria.Standard organisational capacity and program delivery capability assessment criteriaused when making philanthropic investments 204Organisational Capacity:– does the organisation have a clear mission and strategy?– is its program execution well-aligned with mission?– does it have good governance structures in place?– does it have a strong leader?– does it have a capable senior management team?– is its financial management sound and does it have good financialmanagement controls in place?– does it have a successful fundraising strategy?– are its marketing and communications clear and consistent?– does it have a strong organisational track record?– does it have a track record in successful program delivery of the typebeing considered?Program Delivery Capability:– does the program have adequate staffing?– is it aligned with the organisation’s mission and strategy?– does it have a logical program plan that is likely to achieve the desiredoutcomes?– are sufficient resources allocated to the program for success?– are all of the necessary stakeholders on board and engaged (or are theylikely to be)?– are effective performance evaluation/tracking processes in placeto monitor program outcomes and assess delivery against programobjectives?204 SVA has developed an Organisational Capability Diagnostic Tool toassess organisational compliance with the above criteria. This toolis available free of charge on its website at www.socialventures.com.au5 4

Table 3 – Key Success Factors by Intervention TypeHolistic Schooling ApproachTailored CurriculumAppropriate Staff TrainingHolistic Student SupportStudent and Parental EngagementIntensive Learning SupportSchool Based VocationalDevelopment & Transition SupportScholarshipsKey Success FactorsDescription1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Understand / meetholistic needsMeet basic needs as well as personal and learningsupport requirements4 4 – 4 4 4 4 4 >Strengths-basedapproachFocus on what students know and can do as a startingpoint rather than the problems that they experience ortheir learning deficits4 4 – 4 4 4 4 4 >GeneralDual learning andengagement focusCulturally inclusiveUndertake activities to engage students in school andlearning as well as address learning requirementsRecognise, acknowledge and respect Indigenousknowledge base and cultural and linguistic backgroundand values4 4 – – – 4 4 4 >4 4 4* 4 4 4 – 4 >Family and communityengagementInvolve parents, families and communities in decisionmaking and program / school activities4 4 – 4 – – – 4 >Appropriate networkof collaboratorsInvolve people or organisations with the skills andnetworks required to meet all support and programdelivery requirements4 – – 4 4 4 4 4 >Strong schoolleadershipCapable leadership and management that is committedto the delivery of positive Indigenous educationoutcomes4 4 4* – 4 4 4 4**School/Program-basedHigh performancestandards andexpectationsTailored curriculum/program designSpecialist teachingcapabilityExpect students to perform and achieve to their fullpotential by setting reasonable demands on studentsbased on appropriate academic and behaviouralstandardsCulturally and contextually relevant and capabilityappropriate curriculum tailored to the needs of theindividual student/student groupProvision of appropriate specialist education trainedteaching staff to meet the specific needs of theindividual student/student group (eg ESL teaching)4 4 4* – – 4 4 4**4 4 4* 4 4 4 4 4**4 – 4* – – 4 – 4**Dual teaching andsupport focus(i.e. mixed teaching– support approach)Provision of both learning and personal support - staffadopt a mixed teaching and support function andthere is adequate provision of counseling and personalsupport staff4 – 4* – – 4 – 4**Student-basedClear behaviouralguidelinesPositive and welcominglearning environmentQuality teacher–student relationshipsSet clear guidelines for acceptable behaviourStudents, parents and families feel valued and welcomeTeachers are seen as being warm and supportive andas positively encouraging student attendance andperformance4 – – – 4 – – 4 >4 – – 4 4 4 4 4**4 – – 4 4 4 4 4**Program SpecificCritical massAppropriate coursecontent and deliveryThere is a sufficient number of Indigenous studentsat the school to provide a sense of connection toIndigenous culture and communityPre- and in-service management, teacher and supportstaff training is tailored to meet adult learning needsand delivered in a way that facilitates access andencourages engagement– – – – – – –4 >– –4 – – – – –* Refers to targeted skill development areas for teaching staff.** Attributes that must apply to the school that scholarship recipients are attending.> Attributes must apply to both the scholarship design (i.e. student selection and scholarship management and coordination) and to the school that the scholarship recipients are attending.5 5

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.5 Detailed intervention summariesThe following section reviews each of the identifiedIntervention Categories in more detail. It providesan outline of the key objectives and Key SuccessFactors for each Intervention Category and providesexamples of the different intervention types.The case studies in this Section are provided byway of example only. The programs set out in thecase studies have not been independently reviewedor audited. Their inclusion in the Report shouldnot, therefore, be seen as a recommendation forfunding. As a matter of good practice philanthropicinvestors interested in funding interventions suchas those identified in this Report should ensure theyundertake appropriate due diligence before investingin any programs to make sure that the programs inquestion align with their funding strategy and meetappropriate investment criteria.6.5.1 Holistic schooling approach–––––––––––––––––––IssuesLow preschool attendanceLow school attendanceHigh student suspension andexpulsion ratesPoor student numeracy and literacyLow school retentionLimited access to or use ofmainstream servicesPoor health and nutritionPoor housingLow parent/family literacy andnumeracyLow parent/family engagement ineducation and/or employmentLanguage barriersLack of access to educationUnwelcoming school environmentInappropriate school curriculumPoor teaching approachLack of Indigenous teaching staffPoor student skills and behaviourNegative school experiencePoor school performance–ResponseSchool-based responsesthat incorporateelements from acrossthe School andStudent interventionspectrum to establisha supportive schoolbasedenvironmentin which students areassisted to engagewith school and accesslearning opportunitiesImprovements in Indigenous education outcomes require aholistic approach that addresses the full range of factors affectingIndigenous education across the Social/Community, Home, Schooland Student Contexts.An Holistic Schooling Approach seeks to do this to by addressing allof the above factors through the provision of school-based supportand learning programs. This is done by going beyond providingthe standard educational curriculum by providing values andbehavioural education, incentives to engage in school (e.g. sportand arts-based programs), personal support (e.g. counselling) andbasic needs assistance (e.g. meals). These supports would ideallybe provided through students’ Home and Social environments.Current levels of disadvantage mean that often they are not;nevertheless, they must be in place for students to succeed atschool and reach their potential.Figure 17 illustrates the multi-layered student learning andsupport model that an Holistic Schooling Approach uses.By its nature, the Holistic Schooling Approach seeks to incorporateaspects of all of the other intervention types coveredin this section (6.5 Detailed intervention summaries).5 6

Key Success Factors– Understand/meet holistic needs–– Strengths-based approach –– Dual learning and engagement ––––––––––focusCulturally inclusiveFamily and communityengagementAppropriate network ofcollaboratorsStrong school leadershipHigh performance standardsand expectationsTailored curriculum/programdesignSpecialist teaching capacityDual teaching and supportfocus (i.e. mixed teaching– support approach)Clear behavioural guidelines–––––––––––– Positive and welcominglearning environment– Quality teacher–studentrelationships––ResultsImproved literacyImproved numeracyImproved attendanceIncreased retentionImproved schoolperformanceImproved primary tosecondary transitionImproved secondary totertiary transitionIncreased confidenceHeightened aspirations forthe futureImproved physical healthImproved behaviourImproved personalrelationshipsImproved social skillsImproved emotional healthStronger engagement withparents and communityBetter cross-culturalunderstandingFigure 17 Holistic student learning and support model(as applied by Djarragun College)Pre-PrepPrep 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13+Focus on Academic and Vocational LearningFocus on Values and BehaviourCase StudyDjarragun College –Gordonvale, QueenslandDjarragun College delivers pre-prep to Year 12 schooling tostudents from Indigenous communities in Cairns, Yarrabah, CapeYork and the Torres Strait Islands. It also has a Vocational Educationand Training (VET) program for post-Year 12 students. It offersboth academic and vocational education streams.The school caters for students who are extremely disadvantaged,many of whom would not ordinarily participate in school. Over95% of the students attending the school are Indigenous. Overthe last six and a half years the school has taught 1,600 students.The College has achieved a high level of success compared tonational Indigenous indices in promoting school attendance,completion and transition into further education and employmentwith:– school attendance rates between 65 and 75%– year-on-year retention rates between 70 and 75%– Year 10 completion rates between 80 and 85%– Year 10 to 12 completion rates between 90 and 95%– graduate transitions into further education and employmentof approximately 70% (based on combined graduate outcomesover the last two years).The College’s success is attributed to its use of an integratededucation model that works to address students’ basic andpersonal support requirements, address behavioural issues andprovide tailored educational programs to meet their individuallearning requirements. The design and delivery of the aboveprogram are driven by the School Principal Jean Illingworth. Theschool uses a values-based approach to guide the behaviourof both staff and students and there is a focus placed on theestablishment of close supportive relationships between teachersand students. School systems and staffing are structured to allowstaff to be responsive to the learning and personal support needsof students, with investments being made in both teaching andcounselling staff. Cultural activities and language are incorporatedinto the school curriculum and activities, and parents and thecommunity are actively involved in the life of the school.Engagement in School and LearningPersonal SupportProvision of Basic Needs5 7

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.5.2 Tailored curriculum (culturally relevant and capability appropriate)Issues Response Key Success Factors Results––––––––––––––––––Low preschool attendanceLow school attendanceHigh student suspension andexpulsion ratesPoor student numeracy and literacyLow school retentionPoverty/low household incomeLimited access to or use ofmainstream servicesLow parent/family literacy andnumeracyLow parent/family engagement ineducation and/or employmentInadequate parenting and earlychildhood developmentUnwelcoming school environmentInappropriate school curriculumPoor teaching approachLack of Indigenous teaching staffLow parent engagementPoor student skills and behaviourNegative school experiencePoor school performance– School-based responsesthat focus on aligning– Understand/meet holisticneedsschool curriculum – Strengths-based approachwith students’– Dual learning andspecific learningengagement focusand developmentrequirements (such – Culturally inclusiveresponses are oftenlinked to Staff Training– Family and communityengagementand Skill Development – Strong school leadershipResponses)– High performance standardsand expectations–Tailored curriculum/programdesign–––––––––––––Improved literacyImproved numeracyImproved attendanceIncreased retentionImproved schoolperformanceIncreased confidenceHeightened aspirations forthe futureImproved secondary totertiary transitionImproved behaviourImproved social skillsImproved emotional healthStronger engagement withparents and communityBetter cross-culturalunderstandingA Tailored Curriculum is one that is developed to meet the needs ofthe individual student or student group. In many cases this meansthat in addition to the standard academic offering, schools willprovide ESL-based programs, behaviour management and personaldevelopment programs, cultural and language studies for Indigenousand non-Indigenous students, school engagement programs and adedicated vocational stream. A tailored curriculum is not a ‘dumbeddown’curriculum; instead it assists students to achieve to their fullpotential rather than expecting less of them.Case StudyYule Brook Secondary College – The “Big Picture Inspired School”Program, Western AustraliaYule Brook Secondary College provides schooling for approximately200 students each year from Years 8 to 10 in Western Australia.Approximately 23% of the students at Yule Brook are Indigenous.The school operates the “Big Picture Inspired School” Program for itsYear 8 students. They plan to expand it to Years 9 and 10 in the nexttwo years. The Program is designed for students who are at high riskof leaving school prior to completing Year 12, or in some cases, Year10. The Program is based on a model developed by the Big PictureCompany in the United States, which is now being made available toschools in Australia through the Big Picture Company of Australia.Yule Brook started running its Big Picture Program in 2005 at theinstigation of its School Principal Paul Billing. The program workswith home group classes of 12 to 15 students. Individual learningplans are prepared for each student. Those plans are developedcollaboratively by the student, their parents and teachers andare based around the student’s personal interests and passions.Mentoring relationships are established to support all studentsand formal pastoral care sessions are built into home roomactivities on a daily basis in Term One and then weekly after that.Students also undertake ongoing workplace internships called“Learning Through Internship” which are linked to their learningplans. Students present their work for assessment by way of apublic exhibition four times a year. Their mentors, parents andteachers witness these exhibitions.Yule Brook is also a Clontarf Football Academy School. Thisprogram is discussed in Section 6.5.5 Student Engagement.The school is currently conducting an external evaluation of theBig Picture Program; however, anecdotal results are good and somepromising data have emerged. For example, in 2006 prior to theprogram’s commencement, Year 8 students were suspended for atotal of 86.5 days, whereas after the program was introduced in2007, students were only suspended for a total of 9 days.5 8

6.5.3 Appropriate staff training (culturally relevant and capability appropriate)Issues Response Key Success Factors Results–––Unwelcoming schoolenvironmentInappropriate schoolcurriculumPoor teaching approach– School or sectoral-based– Culturally inclusive*responses that focus– Strong school leadership*on providing school– High performance standardsmanagement andand expectations*teacher training to assiststaff to improve school– Tailored curriculum/ programenvironment, curriculumdesign*and teaching approach– Specialist teaching capacity*to support improved– Dual teaching and supportIndigenousfocus (i.e. mixed teaching– support approach)*– Appropriate course contentand delivery–––––––––––––Improved literacyImproved numeracyIncreased retentionImproved attendanceImproved schoolperformanceImproved behaviourStronger engagement withparents and communityBetter cross-culturalunderstandingImproved primary tosecondary transitionImproved secondary totertiary transitionHeightened aspirations forthe futureIncreased confidenceImproved personalrelationships* Refers to targeted skill development areas for teaching staff.Staff Training and Skill Development focuses on developing theskills of teaching and management staff to design and deliver theschool curriculum and extra-curricular programs to suit the needsof their Indigenous students. It also focuses on teaching staff howto create a more culturally inclusive school environment.Interventions of this type often include ESL training, culturalawareness training, intensive support and relationshipmanagement and counselling-based skills training. In addition tothat, it can include the establishment of professional mentoringprograms and programs designed to assist the showcasing anddissemination of good school practice.Case StudyStronger Smarter Principals Program – Indigenous EducationLeadership Institute, QueenslandThe Stronger Smarter Principals Program was developed by DrChris Sarra. Dr Sarra is recognised for his success in improvingresults and retention at Cherbourg School in Queensland. He is theDirector of the Indigenous Education Leadership Institute (IELI).The Stronger Smarter Principals Program is available to schoolprincipals and includes support for teachers. It aims to addressissues of poor teaching approach, poor curriculum and poor schoolenvironment.The Program is run in groups with a maximum of 20 participants.Principals complete a one-week residential course and developan action plan for their schools to address the above issues. IELIthen provides follow-up support to the principals and their staff.Dr Sarra believes that the key to improving Indigenous schoolingand educational outcomes is to get principals to take responsibilityfor the results in their school and for them to continue makingthe social and academic changes required until they succeed indelivering results.The Program is in its first year; a formal evaluation is planned butis yet to be conducted. The Program is based on Dr Sarra’s ownexperiences as Principal of Cherbourg State School where under hisleadership there was a 94% reduction in unexplained absenteeismand a 58% improvement in Year 2 literacy within two years. UnderDr Sarra’s leadership the school had 81% of Year 7 students withinthe Queensland State average band for literacy, compared to 0% in1999 before he joined the school.5 9

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.5.4 Holistic student supportIssues Response Key Success Factors Results–––––––––Poverty/low householdincomeLimited access to or use ofmainstream servicesPoor health and nutritionPoor or unsafe communityenvironmentNegative school experienceLow parental/familyengagement with theeducation system/employmentLack of access to educationPoor student skills andbehaviourPoor school performance– School and non-school– Understand/meetbased responses thatholistic needsfocus on meeting– Strengths-basedstudents’ basic needsapproachas a precursor to their– Culturally inclusivebeing ready and able toparticipate effectively– Family and communityin school includingengagementhealth, nutrition (e.g.– Appropriate network ofbreakfast and lunchcollaboratorsprograms), personal– Tailored curriculum/counselling, materialprogram designaid (in the form of– Positive and welcomingschool uniforms orlearning environmentequipment), transport– Quality teacher–student relationships––––––––––––Improved literacyImproved numeracyImproved attendanceIncreased retentionImproved schoolperformanceIncreased confidenceHeightened aspirations forthe futureImproved behaviourImproved personalrelationshipsImproved physical healthImproved social skillsImproved emotional healthIntegrated Support Programs seek to address students’ basicpersonal and support needs, behavioural issues, school engagementand basic literacy and numeracy skill deficits. They tend to work withstudents who are operating below the standard school literacy andnumeracy levels/are at risk of leaving school.The interventions are usually multi-faceted and in some cases havea dual focus on engaging both students and their parents or carers,with some programs seeking to act as a bridge between the familyand the school. These types of programs operate best when they aredeveloped in consultation with parents and the local community inorder to understand and address the relevant barriers to education.Case StudiesLearning for Life – The Smith Family,Northern TerritoryThe Smith Family has developed an approach to its Learning forLife Program in the Northern Territory that is specifically tailoredto working with disadvantaged Indigenous people. The Programstarted in nine Northern Territory school communities and isgrowing (currently it operates in 13 communities). It is envisagedthat this model will be used by The Smith Family in other Indigenouscommunities across Australia.The Smith Family estimates that around 3,000 people are involvedin some way with their Northern Territory Learning for LifePrograms. The Program targets disadvantaged to highlydisadvantaged Indigenous students in remote, regional and someurban communities.The Program seeks to capitalise on the human resources alreadypresent in schools (with a particular focus on leveraging the skillsof tertiary-educated teachers) and to identify and remove thebarriers that prevent children from engaging in schooland learning.Activities are developed in consultation with the community to linkstudents, families and the broader community with teaching staffand the local school(s). In the case of this program, in addition tothe Key Success Factors identified in the table above, the programworks with schools where there is strong school leadership (wenote this factor is not always a key factor in programs usingthis Intervention).Because activities are developed in consultation with thecommunity, activities vary from place to place. Some examples ofthe sorts of activities that are undertaken are:–––Breakfast with a Mentor – where children are given a meal andconnected with interested adults in their communityLiteracy Programs – where high school students do literacy workwith primary school studentsSports and Recreation Programs – that allow children to playsport and participate in cultural activities such as music workshopslinked to the local school or involving local school staff.6 0

Dream Pathwaysparticipants investigatevocational options.The Smith Family is tracking both quantitative and qualitativedata. Information gathered to date suggests that there is goodengagement with the Program. An example is a school in Katherinewhere over half of the students were not having breakfast beforethe Breakfast with a Mentor Program began. Since the Programcommenced many of the parents have volunteered to pay for theirchildren’s lunch at school. The School Principal attributes this tothe Program having built greater trust in the school amongst theparent body. The Principal also reports improvement in behaviour,readiness to learn, punctuality and parent participation.Teachers report improved relationships with withdrawn anddisconnected students.Dream the Pathways – Centacare Wilcannia-Forbes,New South WalesDream the Pathways is a suite of Youth Services Programs runby Centacare in Wilcannia-Forbes. Centacare Wilcannia-Forbesprovides early intervention programs to young families, youthservices, counselling and community development programs topeople in western NSW.It supports 600 at-risk young people aged 13 to 24 in ruraland remote towns of central and far west New South Wales.Approximately 75% of the young people they support areIndigenous and experience most or all of the issues outlinedin the table above.Dream the Pathways works with at-risk young people on anindividual and group basis to support their engagement ineducation, training and employment as well as addressing basicpersonal needs. The Program includes:––––––engagement activities with participants and family orcommunity membersliaison support for transitions into high schoolintensive school retention activitiesalternate education and trainingsupported transitions to employment and tertiary educationvocational skills assessments and training.Centacare tracked participants in their 2006 Program and found:–––––80% demonstrated increased connection to culture100% increased knowledge of full-time education, training andemployment options80% demonstrated improved literacy and numeracy80% have improved employability and work-readiness skills70% are actively pursuing a life goal.6 1

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptionsDubbo Cultural Leadership Program – Mission Australia,New South WalesMission Australia runs the Dubbo Cultural Leadership Program.The Program seeks to improve school retention in primary andsecondary school. It involves four high schools and one primaryschool in Dubbo.The Program works with Indigenous students from Years 5 to 11who are considered to be at risk of early school leaving.The Program is essentially a preventative strategy. Schools referat-risk students to the Program and caseworkers then assist eachindividual to overcome the challenges that stand between themand staying in the education system. The Program includes:– after-school sessions that are designed to be educational andsupport vocational development while linking into culturalactivities and being fun– school work support for suspended students– referrals to counselors, family mediation and support agencies– connection with Aboriginal Elders and mentors.The Program seeks to promote respect and pride through astrong focus on Aboriginal culture allowing students to make aconnection with their own culture, spirit and the countries theyare from.Fifty-two students participated in the Program in 2006 of whom39 had been in contact with the juvenile justice system beforebeing referred to the Program. Of those 52 participants:– 46 went on to attend some form of education– 2 moved– 3 left the Program– 1 went back into detention.6.5.5 Student and parental engagement––––––––––IssuesLow school attendanceHigh student suspension andexpulsion ratesPoor student numeracy andliteracyLow school retentionLimited access to or use ofmainstream servicesPoor health and nutritionLow parental/family engagementwith the education system/employmentUnwelcoming schoolenvironmentPoor student skills and behaviourNegative school experienceSchool and non-schoolbasedprograms aimedat engaging studentswith school and orlearning with a view toencouraging increasedschool attendance andimproved participationas a precursor toimproved educationoutcomesStudent Engagement programs are designed to promote studentattendance and retention.Most programs provide an activity that the students enjoy and tieit to school attendance. Activities tend to revolve around sport,arts and the media and will often involve excursions and camps.If successful, the activities will lead to increased attendance but,unless the school associated with the program is delivering qualityeducation to students, improved performance outcomes willnot necessarily follow.–ResponseThe better programs also help students with career pathwayplanning and help them to develop the life skills they need tosucceed. They develop the students’ aspirations, and once a careerseems like a real possibility the student has a good reason tostart learning and is more likely to want to engage with school.Currently, many of these programs appear to be targeted at boysrather than girls.6 2

Key Success FactorsResults–––––––––Understand/meet holisticneedsStrengths-based approachCulturally inclusiveAppropriate network ofcollaboratorsStrong school leadershipTailored curriculum/program designClear behaviouralguidelinesPositive and welcominglearning environmentQuality teacher–studentrelationships–––––––––––––Improved literacyImproved numeracyImproved attendanceIncreased retentionImproved school performanceImproved secondary to tertiarytransitionIncreased confidenceHeightened aspirations for thefutureImproved behaviourImproved personal relationshipsImproved physical healthImproved social skillsImproved emotional health–Stronger engagement withparents and communityCase StudyClontarf Football Academies – Clontarf Foundation,Western Australia and Northern TerritoryThe Clontarf Foundation runs a series of Football Academies witha group of schools. Currently, Clontarf Football Academies areattached to 20 schools. Any Indigenous boy in Years 7 to 12 at aClontarf Football Academy secondary school can apply to be partof the Program. There are three primary school programs. There areexpected to be 1,400 students involved in the 2008 school year.The bulk of the students involved in the Program experience, orare strongly at risk of experiencing, some or all of the issuesidentified in the table above.Students participating in an Academy:– receive specialist football coaching– participate in structured training and competition games– have the opportunity to work with and be coached byprofessional AFL players– receive mentoring and support from program staff with afocus on education, attendance and life skills development.Participants are also given breakfast and learn abouthealthy nutrition.It is a precondition for participation in the Academy that thestudent attend school. To maintain their position in the FootballAcademy participants need to show commitment towards boththe Academy Program and their education. Students are expectedto be fully engaged with school, plan for their future and stayout of trouble.The results to date show improved retention, attendance, Year 12completion and, anecdotally, an improvement in engagement inpost-school employment. Examples of these outcomes include:–––Mid-West Academy – Indigenous male retention rates for Years10 to 12 (57%) now exceed non-Indigenous retention rates(55%)The Clontarf School (first Academy) – no Indigenous boyhad completed Year 12 until the Program started; in 200632 Indigenous students enrolled in Year 12 over 20 of themcompleted schoolKununurra Academy – had 25 boys in the Program in 2007 whohad an average attendance rate over the previous three years of5%; boys now have attendance rates ranging from 50 to 90%.6 3

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.5.6 Intensive Learning SupportIssues Response Key Success Factors Results–––––––––––––Low school attendance– School and non-school – Understand/meet holistic needsPoor student numeracy andbased-programs– Strengths-based approachliteracyproviding remedial– Dual learning and engagementand extension learningLow school retentionfocussupportLow parent/family literacy and– Culturally inclusivenumeracy– Strong school leadershipLow parent/family engagement in– High performance standardseducation/employmentand expectationsLanguage barriersLack of access to educationInappropriate school curriculumPoor teaching approachUnwelcoming school environment–––Tailored curriculum/programdesignSpecialist teaching capacityDual teaching and supportfocus (i.e. mixed teaching–support approach)Poor student skills and behaviour– Positive and welcoming learningNegative school experienceenvironmentPoor school performance– Quality teacher–studentrelationships––––––––Improved literacyImproved numeracyImproved attendanceIncreased retentionImproved schoolperformanceImproved secondary totertiary transitionIncreased confidenceHeightened aspirationsfor the futureIntensive Learning Support encompasses programs whereadditional academic support is made available in addition tothe ordinary school curriculum. Common forms of this type ofintervention are intensive literacy and numeracy programs duringschools hours and ‘homework’ clubs after school. These programsusually seek to help Indigenous students to increase their literacyand numeracy skills at a faster than average rate, with theambition of bringing them up to the level they should be for theirage and school year.Case StudiesMULTILIT – Macquarie University and The Exodus Foundation,New South WalesMULTILIT is an intensive remedial literacy program developed bythe Macquarie University Special Education Centre (MUSEC). Aseparate for-profit entity has been established by the university tomarket and sell the program across Australia. Discounts are givento non-profit organisations including schools. There are a numberof different ways in which the Program can be delivered, includingby parents at home and through schools. The university can befunded by Foundations to deliver the program.An example of this is The Exodus Foundation which facilitates therunning of MULTILIT as a 20-week intensive course staffed by ateam from MUSEC at their Ashfield and Redfern locations in NewSouth Wales. The Program commenced in Ashfield in 1996 andmore recently in Redfern in 2007, the latter specifically targetingIndigenous students.The Program caters for primary school-aged children with literacyat least two years behind their chronological age. The majority ofparticipants are at risk of disengaging from school and are unableto access remedial assistance for financial reasons.Students attend morning classes five days per week then attendschool in the afternoon as usual. Individual learning plans areprepared for each student. Students receive substantial time withMULTILIT instructors and trained volunteers receiving instructionin reading and spelling skills in small groups (1:5 teacherstudent ratio).Results from Exodus Foundation’s Ashfield Program in Semester 2in 2006 indicate that on average over the course of the 20-weekProgram students achieved:– 18-month improvement in reading accuracy– 11.5-month improvement in reading comprehension– 21.5-month improvement in single-word recognition– 19-month improvement in spelling– 47% increase in words read correctly per minute.These outcomes compare with standard-progress results for lowprogressreaders whose typical gain in reading and related skills inthe same period would be around two months.6 4

Partnership for Success – Polly Farmer Foundation,Western Australia, Northern Territory and South AustraliaThe Polly Farmer Foundation’s Partnerships for Success Programsets up and runs after school homework clubs. The Program wasestablished in 1997 and currently there are approximately 300participants across 10 sites in regional areas of Western Australia,the Northern Territory and South Australia.Partnerships for Success targets Indigenous students who showacademic promise and have the capacity, interest and potential tocomplete their secondary education. Most participating studentsattend school regularly and are likely to have experienced amoderate but not severe level of disadvantage.In the case of this program, in addition to the Key Success Factorsidentified in the table above, the program requires parent, familyand community engagement (families must sign a compactcommitting to getting their children to school) and a strongnetwork of other service providers.In the 10 years since the Program began in 1997, 123 studentshave gone on to further education, training or employment.In Karratha only one student had completed Year 12 prior tothe Program’s inception and in the 10 years since that site wasestablished, 51 students participating in the Program have goneon to further education, training or employment, with 17 of themgoing on to university.The Partnership for Success Program seeks to recognise potential,provide a positive learning environment and intensive supportto learn and promote responsibility for self and future. At eachsite the Program sets up an ‘enrichment centre’. The centre willtypically have internet workstations, study areas, a kitchen andeating areas. Participants come to the centre after school under thesupervision of a project leader. They do homework and can seekassistance when needed for their academic work, personal andfamily issues and for career pathway planning. Each student has anIndividual Learning Plan which is prepared in partnership with thestudent’s teachers. Personal and cultural development programsare offered in non-school time.6 5

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.5.7 School-based vocational training and development programsIssues Response Key Success Factors Results–––––––Low Year 10 and 12 retentionLimited access to or use ofmainstream servicesLow parental/familyengagement with theeducation system/employmentInappropriate schoolcurriculumPoor student skills andbehaviourNegative school experiencePoor school performance––School and non-schoolbasedprograms thatexpose students tovocational and lifeoptions, encouragestudents to set vocationaland life goals and supportvocational planning anddevelopmentIn some cases thisincludes intensive supportto assist students totransition from schoolinto further education,vocational training andemployment–––––––––Understand/meet holisticneedsStrengths-based approachDual learning andengagement focusAppropriate network ofcollaboratorsStrong school leadershipHigh performance standardsand expectationsTailored curriculum/programdesignPositive and welcominglearning environmentQuality teacher–studentrelationships–––––––Increased retentionImproved attendanceImproved schoolperformanceImproved secondary totertiary transitionIncreased confidenceHeightened aspirations forthe futureImproved behaviourVocational Training and Development programs seek to increaseawareness of, and interest in, vocational or career options, assiststudents in identifying career preferences and developing andimplementing career development plans. They often involve theprovision of school-based vocational training. They can also provideintensive transition support to assist students to transition fromschool into further education, vocational training and employment.They tend to be hands-on and to have a strong practical focus.They often include vocational assessment, career planning, resumewriting and interview skills, work readiness and vocational skillstraining, work experience and work placements.Case StudiesMidlands Indigenous Youth Program – The Beacon Foundation,Swan Valley, Western AustraliaThe Beacon Foundation operates the Midlands Indigenous YouthProgram in partnership with the Swan Valley Education District andthree high schools in the Swan Valley area. The Program seeks tohelp young Indigenous people who have graduated from high schoolto make a successful and sustained transition to further education,training and employment.There are currently 66 Indigenous students between 17 and 21years of age participating in the Program.A Program Coordinator provides or facilitates access to support on acase-management basis. From Years 10 to 12, the Coordinator helpseach student with career planning, choosing the most appropriatesubjects and learning stream (vocational or academic), and providessupport or referrals for family and personal issues. The Coordinatorhelps Year 12 students identify the most appropriate post-schooloptions and then continues to support the student with any careeror personal and family issues at the post-school stage. For example,this might include taking a student to a job interview, helping thembuy the right clothes for work or providing a referral for counselling.Students in Years 11 and 12 are connected with a mentor froma business or community organisation. The mentor relationshipcontinues through the transition from school to further education,training or employment.An independent evaluation report for the Midland IndigenousYouth Project completed in June 2007 found the Programdramatically boosted school-to-work transition rates and reducedanti-social behaviour. About 90% of participants in the Programwent on to employment at the end of compulsory schooling,compared to 67% of those in the general Perth population.6 6

Jobs 4U2 – Ganbina Koori Economic and Employment Agency,Shepparton, VictoriaGanbina is a local Indigenous vocational development andemployment support agency. It runs a suite of programs that seeksto assist Indigenous young people to realise the role of educationin enabling them to access vocational training and employmentopportunities. The above Programs include:–––––school-based programs – that provide students with exposureto vocational options, assist students in identifying careeropportunities and help them to develop career plans to pursuethose opportunitiesemployment support programs – that help older students andyoung people who have disengaged from education to developvocational skills and to access employment opportunitiesskill-based programs – including driver education and financialmanagementyouth leadership and development programsscholarship and awards programs – to promote equality ofaccess and local Indigenous student achievement.The Programs set high expectations for student and employeeperformance and place responsibility on participants to beaccountable for their vocational development and career path.Ganbina is in the process of conducting a three-year evaluationof the results of its Programs. Early results from schools operatingGanbina Programs show an increase in Indigenous school retentionfrom 23 to 33% as well as an increase in Indigenous studentenrolments. An independent evaluation of its 2006 Programindicated that 97% of students successfully completed the Programand either continued school or accessed employment.6 7

i n t e rv e n t i o n o ptions6.5.8 Scholarship programsIssues Response Key Success Factors Results––––––––Low Year 10 and 12 retentionPoverty/low household incomeLimited access to or use ofmainstream servicesLow parental/family engagementwith the education system/employmentLack of access to educationInappropriate school curriculumPoor school performancePoor student numeracy andliteracy– Student or schoolbased– Understand/meet holistic needs >scholarships – Strengths-based approach >providing funding for– Dual learning and engagement focusschool fees/studentsupport requirementsto facilitate accessto education–––Culturally inclusive >Family and community engagement >Appropriate network of collaborators >–––––––––Strong school leadership**High performance standards andexpectations**Tailored curriculum/program design**Specialist teaching capability**Dual teaching and support focus(i.e. mixed teaching – support approach)**Clear behavioural guidelines >Positive and welcoming learning environment**Quality teacher–student relationships**Critical mass >––––––––Improved literacyImproved numeracyIncreased retentionImproved schoolperformanceImproved secondaryto tertiary transitionIncreased confidenceHeightenedaspirations for thefutureBetter cross-culturalunderstanding** Attributes must apply to the school that scholarship recipients are attending.> Attributes must apply to both the scholarship design (i.e. student selection andscholarship management and coordination) and to the school that the scholarshiprecipients are attending.Scholarships create an opportunity for students with academicand/or leadership qualities to access education and to help them torealise their potential.Traditionally scholarship programs take the form of a donationthat allows a student to access school. However, for scholarshipprograms to be effective for Indigenous students who often have arange of support requirements, they need to provide for the holisticneeds of the student across the Social/Community, Home, Schooland Student Contexts. In effect, successful Indigenous scholarshipsfund students to access an education like that provided under theHolistic Schooling Approach (Section 6.5.1).The key difference is that while a donation is made at theorganisational level in the Holistic Schooling Approach, scholarshipsare targeted at an individual level.There are two main Indigenous Scholarship models currently inuse. The first involves the school providing both education and theadditional support required by the scholarship recipient and thesecond involves the school providing education, with additionalsupport being delivered by another organisation.Scholarships can benefit students from urban, regional and remoteareas, but are commonly granted to students from regional andremote areas, as it is recognised that this group has the greatestdifficultly in accessing quality education.6 8

Case StudyIndigenous Education Program – St Joseph’s College,Hunters Hill, New South WalesSt Joseph’s College is a private secondary college providingboarding facilities in Sydney. The Scholarship Program allowsIndigenous boys from regional and rural New South Wales fromYear 7 onwards to take up a boarding scholarship at St Joseph’sCollege in Sydney and stay until they complete Year 12. Of theschool’s 970 students, 750 are boarders and 41 (5%) of those areIndigenous students on scholarships.The Indigenous boys who receive scholarships at St Josephs arethose who are in financial need, have leadership potential and agenuine interest in finishing Year 12. They are likely to have someexperience of the issues shown in the table above.The school has strong and committed leadership. It focuses onthe potential of its students and provides a positive learningenvironment, Indigenous staff, as well as intensive support tolearn. The school’s culture of supporting boys in all aspects oftheir lives – academic, social and emotional – helps to create theenvironment required for students to stay and achieve their fullpotential. The school takes a holistic approach, seeking to providesupport across all the different life contexts (Social/Community,Home, School and Student) that affect the ability of the student toconnect with school and learn effectively.Since the program commenced in 1998, there have been 60students who have completed more than one year at St Joseph’sCollege. Of those 60 Indigenous students:– 17 have completed Year 12, many of them going on totertiary study– 11 are completing Year 12 in 2008– 23 are enrolled in other year levels– 9 have left the program for reasons including disciplinary issuesand pursuit of employment– school attendance is 100%.St Joseph’s College has established an Indigenous Capital Fundto facilitate funding scholarships for students and in 2007commenced funding scholarships for girls at high-performinggirls’ boarding schools.6 9

7. ConclusionThis section summarises the keyinsights of the Report.7 0

7.1 Key insights forPhilanthropic InvestmentAlthough the issues relating toIndigenous education are complex,philanthropic investors can play apositive role in helping to improvethe education outcomes ofIndigenous students.In order to improve Indigenouseducation outcomes it is necessaryto take a holistic approach. To do thatit is often necessary to address factorsacross the Social/Community, Home,School and Student Contexts thatlimit the capacity of students toengage in school and to learn.There is a range of interventions suited tophilanthropic investment that work within aSchool and Student Context to improve the deliveryof education and the education outcomes ofIndigenous students including both:––school-based interventions such as the TailoredCurriculum or Holistic Schooling Approach andstudent-based interventions addressing specificareas of need such as Intensive Learning Supportand Vocational Training and DevelopmentPrograms.It is rare for a single intervention to deal with therange of factors that often need to be addressed tosupport sustainable change. In many cases a mix ofinterventions is required to do that.The strongest intervention models tend thereforeto be multi-faceted and to involve the coordinationof a range of programs to address the issuesaffecting students’ capacity to engage with schooland learning. The key often lies in providing acoordinated response that addresses both thelearning and other support needs of theindividual students.The implication of this for philanthropic investors isthat well-focused investments in this area:–––––require a holistic understanding of the local issuesthat need to be addressed in order to achieveeffective outcomesmay involve multiple service providers and asa result tend to require more extensive duediligence, more complex funding structures andmore extensive coordination, monitoring andevaluation processesoften require higher levels of overall fundingin order to make sure that all relevant programcomponents are covered and often involvelarger investments or collaborativefunding arrangementstend to require higher levels of support whereinterventions are delivered in remote areas dueto the narrower range of services and serviceproviders in those areas and the higher levels ofdisadvantage that tend to exist thereneed to allow a reasonable timeframe for changegiven the complexity of the factors affectingeducation outcomes.7 1

co n c lu s i o n7.2 Final words–in the case of school-based investments:• require the underlying organisational systemsat the school (e.g. school managementand culture, staff recruitment and training,curriculum planning and student disciplineprocedures etc.) to support the delivery of theprograms being funded – the alignment of suchsystems, as well as the organisational structureand staffing of the school, with programdelivery is critical to ensure that such programsare sustainable, rather than dependent onthe principal and staff who are present at theschool at the time of investment• need to take into account taxation structuresthat currently limit the capacity of investors toaccess Deductible Gift Recipient (DGR) basedtax deductions.Philanthropic investmentscan change lives.They can help Indigenousstudents to develop the skills,values, experience and confidenceto realise their potential.When philanthropic investorsapply strong analysis and duediligence to make well-focusedinvestments, their impactcan be profound.7 2

Glossary of TermsAttendanceContributing factorCulturally inclusiveCulturally relevant curriculumDeductible Gift Recipient (DGR)Due diligenceEnrolmentExclusionGrade retentionHolistic approachHome contextIndigenous AustraliansIndigenous consultationInterventionKey success factorNon-school qualificationOutcomeStudent presence in school classes (as opposed to enrolment)Underlying factors in a student’s social/community, home, school, or own(student) context that contribute to their educational outcomesInclude, recognise, acknowledge and respect Indigenous knowledge base andcultural and linguistic background and valuesTeaching which acknowledges and respects Indigenous knowledge, philosophiesand values while providing education that will enable full participation in societyat largeAn entity that is entitled to receive income tax deductible gifts. All DGRs have tobe endorsed unless they are named specifically in the income tax law; most, butnot all, philanthropic foundations and trusts can only make donations to entitieswith DGRThe care that a prudent person might be expected to exercise in the examinationand evaluation of risks affecting a philanthropic investmentThe registration of a student for attendance at a schoolThe permanent prohibition of a student from attending a school(or multiple schools)The continued participation (enrolment) of a student at school from year levelto year levelTo meet all aspects of an individual’s needs (material, personal, cultural andspiritual) in concertThe home environment in which the student lives and home or parentalfactors that influence or inform the development of the student or their homeexperience including parental status and life experience, parenting, earlychildhood development and parental and family capacity to supportstudent learningPeople identifying themselves as Australian Aboriginal or Torres Strait IslanderThe active discussion with and inclusion of Indigenous Australians in theformulation and implementation of programs and policies that will affect themA specific type of involvement in a situation that is designed to alter the existingstate of affairsAn element that is required for the success of an InterventionA qualification that is received from an educational institution (e.g. TAFE oruniversity) other than a secondary school either while a student is still atsecondary school or after they have completed secondary schoolMeasure(s) that show the status of an individual against a desired socioeconomicparameter(s) at a given point in time7 3

g lo s sa ry o f t e r m sPhilanthropic investmentParticipation ratePost-school qualificationQuadrenniumQuintileSchool retentionSchool contextSchool performance and achievementSchoolingSocial change philanthropySocial/community contextStudent contextSuspensionVocational developmentVocational trainingYear 12 completionA philanthropic donation or grantThe number of students of school age who were reported as being enrolled inschool expressed as a percentage of the total number of children of school ageA qualification received from a higher education institution after a student hascompleted secondary schoolA period of four yearsA fifth or 20% of the whole amount – the term is used when describing thestatistical distribution of a populationThe continued participation (enrolment) of a student at school – the term maybe used to refer to participation from the commencement of schooling orfrom commencement at a defined year level (e.g. from commencement ofsecondary school)The schooling system and way in which education is delivered that is experiencedby a studentThe results achieved by a student at school – this can include both academic andnon-academic elements (e.g. emotional maturity, personal development, peergroup or civic leadership)Schooling from Years 1 to 12Philanthropy designed to cause a change in the nature of social institutions,social behaviour or the social relations of a society, community of people, or othersocial structures (in contrast with the provision of alms)The socio-economic status such as family income, health, nutrition and housingand the community environment in which individuals liveThe personal attributes and life experience that a student brings to schoolingincluding skill base, emotional status, behaviour, life goals and aspirations,experience of and attitude towards school and school performanceThe temporary exclusion of a student from attending school fordisciplinary reasonsResearch, planning and organisation for a career including the identification ofcareer options, the identification of career preferences, the development of careerplans and the investigation and pursuit of career training, work experience andprofessional or trade skill developmentTraining for a specific future careerThe successful completion of Year 12 schooling with or without the acquisition ofa tertiary entrance score7 4

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AcknowledgementsThe publishing organisations would like toacknowledge the contributions made in relation tothe preparation of this Report by:Review Panel MembersAdrian Appo, Executive Officer, Ganbina KooriEconomic and Employment AgencyDr Barry Osborne, Adjunct Associate ProfessorJames Cook University and Djarragun College BoardMemberJennifer Samms, Executive Director, Taskforce onAboriginal Affairs, Department of Planning andCommunity Development VictoriaDr Nereda White, Coordinator, Weemala IndigenousUnit, Australian Catholic University NationalOther Subject Matter ExpertsAlice Macdougall, FreehillsBarbara Livesey, Reconciliation AustraliaDavid McRae, What Works ProgramGary Highland, Australians for Native Titleand ReconciliationInge Kral, Centre for Aboriginal Economic and PolicyResearch, Australian National UniversityKevin Kearney, Cape York InstituteProfessor Paul Hughs, University of South AustraliaPhilanthropic InvestorsKirsty Allen and Debra Maine, The Myer FoundationGeorgia Symmons, Telstra FoundationTrish Burrows, Foundation for Young AustraliansNot-for-Profit OrganisationsAndrew Penfold, St Joseph’s Indigenous FundAnne Hampshire, Mission AustraliaDr Chris Sarra, Indigenous EducationLeadership InstituteGerard Neesham, Clontarf FoundationJean Illingworth, Djarragun CollegeJohn Cunningham, Polly Farmer FoundationLeoni Wilbow, The Exodus FoundationLiz Langstaff and Professor Wheldall,Macquarie UniversityMargaret Flynn, Centacare Wilcannia ForbesPaul Billing, Yule Brook CollegeScott Harris, The Beacon FoundationTricia Rushton and David Ballhausen,The Smith FamilyViv White, The Big Picture Company of AustraliaProfessor Rhonda Craven, University ofWestern SydneyGovernment DepartmentsDepartment of Education and Children’s Services,South AustraliaDepartment of Education and Training,Australian Capital TerritoryDepartment of Education and Training,New South WalesDepartment of Education, Training and the Arts,QueenslandDepartment of Employment, Education and Training,Northern Territory7 7

AppendiciesAppendix One – Factors identified as affecting Indigenous student absenteeism 204Key ParametersPositive ImpactNegative ImpactSocio-economic factors(Social/CommunityContext)Income–Family is financially stableHealth–Family is under financial stress–Family and student health is good–Family/student health is not goodCommunity safety/stability–The local community is relatively stable–The local community environment is unstable/there is ahigh level of community dysfunctionFamily-based factors(Home Context)Family situation–The student has a stable family/home environment–There is family dysfunction/an unstable home environment–The family is not highly mobile–The family is highly mobile/transientParental status–Parental education – one or both parents have completedYear 10/had a positive experience of school–Limited parental education – the student lacks an educatedfamily role model–Negative parental education experience – one or bothparents had a negative experience of school–Parental employment – one or both parents are employed–Parental unemployment – both parents are unemployed,the student lacks an employed family-based role modelParental attitude to education–Positive parental/family attitude to education–Negative parental/family attitude to education–Parents actively encourage attendance at school–Parents do not actively encourage attendance/give childrenautonomy in determining whether or not to attend schoolSchool-based factors(School Context)School environment–Positive school environment – school is seen as a safe, caringplace where students and parents feel valued and welcome–School is not seen as a safe caring place, students andparents do not feel valued and welcomeCurriculum–Engaging school curriculum – interesting and relevantcurriculum linked to student’s immediate practical interests–Lack of interesting and relevant curriculum – curriculumnot linked to student’s immediate practical interests––Inclusion of Indigenous studies in curriculumReferences to Indigenous language and culture–Indigenous studies not included in curriculum/limitedincorporation of such studies or references to Indigenouslanguage or cultureTeaching approach–Teachers skilled in teaching in a cross-cultural andbilingual situation–Teachers not skilled in teaching in a cross-cultural andbilingual situation–Limited cross-cultural misunderstanding–Significant cross-cultural misunderstanding–Empathy for social and cultural issues–Perceived lack of empathy for social and cultural issues–Strong teacher–student relationships – teachers seenas being supportive and adopt a mixed teaching andsupport function–Poor teacher–student relationships–Teachers positively encourage student attendanceand performance–Teachers seen to discipline non-attendance rather thanencourage attendance–Teachers set reasonable demands on students – setappropriate academic and behavioural standards–Teachers demonstrate low expectations of Indigenousstudent capability–Discipline system – disciplinary action is based onrestorative justice principles (in which the studentparticipates in rather than being subject to the disciplinaryprocess) and takes into account the student’s situation–Penalty or punishment-based discipline system adopted tomanage late attendance, absenteeism andbehavioural issues–System uses a structured but culturally sensitive approachto manage late attendance, absenteeism and behaviouralissuesParental/family/community engagement–High level of parental/community involvement in theschool/teaching process–Low level of parental/community involvement in theschool/teaching process–Parents kept informed of children’s progress–Parents not kept informed of student’s progress204 Bourke et al. 2000, pp.1ff; Zubrick et al. 2006, pp.113ff.7 8

Key ParametersStudent-based factors*(Student Context)* Student-based factors aresignificantly affected by factorsin the other areas listed.Positive ImpactPersonal factors– Absence of significant emotional and behaviouraldifficulties/appropriately managed behaviour– Positive peer and other role models– Strong sense of individual and cultural identity– Clear/positive life goals and aspirationsStudent attitude towards school– Positive experience of and attitude towards school– Believe that attending school is likely to lead to positiveconsequences (e.g. getting a better job when theyfinish school)Access to resources– Access to school equipment and resources(e.g. computers and internet access)Student performance– Meet basic literacy and numeracy skills–Able to participate in/keep up with class workNegative Impact––––Emotional and behavioural difficultiesLack positive peer or other role modelsLack a strong sense of individual and cultural identityLack clear/positive life goals and aspirations– Negative experience of or attitude towards school– Do not believe that attending school is likely to lead topositive consequences–––Lack access to school equipment and resourcesPoor student performance, low literacy andnumeracy skillsFind it difficult to participate in/keep up with classAppendix Two – Detailed description of School and Student-based change leversActivity Area1. School Context1.1 Access to school1.2 School/ learningenvironment1.3 CurriculumDescription– Improve Indigenous student access to school through:• investment in the provision of additional schools, school facilities, teaching staff (including Indigenous educationworkers/liaison officers)/equipment to improve the availability of appropriately located and resourced educationalinstitutions• investment in public/private transport services to allow Indigenous students and their families to access existing––––––••schools and school support servicesprovision of financial support to assist students to access education and learning support servicesprovision of transition support services to assist students in remote communities to manage the transition to schooloutside of their communityImprove school environment and culture to make school a more accessible and welcoming place for Indigenous studentsand their families through:• incorporation of cultural references in school spaces, class exercises and educational materials• investment in the training and employment of Indigenous teaching, support and administration staff• encouragement of Indigenous community participation in the school• recognition of cultural events and participation in cultural activitiesDevelop school-based management, operational and disciplinary systems, protocols and tools to encourage appropriatestaff and student behaviourShowcase high-impact schools and curriculum modelsImprove school curriculum through the development and delivery of a culturally appropriate curriculum that is suited tothe needs of Indigenous students including:• ESL-based programs and intensive literacy and numeracy-based skill development programs to address existinglanguage and core skill gaps• behaviour management and personal development programs to address social competency and emotionaldevelopment needs• cultural and language studies• school engagement programs to introduce students to the learning environment and encourage school attendanceand participation• vocational development programs aimed at exposing students to alternative vocational and life options• vocational and academic education streamsDevelop school-based curriculum-planning processes, protocols and tools to support annual school-based curriculumplanning to take into account Indigenous (high-need) student learning requirementsPromote connection between school and post-school education and employment options that align with student goalsand aspirations7 9

a p p e n d i c i e sActivity Area1.4 A. Teacher trainingand development1.4 B. Teaching approach1.5 Parental/familyengagementDescription––––––––––Showcase high-impact schools and curriculum modelsShowcase tertiary education providers that provide quality pre- and in-service training for Indigenous and non-Indigenous teachersInvest in the training and development of Indigenous teachers, education workers and liaison officersInvest in targeted pre- and in-service training for specialist teaching staff to support the delivery of Indigenouseducation including:• ESL and bilingual teaching training• intensive literacy and numeracy training• cultural awareness training• intensive support, relationship management and counselling-based skills trainingImprove understanding of the importance of establishing a supportive teacher–student relationshipTeach teaching staff how to align teaching approaches with Indigenous student learning styles/preferences and to tailorteaching strategies to individual student needsEstablish professional mentoring or supervision programs to support the development of teacher skills to assist in thedevelopment and maintenance of effective student–teacher relationshipsInvest in principal-based training to build understanding of approaches required to achieve effective learning outcomesfor Indigenous (high-need) students and to support the implementation of school-based approachesShowcase and reward highly effective school management and teaching staffEncourage and support schools and teaching staff to tailor teaching strategies to accommodate Indigenous studentlearning and development requirements– Provide pre- and in-service training and teaching tools to assist teaching staff to:••• develop class plans that tailor teaching content and style to meet the needs of the specific student grouppresent the curriculum in a culturally appropriate waybuild and maintain warm and supportive teacher-student relationships–Improve school and teacher engagement with Indigenous parents and families:• encourage parental and family involvement in school activities• establish administration, teaching and reporting processes that take into account cross-cultural issues and encourageengagement between the school and teaching staff and Indigenous parents and families• encourage parental and family involvement in curriculum design and delivery• provide opportunities for parents and families to participate in adult education• provide workshops for parents on a range of topics including school curriculum, how to help their children withschool, literacy and numeracy and vocational development2. Student Context2.1 Basic material andpersonal support2.2 School engagement2.3 Intensive learningsupport2.4 Vocationaldevelopment andtraining–––Invest in school and non-school-based programs that address students’ basic support needs to improve their capacity toattend and participate effectively in school including:• physical and mental health• material aid• home/family-based support• financial support• computer and internet access for home useUse early childhood education as a bridge to encourage parental, family and student engagement in formal schoolbasededucationInvest in school and non-school-based activities that encourage attendance and attachment to learning and school– Investment in intensive student learning support programs including:••• intensive language, literacy and numeracy teachingESL-based teachingone-on-one remedial and extension-based learning support–––––Invest in vocational development programs to increase awareness of, and interest in, vocational/career optionsAssist students in identifying career preferences and developing and implementing career development plans throughsupported career guidance and development programsProvide intensive transition support to assist students to transition from school into further education, vocationaltraining and employmentInvest in career pathway programs that attract Indigenous students to tertiary educationInvest in the training and development of Indigenous careers guidance counsellors8 0

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