UNIT2 Our Developing Nation - Dr. Charles Best Secondary School ...

UNIT2Our Developing NationIN THIS UNITThis unit helps you investigate these questions.●●●●Why might people have immigrated to Canadabetween 1815 and 1867?What was the impact of interactions betweenAboriginal peoples and European settlers?How did responsible government evolve inCanada?How and why did Canada become a nation?First Nations. European settlers disrupted First Nations communities by taking their land. FirstNations leaders, such as this Anishinabé man, often signed treaties in order to save some landfor future generations. What are the effects of these treaties today?40

Colonial life. Daily life for the colonists was challenging by today’s standards. People workedlong days clearing land, planting and harvesting crops, caring for livestock, and raisingtheir children. How would the hardships of colonial life affect the growth of communities?Rebellions. In 1837, dissatisfaction with colonialgovernment led to rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada.The British government sent Lord Durham to the colonies tobring about reform. What would be the consequences?The Charlottetown Conference. In 1864, delegates fromthe colonies met in Charlottetown to discuss uniting as adominion. The pro-Confederation party convinced enoughdelegates that Confederation could work. What might havehappened if they had been unsuccessful?

2The Colonists: Land andGovernmentChapter OutcomesIn this chapter, you will study the changes that came with the colonistswho arrived in Upper and Lower Canada between 1814 and 1840.By the end of this chapter, you will• assess the impact of geography on Canada’s early developmentand colonization• describe significant events and trends affecting immigrationto Canada• compare the roles and daily activities of men and women incolonial society• evaluate the influence of immigration on Canadian societyand identity• discuss the causes and the consequences of the Rebellionsof 1837• explain the evolution of responsible government in Canada• describe the factors that contributed to a changing nationalidentity, including the development of Canada as a French andEnglish country42

SignificancePatterns andChangeJudgementsCRITICALINQUIRYEvidenceCause andConsequencePerspectivesWhat factors shaped Canadaat this time? Land, people, orpolitics?Imagine what it would be like toarrive as a colonist in Upper orLower Canada in the early 1800s.Would you think you were buildingthe foundation of an emergingnation? Would you see the landas a “wilderness” available forthe taking? Or would you thinkthat the long-standing presenceof First Nations should beacknowledged?Key TermsThe 1845 portrait, shown above, depicts three sisters, all bornin York, the capital of Upper Canada. The painting to the leftshows settlers with a typical rural cabin. Do you think thepeople shown in these images would agree with the quotationbelow? What do you think they might say about using theterm “waste land” to describe Upper Canada?colonyUpper CanadaLower Canadaclass systemFamily CompactChâteau Cliqueland speculatorsFrancophonerepresentativegovernmentresponsiblegovernmentoligarchynationalisminsurrectionA highly civilized and densely populated state possesses extensivewaste lands in the colonies. In a state possessing those waste lands(now Canada), all citizens have equal rights—all have a share in thecollective right to these waste lands.—an editorial in the British newspaper, The Spectator, September 18, 1847The Colonists: Land and Government 43

The Land of YesterdayWhat was British North America like in the early 19th century?TIMELINE1791 Constitutional Actcreates Upper andLower Canada1814 Louis-JosephPapineau is electedto the LegislativeAssembly of LowerCanada1817 Robert Gourlay isarrested for criticizingland policies in UpperCanada1824 William LyonMackenzie establishesthe Colonial Advocate1826 Papineau becomesleader of the Patriotes1828 Mackenzie is electedto the LegislativeAssembly1837 November: Battle ofSt. CharlesDecember: Battle ofMontgomery's Tavern1838 Lord Durham arrivesin QuebecImagine what your community might have looked like when it was firstsettled. Were there thick forests or rocky areas? To the early Europeancolonists, British North America was very challenging compared to theirhomelands. To many, the environment in which Aboriginal peoplesalready lived may have seemed like a vast wilderness that had to be conquered.The eastern part of the country was growing and developing. The War of1812, in which the United States declared war on Britain and its colonies overtrade and other issues, had ended. Newcomers now poured into the colonyof Upper Canada (now southern and eastern Ontario). Forests were clearedto build farms, small communities, and roads.At the same time, Lower Canada (Quebec and along the St. LawrenceRiver) was building its economy. Its busy trading capital, Montreal,attracted Scottish and American entrepreneurs.The Maritime colonies (now New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island,Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador), long settled and stable,specialized in fishing, forestry, and shipbuilding. Trade with Britain andthe United States kept these industries booming.In the north and west, the Hudson’s Bay Company held sway. Itclaimed all lands drained by rivers flowing into Hudson Bay, bringing ahuge part of the continent of North America under its control. As a result,the fur trade expanded west. In competition with the HBC, the NorthWest Company, based in Montreal, built its own trading relationshipswith Aboriginal leaders and explored the west.1840 Act of Union is passedcolony the overseas possession ofanother country that governs and usesit for its own purposesUpper Canada British colony “up” theSt. Lawrence, mostly English speakingLower Canada British colony “down”the St. Lawrence, mostly FrenchspeakingFIGURE 2–1 This painting shows the living conditions of some of Canada’s early newcomers.Using this image as a primary source, discuss what living and farming in this area at that pointin time might have been like.44 Chapter 2

ARCTICOCEANALASKA1784–1825BritishAmericanJoint occupation,open to British andAmerican citizensSpanishRussianApproximateextent ofsettlementPACIFICOCEAN0 300 600 900kilometresRO CK Y M O UN TOREGONTERRITORYSPANISHTERRITORYA ITHENORTH-WESTERNTERRITORYN SR UP EH U D S O N’ SHUDSONBAYR T’ SB A YUPPERU N I T E D S T A T E SLANDC O MCANADAYorkYP A NMontrealL O W E R C A N A D AN E W F O U N D L A N DN.B.Quebec CitySt. Lawrence R.P.E.I.N.S.NW ESATLANTICOCEANHowever, the growth of the colonies came at the expense of Aboriginalpeoples, although they had once been military allies of the British andwere still a vital part of the prosperous fur trade. Many died from diseasesbrought by Europeans, or they starved after losing land and access to traditionalfood sources. First Nations were often forced to give up their landto make way for European immigrants. Those who grew crops lost theirfarmlands, while others lost access to traditional fishing and hunting areas.Most newcomers paid little attention to such hardship and injustice, whichcontinued throughout Canada’s history, as you will learn in later chapters.FIGURE 2–2 In 1825, British NorthAmerica consisted of six colonies.In the colonies, community building,farming, and forestry began toradically change the land. In thenorthwest, the Hudson’s Bay Companyand the North West Companyencouraged the trade of furs. Whichactivity might have had more of animpact on Aboriginal societies? Why?FIGURE 2–3 Anishinabé fishers atSault Ste. Marie. The Anishinabétraditionally used this area to meetand fish every year. By 1887, SaultSte. Marie had become a town. Howdo you think the growth of a townmight have changed their way of life?The Colonists: Land and Government 45

Zoom In>First Nations: Those Already ThereCRITICALINQUIRYCause and ConsequenceFirst Nations ways of life wereheavily affected—and in somecases destroyed—by Europeancolonization. Disease, for example,took a heavy toll, sometimesdecimating entire First Nationscommunities.Loss of land was anotherfactor. European attitudes towardland were alien to the FirstNations, who did not “own” land inthe European sense, believingrather that they belonged to theland and not the other way around.Colonial governments andland developers were quick totake advantage of this differencein attitude. To Europeans, landthat had not been surveyed anddid not legally belong to anyonewas considered free land, waitingto be taken. Although the RoyalProclamation of 1763 providedsome protection for First Nations,the British government expectedto gain control of First Nationsland through treaties. However,most land set aside for the use ofFirst Nations had, over time, beentaken away again. Usually, FirstNations were left with a fractionof their former traditional territories.Loss of land led not only to aloss of freedom of movement andaccess to resources necessary forsurvival, but also to a loss of away of life. Newcomers to Canadamade their homes on land thatwas once the territory of the FirstNations.• Discuss the immediateconsequences of loss of landto Aboriginal peoples in NorthAmerica. What land rightsissues still exist today forAboriginal peoples in Canada?Royal Proclamation of 1763 a Britishdeclaration confirming Aboriginal title tolands west of the Mississippi RiverFIGURE 2–4 The map above was drawn in 1829 by a First Nationswoman, a Beothuk named Shawnadithit. The map on the rightshows the province of Canada West (Upper Canada). The mapsexpress different views of the land. One is about landmarks, routes,special events, and journeys. The other is about boundaries andownership. How do these maps show the world views of themakers? Could these world views be connected to the causes ofland loss for Aboriginal peoples? Discuss.46 Chapter 2

What’s in a Word?Many words have implicit meaningsthat can affect how peoplethink, although they might beunaware of it. You may be familiarwith insulting names for differentgroups that are based on religion,ethnicity, or gender, but you couldbe surprised how subtle somewords can be. A look at somewords used to describe Aboriginalissues reveals the hidden influenceof ordinary words.For instance, the term “settlement”is commonly used todescribe the colonization of NorthAmerica. This word implies thatthe land was wild or unoccupied,and it becomes easy to forget thatAboriginal peoples had “settled”the land long before Europeansarrived. From the perspective ofthe Aboriginal peoples, their landwas invaded, not discovered,and they did not think their landneeded to be “settled.” It is alsoworthwhile noting that the word“handout,” often used to describepayments from the government toAboriginal peoples, is inaccurate.These payments were the resultof complex treaty negotiationsbased on the sale of land, andthey were never charity.Word use can also changethrough time. An example ofthis concerns the Métis, who youwill study in later chapters ofHorizons. Recently, the eventsduring which the Métis defendedtheir lands have been called a“resistance” rather than a“rebellion.” Why the change?Resistance implies a struggleagainst unfair treatment, whilerebellion implies an illegal actagainst legitimate authority.Changing perspectives on thehistory of the Métis has ledhistorians and writers to acknowledgethat the Métis were morelikely to resist unfair treatmentrather than rebel against a governmentthat did not recognizethem as citizens.The power of words to shapeour perspectives should not beunderestimated.• Using the example of theMétis, discuss other examplesof changing word use throughtime. Why might these wordschange? What impact do thechanges have?implicit something that is implied, andnot openly expressedFIGURE 2–5 This 1550 engraving of Secota, an Algonquin village, is based on adrawing by John White, an English colonist who lived on the east coast of NorthAmerica. What does this representation of village life tell you about what he saw?How might it contrast to a typical idea of how First Nations people lived in the past?The Colonists: Land and Government 47

Métis a person of both Aboriginal andEuropean descentLand for the Fur Trade, or for the Colonies?As European settlement of the British colonies continued, colonistsgenerally accepted that the lands west and north of the Great Lakes werereserved for the fur trade. Most Aboriginal peoples living in that regionwere involved in the fur trade in some way. By 1820, however, anyEuropean immigrants living in the northwest and not involved in the furtrade numbered less than a dozen.Even if European or American immigrants wanted to farm thenorthwest, those involved in the fur trade were determined to preventthis. Colonists wanted fixed boundaries, surveys, roads, and most importantly,land they could own. These goals conflicted with the culture,lifestyle, and economy of the fur traders. Fur traders eventually becamethe natural allies of Aboriginal peoples, particularly the Métis. As youwill learn in Chapter 4, both fur traders and Aboriginal communities hadeverything to lose and very little to gain from colonization.FIGURE 2–6 This painting shows First Nations hunters and fur traders in their camp. Examinethe image and theorize what travel, hunting, and daily life must have been like for this group.What might happen if settlements were built in their lands?ACTIVITIES1. Summarize your understanding of life in 19th centuryBritish North America in one or two sentences.What stands out for you? The land? Exploration?The potential for conflict?2. Think about the needs of fur traders, Aboriginalhunters, and farmers (for example, land, water, andfood). Create an organizer that shows how theseand three other needs might come into conflict.3. Examine the portrait of the three sisters on page 43.What do you think the women want others to see?What are they trying to say about life in Canada?4. With a partner, discuss how the lives of Aboriginalinhabitants of the northwest might have beenaffected by the Hudson’s Bay Company. For example,how would hunters have reacted to a companythat traded in furs?48 Chapter 2

Upper CanadaWhat was life like in Upper Canada?In the early 19th century, Upper Canada was the newest of the colonies ofBritish North America. There were few roads. Places 30 or 40 km awayfrom the village of York (which later became Toronto) took more than aday to get to on horseback. Most people had to walk. The forest was verydense, and the hardwood trees had massive trunks and root systems.Clearing the land was usually a newcomer’s first task, but it was not possibleto clear more than a hectare in a year—an area a little larger than acity block.The War of 1812 ended in 1815. Invasion attempts by the Americansduring this war, and again during the American Revolution, served toreinforce Upper Canada colonists’ ties with the British Empire. Colonyand community leaders were often members of Loyalist families, pensionedBritish army officers, or members of the British gentry. This leadershiptended to unite the colony under British rule, and with British laws.FIGURE 2–7 The corner of Yongeand Dundas streets in Toronto today.These streets were once tracks inthe bush.Loyalist Americans who did notsupport the American Revolution, manyof whom moved to the British coloniesgentry the upper class in BritainLakeHuronGeorgianBayU P P ER C AN A D ACobourgKingstonSt. LawrenceNW ESRiverDundasYorkHamiltonNewarkLake OntarioPopulationAmherstburgLake Erie0 50 100 150kilometresOne dotrepresents300 people1000–24992500–4999FIGURE 2–8 According to this map showing settlement patterns in 1825, where did mostcolonists choose to live? Examine a physical map of southern Ontario. What geographicfeatures helped determine settlement patterns?The Colonists: Land and Government 49

Daily Life for the ColonistsDid You Know…Candles and oil for lampswere expensive, so peopledid not light their houseslong after dark. This wasnot an inconveniencebecause everyone workedfrom dawn to dusk andwent to bed very early.clergy people ordained for religiousservicemortgage to use something as securityfor a loanbarter economy an economy basedon trading services and products insteadof using moneyWhat was it like to live in Upper Canada in the 1820s? If you could travelback in time, you might notice the quiet and the darkness. Those of uswho live in modern cities and towns are used to constant noise and light.Colonists heard only the noises of the weather, the barnyard, and work.To colonists, a watermill or a smithy might seem loud. Of course, therewas always the sound of music at social gatherings. At night, light camefrom candles, oil lamps, or the moon; there was no constant glow fromstreetlights or signs.People depended on each other and formed close communities.They looked forward to going to church or being visited by a travellingmember of the clergy. Sometimes communities came together to builda small school and hire a teacher, often paying for the service with foodand lodging.Making a living in farming was hard, as it is for many people today.It took years to raise a crop that could be sold. Almost everybody was indebt at one time or another, and many had to mortgage next year’s cropto buy supplies. Colonists also depended on a barter economy. For example,a farmer might pay the local blacksmith with wheat instead of money.Some colonists built a relationship with First Nations people in the area,learning from their knowledge of the land and the seasons.FIGURE 2–9 Most newcomers in Upper Canada lived in small log cabins that they builtthemselves. The buildings shown here are part of Upper Canada Village, a recreated colonialvillage in Ontario. Do you think the village accurately portrays past life in the colonies?50 Chapter 2

Zoom In>Aboriginal Farming Changes the WorldWhen Europeans first came toNorth and South America, theydid not find Asia’s treasures asthey had hoped, but they did findenormous wealth. Not only didthey profit from fur, gold, andsilver, but they also found thatplants farmed by Aboriginal peopleswere extremely useful. Someof these plants changed theworld forever.Aboriginal farmers in theAmericas cultivated more than300 varieties of plants, whichtoday equal more than half of thecrops grown around the world.The potato, introduced to Europein 1536, proved to be such aneasily grown food that it quicklynourished a population boom.The potato also provided a lessonin the importance of crop diversity.Aboriginal peoples in theAndes had developed more than3000 varieties of potato, butEuropeans took back a limitednumber, leaving the plants opento disease. In Ireland, a combinationof a dependency on potatoesas food and the potato blight ledto devastating famine.Corn, or maize, was also anunexpected treasure. First cultivatedabout 9000 years ago inwhat is now Mexico, it was eventuallygrown throughout NorthAmerica. Today, corn is one of themost common crops in the world,and is used in thousands of differentproducts, from plastics to fuel.The most influential crop toleave the Americas was cotton.The soft fibre of the cotton plantcan be spun into thread, whichcan then be woven into cloth.Aboriginal peoples in SouthAmerica had been harvesting cottonto make clothing for centuries.They grew long-fibre cotton,suitable for European mass production.Soon millions of balesof cotton were spurring the inventionof the Spinning Jenny, theWater Frame, and other machinesmade to spin and weave cottonquickly and efficiently. By 1850,cloth would make up half ofEngland’s exports. The machineryof this booming industry neededa workforce, and soon thousandsof people were working in factories.The industrial revolutionhad begun.• What other crops grown inCanada today have beenimported from other areas ofthe world? Why might this stillhappen?blight a disease caused by mold, fungus,or bacteria that can kill plantsFIGURE 2–10 Aboriginal peoples grew corn with two other plants—beans andsquash. Known as the Three Sisters, the plants provided nutrients and shade foreach other, and they were always grown together. This painting of the Three Sistersis by Carson Waterman of the Seneca Nation. What other Aboriginal products andtechnologies would be adopted by Europeans?The Colonists: Land and Government 51

FIGURE 2–11 Colonists fromneighbouring farms often workedtogether. Clearing land was hard,time-consuming work. How are landclearing and construction differenttoday? Explain both the advantagesand disadvantages of this workduring colonial times and today.estate a tract of land often coveringthousands of hectares, owned by onepersontenant farmer someone who farmsland owned by someone else, keepingpart of the produce as paymentclass system a society in which thoseborn into privileged groups have rightsand advantages that others do notThe Importance of Social ClassMost people today tend not to judge others based on who their parentsare. This was not the case in Upper Canada, where family backgroundmeant a great deal—especially to the upper class. Upper-class peoplewanted to keep the privileges they enjoyed in Britain when they came toCanada, but life in the colonies had ways of removing some of the barriersbetween social classes. Many children of British aristocrats, as well asretired British army officers, came to settle in the colony only to discoverthat they had to do the back-breaking labour of clearing and maintaininga farm. Cheap labour and servants were simply not as readily availableas they had been in Britain.Most colonists, no matter what their background was, needed thecooperation of their neighbours. Some people adapted easily to this newfact of life, but others did not. Many continued to think of Britain, notUpper Canada, as their real home. Educated newcomers were often sointerested in what happened in Britain that they even sent their childrento England to be educated. They did not see themselves as Canadians,but rather as British people transforming a raw land into part of theBritish Empire.The efforts of the ruling classes in both Upper and Lower Canada tobecome richer and more powerful eventually brought them into conflictwith poorer colonists who were attracted to American-style democracy,something that the upper classes feared. To counter this, Britain tried tocopy its own society in its Canadian colonies, complete with gentry, largeestates, and tenant farmers. These plans angered immigrants who hadhoped to escape the class system of their homelands. Unfair land policiesand bad government based on privilege would set the stage for violentconfrontation between the classes in the colonies.52 Chapter 2

Get to the SourceThe Family CompactThe Family Compact was a smallgroup of upper-class officials whomade up the Executive Councilof Upper Canada after 1812.They had control over the government,over who got governmentjobs, and over the spending oftax money.On a social level, they weresnobs. Others were simply notwelcome into their clique—youmay have seen this kind ofbehaviour happen in your school.Even aristocrats newly arrivedfrom Britain had a hard timebreaking into the Family Compact.All members knew each other,and they were often related. Theyeven dressed alike.• Are there modern-dayequivalents to the upper class?Do they still have politicalpower? Explain.Family Compact the small group ofwealthy elite who controlled governmentin Upper CanadaChâteau Clique the wealthy elite whocontrolled Lower Canada, mostly madeup of English-speaking merchantsThey dress well and expensively, and are very particular to havetheir clothes cut in the newest fashion. Men and women adopt thereigning mode so universally that they look all dressed alike... ifgreen was the prevailing colour, evey lady would adopt it, whetherit suited her complexion or not...—Susanna Moodie, colonist and author• Why do you think the FamilyCompact operated as a clique?How does a clique maintaincontrol? Discuss thesequestions with a classmate.• Examine the quotation and theimage shown here. What dothey tell about how the upperclass was seen in the past?FIGURE 2–12 Members of the ruling class were known as the Family Compact inUpper Canada and the Château Clique in Lower Canada. In this painting, some ofthe Château Clique watch the launching of the steamship Royal William. Compactand Clique members invested in ships and canals with government money. Why doyou think they would do so?The Problem of LandAlmost everybody who came to Upper Canada wanted to own and farmland. Those who chose not to farm worked in industries that supportedagriculture, such as selling seed, blacksmithing, and making wagons. Butmany colonists arrived to find that much of the good land was alreadyowned by absentee landlords and land speculators. This was not whatimmigrants had expected. Advertising campaigns led people to believethat they could get good, cheap farmland close to towns and markets.absentee landlord a person whoowns and rents out a property, but doesnot live in the regionland speculators those who buyproperty at a low price and sell it at ahigher price, usually without spendingmuch of their own moneyThe Colonists: Land and Government 53

Those who held the best land in Upper Canada were members of theFamily Compact. Other colonists resented the money the Compact membersmade at the expense of others. Speculators took ownership of largeareas of prime land in Upper Canada and kept much of it off the market.The land they did sell went for high prices. Many colonists had no optionbut to go to remote areas that had inferior land, which was all they couldafford. They often suffered great hardship as they struggled to raise cropson poor soil.Even members of the gentry were duped by land speculators. Theproblem of land was at the root of the anger people felt toward the FamilyCompact and the colonial government of Upper Canada. This issue wouldbecome one of the major causes of the Rebellions of 1837.Crown and Clergy ReservesCrown and clergy reserves were blocks of land set aside to provide income(through sale or rent) for the government and for the Anglican Church—in total, two-sevenths of all the land in Upper Canada. For the most part,these lands stayed uncleared and unoccupied. Since colonists had to buildtheir own roads, no roads existed within the reserves. When travelling,farmers had to journey around these blocks of land—a waste of time anda source of irritation. Moreover, the reserves often tied up prime farmland,causing the value of available land to rise even higher. Remember—to acolonist, land was everything.FIGURE 2–13 Colonel Thomas Talbot controlled a hugetract of land in Upper Canada. More than 30 000people lived on his lands, and Talbot interviewed all ofthem. Those he did not like were refused. Why mighthe have had that kind of power?The Role of the British GovernmentUpper Canada’s land problems were mainly the result of attitudesin the British government and the desire to duplicatethe English model of land ownership in Canada. England wasdivided into large estates controlled by aristocrats, so theBritish government believed that aristocrats would be the bestrulers for the colonies. Privileged owners of large blocks ofland were also more likely, in the government’s view, to maintainstrong ties with Britain and its institutions.This view was contrary to the views of many immigrants,especially those from the United States. They thought thatpeople should succeed on their own merits and efforts, andthat many principles of British policy were discriminatoryand anti-democratic.The last thing Britain wanted was to allow colonists toadopt American attitudes and values, which had previouslyled to the American Revolution and the loss of the ThirteenAmerican Colonies. One upper-class British colonist wrotethe following excerpt:54 Chapter 2

These immigrants, having generally been of the lowest classof society in their respective countries... as soon as they arrivein Canada, begin to assume an appearance of importance...they are [tireless] in acquiring a knowledge of the Rights ofMan, The Just Principles of Equality, and The True Nature ofIndependence and, in a word, of everything which characterizesan American; and they quickly become divested of commonmanners and common civility... indeed this latter virtuousquality is rather uncommon on this side of the Western Ocean.Britain’s plans for Upper Canada were first implemented in the late1700s, continuing even after the War of 1812. It was difficult to attractimportant aristocrats to Upper Canada, but many junior members of suchfamilies were interested. Usually, younger sons could not hope to inheritland in Britain, so the promise of their own estate in the colonies wasvery tempting.In Upper and Lower Canada the government allowed speculators suchas the Canada Land Company to buy huge tracts of land at low prices inorder to sell it to the British gentry. By 1815, almost half of the good farmlandin Upper Canada was owned by speculators, who were also part ofthe Family Compact.At the same time, some First Nations leaders, such as leaders of theMohawks in Upper Canada, worried that their lands would be sold off byBritain. Other First Nations signed treaties in attempts to secure land fortheir people. These attempts were not completely successful.FIGURE 2–14 York (left) was the capital of Upper Canada. It grew rapidly in the 1830s, withnew buildings designed by English architects. The same area today is downtown Toronto(right). Use these images to assess continuity and change in downtown Toronto. How arethings the same? How are they different?The Colonists: Land and Government 55

Land, Colonists, and Aboriginal PeoplesCRITICALINQUIRYCause and ConsequenceSignificanceBritish colonies also existed inAsia, Africa, Australia, andNew Zealand, where colonistsdisplaced Aboriginal peoples anddisrupted or destroyed theircultures. In New Zealand, theMaori resisted British colonizersin the New Zealand Wars, a seriesof conflicts fought between1843 and 1872.In 1840, when New Zealandwas made a British colony by royalproclamation, the new governornegotiated a treaty between theMaori and the British government.Called the Treaty of Waitangi, itpromised to protect Maori landrights if the Maori became Britishcitizens. Not all Maori liked thetreaty, and neither did manycolonists, who felt that they had aright to own the land. Conflictsarose when the government beganto break the treaty, gradually sellingMaori land to colonists.The Maori, who had settled inNew Zealand after travelling fromPolynesia centuries before, werenumerous, well organized, andused to fighting. However,internal conflict among the Maoriensured that the fighting wouldlast for years. By the end of thewars, the Maori lost huge tractsof land—more than 16 000 km 2were confiscated by the governmentas punishment for the“rebellion.” Although about halfwas eventually paid for, the lossof the land deeply affected Maorisociety. To this day, struggle forland rights and compensationcontinues in the courts.FIGURE 2–15 In 2008, demonstrators in New Zealand commemorate the signing ofthe 1840 Treaty of Waitangi. Give reasons why the government was able to ignoreand break this treaty.WHAT DO YOU THINK?Did You Know…The Maori see land as beingimportant not only to theirsurvival, but to their identity.This feeling of belonging iscalled turangawaewae, “a placeto stand.”1. How is the experience of the Maori in New Zealand similar to thatof Aboriginal peoples in Canada? How is it different? What were theconsequences in both countries?2. Research the New Zealand Wars or the treatment by colonists ofAustralia’s Aboriginal peoples. Create an organizer on colonialismthat shows its goals and its effects on Aboriginal societies.ACTIVITIES1. Colonists hoped to find land in Upper Canada.Identify three barriers they faced, ranking them inimportance.2. Identify one or two early signs of conflict in thecolonies. Who was involved, and why was thereunrest?56 Chapter 2

The Immigrant ExperienceWhy did so many people immigrate to British North America?No one who lived in the colonies could have been prepared for the wavesof immigrants that arrived after the War of 1812. They settled in bothUpper and Lower Canada. Many English-speaking immigrants settled inthe Eastern Townships. Elsewhere in Lower Canada, French cultureprevailed and life based on the seigneurial system continued as it had forgenerations. Soon, however, the lack of farmland would become a problem.Most immigrants came from Britain, the United States, and Europe.Attracted by promises, immigrants soon learned the realities involved inleaving home. For many the first rude awakening was the journey acrossthe Atlantic Ocean, which was expensive and dangerous.Leaving home was highly emotional. Immigrants knew that theywould likely never again see those they left behind. Such separationis difficult to imagine today, when it takes only hours to travel by planebetween Canada and Europe. At that time, it took more than a monthto travel by ship to the colonies—a journey some immigrants did notsurvive, especially the poorest people, who had to endure passage in theinfamous coffin ships.seigneurial system the system oflandholding in New France; seigneurswere given estates and responsibilitiesto settle the land and oversee itsadministrationcoffin ship a death ship; disease anddeath were common on cargo vesselsused to carry passengers at this timeLakeL. MichiganSuperiorNW ESTo United Statesvia Lake Ontario,Lake Erie, 22 000LakeHuronPeriod of Immigration1831–1836TorontoareaLondon 32 000area24 000 Hamiltonarea18 000Lake ErieU P P E RRUPERT’S LANDC A N A D ACobourg-Quinte area15 000Lake OntarioNiagara area13 000Figures indicate numberof immigrants flowing tothe area labelled.Ottawa Valleyarea19 000Kingstonarea15 000Through United Statesvia Erie Canal, 28 000L O W E RC A N A D AQuebecareaTrois-Rivières 18 000area2000Montrealarea14 000To United Statesvia Lake Champlain,7000GrosseÎleEasternTownships9000UNITED STATES ATLANTICOCEAN0 50 100 150kilometresFIGURE 2–16 This map shows the movement of immigrants to Upper and Lower Canadabetween 1831 and 1836. By 1831, Quebec City was 45 percent English speaking. How doyou think the French-speaking population perceived this trend?The Colonists: Land and Government 57

Deadly Journeyssteerage the area below decks on aship, used to store cargoWEB LINK •Learn more about the immigrantjourney to Upper and Lower Canadaon the Pearson Web site.Britain’s overpopulated cities and countryside provided Canada with manynew immigrants. Poor farmers from Ireland and Scotland were motivatedby the chance to own land, but few could afford to travel in above-deckcabins on good ships. Instead they travelled in steerage in filthy, overcrowdedcargo vessels.The owners of cargo ships realized that they could make money ifthey converted their ships to carry passengers when they were sailing withoutcargo. Steerage holds were equipped with bunks, but there were nobathrooms. Poor food, bad hygiene, and crowded conditions made diseaseinevitable. Cholera, smallpox, and other diseases killed thousands ofimmigrants. Entire ships would be quarantined when they reached NorthAmerica. In 1832, half of all immigrants who made it to the colonieswere seriously ill.FIGURE 2–17 Those hopeful for a new life in British North America pay for their passage at abusy emigration agent’s office in London. Why might an artist choose to depict this scene?What else might illustrate the immigrant experience of that time?Did You Know…Immigrants were expectedto feed themselves duringthe voyage, which couldtake weeks. They wouldstarve if they did not bringenough food for the journey.Immigration into Canada from Great Britain 1815–18501815 680 1824 8774 1833 28 8081816 370 1825 8741 1834 40 0601817 797 1826 12 818 1835 15 5731818 5136 1827 12 648 1836 34 2261819 23 534 1828 12 084 1837 29 8441842 54 1231843 23 5181844 22 9241845 31 8031846 43 4391820 17 9211829 13 3071838 45771847 109 6801821 12 9551830 30 5741839 12 6581848 31 0651822 16 0131831 58 0671840 32 2931849 41 3671823 11 3551832 66 3391841 38 1641850 32 96158 Chapter 2

Cultural Diversity in Colonial CanadaHow is history written, and who tells it? The most popular journals andaccounts of life in the colonies of British North America were written byrelatively well-to-do English-speaking people. However, many colonists inUpper Canada did not consider themselves to be English—they wereAmerican, Irish, or Scottish. They brought their language, culture, music,values, and traditions with them.In Lower Canada, which had previously been the French colony ofNew France, the population was mostly Francophone, with a distinctculture and history. Their desire to remain distinct from English-speakinggroups often led to conflict, as you will read in this chapter and laterin Horizons.In the past, historians often ignored the achievements and histories ofAboriginal peoples and non-English immigrants. The contributions ofwomen were not discussed, which tells us a great deal about how history isrecorded. If the contributions of some groups are highlighted and othersare ignored, how accurate can our knowledge of the past be? By detectingthis kind of discrimination, we learn to pay more attention to those whohave been ignored. We also learn about peoples’ values and attitudes incolonial times, especially their belief that Europeans had a duty to “civilize”the world. Ideas like these were taught in schools and churches formany years, even well into the 1950s. The contributions of other culturalgroups and of women were neglected, and few history books evenacknowledged them.Francophone a French-speakingpersonDid You Know…Celtic music, mostly fromScotland and Ireland, is oneof the roots of today’spopular music, particularlyrock and roll and countrymusic.Ethnic Makeup of Canada in 18713031.1%2524.3%2020.3%1515.8%108.5%50French Irish English Scottish OtherFIGURE 2–18 In this graph, “Other” refers to Black people, Aboriginal peoples, otherEuropeans, and Asians. What is the majority group shown here? What challenges didminorities face in colonial Canada?The Colonists: Land and Government 59

TIMELINEA Partial History of Black Canadians1606 Mathieu Da Costa,Champlain’s interpreter,aids in exploration ofthe east coast1776–1783Black Loyalistsimmigrate to Canada1793 Chloe Cooley is forciblytaken to America tobe soldGovernor Simcoepasses an Act to limitand then abolish slaveryin Upper Canada1812 Black Militia fight inthe War of 18121837 Black Militia units fightagainst rebels1851 The North AmericanConvention of ColouredFreemen is held inToronto1853 Provincial Freemannewspaper is foundedin Windsor, OntarioMary Ann Shaddbecomes the firstwoman editor in CanadaFIGURE 2–19 Find out moreabout Josiah Henson and the DawnSettlement. What were thecontributions of Henson and otherBlack immigrants to the developmentof Upper Canada?Black CanadiansThe deep wound that slavery inflicted on North American society wouldnot be easily healed. Slavery existed in New France from the mid-1600s tothe 1700s, and many loyalists brought slaves with them into Canada duringthe American Revolution. Although slavery was abolished everywherein the British Empire in 1833, courts in Upper and Lower Canada refusedto support slavery well before that date. In fact, slavery came to an endin Upper and Lower Canada long before it did anywhere else in NorthAmerica. In 1793, Chloe Cooley, an enslaved Black woman, was forciblytaken from Upper Canada to the United States to be sold. Governor JohnSimcoe added this incident to his arguments against slavery in UpperCanada. By July of that year, an Act was passed to prevent the slave tradein Upper Canada.One major factor in the abolishment of slavery in Upper and LowerCanada was that most Black Canadians living there were free. In fact,many were refugees from the slave states in America. Also, during theLoyalist wave of immigration, many free Black Americans came tothe British colonies as Loyalists and were promised land in return.The Black Militia fought against rebels led by William Lyon Mackenziein the Rebellions of 1837, when most Black colonists believed that avictory for the rebels would result in American domination of Canadaand a return to slavery.The Underground RailwayUpper Canada became a refuge for Black Americans escaping slavery.They used a network of secret routes and safe houses called the“Underground Railway.” The fugitives usually travelled hundreds ofkilometres on foot. Those who supported them often belonged to theQuaker and Methodist churches. They believed that slavery was a sinagainst God and humankind. Harriet Tubman, a Black activist, helpedhundreds of slaves escape through the Railway. Travelling the UndergroundRailway was risky. If caught, escaped slaves were severely punished.While Upper Canada offered hope to slaves and a chance for a newand free life, it was not completely free of racial discrimination. ManyBlack immigrants were not fully accepted, nor did their descendants finda place in government for more than a hundred years. As a result ofracism, they lived in communities within communities, sometimes just afew families in a small town. Some independent settlements were alsodeveloped, like the one led by Josiah Henson.Yet there were Black immigrants in every colony of British NorthAmerica. Those who came during the Loyalist migration tended to settlein the Maritimes, where many of their descendants still live today.In British Columbia, Black colonists were invited to settle by GovernorJames Douglas. They took up land on Salt Spring Island and elsewhere.60 Chapter 2

BRITISHNORTH AMERICAUNITED STATESTERRITORYUNORGANIZEDNEBRASKATERRITORYKANSASTERRITORYUNORGANIZEDTERRITORYTEXASMINNESOTAMississippi R.IOWAMISSOURIWISCONSINARKANSASILLINOISMississippi R.LOUISIANAM IMISSISSIPPIC H I G A NINDIANATENNESSEEGULF OF MEXICOKENTUCKYTorontoSt. CatharinesToledoOHIOChathamALABAMA GEORGIACANADAPENNSYLVANIAFLORIDAMontrealVIRGINIANORTHCAROLINASOUTHCAROLINAQuebecNEW YORKSt. Lawrence R.NEW P.E.I.BRUNSWICKMAINENEW HAMPSHIREMASSACHUSETTSRHODE ISLANDCONNECTICUTNEW JERSEYVERMONTNOVA SCOTIA30 to 50 percentNW ELess than 50 percentNo slavesATLANTICOCEANFree StateTerritory (slaverypermitted)SUnited States, 1860Slave State (percentageof slaves in totalpopulation)More than 50 percentArrows show majoravenues of escape.Widths indicaterelative numbers.Mason-Dixon LineFIGURE 2–20 The UndergroundRailway was a network of “safehouses” along travel routesthat led from the slave-holdingAmerican states to the freenorthern states and to Canada.How do you think slaves mighthave heard about the Railway?MEXICO0 300 600kilometresANDROSISLANDCUBAIn the early years, some Black immigrants remembered their livesbefore slavery and wanted to see their homelands again. Richard Pierpoint,a Loyalist who settled near present-day St. Catharines, Ontario, wrote thefollowing letter. His request was denied, but Pierpoint was granted land.The community he founded would become part of the UndergroundRailway.WEB LINK •Find out more about the BlackCanadian experience on the PearsonWeb site.Most humbly showeth,That your Excellency’s Petitioner is a native of Bondu in Africa:that at the age of Sixteen Years he was made a Prisoner andsold as a Slave: that he was conveyed to America about the year1760, and sold to a British officer; that he served his Majestyduring the American Revolutionary War in the Corps calledButler’s Rangers... That your Excellency’s Petitioner is now oldand without property; that he finds it difficult to obtain a livelihoodby his labour; that he is above all things desirous to returnto his native Country; that his Majesty’s Government be graciouslypleased to grant him any relief; he wishes it might beaffording him the means to proceed to England and from thenceto a Settlement near the Gambia or Senegal Rivers, fromwhence he could return to Bondu...—York, Upper Canada, July 21, 1821The Colonists: Land and Government 61

Zoom In>Mary Ann Shadd and the Provincial FreemanCRITICALINQUIRYSignificanceBy the mid-19th century, theinterests of Black Canadians wererepresented by the ProvincialFreeman, a newspaper foundedin Windsor, Ontario, by SamuelRinggold Ward in 1853. MaryAnn Shadd was its first editor,and the first woman editor of anyCanadian newspaper. Like othernewspapers then and now, theFreeman was supported byadvertisements. It often publishedpoetry and featured helpful hints,along with local and internationalnews and opinion.Mary Ann Shadd was welleducated. She had escaped fromthe United States after a law waspassed that could have returnedher to slave status.An advocate of Black education,women’s rights, and theabolition of slavery, she foundeda school before becoming editorof the Freeman. Widowed whenher children were still small,Shadd also attended law school inthe United States, but was deniedgraduation because she was awoman. She was finally able topractise law at age 60.• Research Mary Ann Shadd tolearn more about her life andaccomplishments. Using thisevidence, theorize about herhistorical significance. What“big story” would you say sheis a part of? Why?abolition putting a legal end to slaveryFIGURE 2–21 Mary Ann Shadd’sstrength of character is evident in thisphotograph.You have a right to your freedom and to every other privilegeconnected with it and if you cannot secure these in Virginiaor Alabama, by all means make your escape without delay tosome other locality in God’s wide universe.—Mary Ann ShaddImmigrant Women in Upper CanadaI had just finished the first stage of my cooking and was aboutto shift my character from cook to gentlewoman...—Mary O’Brien, a colonist in York, Upper CanadaWEB LINK •Read about women in Upper Canadaand see their diaries on the PearsonWeb site.Women colonists in Upper Canada defined themselves in large partaccording to their social class, which determined their expectations, values,lifestyle, and beliefs. They tended to think of their own success interms of the success or failure of their fathers and husbands.In colonial society, almost all women were married. Because theyusually did not own property or work outside the home, widows andunmarried women had to rely on relatives for support and a place to live.62 Chapter 2

FIGURE 2–22 In colonial society, work came first. This woman is baking bread in an outdooroven. How might her life compare to yours today?Divorce did not exist, so choosing the right partner was very important.A good marriage gave a woman status in ways that are difficult to understandtoday. Even resourceful, educated colonial women such as SusannaMoodie, Catherine Parr Traill, Anna Jameson, and Mary O’Brien seemedpreoccupied with the activities of their husbands.Finding a good marriage prospect for a young woman was so importantto families that many social events included matchmaking. Romanticlove was deemed less important than friendship and duty, although itwas an ideal that many hoped for. Among the upper classes, the match hadto be arranged with an “equal” or better. A man might “marry down,”but a woman could never do so because a wife took on the status of herhusband.In colonial Canada, too much work had to be done for anyone to beidle. Even upper-class women had much to do. Mary O’Brien had manyfriends in government and spent time visiting them, but she also took partin running the farm, as she recorded in her diary:WEB LINK •Learn more about Mary O’Brien andthe society she lived in on thePearson Web site.It was very busy again until twelve o’clock, first in directing myold Yorkshire man how to cut up a fat pig which was slaughteredlast night and then in assisting the old Irishwoman to saltand pack away the same. I value myself on being able to putmore in a barrel than anyone else except Southby, though thispart of the business is usually the province of a man.The Colonists: Land and Government 63

FIGURE 2–23 British immigrant AnneLangton maintained a comfortablelifestyle in Upper Canada. Her lettersand journals, A Gentlewoman inUpper Canada, were published in1950. How do you think her way oflife compared to that of the womanin Figure 2–22? How are the livesof these women similar to the lives ofwomen today?Clearing farmland in the forest was hard work, and completion oftendepended on help from others. This cooperation tended to break downsocial barriers, which many appreciated. For immigrant women, hardwork and long hours were the norm. Division of labour was one sided;men were not expected to look after household tasks, such as cooking,washing, or sewing, but women helped with planting, harvesting, andother farm jobs. All colonial women learned how to preserve food and tomake candles and soap.Colonial women were expected to have large families, especially infarming communities where children were needed to help with chores.For women, childbirth was an additional risk in a society where lifeexpectancy was not high. Medical care was expensive and often hard toobtain. Overcrowding and poor sanitation in small colonial cabins addedto the risks.ACTIVITIES1. Create a map to show how and why colonists came to Upper Canada inthe early 19th century. Consider country of origin, reasons for leaving the“old country,” and means of transport.2. The table on page 58 shows British immigration to Canada from 1815to 1850. Is there a pattern evident in the data? In which years did thenumbers change dramatically? Develop a working theory to explainthe changes, making connections between events and their causes.At the end of this chapter, reconsider your theory in light of what youhave learned.3. Imagine that you are a Black immigrant to Upper Canada in 1830.Write a short letter to a family member you left behind. Explain howyou feel and describe your experiences during your journey on theUnderground Railway. You can use the Web link provided to learn moreabout the experiences of Black immigrants to Upper Canada.4. How did increasing immigration affect the lives of Upper Canada’sAboriginal inhabitants? Consider British attitudes about race and class.Create an agenda for a meeting of Aboriginal nations in Upper Canada.What economic, social, and political issues might be discussed?5. Describe how the roles of men and women were governed by their placein colonial society. Propose what alternatives there might have been forthe social structure at that time.Significance6. Develop a five-point editorial policy for a colonial newspaper representingthe interests of one of the social groups that made up colonial society.Focus your policy on changes your newspaper would want to bring.Explain their significance to colonial society.64 Chapter 2

Colonial Government and the Need for ReformWhat created the need for government reform in Upper andLower Canada?Government in the colonies of British North America was neitherrepresentative nor responsible. A representative government is madeup of people who are elected by voters to make laws on their behalf.Responsible governments can be voted out if elected representativesfail to please a majority of the people who elected them. Democraticgovernments are both representative and responsible.Colonial governments, on the other hand, were indirectly run fromBritain. This policy placed power in the hands of a small group of wealthyand influential men—the Family Compact, as you read earlier in this chapter.Rule by a small select group is called an oligarchy. Although Britainappointed a governor, he ruled according to the wishes of the oligarchy. Asan aristocrat and an outsider, the governor had much more in commonwith the upper class than with most colonists.The government of Upper Canada had been established in 1791 by theConstitutional Act. This Act divided Upper Canada from Lower Canadaand gave it an elected law-making Legislative Assembly, a governor, andtwo councils. Since all male citizens who owned property could electAssembly members, the government appeared to be democratic. However,actual power was in the hands of the governor and the two councils heappointed. They could veto any laws passed by the Assembly. Since thecouncils, whose members came from the Family Compact, had differentpriorities from those of ordinary colonists, they used their veto poweroften. They could shut down projects, such as building roads. They ignoredproblems created by land speculation and crown and clergy reserves. Conflictwas bound to occur, and it did.representative governmenta government made up of officialselected to office by the peopleresponsible governmenta government subject to the votes ofthe peopleoligarchy rule by a small, select groupof peopleveto to stop with authorityFIGURE 2–24 This painting showsthe first meeting of the LegislativeAssembly of Upper Canada.Who is present in this room? Whois not present? How do you thinkattendance by some groups andnot others influenced the actionsof the Assembly?The Colonists: Land and Government 65

FIGURE 2–25 This diagram shows thestructure of Upper Canada’s colonialgovernment in 1791 and in 1849,after it had been reformed. What arethe similarities and differencesbetween the government in 1849and Canada’s government today?A Comparison of Constitutional SystemsGovernorGovernorGovernor GeneralExecutiveCouncilOligarchiesLegislativeAssemblyLegislativeCouncilExecutiveCouncilLegislativeLegislativeAssemblyAssemblyLegislativeCouncilSenateCabinetLegislativeHouse ofCommonsAssemblyWEB LINK •Learn more about the evolution ofCanada’s federal government on thePearson Web site.People People People1791 1849PresentA List of Grievances in Upper CanadaThe most extraordinary collection of sturdy beggars, parsons,priests, pensioners, army people, navy people, place-men, bankdirectors, and stock and land jobbers ever established to operateas a paltry screen to a rotten government...—William Lyon Mackenzie, writing about the Family CompactFIGURE 2–26 What aspects ofcharacter can you see in this portraitof William Lyon Mackenzie? Whatmessage is this image sending tothe viewer?Colonists complained loudly about land and roads. As you have seen, landspeculators and absentee landowners overpriced or tied up prime land,while crown and clergy reserves blocked the building of roads that wouldhave connected communities and farmers with their markets.Most knew that the Family Compact was to blame and did not disguisetheir anger. When Robert Gourlay, a land agent, surveyed farmersabout life in Upper Canada, he was shocked to discover the extent of theirdiscontent with the government and its policies. Gourlay drew up a listof grievances and, with the colonists, a petition demanding change. Hewas arrested and then sent out of the colony. The government was notinterested in listening to complaints, and it was not about to change itspolicies, no matter what the average farmer thought.Gourlay’s arrest hardened opposition to the Family Compact. Eventually,Gourlay’s place as a leader of radical reformers would be taken by anotherScot, William Lyon Mackenzie.66 Chapter 2

Mackenzie had strong political convictions. An argumentative man,he often disagreed with more moderate reformers, such as EgertonRyerson and Robert Baldwin, who hoped to bring about change throughnegotiation. Mackenzie took a more aggressive approach. He started anewspaper called the Colonial Advocate and published articles thatstrongly criticized the government and the Family Compact. When angrymembers of the Compact ransacked his offices and smashed his printingpress, he did not back down—he sued. Soon, he was at the centre of agroup of people who wanted radical change. He was elected to theLegislative Assembly in 1828 and became one of the most important leadersof the reform movement.Political Action and ProtestCanadian elections have changedconsiderably since the 1830s.You might be shocked by whatwent on at the polls in UpperCanada. There was no secretballot, as there is now. Voters—men only—had to openly declarewhom they would vote for. Votescould be bought, and sometimesvoters were intimidated by thesupporters of one candidateor another.Election reform eliminatedmost of these problems andmade elections more honest andfair. Today Canadian electionsare more efficient. Canada evensends representatives to othercountries to help monitorWHAT DO YOU THINK?elections. However, this does notmean that political protest is athing of the past. Today Canadianshave a legal right—some wouldsay a responsibility—to protest.But how far does that right go?1. “One way to take political action is to exercise your right to vote.”Do you agree with this statement? Why or why not? What is therecord for voter turnout in Canada today? How does that affectdemocracy in Canada?FIGURE 2–27 When voters still had to declare the candidate oftheir choice, election days often turned into brawls.FIGURE 2–28 Today, the Charter of Rights and Freedomsguarantees our right to protest and to vote.The Colonists: Land and Government 67

SKILLBUILDER • Asking QuestionsOne of the most important tasksthat historians and geographersdo is to ask questions about theirsubjects. As a student, you areprobably more used to answeringquestions than asking them.However, asking questions is a wayto focus your inquiry and to applycritical thinking skills.As you read this text, continueto ask questions. You can also writethem down as you work throughthe text. The practice of writing yourquestions can help you understandthe material. It can also uncovernew perspectives, inspire freshideas, and lead you to new andinteresting information.The 5W + H ModelThere are many different typesof questions. Most questionsfollow the 5W + H model. Think ofapproaching a historical event asif you were a reporter. For example,if you were approaching the problemof land in Upper Canada,you might look for answers to thesequestions:1. Who was affected by landdivision in Upper Canada?2. Where did it happen mostoften?3. When did it happen?4. Why did it happen where it did?5. How did it affect Aboriginalpeoples?6. What could have been doneto address the issue fairly?Factual and OpinionQuestionsFactual questions usually requiresimple, straightforward answers.Other questions are not so straightforward—theycan have more thanone answer. They may ask someoneto provide expert judgement andcan bring out different perspectiveson a topic.In the examples of the 5W + Hquestions shown here, questions1 to 3 are factual. Question 4 couldhave a factual answer, or it couldrequire expert opinions to analyzecomplicated causes. Questions 5and 6 could require expert judgementand will also draw out differentperspectives.Research QuestionsAs you work with this text, you willbe asked to research different topicsas part of your study. Researchquestions will help you focus yourinquiry and find answers morequickly. (Refer to the Skills Tool Kit,page 368, for more information onthe research process.)There are three types ofresearch questions: causal, comparative,and speculative. To findout more about each type of question,examine the table below.Question Type History Examples Geography ExamplesCausal(look for causes of events)Comparative(make comparisons)Speculative(infer the answer)What caused the increase ofimmigration to Upper and LowerCanada?How does life today compare to lifefor the colonists and Aboriginalpeoples of that time?How might life have been different forAboriginal peoples if immigrants hadnot come to the colonies?What geographic features encouragednewcomers to settle in certain areas?What differences can be seenbetween communities of that timeand communities today?What type of industry would bebest suited for the conditions in thecolonies at that time?68 Chapter 2

Critical ThinkingQuestionsAsking critical thinking questionscan help you see beyond what youare reading on the page. Thesetypes of questions will also helpyou understand different perspectives.You will begin to form yourown point of view and defend thatposition, while discovering whatyou think and why.For example, as you studyimmigration to Upper and LowerCanada after 1814, you may wantto ask questions such as these:1. What is the issue?2. What are possible solutions?3. What are the consequences?4. Whose point of view isexpressed? Is there an opposingpoint of view?5. What is the significance of thisperson or event?APPLY IT1. Choose a person or topic you have recently studiedin this book. Write six questions for which youwould like to know the answers.a) What types of questions would you find mostuseful?b) Which question do you consider the mostimportant? Explain.2. Look at the map shown below. Explain how thetypes of questions discussed above can be used tobetter understand and analyze the map. Give fourexamples of questions that can be asked aboutthe map.3. Use the questions you created in question 1 to dosome additional research on the person or topic.Keep a short journal to explain how the questionshelped guide your research. Did the questionschange as you went along? Why or why not?BRITISHNORTH AMERICAUNITED STATESTERRITORYUNORGANIZEDNEBRASKATERRITORYKANSASTERRITORYUNORGANIZEDTERRITORYTEXASMINNESOTAMississippi R.IOWAMISSOURIWISCONSINARKANSASLOUISIANAILLINOISMississippi R.M IMISSISSIPPIC H I G A NINDIANAKENTUCKYTENNESSEEGULF OF MEXICOTorontoSt. CatharinesToledoOHIOChathamALABAMA GEORGIACANADAPENNSYLVANIAFLORIDAMontrealVIRGINIANEW YORKNORTHCAROLINASOUTHCAROLINAQuebecSt. Lawrence R.NEW P.E.I.BRUNSWICKMAINENEW HAMPSHIREMASSACHUSETTSRHODE ISLANDCONNECTICUTNEW JERSEYVERMONTNOVA SCOTIA30 to 50 percentNW ELess than 50 percentNo slavesATLANTICOCEANFree StateTerritory (slaverypermitted)SUnited States, 1860Slave State (percentageof slaves in totalpopulation)More than 50 percentArrows show majoravenues of escape.Widths indicaterelative numbers.Mason-Dixon LineMEXICO0 300 600kilometresANDROSISLANDCUBAThe Colonists: Land and Government 69

The Situation in Lower CanadaLower Canada also had serious political problems, which were worsenedbecause the ruling class in Lower Canada was English, and the majorityof the population was French. With language and cultural roots datingback to Champlain, French Canadians had never completely adjusted toBritish rule.Exposed to the democratic ideals of the French and AmericanRevolutions, and to the democracy of the United States, many FrenchCanadians found British rule without democracy intolerable. LowerCanada’s equivalent to the Family Compact, the Château Clique, controlledgovernment and business. It included merchants, such as Englishbrewer and banker John Molson, and former British army officers. TheChâteau Clique was supported by church hierarchy and wealthy French-Canadian landowners. Both had considerable influence in Lower Canada.Even those who were destined to become leaders of the Rebellions of 1837,such as Louis-Joseph Papineau, came from seigneurial families.The English-speaking minority in Lower Canada still had most ofthe wealth and power, even though they formed less than one quarterof the population. Many French people believed that the seigneurs andthe Church had “sold out” to the English. An attempt to unite Upperand Lower Canada in 1822—and to make English the official language—seemed like an attack on French culture and society.Upper CanadaPower StructureLower CanadaPetty Nobility(administrators)Petty Nobility(administrators)Bourgeoisie(merchants)The People(colonists and artisans)Bourgeoisie(merchants)The People(colonists–Eastern Townships)EnglishClergy,SeigneursPetite-bourgeoisie(lawyers, notaries, doctors)The People(habitants, artisans)FrenchFIGURE 2–29 This chart shows how the population of Lower Canada saw the power structureof their society. Why would the clergy and the seigneurs still have a place in this structure,even after British rule began?70 Chapter 2

Economic WoesLower Canada did not experience the same kinds of land problems thatwere at the root of discontent in Upper Canada. However, as the populationincreased, the amount of arable land available was limited, and soilwas becoming less fertile. Wheat crops began to fail, and the only alternativewas to import wheat from Upper Canada. Unfortunately, this createda huge economic deficit. Farmers could only grow enough to feed theirfamilies, and the agricultural economy failed.Many turned to forestry. However, while forestry employed manyFrench Canadians, not everyone had a share in the profits. Also, the newlimit on farmland (seigneurs now wanted forests, not farms), created moredissatisfaction among the rural population.NationalismFrench Canadians mistrusted the English, and feelings of nationalismwere strengthened by opposition to British rule. These feelings were supportedby a need to protect their language and religion. They also fearedthat Britain might be trying to solve its “French problem” by bringingmore English-speaking immigrants into the colony. This trend made theFrench a minority, weakening them politically and socially.This situation led to powerful feelings of mistrust. In 1832, whenimmigrant ships brought a cholera epidemic to Lower Canada, manythought that Britain was trying to kill off the French population withdisease.French Canadians were also frustrated by the undemocratic nature oftheir government. Most citizens were struggling to pay taxes, some ofwhich paid government salaries, and yet received no voice in return. As inUpper Canada, reformers fought to bring change.deficit a situation where there is morespending than incomenationalism devotion to thesupport of one’s culture and nation,sometimes resulting in the promotionof independenceFIGURE 2–30 Louis-Joseph Papineau, shown here giving a speech, got many of his ideasabout rebellion and political change from revolutions that were happening in Europe.Why would these ideas alarm the British colonial government?The Colonists: Land and Government 71

WEB LINK •For more information aboutLouis-Joseph Papineau, visit thePearson Web site.FIGURE 2–31 The reformers openly criticized thegovernment in their newspapers. What could be theadvantages and disadvantages of this?Three Issues for ReformThree issues—discrimination against the French, lack of representationin government, and taxes—became the focus of reform in Lower Canada.Louis-Joseph Papineau, leader of the radical reformers, was a powerfulpublic speaker. A seigneur and a lawyer, he had originally supportedBritish rule. Like other French Canadians, he had been optimistic thatBritish rule would bring change for the better. When it did not, he joinedin the cause for reform. In 1815, he became Speaker for the LegislativeAssembly for Lower Canada. He also became leader of the Parti Canadien,which lobbied for reform.Not all reform leaders were French—Wolfred Nelson, an Englishdoctor, was mayor of Montreal and later became a leader of the rebelPatriotes. Edmund O’Callaghan, the Irish publisher of the radicalnewspaper, The Vindicator, also joined the Patriotes. Theyall believed that the Assembly should have control of thegovernment’s budget, and they wanted a democratic system.In rival newspapers, and in the Assembly, the ChâteauClique and the reformers squared off against each other.Britain did little to ease the tension. In 1807, the ColonialOffice appointed James Craig as governor of Lower Canada.Craig, who was openly anti-French, immediately arrestedthose who criticized the government. He also closedLe Canadien, a reformer newspaper.Although French protest brought an end to the UnionProposal of 1822, feelings toward the government grewmore hostile. After British soldiers shot protestors inMontreal, Papineau and other reformers submitted “Ninety-Two Resolutions” to the governor. These resolutions weredemands for major changes in the colonial government.Lord John Russell, in charge of the Colonial Office in Britain,replied three years later with “Ten Resolutions” that deniedthe rights of the Assembly. After 30 frustrating years ofattempting political reform, Papineau and his Patriotesopenly rebelled against the government.ACTIVITIES1. In a table or a Venn diagram, summarize the mainideas that eventually led to rebellion in Upper andLower Canada.2. List at least three examples that show how the governmentsof Upper and Lower Canada were notdemocratic. Rank them according to importance.3. How did language and cultural differences emphasizediscontent in Lower Canada? What could havebeen done differently? Are there any examples ofthis divide today?4. Write an editorial that either supports or defies governmentreform in Upper or Lower Canada. Suggestan effective solution to the problems being faced.72 Chapter 2

The Rebellions of 1837What were the events and consequences of the Rebellions of 1837?Reformers in the colonies of British North America were in constantcontact with each other, sharing their views on government, and exchangingpossible solutions to problems, even though their goals were sometimesdifferent. For example, language was not an issue in Upper Canadaas it was in Lower Canada. Reform leaders realized that change in onecolony would set a pattern for change in the other. When it became clearthat the government could not be reformed from within, Mackenzie andPapineau prepared for armed rebellion.Rebellion in Lower CanadaSince Britain did not have enough troops to fight rebels in both colonies,leaders planned to coordinate their revolts. However, while Papineau wasbusy organizing protests and assemblies, armed rebellion suddenly brokeout when a group of Patriotes chose to resist arrest. A branch group of thePatriotes, the more militant Fils de la Liberté (Sons of Liberty) soon joinedin. This group had been openly parading with their weapons in the streetsof Montreal, and were ready for a fight.Full rebellion began with the attempted arrest of Papineau, whoquickly fled to the United States. The battle moved to the countryside.Led by Wolfred Nelson, the Patriotes took Saint-Denis, a village in theRichelieu valley. However, the Patriotes soon lost battles in Saint-Charlesand Saint-Eustache. By December of 1837, not even a month after itbegan, the rebellion was over in Lower Canada.Did You Know…Although there was also areform movement in theMaritime colonies at thistime, Maritimers did notparticipate in the rebellions.Instead, government reformwas peacefully achieved inthose colonies.WEB LINK •On the Pearson Web site, read firsthandaccounts from Patriotes whofought in the Battle of Saint-Charles.FIGURE 2–32 During the Battle ofSaint-Eustache, 1500 British troopssurrounded the Patriotes’ stronghold,set fire to it, and shot them as theyescaped. This drawing is called Defeatof the Insurgents. What point of viewdo you think the drawing illustrates?The Colonists: Land and Government 73

Did You Know…National Patriotes Dayis now an official holidayin Quebec, replacingVictoria Day.If the Catholic Church had supported the rebels in Lower Canada,they might have been successful. Instead, church leaders advised theirparishioners to remain loyal to Britain. Also, many people were intimidatedby the British army, which had been looting and burning villages.Encouraged by American supporters, some Patriotes prepared for asecond rebellion, which broke out in 1838. Although hoping to cut offcommunication between Montreal and the countryside and create a fullrebellion involving French farmers, the rebels were disorganized andpoorly supplied. Unfortunately, many of them also took part in lootingthe countryside, which did not gain them much support. After one smallvictory, the rebels quickly scattered when approached by a large Britishdivision. There were rumours of further uprisings, but Papineau eventuallyleft for exile in France and the United States, and nothing happened.Although rebellion in Lower Canada had ended, resentment lingered.To this day, feelings about that period remain a factor in Quebec andCanadian politics.FIGURE 2–33 Rebels prepare to march on York. Mackenziespent a great deal of time training farmers to be fighters.Do you think these men would make an effective army? Whyor why not?Rebellion in Upper CanadaIn Upper Canada, Mackenzie and other radical leaders decided that theywanted American-style democracy as well as closer ties to the UnitedStates. This decision distanced them from those colonists who saw theUnited States as an enemy. Nevertheless, many people, including those ofMary O’Brien’s social class, wanted better government.Moderate reformers found their hopes dashed byLord Russell’s Ten Resolutions, which were direct rejectionsof their requests for government reform, and by theappointment of Sir Francis Bond Head as lieutenant-governorin 1835. Head allied himself with the FamilyCompact and misused his power. When the Assemblyreprimanded him, he dissolved it, and then went on towin a disputed election by advocating loyalty to Britain.Mackenzie took this defeat of the reform movement as acall to arms.Mackenzie decided to strike after hearing that Headhad sent soldiers to Lower Canada, leaving York relativelydefenceless. Mackenzie planned to seize weapons andammunition, take the governor prisoner, and set up a newgovernment. Although he had little support, he chose toattack. Read what happened in Window on Canada.74 Chapter 2

window onCANADAThe RebelsContinued…The Colonists: Land and Government 75

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Punishing the RebelsWith the rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada now over, capturedrebels remained imprisoned. The rebels probably expected little mercyfrom the government. The British legal code prevailed in the colonies, andit gave the death penalty for insurrection against the government. Britishjustice focused on punishment rather than rehabilitation; judges hopedthat severe penalties would deter others from committing similar acts.Rebellion against the government was considered a serious crime.While many were pardoned—including, eventually, Mackenzie andPapineau—some rebel leaders, such as Samuel Lount, were quickly triedand publicly executed by hanging. Others were transported to Tasmania,an island off the coast of Australia. Transportation was a severe punishmentin those times. During the long sea voyage to the penal colonies,prisoners were kept in the cramped spaces between decks, chained to thewalls. Many died during the journey. Once they arrived, prisoners wereused as slave labour, working on plantations, farms, and governmentprojects. Many of Australia’s early colonists were transported convicts.insurrection taking up arms againstthe governmentFIGURE 2–34 Today, a monument inTasmania honours the exiled rebelsfrom Upper Canada. Why might theexiles be remembered in this way?FIGURE 2–35 This image shows convicts who have just arrived in Tasmania—they will soonstart work as labourers. The Upper Canada rebels would have had the same experience.Do you think their punishment was just and fair?The Colonists: Land and Government 77

The AftermathThe Rebellion in Lower Canada ended French-Canadian hopes for justiceand democracy under the British Empire. The Act of Union, which followedin 1840, joined the colony with English-speaking Upper Canada. Radicalideas were purged, and English became the language of government. Whileunion may have resulted in a larger, stronger colony headed in the directionof a more responsible government, it also brought a sense of loss to manyof the residents of Lower Canada. Feelings of loss and betrayal meant thatpolitical strife in the Canadas was not at an end, as you will read in thenext chapter.Lord Durham’s ReportI found two nations warring within a bosom of a single state.—Lord Durham, 1838The language, the laws and the character of the North Americancontinent are English, and every other race than the Englishrace is in a state of inferiority. It is in order to release themfrom this inferiority that I wish to give the Canadians ourEnglish character.FIGURE 2–36 Lord Durham was ayoung British aristocrat who madea fortune from coal mines. How doyou think the social class of thereformers might have influencedwhat they proposed? Try linking youranswers to the quotes shown onthis page.dictator a ruler with unrestrictedpower, without any democraticrestrictions—Lord Durham, 1838After the Rebellions of 1837, Britain realized that the old ways of governingthe colonies had to change and appointed Lord Durham, a reformerin England, as governor-in-chief of the Canadas. Lord Durham remains acontroversial figure. Hailed in English Canada as one of the founders ofCanadian democratic government, he has the reputation in FrenchCanada of a racist who wanted to erase French culture.Durham arrived in the spring of 1838 and immediately upset thepowerful Family Compact and Château Clique when he let it be knownthat things would have to change. Though an aristocrat and a very wealthyman, Durham had progressive ideas. He appointed experts in colonialreform—Charles Buller, Thomas Turton, and Edward GibbonWakefield—to his staff. He treated captured rebels as leniently as possibleand pardoned most of them. Still, without the Councils and the Assembly,Durham was really a dictator. He also ignored many British laws.78 Chapter 2

Even though the results of Durham’s actions were generally beneficial,he made enemies, particularly among those who had lost property duringthe rebellions. Many complained about him to Britain. Durham realizedhe had little support—even his pardons were overturned—so he resignedand went home to England to complete his report.The Durham Report is an important document in Canada’s history.It recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be joined together andgiven responsible government. It also recommended that all the coloniesof British North America be brought together.However, the Durham Report was not well received in Lower Canada.It proposed the same union that had been rejected in 1822. Durham’sopinions about the French were well known, and his solution was to forcethe French to assimilate into English Canada.Union and BeyondDurham had correctly reasoned that peace could never be achieved inCanada without some form of democracy. His recommendations forresponsible government came as a result of his own liberal ideas, those ofhis advisors, and those of moderate reformers such as Robert Baldwin andLouis LaFontaine. This responsible government would not represent anindependent country, however. Canada would still be a colony of Britain,which would control external affairs and the military.Durham proposed changes to the structure of the colonial government,including removing the power of the Legislative Council to makelaws. Although Durham’s proposal became the basis for our present systemof government, governors who followed him were either unwilling orunable to make the change. Nevertheless, reform leaders in both coloniescontinued to press for responsible government.Did You Know…Lord Durham concludedthat the real problem in theCanadas was the culturalconflict between the Englishand the French. As a result,he recommended theassimilation of Frenchculture through union andthe immigration of Englishspeakingpeople.A United CanadaDurham’s union proposal was accepted by the British government and byhis successor as governor, Lord Sydenham. Sydenham was instructedby the British government to bring about unity and, in spite of protestsin Lower Canada, used the Act of Union of 1840 to make it happen. In1841, Lower Canada and Upper Canada ceased to exist. They became theProvince of Canada, with Montreal as its capital. Union was accomplishedwithout the support or participation of the French. In fact, the Act ofUnion even declared that all government documents were to be in English.These actions created problems that even today have not been fullyresolved.The Colonists: Land and Government 79

Get to the SourceLord Sydenham Proclaims the Act of UnionLord Sydenham was business-likeand efficient. His job, as he saw it,was to unite the colonies of Upperand Lower Canada and introducelimited self-government, and to doit in ways that did not overly upsetreformers or French Canadians.However, the Act of Union,which Sydenham engineered,was seen as tremendously unfairto French Canada. It madeEnglish the language of government,and took seats away fromLower Canada. (Even though thepopulation of Lower Canada wasmuch greater than that of UpperCanada, the two provinces hadthe same number of representativesin the Legislature.) As well,citizens of Lower Canada wereexpected to help pay off the debtsof Upper Canada.• Read this extract fromSydenham’s Act of Unionspeech. As you read, imaginethat you are a French Canadianin the 1840s. What would youfeel as you read or heard thespeech? Would anything makeyou doubt Sydenham’s word?In obedience to the commands of the Queen, I have this dayassumed the government of the province of Canada. Upper andLower Canada, separated for 50 years, are once more re-united andhenceforward will form but one province under one administration.Efforts have been… made to deceive the unwary, and especiallysome of our fellow subjects of French origin, upon this point: torepresent these provisions as [harmful]… and to excite oppositionwhich can only prove as mischievous as it must be useless. I rely,however, on these efforts proving unavailing, and I appeal withconfidence to the loyalty and good sense of the inhabitants ofLower Canada, of whatever origin, so to use the power which isnow again committed to their hands as to justify the trust whichour Sovereign and the Imperial Parliament have reposed in themand cordially to join in an endeavour to promote the commoninterest of the united province…—Lord Sydenham, 1841ACTIVITIES1. Who do you think was responsible for the rebellions?In your opinion, did the rebellions fail? Keepyour answer in mind as you continue reading thefollowing chapter.2. Create a timeline for each of the rebellions in Upperand Lower Canada. Identify key events, and brieflydescribe the significance of each event you include.3. Develop a “position paper” for the colonialgovernment regarding the rebellions. Representthe wishes of either the Family Compact or theChâteau Clique.4. Explain why Aboriginal peoples tended to avoidinvolvement with the Rebellions of 1837.5. Examine Lord Durham’s words on page 78.Explain why it would have been difficult for FrenchCanadians to see Durham in a positive light. Do youthink Durham’s ideas were unusual in his day? Whywould Durham not have been more guarded aboutwhat he said, as modern politicians often are?Significance6. Discuss the significance of the following for bothEnglish and French Canadians: a) the Rebellions of1837, and b) the Act of Union.80 Chapter 2

Explore theBig IdeasYou have read about life in Canada between 1815 and 1840, and have a better understandingof the impact of immigration on the economy, society, politics, and people of Upper and LowerCanada. You have learned about the interaction between Aboriginal peoples, immigrants, and thegovernment. You have also learned about the Rebellions of 1837, ultimately leading to union andresponsible government.1. What factors shaped Canada at this time? Use an organizer like the one below to show yourthoughts on this question. Consider main ideas such as geography, immigration, Aboriginalpeoples, social class, the actions of individuals, and changes in government. Decide if certainfactors can be grouped together, include supporting details, and explain your organizationof the information.Main Idea:••••Main Idea:••••What factorsshaped Canadabetween1815–1840?Main Idea:••••2. What was life like for peopleliving in colonial Canada?Research at least two primarysources to find informationabout life for men or womenin Upper or Lower Canada.Create a journal entry describinga day in that person’s life.3. Why would anyone decide to goagainst the British government,the most powerful empire of thattime? Create a chart to showthe events and players of therebellions in both Upper andLower Canada. How were therebellions similar? What werethe differences? Indicate whatyou think was the most importantfactor that led to the rebellionsand explain your thinking.4. Debate the following statement:“Based on its origins, Canadadoes not deserve a reputationas a ‘peaceful country.’”The debate should be properlyorganized with speakers for andagainst the proposal, rebuttals,and all other elements offormal debate.5. Choose an event listed in oneof the timelines in this chapter.Explain in a few short sentencesboth the causes and the consequencesof the event.The Colonists: Land and Government 81