The Little Ice Age and Neutral Faunal Assemblages - Ontario ...

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 15FIGURE 2Pollen diagrams of selected taxa from Crawford Lake, Marion Lake, and Gignac Lake. Redrawn fromMcAndrews (1988), Bernabo (1981), and Burden et al. (1985)

16 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO.49FIGURE 3Calibrated pollen climate transfer curve for Michigan. Redrawn from Bernabo (1981).nabo, 1981), and Gignac Lake, Ontario (Burden etal., 1986) are sufficiently detailed to show smallclimatic fluctuations over the last 1,000 years (Fig.2). McAndrews and Boyko-Diakonow (in press)analyzed annually laminated sediments from CrawfordLake, in southern Ontario. The resulting recordextends back to AD 1000, at which time the pollenrecord is dominated by beech, maple, elm, oak andbirch (Fig. 2). Hemlock is also common but itspaleoclimatic significance is unclear at this time.This mixed hardwood forest yields to a mixedpine-oak-birch forest ca AD 1400, a change whichMcAndrews and Boyko-Diakonow attribute in partto Indian clearing of the forest and to old fieldsuccession. After AD 1850, this forest in turn yieldsto European agricultural fields, which show up inthe diagram as a dramatic increase in grass andragweed, and a decrease in oak and pine. However,beech is already in decline by AD 1200, well beforethe first appearance of maize pollen at CrawfordLake in AD 1360. This cannot be explained by theeffects of local Indian horticulture, as no other taxashow an appreciable decline at this time and herbpollen does not rise. Very large portions of thesurrounding region would have to have been affectedby man for pollen transport from long distancesto account for the changes in relativeimportance of the tree taxa. Of the five dominanttree types in the pre-1400 portion of the diagram,beech has the most southerly northern distributionlimit. It would therefore be expected to react firstto even a slight cooling of the climate. There is littledoubt that the suddenness of the increase in oak andpine following the arrival of maize is due to forestclearance and field abandonment (McAndrews andBoyko-Diakonow, in press). However, the failureof the forest to return to its previous beechdominatedassemblage following field abandonmentmay be due either to ecological inertia or to aclimatic deterioration which occurred in the interim(McAndrews, 1988).The Gignac Lake diagram (Fig. 2) from AwendaProvincial Park, on the south shore of GeorgianBay, also shows the effect of Indian horticulture(Burden et al., 1986). Maize pollen appears in smallquantities in subzone 3d (the same zonation is usedin McAndrews and Boyko-Diakonow, in press).However, as with Crawford Lake, beech begins itsdecline prior to the subzone 3c/3d transition, whichrepresents the onset of local Indian horticulture.Bernabo (1981) does not discuss the possibleeffects of Indian horticulture in Michigan, but doesnote that "beech pollen undergoes a protracteddecline at each site from AD 1200 to 1600, generallyhitting its lowest levels about AD 1450" (Bernabo,1981). He further develops a calibrated pollenclimatetransfer function, and applies it to the fossilpollen data from the Marion, Heart, Jones andTwenty-seven Lakes sites (Fig. 3). The resultingpalaeotemperature curves are partially validated byinstrumental records from the early 1800s, and alsoby correlation with worldwide

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 17FIGURE 4Number of Neutral sites with faunal analyses plotted through time.records of proxy data such as oxygen Isotope curvesfrom glacier ice-cores on Devon Island, and treeringdata from California. He concludes that "aprotracted Little Ice Age cooling took place after caAD 1200 and growing season temperatures reached1°C below the 1931-1960 mean in the 1700s." Thecorrelation with other sites around the worldsuggests that the LIA was an essentiallysynchronous global phenomenon.Gajewski (1987) uses statistical methods to interpretthe palynology of seven lakes across the northeasternUnited States. He finds that a warm periodoccurred between AD 1000 and 1200, and a coolerperiod from AD 1450 to 1850, corresponding withLamb's (1977) dates for the LIA. For purposes ofour paper, the dates ca. AD 1450-1850 have beenadopted for the LIA; however, time lags in responseto changing conditions may have varied dependingon individual circumstances of site locations.Several authors use different dates for the LIA; this isto be expected since the change was gradual ratherthan abrupt.Neutral HorticultureDespite the growing number of plant macrofossilanalyses in Ontario (Crawford, 1987; Fecteau,1985; Ounjan, in prep.), the available data are noteasy to interpret beyond simply noting the presenceor absence of particular species. There is little doubtthat corn, beans, and other cultigens were abundantafter at least AD 1350; the question is how importantwere they to the Neutral diet. It is difficult todetermine this from plant macrofossil data alone, asa change in the relative importance of horticulturalproduce need not affect the ratios in which thevarious crops were produced. The increase in thenumber of horticultural village sites through time(Fecteau 1985) suggests either an increased relianceon horticulture or, more likely, a populationincrease among horticulturalists. A correspondingincrease in the number of sites which have beenanalyzed for faunal material can be seen in the datapresented in this paper (Fig. 4).In the absence of any direct palaeoethnobotanicalindication of change in Neutral plant use over time,

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 19FIGURE 5Present Northern limits of effective Indian horticulture. Numbers refer to sites shown in Fig. 1.FORESTMoose, snowshoe hare, wolf, marten, fox, felids, black bear, skunk, chipmunk,cervids, porcupineFIELDEastern Cottontail, woodchuck, grey squirrel, mouse, short-tailed weaselTABLE 1Habitats of selected mammalian species. Based on Burt (1972) and Whitaker (1980). Grey squirrel has beenincluded in the field group due to its habit of feeding in corn fields.

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 21FIGURE 7Variation in the percentages of Northern and Southern taxafollow a strictly linear relationship with time, andother factors affect faunal percentages includingsite location, site use, warfare, recovery bias, etc.These factors have not been modelled in this paper.We are not attempting to show that faunal use variesonly with time, but that time changes have significantexplanatory value for faunal assemblages.When factors other than time which affect the assemblagesare taken into consideration, the 25% ofthe variation accounted for by time becomes significantand requires explanation. The values of rand r ² for various species and groups of species arepresented in Table 2.If these changes were due to a shift in animalpopulations as a result of climatic deterioration, wemight expect to see a change in the frequency oftaxa which are currently distributed mostly to thenorth of the area under consideration and thosedistributed mainly to the south. Table 3 lists thosemammalian taxa which are near the limit of theirrange in southern Ontario. Fig. 7 and Table 2 showthat there are no such significant changes.If it was not the availability of the different mammaliantaxa that changed, then it may have beenhunting practices that changed. In order to determinewhat may have prompted such a change, wemust examine in more detail, from a culturalperspective, what animals were being taken beforeand after AD 1450. Animals will be hunted forfood, ritual, raw materials, or pest control. Whilethe Huron traded beaver pelts with Europeans(Wright 1963), Fig. 8 and Table 2 show that therewas no change with time in the percentage ofanimals hunted for their fur (beaver, muskrat, mink,racoon, otter, marten, chipmunk, fisher, weasel, andgrey squirrel, which the Neutral nation is knownethnographically to have traded to other Indians[Wright 1963]). The amount of grey squirrel wasstable through time. Had the hunting practices beeninfluenced by European trade, perhaps through theHurons, we would expect to find an increase inbeaver remains through to the mid-1600s. Fig. 9and Table 2 show that this is not the case.Large animals will usually be hunted for food;Fig. 10 and Table 2 show an increase after AD 1450in the frequency of mammals having an averageweight greater than 4 kg (beaver, dog, bear, racoon,otter, felids, cervids, and moose). This suggests thatlarge animals became more important in the Neutral

22 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO.49NORTHERN TAXA (SPECIESNEAR SOUTHERN LIMIT)MartenFisherShort-tailed weaselGrey wolfLynxPorcupineSnowshoe hareMooseSOUTHERN TAXA(SPECIES NEAR NORTHERNLIMIT)Grey foxGrey squirrelSouthern flying squirrelWhite-footed mouseEastern cotton-tailTABLE 3Species now near the limit of their range in Ontario south of the French River/Mattawa River axis. Basedon Burt (1972) and Whitaker (1980).FIGURE 8Variation in the percentages of fur-bearers

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 23FIGURE 9Variation in the percentages of beaver- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -FIGURE 10Variation in the percentages of large mammals

24 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO.49FIGURE 11Variation in the percentages of white-tailed deerdiet after this date. Figure 11 and Table 2 show thatthis is mostly due to an increase in white-tailed deer.Although the increase in deer appears to support thenotion that the LIA caused changes in subsistencepractices, the ecology of deer and the possiblepopulation increase do suggest an alternativeinterpretation. Deer's preferred habitat is forestedges. An increase in the number of fields andclearings would increase the availability of edgehabitats, and thus the availability of deer(Crawford, 1984). In AD 1615, Champlain notedthat the abundance of white-tailed deer in Huroniawas partly due to the favourable habitat created byabandoned fields and villages (Champlain 1929).Thus greater availability, rather than aclimatically induced greater need, may lie behindthe increase in deer bone frequency. Humanalteration of the environment, not the LIA, may bethe cause of this increase. But if this were the case,we would expect only forest-edge-loving speciesto increase, and all others to show a relativedecrease. In fact, the frequency of beaver, greysquirrel, black bear, and racoon show nosignificant change over time.Dog also increased; Fig. 12 and Table 2 show amarked increase in Canis spp. excluding wolf.Sagard (1939) noted that the Hurons raised dogs forfood; the Neutrals probably did the same.Theincrease in Neutral dog bone may indicate thatas the climate deteriorated dog became moreimportant, either as food or for use in hunting. Anincrease in human population would increase thedog population, but what we are examining here isthe percentage of bone which is from dog, not theabsolute abundance of dog. For the percentage ofdog bone to increase relative to, for example, thepercentage of grey squirrel bone would require thatthe number of dogs per human individual increase,or the number of grey squirrels per Indian decrease,or a combination of both.Hence the possible increase in human populationis not sufficient to explain an increase in the percentageof dog, although it may explain an increasein the absolute abundance of dog. The increase indog starts around 1400. This clearly predates anypossible European influence. Other carnivoresoccur too sporadically to be statistically significant;hunting for protection from them probably did notchange significantly.Hunting for crop protection, however, does showa significant change. The sciuridae, which includessquir r els, chipmunks, and woodchucks, show aslight decrease with time. However, since greysquirrel was also an important fur-bearer for theNeutrals, it may have been hunted more for the pelt,

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 25FIGURE 12Variation in the percentages of Canis spp.FIGURE 13Variation in the percentages of woodchuck

26 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO.49PERCENTAGES OF MAMMALIAN ELEMENTSTABLE 4Faunal data for Neutral sites in Southern Ontario. In the site name column Glen Meyer, Late Pickering,Middleport (and abbreviations) and E. Neutral (and abbreviations) refer to cultural ancestors of the Neutrals.The site dates used are from the original publications, in some cases modified by Fitzgerald (per-

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 27PERCENTAGES OF MAMMALIAN ELEMENTS (concluded)sonal communication) based on glass bead seriation. Where a range of dates is offered, the average of thetwo extremes is used. European introductions (horse, pig, cow, sheep and rat) are included as an indication ofthe intrusive content of the faunal assemblage.

28 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO.49or even for food despite its small size, than for cropprotection. One animal which is hunted even todayfor crop protection is the woodchuck. Fig. 13 andTable 2 show a decrease in the frequency of woodchuckin Neutral sites. Since woodchuck is near themiddle of its range in southern Ontario, a climaticchange is not likely to have affected its frequency.One explanation for the reduction in the hunting ofwoodchuck is that there may have been fewer cropsto protect. This would support the LIA hypothesis.The other possibility is that the increased dogpopulations reduced the woodchuck populations,acting as crop protectors for the larger fields neededby expanding human populations. A reduction inreliance on maize and other crops would not onlyexplain the decrease in frequency of woodchuckelements, but also the increased dependence onlarge mammals for food. Such a reduction in cropscould have been triggered by a climatic deterioration.A population increase might cause an increasein deer habitat and therefore in deer, and could alsoexplain the observed faunal changes. The difficultywith this hypothesis is that it relies on a per capitaincrease in dog populations. If the Indian populationdoubled, then the extent of their fields shouldalso have doubled. The number of woodchucks inthe fields and the number of dogs needed to controlthe woodchucks should also have doubled. Butsince the habitat of the deer is the field-edge, notthe field itself, the increase in deer would have beenless than twofold. The area of a field increasesapproximately with the square of the perimeter, sothat a fourfold increase in field area will onlydouble the perimeter. If the woodchuck, dog andhuman populations maintained the same ratios astheir populations increased, then the deer populationwould have shown a relative decrease. Thedeer population may expand if abandoned fields areconsidered, as larger populations of people wouldhave abandoned more fields, creating edges whichpersisted after the fields were abandoned and thewoodchucks were no longer of concern.In fact, what we observe here is a relative increasein deer and dog, and a decrease in woodchuckpopulations. Under the expanding populationmodel, this can only be explained if the number ofdogs per capita increased. The dogs reduced thewoodchuck populations, and the increase in deerpopulations led to an increase in deer hunting. If weassume that the dog population was controlled bythe Indians, then we must explain why the dogpopulation was allowed to increase. Dogs may havehad several functions. They may have been used forhunting or for woodchuck control, they may havebeen bred for food, and they may have been pets.They probably filled all of these functions. It is thennot difficult to explain the increase in dog under theexpanding population model.ConclusionThe advent of colder weather during the Little IceAge decreased the number of frost-free days, andaltered the composition of the deciduous treedominatedforests. The LIA may also have caused asouthward shift in the geographic limits of Neutralhorticulture, resulting in less reliable crop productivityand therefore a greater need for faunal resources.A decrease in reliance on horticulture and ashift towards greater dependence on animal foodsmay have resulted. Alternatively, population expansionmay have had the same effect on the faunalassemblage.Which of these was the principal cause is difficultto determine. The LIA is documented in thepaleoclimatic literature, and explains the observedchanges in faunal assemblages in a straightforwardway. On the other hand, population expansion mayalso explain the observed faunal data, and has someindependent corroboration in the increased frequencyof sites with time.It is interesting to note that of the eight sitespresented here which are located in the high frostriskarea mapped in Figure 5, six are pre-AD 1450and only two are post-AD 1450. Since two-thirds ofthe 27 sites in this study post-date AD 1450, such achange in geographic distribution through time maybe significant. It would suggest that the LIA didindeed make this area less useful for Neutralhorticulture than it had previously been. Of course,this is not a full survey of all Neutral and pre-Neutral sites, only those for which faunal reports areavailable.The two explanations are not mutually exclusive;the LIA may have had the described effect while theincrease in field edge from increased populationsmay also have provided more deer habitat. All thatcan be said with any certainty is that the Neutralsshifted their faunal use from small to large animals;dog and deer partially replaced wood-chuck in thefaunal assemblages.The most parsimonious solution is usually thatwhich best explains the available data with thefewest suppositions. In this case, both scenarios arebased on known events, and both explain the faunaldata. Neither can be eliminated as significantly lessparsimonious than the other. Both hypotheses

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 29deserve further exploration, and may perhaps betestable with much larger faunal data bases. Independentevidence may also provide insight into thedemography of the Neutrals, corroborating onehypothesis without necessarily invalidating theother.AcknowledgementsWe thank Dr. John McAndrews for many suggestionssubstantially improving the manuscript. Weextend our heartfelt appreciation to Dr. HowardSavage for his facilities, encouragement, and comments.We also thank Dr. Gary Coupland, RudyFecteau, William Fitzgerald, Dr. Peter Reid, Dr.William Hurley, and two anonymous reviewers, allof whom made data available or contributed usefulcomments. We also thank the many faunal analystswhose data have made this paper possible.References CitedBaerreis, D. A., and R. A. Bryson1965 Climatic Episodes and the Datingof the Mississippian Cultures. TheWisconsin Archaeologist 46 (4):203-220.Baerreis, D. A., R. A. Bryson, and J. E. Kutzbach1976 Climate and Culture in the WesternGreat Lakes Region. MidcontinentalJournal of Archaeology 1 (1): 39-57.Barnhardt, K.1986 An Analysis of Faunal Remains atthe Winking-Bull Site AiHa-20.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Bernabo, J. C.1981 Quantitative Estimates of TemperatureChanges Over the Last 2700Years in Michigan Based on PollenData. Quaternary Research15:143-159.Biddick, K.1974 F aunal Report Knight-Tucker Site.Squares A2, A6, B1, B4, B5, B6.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Boutin-Sweet, M.1981 Analysis of Faunal Remains fromthe Billie Goat's Gruff (Chychpar)Site AiGx-73. Manuscript on file atthe Howard Savage FaunalArchaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Brown, D. M., G. A. McKay and L. J. Chapman1980 The Climate of Southern Ontario,Canada Department of Transport.Meteorological Branch. SecondEdition. Climatological Studies,5:1-50.Burden, E. T., J. McAndrews and G. Norris1986 Palynology of Indian and EuropeanForest Clearance and Farming inLake Sediment Cores from AwendaProvincial Park, Ontario. CanadianJournal of Earth Sciences 23:55-65.Burns, J.1972 The Dewaele Site: Report of theFaunal Bone Analysis. Manuscripton file at the Howard Savage FaunalArchaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Burt, W.1972 Mammals of the Great Lakes Region.University of Michigan Press, AnnArbor, Michigan.Campbell (Fram), C.1985 Faunal Analysis of the Ivan-Elliott/Morriston Site AiHa-16. Manuscripton file at the Howard Savage FaunalArchaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Campbell (Fram), C.1988 Faunal Analysis of the MacPhersonSite AhHa-21. Manuscript on file atthe Howard Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.Campbell, I.1988 Faunal Analysis of the MacPhersonSite AhHa-21. Manuscript on file atthe Howard Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.

30 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO.49Carter, B.1980 Faunal Analysis of the Brown Site, anHistoric Neutral Village. Avail-able atthe Howard Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Champlain, S. de1929 Voyages. III Biggar, H. P.(ed.).Cooper, J.1980 Faunal Analysis of the Force Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Cooper, M.1980 Faunal Analysis of the Brown Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Crawford, G.1984 Subsistence Ecology in 16th CenturyOntario. Paper presented at the seventeenthannual meeting of the CanadianArchaeological Association, April 18-21,1984, Victoria, British Columbia.Crawford, G.1987 Paleoethnobotany of the Seed Site.Manuscript on file in the PaleoethnobotanyLaboratory, Erindale College,University of Toronto.Cumba, S., A. Rick and E. SilieffNo date Faunal Analysis of the Walker Site(AgHa-9). Manuscript on file ZooarchaeologicalInstitute Centre. Ottawa,Ontario.Dale, J.1988 Faunal Analysis of the MacPhersonSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.Dallion, Joseph de la Roche1866 Letter of July 18, 1627. In G. Sagard'sHistoire du Canada et Voyages que lesFreres Mineurs Recollects y ont faicts pourla Conversion des Infidelles 3, pp. 798-811. Libraire Tross, Paris.Dincauze, D. F. and R. J. Hasentab1989 Explaining the Iroquois: tribalization on aprehistoric periphery. In: T. C. Champion(ed.), Centre and Periphery:Comparative Studies inArchaeology, Unwin Hyman,p. 67-87, London.Dizes, S.1982 Faunal Analysis of the Wolfe Creek Site.Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.Duke, J. A.1981 Handbook of Legumes of WorldEconomic Importance. PlenumPress, N. Y.Esche, H.1974 Faunal Analysis of the Knight-TuckerSite. Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Environment Canada1982a Canadian Climate Normals .Temperature,Volume 2. Canadian Climate Program.Toronto, Canada.Environment Canada1982b Canadian Climate Normals. DegreeDays, Volume 4. Canadian ClimateProgram. Toronto, Canada.Environment Canada1982c Canadian Climate Normals.Frost,Volume 6. Canadian ClimateProgram. Toronto, CanadaFecteau, R.1985 The Introduction and Diffusion ofCultivated Plants in Southern Ontario. M.A. Thesis, Department of Geography,York University,Toronto.Ferguson, L.1986 Faunal Analysis of the Winking Bull Site.Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 31Freer, S.1980 Faunal Analysis of the Thorald Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Gajewski, K.1987 Climatic Impacts on the Vegetationof Eastern North America Duringthe Past 2000 Years. Vegetatio 68:179-190.Garner, B.1985 Faunal Analysis of the McIntosh Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Graham, B.1981 Faunal Analysis of the Billie Goat'sGruff (Chypchar) Site. Manuscript onfile at the Howard Savage FaunalArchaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Griffin, J. B.1961 Some Correlations of Climatic andCultural Change in Eastern NorthAmerican Prehistory. New York ,Academy of Science, Annals95:710-717.Henderson, H.1986 Faunal Analysis of the HarrietsvilleSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Hooey, C.1984 Faunal Analysis of the Perry Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Kaplan, L.1973 Ethnobotanical and Nutritional Factorsin the Domestication of AmericanBeans. In: C. Earle and J. Smoth (eds.)Man and His Foods.University of Alabama Press,Alabama.Knutson, C.1982 Faunal Analysis of the ClevelandSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.Kohls, P. and Grys, K.No date Faunal Analysis of the Moyer Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Lamb, H. H.1977 Climate, Present, Past and Future, Vol.2. London: Methuen.Levins, M.1988 Faunal Analysis of the MacPhersonSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.MacLaughlin, A.1984 Faunal Analysis of the Perry Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Marchand, I.1982 Faunal Analysis of the Cleveland Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Manila, H.1987 Faunal Analysis of the Winking BullSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.McAndrews, J. H.1988 Human Disturbance of NorthAmerican Forests and Grasslands:The Fossil Pollen Record. In B.Huntley & T. Webb III (eds.),Vegetation History. pp. 673-695.McAndrews, J. H. and M. Boyko-DiakonowIn press Pollen Analysis of the Varved LakeSediment at Crawford Lake, Ontario.Evidence of Indian and EuropeanFarming. In R. J. Fulton, J. A.Heginbottom, and S. Funder (eds.),Quaternary Geology of Canada andGreenland. Geological Survey ofCanada. Ottawa, Ontario.

32 ONTARIO ARCHAEOLOGY NO. 49McAndrews, J. and G. C. Manville1987 Plate 17. Historical Atlas of CanadaVol. 1 From the Beginning to 1800.University of Toronto Press.Murphy, C.1982 Faunal Analysis of the Cooper Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Murray, J. and Hastie, J.1982 Faunal Analysis of the Pound Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Nicol, D.1978 Faunal Analyses of the Bogle I and HSites. In P. Lenox, 1983 TheBogle 1 and 2 Sites. Manuscript onfile, Ontario Heritage Foundation,Toronto.Noble, W. C.1984 Historic Neutral Iroquois SettlementPatterns. Canadian Journal ofArchaeology Vol. 8 (No. 1), p. 3-27.Oguntoyinbo, J.1986 Drought Prediction. Climatic Change9:91-102.Ounjan, G.In prep. Subsistence Patterns of the OntarioIndian: The Paleoethnobotany of theGlen-Meyer Neutral. PhD thesis inprep. University of Toronto.Pascaris, A.1982 Faunal Analysis of the Wolfe CreekSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Pihl, D.1976 Faunal Analysis of the Hamilton Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Pihl, D.1978 Faunal Analyses of the Hood Site. In P.Lennox The Hood Site: A HistoricNeutral Town of 1640 A.D. Manuscripton file, Ontario HeritageFoundation, Toronto.Prevec, R.1981 Faunal Analysis of the Cleveland Site.Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Prevec, R.1982 Faunal Osteology. In W. Fitzgerald ,Lest the Beaver Run Loose: The EarlyChristianson Site and Trends in EarlyHistoric Neutral Archaeology.Archaeological Survey of CanadaPaper III, National Museums ofCanada, Ottawa.Prevec, R. and W. C. Noble1986 Historic Neutral Iroquois FaunalUtilization. Ontario Archaeology39:41-56.Riosa, J.1984 Faunal Analysis of the Raymond ReidSite. Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Sagard, Gabriel1939 The Long Journey to the Country ofthe Hurons, Toronto, The ChamplainSociety.Salvaggio, R.1982 Faunal Analysis of the Wolfe CreekSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.Smith, B. and S. Langley1980 Faunal Analysis of the Thorold Site,Lincoln County, Ontario. Manuscripton file at the Howard Savage FaunalArchaeo-Osteology Laboratory,University of Toronto.Solomon, S.1986 Faunal Analysis of the Sherk-SahsSite. Manuscript on file at theHoward Savage Faunal Archaeo-Osteology Laboratory, University ofToronto.Sutherland, G.1984 Faunal Analysis of the Collins Site.Manuscript on file at the Howard

CAMPBELL & CAMPBELL: LITTLE ICE AGE 33Savage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.West, R. G.1979 Pleistocene Geology and Biology.Second Edition. Longman, NewYork, 440 pp.Whitaker, J. O. Jr.1980 The Audubon Society Field Guide toNorth American Mammals. RandomHouse Inc., TorontoWilson, H.1986 Faunal Analysis of the Ivan-ElliottSite. Manuscript on file at the HowardSavage Faunal Archaeo-OsteologyLaboratory, University of Toronto.Wright, G. K.1963 The Neutral Indians. New York StateArchaeological Association,Occasional Paper 4, Rochester, N. Y.Wright, J. V.1972 Ontario Prehistory. NationalMuseum of Man, National Museumsof Canada. Van Nostrand ReinholdLtd., Toronto.Yarnell, R. A.1964 Aboriginal Relationships BetweenCulture and Plant Life in the UpperGreat Lakes Region. AnthropologicalPapers, Museum of Anthropology,University of Michigan, No. 23Department of GeographyYork UniversityToronto, Ontario M3J 1P3Department of BotanyUniversity of TorontoToronto, Ontario M5S 1A1